[
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online\n           [Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from\n                    Galaxy Magazine December 1960.\n         Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that\n         the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]\n               A Konv cylinder was the key to space--but\n                there was one power it could not match!\nThey lived in a small house beside the little Wolf river in Wisconsin.\nOnce it had been a summer cottage owned by a rich man from Chicago.\nThe rich man died. His heirs sold it. Now it was well insulated and\nMrs. Jamieson and her son were very comfortable, even in the coldest\nwinter. During the summer they rented a few row boats to vacationing\nfishermen, and she had built a few overnight cabins beside the road.\nThey were able to make ends meet.\nHer neighbors knew nothing of the money she had brought with her to\nWisconsin. They didn't even know that she was not a native. She never\nspoke of it, except at first, when Earl was a boy of seven and they had\njust come there to live. Then she only said that she came from the\nEast. She knew the names of eastern Wisconsin towns, and small facts\nabout them; it lent an air of authenticity to her claim of being a\nnative. Actually her previous residence was Bangkok, Siam, where the\nAgents had killed her husband.\nThat was back in '07, on the eve of his departure for Alpha Centaurus;\nbut she never spoke of this; and she was very careful not to move from\nplace to place except by the conventional methods of travel.\nAlso, she wore her hair long, almost to the shoulders. People said,\n\"There goes one of the old-fashioned ones. That hair-do was popular\nback in the sixties.\" They did not suspect that she did this only to\ncover the thin, pencil-line scar, evidence that a small cylinder lay\nunder her skin behind the ear.\nFor Mrs. Jamieson was one of the Konvs.\nHer husband had been one of the small group who developed this tiny\ninstrument. Not the inventor--_his_ name was Stinson, and the effects\nproduced by it were known as the Stinson Effect. In appearance\nit resembled a small semi-conductor device. Analysis by the best\nscientific minds proved it to be a semi-conductor.\nYet it held the power to move a body instantly from one point in space\nto any other point. Each unit was custom built, keyed to operate only\nby the thought pattern of the particular individual.\nSeveral times in the past seven years Mrs. Jamieson had seen other\nKonvs, and had been tempted to identify herself and say, \"Here I am.\nYou are one of them; so am I. Come, and we'll talk. We'll talk about\nStinson and Benjamin, who helped them all get away. And Doctor Straus.\nAnd my husband, E. Mason Jamieson, who never got away because those\nfilthy, unspeakable Agents shot him in the back, there in that coffee\nshop in Bangkok, Siam.\"\nOnce, in the second year after her husband's death, an Agent came and\nstayed in one of her cabins.\nShe learned that he was an Agent completely by accident. While cleaning\nthe cabin one morning his badge fell out of a shirt pocket. She stood\nstill, staring at the horror of it there on the floor, the shirt in\nher hands, all the loneliness returning in a black wave of hate and\nfrustration.\nThat night she soundlessly lifted the screen from the window over his\nbed and shot him with a .22 rifle.\nShe threw the weapon into the river. It helped very little. He was one\nAgent, only one out of all the thousands of Agents all over Earth;\nwhile her husband had been one of twenty-eight persons. She decided\nthen that her efforts would be too ineffective. The odds were wrong.\nShe would wait until her son, Earl, was grown.\nTogether they would seek revenge. He did not have the cylinder--not\nyet. But he would. The Konvs took care of their own.\nHer husband had been one of the first, and they would not forget. One\nday the boy would disappear for a few hours. When he returned the small\npatch of gauze would be behind his ear. She would shield him until the\nopening healed. Then no one would ever know, because now they could do\nit without leaving the tell-tale scar. Then they would seek revenge.\nLater they would go to Alpha Centaurus, where a life free from Agents\ncould be lived.\nIt happened to Earl one hot summer day when he was fourteen. Mrs.\nJamieson was working in her kitchen; Earl supposedly was swimming with\nhis friends in the river. Suddenly he appeared before her, completely\nnude. At sight of his mother his face paled and he began to shake\nviolently, so that she was forced to slap him to prevent hysteria. She\nlooked behind his ear.\nIt was there.\n\"Mom!\" he cried. \"Mom!\"\nHe went to the window and looked out toward the river, where his\nfriends were still swimming in the river, with great noise and delight.\nApparently they did not miss him. Mrs. Jamieson handed him a pair of\ntrousers. \"Here, get yourself dressed. Then we'll talk.\"\nHe started for his room, but she stopped him. \"No, do it right here.\nYou may as well get used to it now.\"\n\"Get used to what?\"\n\"To people seeing you nude.\"\n\"What?\"\n\"Never mind. What happened just now?\"\n\"I was swimming in the river, and a man came down to the river. His\nhair was all white, and his eyes looked like ... well, I never saw eyes\nlike his before. He asked who was Earl Jamieson, and I said I was. Then\nhe said, 'Come with me.' I went with him. I don't know why. It seemed\nthe right thing. He took me to a car and there was another man in it,\nthat looked like the first one only he was bigger. We went to a house,\nnot far away and went inside. And that's all I can remember until I\nwoke up. I was on a table, sort of. A high table. There was a light\nover it. It was all strange, and the two men stood there talking in\nsome language I don't know.\"\nEarl ran his hand through his hair, shaking his head. \"I don't remember\nclearly, I guess. I was looking around the room and I remember thinking\nhow scared I was, and how nice it would be to be here with you. And\nthen I was here.\"\nEarl faced the window, looking out, then turned quickly back. \"What is\nit?\" he asked, desperately. \"What happened to me?\"\n\"Better put your trousers on,\" Mrs. Jamieson said. \"It's something very\nunusual and terrible to think of at first, but really wonderful.\"\n\"But what happened? What is this patch behind my ear?\"\nSuddenly his face paled and he stopped in the act of getting into his\ntrousers. \"Guess I know now. They made me a Konv.\"\n\"Well, don't take on so. You'll get used to it.\"\n\"But they shouldn't have! They didn't even ask me!\"\nHe started for the door, but she called him back. \"No, don't run away\nfrom it now. This is the time to face it. There are two sides to every\nstory, you know. You hear only one side in school--their side. There is\nalso _our_ side.\"\nHe turned back, a dawning comprehension showing in his eyes. \"That's\nright, you're one, too. That is why you killed that Agent in the third\ncabin.\"\nIt was her turn to be surprised. \"You knew about that?\"\n\"I saw you. I wasn't sleeping. I was afraid to stay inside alone, so I\nfollowed you. I never told anyone.\"\n\"But you were only nine!\"\n\"They would have taken you away if I'd said anything.\"\nMrs. Jamieson held out her hand. \"Come here, son. It's time I told you\nabout us.\"\nSo he sat across the kitchen table from her, and she told the whole\nhistory, beginning with Stinson sitting in the laboratory in New\nJersey, holding in his hand a small cylinder moulded from silicon\nwith controlled impurities. He had made it, looking for a better\nmicro-circuit structure. He was holding this cylinder ... and it was a\ncold day outside ... and he was dreaming of a sunny Florida beach--\nAnd suddenly he was there, on the beach. He could not believe it at\nfirst. He felt the sand and water, and felt of himself; there was no\nmistake.\nOn the plane back to New Jersey he came to certain conclusions\nregarding the strange power of his device. He tried it again, secretly.\nThen he made more cylinders. He was the only man in the world who\nknew how to construct it, and he kept the secret, giving cylinders\nto selected people. He worked out the basic principle, calling it a\nkinetic ordinate of negative vortices, which was very undefinitive.\nIt was a subject of wonder and much speculation, but no one took\nserious notice of them until one night a federal Agent arrested one man\nfor indecency. It was a valid charge. One disadvantage of this method\nof travel was that, while a body could travel instantaneously to any\nchosen spot, it arrived without clothes.\nThe arrested man disappeared from his jail cell, and the next morning\nthe Agent was found strangled to death in his bed. This set off a\ncampaign against Konvs. One base act led to another, until the original\nreason for noticing them at all was lost. Normal men no longer thought\nof them as human.\nMrs. Jamieson told how Stinson, knowing he had made too many cylinders\nand given them unwisely, left Earth for Alpha Centaurus.\nHe went alone, not knowing if he could go so far, or what he would find\nwhen he arrived. But he did arrive, and it was what he had sought.\nHe returned for the others. They gathered one night in a dirty,\nbroken-down farmhouse in Missouri--and disappeared in a body, leaving\nthe Agents standing helplessly on Earth, shaking their fists at the sky.\n\"You have asked many times,\" Mrs. Jamieson said, \"how your father\ndied. Now I will tell you the truth. Your father was one of the great\nones, along with Stinson and Benjamin and Dr. Straus. He helped plan\nthe escape; but the Agents found him in Bangkok fifteen minutes before\nthe group left. They shot him in the back, and the others had to go on\nwithout him. Now do you know why I killed the Agent in the third cabin?\nI had to. Your father was a great man, and I loved him.\"\n\"I don't blame you, mother,\" Earl said simply. \"But we are freaks.\nEverybody says, 'Konv' as if it is something dirty. They write it on\nthe walls in rest rooms.\"\n\"Of course they do--because they don't understand! They are afraid of\nus. Wouldn't you be afraid of someone who could do the things we do, if\nyou _couldn't_ do them?\"\nJust like that, it was over.\nThat is, the first shock was over. Mrs. Jamieson watched Earl leave the\nhouse, walking slowly along the river, a boy with a man's problems.\nHis friends called to him from the river, but he chose not to hear.\nHe wanted to be alone. He needed to think, to feel the newness of the\nthing.\nPerhaps he would cross the river and enter the deep forest there. When\nthe initial shock wore off he might experiment with his new power. He\nwould not travel far, in these first attempts. Probably he would stay\nwithin walking distance of his clothes, because he still lacked the\ntricks others had learned.\nIt was a hot, mucky afternoon with storm clouds pushing out of the\nwest. Mrs. Jamieson put on her swimming suit and wandered down to the\nriver to cool herself.\nFor the remainder of that summer they worked together. They practiced\nat night mostly, taking longer and longer jumps, until Earl's\nconfidence allowed him to reach any part of the Earth he chose. She\nknew the habits of Agents. She knew how to avoid them.\nThey would select a spot sufficiently remote to insure detection, she\nwould devise some prank to irritate the Agents; then they would quickly\nreturn to Wisconsin. The Agents would rush to the calculated spot, but\nwould find only the bare footprints of a woman and a boy. They would\nswear and drive back to their offices to dig through files, searching\nfor some clue to their identity.\nIt was inevitable that they should identify Mrs. Jamieson as one of\nthe offenders, since they had discovered, even before Stinson took his\ngroup to Centaurus, that individuals had thought patterns peculiar to\nthemselves. These could be identified, if caught on their detectors,\nand even recorded for the files. But the files proved confusing, for\nthey said that Mrs. Jamieson had gone to Centaurus with the others.\nHad she returned to Earth? The question did not trouble them long. They\nhad more serious problems. Stinson had selected only the best of the\nKonvs when he left Earth, leaving all those with criminal tendencies\nbehind. They could have followed if they chose--what could stop them?\nBut it was more lucrative to stay. On Earth they could rob, loot, even\nmurder--without fear of the law.\nEarl changed.\nEven before the summer was over, he matured. The childish antics of his\nfriends began to bore him. \"Be careful, Earl,\" his mother would say.\n\"Remember who you are. Play with them sometimes, even if you don't like\nit. You have a long way to go before you will be ready.\"\nDuring the long winter evenings, after they had watched their favorite\nvideo programs, they would sit by the fireplace. \"Tell me about the\ngreat ones,\" he would say, and she would repeat all the things she\nremembered about Stinson and Benjamin and Straus. She never tired of\ndiscussing them. She would tell about Benjamin's wife, Lisa, and try to\ndescribe the horror in Lisa's young mind when the news went out that\nE. Mason Jamieson had been killed. She wanted him to learn as much as\npossible about his father's death, knowing that soon the Agents would\nbe after Earl. They were so clever, so persistent. She wanted him to be\nready, not only in ways of avoiding their traps ... but ready with a\nheart full of hate.\nSometimes when she talked about her husband, Mrs. Jamieson wanted to\nstand up and scream at her son, \"Hate, hate! Hate! You must learn to\nhate!\" But she clenched her hands over her knitting, knowing that he\nwould learn it faster if she avoided the word.\nThe winter passed, and the next summer, and two more summers.\nEarl was ready for college. They had successfully kept their secret.\nThey had been vigilant in every detail. Earl referred to the \"damn\nAgents\" now with a curl of his lip. They had been successful in\ncontacting other Konvs, and sometimes visited them at a remote\nrendezvous.\n\"When you have finished college,\" Mrs. Jamieson told her son, \"we will\ngo to Centaurus.\"\n\"Why not now?\"\n\"Because when you get there they will need men who can contribute to\nthe development of the planet. Stinson is a physicist, Benjamin a\nmetallurgist, Straus a doctor. But Straus is an old man by this time. A\nyoung doctor will be needed. Study hard, Earl. Learn all you can. Even\nthe great ones get sick.\"\nShe did not mention her secret hope, that before they left Earth\nhe would have fully avenged his father's death. He was clever and\nintelligent.\nHe could kill many Agents.\nSo she exhumed the money she had hidden more than ten years before.\nThe house beside the Little Wolf river was sold. They found a modest\nbungalow within walking distance of the University's medical school.\nMrs. Jamieson furnished it carefully but, oddly, rather lavishly.\nThis was her husband's money she was spending now. It needed to last\nonly a few years. Then they would leave Earth forever.\nA room was built on the east side of the bungalow, with its own private\nentrance. This was Earl's room. Ostensibly the private entrance was for\nconvenience due to the irregular hours of college students.\nIt was also convenient for coming home late at night after Agent\nhunting.\nMrs. Jamieson was becoming obvious.\nExcitement brought color to her cheeks when she thought of Earl facing\none of them--a lean, cunning jaguar facing a fat, lazy bear. It was her\nnotion that federal Agents were evil creatures, tools of a decadent,\nbloodthirsty society, living off the fat of the land.\nShe painted the room herself, in soft, pastel colors. When it was\nfinished she showed Earl regally into the room, making a big joke of it.\n\"Here you can study and relax, and have those bull sessions students\nare always having,\" she said.\n\"There will be no friends,\" he answered, \"not here. No Konvs will be at\nthe university.\"\n\"Why not? Stinson selected only educated, intelligent people. When\none dies the cylinder is taken and adjusted to a new thought\npattern--usually a person from the same family. I would say it is very\nlikely that Konvs will be found here.\"\nHe shook his head. \"No. They knew we were coming, and no one said a\nword about others being here. I'm afraid we are alone.\"\n\"Well, I think not,\" she said firmly. \"Anyway, the room will be\ncomfortable.\"\nHe shook his head again. \"Why can't I be in the house with you? There\nare two bedrooms.\"\nShe said quickly, \"You can if you wish. I just thought you'd like being\nalone, at your age. Most boys do.\"\n\"I'm not like most boys, mother. The Konvs saw to that. Sometimes I'm\nsorry. Back in high school I used to wish I was like the others. Do you\nremember Lorane Peters?\" His mother nodded. \"Well, when we were seniors\nlast year she liked me quite a lot. She didn't say so, but I knew it.\nShe would sit across the aisle from me, and sometimes when I saw how\nher hair fell over her face when she read, I wanted to lean over and\nwhisper to her, 'Hey, Lorrie--' just as if I was human--'can I take you\nto the basketball game?'\"\nMrs. Jamieson turned to leave the room, but he stopped her. \"You\nunderstand what I'm saying, don't you?\"\n\"No, I don't!\" she said sharply. \"You're old enough to face realities.\nYou are a Konv. You always will be a Konv. _Have you forgotten your own\nfather?_\"\nShe turned her back and slammed the door. Earl stood very still for\na long time in the room that was to have been happy for him. She was\ncrying just beyond the wall.\nEarl did not use the room that first year. He slept in the second\nbedroom. He did not mention his frustrated desires to be normal, not\nafter the first attempt, but he persisted in his efforts to be so. Use\nof the cylinder was out of the question for them now, anyway.\nIn the spring Mrs. Jamieson caught a virus cold which resulted in a\nlong convalescence. Earl moved into the new bedroom. At first she\nthought he moved in an effort to please her because of the illness, but\nshe soon grew aware of her mistake.\nOne day he disappeared.\nMrs. Jamieson was alarmed. Had the Agents found him? She watched the\npapers daily for some word of Konvs being killed.\nThe second day after his disappearance she found a small item. A Konv\nhad raided the Agent's office in Stockholm, killing three, and getting\nkilled himself. Mrs. Jamieson dropped the paper immediately and went\nto Stockholm. She did not consider the risk. In Stockholm she found\nclothes and made discreet inquiries. The slain man had been a Finnish\nKonv, one of those left behind by Stinson as an undesirable. His wife\nhad been killed by the Agents the week before. He had gone completely\ninsane and made the raid singlehanded. Mrs. Jamieson read the account\nof crimes committed by the man and his wife, and determined to prevent\nEarl from making the mistake of taking on more than he could handle.\nWhen she arrived at her own home, Earl was in his room.\n\"Where have you been?\" she asked petulantly.\n\"Oh, here and there.\"\n\"I thought you were involved in that fight in Stockholm.\"\nHe shook his head.\nShe stood in the doorway and watched him leaning over his desk,\nattempting to write something on a sheet of paper. She was proud of his\nprofile, tow-headed as a boy, handsome in a masculine way. He cracked\nhis knuckles nervously.\n\"What did you do?\" she asked.\nSuddenly he flung the pencil down, jumped from his chair and paced the\nfloor. \"I talked to an Agent last night,\" he said.\n\"Where?\"\n\"Bangkok.\"\nMrs. Jamieson had to sit down. Finally she was able to ask, \"How did it\nhappen?\"\n\"I broke into the office there to get at the records. He caught me.\"\n\"What were you looking for?\"\n\"I wanted to learn the names of the men who killed Father.\" He said the\nword strangely. He was unaccustomed to it.\n\"Did you find them?\"\nHe pointed to the paper on his desk. Mrs. Jamieson, trembling, picked\nit up and read the names. Seeing them there, written like any other\nnames would be written, made her furious. How could they? How could the\nnames of murderers look like ordinary names? When she thought them in\nher mind, they even sounded like ordinary names--and they shouldn't!\nShe had always thought that those names, if she ever saw them, would\nbe filthy, unholy scratches on paper, evil sounds, like the rustle of\nbedclothes to a jealous lover listening at a keyhole. \"Tom Palieu\"\ndidn't sound evil; neither did \"Al Jonson.\" She was shaken by this more\nthan she would permit Earl to see.\n\"Why did you want the names?\"\n\"I don't know,\" he said. \"Curiosity, maybe, or a subconscious desire\nfor revenge. I just wanted to see them.\"\n\"Tell me what happened! If an Agent saw you ... well, either he killed\nyou or you killed him. But you're here alive.\"\n\"I didn't kill him. That's what seems so strange. And he didn't try to\nkill me. We didn't even fight. He didn't ask why I broke in without\nbreaking the lock or even a window. He seemed to know. He did ask what\nI was doing there, and who I was. I told him, and ... he helped me get\nthe names. He asked where I lived. 'None of your damn business,' I told\nhim. Then he said he didn't blame me for not telling, that Konvs must\nfear Agents, and hate them. Then he said, 'Do you know why we kill\nKonvs? We kill them because there is no prison cell in the world that\nwill hold a Konv. When they break the law, we have no choice. It is a\nterrible thing, but must be done. We don't want your secret; we only\nwant law and order. There is room enough in the world for both of us.'\"\nMrs. Jamieson was furious. \"And you believed him?\"\n\"I don't know. I just know what he said--and that he let me go without\ntrying to shoot me.\"\nMrs. Jamieson stopped on her way out of the room and laid a hand on his\narm. \"Your father would have been proud of you,\" she said. \"Soon you\nwill learn the truth about the Agents.\"\nBeyond the closed door, out of sight of her son, Mrs. Jamieson gave\nrein to the excitement that ran through her. He had wanted the names!\nHe didn't know why--not yet--but he would. \"He'll do it yet!\" she\nwhispered to the flowered wallpaper. She didn't care that no one heard\nher.\nShe didn't know where the men were now, those who had killed her\nhusband. They could be anywhere. Agents moved from post to post; in ten\nyears they might be scattered all over Earth. In the killing of Konvs,\nsome cylinders might even be taken by Agents--and used by them, for\nthe power and freedom the cylinders gave must be coveted even by them.\nAnd they were in the best position to gain them. She was consumed by\nfear that one or more of the men on Earl's list might have acquired a\ncylinder and were now Konvs themselves.\nTwo weeks later she read a news item saying that Tom Palieu had been\nkilled by a Konv. The assassin's identity was unknown, but agents were\nworking on the case.\nShe knew. She had found a gun in Earl's desk.\nShe took the paper into Earl's room. \"Did you do this?\"\nHe turned away from her. \"It doesn't matter whether I did or not. They\nwill suspect me. His name was on the list.\"\n\"They will,\" she agreed. \"It doesn't matter who the Konv is, now that\nan Agent has been killed. The one in Bangkok will tell them about you\nand the list of names, and it's all they need.\"\n\"Well, what else can he do?\" Earl asked. \"After all, he is an Agent.\nIf one of them is killed, he will have to tell what he knows.\"\n\"You're defending him? Why?\" she cried. \"Tell me why!\"\nHe removed her hand from his arm. Her nails were digging into his\nflesh. \"I don't know why. Mother, I'm sorry, but Agents are just people\nto me. I can't hate them the way you do.\"\nMrs. Jamieson's face colored, then drained white.\nSuddenly, with a wide, furious sweep of her hand, she slapped his face.\nSo much strength and rage was in her arm that the blow almost sent him\nspinning. They faced each other, she breathing hard from the exertion,\nEarl stunned immobile--not by the blow, but from the knowledge that she\ncould hate so suddenly, viciously.\nShe controlled herself. \"We must find a way to leave here,\" she said,\ncalmly.\n\"They won't find us.\"\n\"Oh, yes they will,\" she said. \"Don't underestimate them. Agents are\npicked from the most intelligent people on Earth. It will be a small\njob for them. Don't forget they know who you are. Even if you hadn't\nbeen so stupid as to tell them, they'd know. They knew my pattern from\nthe time your father was alive. They got yours when we were together\nyears ago, teasing them. They linked your pattern with mine. They know\nthat your father and I had a son. Your birth was recorded. The only\ndifficult aspect of their job now is to find where you live, and it\nwon't be impossible. They will drive their cars through every city on\nEarth with those new detectors, until they pick up your pattern or\nmine. I'm afraid it's time to leave Earth.\"\nEarl sat down suddenly, \"It's just as well. I thought maybe some day I\nmight hate them too, or learn to like them. But I can do neither, so I\nam halfway between, and no man can live this way.\"\nShe did not answer him. Finally he said, \"It doesn't make sense to you,\ndoes it?\"\n\"No, it doesn't. This is not the time for such discussions, anyway. The\nAgents have their machines working at top speed, while we sit here and\ntalk.\"\nSuddenly they were not alone.\nNo sound was generated by the man's coming. One instant they were\ntalking alone, the next he was here. Earl saw him first. He was a\nmiddle-aged man whose hair was completely white. He stood near the\ndesk, easily, as if standing there were the most natural way to relax.\nHe was entirely nude ... but it seemed natural and right.\nThen Mrs. Jamieson saw him.\n\"Benjamin!\" she cried. \"I knew someone would come.\"\nHe smiled. \"This is your son?\"\n\"Yes,\" she said. \"We are ready.\"\n\"I remember when you were born,\" he said, and smiled in reminiscence.\n\"Your father was afraid you would be twins.\"\nEarl said, \"Why was my father killed?\"\n\"By mistake. Back in those days, like now, there were good Konvs and\nbad. One of those not selected by Stinson to join us was enraged, half\ncrazy with envy. He killed two women there in Bangkok. The Agents\nthought Jamieson--I mean, your father--did it. Jamieson was the\ngreatest man among us. It was he who first conceived the theory that\nthere was a basic, underlying law in the operation of the cylinders.\nEven now, no one knows how the idea of love ties in with the Stinson\nEffect; but we do know that hate and greed as motivating forces can\ngreatly minimize the cylinders' power. That is why the undesirables\nwith cylinders have never reached Centaurus.\"\nHeavy steps sounded on the porch outside.\n\"We'd better hurry,\" Mrs. Jamieson said.\nBenjamin held out his hands. They took them, to increase the power of\nthe cylinders. As the Agents pounded on the door, Mrs. Jamieson flicked\none thought of hatred at them, but of course they did not hear her.\nBenjamin's hands gripped tightly.\nMrs. Jamieson slowly opened her eyes....\nShe no longer felt the hands. _She was still in the room!_ Benjamin and\nher son were gone. Her outstretched hands touched nothing.\nHer power was gone!\nThe Agents stepped into the room over the broken door. She stared at\nthem, then ran to Earl's desk, fumbling for the gun.\nThe Agents' guns rattled.\nLove, Benjamin said, the greatest of these is love. Or did someone\nelse say that? Someone, somewhere, perhaps in another time, in some\nmisty, forgotten chip of time long gone, in another frame of reference\nperhaps....\nMrs. Jamieson could not remember, before she died.", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  Jamieson\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Mark C. Orton, Ian Crann and the Online\n  A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF\n[Illustration:\n  TRVE RE-\n  lation of such occur-\n  rences and accidents of noate as\n  hath hapned in Virginia since the first\n  planting of that Collony, which is now\n  resident in the South part thereof, till\n  the last returne from\n  thence.\n  _Written by Captaine_ Smith _Coronell of the said Collony, to a\n  worshipfull_ friend of his in England.\n  [Illustration: Ship]\n  _LONDON_\n  Printed for _Iohn Tappe_, and are to bee solde at the Grey-\n  hound in Paules-Church-yard, by _W.W._\n  A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF\n  By\n  =E. G. Swem=\n  Librarian Emeritus, William and Mary College\n  =John M. Jennings=\n  Director, Virginia Historical Society\n  with the collaboration of\n  =James A. Servies=\n  Reference Librarian of William and Mary College\n  =Virginia 350th Anniversary Celebration Corporation\n  Williamsburg, Virginia=\n  COPYRIGHT\u00a9 1957 BY\n  VIRGINIA 350th ANNIVERSARY CELEBRATION\n  CORPORATION, WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA\n  Jamestown 350th Anniversary\n  Historical Booklet, Number 1\nFOREWORD\nThis bibliography is a modest collection of titles relating to the\nlife of seventeenth-century Virginia in its broadest interpretation.\nIt has been compiled with the need in mind of the general reader and\nof the student who is just beginning research in the alluring field\nof early Virginia history. Numerous titles have been omitted for the\nreason that the number of pages allotted to this booklet requires\nforbearance and retrenchment. The earnest purpose of the compilers has\nbeen to include a good representation of those books and contributions\nin periodicals that have stood the test of time. Again, yielding to\nthe demands of economy, the titles have been reduced in length from\nthe full style followed in standard catalogue entries. There is enough\ninformation included in each title to enable the consultant to judge\nof the contents of the book to which the title refers, and to learn\nits date and size; enough to whet his historical appetite and to cause\nhim to hasten with joy to the nearest college or reference library,\nwhere he will receive a happy welcome and be shown the books he wishes\nin original edition, in reprint, or in reproduced form of photostat,\nmicrofilm, microcard, or microsheet.\nThe arrangement of titles has been designed for browsing: secondary\nworks are arranged by author under certain general subjects; primary\nmaterials, following collections of original narratives, by date from\nThe senior editors wish to acknowledge the cordial cooperation of\nMiss Spotswood Hunnicutt, and to extend to our collaborator, Mr.\nJames A. Servies, Reference Librarian of William and Mary College,\nwarm gratitude and high praise for the characteristic industry and\nenthusiasm he has displayed in every step of this compilation. His\nrare gift of discerning bibliographical values has been constantly in\nevidence.\n  TABLE OF CONTENTS\n    U. S. History--Including History of the South          3\n    Virginia History--Including Local History              7\n    Sixteenth-Century Virginia                            11\n    Seventeenth-Century Virginia                          12\nBIBLIOGRAPHIES AND GUIDES\n=Abbot, William W.= A Virginia chronology, 1585-1783. Williamsburg,\n     1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 2.)\n=Association for Preservation= of Virginia Antiquities. Yearbook.\n     Richmond, 1896-date.\n=Brock, Robert A.= Virginia, 1606-1689 [with a critical essay on the\n     sources of information]. In: Winsor, Narrative and critical\n=Brown University.= John Carter Brown library. Bibliotheca Americana;\n     catalogue of the ... library. Providence, R. I., 1919-1931. 3 v.\n=Cole, George W.= A catalogue of books relating to the discovery and\n     early history of North and South America forming a part of the\n     library of E. D. Church. N. Y., 1907. 5 v.\n=Eames, Wilberforce.= A bibliography of Captain John Smith. N. Y.,\n[=Kennett, White=]. Bibliothecae Americanae primordia. An attempt\n     towards laying the foundation of an American library. London,\n=Kingsbury, Susan M.= An introduction to the records of the Virginia\n     company of London with a bibliographical list of the extant\n     documents. Washington, 1905. 214 p.\n       Reprinted: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 1, p.\n=New York (City).= Public Library. List of works in the New York public\n     library relating to Virginia. N. Y., 1907. 71 p.\n=Phillips, Philip L.= List of books relating to America in the\n     register of the London company of stationers, from 1562-1638. Am.\n____ Virginia cartography; a bibliographical description. Washington,\n     1896. 85 p. (Smithsonian institution publication, no. 1039)\n=Sabin, Joseph.= Bibliotheca Americana. A dictionary of books relating\n     to America, from its discovery to the present time. N. Y.,\n=Stanard, William G.= The colonial Virginia register. Albany, N. Y.,\n____ The Virginia archives. Am. hist. assoc., Report, 1903, v. 1, p.\n=Swem, Earl G.= Bibliography of Virginia. Richmond, 1916-19. 3 v.\n____ Maps relating to Virginia in the Virginia state library. Richmond,\n     1914. [33]-263 p. (Virginia state library, Bulletin, v. 7, nos.\n____ Virginia historical index. Roanoke, Va., 1934-36. 2 v.\n=Torrence, William C.= A trial bibliography of colonial Virginia.\n     Richmond, 1908-10. 2 v. (Virginia state library, 5th-6th report,\n=Virginia historical society.= Catalogue of the manuscripts. Richmond,\n=Virginia State Library.= Calendar of transcripts [in the Virginia\n     State Library]. Richmond, 1905. 658, xliv p.\n=Winsor, Justin.= Maryland and Virginia [with a critical bibliography].\n     In his: Narrative and critical history, v. 5, p. 259-84.\nSECONDARY WORKS\n=U. S. History--including History of the South=\n=Andrews, Charles M.= The Colonial period of American history. New\n____ Our earliest colonial settlements, their diversities of origin and\n     later characteristics. N. Y., 1933. 179 p.\n=Avery, Elroy M.= A history of the United States and its people.\n=Bancroft, George.= A history of the United States. Boston, 1834-74. 10\n=Beer, George L.= The old colonial system, 1660-1754. N. Y., 1912. 2 v.\n____ The origins of the British colonial system, 1578-1660. N. Y.,\n=Bolton, Herbert E. and T. M. Marshall.= The colonization of North\n=Bond, Beverly W.= The quit-rent system in the American colonies. New\n=Bozman, John L.= The history of Maryland, from its first settlement in\n     1633, to the restoration, in 1660. Baltimore, 1837. 2 v.\n=Bristol and America=, a record of the first settlers in the colonies\n=The Cambridge history= of the British empire, v. 1, The old empire\n     from the beginnings to 1783. Cambridge, 1929. 931 p.\n=Chalmers, George.= Political annals of the present united colonies,\n     from their settlement to the peace of 1763. Book 1, London, 1780.\n       Book 2 published in N. Y. hist. soc., Collections (Publication\n=Channing, Edward.= A history of the United States. N. Y., 1905-25. 6 v.\n       v. 1, \"The planting of a nation in the new world, 1000-1660.\"\n       v. 2, \"A century of colonial history, 1660-1760.\"\n=Chatterton, Edward K.= English seamen and the colonization of America.\n=Chitwood, Oliver P.= A history of colonial America. 2nd ed. N. Y.,\n=Crane, Verner W.= The Southern frontier, 1670-1732. Durham, N. C.,\n=Craven, Wesley F.= The southern colonies in the seventeenth century,\n[=Crouch, Nathaniel=] A seventeenth century survey of America. [A\n     reprint of \"The English empire in America,\" 3rd ed., 1698.]\n     Prepared by the personnel of the Work projects administration, San\n     Francisco, Calif., 1940. 124 p.\n=Dodd, William E.= The old South; struggles for democracy. N. Y., 1937.\n=Douglass, William.= A summary, historical and political, of the first\n     planting, progressive improvements, and present state of the\n     British settlements in North America, Boston, 1755. 2 v.\n=Doyle, John A.= English colonies in America. N. Y., 1882-1907. 5 v.\n       v. 1, \"Virginia, Maryland and the Carolinas.\"\n=Eggleston, Edward.= The transit of civilization from England to\n     America in the seventeenth century. N. Y., 1901. 344 p.\n=Gayley, Charles M.= Shakespeare and the founders of liberty in\n[=Hall, Fayr=] A short account of the first settlement of the provinces\n     of Virginia, Maryland, New-York, New-Jersey, and Pennsylvania, by\n     the British. London, 1735. 22 p.\n=Hart, Albert B.=, ed. American history told by contemporaries. N. Y.,\n=Hotten, John C.= The original lists of persons of quality; emigrants;\n     religious exiles; political rebels; serving men sold for a term\n     of years; apprentices; children stolen; maidens pressed; and\n     others who went from Great Britain to the American plantations,\n=Hubbell, Jay B.= The South in American Literature, 1607-1900. [Durham,\n=Ingram, Arthur F. W.= The early English colonies; a summary [of a\n     lecture] transcribed by Sadler Phillips. Milwaukee, Wis., 1908.\n=Jernegan, Marcus W.= Laboring and dependent classes in colonial\n=Johnson, Edgar A. J.= American economic thought in the seventeenth\n     century. London, 1932. 292 p.\n=Johnston, Mary.= Pioneers of the old South; a chronicle of English\n     colonial beginnings. New Haven, Conn., 1921. 260 p. (Chronicles of\n     America, v. 5)\n=Keith, William.= The history of the British plantations in America.\n     With a chronological account of the most remarkable things, which\n     happen'd to the first adventurers ... Part 1. Virginia. London,\n=Labaree, Leonard W.= Royal government in America; a study of the\n     British colonial system before 1783. New Haven, Conn., 1930. 491 p.\n=Lodge, Henry C.= A short history of the English colonies in America.\n=Morris, Richard B.= Government and labor in early America. N. Y.,\n____ Studies in the history of American law, with special reference to\n     the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. N. Y., 1930. 285 p.\n=Morse, Jarvis M.= American beginnings: highlights and sidelights of\n     the birth of the New World. Washington [1952] 260 p.\n=Osgood, Herbert L.= The American colonies in the seventeenth century.\n=Piercy, Josephine K.= Studies in literary types in seventeenth century\n     America (1607-1710). New Haven, Conn., 1939. 360 p. (Yale Studies\n     in English, v. 91)\n=Priestley, Herbert I.= The coming of the white man, 1492-1848. N. Y.,\n=Robertson, William.= The history of America, books IX. and X.\n     containing the history of Virginia to the year 1688; and of New\n     England to the year 1652. Philadelphia, 1799. 196 p.\n       First printed 1777, often reprinted.\n=The South= in the building of the nation. Richmond [1903-1913]. 13 v.\n=Trevelyan, George M.= England under the Stuarts. 12th ed. London,\n=Tyler, Lyon G.= The Cavalier in America. [Richmond, 1913.] 19 p.\n=Tyler, Moses C.= A history of American literature during the colonial\n=Wertenbaker, Thomas J.= The first Americans, 1607-1690. N. Y., 1927.\n     358 p. (A history of American life, v. 2)\n=Wilson, Woodrow.= A history of the American people. [New ed.] N.Y.,\n=Winsor, Justin=, ed. Narrative and critical history of America.\n=Wissler, Clark= [and others]. Adventurers in the wilderness. New\n     Haven, Conn., 1925. 369 p. (Pageant of America, v. 1)\n=Virginia History--including Local History=\n=Abernethy, Thomas P.= Three Virginia frontiers. Baton Rouge, La.,\n       (The W. L. Fleming lectures in Southern history, Louisiana State\n=Andrews, Matthew P.= Virginia, the Old Dominion. N. Y., 1937. 664 p.\n=Armes, Ethel M.= Stratford hall, the great house of the Lees.\n=Association for the= preservation of Virginia antiquities. The old\n     lighthouse at Cape Henry, Virginia; an account of early efforts to\n     establish a lighthouse at entrance to Chesapeake Bay, 1607, 1789,\n=Beverley, Robert.= The history of Virginia. 2nd ed. London, 1722. 284\n       Reprinted: Richmond, 1855. 264 p.; Chapel Hill, N. C., 1947. 366\n       p. First ed.: London, 1705.\n=Boddie, John B.= Colonial Surry. Richmond, 1948. 249 p.\n=Bruce, Philip A.= [and others] History of Virginia. Chicago, 1924. 6 v.\n       \"Colonial period, by Philip A. Bruce,\" v. 1.\n____ The Virginia Plutarch. Chapel Hill, N. C., 1929. 2 v.\n=Burk, John D.= The history of Virginia, from its first settlement to\n     the commencement of the revolution. Petersburg, Va., 1822. 3 v.\n       Documents, &c. [relating to Bacon's rebellion], v. 2, p. 247-74.\n       Papers relating to the mission for procuring a more perfect\n       charter [1674-76], v. 2, appendix, p. xxxiii-lxii.\n=Campbell, Charles.= History of the colony and ancient dominion of\n     Virginia. Philadelphia, 1860. 765 p.\n=Chandler, Julian A. C. and Travis B. Thames.= Colonial Virginia.\n____ Makers of Virginia history. N. Y. [1904] 347 p.\n=Clark, Charles B.= The Eastern Shore of Maryland and Virginia. N. Y.,\n=Conway, Moncure D.= Barons of the Potomack and the Rappahannock. N.\n=Cooke, John E.= Virginia; a history of the people. [New ed.] Boston,\n=Fiske, John.= Old Virginia and her neighbors. Boston, 1900. 2 v.\n=Foote, William H.= Sketches of Virginia, historical and biographical.\n     [1st ser.] Philadelphia, 1850. 568 p.\n=Gilliam, Sara K.= Virginia's people. A study of the growth and\n     distribution of the population of Virginia from 1607 to 1943.\n=Glenn, Thomas A.= Some colonial mansions and those who lived in them,\n     with genealogies of the various families mentioned [ser. 1].\n     Philadelphia, 1898. 459 p.\n=Goodwin, Rutherfoord.= A brief & true report concerning Williamsburg\n     in Virginia: being an account of the most important occurrences in\n     that place from its first beginning to the present time.... 3d ed.\n     Williamsburg [1941] 406 p.\n=Howe, Henry.= Historical collections of Virginia. Charleston, S. C.,\n=Howison, Robert R.= A history of Virginia, from its discovery and\n     settlement by Europeans to the present time. Philadelphia, 1848. 2\n=Ingle, Edward.= Local institutions of Virginia. Baltimore, 1885. 127\n     p. (Johns Hopkins univ. stud. in hist. and pol. sci., ser. 3, no.\n=Johnston, Frederick.= Memorials of old Virginia clerks ... from 1634\n     to the present time. Lynchburg, 1888. 405 p.\n=Jones, Hugh.= The present state of Virginia, from whence is inferred\n     a short view of Maryland and North Carolina. Ed. by Richard L.\n     Morton. Chapel Hill, N. C., [1956] 295 p.\n       First published in 1724; reprinted N. Y., 1865. 151 p.\n=Kibler, J. Luther.= The cradle of the nation; ... Jamestown,\n     Williamsburg and Yorktown. Richmond, 1931. 64 p.\n=Martin, Joseph.= A new and comprehensive gazetteer of Virginia, and\n     the District of Columbia ... to which is added a history of\n     Virginia from its first settlement to the year 1754 [by W. H.\n     Brockenbrough]. Charlottesville, Va., 1835. 636 p.\n=Maury, Richard L.= The Huguenots in Virginia. [n.p., 1902?] 116 p.\n=Meade, William.= Old churches, ministers and families of Virginia.\n     Philadelphia, 1861. 2 v.\n=Page, Thomas N.= The Old Dominion; her making and her manners. N. Y.,\n=Pritts, Joseph.= Mirror of olden time border life; embracing a history\n     of the discovery of America ... Also, history of Virginia,\n     embracing its first settlement, the progressive movements of\n     civilization and the establishment of civil government ... [2nd\n=Robinson, Morgan P.= A complete index to Stith's history of Virginia.\n____ Virginia counties. Richmond, 1916. 283 p. (Virginia state library,\n=Stanard, Mary N.= Colonial Virginia, its people and customs.\n     Philadelphia, 1917. 375 p.\n=Starkey, Marion L.= The first plantation; a history of Hampton and\n     Elizabeth City county, Virginia, 1607-1887. [Hampton, Va.], 1936.\n=Stith, William.= The history of the first discovery and settlement of\n     Virginia. Williamsburg, Va., 1747. 341, 34 p.\n[=Tyler, Lyon G.=] History of York county in the seventeenth century.\n=Virginia. Dept. of= conservation. A hornbook of Virginia history;\n     comp. by J. R. V. Daniel. [Richmond, 1949] 141 p.\n____ State historical markers of Virginia. 6th ed. Richmond [1948] 262\n=Weddell, Alexander W.= (ed.) A memorial volume of Virginia historical\n     portraiture, 1585-1830. Richmond, 1930.\n=Wertenbaker, Thomas J.= The old South; the founding of American\n=Whitelaw, Ralph T.= Virginia's Eastern Shore. Richmond, 1951. 2 v.\n=Willis, Carrie.= The story of Virginia. rev. ed. N. Y., 1950. 392 p.\n=Willison, George F.= Behold Virginia: the fifth crown. N. Y., [1951]\n=Writers' program, Virginia.= Virginia; a guide to the Old Dominion. N.\n=Sixteenth-Century Virginia=\n=Lewis, Clifford M. and Albert J. Loomie.= The Spanish Jesuit mission\n=Lorant, Stefan=, ed. The new world; the first pictures of America\n     by John White and Jacques Le Moyne and engraved by Theodore De\n     Bry, with contemporary narratives of the Huguenot settlement in\n     Florida, 1562-1565, and the Virginia colony, 1585-1590. N. Y.,\n=Mook, Maurice A.= The aboriginal population of Tidewater Virginia. Am.\n=Sams, Conway W.= The conquest of Virginia: the first attempt. Norfolk,\n=Tarbox, Increase N.= Sir Walter Ralegh and his colony in America.\n     Including the charter of Queen Elizabeth in his favor, March 25,\n     1584, with letters, discourses, and narratives of the voyages\n     made to America at his charges, and descriptions of the country,\n     commodities, and inhabitants. Boston, 1885. 329 p. (Prince society\n     publications, v. 15)\n=Seventeenth-Century Virginia=\n--=General=--\n=Alvord, Clarence W. and Lee Bidgood.= The first explorations of the\n     Trans-Allegheny region by the Virginians, 1650-1674. Cleveland,\n=Ames, Susie M.= Studies of the Virginia Eastern Shore in the\n     seventeenth century. Richmond, 1940. 274 p.\n=Andrews, Matthew P.= The soul of a nation; the founding of Virginia\n     and the projection of New England. N. Y., 1943. 378 p.\n=Boddie, John B.= Seventeenth-century Isle of Wight county, Virginia.\n=Brittingham, Joseph B.= The first trading post at Kicotan (Kecoughtan)\n     Hampton, Virginia. Hampton, 1947. 23 p.\n=Brown, Alexander.= The first republic in America; an account of the\n     origin of this nation, written from the records then (1624)\n     concealed by the Council, rather than from the histories then\n     licensed by the Crown. Boston, 1898. 688 p.\n____ The genesis of the United States. A narrative of the movement in\n     England, 1605-1616, which resulted in the plantation of North\n     America by Englishmen. Boston, 1890. 2 v.\n____ New views of early Virginia history, 1606-1619. Liberty, Va.,\n=Bruce, Philip A.= The economic and social life of Virginia in the\n     seventeenth century. In: The South in the building of the nation,\n=Chandler, Julian A. C.= The beginnings of Virginia, 1584-1624. In: The\n     South in the building of the nation, v. 1, p. 1-23.\n=Cheyney, Edward P.= Some conditions surrounding the settlement of\n=Craven, Wesley F.= Dissolution of the Virginia company; the failure of\n     a colonial experiment. N. Y., 1932. 350 p.\n____ The Virginia company of London, 1606-1624. Williamsburg, 1957.\n     (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 5.)\n=Dodd, William E.= The emergence of the first social order in the\n[=Ellyson, James T.=] The London company of Virginia; a brief account\n     of its transactions in colonizing Virginia. N. Y., 1908. 24 p.\n=Forman, Henry C.= The architecture of the Old South: the medieval\n____ Virginia architecture in seventeenth century. Williamsburg, 1957.\n     (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 11.)\n=Green, Bennett W.= How Newport's News got its name. Richmond, 1907.\n=Greer, George C.= Early Virginia immigrants [1623-1666] Richmond,\n=Hartwell, Henry.= The present state of Virginia, and the college, by\n     Henry Hartwell, James Blair, and Edward Chilton [1727]. Ed. by\n     Hunter D. Farish. Williamsburg, Va., 1940. lxxiii, 105 p.\n=Henry, William W.= The settlement at Jamestown, with particular\n     reference to the late attacks upon Captain John Smith, Pocahontas,\n     and John Rolfe. Va. hist. soc., Proceedings, 1882, p. 10-63.\n=Jefferson, Thomas.= Notes on the state of Virginia [1787]. Ed. by\n     William Peden. Chapel Hill, N. C., 1955. 315 p.\n       \"Articles agreed on & concluded at James Cittie in Virginia\n       [1651],\" p. 114-16. \"An act of indempnitie made att the\n       surrender of the countrey [1651],\" p. 116-17.\n=Jester, Annie L. and Martha W. Hiden=, eds. Adventurers of purse and\n=Kingsbury, Susan M.= A comparison of the Virginia company with the\n     other English trading companies of the 16th and 17th centuries.\n=Lefroy, Sir John H.= Memorials of the discovery and early settlement\n     of the Bermudas or Somers islands, 1516-1685. London, 1877-1879. 2\n=Mason, George C.= The case against Henricopolis. Va. mag., 56 (1948),\n=Mook, Maurice A.= The ethnological significance of Tindall's map of\n____ Virginia ethnology from an early relation [an analysis of Archer's\n     \"A relatyon of the discovery of our river\"] W & M quar. (ser. 2),\n=Morison, Samuel E.= The Plymouth colony and Virginia. Va. mag., 62\n=Morton, Richard L.= Struggle against tyranny and the beginning of\n     a new era, 1677-1699. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th\n     anniversary historical booklet, No. 9.)\n=Neill, Edward D.= Early settlement of Virginia and Virginiola, as\n     noticed by poets and players in the time of Shakspeare, with some\n     letters on the colonization of America, never before printed.\n     Minneapolis, Minn., 1878. 47 p.\n____ The English colonization of America during the seventeenth\n     century. London, 1871. 352 p.\n____ English maids for Virginia planters. Ships arriving at Jamestown,\n     from the settlement of Virginia until the revocation of charter of\n     London company. New England hist. and gen. register, 30 (1876),\n____ History of the Virginia company of London. Albany, N. Y., 1869.\n____ Virginia, as a penal colony. Historical mag. (ser. 2), 5 (1869),\n____ Virginia Carolorum: the colony under the rule of Charles the First\n____ Virginia company of London. Extracts from their manuscript\n     transactions. Washington, 1868. 17 p.\n____ Virginia governors under the London company. Saint Paul, Minn.,\n____ The Virginia lotteries. Virginia slaveholders, Feb., 1625. New\n     England hist. and gen. register, 31 (1877), 21-22.\n____ Virginia vetusta, during the reign of James the First. Albany, N.\n=Phillips, Philip L.= Some early maps of Virginia and the makers,\n     including plates relating to the first settlement of Jamestown.\n=Sainsbury, W. Noel.= The first settlement of French protestants in\n=Sams, Conway W.= The conquest of Virginia: the second attempt ...\n____ The conquest of Virginia; the third attempt, 1610-1624. N. Y.,\n=Stanard, Mary N.= The story of Virginia's first century. Philadelphia,\n=Stanard, William G.= Some emigrants to Virginia. Memoranda in regard\n     to several hundred emigrants to Virginia during the colonial\n     period. Richmond, 1911. 79 p.\n=Stephenson, N. W.= Some inner history of the Virginia company. W & M\n=Swem, Earl G.=, ed. Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklets.\n     Williamsburg, 1957. 23 v.\n       Contents: 1) E. G. Swem, J. M. Jennings and J. A. Servies, A\n       selected bibliography of Virginia, 1607-1699. 2) W. W. Abbot,\n       A Virginia chronology, 1585-1783. 3) B. C. McCary, Captain\n       John Smith's map of Virginia. 4) S. M. Bemiss, The three\n       charters of the Virginia company of London. 5) W. F. Craven,\n       The Virginia company of London, 1606-1624. 6) C. E. Hatch,\n       The first seventeen years at Jamestown, 1607-1624. 7) W. E.\n       Washburn, Virginia under Charles I, and Cromwell, 1625-1660. 8)\n       T. J. Wertenbaker, Bacon's rebellion, 1676. 9) R. L. Morton,\n       Struggle against tyranny and the beginning of a new era,\n       1677-1699. 10) G. M. Brydon, The faith of our fathers; religion\n       in Virginia, 1607-1699. 11) H. C. Forman, Virginia architecture\n       in seventeenth century. 12) W. S. Robinson, Mother earth; land\n       grants in Virginia, 1607-1699. 13) James Wharton, The bounty\n       of the Chesapeake; fishing in colonial Virginia, 1607-1699.\n       14) Lyman Carrier, Agriculture in Virginia, 1607-1699. 15)\n       S. M. Ames, Reading, writing and arithmetic in Virginia,\n       1607-1699. 16) T. J. Wertenbaker, The government of Virginia\n       in the seventeenth century. 17) A. L. Jester, Domestic life in\n       Virginia, 1607-1699. 18) B. C. McCary, Indians in seventeenth\n       century Virginia. 19) M. W. Hiden, How justice grew; the\n       counties of Virginia; an abstract of their formation. 20) Melvin\n       Herndon, The sovereign remedy; tobacco in colonial Virginia. 21)\n       T. P. Hughes, Medicine in Virginia, 1607-1699. 22) C. W. Evans,\n       Some notes on shipping and shipbuilding in colonial Virginia.\n       23) J. P. Hudson, Jamestown commodities in the seventeenth\n       century.\n[T., J. W.] =The records of= the London company for the first colony in\n     Virginia. Historical magazine, 2 (1858), 33-35.\n=Torrence, William C.=, comp. Virginia wills and administrations,\n=Traylor, Robert L.= Some notes on the first recorded visit of white\n     men to the site of the present city of Richmond, Virginia.\n=Tyler, Lyon G.= England in America, 1580-1652. N. Y., 1904. 355 p.\n____ London company records. Am. hist. assoc., Report (1901), v. 1, p.\n=Washburn, Wilcomb E.= Virginia under Charles I, and Cromwell,\n     1625-1660. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary\n     historical booklet, No. 7.)\n=Waterman, Thomas T.= Domestic colonial architecture of Tidewater\n=Wertenbaker, Thomas J.= The government of Virginia in the seventeenth\n     century. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary\n     historical booklet, No. 16.)\n____ Virginia under the Stuarts, 1607-1688. Princeton, N. J., 1914. 271\n=Wise, Jennings C.= Ye kingdome of Accowmacke; or, The Eastern Shore of\n     Virginia in the seventeenth century. Richmond, 1911. 406 p.\n=Wright, Louis B.= The first gentlemen of Virginia. San Marino, Calif.,\n=Yardley, John H. R.= Before the Mayflower. N. Y., 1931. 408 p.\n=Seventeenth-Century Virginia=\n--=Special Topics=--\n=Jamestown=\n=Caywood, Louis R.= Excavations at Green Spring plantation. Yorktown,\n=Cotter, John L. and J. P. Hudson.= New discoveries at Jamestown.\n=Forman, Henry C.= The bygone \"Subberbs of James Cittie.\" W & M quar.\n____ Jamestown and St. Mary's, buried cities of romance. Baltimore,\n=Gookin, Warner F.= The first leaders at Jamestown [1606-1607]. Va.\n=Gregory, George C.= Jamestown first brick state house. Va. mag., 43\n=Hatch, Charles E.= The first seventeen years at Jamestown, 1607-1624.\n     Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical\n     booklet, No. 6.)\n____ Jamestown, Virginia; the town site and its story. [Washington,\n=Riley, Edward M.= and =Charles E. Hatch=, eds. James Towne in the\n     words of contemporaries. Washington, 1955. 36 p.\n=Tyler, Lyon G.= The cradle of the republic: Jamestown and James River.\n=Yonge, Samuel H.= The site of old \"James Towne,\" 1607-1698. Richmond,\n=Social Life, Education=\n=Ames, Susie M.= Reading, writing and arithmetic in Virginia,\n     1607-1699. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary\n     historical booklet, No. 15.)\n[=Armstrong, Mrs. F. M.=] The Syms-Eaton free school. Benjamin Syms,\n=Blanton, Wyndham B.= Medicine in Virginia in the seventeenth century.\n=Bruce, Philip A.= Institutional history of Virginia in the seventeenth\n     century; an inquiry into the religious, moral, educational, legal,\n     military, and political condition of the people. N. Y., 1910. 2 v.\n____ Social life of Virginia in the seventeenth century. An inquiry\n     into the origin of the higher planting class, together with an\n     account of the habits, customs, and diversions of the people. 2nd.\n=Buck, James L. B.= The development of public schools in Virginia,\n     1607-1952. Richmond [1952] 572 p. (Va. State board of educ.,\n=Campbell, Helen J.= The Syms and Eaton Schools and their successors. W\n=Comenius in England=; the visit of Jan Amos Komensky (Comenius), the\n     Czech philosopher and educationalist, to London, in 1641-1642; its\n     bearing on the origins of the Royal society, on the development\n     of the encyclopedia, and on plans for the higher education of\n     the Indians of New England and Virginia. Ed. by Robert F. Young.\n=Crozier, William A.= Virginia colonial militia, 1651-1776. N. Y.,\n=Hughes, Thomas P.= Medicine in Virginia, 1607-1699. Williamsburg,\n     1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 21.)\n=Jester, Annie L.= Domestic life in Virginia, 1607-1699. Williamsburg,\n     1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 17.)\n=Land, Robert H.= Henrico and its college. W & M quar. (ser. 2), 18\n=McCabe, W. Gordon.= The first university in America, 1619-1622. Va.\n=McMurtrie, Douglas C.= The first printing in Virginia; the abortive\n     attempt at Jamestown, the first permanent press at Williamsburg,\n     the early gazettes, and the work of other Virginia typographic\n     pioneers. Vienna, 1935. 15 p.\n=Neill, Edward D.= History of education in Virginia during the\n     seventeenth century. Washington, 1867. 27 p.\n____ A study of the Virginia census of 1624. New England hist. and gen.\n=Powell, William S.= Books in the Virginia colony before 1624. W & M\n=Shurtleff, Harold R.= The log cabin myth; a study of the early\n     dwellings of the English colonists in North America. Cambridge,\n=Smart, G. K.= Private libraries in colonial Virginia. Am. literature,\n=Tyler, Lyon G.= The College of William and Mary in Virginia: its\n     history and work, 1693-1907. Richmond, 1907. 96 p.\n=Wertenbaker, Thomas J.= Patrician and plebeian in Virginia.\n     Charlottesville, Va., 1910. 239 p.\n____ The planters of colonial Virginia. Princeton, N. J., 1922. 260 p.\n=Economics=\n=Andrews, Charles M.= British committees, commissions, and councils of\n     trade and plantations, 1622-1675. Baltimore, 1908. 151 p. (Johns\n     Hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., ser. 26, nos. 1-3)\n=Ballagh, James C.= White servitude in the colony of Virginia.\n     Baltimore, 1895. 99 p. (Johns Hopkins univ. studies in hist. and\n=Barnes, Viola F.= Land tenure in the English colonial charters of the\n     seventeenth century. In: Essays in colonial history presented to\n     Charles M. Andrews, New Haven, Conn., 1931, p. 4-40.\n=Bassett, John S.= The relation between the Virginia planter and the\n     London merchant. Am. hist. assoc., Report (1901), v. 1, p. 551-75.\n=Bruce, Kathleen.= Virginia iron manufacture in the slave era. N. Y.,\n=Bruce, Philip A.= Economic history of Virginia in the seventeenth\n=Evans, Cerinda W.= Some notes on shipping and shipbuilding in colonial\n     Virginia. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary\n     historical booklet, No. 22.)\n=Handlin, Oscar, and Mary Handlin.= Origins of the southern labor\n=Harrington, Jean C.= Glassmaking at Jamestown, America's first\n     industry. Richmond [1952] 47 p.\n=Harrison, Fairfax.= Virginia land grants: a study of conveyancing in\n     relation to colonial politics. Richmond, 1925. 184 p.\n=Hatch, Charles E.= Glassmaking in Virginia, 1607-1625. W & M quar.\n=Hudson, J. P.= Jamestown commodities in the seventeenth century.\n     Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical\n     booklet, No. 23.)\n=Judah, Charles B.= The North American fisheries and British policy to\n=Macpherson, David.= Annals of commerce, manufactures, fisheries, and\n     navigation. London, 1805. 4 v.\n=Read, Thomas T.= Gold and the Virginia colony. Columbia university\n=Ripley, William Z.= The financial history of Virginia, 1609-1776. N.\n     Y., 1893. 170 p. (Columbia univ. studies in hist., econ., and pub.\n=Robinson, W. Stitt.= Mother earth; land grants in Virginia, 1607-1699.\n     Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical\n     booklet, No. 12.)\n=Smith, Abbot E.= Colonists in bondage: white servitude and convict\n     labor in America. 1607-1776. Chapel Hill, N. C., 1947. 435 p.\n=Wharton, James.= The bounty of the Chesapeake; fishing in colonial\n     Virginia, 1607-1699. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th\n     anniversary historical booklet, No. 13.)\n=Williams, Lloyd H.= Pirates of colonial Virginia. Richmond, 1937. 139\n=Law and Politics=\n=Allen, John W.= English political thought, 1603-1660 (v. 1,\n=Ames, Susie M.= The reunion of two Virginia counties. Journal of\n=Birch, Thomas.= The court and times of James the First. London, 1849.\n=Brown, Alexander.= English politics in early Virginia history. Boston,\n=Chandler, Julian A. C.= The history of suffrage in Virginia.\n     Baltimore, 1901. 76 p. (Johns Hopkins univ. studies in hist. and\n=Chitwood, Oliver P.= Justice in colonial Virginia. Baltimore, 1905.\n     123 p. (Johns Hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., ser.\n=Chumbley, George L.= Colonial justice in Virginia; the development of\n     a judicial system, typical laws and cases of the period. Richmond,\n=Crump, Helen J.= Colonial admiralty jurisdiction in the seventeenth\n     century. London, 1931. 200 p.\n=Flippin, Percy S.= Financial administration of the colony of Virginia.\n     Baltimore, 1915. 95 p. (Johns Hopkins univ. studies in hist. and\n____ The royal government in Virginia, 1624-1775. N. Y., 1919. 393 p.\n     (Columbia univ. stud. in hist., econ., and pub. law, v. 84, no. 1)\n=Fuller, Hugh N.= [and others] Criminal justice in Virginia. N. Y.,\n=Gordon, Armistead C.= The laws of Bacon's assembly. [Charlottesville,\n=Hannay, David.= The great chartered companies. London, 1926. 258 p.\n=Harper, Lawrence A.= The English navigation laws: a\n     seventeenth-century experiment in social engineering. N. Y., 1939.\n=Hatch, Charles E.= The oldest legislative assembly in America & its\n     first state house. [Rev. ed.] Washington, 1947. 30 p.\n=Henry, William W.= The first legislative assembly in America. Am.\n=Hiden, Martha W.= How justice grew; the counties of Virginia: an\n     abstract of their formation. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th\n     anniversary historical booklet, No. 19.)\n=Karraker, Cyrus H.= The seventeenth-century sheriff; a comparative\n     study of the sheriff in England and the Chesapeake colonies,\n=Latan\u00e9, John H.= The early relations between Maryland and Virginia.\n     Baltimore, 1895. 81 p. (Johns Hopkins univ. stud. in hist. and\n=Neill, Edward D.= The earliest contest in America on charter-rights,\n     begun A.D. 1619, in Virginia legislature. Macalester college,\n=Porter, Albert O.= County government in Virginia, a legislative\n=Prince, Walter F.= The first criminal code of Virginia. Am. hist.\n=Scott, Arthur P.= Criminal law in colonial Virginia. Chicago, 1930.\n=Agriculture=\n=Arents, George.= The seed from which Virginia grew. W & M quar. (ser.\n____ Tobacco; its history illustrated by the books, manuscripts and\n     engravings in the library of George Arents, Jr.; bibliographic\n     notes by Jerome E. Brooks. N. Y., 1937-1952. 5 v.\n=Cabell, Nathaniel F.= Early history of agriculture in Virginia.\n     Washington [n.d.] 41 p.\n=Carrier, Lyman.= Agriculture in Virginia, 1607-1699. Williamsburg,\n     1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 14.)\n=Craven, Avery O.= Soil exhaustion as a factor in the agricultural\n     history of Virginia and Maryland, 1606-1860. Urbana, Ill., 1926.\n=Gray, Lewis C.= History of agriculture in the southern United States\n     to 1860. Washington, 1933. 2 v. (Carnegie institution publication,\n=Herndon, Melvin.= The sovereign remedy; tobacco in colonial Virginia.\n     Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical\n     booklet, No. 20.)\n=Robert, Joseph C.= The story of tobacco in America. N. Y., 1949. 296 p.\n=Tatham, William.= An historical and practical essay on the culture and\n     commerce of tobacco. London, 1800. 330 p.\n=Indians=\n=Bushnell, David I.= The five Monacan towns in Virginia, 1607.\n____ Indian sites below the falls of the Rappahannock, Virginia.\n     Washington, 1937. 65 p. (Smithsonian misc. collections, v. 96, no.\n____ The Monahoac tribes in Virginia, 1608. Washington, 1935. 56 p.\n     (Smithsonian misc. collections, v. 94, no. 8)\n____ Virginia--from early records. Am. anthropologist (new ser.), 9\n=McCary, Ben C.= Indians in seventeenth-century Virginia. Williamsburg,\n     1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 18.)\n=Mooney, James.= The Powhatan confederacy, past and present. Am.\n     anthropologist (new ser.), 9 (1907), 129-152.\n=Morrison, Alfred J.= The Virginia Indian trade to 1673. W & M quar.\n=Neill, Edward D.= Massacre at Falling Creek, Virginia, March 22,\n=Robinson, W. Stitt.= Indian education and missions in colonial\n     Virginia. Journal of Southern history, 18 (1952), 152-68.\n=Willoughby, Charles C.= The Virginia Indians in the seventeenth\n     century. Am. anthropologist, 9 (1907), 57-86.\n=Bacon's Rebellion, 1676=\n=Bayne, Howard R.= A rebellion in the colony of Virginia. [N. Y., 1904]\n     16 p. (Society of colonial wars in the state of N. Y., Historical\n     papers, no. 7)\n=Brent, Frank P.= Some unpublished facts relating to Bacon's rebellion\n     on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, gleaned from the court records\n     of Accomac county. Va. hist. soc., Collections (new ser.), 11\n=Lane, John H.= The birth of liberty; a story of Bacon's rebellion.\n=Stanard, Mary N.= The story of Bacon's rebellion. N. Y., 1907. 181 p.\n=Stearns, Bertha M.= The literary treatment of Bacon's rebellion in\n=Ware, William.= A memoir of Nathaniel Bacon. In: Jared Sparks, Library\n     of American biography, Boston, 1844, ser. 2, v. 3, p. 239-306.\n=Wertenbaker, Thomas J.= Bacon's rebellion, 1676. Williamsburg, 1957.\n     (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 8.)\n____ Torchbearer of the revolution, the story of Bacon's rebellion and\n     its leader. Princeton, N. J., 1940. 237 p.\n=Religion=\n=Anderson, James S. M.= The history of the Church of England in the\n     colonies and foreign dependencies of the British empire. 2nd ed.\n=Brydon, George M.= The faith of our fathers; religion in Virginia,\n     1607-1699. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary\n     historical booklet, No. 10.)\n____ Virginia's mother church and the political conditions under which\n     it grew. Richmond, 1947-52. 2 v.\n=Colonial churches=; a series of sketches of churches in the original\n     colony of Virginia. Richmond, 1907. 319 p.\n=Cross, Arthur L.= The Anglican Episcopate and the American colonies.\n=Edmundson, William.= A journal of the life, travels, sufferings and\n     labour of love in the work of the ministry. 2nd ed. London, 1774.\n       Description of Virginia in 1672, p. 66-72.\n=Goodwin, Edward L.= The colonial church in Virginia. Milwaukee, Wis.\n=Goodwin, William A. R.= The records of Bruton parish church; ed. by\n     Mary Frances Goodwin. Richmond, 1941. 205 p.\n=Hawkins, Ernest.= Historical notices of the missions of the Church\n     of England in the North American colonies, previous to the\n     independence of the United States. London, 1845. 447 p.\n[=Hawks, Francis L.=] A narrative of events connected with the rise and\n     progress of the Protestant Episcopal church in Virginia. To which\n     is added ... the Journals of the conventions in Virginia from the\n     commencement to the present time. N. Y., 1836. 286, 332 p.\n=Little, Lewis P.= Imprisoned preachers and religious liberty in\n     Virginia. Lynchburg, Va., 1938. 534 p.\n=McIlwaine, Henry R.= The struggle of protestant dissenters for\n     religious toleration in Virginia. Baltimore, 1894. 67 p. (Johns\n     Hopkins univ. stud. in hist. and pol. sci., ser. 12, no. 4)\n=Mason, George C.= Colonial churches of Tidewater Virginia. Richmond,\n=Miller, Perry.= Religion and society in the early literature: the\n     religious impulse in the founding of Virginia [1619-1624]. W & M\n____ The religious impulse in the founding of Virginia: religion and\n     society in the early literature [1606-1622]. W & M quar. (ser. 3),\n=Pennington, Edgar L.= The Church of England in colonial Virginia; pt.\n=Perry, William S.= Historical collections relating to the American\n     colonial church. v. 1, Virginia. [Hartford, Conn.] 1870. 585 p.\n____ The history of the American Episcopal church, 1587-1883. Boston,\n=Seiler, William H.= The Church of England as the established church\n     in seventeenth-century Virginia [1606-1705] Journal of southern\n=Thomas, R. S.= The old brick church, near Smithfield, Virginia. Built\n____ The religious element in the settlement at Jamestown in 1607.\n=The Negro=\n=Ballagh, James C.= A history of slavery in Virginia. Baltimore, 1902.\n     160 p. (Johns Hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol. sci., extra\n=Phillips, Ulrich B.= American Negro slavery. N. Y., 1918. 529 p.\n=Russell, John H.= The free Negro in Virginia, 1619-1865. Baltimore,\n     1913. 194 p. (Johns Hopkins univ. studies in hist. and pol.\n     science, ser. 31, no. 3)\n=Writers' program.= Virginia. The Negro in Virginia. N. Y., 1940. 380 p.\n=Biography=\n=Adams, Henry.= Captain John Smith. North American Review, 104 (1867),\n=Baxter, James P.= Memoir of Sir Ferdinando Gorges. In: Sir Ferdinando\n     Gorges and his province of Maine, Boston, 1890, v. 1, p. 1-198.\n     (Prince society publications, no. 18)\n=Boddie, John B.= Edward Bennett of London and Virginia. W & M quar.\n=Burnyeat, John.= John Burnyeat, 1665-1673 [a missionary in the\n     American colonies]. Va. mag., 19 (1911), 58-60.\n=Chatterton, Edward K.= Captain John Smith. N. Y., 1927. 286 p.\n=Claiborne, John H.= William Claiborne of Virginia. N. Y., 1917. 231 p.\n=Davis, Richard B.= George Sandys, poet-adventurer; a study in\n     Anglo-American culture in the seventeenth century. N.Y., 1955. 320\n=Edwards, Edward.= The life of Sir Walter Raleigh. Based on\n     contemporary documents ... together with his letters now first\n     collected. [London] 1868. 2 v.\n=Fletcher, John G.= John Smith--also Pocahontas. N. Y., [1928] 303 p.\n=Glenn, Keith.= Captain John Smith and the Indians. Va. mag., 52\n=Hale, Nathaniel C.= Virginia venturer, a historical biography of\n     William Claiborne, 1600-1677; the story of the merchant venturers\n     who founded Virginia, and the war in the Chesapeake. Richmond\n=Harlow, Vincent T.= ed. The voyages of Captain William Jackson\n=Harrison, Fairfax.= Henry Norwood (1615-1689), treasurer of Virginia,\n=Heck, Earl L. W.= Augustine Herrman, beginner of the Virginia tobacco\n     trade. [Richmond] 1941. 123 p.\n=Henry, William W.= The rescue of Captain John Smith by Pocahontas.\n=Herndon, John G.= The Reverend William Wilkinson of England, Virginia,\n=Lee, Cazenove G. Jr.=, Lee Chronicle, a history of the Lees of\n=Lee, Edmund J.= Lee of Virginia, 1642-1892. Philadelphia [1895] 586 p.\n=Morse, Jarvis M.= John Smith and his critics. Journal of Southern\n=Motley, Daniel E.= Life of Commissary James Blair, founder of William\n     and Mary college. Baltimore, 1901. 57 p. (Johns Hopkins univ.\n     studies in hist. and pol. science, ser. 19, no. 10)\n=Neill, Edward D.= Captain John Smith, adventurer and romancer.\n     Macalester college, Contributions (ser. 1), 11 (1890), 241-51.\n____ Memoir of Rev. Patrick Copland, rector elect of the first\n     projected college in the United States. N. Y., 1871. 96 p.\n____ Pocahontas and her companions; a chapter from the history of the\n     Virginia company of London. Albany, N. Y., 1869. 32 p.\n=Peckard, Peter.= Memoirs of the life of Mr. Nicholas Ferrar.\n=Pennington, Edgar L.= Commissary Blair. Hartford, Conn., 1936. 24 p.\n=Poindexter, Charles.= Captain John Smith and his critics. Richmond,\n=Pring, James H.= Captaine Martin Pringe, the last of the Elizabethan\n     seamen. Plymouth [Eng.], 1888. 34 p.\n=Robertson, Wyndham.= Pocahontas, alias Matoaka, and her descendants\n     ... historical notes by R. A. Brock. Richmond, 1887. 84 p.\n=Sheppard, William L.= The Princess Pocahontas; her story. From the\n     original authorities. Richmond, 1907. 17 p.\n=Shirley, John W.= George Percy at Jamestown, 1607-1612. Va. mag., 57\n=Smith, Bradford.= John Smith, his life and legend. Philadelphia, 1953.\n=Smyth, Clifford.= Captain John Smith and England's first successful\n     colony in America. N. Y., 1931. 176 p.\n=Southall, James P. C.= Captain John Martin of Brandon on the James.\n=Stewart, Robert A.= The first William Byrd of Charles City county,\n=Syme, Ronald.= John Smith of Virginia. N. Y., 1954. 192 p.\n=Webster, Mrs. M. M.= Pocahontas. A legend, with historical and\n     traditionary notes. Philadelphia, 1840. 220 p.\n=Fiction and Drama=\n=Behn, Aphra.= The widdow ranter, or The history of Bacon in Virginia.\n     A tragi-comedy. London, 1690. 56 p.\n=Benet, Stephen Vincent.= Western star. N. Y. [1943]. 181 p.\n[Illustration:\n  VIRGINIA.\n  SERMON\n  PREACHED AT\n  =White-Chappel, in the=\n  presence of many, Honourable and\n  Worshipfull, the Adventurers and Plan-\n  ters for =Virginia=.\n  PVBLISHED FOR THE BENEFIT\n  =And Vse Of The Colony, Planted,=\n  and to bee Planted there, and for the Ad-\n  uancement of their =Chris-\n  tian= Purpose.\n  By =William Symonds=, Preacher at Saint\n  =Saviours= in Southwarke.\n  Haue compassion of some, in putting of difference:\n  And other save with feare, pulling them out of the fire.\n  LONDON:\n  Printed by =I. Windet= for =Eleazar Edgar=, and\n  _William Welby_, and are to be sold in Paules Church-\n  yard at the Signe of the Windmill.\n[Illustration:\n  =Nova Britannia=.\n  OFFRING MOST\n  Excellent fruites by Planting in\n  =Virginia=\n  Exciting all such as be well affected\n  to further the same.\n  [Illustration: Ship]\n  =London=\n  Printed for =Samvel Macham=, and are to be sold at\n  his Shop in Pauls Church-yard, at the\n  Signe of the Bul-head.\n[Illustration:\n  NEVVES FROM VIRGINIA.\n  =The Lost Flocke Triumphant=;\n  With the happy Arrival of that famous and\n  worthy knight S^r Thomas Gates: and\n  the well reputed and valient Cap-\n  taine M^r Christopher New-\n  porte, and others, into\n  Virginia.\n  With the manner of their distresse in the Iland of Devils\n  (otherwise called Bermoothawes) where they\n  remained 42 weeks, and builded\n  two Pynaces, in which\n  they returned unto\n  Virginia.\n  by =R. Rich, Gent.=, one of the voyage.\n  LONDON:\n  Printed by Edw. Allde, and are to be solde by John\n  Wright, at Christ-Church dore. 1610.\n[Illustration:\n  A TRVE\n  DISCOVRSE OF THE\n  PRESENT ESTATE OF =Vir-\n  ginia=, and the successe of the affaires\n  there till the 18 of _Iune_, 1614.\n  _TOGETHER_.\n  WITH A RELATION OF THE\n  seuerall English Townes and fortes, the assu-\n  red hopes of that countrie and the peace\n  _concluded with the Indians_.\n  The Christening of _Powhatans_ daughter\n  _and her marriage with an English-man_.\n  Written by =Raphe Hamor= the yon-\n  ger, late Secretarie in that Colony.\n  _Alget, qui non ardet._\n  [Illustration]\n  Printed at London by =Iohn Beale= for =Wil-\n  liam Welby= dwelling at the signe of the\n  _Swanne in Pauls Church-yard_ 1615.\n[Illustration:\n  THE\n  GENERALL HISTORIE\n  OF\n  Virginia, New-England, and the Summer\n  Isles: with the names of the Adventurers,\n  Planters, and Governours from their\n  first beginning An: 1584 to this\n  present 1626.\n  +With the Procedings of those Severall Colonies\n  and the Accidents that befell them in all their\n  Journyes and Discoveries.+\n  Also the Maps and Descriptions of all those\n  Countryes, their Commodities, people,\n  Government, Customes, and Religion\n  yet knowne.\n  _=Divided into sixe Bookes.=_\n  +By Captaine IOHN SMITH, sometymes Governour\n  in those Countryes & Admirall\n  of+ New England.\n  LONDON.\n  Printed by I.D. and\n  I.H. for +Michael\n  Sparkes+.\n  Thomas L. Williams, Photo\n[Illustration:\n  VIRGINIA\n  Impartially examined, and left\n  to publick view, to be considered by all Iudi-\n  cious and honest men.\n  Under which Title, is compre-\n  hended the Degrees from 34 to 39, wherein\n  lyes the rich and healthfull Countries of _Roanook_,\n  the now Plantations of _Virginia_\n  and _Mary-land_.\n  Looke not upon this =Booke=, as\n  those that are set out by private men, for private\n  ends; for being read, you'l find, the publick\n  good is the Authors onely aime.\n  For this Piece is no other then the Adventurers\n  or Planters faithfull Steward, disposing the Ad-\n  venture for the best advantage, advising\n  people of all degrees, from the highest\n  Master, to the meanest Servant,\n  how suddenly to raise\n  their fortunes.\n  Peruse the Table, and you shall finde the\n  way plainely layd downe\n  By =William Bvllock=, Gent.\n  _19 April, 1649._ _Imprimatur_, Hen: Whaley.\n  _LONDON_:\n  Printed by _John Hammond_, and are to be sold at his house\n  over-against S. _Andrews_ Church in _Holborne_. 1649.\n[Illustration:\n  VIRGINIA:\n  More especially the South part thereof,\n  Richly and truly valued: _viz._\n  The fertile _Carolana_, and no lesse excellent Isle of _Roa-\n  noak_, of Latitude from 31. to 37. Degr. relating the\n  meanes of raysing infinite profits to the Adventu-\n  rers and Planters.\n  _The second Edition, with Addition of_\n  THE DISCOVERY OF SILKWORMS.\n  with their benefit.\n  And Implanting of Mulberry Trees.\n  ALSO\n  The Dressing of Vines, for the rich Trade of ma-\n  king Wines in VIRGINIA.\n  _Together with_\n  The making of the Saw-mill, very usefull in _Virginia_,\n  for cutting of Timber and Clapbord to build with-\n  all, and its Conversion to many as profitable Uses.\n  By _E. W._ Gent.\n  _LONDON_,\n  Printed by _T. H._ for _John Stephenson_, at the Signe of\n  the Sun below Ludgate. 1650.\n[Illustration:\n  PUBLICK\n  GOOD\n  Without Private\n  INTEREST.\n  OR,\n  A Compendious _Remonstrance_ of the\n  present sad State and Condition of the English\n  Colonie in VIRGINEA.\n  WITH\n  A Modest =Declaration= of the severall Causes\n  (so far as by the Rules of Right, Reason, and Religious Obser-\n  vation may be Collected) why it hath not prospered better hitherto\n  AS ALSO,\n  A Submissive suggestion of the most prudentiall probable wayes, and\n  meanes, both Divine and Civill (that the inexpert Remembrancer could\n  for the present recall to minde) for its happyer improvement\n  and advancement for the future.\n  Humbly presented to His Highness the Lord _Protectour_,\n  By a Person zealously devoted,\n  To the more effectual propagating of the Gospel in that Nation,\n  and to the inlargement of the Honour and Benefit, both of the said\n  Colonie, and this whole Nation, from whence they\n  have been transplanted.\n  _Qui sibi solium se natum putat,\n  Secum solus semper vivat,\n  Hoc solum habent homines cum deo commune,\n  Aliu bene facere Synes._\n  To do good, and to communicate, forget not:\n  for with such sacrifices, God is well pleased, _Heb._ 13. v. 16.\n  _LONDON_,\n  Printed for _Henry Marsh_, and are to be sold at\n  the Crown in S. _Paul_'s Church-yard. 1657.\n=Cooke, John E.= My lady Pokahontas. A true relation of Virginia. Writ\n     by Anas Todkill, puritan and pilgrim. Boston, 1885. 190 p.\n[=Davis, John=] Captain Smith and Princess Pocahontas, an Indian tale.\n     Philadelphia, 1817. 90 p.\n____ The first settlers of Virginia, an historical novel. 2nd ed. N.\n=Freeman, Mary E. W.= The heart's highway; a romance of Virginia in the\n     seventeenth-century. N. Y., 1900. 308 p.\n=Goodwin, Mrs. Maud (Wilder).= The head of a hundred, being an account\n     of certain passages in the life of Humphrey Huntoon, sometime an\n     officer in the colony of Virginia. Boston, 1895. 225 p.\n____ White aprons; a romance of Bacon's rebellion, Virginia, 1676.\n=Johnston, Mary.= Prisoners of hope; a tale of colonial Virginia.\n____ To have and to hold. Boston, 1900. 403 p.\n=Tucker, Henry St. G.= Hansford; a tale of Bacon's rebellion. Richmond,\nPRIMARY WORKS\n=Collections=\n=Andrews, Charles M.=, ed. Narratives of the insurrections, 1675-1690.\n=The Aspinwall papers.= Virginia [1617-1676]. Mass. hist. soc.,\n       John Harvey, A brief declaration of the state of Virginia, 1624,\n       p. 60-81; Thomas Yong, Voyage to Virginia and Delaware Bay and\n       river in 1634, p. 81-131; Virginias deploured condition, 1676,\n=Bemiss, Samuel M.= The three charters of the Virginia company of\n     London and seven related documents. Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown\n     350th anniversary historical booklet, No. 4.)\n=Brigham, Clarence S.=, ed. British royal proclamations relating to\n     America, 1603-1783. Worcester, Mass., 1911. 268 p. (Am. antiq.\n     soc. Transactions, v. 12)\n=Brock, Robert A.= Documents, chiefly unpublished, relating to the\n     Huguenot emigration to Virginia. Richmond, 1886. 247 p. (Va. hist.\n     soc., Collections, n.s., v. 5)\n=Brown University.= John Carter Brown library. Three proclamations\n     concerning the lottery for Virginia, 1613-1621. Providence, R. I.,\n       Contents: [1] By his Majesties councell for Virginia, 1613.\n       [2] A declaration for the certaine time of drawing the great\n       standing lottery, 1615. [3] By the King [a proclamation], 1620.\n=Catterall, Helen T.=, ed. Judicial cases concerning American slavery\n     and the Negro. Washington, 1926-37. 5 v. (Carnegie inst.,\n     Publication no. 374)\n       v. 1: \"Cases from the courts of England, Virginia, West\n       Virginia, and Kentucky.\"\n=Colonial records= of Virginia. Richmond, 1874. 106 p.\n       Contents: 1) The first assembly of Virginia, held July 30,\n       1619. 2) List of the livinge and the dead in Virginia, Feb. 16,\n       1623. 3) A briefe declaration of the plantation of Virginia,\n       during the first twelve years. 4) A list of the number of men,\n       women and children, inhabitants in the several counties within\n       the collony of Virginia, in 1634. 5) A letter from Charles II,\n       acknowledging the receipt of a present of Virginia silk, 1668.\n       6.) A list of the parishes in Virginia, 1680.\n=Copland, Patrick.= Letters of Patrick Copland [1623, 1646]. W & M\n=Donnan, Elizabeth=, ed. Documents illustrative of the history of the\n     slave trade to America. Washington, 1930-1935. 4 v.\n=Fitzhugh, William.= Letters of William Fitzhugh [1679-1699]. Va. mag.,\n=Fleet, Beverley and L. O. Duvall=, comps. Virginia colonial abstracts,\n       Titles touching the seventeenth century follow:\n____ Acchawmacke, 1632-1637. Richmond [1943] 111 p. (Virginia colonial\n     abstracts, v. 18)\n____ Accomacke county, 1637-1640. Richmond [1948] 103 p. (Virginia\n     colonial abstracts, v. 32)\n____ Charles City county court orders, 1655-58. Richmond [1941-42] 4 v.\n     (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 10-13)\n____ Huntington library data, 1607-1850. Richmond [1947] 109 p.\n     (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 30)\n____ Lancaster county [court records] 1652-1655. Richmond [1944] 110 p.\n     (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 22)\n____ Lancaster county, record book 2. 1654-1666, pages 1-394. Richmond\n     [n.d.] 137 p. (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 1)\n____ Lower Norfolk county, 1651-1654. Richmond [1948] 106 p. (Virginia\n     colonial abstracts, v. 31)\n____ Northumberland co. Record of births, 1661-1810. Richmond [1938]\n     134 p. (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 3)\n____ Northumberland county records. 1652-1655. Richmond [1937?] 141 p.\n     (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 2)\n____ Northumbria collectanea, 1645-1720. Richmond [1943-44] 2 v.\n     (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 19-20)\n____ Richmond county records, 1692-1724. Richmond [1942-43] 2 v.\n     (Virginia colonial abstracts, v. 16-17)\n____ Virginia company of London, 1607-1624; ed. by Lindsay O. Duvall.\n     [n.p., 1955] 121 p. (Virginia colonial abstracts, ser. 2, v. 3)\n____ Westmoreland county, 1653-1657. Richmond [1945] 102 p. (Virginia\n     colonial abstracts, v. 23)\n____ York county, 1633-1657. Richmond [1945-46] 3 v. (Virginia colonial\n     abstracts, v. 24-26)\n=Force, Peter=, comp. Tracts and other papers, relating principally\n     to the origin, settlement, and progress of the colonies in North\n     America, from the discovery of the country to the year 1776.\n       Vol. 1, no. 6, [Robert Johnson] Nova Britannia, 1609; no. 7\n       [Robert Johnson] The new life of Virginea, 1612; no. 8, [Thomas\n       Mathew] The beginning, progress, and conclusion of Bacon's\n       rebellion; no. 9, Mrs. Anne Cotton, An account of our late\n       troubles in Virginia; no. 10, Sir William Berkeley, A list of\n       those that have been executed for the late rebellion; no. 11, A\n       narrative of the Indian and civil wars in Virginia.\n       Vol. 2, no. 6, Extract from a manuscript collection of annals\n       relative to Virginia, 1642; no. 7, A description of the province\n       of New Albion, 1648; no. 8, A perfect description of Virginia,\n       1649; no. 9, Virginia and Maryland, or, The Lord Baltamore's\n       printed case, 1655.\n       Vol. 3, no. 1, [Virginia company of London] A true declaration\n       of the estate of the colonie in Virginia, 1610; no. 2, [William\n       Strachey, ed.] For the colony in Virginea Britannia. Lawes\n       divine, morall and martiall, &c., 1612; no. 5, Virginia company\n       of London, A declaration of the state of the colonie, 1620;\n       no. 6, Virginia company of London, Orders and constitutions,\n       1619-1620; no. 7, Nathaniel Shrigley, A true relation of\n       Virginia and Maryland, 1669; no. 10, [Henry Norwood] A voyage\n       to Virginia, 1649; no. 11, [Edward Williams] Virginia, more\n       especially the south part thereof, richly and truly valued,\n       1650; no. 12, John Clayton, Letter ... to the Royal society,\n       1688; no. 13 [Samuel Hartlib] The reformed Virginian silk-worm,\n       1655; no. 14, John Hammond, Leah and Rachel, or, The two\n       fruitfull sisters Virginia, and Maryland; no. 15, [Robert\n       Greene] Virginia's cure, or, An advisive narrative concerning\n       colonial tracts monthly, v. 1, no. 1-12, v. 2, no. 1-6,\n=Great Britain.= Privy Council. Acts of the Privy council of England,\n____ Public Record Office. Calendar of state papers, colonial series,\n     America and West Indies [1574-1699] London, 1860-1908. 10 v.\n=Hakluyt, Richard.= The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques,\n     and discoveries of the English nation. Ed. by Edmund Goldsmid.\n=Hale, Edward E.=, ed. Original documents ... illustrating the history\n     of Sir Walter Raleigh's first American colony, and the colony at\n     Jamestown. Am. antiq. soc., Transactions, 4 (1860), 1-65.\n       [Archer] A relatyon of the discovery of our river [1607], p.\n=Hall, Clayton C.=, ed. Narratives of early Maryland, 1633-1684. N. Y.,\n       \"The Lord Baltemore's case, 1653,\" p. 167-80; \"Virginia and\n       Maryland, or The Lord Baltamore's printed case uncased and\n       answered, 1655,\" p. 187-230; \"Leah and Rachel,\" by John Hammond,\n=Hayward, Nicholas=, Nicholas George, and Joseph Taylor. Old letters\n     from Virginia county records [1652-1705]. W & M quar. (ser. 1), 11\n=Hazard, Ebenezer.= Historical collections; consisting of state papers,\n     and other authentic documents. Philadelphia, 1792-94. 2 v.\n       \"Articles agreed on and concluded at James Cittie in Virginia\n       [1651],\" v. 1, p. 560-61. \"Articles for the surrendering of\n       Virginia to the subjection of the parliament of the commonwealth\n       of England [1651],\" v. 1, p. 562-63. \"An act of indempnitie made\n       att the surrender of the countrey [1651],\" v. 1, p. 563-64. [An\n       act prohibiting trade with the Barbados, Antego, Bermudas, and\n=Hening, William W.=, ed. The statutes at large; being a collection of\n     all the laws of Virginia ... 1619 [through the session of 1792].\n=Jensen, Merrill=, ed. English historical documents; American colonial\n     documents to 1776. N. Y., 1955. 888 p. (English historical\n     documents, v. 9)\n=Kingsbury, Susan M.=, ed. The records of the Virginia company of\n     London. Washington, 1906-1935. 4 v.\n=Labaree, Leonard W.=, ed. Royal instructions to British colonial\n=Letters of the= Byrd family [to 1723]. Va. mag., 35 (1927), 221-45,\n[=List of tracts= relating to Virginia in the library of Dorchester\n     house, London, with a facsimile of a letter of Captain John Smith]\n=The Lower Norfolk= county, Virginia antiquary; ed. by Edward W. James.\n=Lower Norfolk= county records, 1636-1646. Va. mag., 39 (1931), 1-20;\n=Miscellaneous colonial= documents [1672-73], from the originals in the\n     Virginia state archives. Va. mag., 20 (1912), 22-32.\n       Contents: Papers in regard to Capt. Thomas Gardner [1672-73].\n       Proceedings of Virginia council, Aug. 1673. Order in regard to\n       fort, 1673. Proceedings of a court martial, Oct. 21, 1673.\n=Notes from the= records of Stafford county, Virginia, order books\n=Nugent, Nell M.= Cavaliers and pioneers; abstracts of Virginia land\n     patents and grants, 1623-1800. Vol. 1, 1623-1666 [all published]\n=Purchas, Samuel.= Purchas his pilgrimes. In five bookes. London, 1625.\n       Reprinted as Hakluytus posthumous, or Purchas his pilgrimes.\n=Randolph, Edward.= Edward Randolph; including his letters and official\n     papers from the New England, middle, and southern colonies in\n     America. Boston, 1898-1909. 7 v. (Prince society publications, v.\n=Randolph Manuscript=; Virginia seventeenth-century records. Va. mag.,\n=Sackville, Lionel C.=, 1st duke. Lord Sackville's papers respecting\n=Smith, John.= Capt. John Smith, travels and works; ed. by Edward\n     Arber. Edinburgh, 1910. 2 v.\n       [Virginia company of London] Instructions by way of advice, for\n       the intended voyage to Virginia [1606], v. 1, p. xxxiii-xxxvii.\n       Tindall, Robert. Robert Tindall, gunner to Prince Henry. Letter\n       to the prince, 22 June 1607, v. 1, p. xxxviii-xxxix.\n       [Archer, Gabriel] A relayton of the discovery ... 21 May-22 June\n       Percy, George. Observations gathered out of a discourse of the\n       plantation of the southerne colonie in Virginia, 1606, v. 1, p.\n       lvii-lxxiii.\n       Wingfield, Edward M. A discourse of Virginia, v. 1, p. lxxiv-xci.\n       Archer, Gabriel. Letter from James Town, 31 August 1609, v. 1,\n       p. xciv-xcvii.\n       Ratcliffe, John. Letter to the Earl of Salisbury, 4 October\n       Spelman, Henry. Relation of Virginea, v. 1, p. ci-cxiv.\n       Smith, John. A true relation [1608], v. 1, p. 1-40.\n         A description of New England, 1616, v. 1, p. 175-232.\n         The Generall historie of Virginia, 1624, v. 1, p. 275-383; v.\n=Some Virginia= colonial records [1670?-1708]. Va. mag., 10 (1903),\n=Stewart, Robert A.= Excerpts from the Charles City county records\n=Stewart, Mrs. Victor W.= Notes from Surry county records of the\n     seventeenth century. W & M quar. (ser. 2), 19 (1939), 531-32.\n=Stock, Leo F.=, ed. Proceedings and debates of the British parliaments\n     respecting North America. Washington, 1924-1942. 5 v. (Carnegie\n     inst. of Washington, publication no. 338)\n=Thurloe, John.= A collection of the state papers of John Thurloe ...\n     containing authentic memorials of the English affairs from the\n     year 1638, to the restoration of King Charles II. London, 1742. 7\n=Tyler, Lyon G.=, ed. Narratives of early Virginia, 1606-1625. N. Y.,\n       Contents: Observations by Master George Percy, 1607. A true\n       relation, by Capt. John Smith, 1608. Description of Virginia\n       and proceedings of the colonie by Captain John Smith, 1612.\n       The relation of the Lord De-la-Ware, 1611. Letter of Don Diego\n       de Molina, 1613. Letter of Father Pierre Biard, 1614. Letter of\n       John Rolfe, 1614. Proceedings of the Virginia assembly, 1619.\n       Letter of John Pory, 1619. The generall historie of Virginia\n       by Captain John Smith, 1624, the fourth booke. The Virginia\n       planters' answer to Captain Butler, 1623. The tragical relation\n       of the Virginia assembly, 1624. The discourse of the old\n=Tyler's quarterly= historical and genealogical magazine. Richmond,\n       v. 1-10, indexed in E. G. Swem, Virginia historical index.\n=Virginia.= Calendar of Virginia state papers and other manuscripts ...\n     preserved in the capitol at Richmond. Richmond, 1875-93. 11 v.\n=Virginia= (Colony). Council. Council papers, 1698-1701. Va. mag., 22\n____ Executive journals of the Council of colonial Virginia. Vol. 1\n____ Legislative journals of the Council of colonial Virginia\n____ Minutes of the council and general court of colonial Virginia,\n=Virginia= (Colony) House of Burgesses. Journals, 1619-1658/59.\n=Virginia company of= London. Abstract of the proceedings of the\n     company, 1619-1624; prepared by Conway Robinson, ed. by R. A.\n     Brock. Richmond, 1888-89. 2 v. (Virginia hist. soc., Collections,\n=Virginia historical register=, and literary companion; ed. by William\n     Maxwell. Richmond, 1848-53. 6 v.\n=Virginia in 1623= [to 1681/82]. [Abstracts from the English Public\n     record office and the McDonald and DeJarnette papers, Virginia\n     state library, by W. N. Sainsbury.] Va. mag., 6 (1899), 236-44;\n=Virginia magazine of= history and biography, v. 1-to date. Richmond,\n       v. 1-38, indexed in E. G. Swem, Virginia historical index.\n=Virginia papers=, 1616-1619. [Collected by John Smith of Nibley,\n     one of the early colonizers of Virginia.] N. Y. public library,\n=William and Mary= college quarterly historical magazine; ed. by Lyon\n     G. Tyler [Ser. 1] Williamsburg, Va., 1892-1919. 27 v.\n       Second series, ed. by E. G. Swem, Williamsburg, Va., 1921-43. 23\n       v. Third series, ed. by R. L. Morton, and others, Williamsburg,\n       Ser. 1-2, v. 10, indexed in E. G. Swem, Virginia historical\n=Wright, Irene A.=, ed. Spanish policy toward Virginia, 1606-1612. Am.\n=Wyatt, Sir Francis.= Documents of Sir Francis Wyatt, governor,\n=Before 1607=\n=Canner, Thomas.= A relation of the voyage made to Virginia, in the\n     _Elizabeth_ of London, a barke of fiftie tunnes by Captaine\n     Bartholomew Gilbert, in the yeere 1603. In: Purchas his pilgrimes,\n=Hariot, Thomas.= A brief and true report of the new found land of\n     Virginia [1588; De Bry ed., 1590, with engravings of John White's\n=Pring, Martin.= Scheeps-togt van Martin Pringe, gedaan in 't jaar\n     1603. Van Bristol na 't Noorder-gedeelte van Virginien. Leyden,\n=Percy, George.= Observations gathered out of a discourse of the\n     plantation of the southerne colonie in Virginia by the English,\n     1606. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1685-1690.\n       Reprinted: John Smith, Travels and works, ed. by Arber, v. 1,\n       p. lvii-lxxiii; Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p. 152-68;\n       Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p. 5-23.\n=Stoneman, John.= The voyage of M. Henry Challons, intended for the\n     North plantation of Virginia, 1606, taken by the way, and ill used\n     by the Spaniards. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1685-1690.\n=Virginia. Charter.= Part of the first patent granted by his maiestie\n     for the plantation of Virginia, Aprill the tenth, 1606. In:\n     Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1683-84.\n=Virginia company of London.= Instructions by way of advice, for the\n     intended voyage to Virginia [1606]. In: John Smith, Travels and\n     works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p. xxxiii-xxxvii.\n       Reprinted: Neill, History of the London company of Virginia, p.\n[=Archer, Gabriel=] Capt. Newport's discoveries, Virginia, May [1607].\n     A relatyon of the discovery of our river, from James forte into\n       Includes \"The description of the now-discovered river and\n       country of Virginia; with the liklyhood of ensuing ritches,\" p.\n       59-62. \"A brief description of the people,\" p. 63-65.\n       The \"relatyon\" itself is reprinted in John Smith, Travels and\n       works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p. xl-lv.\n=Tindall, Robert.= Robert Tindall, gunner to Prince Henry. Letter to\n     the prince, 22 June 1607. In: John Smith, Travels and works, ed.\n     by Arber, v. 1, p. xxxviii-xxxix.\n       Reprinted: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p. 108-9.\n=Virginia. Council, 1607.= Coppie of a letter from Virginia, dated 22d\n     of June, 1607. In: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p. 106-8.\n=Ford, Worthington C.= Tyndall's map of Virginia [1608]. Mass. hist.\n       Includes facsimile reproduction.\n=Smith, John.= The copy of a letter sent to the treasurer and councell\n     of Virginia, [1608?]. In: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p.\n____ A true relation of such occurrences and accidents of noate as hath\n     hapned in Virginia since the first planting of that collony, which\n     is now resident in the south part thereof, till the last returne\n     from thence. London, 1608. 36 p.\n       Reprinted: Boston, 1866. 88 p.; Smith, Travels and Works, ed. by\n       Arber, v. 1, p. 1-40; Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p.\n=Wingfield, Edward M.= A discourse of Virginia [1608]; ed. with notes\n     by Charles Deane. Boston, 1859. 44 p.\n       Reprinted: Am. antiq. soc., Transactions, 4 (1860), 67-103; John\n       Smith, Travels and works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p. lxxiv-xci.\n[=Archer, Gabriel=] A letter of M. Gabriel Archar, touching the voyage\n     of the fleet of ships, which arrived at Virginia, without Sir Tho.\n     Gates, and Sir George Summers, 1609. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v.\n       Reprinted: John Smith, Travels and works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p.\n       xciv-xcvii; Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p. 328-32.\n=Crashaw, William.= A sermon preached in London before the right\n     honorable the Lord La Warre, Lord governour and Captaine generall\n     of Virginea, and others of his Majesties counsell for that\n     kingdome, and the rest of the adventurers in that plantation ...\n[=Gray, Robert=] A good speed to Virginia. London, 1609. 29 p.\n[=Johnson, Robert=] Nova Britannia. Offring most excellent fruites by\n     planting in Virginia. London, 1609. 31 p.\n=Price, Daniel.= Sauls prohibition staide; or, The apprehension and\n     examination of Saule. And to the inditement of all that persecute\n     Christ with a reproofe of those that traduce the honourable\n     plantation of Virginia. London, 1609. 40 p.\n=Ratcliffe, John.= Captain John Ratcliffe _alias_ Sickelmore. Letter to\n     the Earl of Salisbury, 4 October 1609. In: John Smith, Travels and\n     works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p. xcviii-xcix.\n=Symonds, William.= Virginia. A sermon preached at White-Chappel, in\n     the presence of ... the adventurers and planters for Virginia, 25.\n=Spelman, Henry.= Relation of Virginia, 1609. London, 1872. 58 p.\n       Reprinted: John Smith, Travels and works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p.\n       ci-cxiv.\n=Virginia company of London.= [Advertising the enterprise under the new\n     charter. London? 1609] Broadside. In: Brown, First republic, p.\n____ Instructions, orders and constitucions to Sir Thomas West, Knight,\n     Lord La Warr. [1609?] In: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia\n____ Instruccions, orders and constitucions to Sir Thomas Gates,\n     Knight, Governor of Virginia. 1609. In: Kingsbury, Records of the\n     Virginia company of London, v. 3, p. 12-24.\n____ A letter from the councill and company of the honourable\n     plantation in Virginia to the Lord Mayor, alderman and companies\n     of London [1609?]. In: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p.\n=Argall, Sir Samuel.= The voiage from James Towne to seeke the ile of\n     Bermuda, and missing the same, his putting over toward Sagadahoc\n     and Cape Cod, and so back againe to James Towne, begun the\n     nineteenth of June, 1610. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p.\n=De la Warr, Thomas West=, 3rd lord. Lorde De la Warr to the right\n     honorable ... the Earl of Salisbury, 1610. In: Brown, Genesis of\n[=Jourdain, Silvester=] A discovery of the Barmudas, otherwise called\n     the Ile of Divels; by Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Sommers, and\n     Captayne Newport, with divers others. London, 1610. In: Force\n=The proceedings of= the English colony in Virginia, from the beginning\n     of the plantation 1606, till anno 1610, somewhat abridged. In:\n     Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1705-33.\n=Rich= [=Richard=] Newes from Virginia (1610). London, 1874. 19 p.\n       Reprinted: Neill, Early settlement of Virginia and Virginiola,\n       p. 29-35; [Boston, 1922] 14 p. (Americana series, photostat, no.\n=Strachey, William.= A true repertory of the wracke, and redemption\n     of Sir Thomas Gates, Knight; upon, and from the ilands of the\n     Bermudas: his coming to Virginia, and the estate of that colonie\n     then, and after, under the government of the Lord La Warr, July\n=Virginia company of London.= By the counsell of Virginea [Notice that\n     the ship _Hercules_ is now preparing to make a supply to the\n     colony of Virginia] [London? 1610] Broadside. In: Brown, Genesis\n____ A publication by the counsell of Virginea, touching the plantation\n     there. London, 1610. Broadside. In: Brown, Genesis of the U. S.,\n____ A true and sincere declaration of the purpose and ends of the\n     plantation begun in Virginia. London, 1610. 26 p.\n       Reprinted: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p. 338-53.\n____ A true declaration of the estate of the colonie in Virginia, with\n     a confutation of such scandalous reports as have tended to the\n     disgrace of so worthy an enterprise. London, 1610. 68 p.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 1. 27 p.\n=Virginia. Council, 1610.= Letter of the Governor and council of\n     Virginia to the Virginia company of London. In: Brown, Genesis of\n=Dale, Sir Thomas.= Letter to Lord Salisbury, 1611. In: Brown, Genesis\n____ Sir Thomas Dale to the president and counsell of the companie of\n     adventurers and planters in Virginia [1611]. In: Brown, Genesis of\n=De la Warr, Thomas West=, 3rd lord. The relation of the right\n     honourable the Lord De la Warre. London, 1611. 15 p.\n       Narratives of early Virginia, 209-214; Brown, Genesis of the U.\n=Depositions of= John Clarke and others, at Havana, 1611. Am. hist.\n=Virginia company of London.= By the counsell of Virginea. [That a\n     fleet of good ships would soon be ready to sail for Virginia.]\n     London, 1611. Broadside. In: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 1, p.\n=Whitaker, Alexander.= Whitaker to Crashaw ... 1611. In: Brown, Genesis\n=Experiences on journey= to America. Accurate transcript from the\n     Booke of proceedings and accidents of the first permanent English\n     settlement in America [1612] Connecticut mag., 11 (1907), 315-19.\n       Reprinted: Journal of Am. hist., 1 (1907), 206-8.\n[=Johnson, Robert=] The new life of Virginea: declaring the former\n     successe and present estate of that plantation, being the second\n     part of Nova Britannia. London, 1612. 52 p.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 1, no. 7. 24 p.; Mass. hist. soc.,\n=McCary, Ben C.= Captain John Smith's map of Virginia [1612].\n     Williamsburg, 1957. (Jamestown 350th anniversary historical\n     booklet, No. 3.)\n=Percy, George.= \"A trewe relacyon.\" Virginia from 1609-1612. Tyler's\n=The proceedings and accidents= of the English colony in Virginia,\n     extracted from the authors following, by William Simons, doctour\n     of divinitie [1612] In: John Smith, Travels and works, ed. by\n=The proceedings of= the English colonie in Virginia since their first\n     beginning from England in the yeere of our Lord 1606, till this\n     present 1612, with all their accidents that befell them in their\n     journies and discoveries. By W. S. Oxford, 1612. In: John Smith,\n     Travels and works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p. 85-174.\n       Reprinted: Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p. 119-204.\n=Smith, John.= The description of Virginia by Captaine John Smith,\n     inlarged out of his written notes. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v.\n____ A map of Virginia. With a description of the countrey, the\n     commodities, people, government and religion. Oxford, 1612, 39,\n       Reprinted: Smith, Travels and works, ed. by Arber, v. 1, p.\n       41-174; Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p. 76-204.\n       Contents: [Vocabulary of Indian words.] The description of\n       Virginia. The proceedings of the English colonie in Virginia ...\n       till this present 1612.\n[=Strachey, William=, ed.] For the colony in Virginea Britannia. Lawes\n     divine, morall and martiall. London, 1612. 41, 7 p.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 2. 68 p.; Photostat\n       Americana, ser. 2, no. 16, Boston, 1936.\n____ The historie of travell into Virginia Britania (1612); ed. by\n     Louis B. Wright and Virginia Freund. London, 1953. xxxii, 221 p.\n       Also ed. by R. H. Major, London, 1849. 203 p.\n=Argall, Sir Samuel.= A letter touching his voyage to Virginia, and\n     actions there, written to Nicholas Hawes, June, 1613. In: Purchas\n       Reprinted: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 2, p. 640-44.\n=Dale, Sir Thomas.= Sir Thomas Dale's letter to Sir Thomas Smith, 1613.\n     Extract in: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 2, p. 639-40.\n[=Jourdain, Silvester=] A plaine description of the Barmudas, now\n     called Sommer Ilands. With the manner of their discoverie Anno\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 3. 24 p.\n=Virginia company of London.= A broadside [concerning the lottery]\n____ By his Majesties councell for Virginia [On the lottery to be\n     held May 10, 1613] London, 1613. Broadside. In: Brown, Genesis\n     of the U. S., v. 2, p. 608-9; John Carter Brown Library, Three\n     proclamations.\n=Whitaker, Alexander.= Good newes from Virginia. London, 1613. 14, 44 p.\n____ Part of a tractate written at Henrico in Virginia, 1613. In:\n     Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1771-73.\n=Dale, Sir Thomas.= A letter of Sir Thomas Dale, and another of Master\n     Whitakers, from James Towne in Virginia, June 18, 1614. And a\n     piece of a tractate, written by the said Master Whitakers from\n     Virginia the yeere before. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p.\n=Hamor, Ralph.= Notes of Virginia affaires in the government of Sir\n     Thomas Dale and of Sir Thomas Gates till anno 1614. In: Purchas\n____ A true discourse of the present estate of Virginia, and the\n     successe of the affaires there till the 18 of June, 1614. Together\n     with a relation of the severall English townes and fortes, the\n     assured hopes of that countrie and the peace concluded with the\n     Indians. The Christening of Powhatans daughter and her marriage\n     with an English-man. London, 1615. 69 p.\n       Reprinted: Albany, N. Y., 1860. 69 p.\n=Rolfe, John.= The coppie of the Gentle-mans letters to Sir Thomas\n     Dale, that after married Powhatans daughter, containing the\n     reasons moving him thereunto [1614] In: Tyler, Narratives of early\n=Virginia company of London.= The reply of the Virginia council, 1614,\n     in defense of Argall. In: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v. 2, p.\n____ A declaration for the certain time of drawing the great standing\n     lottery. London, 1615. Broadside. In: Brown, Genesis of the U.\n     S., v. 2, p. 684-685, 761-765; also in John Carter Brown library,\n     Three proclamations.\n=Rolfe, John.= A true relation of the state of Virginia lefte by Sir\n     Thomas Dale, knight, in May last, 1616. From original manuscript\n     in the library of Henry C. Taylor, Esq. Edited by J. C. Wylie, F.\n     L. Berkeley, Jr., and John M. Jennings. New Haven, Conn., 1951. 29\n       Printed earlier in Southern literary messenger, 5 (1839), 401-6;\n       reprinted Va., historical register, 1 (1848), 101-13.\n=Smith, John.= Captain John Smith to Queen Anne [1616?] In: Brown,\n=Virginia company of London.= A briefe declaration of the present state\n     of things in Virginia [1616] In: Brown, Genesis of the U. S., v.\n=Rolfe, John.= Letter of John Rolfe [to Edwin Sandys, 8 June], 1617.\n=Virginia company of London.= By his Majesties councell for Virginia\n     [relating the good condition of the colony at the return of Sir\n     Thomas Dale] [London? 1617] Broadside. In: Brown, Genesis of the\n=Adventurers to Virginia= [1618?]. In: Kingsbury, Records of the\n     Virginia company, v. 3, p. 79-90.\n=Virginia company of London.= Instructions to George Yeardley, 1618.\n     In: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 3, p. 98-109.\n=Of the lottery=: Sir Thomas Dales returne: the Spaniards in Virginia.\n     Of Pocahontas and Tomocomo: Captaine Yerdley and Captaine Argoll\n     (both since knights) their government; the Lord La-Warrs death,\n     and other occurrents till anno 1619. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v.\n=Pory, John.= Letter of John Pory, 1619 secretary of Virginia, to Sir\n     Dudley Carleton. In: Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p.\n=Virginia. Assembly, 1619.= A reporte of the manner of proceedings in\n     the General assembly convened at James citty in Virginia, July 30,\n       Reprinted: Colonial Records of Virginia, p. 9-32; Tyler,\n       Narratives of early Virginia, p. 249-78; Kingsbury, Records of\n       the Virginia company, v. 3, p. 153-77.\n=Virginia company of London.= A note of the shipping, men, and\n     provisions sent to Virginia. London, 1619. 3 p.\n       Reprinted: Brown, First republic, p. 366; Va. mag., 6 (1898),\n       231-32; Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 3, p.\n=Yate, Ferdinando.= Yate's account of a voyage to Virginia in 1619. N.\n     Y. public library, Bulletin, 1 (1897), 68-72.\n       Reprinted: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 3, p.\n[=Butler, Nathaniel=] Historye of the Bermudaes or Summer islands\n     [162-?] Ed. from a Ms. in the Sloane collection, British museum,\n     by J. H. Lefroy. London, 1882. 327 p. (Hakluyt soc., Works, no.\n[=Bonoeil, John=] Observations to be followed, for the making of fit\n     roomes, to keepe silke-wormes in: as also, for the best manner of\n     planting of mulberry trees, to feed them. London, 1620. 28 p.\n       \"A valuation of the commodities growing and to be had in\n       Virginia, rated as they are worth,\" p. 25-8.\n=Chester, Anthony.= Scheeps-togt van Anthony Chester, na Virginia.\n     Gedaan in het jaar 1620. Leyden, 1907. 15 p.\n       Translation by C. E. Bishop in W & M quar. (ser. 1), 9 (1901),\n=James I.= King of Great Britain. By the King [a proclamation\n     discontinuing the lotteries for the benefit of the colony of\n     Virginia] London, 1620. Broadside.\n       Reprinted: Brown univ., John Carter Brown library, Three\n       proclamations; Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 3,\n=Purchas, Samuel.= The estate of the colony, A.D., 1620. In: Purchas\n=Virginia company of London.= A declaration of the state of the colonie\n     and affaires in Virginia. London, 1620. 92 p.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 5. 44, 26 p. Kingsbury,\n       Records of the Virginia company, v. 3, p. 307-65.\n____ A note of the shipping, men and provisions sent and provided for\n     Virginia [London? 1620]. In: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia\n____ Orders and constitutions, partly collected out of his Maiesties\n     letters patents, and partly ordained upon mature deliberation by\n     the treasuror, counceil and companie of Virginia. Anno 1619 and\n____ Treasuror, councell, and company for Virginia. [On the condition\n     of the colony.] [London, 1620] Broadside.\n       Reprinted: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 3, p.\n=Greevous grones for= the poore. Done by a well-willer, who wisheth,\n     that the poore of England might be so provided for, as none should\n     neede to go a begging within this realme. London, 1621. 24 p.\n=News from Virginia= in letters sent thence 1621, partly published by\n     the company, partly transcribed from the originals with letters\n     of his maiestie, and of the company, touching silke-workes. In:\n     Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1785-88.\n=Rolfe, John.= The will of John Rolfe [Jamestown, 10 March, 1621.\n     Edited] by Jane Carson. Va. mag., 58 (1950), 58-65.\n=A true relation of a= sea fight between two great and well appointed\n     Spanish ships, or men of warre; and an English ship ... going for\n     Virginia [1621] In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1780-82.\n       Reprinted: Brown, First republic, p. 415-16.\n=The answers of= divers planters ... unto a paper intituled The\n     unmasked face of our colony in Virginia. 1622. In: Kingsbury,\n     Records of the Virginia company, v. 2, p. 381-86.\n=The barbarous massacre= committed by the savages on the English\n     planters, March the two and twentieth, 1622, after the English\n     accompt. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1788-90.\n[=Bonoeil, John=] His Maiesties gracious letter to the Earle of\n     South-Hampton, treasurer, and to the councell and company of\n     Virginia heere; commanding the present setting up of silke-works,\n     and planting of vines in Virginia. London, 1622. 88 p.\n=Brinsley, John.= A consolation for our grammar schooles: or, A\n     faithfull and most comfortable incouragement, for laying of a\n     sure foundation of all good learning in our schooles, and for\n     prosperous building thereupon. More especially for all those of\n     the inferiour sort, and all ruder countries and places; namely,\n     for Ireland, Wales, Virginia, with the Sommer Ilands. London\n=Butler, Nathaniel.= The unmasked face of our colony in Virginia as it\n     was in the winter of the yeare 1622. In: Kingsbury, Records of the\n     Virginia company, v. 2, p. 374-76.\n=Copland, Patrick.= A declaration how the monies (viz. seventy pound\n     eight shillings sixe pence) were disposed, which was gathered (by\n     M. Patrick Copland, preacher in the Royall James) at the Cape of\n     good hope, (towards the building of a free schoole in Virginia) of\n     the gentle men and marriners in the said ship ... London, 1622,\n       Reprinted: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 3, p.\n____ Virginia's God be thanked; or, A sermon of thanksgiving for the\n     happie successe of the affayres in Virginia this last yeare.\n=Donne, John.= A sermon upon the VIII. verse of the I chapter of the\n     Acts of the Apostles. Preach'd to the honourable company of the\n     Virginian plantation, 13 Novemb. 1622. London, 1622. 49 p.\n=Virginia company of London.= The inconveniences that have happened\n     to some persons which have transported themselves from England\n     to Virginia. London, 1622. Broadside. In: Brown, First republic,\n=Waterhouse, Edward.= A declaration of the state of the colony and\n     affaires in Virginia. London, 1622. 54 p.\n       Reprinted: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 3, p.\n=An answere to= a declaracion of the present state of Virginia, May,\n     1623. In: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 4, p.\n=A forme of polisie= to plant and governe many families in Virginia\n       Reprinted: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 4, p.\n=Newton, Arthur P.=, ed. A new plan to govern Virginia, 1623. Am. hist.\n=A note of provisions= necessarie for every planter or personall\n     adventurer to Virginia: and accidents since the massacre. In:\n     Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1791-93.\n=Purchas, Samuel.= Of Virginia. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 5, p.\n=Notes taken from= letters which came from Virginia [1623]. In:\n     Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 4, p. 228-239.\n=Smith, John (1580-1631).= The generall history of Virginia, the Somer\n     Iles, and New England, with the names of the adventurers and their\n     adventures.... [A prospectus]. [n.p., 1623?] 4 p.\n=The Virginia planters'= answer to Captain Butler, 1623. In: Neill,\n     Virginia company of London, 395-404.\n       Reprinted: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company of London,\n       v. 2, p. 381-85; Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p. 412-18.\n=Wyatt, Sir Francis.= Letter of Sir Francis Wyatt [1623?]. W & M quar.\n=Good news from= Virginia, sent from James his town by a gentleman in\n=Harvey, John.= A brief declaration of the state of Virginia, 1624.\n     Mass. hist. soc., Collections (ser. 4), 9 (1871), 60-81.\n=James I.= King of Great Britain. A proclamation concerning tobacco\n     [restraining importation of tobacco except from Virginia and the\n     Somers islands] London, 1624. 4 p.\n       Reprinted: Hazard, Historical collections, v. 1, p. 193-98.\n=Quo warranto and= proceedings, by which the Virginia company was\n     dissolved [1623-24]. In: Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia\n     company, v. 4, p. 295-358; translation from Latin, 358-98.\n=Argall, Sir Samuel.= Briefe intelligence from Virginia letters, a\n     supplement of French-Virginian occurants, and their supplantation\n     by Sir Samuel Argal, in right of the English plantation [in the\n     year 1624]. In: Purchas his pilgrimes, v. 4, p. 1805-9.\n=Virginia's verger:= or, A discourse shewing the benefits which may\n     grow to this kingdome from American English plantations, and\n     specially those of Virginia and Summer Islands. In: Purchas his\n=Smith, John.= The generall historie of Virginia, New-England, and the\n     Summer Isles. London, 1624. 248 p.\n=Virginia.= Assembly, 1624. The tragical relation of the Virginia\n     assembly, 1624. In: Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p. 422-26.\n=Charles I=, King of Great Britain. By the King: a proclamation for\n     setling the plantation of Virginia [1625]. With an intro. by\n     Thomas C. Johnson. Charlottesville, Va., 1946. 39 p.\n=Considerations touching= the new contract for tobacco, [London] 1625.\n       Reproduced: Americana series, no. 94 (photostat).\n=James I.= King of Great Britain. A proclamation for the utter\n     prohibiting the importation and use of all tobacco which is\n     not the proper growth of the collonyes of Virginia and the\n     Sommer islands, or one of them [1625]. In: Hazard, Historical\n=Virginia company of London.= The discourse of the old company, 1625.\n       Reprinted: Tyler, Narratives of early Virginia, p. 431-60;\n       Kingsbury, Records of the Virginia company, v. 4, p. 519-551.\n=Hulsius, Levinus.= Zwantzigste schifffahrt, oder grundliche ...\n     beschreibung desz Newen Engellands ... der landtschafft Virginia,\n     und der insel Barmuda. Franckfurt, 1629.\n       Von der landtschafft Virginia, p. 39-116.\n=Smith, John.= The true travels, adventures and observations of\n     Captaine John Smith, in Europe, Asia, Africke, and America:\n     beginning about the yeere 1593, and continued to this present\n       Reprinted: Richmond, 1819. 2 v.; In his: Travels and works, ed.\n=Charles I=, King of Great Britain. By the King; a proclamation\n     concerning tobacco. London [1631]. Broadside.\n       Reprinted: Richmond, 1952.\n=Fleet, Henry.= A brief journal of a voyage made in the bark\n     \"_Warwick_\" to Virginia [1631]. In: Neill, English colonization of\n=Smith, John.= Advertisements for the unexperienced planters of\n     New-England, or any where; or, The path-way to experience to erect\n     a plantation. London, 1631. 40 p.\n       Reprinted: Mass. hist. soc., Collections (ser. 3), 3 (1833),\n       1-53; John Smith, Travels and works, ed. by Arber, v. 2, p.\n=Smith, John.= The last will and testament of Captain John Smith\n     [1631]; with some additional memoranda relating to him [by Charles\n     Deane]. Cambridge, Mass., 1867. 7 p.\n       Reprinted: Mass. hist. soc., Proceedings (1867), p. 452-56.\n[=Sandys, George=, trans.] Ovid's Metamorphosis Englished,\n     mythologiz'd, and represented in figures. Oxford, 1632. 525 p.\n=Yong, Thomas.= Voyage to Virginia and Delaware Bay and river in 1634.\n     Mass. hist. soc., Collections (ser. 4), 9 (1871), 81-131.\n[=Goodborne, John=] A Virginian minister's library, 1635; ed. by R. G.\n=Somerby, H. G.= Passengers for Virginia, 1635. New England hist. and\n=Hiden, Martha W.= Accompts of the _Tristram and Jane_ [a ship arriving\n=Extract from a= manuscript collection of annals relative to Virginia\n=A servant in= England to his master in Virginia [1642]. W & M quar.\n=Vries, David Pietersz de.= Voyages from Holland to America, A.D. 1632\n     to 1644, trans. from the Dutch by Henry C. Murphy. N. Y., 1853.\n       Reprinted: N. Y. hist. soc., Collections (ser. 2), 3 (1857),\n=Castell, William.= A short discoverie of the coasts and continent of\n     America, from the equinoctiall northward, and of the adjacent\n=Lewis, Clifford=, ed. Some recently discovered extracts from the lost\n     minutes of the Virginia council and general court, 1642-1645. W &\n=Great Britain.= Two ordinances of the Lords and Commons assembled\n     in Parliament [1643, 1645]. Whereby Robert Earle of Warwick is\n     made governor in chief, and L. high admirall of all those islands\n     and other plantations ... within the bounds, and upon the coasts\n     of America. London, 1645. [Boston, 1926] 6 p. (Americana series\n     photostat, no. 159)\n=A description of the= province of New Albion. And a direction for\n     adventurers with small stock to get two for one, and good land\n     freely: and for gentlemen, and all servants, labourers and\n     artificers to live plentifully ... 1648. Force tracts, v. 2, no.\n=Bullock, William.= Virginia impartially examined, and left to publick\n     view, to be considered by all judicious and honest men. London,\n[=Norwood, Henry=] A voyage to Virginia [1649]. In: Force tracts, v. 3,\n=A perfect description= of Virginia: being, a full and true relation\n     of the present state of the plantation.... Also, a narration of\n     the countrey, within a few dayes journey of Virginia, west and by\n     south. [London, 1649] Mass. hist. soc., Collections (ser. 2), 9\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 2, no. 8. 18 p.\n=Scisco, Louis D.= Exploration of 1650 in southern Virginia. Tyler's\n=Williams, Edward.= Virgo triumphans: or, Virginia richly and truly\n     valued; more especially the south part thereof: viz. the fertile\n     Carolana, and no lesse excellent isle of Roanoak, of latitude from\n     31 to 37 degr. relating the meanes of raising infinite profits to\n     the adventurers and planters. London, 1650. 7, 47 p.\n____ Virginia: more especially the south part thereof, richly and truly\n     valued. 2nd ed. London, 1650. 47 p.\n       First edition entitled: Virgo triumphans; or, Virginia richly\n       and truly valued.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 11. 62 p.\n____ Virginia's discovery of silke-wormes with their benefit. And the\n     implanting of mulberry trees. Also the dressing and keeping of\n     vines, for the rich trade of making wines there. Together with the\n     making of the saw-mill, very usefull in Virginia, for cutting of\n     timber and clapbord, to build withall. London, 1650. 75 p.\n       Part 2 of his Virginia: more especially the south part thereof,\n       richly and truly valued.\n=An act prohibiting= trade with the Barbada's, Virginia, Bermudas\n     and Antego. London, 1650. In: A collection of several acts of\n     Parliament, 1648-1651, ed. by H. Scobell, London, 1651.\n       Reprinted: Hazard, Historical collections, v. 1, p. 636-38.\n=An act of= indempnitie made att the surrender of the countrey [March\n     12, 1651]. In: Jefferson, Notes on Virginia; ed. by Peden, p.\n       Reprinted: Hazard, Historical collections, v. 1, p. 563-64.\n=An act for= increase of shipping, and encouragement of the navigation\n     of this nation. In: A collection of several acts of Parliament,\n       Reprinted: William MacDonald, ed., Select charters and other\n       documents illustrative of American history, 1606-1775, N. Y.,\n=Articles agreed on= & concluded at James Cittie in Virginia for the\n     surrendering and settling of that plantation under the obedience\n     & government of the common wealth of England by the Commissioners\n     of the Councill of state ... & by the Grand assembly ... of that\n     countrey [1651]. In: Jefferson, Notes on Virginia, ed. by Peden,\n       Reprinted: Hazard, Historical collections, v. 1, p. 560-61.\n=Beschrijvinghe van Virginia=, Nieuw Nederlandt, Nieuw Engelandt, en\n     d'Eylanden Bermudes, Berbados en S. Christoffel. Amsterdam, 1651.\n[=Bland, Edward=, and others] The discovery of New Brittaine. Began\n     August 27, Anno. Dom. 1650 ... From Fort Henry, at the head of\n     Appamattuck river in Virginia, to the fals of Blandina, first\n     river in New Brittaine. London, 1651. 16 p.\n       Reprinted: N. Y., 1873. 16 p.; Alvord and Bidgood, The first\n       explorations of the Trans-Allegheny region, p. 114-30; Ann\n=Copy of a petition= from the governor and company of the Summer\n     islands, with annexed papers ... with a short collection of ...\n     passages from the original to the dissolution of the Virginia\n     company, and a large description of Virginia. London, 1651. 30, 20\n=Somers Islands company.= Copy of a petition from the governor and\n     company of the Sommer islands. With annexed papers ... And a\n     large description of Virginia, with the several commodities\n     thereof. London, 1651. 30 p.\n[=Wodenoth, Arthur=] A short collection of the most remarkable passages\n     from the originall to the dissolution of the Virginia company.\n=Berkeley, Sir William.= The speech of the Hon. William Berkeley ... to\n     the burgesses in the Grand assembly at James Towne on the 17 of\n[=Hartlib, Samuel=] Glory be to God on high, peace on earth, good will\n     amongst men. A rare and new discovery of a speedy way, and easie\n     means, found out by a young lady in England, she having made full\n     proofe thereof in May, Anno 1652, for the feeding of silk-worms in\n     the woods, on the mulberry-tree-leaves in Virginia. [London] 1652.\n=Withington, Lothrop.= Surrender of Virginia to the parliamentary\n=The Lord Baltemore's= case, concerning the province of Maryland.\n     Adjoyning to Virginia in America. With full and clear answers to\n     all material objections, touching his rights, jurisdiction, and\n     proceedings there. London, 1653. 20 p.\n       Reprinted: Hall, Narratives of early Maryland, 167-80.\n[=Hartlib, Samuel=] The reformed Virginian silk-worm, or, A rare and\n     new discovery of a speedy way, and easie means, found out by a\n     young lady in England, she having made full proof thereof in May,\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 13. 37 p.\n=Virginia and Maryland.= Or, The Lord Baltamore's printed case, uncased\n     and answered. Showing the illegality of his patent and usurpation\n     of royal jurisdiction and dominion there. London, 1655. 52 p.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 2, no. 9. 47 p.; Hall, Narratives of\n       early Maryland, 187-230.\n=Hammond, John.= Leah and Rachel or, The two fruitfull sisters\n     Virginia, and Maryland; their present condition, impartially\n     stated and related. London, 1656. 32 p.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 14. 30 p.; Hall, Narratives\n       of early Maryland, p. 281-308.\n[=Gatford, Lionel=] Publick good without private interest. Or, A\n     compendious remonstrance of the present sad state and condition of\n     the English colonie in Virginea. London, 1657. [Paris, 1866] 8, 26\n=Gorges, Ferdinando.= America painted to the life. The true history\n     of the Spaniards proceedings in the conquests of the Indians\n     ... an absolute narrative of the north parts of America, and\n     of the discoveries and plantations of our English in Virginia,\n     New-England, and Berbadoes. London, 1658-59. 4 pts. in 1 v.\n       Pt. 2 \"A briefe narration of the originall undertakings of\n       the advancement of plantations into the parts of America,\"\n       reprinted: J. P. Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his\n       province of Maine, v. 2, p. 1-81.\n=Bland, John.= To the Kings most excellent majesty; the humble\n     remonstrance of John Blande of London, merchant, on the behalf of\n     the inhabitants and planters in Virginia and Mariland. [London?\n     1661?] [Boston, 1940] 4 p. (Photostat Americana, ser. 2, no. 100)\n[=Grave, John=] A song of Sion. Written by a citizen thereof, whose\n     outward habitation is in Virginia. [London, 1662] 12 p.\n[=Greene, Robert=] Virginia's cure: or, An advisive narrative\n     concerning Virginia. Discovering the true ground of that churches\n     unhappiness, and the only true remedy. London, 1662. 22 p.\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 15. 19 p.\n=Virginia.= General assembly. The lawes of Virginia now in force:\n     collected out of the Assembly records, and digested into one\n     volume. Revised and confirmed by the grand assembly held at\n     James-City, by prorogation, the 23d of March, 1661. London, 1662.\n=Berkeley, Sir William.= A discourse and view of Virginia. London,\n=Scarburgh, Edmond.= Document presented by C. C. Harper, Esq., from\n     the Committee on the library, enclosing Col. Edmond Scarburgh's\n     account of proceedings in an expedition from Virginia to\n     Annamessecks and Manokin, pursuant to an act of the Grand assembly\n     of Virginia, in the year 1663. Annapolis, Md., 1833. 16 p.\n=Moray, Alexander.= Letters written from Ware river in Mockjack bay,\n[=Ludwell, Thomas=] A description of the government of Virginia [1666].\n=Attacks by the= Dutch on the Virginia fleet in Hampton Roads in 1667.\n=Strange news from= Virginia, being a true relation of a great tempest\n     in Virginia, by which many people lost their lives, great numbers\n     of cattle destroyed, houses, and in many places whole plantations\n     overturned, and whole woods torn up by the roots. London, 1667. 7\n=Shrigley, Nathaniel.= A true relation of Virginia and Maryland; with\n     the commodities therein. London, 1669. In: Force tracts, v. 3, no.\n=Revel, James.= \"The poor unhappy transported felon's sorrowful account\n     of his fourtteen years transportation, at Virginia, in America\n     [1656?-1671?]\" Reprinted, with introductory notes by John M.\n[=Fallows, Robert.=] The expedition of Batts and Fallam. John Clayton's\n     transcript of the journal of Robert Fallam. A journal from\n     Virginia, beyond the Apailachian mountains, in Sept. 1671. Sent to\n     the Royal society by Mr. Clayton, and read Aug. 1, 1688, before\n     the said society. In: Alvord and Bidgood, the first explorations\n     of the Trans-Allegheny region, p. 183-205.\n       Reprinted: Am. anthropologist (new ser.), 9 (1907), 46-53.\n____ The journal & relation of a new discovery made behind the Apuleian\n     mountains to the west of Virginia [1671]. In: Documents relative\n     to the col. hist. of the state of N. Y., v. 3 (1853), p. 193-97.\n=Ogilby, John.= America: being the latest, and most accurate\n     description of the New World; containing the original of the\n     inhabitants, and the remarkable voyages thither. London, 1671. 674\n=Lederer, John.= The discoveries of John Lederer, in three several\n     marches from Virginia to the west of Carolina ... from the\n     original edition of 1672. Cincinnati, O., 1879. 33 p.\n       Reprinted: Charleston, S. C., 1891. 47 p.; Rochester, N. Y.,\n=An account of= the advantage of Virginia for building ships.\n     Communicated by an observing gentleman. Royal society of London,\n=Phillips, Philip L.= The rare map of Virginia and Maryland [1673] by\n     Augustine Herrman. Washington, 1911. 23 p.\n=The kid-napper trapan'd=: or, The treacherous husband caught in his\n     own trap. Being a pleasant and true relation of a man in this town\n     that would have sold his wife to Virginia. London, 1675. 7 p.\n=Bacon, Nathaniel.= Proclamations of Nathaniel Bacon [1676]. Va. mag.,\n=Bacon's rebellion= [accounts by William Sherwood and Philip Ludwell].\n=Berkeley, Sir William.= A list of those that have been executed for\n     the late rebellion in Virginia. In: Force tracts, v. 1, no. 10. 4\n=Cotton, Mrs. Anne.= An account of our late troubles in Virginia.\n     Written in 1676. In: Force tracts, v. 1, no. 9. 12 p.\n=Glover, Thomas.= An account of Virginia ... reprinted from the\n     Philosophical transactions of the Royal society, June 20, 1676.\n=Grantham, Sir Thomas.= An historical account of some memorable\n     actions, particularly in Virginia [1676]. London, 1716. Richmond,\n=The history of= Bacon's and Ingram's rebellion in Virginia, in 1675\n     and 1676. Mass. hist. soc., Proceedings (1866), 299-342.\n       Reprinted: Cambridge, Mass., 1867. 50 p.; Andrews, Narratives of\n       the insurrections, p. 47-98.\n[=Mathew, Thomas=] The beginning, progress, and conclusion of Bacon's\n     rebellion in Virginia in the years 1675 and 1676. In: Force\n       Reprinted: Andrews, Narratives of the insurrections, p. 15-41.\n=More news from= Virginia; a further account of Bacon's rebellion\n     reproduced in facsimile with an intro. by Thomas P. Abernethy.\n     Charlottesville, Va., 1943. 16 p.\n=A narrative of= the Indian and civil wars in Virginia, in the years\n       A corrected version published in 1867 with title: The history of\n       Bacon's and Ingram's rebellion.\n=A true narrative= of the rise, progress, and cessation of the late\n     rebellion in Virginia, most humbly and impartially reported by his\n     Majestyes commissioners appointed to enquire into the affaires of\n     the said colony [signed by John Berry and Francis Moryson]. Va.\n       Reprinted: Andrews, Narratives of the insurrections, p. 105-141.\n=Virginias deploured condition=; or an impartiall narrative of the\n     murders comitted by the Indians there, and of the ... outrages of\n     Mr. Nathaniell Bacon, Junr., 1676. Mass. hist. soc., Collections\n=Wertenbaker, Thomas J.= (ed.) The Virginia charter of 1676. Va. mag.,\n=Articles of peace= between the most serene and mighty prince Charles\n     II ... and several Indian kings and queens, &c. Concluded the 29th\n=Most excellent Majesty.= 1677. [A treaty between the colony of\n     Virginia and several Indian tribes.] [Boston, 1940] 18 p.\n     (Photostat Americana, ser. 2, no. 103)\n=Proposals in regard= to Virginia [1677]. Va. mag., 25 (1917), 71-74.\n=Strange news from= Virginia; being a full and true account of the life\n     and death of Nathanael Bacon Esquire, who was the only cause and\n     original of all the late troubles in that country. With a full\n     relation of all the accidents which have happened in the late war\n     there between the Christians and Indians. London, 1677. 8 p.\n=Banister, John.= Some observations concerning insects made in\n     Virginia, A.D. 1680, with remarks on them by Mr. James Petiver.\n     Royal society of London, Philos. trans., no. 270, March-April,\n=Godwin, Morgan.= The Negro's & Indians advocate suing for their\n     admission into the church: for a persuasive to the instructing and\n     baptizing of the Negro's and Indians in our plantations.... To\n     which is added, a brief account of religion in Virginia. London,\n=Jones, Lewis H.= Some recently discovered data relating to Capt Roger\n     Jones who came to the colony of Virginia with Lord Culpeper in\n     1680, including several letters written by him while a captain in\n=The vain prodigal= life, and tragical penitent death of Thomas\n     Hellier ... who for murdering his master, mistress and a maid,\n     was executed according to law at Westover in Charles City, in the\n     country of Virginia. London, 1680. 40 p.\n=Godwin, Morgan.= A supplement to the Negro's & Indians advocate: or,\n     Some further considerations and proposals for the effectual and\n     speedy carrying of the Negro's Christianity in our plantations ...\n[=Purvis, John=] A complete collection of all laws of Virginia now in\n=Byrd, William=, 1652-1704. Capt. Byrd's letters [1683-1685]. Va. hist.\n____ Letters of William Byrd, first [1685]. Va. mag., 24 (1916),\n=Godwin, Morgan.= Trade preferred before religion, and Christ made to\n     give place to mammon: represented in a sermon relating to the\n     plantations. London, 1685. 34 p.\n[=Durand=, ____ of Dauphin\u00e9] A Huguenot exile in Virginia; or, Voyages\n     of a Frenchman exiled for his religion [1687] ... introductions\n     and notes by Gilbert Chinard. N. Y., 1934. 189 p.\n       Portions printed earlier [Richmond] 1923. 146 p.\n=Clayton, John.= A letter ... to Dr. Grew, in answer to several queries\n     relating to Virginia, sent to him by that learned gentleman, 1687.\n     Royal society of London, Philos. trans., 41 (1739), 143-62.\n____ John Clayton [to Dr. Grew(?), April 24, 1684]. W & M quar. (ser.\n=Custis, John= (1653-1713). Letters of John Custis, 1687. Colonial soc.\n=Page, John.= A deed of gift to my dear son, Captain Matt. Page, one\n     of his Majesty's justices for New Kent county, in Virginia. 1687.\n     Philadelphia, 1856. 276 p.\n=Clayton, John.= A letter ... to the Royal society, May 12, 1688,\n     giving an account of several observables in Virginia, and in\n     his voyage thither, more particularly concerning the air. Mr.\n     Clayton's second letter, containing his farther observations\n     in Virginia. A continuation of Mr. John Clayton's account of\n     Virginia. His letter to the Royal society giving a farther account\n     of the soil, and other observables of Virginia. A continuation of\n     Mr. Clayton's account of Virginia. In: Edmund Halley, Miscellanea\n       Reprinted: Force tracts, v. 3, no. 12. 45 p.\n=James II.= King of Great Britain. Septima pars patentium de anno regni\n     regis Jacobi Secundi quarto, Sept. 27, [1688]. [Reaffirming the\n     grant of the Northern Neck in Virginia to Lord Culpeper.] [London?\n=Banister, John.= The extracts of four letters [from Virginia,\n     1668-1692] to Dr. Lister, communicated by him to the publisher.\n     Royal society of London, Philos. trans., no. 198, March 1693, p.\n[=Ludwell, Philip=] An alphabeticall abridgment of the laws of Virginia\n=Rudman, Rev. Andrew John.= Diary of Rev. Andrew Rudman, July 25,\n     1696-June 14, 1697; ed. by Luther Anderson. German American\n=An essay upon the= government of the English plantations on the\n     continent of America (1701). An anonymous Virginian's proposals\n     for liberty under the British crown, with two memoranda by\n     William Byrd. Ed. by Louis B. Wright. San Marino, Calif., 1945. 66\n=Virginia.= Acts of assembly, passed in the colony of Virginia, from\n=Byrd, William.= The writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover in\n     Virginia, esqr.; ed. by John S. Bassett. N. Y., 1901. 461 p.\n  Transcriber's Notes\n    This book contains 17th century text which may use different\n    orthography from modern English.\n    This book contains a number of illustrations reproducing the title\n    pages of original pamphlets and books. For the plain text version,\n    these have been transcribed \"as is\" within [Illustration] tags.\n    In the plain text version of this book, the following markup has\n    been used:\n    - Italic surrounded by _\n    - Small caps surrounded by =\n    - Decorative font surrounded by +\n    - Superscript text prefixed by ^\n    A number of printer's errors and inconsistencies have been corrected.\n    Research indicates that the copyright on this book was not renewed.", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  A Selected Bibliography of Virginia, 1607-1699\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online\n           [Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from\n                     Galaxy Magazine August 1961.\n         Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that\n         the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]\n                The sand-thing was powerful, lonely and\n            strange. No doubt it was a god--but who wasn't?\nStinson lay still in the sand where he fell, gloating over the success\nof his arrival.\nHe touched the pencil-line scar behind his ear where the cylinder was\nburied, marveling at the power stored there, power to fling him from\nearth to this fourth planet of the Centaurian system in an instant.\nIt had happened so fast that he could almost feel the warm, humid\nMissouri air, though he was light years from Missouri.\nHe got up. A gray, funnel-shaped cloud of dust stood off to his left.\nThis became disturbing, since there was scarcely enough wind to move\nhis hair. He watched it, trying to recall what he might know about\ncyclones. But he knew little. Weather control made cyclones and other\nclimatic phenomena on earth practically non-existent. The cloud\ndid not move, though, except to spin on its axis rapidly, emitting\na high-pitched, scarcely audible whine, like a high speed motor. He\njudged it harmless.\nHe stood on a wide valley floor between two mountain ranges. Dark\nclouds capped one peak of the mountains on his left. The sky was deep\nblue.\nHe tested the gravity by jumping up and down. Same as Earth gravity.\nThe sun--no, not _the_ sun. Not Sol. What should he call it, Alpha or\nCentaurus? Well, perhaps neither. He was here and Earth was somewhere\nup there. This was _the_ sun of this particular solar system. He was\nright the first time.\nThe sun burned fiercely, although he would have said it was about four\no'clock in the afternoon, if this had been Earth. Not a tree, nor a\nbush, nor even a wisp of dry grass was in sight. Everywhere was desert.\nThe funnel of sand had moved closer and while he watched it, it seemed\nto drift in the wind--although there was no wind. Stinson backed away.\nIt stopped. It was about ten feet tall by three feet in diameter at the\nbase. Then Stinson backed away again. It was changing. Now it became a\nblue rectangle, then a red cube, a violet sphere.\nHe wanted to run. He wished Benjamin were here. Ben might have an\nexplanation. \"What am I afraid of?\" he said aloud, \"a few grains of\nsand blowing in the wind? A wind devil?\"\nHe turned his back and walked away. When he looked up the wind devil\nwas there before him. He looked back. Only one. It had moved. The sun\nshone obliquely, throwing Stinson's shadow upon the sand. The wind\ndevil also had a shadow, although the sun shone through it and the\nshadow was faint. But it moved when the funnel moved. This was no\nillusion.\nAgain Stinson felt the urge to run, or to use the cylinder to project\nhimself somewhere else, but he said, \"No!\" very firmly to himself. He\nwas here to investigate, to determine if this planet was capable of\nsupporting life.\nLife? Intelligence? He examined the wind devil as closely as he dared,\nbut it was composed only of grains of sand. There was no core, no\ncentral place you could point to and say, here is the brain, or the\nnervous system. But then, how could a group of loosely spaced grains of\nsand possibly have a nervous system?\nIt was again going through its paces. Triangle, cube, rectangle,\nsphere. He watched, and when it became a triangle again, he smoothed\na place in the sand and drew a triangle with his forefinger. When it\nchanged to a cube he drew a square, a circle for a sphere, and so on.\nWhen the symbols were repeated he pointed to each in turn, excitement\nmounting. He became so absorbed in doing this that he failed to notice\nhow the wind devil drew closer and closer, but when he inhaled the\nfirst grains of sand, the realization of what was happening dawned with\na flash of fear. Instantly he projected himself a thousand miles away.\nNow he was in an area of profuse vegetation. It was twilight. As he\nstood beside a small creek, a chill wind blew from the northwest. He\nwanted to cover himself with the long leaves he found, but they were\ndry and brittle, for here autumn had turned the leaves. Night would be\ncold.\nHe was not a woodsman. He doubted if he could build a fire without\nmatches. So he followed the creek to where it flowed between two great\nhills. Steam vapors rose from a crevice. A cave was nearby and warm air\nflowed from its mouth. He went inside.\nAt first he thought the cave was small, but found instead that he was\nin a long narrow passageway. The current of warm air flowed toward him\nand he followed it, cautiously, stepping carefully and slowly. Then it\nwas not quite so dark. Soon he stepped out of the narrow passageway\ninto a great cavern with a high-vaulted ceiling.\nThe light source was a mystery. He left no shadow on the floor. A\ngreat crystal sphere hung from the ceiling, and he was curious about\nits purpose, but a great pool of steaming water in the center of the\ncavern drew his attention. He went close, to warm himself. A stone\nwall surrounding the pool was inscribed with intricate art work and\nindecipherable symbols.\nLife. Intelligence. The planet was inhabited.\nShould he give up and return to earth? Or was there room here for\nhis people? Warming his hands there over the great steaming pool he\nthought of Benjamin, and Straus, and Jamieson--all those to whom he had\ngiven cylinders, and who were now struggling for life against those who\ndesired them.\nHe decided it would not be just, to give up so easily.\nThe wide plaza between the pool and cavern wall was smooth as polished\nglass. Statues lined the wall. He examined them.\nThe unknown artist had been clever. From one angle they were animals,\nfrom another birds, from a third they were vaguely humanoid creatures,\nglowering at him with primitive ferocity. The fourth view was so\nshocking he had to turn away quickly. No definable form or sculptured\nline was visible, yet he felt, or saw--he did not know which senses\ntold him--the immeasurable gulf of a million years of painful\nevolution. Then nothing. It was not a curtain drawn to prevent him from\nseeing more.\nThere was no more.\nHe stumbled toward the pool's wall and clutched for support, but\nhis knees buckled. His hand slid down the wall, over the ancient\ninscriptions. He sank to the floor. Before he lost consciousness he\nwondered, fleetingly, if a lethal instrument was in the statue.\nHe woke with a ringing in his ears, feeling drugged and sluggish.\nSounds came to him. He opened his eyes.\nThe cavern was crowded. These creatures were not only humanoid, but\ndefinitely human, although more slight of build than earth people. The\nonly difference he could see at first sight was that they had webbed\nfeet. All were dressed from the waist down only, in a shimmering skirt\nthat sparkled as they moved. They walked with the grace of ballet\ndancers, moving about the plaza, conversing in a musical language with\nno meaning for Stinson. The men were dark-skinned, the women somewhat\nlighter, with long flowing hair, wide lips and a beauty that was\nutterly sensual.\nHe was in chains! They were small chains, light weight, of a metal that\nlooked like aluminum. But all his strength could not break them.\nThey saw him struggling. Two of the men came over and spoke to him in\nthe musical language.\n\"My name is Stinson,\" he said, pointing to himself. \"I'm from the\nplanet Earth.\"\nThey looked at each other and jabbered some more.\n\"Look,\" he said, \"Earth. E-A-R-T-H, Earth.\" He pointed upward,\ndescribed a large circle, then another smaller, and showed how Earth\nrevolved around the sun.\nOne of the men poked him with a stick, or tube of some kind. It did not\nhurt, but angered him. He left the chains by his own method of travel,\nand reappeared behind the two men. They stared at the place where he\nhad been. The chains tinkled musically. He grasped the shoulder of the\noffender, spun him around and slapped his face.\nA cry of consternation rose from the group, echoing in the high\nceilinged cavern. \"SBTL!\" it said, \"ZBTL ... XBTL ... zbtl.\"\nThe men instantly prostrated themselves before him. The one who had\npoked Stinson with the stick rose, and handed it to him. Still angered,\nStinson grasped it firmly, with half a notion to break it over his\nhead. As he did so, a flash of blue fire sprang from it. The man\ndisappeared. A small cloud of dust settled slowly to the floor.\nDisintegrated!\nStinson's face drained pale, and suddenly, unaccountably, he was\nashamed because he had no clothes.\n\"I didn't mean to kill him!\" he cried. \"I was angry, and....\"\nUseless. They could not understand. For all he knew, they might think\nhe was threatening them. The object he had thought of as a stick was\nin reality a long metal tube, precisely machined, with a small button\nnear one end.\nThis weapon was completely out of place in a culture such as this.\nOr was it? What did he know of these people? Very little. They were\nhumanoid. They had exhibited human emotions of anger, fear and, that\nmost human of all characteristics, curiosity. But up to now the tube\nand the chain was the only evidence of an advanced technology, unless\nthe ancient inscriptions in the stone wall of the pool, and the statues\nlining the wall were evidences.\nThere was a stirring among the crowd. An object like a pallet was\nbrought, carried by four of the women. They laid it at his feet, and\ngestured for him to sit. He touched it cautiously, then sat.\nInstantly he sprang to his feet. There, at the cavern entrance, the\nwind devil writhed and undulated in a brilliant harmony of colors. It\nremained in one spot, though, and he relaxed somewhat.\nOne of the women came toward him, long golden hair flowing, firm\nbreasts dipping slightly at each step. Her eyes held a language all\ntheir own, universal. She pressed her body against him and bore him to\nthe pallet, her kisses fire on his face.\nIncongruously, he thought of Benjamin back on earth, and all the others\nwith cylinders, who might be fighting for their lives at this moment.\nHe pushed her roughly aside.\nShe spoke, and he understood! Her words were still the same gibberish,\nbut now he knew their meaning. Somehow he knew also that the wind devil\nwas responsible for his understanding.\n\"You do not want me?\" she said sadly. \"Then kill me.\"\n\"Why should I kill you?\"\nShe shrugged her beautiful shoulders. \"It is the way of the Gods,\" she\nsaid. \"If you do not, then the others will.\"\nHe took the tube-weapon in his hands, careful not to touch the button.\n\"Don't be afraid. I didn't mean to kill the man. It was an accident. I\nwill protect you.\"\nShe shook her head. \"One day they will find me alone, and they'll kill\nme.\"\n\"Why?\"\nShe shrugged. \"I have not pleased you.\"\n\"On the contrary, you have. There is a time and place for everything,\nthough.\"\nSuddenly a great voice sounded in the cavern, a voice with no\ndirection. It came from the ceiling, the floor, the walls, the steaming\npool. It was in the language of the web-footed people; it was in his\nown tongue. \"No harm must come to this woman. The God with fingers on\nhis feet has decreed this.\"\nThose in the cavern looked at the woman with fear and respect. She\nkissed Stinson's feet. Two of the men came and gave her a brilliant\nnew skirt. She smiled at him, and he thought he had never seen a more\nbeautiful face.\nThe great, bodiless voice sounded again, but those in the cavern went\nabout their activities. They did not hear.\n\"Who are you?\"\nStinson looked at the wind devil, since it could be no one else\nspeaking, and pointed to himself. \"Me?\"\n\"Yes.\"\n\"I am Stinson, of the planet Earth.\"\n\"Yes, I see it in your mind, now. You want to live here, on this\nplanet.\"\n\"Then you must know where I came from, and how.\"\n\"I do not understand how. You have a body, a physical body composed\nof atoms. It is impossible to move a physical body from one place to\nanother by a mere thought and a tiny instrument, yet you have done so.\nYou deserted me out in the desert.\"\n\"I deserted you?\" Stinson cried angrily, \"You tried to kill me!\"\n\"I was attempting communication. Why should I kill you?\"\nHe was silent a moment, looking at the people in the cavern. \"Perhaps\nbecause you feared I would become the God of these people in your\nplace.\"\nStinson felt a mental shrug. \"It is of no importance. When they arrived\non this planet I attempted to explain that I was not a God, but the\nprimitive is not deeply buried in them. They soon resorted to emotion\nrather than reason. It is of no importance.\"\n\"I'd hardly call them primitive, with such weapons.\"\n\"The tube is not of their technology. That is, they did not make\nit directly. These are the undesirables, the incorrigibles, the\nnonconformists from the sixth planet. I permit them here because it\noccupies my time, to watch them evolve.\"\n\"You should live so long.\"\n\"Live?\" the wind devil said. \"Oh, I see your meaning. I'd almost\nforgotten. You are a strange entity. You travel by a means even I\ncannot fully understand, yet you speak of time as if some event\nwere about to take place. I believe you think of death. I see your\nphysical body has deteriorated since yesterday. Your body will cease to\nexist, almost as soon as those of the sixth planet peoples. I am most\ninterested in you. You will bring your people, and live here.\"\n\"I haven't decided. There are these web-footed people, who were hostile\nuntil they thought I was a God. They have destructive weapons. Also, I\ndon't understand you. I see you as a cone of sand which keeps changing\ncolor and configuration. Is it your body? Where do you come from? Is\nthis planet populated with your kind?\"\nThe wind devil hesitated.\n\"Where do I originate? It seems I have always been. You see this\ncavern, the heated pool, the statues, the inscriptions. Half a million\nyears ago my people were as you. That is, they lived in physical\nbodies. Our technology surpassed any you have seen. The tube these\nwebfoots use is a toy by comparison. Our scientists found the ultimate\nnature of physical law. They learned to separate the mind from the\nbody. Then my people set a date. Our entire race was determined to free\nitself from the confines of the body. The date came.\"\n\"What happened?\"\n\"I do not know. I alone exist. I have searched all the levels of time\nand matter from the very beginning. My people are gone. Sometimes it\nalmost comes to me, why they are gone. And this is contrary to the\ngreatest law of all--that an entity, once in existence, can never cease\nto exist.\"\nStinson was silent, thinking of the endless years of searching through\nthe great gulf of time. His eyes caught sight of the woman, reclining\nnow on the pallet. The men had left her and stood in groups, talking,\nglancing at him, apparently free of their awe and fear already.\nThe woman looked at him, and she was not smiling. \"Please ask the Sand\nGod,\" she said, \"to speak to my people again. Their fear of him does\nnot last. When He is gone they will probably kill us.\"\n\"As for the webfoots,\" the wind devil, or Sand God, said, \"I will\ndestroy them. You and your people will have the entire planet.\"\n\"Destroy them?\" Stinson asked, incredulously, \"all these people? They\nhave a right to live like any one else.\"\n\"Right? What is it--'right?' They are entities. They exist, therefore\nthey always will. My people are the only entities who ever died. To\nkill the body is unimportant.\"\n\"No. You misunderstand. Listen, you spoke of the greatest law. Your law\nis a scientific hypothesis. It has to do with what comes after physical\nexistence, not with existence itself. The greatest law is this, that an\nentity, once existing, must not be harmed in any way. To do so changes\nthe most basic structure of nature.\"\nThe Sand God did not reply. The great bodiless, directionless voice was\nsilent, and Stinson felt as if he had been taken from some high place\nand set down in a dark canyon. The cone of sand was the color of wood\nashes. It pulsed erratically, like a great heart missing a beat now and\nthen. The web-footed people milled about restlessly. The woman's eyes\npleaded.\nWhen he looked back, the Sand God was gone.\nInstantly a new note rose in the cavern. The murmur of unmistakable mob\nfury ran over the webfoots. Several of the men approached the woman\nwith hatred in their voices. He could not understand the words now.\nBut he understood her. \"They'll kill me!\" she cried.\nStinson pointed the disintegrating weapon at them and yelled. They\ndropped back. \"We'll have to get outside,\" he told her. \"This mob will\nsoon get out of hand. Then the tube won't stop them. They will rush in.\nI can't kill them all at once, even if I wanted to. And I don't.\"\nTogether they edged toward the cavern entrance, ran quickly up the\ninclined passageway, and came out into crisp, cold air. The morning sun\nwas reflected from a million tiny mirrors on the rocks, the trees and\ngrass. A silver thaw during the night had covered the whole area with\na coating of ice. Stinson shivered. The woman handed him a skirt she\nhad thoughtfully brought along from the cavern. He took it, and they\nran down the slippery path leading away from the entrance. From the\nhiding place behind a large rock they watched, as several web-footed\nmen emerged into the sunlight. They blinked, covered their eyes, and\njabbered musically among themselves. One slipped and fell on the ice.\nThey re-entered the cave.\nStinson donned the shimmering skirt, smiling as he did so. The others\nshould see him now. Benjamin and Straus and Jamieson. They would\nlaugh. And Ben's wife, Lisa, she would give her little-girl laugh, and\nprobably help him fasten the skirt. It had a string, like a tobacco\npouch, which was tied around the waist. It helped keep him warm.\nHe turned to the woman. \"I don't know what I'll do with you, but now\nthat we're in trouble together, we may as well introduce ourselves. My\nname is Stinson.\"\n\"I am Sybtl,\" she said.\n\"Syb-tl.\" He tried to imitate her musical pronunciation. \"A very nice\nname.\"\nShe smiled, then pointed to the cavern. \"When the ice is gone, they\nwill come out and follow us.\"\n\"We'd better make tracks.\"\n\"No,\" she said, \"we must run, and make no tracks.\"\n\"Okay, Sis,\" he said.\n\"Sis?\"\n\"That means, sister.\"\n\"I am not your sister. I am your wife.\"\n\"_What?_\"\n\"Yes. When a man protects a woman from harm, it is a sign to all that\nshe is his chosen. Otherwise, why not let her die? You are a strange\nGod.\"\n\"Listen, Sybtl,\" he said desperately, \"I am not a God and you are not\nmy wife. Let's get that straight.\"\n\"No buts. Right now we'd better get out of here.\"\nHe took her hand and they ran, slid, fell, picked themselves up again,\nand ran. He doubted the wisdom of keeping her with him. Alone, the\nwebfoots were no match for him. He could travel instantly to any spot\nhe chose. But with Sybtl it was another matter; he was no better than\nany other man, perhaps not so good as some because he was forty, and\nnever had been an athlete.\nHow was he to decide if this planet was suitable for his people,\nhampered by a woman, slinking through a frozen wilderness like an\nIndian? But the woman's hand was soft. He felt strong knowing she\ndepended on him.\nAnyway, he decided, pursuit was impossible. They left no tracks on the\nice. They were safe, unless the webfoots possessed talents unknown to\nhim.\nSo they followed the path leading down from the rocks, along the creek\nwith its tumbling water. Frozen, leafless willows clawed at their\nbodies. The sun shone fiercely in a cloudless sky. Already water ran in\ntiny rivulets over the ice. The woman steered him to the right, away\nfrom the creek.\nStinson's bare feet were numb from walking on ice. Christ, he thought,\nwhat am I doing here, anyway? He glanced down at Sybtl and remembered\nthe webfoots. He stopped, tempted to use his cylinder and move to a\nwarmer, less dangerous spot.\nThe woman pulled on his arm. \"We must hurry!\"\nHe clutched the tube-weapon. \"How many shots in this thing?\"\n\"Shots?\"\n\"How often can I use it?\"\n\"As often as you like. It is good for fifty years. Kaatr--he is the one\nyou destroyed--brought it from the ship when we came. Many times he has\nused it unwisely.\"\n\"When did you come?\"\n\"Ten years ago. I was a child.\"\n\"I thought only criminals were brought here.\"\nShe nodded. \"Criminals, and their children.\"\n\"When will your people come again?\"\nShe shook her head. \"Never. They are no longer my people. They have\ndisowned us.\"\n\"And because of me even those in the cavern have disowned you.\"\nSuddenly she stiffened beside him. There, directly in their path, stood\nthe Sand God. It was blood red now. It pulsed violently. The great\nvoice burst forth.\n\"Leave the woman!\" it demanded angrily. \"The webfoots are nearing your\nposition.\"\n\"I cannot leave her. She is helpless against them.\"\n\"What form of primitive stupidity are you practicing now? Leave, or\nthey will kill you.\"\nStinson shook his head.\nThe Sand God pulsed more violently than before. Ice melted in a wide\narea around it. Brown, frozen grass burned to ashes.\n\"You will allow them to kill you, just to defend her life? What\nbusiness is it of yours if she lives or dies? My race discarded such\nprimitive logic long before it reached your level of development.\"\n\"Yes,\" Stinson said, \"and your race no longer exists.\"\nThe Sand God became a sphere of blue flame. A wave of intense heat\ndrove them backward. \"Earthman,\" the great voice said, \"go back to your\nEarth. Take your inconsistencies with you. Do not come here again to\ninfect my planet with your primitive ideas. The webfoots are not as\nintelligent as you, but they are sane. If you bring your people here, I\nshall destroy you all.\"\nThe sphere of blue fire screamed away across the frozen wilderness, and\nthe thunder of its passing shook the ground and echoed among the lonely\nhills.\nSybtl shivered against his arm. \"The Sand God is angry,\" she said. \"My\npeople tell how he was angry once before, when we first came here. He\nkilled half of us and burned the ship that brought us. That is how\nKaatr got the tube-weapon. It was the only thing the Sand God didn't\nburn, that and the skirts. Then, when he had burned the ship, the Sand\nGod went to the sixth planet and burned two of the largest cities, as a\nwarning that no more of us must come here.\"\nWell, Stinson said to himself, that does it. We are better off on\nEarth. We can't fight a monster like him.\nSybtl touched his arm. \"Why did the Sand God come? He did not speak.\"\n\"He spoke to me.\"\n\"I did not hear.\"\n\"Yes, I know now. His voice sounds like thunder in the sky, but it is a\nvoice that speaks only in the mind. He said I must leave this planet.\"\nShe glanced at him with suddenly awakened eyes, as if thinking of it\nfor the first time. \"Where is your ship?\"\n\"I have no ship.\"\n\"Then he will kill you.\" She touched her fingers on his face. \"I am\nsorry. It was all for me.\"\n\"Don't worry. The Sand God travels without a ship, why shouldn't I?\"\n\"Now?\"\n\"As soon as you are safe. Come.\"\nSteam rose from the burned area, charred like a rocket launching pit.\nThey stepped around it carefully. Stinson felt warm air, but there was\nno time, now, to warm cold feet or dwell on the vagaries of Sand Gods.\nTogether they crossed the narrow valley. Sybtl led him toward a tall\nmound of rock. Here they came to the creek again, which flowed into a\nsmall canyon. They climbed the canyon wall. Far away, small figures\nmoved. The webfoots were on their trail.\nShe drew him into a small cave. It was heated, like the great cavern,\nbut held no walled pool nor mysterious lighting. But it was warm, and\nthe small entrance made an excellent vantage point for warding off\nattack.\n\"They will not find us....\"\nA high-pitched keening burst suddenly around them. Stinson knew they\nhad heard, or felt the sound for some time, that now its frequency was\nin an audible range.\n\"The Sand God,\" Sybtl said. \"Sometimes he plays among the clouds. He\nmakes it rain in a dry summer, or sometimes warms the whole world\nfor days at a time in winter, so the snow melts and the grass begins\nto green. Then he tires and lets winter come back again. He is the\nloneliest God in the universe.\"\n\"What makes you think he's lonely?\"\nShe shrugged her shoulders. \"I just know. But he's an angry God now.\nSee those clouds piling in the East? Soon they will hide the sun. Then\nhe will make them churn and boil, like river whirlpools in spring. At\nleast he does this when he plays. Who knows what he will do when he's\nangry?\"\n\"The Sand God isn't doing this,\" Stinson said. \"It's only a storm.\"\nShe covered his lips with her fingers. \"Don't say that. He may hear you\nand be more angry.\"\n\"But it is, don't you see? You give him powers he does not possess.\"\nSybtl shook her head and stroked his face with her long, slim fingers.\n\"Poor little God-with-fingers-on-his-feet,\" she said. \"You do not\nunderstand. The Sand God is terrible, even when he plays. See the\nlightning? It is blue. The lightning of a storm that comes by itself is\nnot blue. He is running around the world on feet like the rockets of\nspace ships, and when he strikes the clouds, blue fire shoots away.\"\nThe clouds continued to build on one another. Soon the blue flashes of\nlightning extended across the sky from horizon to horizon. The earth\ntrembled. Sybtl moved closer, trembling also.\n\"He never did this before,\" she said. \"He never made the earth shake\nbefore.\"\nGreat boulders crashed down the canyon walls and dropped into the\ncreek. They dared not move from the cave, although death seemed certain\nif they stayed.\n\"I'll leave for a moment,\" he said. \"I'll be back soon.\"\n\"You're leaving?\" There was panic in her voice.\n\"Only for a moment.\"\n\"And you won't come back. You will go to your world.\"\n\"No. I'll be back.\"\n\"Promise? No, don't promise. The promises of Gods often are forgotten\nbefore the sounds die away.\"\n\"I'll be back.\"\nHe disappeared at once, giving her no chance to object again, and went\nto the desert of sand, where he had first arrived on the planet. He\nwanted to see if the storm were world-wide.\nStinson had never been in a sand storm before, even on Earth. He could\nnot breathe. He could not see. Bullets of sand stung his skin. Bullets\nof sand shot into his eyes. Clouds of sand howled around him. He fell,\nand the wind rolled him over and over in the sand like a tumbleweed.\nThe skirt flew up around his face. He could not get up again.\nHe returned to the cave.\nSoon after, while they sat huddled together, watching the chaos of\ntumbling rocks, lightning, and driving rain, the high-pitched keening\ncame again. A sphere of blue fire appeared in the east. Its brilliance\nput the lightning to shame. It bore down on the cave swiftly,\npurposefully. Stinson prepared himself to leave. In spite of his desire\nto protect Sybtl, it was useless to get himself killed when he was\npowerless to help her. But at the last moment it veered off.\n\"Fiend!\" Stinson screamed the word, vaguely marvelling at his own fury.\nThe blue sphere turned and came back.\n\"Monster!\"\nAgain.\n\"Murderer!\"\n\"Adolescent!\"\nThis time it kept going. The rain and wind ceased. Lightning stopped.\nThunder rumbled distantly. Clouds disappeared. Stinson and Sybtl\nemerged from the cave.\nThere was no longer a question of attack from the webfoots, the storm\nhad taken care of that. The fierce sun began its work of drying rocks\nand throwing shadows and coaxing life out into the open again. Down in\nthe canyon a bird sang, a lonely, cheerful twitter.\n\"The Sand God is tired,\" Sybtl said. \"He is not angry now. I'm glad.\nPerhaps he will let you stay.\"\n\"No. Even if he allowed it, I couldn't stay. My people could never live\nhere with a God who is half devil.\"\nThe cone of sand suddenly appeared. It stood in the canyon, its base\non a level with the cave. It was quiet. It was dull gray in color. It\nexuded impressions of death, of hopeful words solemnly spoken over\nlowered coffins, of cold earth and cold space, of dank, wet catacombs,\nof creeping, crawling nether things.\nThe bird's twitter stopped abruptly.\n\"Earthman,\" the Sand God said, as if he were about to make a statement.\nStinson ignored him. He glanced down at Sybtl, who sensed that this was\na time for good-bys. He thought, perhaps I can stay here alone with\nher. The webfoots might find us, or the Sand God might destroy us in\none of his fits, but it might be worth it.\n\"Don't go,\" she said. \"Not yet.\"\n\"Earthman, hear me.\"\n\"I hear you.\"\n\"Why does your mind shrink backward?\"\n\"I've decided not to bring my people here.\"\n\"_You_ decided?\"\n\"Certainly,\" Stinson said boldly. \"Call it rationalization, if you\nwish. You ordered us away; and I have several good reasons for not\ncoming here if the door was open.\"\n\"I've changed my mind. You will be welcomed.\"\n\"Listen to that, will you?\" Stinson said angrily. \"Just listen! You\nset yourself up as a God for the webfoots. You get them eating out of\nyour hand. Then what do you do? You throw a fit. Yes, a fit! Like an\nadolescent. Worse.\"\n\"Earthman, wait....\"\n\"No!\" Stinson shot back. \"You've owned this planet for a million\nyears. You have brooded here alone since before my people discovered\nfire, and in all those ages you never learned self-control. I can't\nsubject my people to the whims of an entity who throws a planetary fit\nwhen it pleases him.\"\nStinson relaxed. He'd had his say. Sybtl trembled beside him. A small\nmammal, round, furry, hopped by, sniffing inquisitively.\nSybtl said, \"Is the Sand God happy?\" She shook her head. \"No, he is not\nhappy. He is old, old, old. I can feel it. My people say that when one\ngets too old it is well to die. But Gods never die, do they? I would\nnot like to be a God.\"\n\"Stinson,\" the Sand God said. \"You said I was adolescent. You are\ncorrect. Do you remember I told you how my people, the entire race,\nleft their bodies at the same time? Do you imagine all of us were\nadults?\"\n\"I suppose not. Sounds reasonable. How old were you?\"\n\"Chronologically, by our standards, I was nine years old.\"\n\"But you continued to develop after....\"\n\"No.\"\nStinson tried to imagine it. At first there must have been a single\nvoice crying into a monstrous emptiness, \"Mother, where are you?\n_MOTHER!_ Where is _everyone_?\" A frenzied searching of the planet,\nthe solar system, the galaxy. Then a returning to the planet. Empty....\nChange. Buildings, roads, bridges weathering slowly. Such a race would\nhave built of durable metal. Durable? Centuries, eons passed. Buildings\ncrumbled to dust, dust blew away. Bridges eroded, fell, decomposed\ninto basic elements. The shape of constellations changed. All trace\nof civilization passed except in the cavern of the heated pool.\nConstellations disappeared, new patterns formed in the night sky. The\nunutterably total void of time--FIVE HUNDRED THOUSAND YEARS!\nAnd a nine-year-old child brooding over an empty world.\n\"I don't understand why your development stopped,\" Stinson said.\n\"Nor do I. But perhaps ... well, I sense that I would continue, if you\nbrought your people here. You have already taught me the value of\nlife. There is a oneness, a bond that ties each living thing to every\nother living thing. It is a lesson my people never knew. Select any\nportion of this planet that suits you. Take the web-footed woman for\nyour wife. Have children. I promise never to harm you in any way.\"\n\"The webfoots?\"\n\"You and they shall share the planet.\"\nThe Sand God disappeared. Sybtl said; \"Is the Sand God angry again?\"\n\"No, he is not angry.\"\n\"I'm glad. You will leave now?\"\n\"No. This is my home.\"\nShe laughed softly. \"You are a strange God.\"\n\"Listen,\" he said, \"I am not a God. Get that through your head.\"\nShe drew him into the cave. Her lips were cool and sweet. The cave was\npleasantly warm.", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  The God Next Door\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "THE BIRDS OF LORRANE\n                         Illustrated by BURNS\n           [Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from\n                     Galaxy Magazine August 1963.\n         Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that\n         the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]\n                Intelligent birds! They knew a dead-end\n                     planet when they visited one!\nIngomar Bjorgson knew he was going to die.\nHe turned his back on his useless ship and went inside the bubble house\nthat had been his home for ninety-nine days. Methodically he donned his\nall-weather clothes, his environment suit. He did not want to die in\nthis place. Here was food and refrigeration for the days, warmth and\ncomfort for the nights. He could not bring himself to put a gun to his\nhead, or end it by any other direct, willful act. But out there in the\ndesert, away from man-made helps for survival ... there a man could get\nhimself into circumstances where nature took care of it.\nThat was his reason for being here on this lonely planet, in the first\nplace--the promise of finding intelligent life. For intelligence was\nrare in the universe, after all. A lone adventurer, a year before,\nforced down on this planet by a cosmic storm, had waited a week here\nfor the storm to subside, then had landed on Earth with the feverish\nnews of intelligent life. Ingomar Bjorgson had come to investigate.\nBirds, yet.\nThey were only two. Two birds with minds like the edge of a razor,\nliving alone on this planet that was one hundred per cent desert.\nHe took one last look around the bubble, then walked out, leaving the\ndoor open. From ten feet away he watched the sand already blowing in\nthrough the doorway, and he felt very lonely and small. He knew that\nhis death, like his life, would never be marked anywhere with any\ndegree of permanence.\nHe walked. There was no hurry, so he walked slowly, stopping\noccasionally to turn and stare at the tracks his feet had scuffed in\nthe sand, watching sand drift into them. He smiled wryly. The universe\nwas so eager to be rid of him--as if he were a disease.\nHe looked up again, studying the whole sky. But there was no movement\nof wings, no silver streak of a ship coming to pick him up. Only one\nspot marred the desert's domain--the tiny bright reflection of the\nburning sun on the now distant bubble.\nThe birds had promised him. They had been so sure of themselves.\nWhen he knew that the fierce sun and wind would kill him before he\ncould get back to the bubble, he started removing his all-weather\nclothes. He flung them aside like a dancer. Coat to the left, trousers\nto the right. The hot wind threw the trousers back against his face. He\ntore them off with a curse. Shirt to the left. He kept the shoes on,\nout of respect for his feet. Then he trudged on, wondering vaguely how\na half dressed man, dying on his feet, could make the same marks in the\nsand as a fully clothed, comfortable one.\nHe stumbled on an outcropping of rock. He fell. He picked himself up\nagain. It would be quick, after all. The sun was in league with the\nrest of the universe. He would die soon.\nHe fell again.\nHe had found the planet of Lorrane easily. The adventurer's charts were\naccurate. It was a dry, barren place, an old, worn-out world where only\nwind and sand moved, where mountains shoved their eroded peaks into\nthe impotent sky. But Ingomar found, upon emerging from his ship, that\nthere was another movement. Two black dots appeared far away in the sky\nand rapidly grew larger. He had been told that the planet was populated\nby an intelligent form of bird life. Two were approaching now.\nHe smiled to himself. \"Imagine that,\" he said to himself, \"A smart\nbird. How should you meet a smart bird? Should you shake hands?\"\nThe birds alighted in the sand before him. They eyed him with bright,\nintelligent eyes. They were quite large, standing at least two feet\ntall. Their gray feathers lay smooth and straight, immaculately cared\nfor. Ingomar cast around in his mind for something to say, or some sign\nto make that indicated friendship.\nThen one of the birds looked at the other and said, \"This one is\nlarger.\"\n\"Much,\" the other replied.\nIngomar was astonished. \"You can talk?\" he asked, \"In English?\"\n\"Certainly. Didn't the first man tell how he instructed us?\"\n\"Yes, yes, of course,\" Ingomar said, confused. \"But I didn't remem ...\nthat is.... Well, I didn't believe it.\"\nThe birds eyed each other again. \"I like him,\" one said. \"If there's\nanything I hate, it's a completely honest person.\"\nThe other gave him a vicious peck on his back. \"Shut up!\" it said, \"Do\nyou want him to think we condone dishonesty?\"\n\"Of course not,\" the other retorted hotly, \"I just meant that,\nconsidering social protocol, it is sometimes kind to tell a very small\nlie.\"\nIngomar was speechless. He looked back at his ship, standing tall and\nstraight, ready to blast itself into the sky again. He glanced around\nat the lonely landscape. Finally he said, \"It is difficult to see a\ndifference between you two. Do you have names that I might be able to\nuse?\"\n\"Oh, yes. We beg your pardon. How uncivil of us. Our name, translated\ninto your tongue, is Pisces.\"\n\"The fish?\"\n\"Well,\" they said, \"from our home planet the constellation does not\nlook like a fish.\"\n\"Oh. Well, are both of you named Pisces? Oh, I see. That is your\nspecies. I am called Man; you are called Pisces.\"\n\"Of course not,\" they said, \"You were right the first time. Pisces is\nour name. You can say, 'Pisces, get me that ship.' And we would do so.\"\n\"How can both of you have the same name? Are you actually one\nintelligence? And see that you keep your hands ... I mean, see that you\nleave my ship alone.\"\nOne said, \"We wouldn't think of touching your ship.\" The other said,\n\"No, we are two separate entities.\"\nIngomar passed a hand over his face, thinking. The two very\nEarth-looking birds stood quietly before him, their feet buried in the\nsand so that it looked like their legs were two stilts shoved into the\nground. At last he said, \"Well, I know what we'll do. I will call you\nPisces I,\" he pointed to the bird on his left, \"and your companion\nPisces II.\"\nThe identical birds glanced at each other, then leapt into the air.\nThey circled high above his head. They swooped low. They engaged in\nmarvelous aerial gymnastics wonderful to see. Ingomar made notes in his\nbook concerning their agility. Finally they came to rest before him\nagain, so suddenly that he stepped backward quickly, frightened.\n\"Now,\" they said, \"which one of us is Pisces I and which is Pisces II?\"\nPuzzled, Ingomar studied them carefully. The one with the quick temper\nmight show this characteristic in some way. He pointed to the bird on\nhis right. \"You,\" he said, \"are Pisces I.\"\nThey laughed. It was a verbal sound only. No expression showed in their\neyes.\n\"All right,\" Ingomar said, after some thought. \"I can fix that.\" He\nentered his ship and rummaged around in his clothes locker, then\nemerged with a brilliant red ribbon of plastic. \"I'll tie this to your\nleg. That way I'll know that you are Pisces I. If you promise not to\nmove it from one to the other.\"\n\"We promise.\"\nHe stooped over to tie the plastic on the leg of the one he thought was\nPisces I, and was almost caught in the sudden flurry of slashing beaks\nand raking claws, like a mating fight in an aviary.\n\"_I_ am Pisces I,\" one screamed, administering a resounding peck on the\nother's back.\n\"No, you're not. I am.\" This one leapt into the air and landed on the\nother's back. He raked vicious, long talons across the well-groomed\nfeathers. \"I am more intelligent than you. _I_ should be Pisces I.\"\nFrom a safe ten feet away, Ingomar threw the ribbon at them. \"Stop it!\"\nhe yelled.\nThey obeyed instantly, and stood quietly side by side facing him.\nIngomar drew his hand gun and pointed it at them. \"Now stop your\nfighting, or I'll blow you to kingdom come.\"\n\"Fine,\" they said. \"Anything to get off this miserable planet. How far\nis it?\"\nIngomar smiled, in spite of his anger. \"It's an expression. It means I\nwill destroy you.\"\nOne of the birds quickly picked up the plastic ribbon and carried it\nto the other, and dropped it near the leg. Then both took it in their\nbeaks and together they tied it around the leg. It was done so quickly\nthat Ingomar stood there aghast, surprised into immobility. He had\nnever before seen birds tie knots.\n\"It would not be wise to destroy us,\" Pisces I said. \"We can help you.\"\n\"How?\"\n\"You need help,\" Pisces II said. \"A storm is coming.\"\n\"A cosmic storm?\" Ingomar asked. \"I'm not worried about that. I'll stay\nhere until it moves on.\"\nPisces I shook his head. \"A planetary storm.\"\n\"When?\"\n\"Sometime tonight.\"\n\"Okay,\" Ingomar said. \"Thanks. I'll stay inside.\"\n\"It's not so easy as that. You must blast off and put your ship in\norbit for the night.\"\n\"Why? Do you know how much fuel it takes to get into orbit? I have none\nto spare.\"\nPisces II scratched in the sand with his claws, thinking. Then he said,\n\"Only one alternative exists. If you remain, the storm will wreck your\nship. Take us aboard now, and blast off for your home planet. To stay\nhere means death.\"\nIngomar snorted and turned back toward his ship. He thought, \"Take\nthem aboard my ship? Not in a million years.\" He saw their plan, now.\nThey wanted to get into his ship. Then, by some means he could not now\nforesee, they would take the ship away from him.\nHe was so shaken by this conclusion that he quickly retreated to\nsafety, closing the airlock. The birds stayed outside. They were\narguing between themselves. He could tell by the gesticulations they\nmade with their heads. Once Pisces I attacked Pisces II viciously,\nraking him mercilessly with sharp talons. Pisces II fought back\nferociously. They rolled over and over in the sand. Ingomar threw a\nswitch that gave him communication outside the ship, and yelled at them.\nThey stopped fighting at once. He said, \"Have you two lost your minds?\"\nPisces II laughed. \"Now how could one lose his mind? It goes with him\neverywhere.\"\n\"All right,\" Ingomar said. \"I meant, have you become insane?\"\n\"Of course not,\" Pisces I said. \"We are peaceful entities. We\nintentionally developed this argument to break the monotony of life\nhere.\"\n\"Is it so bad as that?\"\n\"It is terrible. Will you take us aboard?\"\nIngomar did not answer, but switched the communicator off and busied\nhimself with recording his observations. He took advantage of their\ncontinued presence and took photographs.\nFinally, after several hours, they leapt into the air and flew away\ntoward the distant mountains. Ingomar was sorry to see them leave, and\nmore than once checked his instruments for signs of a coming storm in\ncase they were right. But nothing outside had changed.\nAfter they had left he opened the ship and stepped outside, taking\nreadings with instruments to record the character of the planet. He\ntrudged through the eternally drifting sand, looking for some sign of\nlife. No plants, insects, animals anywhere. Only the fine, mobile sand,\noccasionally an outcropping of rock not yet eroded away. And the heat!\nIngomar was forced to turn the controls of his environment suit almost\nall the way up to keep comfortable. Then, when the sun receded behind\nthe ghostly barren mountains, the cold came creeping in. Ingomar turned\nhis controls in the other direction, while walking back to his ship. He\nwas afraid he would not keep the cold outside.\nThe landscape, with the sun's absence, was dark and fearful. Shadows\nmoved in the wind, shadows of drifting sand that took on the\nshapes of monsters lurking in the darkness. Ingomar was not one to\nfrighten easily, but the night took on such ominous sighs and moans\nand movements that his imagination began to magnify them beyond\nrecognition. When he finally saw the ship loom up before him he ran,\nstumbling toward it. He fumbled in the darkness for the control knob\nto open the lock and found it at last. He leapt inside, accompanied by\na cold blast of wind and sand, and stood there panting, hearing his\nheart pound in his ears.\nThe night was long and lonely. He was too far from civilization for\nhis radio equipment to bring the comfort of familiar sounds. He tried\nto read, but found concentration impossible. He thought of the birds,\nwondering where they were now, how they kept from freezing to death at\nnight. He rewrote his notes, adding remembered facts and impressions.\nFinally he decided sleep was the most painless way of spending the\nnight, and swallowed a small capsule designed to induce total sleep for\nat least six hours.\nHe awoke the next morning standing on his head.\nThe bed, horizontal the night before, was now vertical. The whole room\nwas vertical. Panic swept over him like a wave of burning fire. He\nscrambled to the airlock. It opened grotesquely.\nThe ship, which last night had stood so proudly, now lay on its side.\nAnd in his drugged sleep he had not known when it fell. For Ingomar,\nthe bottom dropped out of everything, and his heart dropped with it.\nThere was no resetting of a ship once it had fallen. This took special\nequipment. Ingomar Bjorgson was a doomed man, and he knew it.\nWhile he stood outside in the morning sun, staring at the horrible\nspectacle before him, the two birds alighted, one on each side.\n\"Why didn't you listen to us?\" Pisces I said in an accusing tone.\n\"Yes,\" Pisces II echoed angrily. \"You make me sick, thinking you're\nso smart, coming down here in your big ship and strutting around like\nyou think you're a God, or something. Now, how big do you feel? Do you\nrealize that this is our first opportunity to leave this planet? I've a\ngood notion to peck your stupid eyes out right here and now.\"\n\"Leave him be,\" Pisces I said. \"He may not be so bright, but I think\nhe would have taken us with him, after he got used to us and saw how\nharmless we are.\"\nPisces II leapt at him, almost knocking Ingomar off his feet. \"Shut up!\nI've a good notion to peck your eyes out, too.\"\n\"Oh, stop it!\" Ingomar said wearily. \"We're all doomed to spend the\nrest of our lives here. How was I to know that the storm would be so\nbad? My instruments gave no indication whatever.\"\n\"Actually, it was our fault,\" Pisces II said, more calmly. \"We failed\nto mention the nature of the storm. We thought you knew. It was a\nmagnetic storm. A shifting of magnetic currents surrounding the planet.\nWe had no idea that you would think of the weather.\"\nThey walked with him around the fallen ship. It was not injured, that\nmuch Ingomar could see. The soft bed of sand had cushioned its fall. If\nit could only be righted! Ingomar knew it was impossible.\n\"It is pointed toward that knoll out there. See? Suppose we all got\ninside and blasted off. We would slide along and maybe when we reached\nthe knoll we'd have enough speed to keep on going in a straight line\nuntil we could point her nose upward.\"\nIngomar shook his head, but he appreciated the suggestion. It indicated\nthat they were willing to try anything. He knew their motives were not\nentirely philanthropic, but he liked them more for it, anyway.\nHe said, \"There is only one way out, and that is for someone to come in\nand get us.\"\n\"Well,\" Pisces II said, \"What are you waiting for? Call them.\"\n\"I can't. We are too far out for communication.\"\nThe two gray birds eyed one another in disbelief. Pisces I scratched\nhis breast impolitely. Then he said, \"Are you telling us that you have\ncome this far from your own solar system, knowing that you could not\ncall for help, if necessary?\"\nIngomar nodded.\nPisces II snorted through his beak, and scratched in the sand.\n\"Stupidity,\" he said. \"There is no other word for it.\"\n\"Yes, there is,\" Pisces I answered, somewhat sharply. \"In fact, there\nare several possible words. Bravery. Desperation. Actually I think\nit is a combination of both. I am sure that you are aware how rare\nintelligent life is in the universe. When you heard of us, you rushed\nout here at once. I would call it bravery to go beyond the sound of the\nvoices of your kind. You are desperate because you are lonely in an\nalmost empty universe.\"\n\"We must help him,\" said Pisces II.\n\"Of course. But first let's make him comfortable. It will be a long\nwait.\"\n\"Thank you,\" Ingomar said, moved by their sympathy. \"But you cannot\nhelp. Or do you have a way to send messages?\"\n\"Yes, in a way,\" Pisces II said, \"You see....\"\nPisces I lifted a huge wing and knocked Pisces II in the sand. He\nturned to Ingomar. \"Do you promise to take us with you, if we should\nsucceed in getting help?\"\nIngomar did not think it over. \"Yes,\" he said.\n\"Then we will do it. But first we must make you comfortable. Do you\nhave equipment for shelter, besides the ship?\"\n\"Yes, there is the bubble. It can be expanded to become a house.\"\n\"Get it,\" Pisces II said.\nIngomar did. He dragged it outside and began to unfold it, in\npreparation for inflation. But Pisces II stopped him. \"Not here,\" he\nsaid. \"It will be a long time. Our calculation is that it will take at\nleast forty-five days to get help. The trip from your planet alone is\nat least forty days. You will not wish to stare at your toppled ship\nfor so long. I suggest we go beyond the first knoll.\"\nPisces I laughed and said to Ingomar, \"For once he is using his brain.\nWe will carry it.\"\nHe grasped the bubble in his claws, flapped his enormous wings and\nsailed off. Soon he returned, and among the three of them all his food\nand books and any equipment he might need was carried over the knoll\nout of sight of the wrecked ship.\n\"We will not return,\" they said, \"until the rescue ship arrives. So\nmake yourself comfortable. Do not stray too far from the ship. This is\nthe most miserable planet in the universe. Give us plenty of time. We\nknow we can summon help, but we do not know how long it will take. We\nmay need as many as seventy-five days.\"\nIngomar settled down to wait.\nThe fierce, burning sun had turned Ingomar's face and naked arms into\nfried areas of intense pain, but he regained consciousness when he felt\nthe coolness of the ointment. It penetrated deep down, under the burned\nskin, into flesh and muscle, soothing injured cells.\nHe opened his eyes. He moved his head. The eyes were burned and\nbloodshot, but he could see a ship standing a hundred feet away. It was\nnot sleek and long, pointing its needle nose at the sky, though. It was\nround, dull white, like a giant egg laid by a giant bird.\nBird? Ingomar chuckled, senses returning, thinking through his pain of\nPisces I or Pisces II laying an egg. Then he laughed aloud.\nHe stopped, quite abruptly, and looked again. The egg was still there,\nbut it was not an egg. It was actually a ship and the airlock was open\nand Pisces II was backing out, dragging a sort of stretcher on wheels.\n\"It's a ... a ... ship!\" he exclaimed, tears running down his cheeks,\nover the ointment. \"Whose ship is it?\"\n\"Ours,\" said Pisces I.\n\"Yours?\" Ingomar said, after a long pause while the pain raged over\nhis skin. He tried to sit up, and Pisces I got behind him and pushed,\nnudging him upright. \"Where did you get it?\"\n\"Oh,\" Pisces II interrupted. \"We had it all the time.\"\n\"Shut up!\" Pisces I yelled. \"He asked me.\"\n\"Hold your tongue,\" Pisces II retorted hotly, \"or I'll take off and\nleave you here. I've had enough of you in the past century to last a\nlifetime.\"\nPisces I said to Ingomar, \"Pay no attention to that peasant.\" He helped\nPisces II push the stretcher next to Ingomar. Then he pushed a lever\nand the stretcher reduced itself to ground height. It was too short\nfor Ingomar's body, having been designed for the body of a bird. \"He's\nright, though,\" Pisces I continued, giving the stretcher a kick because\nit wasn't long enough. \"We had the ship all along. It was despicable of\nus to deceive you, but our ship was defective, and we needed yours for\nparts.\"\nIngomar shook his head. \"There was no magnetic storm?\"\nPisces II nodded his head. \"Oh, yes, there was a storm. But not a\nnatural phenomenon, I'm sorry to say. Too bad. The natural storms are\nmuch more beautiful.\"\n\"And you had the bubble set up away from the ship so I wouldn't see\nyou steal the parts?\"\nThey hung their heads. \"Despicable,\" they said. \"A rotten thing to do.\"\nIngomar was too ill for anger. \"Let me understand this,\" he said. \"You\nruined my ship to get parts for yours. Why? Why not just take my ship?\"\n\"Too slow,\" Pisces II said. He took the container of ointment in his\nbeak and set it beside Ingomar's hand. \"Here, you can rub it on by\nyourself now. Get busy.\"\nPisces I said, \"By your standards our planet is a terrible distance\naway. Your ship would take too long. Hurry, now. We've got to take you\nto ... what do you call it, Earth? What an odd name! We're in sort of a\nhurry to get home, as you might imagine.\"\nIngomar hurried. With the help of the mysterious, healing ointment he\nwas soon able to get up and make his way to the ship.\n\"One more question,\" he said. \"Your ship was defective and you set down\nhere and you've been here for a long time, and you're a long way from\nhome. What were you doing so far from home, in the first place?\"\n\"What do you suppose?\" said Pisces I irritably. \"We were looking for\nintelligent life. Get a move on, now. If we don't waste too much time\non this Earth, we may still find some!\"", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  The Birds of Lorrane\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online\n           [Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from\n                     Galaxy Magazine October 1962.\n         Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that\n         the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]\n               The city was sacred, but not to its gods.\n              Michaelson was a god--but far from sacred!\nCrouched in the ancient doorway like an animal peering out from his\nburrow, Mr. Michaelson saw the native.\nAt first he was startled, thinking it might be someone else from the\nEarth settlement who had discovered the old city before him. Then he\nsaw the glint of sun against the metallic skirt, and relaxed.\nHe chuckled to himself, wondering with amusement what a webfooted man\nwas doing in an old dead city so far from his people. Some facts were\nknown about the people of Alpha Centaurus II. They were not actually\nnatives, he recalled. They were a colony from the fifth planet of\nthe system. They were a curious people. Some were highly intelligent,\nthough uneducated.\nHe decided to ignore the man for the moment. He was far down the\nancient street, a mere speck against the sand. There would be plenty of\ntime to wonder about him.\nHe gazed out from his position at the complex variety of buildings\nbefore him. Some were small, obviously homes. Others were huge\nwith tall, frail spires standing against the pale blue sky. Square\nbuildings, ellipsoid, spheroid. Beautiful, dream-stuff bridges\nconnected tall, conical towers, bridges that still swung in the wind\nafter half a million years. Late afternoon sunlight shone against ebony\nsurfaces. The sands of many centuries had blown down the wide streets\nand filled the doorways. Desert plants grew from roofs of smaller\nbuildings.\nIgnoring the native, Mr. Michaelson poked about among the ruins\nhappily, exclaiming to himself about some particular artifact,\nmarveling at its state of preservation, holding it this way and that to\ncatch the late afternoon sun, smiling, clucking gleefully. He crawled\nover the rubble through old doorways half filled with the accumulation\nof ages. He dug experimentally in the sand with his hands, like a dog,\nunder a roof that had weathered half a million years of rain and sun.\nThen he crawled out again, covered with dust and cobwebs.\nThe native stood in the street less than a hundred feet away, waving\nhis arms madly. \"Mr. Earthgod,\" he cried. \"It is sacred ground where\nyou are trespassing!\"\nThe archeologist smiled, watching the man hurry closer. He was short,\neven for a native. Long gray hair hung to his shoulders, bobbing up\nand down as he walked. He wore no shoes. The toes of his webbed feet\ndragged in the sand, making a deep trail behind him. He was an old man.\n\"You never told us about this old dead city,\" Michaelson said,\nchidingly. \"Shame on you. But never mind. I've found it now. Isn't it\nbeautiful?\"\n\"Yes, beautiful. You will leave now.\"\n\"Leave?\" Michaelson asked, acting surprised as if the man were a\nchild. \"I just got here a few hours ago.\"\n\"You must go.\"\n\"Why? Who are you?\"\n\"I am keeper of the city.\"\n\"You?\" Michaelson laughed. Then, seeing how serious the native was,\nsaid, \"What makes you think a dead city needs a keeper?\"\n\"The spirits may return.\"\nMichaelson crawled out of the doorway and stood up. He brushed his\ntrousers. He pointed. \"See that wall? Built of some metal, I'd say,\nsome alloy impervious to rust and wear.\"\n\"The spirits are angry.\"\n\"Notice the inscriptions? Wind has blown sand against them for eons,\nand rain and sleet. But their story is there, once we decipher it.\"\n\"Leave!\"\nThe native's lined, weathered old face was working around the mouth in\nanger. Michaelson was almost sorry he had mocked him. He was deadly\nserious.\n\"Look,\" he said. \"No spirits are ever coming back here. Don't you know\nthat? And even if they did, spirits care nothing for old cities half\ncovered with sand and dirt.\"\nHe walked away from the old man, heading for another building. The\nsun had already gone below the horizon, coloring the high clouds. He\nglanced backward. The webfoot was following.\n\"Mr. Earthgod!\" the webfoot cried, so sharply that Michaelson stopped.\n\"You must not touch, not walk upon, not handle. Your step may destroy\nthe home of some ancient spirit. Your breath may cause one iota of\nchange and a spirit may lose his way in the darkness. Go quickly now,\nor be killed.\"\nHe turned and walked off, not looking back.\nMichaelson stood in the ancient street, tall, gaunt, feet planted wide,\nhands in pockets, watching the webfoot until he was out of sight beyond\na huge circular building. There was a man to watch. There was one of\nthe intelligent ones. One look into the alert old eyes had told him\nthat.\nMichaelson shook his head, and went about satisfying his curiosity.\nHe entered buildings without thought of roofs falling in, or decayed\nfloors dropping from under his weight. He began to collect small items,\nmaking a pile of them in the street. An ancient bowl, metal untouched\nby the ages. A statue of a man, one foot high, correct to the minutest\ndetail, showing how identical they had been to Earthmen. He found books\nstill standing on ancient shelves but was afraid to touch them without\ntools.\nDarkness came swiftly and he was forced out into the street.\nHe stood there alone feeling the age of the place. Even the smell\nof age was in the air. Silver moonlight from the two moons filtered\nthrough clear air down upon the ruins. The city lay now in darkness,\ndead and still, waiting for morning so it could lie dead and still in\nthe sun.\nThere was no hurry to be going home, although he was alone, although\nthis was Alpha Centaurus II with many unknowns, many dangers ...\nalthough home was a very great distance away. There was no one back\nthere to worry about him.\nHis wife had died many years ago back on Earth. No children. His\nfriends in the settlement would not look for him for another day at\nleast. Anyway, the tiny cylinder, buried in flesh behind his ear, a\nthing of mystery and immense power, could take him home instantly,\nwithout effort save a flicker of thought.\n\"You did not leave, as I asked you.\"\nMichaelson whirled around at the sound of the native's voice. Then he\nrelaxed. He said, \"You shouldn't sneak up on a man like that.\"\n\"You must leave, or I will be forced to kill you. I do not want to kill\nyou, but if I must....\" He made a clucking sound deep in the throat.\n\"The spirits are angry.\"\n\"Nonsense. Superstition! But never mind. You have been here longer\nthan I. Tell me, what are those instruments in the rooms? It looks like\na clock but I'm certain it had some other function.\"\n\"What rooms?\"\n\"Oh, come now. The small rooms back there. Look like they were\nbedrooms.\"\n\"I do not know.\" The webfoot drew closer. Michaelson decided he was\nsixty or seventy years old, at least.\n\"You've been here a long time. You are intelligent, and you must be\neducated, the way you talk. That gadget looks like a time-piece of some\nsort. What is it? What does it measure?\"\n\"I insist that you go.\" The webfoot held something in his hand.\n\"No.\" Michaelson looked off down the street, trying to ignore the\nnative, trying to feel the life of the city as it might have been.\n\"You are sensitive,\" the native said in his ear. \"It takes a sensitive\ngod to feel the spirits moving in the houses and walking in these old\nstreets.\"\n\"Say it any way you want to. This is the most fascinating thing\nI've ever seen. The Inca's treasure, the ruins of Pompeii, Egyptian\ntombs--none can hold a candle to this.\"\n\"Mr. Earthgod....\"\n\"Don't call me that. I'm not a god, and you know it.\"\nThe old man shrugged. \"It is not an item worthy of dispute. Those names\nyou mention, are they the names of gods?\"\nHe chuckled. \"In a way, yes. What is your name?\"\n\"Maota.\"\n\"You must help me, Maota. These things must be preserved. We'll build\na museum, right here in the street. No, over there on the hill just\noutside the city. We'll collect all the old writings and perhaps we may\ndecipher them. Think of it, Maota! To read pages written so long ago\nand think their thoughts. We'll put everything under glass. Build and\nevacuate chambers to stop the decay. Catalogue, itemize....\"\nMichaelson was warming up to his subject, but Maota shook his head like\na waving palm frond and stamped his feet.\n\"You will leave now.\"\n\"Can't you see? Look at the decay. These things are priceless. They\nmust be preserved. Future generations will thank us.\"\n\"Do you mean,\" the old man asked, aghast, \"that you want others to come\nhere? You know the city abhors the sound of alien voices. Those who\nlived here may return one day! They must not find their city packaged\nand preserved and laid out on shelves for the curious to breathe their\nfoul breaths upon. You will leave. Now!\"\n\"No.\" Michaelson was adamant. The rock of Gibraltar.\nMaota hit him, quickly, passionately, and dropped the weapon beside his\nbody. He turned swiftly, making a swirling mark in the sand with his\nheel, and walked off toward the hills outside the city.\nThe weapon he had used was an ancient book. Its paper-thin pages\nrustled in the wind as if an unseen hand turned them, reading, while\nMichaelson's blood trickled out from the head wound upon the ancient\nstreet.\nWhen he regained consciousness the two moons, bright sentinel orbs in\nthe night sky, had moved to a new position down their sliding path. Old\nMaota's absence took some of the weirdness and fantasy away. It seemed\na more practical place now.\nThe gash in his head was painful, throbbing with quick, short\nhammer-blows synchronized with his heart beats. But there was a new\ndetermination in him. If it was a fight that the old webfooted fool\nwanted, a fight he would get. The cylinder flicked him, at his command,\nacross five hundred miles of desert and rocks to a small creek he\nremembered. Here he bathed his head in cool water until all the caked\nblood was dissolved from his hair. Feeling better, he went back.\nThe wind had turned cool. Michaelson shivered, wishing he had brought\na coat. The city was absolutely still except for small gusts of wind\nsighing through the frail spires. The ancient book still lay in the\nsand beside the dark spot of blood. He stooped over and picked it up.\nIt was light, much lighter than most Earth books. He ran a hand over\nthe binding. Smooth it was, untouched by time or climate. He squinted\nat the pages, tilting the book to catch the bright moonlight, but the\nwriting was alien. He touched the page, ran his forefinger over the\nwriting.\nSuddenly he sprang back. The book fell from his hands.\n\"God in heaven!\" he exclaimed.\nHe had heard a voice. He looked around at the old buildings, down the\nlength of the ancient street. Something strange about the voice. Not\nMaota. Not his tones. Not his words. Satisfied that no one was near, he\nstooped and picked up the book again.\n\"Good God!\" he said aloud. It was the book talking. His fingers had\ntouched the writing again. It was not a voice, exactly, but a stirring\nin his mind, like a strange language heard for the first time.\nA talking book. What other surprises were in the city? Tall,\nfragile buildings laughing at time and weather. A clock measuring\nGod-knows-what. If such wonders remained, what about those already\ndestroyed? One could only guess at the machines, the gadgets, the\nartistry already decayed and blown away to mix forever with the sand.\nI must preserve it, he thought, whether Maota likes it or not. They\nsay these people lived half a million years ago. A long time. Let's\nsee, now. A man lives one hundred years on the average. Five thousand\nlifetimes.\nAnd all you do is touch a book, and a voice jumps across all those\nyears!\nHe started off toward the tall building he had examined upon discovery\nof the city. His left eyelid began to twitch and he laid his forefinger\nagainst the eye, pressing until it stopped. Then he stooped and entered\nthe building. He laid the book down and tried to take the \"clock\"\noff the wall. It was dark in the building and his fingers felt along\nthe wall, looking for it. Then he touched it. His fingers moved over\nits smooth surface. Then suddenly he jerked his hand back with an\nexclamation of amazement. Fear ran up his spine.\n_The clock was warm._\nHe felt like running, like flicking back to the settlement where there\nwere people and familiar voices, for here was a thing that should not\nbe. Half a million years--and here was warmth!\nHe touched it again, curiosity overwhelming his fear. It was warm. No\nmistake. And there was a faint vibration, a suggestion of power. He\nstood there in the darkness staring off into the darkness, trembling.\nFear built up in him until it was a monstrous thing, drowning reason.\nHe forgot the power of the cylinder behind his ear. He scrambled\nthrough the doorway. He got up and ran down the ancient sandy street\nuntil he came to the edge of the city. Here he stopped, gasping for\nair, feeling the pain throb in his head.\nCommon sense said that he should go home, that nothing worthwhile could\nbe accomplished at night, that he was tired, that he was weak from loss\nof blood and fright and running. But when Michaelson was on the trail\nof important discoveries he had no common sense.\nHe sat down in the darkness, meaning to rest a moment.\nWhen he awoke dawn was red against thin clouds in the east.\nOld Maota stood in the street with webbed feet planted far apart in\nthe sand, a weapon in the crook of his arm. It was a long tube affair,\nfamiliar to Michaelson.\nMichaelson asked, \"Did you sleep well?\"\n\"No.\"\n\"I'm sorry to hear that.\"\n\"How do you feel?\"\n\"Fine, but my head aches a little.\"\n\"Sorry,\" Maota said.\n\"For what?\"\n\"For hitting you. Pain is not for gods like you.\"\nMichaelson relaxed somewhat. \"What kind of man are you? First you try\nto break my skull, then you apologize.\"\n\"I abhor pain. I should have killed you outright.\"\nHe thought about that for a moment, eyeing the weapon.\nIt looked in good working order. Slim and shiny and innocent, it looked\nlike a glorified African blowgun. But he was not deceived by its\nappearance. It was a deadly weapon.\n\"Well,\" he said, \"before you kill me, tell me about the book.\" He held\nit up for Maota to see.\n\"What about the book?\"\n\"What kind of book is it?\"\n\"What does Mr. Earthgod mean, what _kind_ of book? You have seen it. It\nis like any other book, except for the material and the fact that it\ntalks.\"\n\"No, no. I mean, what's in it?\"\n\"Poetry.\"\n\"Poetry? For God's sake, why poetry? Why not mathematics or history?\nWhy not tell how to make the metal of the book itself? Now there is a\nsubject worthy of a book.\"\nMaota shook his head. \"One does not study a dead culture to learn how\nthey made things, but how they thought. But we are wasting time. I must\nkill you now, so I can get some rest.\"\nThe old man raised the gun.\n\"Wait! You forget that I also have a weapon.\" He pointed to the spot\nbehind his ear where the cylinder was buried. \"I can move faster than\nyou can fire the gun.\"\nMaota nodded. \"I have heard how you travel. It does not matter. I will\nkill you anyway.\"\n\"I suggest we negotiate.\"\n\"No.\"\n\"Why not?\"\nMaota looked off toward the hills, old eyes filmed from years of sand\nand wind, leather skin lined and pitted. The hills stood immobile,\nbrown-gray, already shimmering with heat, impotent.\n\"Why not?\" Michaelson repeated.\n\"Why not what?\" Maota dragged his eyes back.\n\"Negotiate.\"\n\"No.\" Maota's eyes grew hard as steel. They stood there in the sun, not\ntwenty feet apart, hating each other. The two moons, very pale and far\naway on the western horizon, stared like two bottomless eyes.\n\"All right, then. At least it's a quick death. I hear that thing just\ndisintegrates a man. Pfft! And that's that.\"\nMichaelson prepared himself to move if the old man's finger slid closer\ntoward the firing stud. The old man raised the gun.\n\"Wait!\"\n\"Now what?\"\n\"At least read some of the book to me before I die, then.\"\nThe gun wavered. \"I am not an unreasonable man,\" the webfoot said.\nMichaelson stepped forward, extending his arm with the book.\n\"No, stay where you are. Throw it.\"\n\"This book is priceless. You just don't go throwing such valuable items\naround.\"\n\"It won't break. Throw it.\"\nMichaelson threw the book. It landed at Maota's feet, spouting sand\nagainst his leg. He shifted the weapon, picked up the book and leafed\nthrough it, raising his head in a listening attitude, searching for\na suitable passage. Michaelson heard the thin, metallic pages rustle\nsoftly. He could have jumped and seized the weapon at that moment, but\nhis desire to hear the book was strong.\nOld Maota read, Michaelson listened. The cadence was different, the\nsyntax confusing. But the thoughts were there. It might have been\na professor back on Earth reading to his students. Keats, Shelley,\nBrowning. These people were human, with human thoughts and aspirations.\nThe old man stopped reading. He squatted slowly, keeping Michaelson in\nsight, and laid the book face up in the sand. Wind moved the pages.\n\"See?\" he said. \"The spirits read. They must have been great readers,\nthese people. They drink the book, as if it were an elixir. See how\ngentle! They lap at the pages like a new kitten tasting milk.\"\nMichaelson laughed. \"You certainly have an imagination.\"\n\"What difference does it make?\" Maota cried, suddenly angry. \"You want\nto close up all these things in boxes for a posterity who may have no\nslightest feeling or appreciation. I want to leave the city as it is,\nfor spirits whose existence I cannot prove.\"\nThe old man's eyes were furious now, deadly. The gun came down directly\nin line with the Earthman's chest. The gnarled finger moved.\nMichaelson, using the power of the cylinder behind his ear, jumped\nbehind the old webfoot. To Maota it seemed that he had flicked out of\nexistence like a match blown out. The next instant Michaelson spun\nhim around and hit him. It was an inexpert fist, belonging to an\narcheologist, not a fighter. But Maota was an old man.\nHe dropped in the sand, momentarily stunned. Michaelson bent over to\npick up the gun and the old man, feeling it slip from his fingers,\nhung on and was pulled to his feet.\nThey struggled for possession of the gun, silently, gasping, kicking\nsand. Faces grew red. Lips drew back over Michaelson's white teeth,\nover Maota's pink, toothless gums. The dead city's fragile spires threw\nimpersonal shadows down where they fought.\nThen quite suddenly a finger or hand--neither knew whose finger or\nhand--touched the firing stud.\nThere was a hollow, whooshing sound. Both stopped still, realizing the\ntotal destruction they might have caused.\n\"It only hit the ground,\" Michaelson said.\nA black, charred hole, two feet in diameter and--they could not see how\ndeep--stared at them.\nMaota let go and sprawled in the sand. \"The book!\" he cried. \"The book\nis gone!\"\n\"No! We probably covered it with sand while we fought.\"\nBoth men began scooping sand in their cupped hands, digging frantically\nfor the book. Saliva dripped from Maota's mouth, but he didn't know or\ncare.\nFinally they stopped, exhausted. They had covered a substantial area\naround the hole. They had covered the complete area where they had been.\n\"We killed it,\" the old man moaned.\n\"It was just a book. Not alive, you know.\"\n\"How do you know?\" The old man's pale eyes were filled with tears. \"It\ntalked and it sang. In a way, it had a soul. Sometimes on long nights I\nused to imagine it loved me, for taking care of it.\"\n\"There are other books. We'll get another.\"\nMaota shook his head. \"There are no more.\"\n\"But I've seen them. Down there in the square building.\"\n\"Not poetry. Books, yes, but not poetry. That was the only book with\nsongs.\"\n\"I'm sorry.\"\n\"_You_ killed it!\" Maota suddenly sprang for the weapon, lying\nforgotten in the sand. Michaelson put his foot on it and Maota was too\nweak to tear it loose. He could only weep out his rage.\nWhen he could talk again, Maota said, \"I am sorry, Mr. Earthgod. I've\ndisgraced myself.\"\n\"Don't be sorry.\" Michaelson helped him to his feet. \"We fight for some\nreasons, cry for others. A priceless book is a good reason for either.\"\n\"Not for that. For not winning. I should have killed you last night\nwhen I had the chance. The gods give us chances and if we don't take\nthem we lose forever.\"\n\"I told you before! We are on the same side. Negotiate. Have you never\nheard of negotiation?\"\n\"You are a god,\" Maota said. \"One does not negotiate with gods. One\neither loves them, or kills them.\"\n\"That's another thing. I am not a god. Can't you understand?\"\n\"Of course you are.\" Maota looked up, very sure. \"Mortals cannot step\nfrom star to star like crossing a shallow brook.\"\n\"No, no. I don't step from one star to another. An invention does that.\nJust an invention. I carry it with me. It's a tiny thing. No one would\never guess it has such power. So you see, I'm human, just like you. Hit\nme and I hurt. Cut me and I bleed. I love. I hate. I was born. Some day\nI'll die. See? I'm human. Just a human with a machine. No more than\nthat.\"\nMaota laughed, then sobered quickly. \"You lie.\"\n\"No.\"\n\"If I had this machine, could I travel as you?\"\n\"Yes.\"\n\"Then I'll kill you and take yours.\"\n\"It would not work for you.\"\n\"Why?\"\n\"Each machine is tailored for each person.\"\nThe old man hung his head. He looked down into the black, charred\nhole. He walked all around the hole. He kicked at the sand, looking\nhalf-heartedly again for the book.\n\"Look,\" Michaelson said. \"I'm sure I've convinced you that I'm human.\nWhy not have a try at negotiating our differences?\"\nHe looked up. His expressive eyes, deep, resigned, studied Michaelson's\nface. Finally he shook his head sadly. \"When we first met I hoped we\ncould think the ancient thoughts together. But our paths diverge. We\nhave finished, you and I.\"\nHe turned and started off, shoulders slumped dejectedly.\nMichaelson caught up to him. \"Are you leaving the city?\"\n\"No.\"\n\"Where are you going?\"\n\"Away. Far away.\" Maota looked off toward the hills, eyes distant.\n\"Don't be stupid, old man. How can you go far away and not leave the\ncity?\"\n\"There are many directions. You would not understand.\"\n\"East. West. North. South. Up. Down.\"\n\"No, no. There is another direction. Come, if you must see.\"\nMichaelson followed him far down the street. They came to a section of\nthe city he had not seen before. Buildings were smaller, spires dwarfed\nagainst larger structures. Here a path was packed in the sand, leading\nto a particular building.\nMichaelson said, \"This is where you live?\"\n\"Yes.\"\nMaota went inside. Michaelson stood in the entrance and looked around.\nThe room was clean, furnished with hand made chairs and a bed. Who is\nthis old man, he thought, far from his people, living alone, choosing\na life of solitude among ancient ruins but not touching them? Above\nthe bed a \"clock\" was fastened to the wall, Michaelson remembered his\nfright--thinking of the warmth where warmth should not be.\nMaota pointed to it.\n\"You asked about this machine,\" he said. \"Now I will tell you.\" He laid\nhis hand against it. \"Here is power to follow another direction.\"\nMichaelson tested one of the chairs to see if it would hold his weight,\nthen sat down. His curiosity about the instrument was colossal, but he\nforced a short laugh. \"Maota, you _are_ complex. Why not stop all this\nmystery nonsense and tell me about it? You know more about it than I.\"\n\"Of course.\" Maota smiled a toothless, superior smile. \"What do you\nsuppose happened to this race?\"\n\"You tell me.\"\n\"They took the unknown direction. The books speak of it. I don't know\nhow the instrument works, but one thing is certain. The race did not\ndie out, as a species becomes extinct.\"\nMichaelson was amused, but interested. \"Something like a fourth\ndimension?\"\n\"I don't know. I only know that with this instrument there is no death.\nI have read the books that speak of this race, this wonderful people\nwho conquered all disease, who explored all the mysteries of science,\nwho devised this machine to cheat death. See this button here on the\nface of the instrument? Press the button, and....\"\n\"And what?\"\n\"I don't know, exactly. But I have lived many years. I have walked the\nstreets of this city and wondered, and wanted to press the button. Now\nI will do so.\"\nQuickly the old man, still smiling, pressed the button. A high-pitched\nwhine filled the air, just within audio range. Steady for a moment, it\nthen rose in pitch passing beyond hearing quickly.\nThe old man's knees buckled. He sank down, fell over the bed, lay\nstill. Michaelson touched him cautiously, then examined him more\ncarefully. No question about it.\nThe old man was dead.\nFeeling depressed and alone, Michaelson found a desert knoll outside\nthe city overlooking the tall spires that shone in the sunlight and\ngleamed in the moonlight. He made a stretcher, rolled the old man's\nbody on to it and dragged it down the long ancient street and up the\nknoll.\nHere he buried him.\nBut it seemed a waste of time. Somehow he knew beyond any doubt that\nthe old native and his body were completely disassociated in some sense\nmore complete than death.\nIn the days that followed he gave much thought to the \"clock.\" He came\nto the city every day. He spent long hours in the huge square building\nwith the books. He learned the language by sheer bulldog determination.\nThen he searched the books for information about the instrument.\nFinally after many weeks, long after the winds had obliterated all\nevidence of Maota's grave on the knoll, Michaelson made a decision. He\nhad to know if the machine would work for him.\nAnd so one afternoon when the ancient spires threw long shadows\nover the sand he walked down the long street and entered the old\nman's house. He stood before the instrument, trembling, afraid, but\ndetermined. He pinched his eyes shut tight like a child and pressed the\nbutton.\nThe high-pitched whine started.\nComplete, utter silence. Void. Darkness. Awareness and memory, yes;\nnothing else. Then Maota's chuckle came. No sound, an impression only\nlike the voice from the ancient book. Where was he? There was no left\nor right, up or down. Maota was everywhere, nowhere.\n\"Look!\" Maota's thought was directed at him in this place of no\ndirection. \"Think of the city and you will see it.\"\nMichaelson did, and he saw the city beyond, as if he were looking\nthrough a window. And yet he was in the city looking at his own body.\nMaota's chuckle again. \"The city will remain as it is. You did not win\nafter all.\"\n\"Neither did you.\"\n\"But this existence has compensations,\" Maota said. \"You can be\nanywhere, see anywhere on this planet. Even on your Earth.\"\nMichaelson felt a great sadness, seeing his body lying across the\nold, home made bed. He looked closer. He sensed a vibration or life\nforce--he didn't stop to define it--in his body. Why was his dead body\ndifferent from Old Maota's? Could it be that there was some thread\nstretching from the reality of his body to his present state?\n\"I don't like your thoughts,\" Maota said. \"No one can go back. I tried.\nI have discussed it with many who are not presently in communication\nwith you. No one can go back.\"\nMichaelson decided he try.\n\"No!\" Maota's thought was prickled with fear and anger.\nMichaelson did not know how to try, but he remembered the cylinder and\ngathered all the force of his mind in spite of Maota's protests, and\ngave his most violent command.\nAt first he thought it didn't work. He got up and looked around, then\nit struck him. _He was standing up!_\nThe cylinder. He knew it was the cylinder. That was the difference\nbetween himself and Maota. When he used the cylinder, that was where\nhe went, the place where Maota was now. It was a door of some kind,\nleading to a path of some kind where distance was non-existent. But the\n\"clock\" was a mechanism to transport only the mind to that place.\nTo be certain of it, he pressed the button again, with the same result\nas before. He saw his own body fall down. He felt Maota's presence.\n\"You devil!\" Maota's thought-scream was a sword of hate and anger,\nirrational suddenly, like a person who knows his loss is irrevocable.\n\"I said you were a god. I said you were a god. _I said you were a", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  A City Near Centaurus\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Dianna Adair, Matthias Grammel, Bryan Ness and\nthe Online Distributed Proofreading Team at\ngenerously made available by The Internet Archive)\n                         MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS\n  [Illustration: Smithsonian Institution Logo]\n   \"EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS,\n RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN\"--JAMES SMITHSON\n                  PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION\nADVERTISEMENT\nThe Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections series contains, since the\nsuspension in 1916 of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, all\nthe publications issued directly by the Institution except the Annual\nReport and occasional publications of a special nature. As the name of\nthe series implies, its scope is not limited, and the volumes thus far\nissued relate to nearly every branch of science. Papers in the fields of\nbiology, geology, anthropology, and astrophysics have predominated.\n                                 _Secretary, Smithsonian Institution_.\n                    SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS\n                         THE BIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS OF\n              Pioneering Research Division, United States Army\n               Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center\n  [Illustration: Smithsonian Institution Logo]\n                  PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION\n  [Illustration: Plate 1\n  _Blaberus craniifer_, c. \u00d7 2. 1. (Photograph by Jack Salmon,\n  Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot.)]\n                    SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS\n                         THE BIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS OF\n              Pioneering Research Division, United States Army\n               Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center\n  [Illustration: Smithsonian Institution Logo]\n                  PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION\n                       THE LORD BALTIMORE PRESS, INC.\nFOREWORD\nPeople having only casual interest in insects usually express amazement\nwhen they learn how much is known about this most numerous group of\nanimals. However, while entomologists have good reason to take pride in\nthe accomplishments of their contemporaries and predecessors, they are\nmore likely to be appalled by how much remains to be learned. We are\nindeed ignorant of even the identity of fully half and probably much\nmore than half the total number of insect species. Of those that have\nbeen described, we have reasonably complete information about the\nbehavior and basic environmental relationships for only a comparative\nfew. The great majority of the remainder are known only from specimens\nfound in museum collections. Such information as we have about these\nspecies usually amounts to no more than date and locality of collection.\nThis is true of the cockroaches, which now include approximately 3,500\ndescribed species. Conservative estimates based on partially studied\nmuseum collections and the percent of new species found in recent\nacquisitions, particularly from tropical and subtropical countries,\nindicate that at least 4,000 species remain unnamed. Although the group\nis well known in general terms to nearly all entomologists, there is an\nalmost complete void of information about all except the few domestic\nspecies and, to a progressively diminishing degree, some 400 others.\nMany details about the lives of even those that share man's habitations\nare not fully understood. This then is a rough measure of how little is\nknown about cockroaches.\nWith the exception of mosquitoes and a few other comparatively small\ngroups of insects on which work has been concentrated, it is doubtful if\nany other comparable segment of the world's insect fauna is better\nknown. Already an estimated 800,000 kinds of insects have been\ndescribed, and since this figure is generally regarded as less than half\nthe actual total, think what this means in terms of knowledge yet to be\nassembled. No wonder entomology is a growing science with a promising\nfuture, but the magnitude of the task also presents a serious obstacle\nto progress. Progress can continue only if the scattered literature\nresulting from the diversified labors of hundreds of contributors is\nbrought together and summarized in thorough and well-organized\ncompilations that can serve as a solid basis for future research.\nThe present work is such a compilation, for it assembles what has been\ngleaned from approximately 1,700 sources, including correspondence with\na large number of other workers. Original observations during some eight\nyears of concentrated effort in U. S. Army Quartermaster research\nlaboratories are a valuable supplement to what others have done, and\nwith this background of experience the authors are especially well\nqualified to appraise previous work. Seldom has a compilation been done\nso thoroughly or a single large group of insects been the subject of\nsuch uninterrupted effort.\nThe contents gives the categories of subject matter treated and the\nintroduction discusses the value of this assembled information and\noffers suggestions for future study. No longer are cockroaches regarded\nonly as disagreeable pests; many species appear to be important,\nactually or potentially, as carriers of disease. Recognition of this\nimportance has grown considerably, even in the period since World War\nII. Consequently, anything that increases our knowledge of the basic\nbionomics of cockroaches will be consulted widely for factual\ninformation and for clues to new approaches.\nIn spite of this extensive compilation, the limitations of present\ninformation about cockroach bionomics must be kept in mind. The cited\nobservations of many writers were fragmentary, or their conclusions\ndisagreed. But it is fundamental to scientific inquiry that we should\nknow and attempt to evaluate the results of previous study, and that is\nwhat Drs. Roth and Willis have done. Fortunately, their review is\nreadily available. Sometimes, a piece of work fails to be of maximum\nvalue because the results are not generally accessible to later\nstudents. For this reason I am especially glad that the Smithsonian\nInstitution, by disseminating the results of the authors' labors, has\nthis opportunity to exercise one of its traditional functions--that of\ndiffusing knowledge.\nThroughout the period of research by Drs. Roth and Willis at Natick, I\nwas in frequent correspondence with them, and I admire their many\naccomplishments. Our warmest commendations should go not only to them\npersonally but also to those in administration who encouraged their\nfundamental research and who aided in the financial support of this\npublication.\n                               _Entomology Research Division_\n                         _United States Department of Agriculture_\nCONTENTS\n              Cockroaches from outdoor habitats                      35\n                Cockroaches associated with land-based structures    74\n                Cockroaches associated with ships                    85\n                Cockroaches associated with aircraft                 88\n      IV. Classification of the associations                         91\n              Cockroaches in which bacteroids have been found        99\n      VI. Viruses associated with cockroaches                       103\n     VII. Bacteria associated with cockroaches                      104\n            Fungi associated with cockroaches                       129\n      IX. Higher plants associated with cockroaches                 139\n       X. Protozoa associated with cockroaches                      166\n      XI. Helminths associated with cockroaches                     190\n            Helminths for which cockroaches serve as primary hosts  192\n            Helminths for which cockroaches serve as intermediate\n            Helminths whose eggs have been carried by cockroaches   208\n     XII. Arthropoda associated with cockroaches                    210\n              Predators and parasites of cockroach eggs             234\n    XIII. Vertebrata associated with cockroaches                    268\n     XIV. Checklist of cockroaches and symbiotic associates         290\n            Checklist of commensal cockroaches with their hosts     315\n    XVII. Associations among cockroaches                            324\n   XVIII. Defense of cockroaches against predators                  343\n     XIX. The biological control of cockroaches                     348\n                      THE BIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS OF\n                BY LOUIS M. ROTH AND EDWIN R. WILLIS[2]\n           _Pioneering Research Division, United States Army\n             Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center\n    With most of us collectors the life history of an insect begins in\n  the net and ends in the bottle.\nI. INTRODUCTION\nRecently we brought together much of the literature linking cockroaches\nwith the transmission of certain organisms that cause disease in man and\nother vertebrates. In that paper (1957a) we concluded that cockroaches,\nbeing potential vectors of pathogenic agents, should not be regarded\nsimply as minor annoyances. Obviously the associations of cockroaches\nwith agents of vertebrate diseases are of more immediate importance than\ntheir relations with pathogens of lower animals or with nonpathogens. On\nthe other hand, cockroaches are of general economic as well as medical\nimportance, and their control is sought by many who are unaware of their\nmedical significance. That the control of domiciliary cockroaches is far\nfrom satisfactory may be inferred from current entomological and\npest-control journals in which new insecticides are continually\nadvocated to replace others found to be inadequate. Possibly new\napproaches to the control of cockroaches are needed. Whether these lie\nin the direction of increased use of parasites and predators for the\nbiological control of these insects remains to be seen. In any event,\nthe more we know about any insect, especially its ecology, the greater\nthe likelihood of achieving satisfactory control. In order to advance\nknowledge in any field of science, new research should proceed from the\nresults of prior investigations when these exist. We hope that the\nobservations and experiments cited herein may suggest areas for future\nresearch and exploitation.\nTo the best of our knowledge no previous publication has brought\ntogether the vast literature on the parasites, predators, commensals,\nand other symbiotic associates of the Blattaria. For this reason, we\nhave tried to assemble observations on all such known associations.\nUndoubtedly we have overlooked some records, as, for example, those\nburied in papers dealing with other phases of cockroach biology. We hope\nthat such inadvertent omissions will not seriously impair the usefulness\nof this compilation. Whatever its defects, this review should be a\nunified source of information for all who are interested in the biotic\nassociates of cockroaches.\nIn addition to previously published information, this monograph also\ncontains original records and observations on the associations of\ncockroaches that are reported here for the first time. Although some of\nthe observations were made by us, others were made by colleagues who\nhave graciously made their knowledge available to us in private\ncommunications.\nHISTORICAL\nChopard (1938) in his book _La Biologie des Orthopt\u00e8res_ reviewed much\nof the literature on cockroaches, but of the many biotic associations\nthat exist he discussed only the commensal cockroaches, gregariousness,\nand familial associations. Asano (1937), who reviewed the natural\nenemies of cockroaches, mentioned about 10 groups of animals that attack\ncockroaches. Thompson (1951) in his _Parasite Host Catalogue_, which was\nbased mainly on papers abstracted or noted in the Review of Applied\nEntomology, listed only 19 insect parasites of cockroaches. Eighteen of\nthese were Hymenoptera which attack only cockroach eggs; the single\ndipteron listed (_Sarcophaga lambens_ Wiedemann, supposedly parasitic on\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_) is not a parasite in this case, but deposits\nits eggs on the dead insects (see p. 229). Cameron (1955) listed as\nparasites and predators of the cockroach 24 species of hymenopterous egg\nparasites, 7 species of _Ampulex_ which hunt nymphs and adults, 17\nProtozoa, 13 nematodes, 5 bacteria, 2 mites, and a few other\nmiscellaneous predators. In his classified list of the protozoan\nparasites of the Orthoptera of the world, Semans (1943) listed about 26\nspecies from cockroaches. Linstow (1878, 1889) recorded 14 species of\nhelminths from cockroaches. Van Zwaluwenburg (1928) listed 33 names of\nroundworms which are commensals or secondary parasites of cockroaches,\nbut some of these names are synonyms. La Rivers (1949) extended this\nlist with 13 additional species. Chitwood (1932) recognized 24 species\nof nematodes which are primary parasites (probably commensals) of\nblattids. Steinhaus (1946) gave many instances of biological\nrelationships between cockroaches and bacteria, fungi, and yeasts, but\nthe cockroaches were not discussed as an entity and the information is\nscattered throughout the book.\nIn surveying the literature on this subject we have collected a far more\nextensive list of animals and plants associated with cockroaches than\none might have expected from an examination of any one of the previous\npapers on this subject. In our review of the medically important\norganisms associated with the Blattaria, we pointed out that in addition\nto many experimental associations cockroaches have been found to harbor,\nnaturally, 4 strains of poliomyelitis virus, about 40 species of\npathogenic bacteria, the eggs of 7 species of pathogenic helminths, and\nto serve as intermediate hosts of 12 other species of helminths\npathogenic for vertebrates; cockroaches have also been found to carry,\non occasion, 3 species of Protozoa that are pathogenic to man and 2\nspecies of fungi which are sometimes found associated with pathological\nconditions.\nIn addition to the above organisms of medical importance, we have\ncompiled records of other organisms, nonpathogenic to vertebrates, which\nare naturally associated in some way with cockroaches. None of the\nfollowing numbers can be considered absolute because some names may be\nsynonyms. However, we believe that these figures are very close to the\nactual numbers of species that have been isolated because we have\nattempted to refer all obvious synonyms to the currently accepted name\nfor each organism. On this basis there are about 45 species of bacteria,\n40 fungi, 6 yeasts, 90 Protozoa, and 45 helminths that have been found\nassociated naturally with cockroaches. Of the arthropods there are about\n2 species of scorpions, 4 spiders, 15 mites, 4 centipedes, and 90\ninsects. Of vertebrates there are 4 species of fish, 16 amphibians, 12\nreptiles, 20 birds, and 27 mammals. Besides these there are many records\nof experimental associations that have been contrived in the laboratory.\nSome idea of the increase in our knowledge of the biotic associations of\ncockroaches, during the last 70 years, may be gathered from a comparison\nof the above figures with those of Miall and Denny (1886) who presented\n\"...a long list of parasites which infest the Cockroach.\" This list\nincluded 2 bacteria, 6 Protozoa (some of the names are synonyms), 7\nnematodes (some of these names are also synonyms), 1 mite, 1 wasp, and\n1 beetle. In addition, they mentioned as other foes of the cockroach:\nmonkeys, hedgehogs, polecats, cats, rats, birds, chameleons, and frogs.\nMETHODS\nWe have listed the organisms known to be associated with cockroaches\nsystematically by phylum, class, order, and family. Within each family\nthe organisms are listed alphabetically by genus and species. Under each\norganism the associated cockroaches are listed as natural or\nexperimental hosts, vectors, or prey. Identified cockroaches are listed\nby the currently accepted name. Unidentified cockroaches are indicated\nby the word \"Cockroaches.\" The name of each cockroach is followed by the\ncountry in which the observation was made, the authority for the record,\nand with a few exceptions[3] pertinent biological information, where\nthis is known. Question marks following the names of organisms or\ncountries indicate tentative or questionable identifications.\nRecords of predators capturing and feeding on cockroaches in zoos and on\nshipboard we consider natural, even though it is very likely that these\nparticular predators would not normally have access to this prey in\nnature.\nExperimental prey are cockroaches that were fed to predators in the\nlaboratory. Although these predators may have little, if any, access to\nthese cockroaches in nature, we have included such records to indicate\nthe relative acceptability of cockroaches as food by a wide variety of\nanimals.\nRecords of presumed or known cockroach associates that give no\ninformation about an associated cockroach are not included in this\nreview, even though certain of these (e.g., species of _Ampulex_,\n_Evania_, _Podium_) probably prey upon or parasitize cockroaches\nexclusively.\nThe validity of a host-parasite or predator-prey record is dependent\nupon the accuracy and knowledge of the observer. In assembling these\nrecords we have had to accept, in most instances, the identifications of\nspecies made by the original authors. However, as a result of our\nstudies on the biology of various species of cockroaches, including some\nwork on their hymenopterous parasites, we have questioned certain\nrecords in the literature. Other dubious records which have been\nperpetuated from one publication to the next, but which apparently were\nnot based on fact, have also been questioned or have been clarified with\nthe aid of specialists in particular groups.\nBecause the records cover a period of many years, the names of many of\nthe organisms as well as the names of some of the cockroaches have been\nchanged. Although it would have been comparatively simple to list the\nnames as they appeared in the original references, this would have\nresulted in misleading redundancy with the same organism being\ncatalogued under several synonyms. We have attempted to list each\norganism by its currently accepted name. However, no attempt was made to\nprepare complete taxonomic synonymies; the only synonyms given are those\nthat identify the organisms by the names used by the authors of the\npapers cited. The synonyms under which the cockroaches may have been\ncited originally are listed in section II. The synonyms of associated\norganisms are listed with each organism. Although authorities for the\nname changes of the cockroaches are given, these workers are not\nnecessarily those who were initially responsible for the synonymies.\nVarious sections have been checked by specialists in the particular\ngroups. Although we have accepted name changes suggested by these\nreviewers, we assume full responsibility for the names.\nFUTURE WORK\nAfter having examined thousands of references on cockroaches, we are\nimpressed by how little is known about the biology of most species. As a\nconservative estimate there are 3,500 described species of Blattaria (J.\nW. H. Rehn, 1951). In our literature survey we found records of biotic\nassociations for about 400 species. Unfortunately, many of these records\ncontain only a sentence or two of biological information. Our detailed\nknowledge of cockroaches is based on studies of the few domiciliary\npests that man attempts to eradicate. Comparable studies of the\nbionomics of the less-well-known species should add much valuable\ninformation to our knowledge of this ancient group.\nOur understanding of most predator-prey and parasite-host relationships\nhas barely progressed beyond the taxonomic stage. The total effect of\npredators and parasites in limiting natural populations of cockroaches\nremains to be determined. It is still not known how, for example,\npredatory or parasitic wasps select specific cockroaches from among all\nother insects. Secretions produced by certain cockroaches (e.g.,\n2-hexenal by _Eurycotis floridana_) will ward off certain predators. The\nidentities and biological activities of most cockroach secretions are\nunknown, but the use of protective chemicals against predators may be\nwidespread among cockroaches. If so, how effective are these repellents\nin protecting the individual or the species? It is not known whether\ncockroaches are protected by apparent mimetic resemblances to other\narthropods. There is no experimental proof that insect parasites can\nsuccessfully attack the eggs of cockroaches that incubate their eggs\nwhile they are being carried by the female.\nIt is conceivable that biological control of cockroaches might be\nachieved in limited areas such as man-made structures or sewers, but\nthis possibility has not been thoroughly explored. It would be\ninformative to know what effects, if any, organisms such as bacteria,\nProtozoa (e.g., gregarines), intestinal nematodes, or other helminths\nhave on cockroaches. Possibly pathogenic microorganisms can be used for\nbiological control of cockroaches; this approach seems to have been\nlittle explored.\nAssociations of colonial cockroaches (e.g., _Cryptocercus_ spp.) may be\ntruly familial or they may merely result from gregariousness. Newly\nhatched nymphs of species that carry their o\u00f6thecae until the eggs hatch\ncluster near the mother. This may be a response to the mother as such, a\nsearch for shelter beneath the nearest object (thigmotaxis? or negative\nphototaxis?), or there may well be yet another explanation. Tepper in\n1893 stated that the native cockroaches of Australia are almost wholly\ncarnivorous; little supporting evidence for this claim has been brought\nforward since that time. The apparent supersedure of one species of\ndomiciliary cockroach by another may result from antagonism between\ndifferent species, or it may result from more rapid breeding and more\neffective utilization of available food and space; but which? Several\nspecies of cockroaches are frequently found associated with certain\nplants (e.g., bromeliads and bananas); the ecological relations in these\nassociations remain to be determined. Many of the obscure associations\nbetween cockroaches and other insects, spiders, birds, and burrowing\nanimals have never been adequately defined. The factors influencing\ncannibalism have never been thoroughly investigated experimentally.\nThese are only a few ideas for future work that have occurred to us\nduring the preparation of this review. We hope that these suggestions as\nwell as other questions that may occur to readers will stimulate further\nresearch in areas where it is obviously needed.\nILLUSTRATIONS\nUnless otherwise credited, the illustrations were prepared from\nphotographs taken by the authors. Except where otherwise stated, all\nphotographs were taken of unposed living specimens.\nII. SPECIES OF COCKROACHES\nThe cockroaches referred to in this paper are listed below. The\ncurrently accepted name for each species is given alphabetically by\ngenus and species irrespective of its taxonomic affinities. Synonyms\nused by certain authors whose work we have quoted are given in brackets\nunder the respective species; the synonymy is supported by the reference\ncitation that follows each synonym. References to illustrations of\ncertain species (e.g., _Blaberus craniifer_) that appear in the paper\nfollow the names of the describers.\n  _Agis orientalis_ Chopard\n  _Aglaopteryx absimilis_ Gurney _diaphana_ (Fabricius) [_Ceratinoptera\n      diaphana_ Fabricius; Rehn and Hebard (1927)]\n    _facies_ (Walker) [_Aglaopteryx devia_ Rehn; Princis (1929).\n        _A. diaphana_ (Fabricius) in records from Puerto Rico only;\n    _gemma_ Hebard [In Florida records = _Ceratinoptera diaphana_ R. and\n    _vegeta_ Rehn\n    _ypsilon_ Princis\n  _Allacta similis_ (Saussure) [_Phyllodromia obtusata_ Brunner;\n  _Alluaudellina cavernicola_ (Shelford) [_Alluaudella cavernicola_\n      Shelford; Chopard (1932)]\n  _Amazonina emarginata_ Princis\n  _Anaplecta asema_ Hebard\n    _azteca_ Saussure\n    _decipiens_ Saussure and Zehntner\n    _fallax_ Saussure\n    _hemiscotia_ Hebard\n    _lateralis_ Burmeister\n    _mexicana_ Saussure\n  _Aneurina tahuata_ Hebard\n    _viridis_ Hebard\n  _Apotrogia angolensis_ Kirby [_Acanthogyna deplanata_ Chopard;\n  _Aptera fusca_ (Thunberg) [_Aptera cingulata_ (Burmeister);\n      Gurney (personal communication, 1957)]\n  _Apteroblatta perplexa_ Shelford\n  _Archiblatta hoevenii_ Vollenhoven\n  _Archimandrita marmorata_ (Stoll)\n    _tessellata_ Rehn\n  _Arenivaga apacha_ (Saussure)\n    _bolliana_ (Saussure)\n    _erratica_ (Rehn)\n    _floridensis_ Caudell\n    _grata_ Hebard\n    _roseni_ (Brancsik) [_Heterogamodes roseni_; Bei-Bienko (1950).\n        _\"Polygamia\" roseni_ is undoubtedly an erroneous citation of\n        _Polyphaga roseni_, as there is no genus _Polygamia_ (Gurney,\n        personal communication, 1957)].\n    _tonkawa_ Hebard\n  _Aristiger histrio_ (Burmeister) [_Plumiger histrio_ (Burm.);\n      Bruijning (1948). _Hemithyrsocera histrio_ Burm.; Hebard (1929)]\n  _Aspiduchus boriquen_ J. W. H. Rehn [In Puerto Rico records =\n      _Aspiduchus deplanatus_ R. and H.; Rehn, J. W. H. (1951a)]\n    _cavernicola_ J. W. H. Rehn\n    _deplanatus_ (Saussure)\n  _Attaphila aptera_ Bol\u00edvar\n    _bergi_ Bol\u00edvar\n    _flava_ Gurney\n    _fungicola_ Wheeler\n    _schuppi_ Bol\u00edvar\n    _sexdentis_ Bol\u00edvar\n  _Atticola mortoni_ Bol\u00edvar\n  _Audreia bromeliadarum_ Caudell\n    _jamaicana_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Balta godeffroyi_ (Shelford)\n    _patula_ (Walker)\n    _platysoma_ (Walker) [_Temnopteryx platysoma_ (Walker); Hebard\n    _quadricaudata_ Hebard\n    _scripta_ (Shelford)\n    _torresiana_ Hebard\n    _verticalis_ Hebard\n  _Bantua stigmosa_ (Krauss) [_Derocalymma stigmosa_ Krauss; Princis\n  _Blaberus atropos_ (Stoll) [_Blabera fusca_ Brunner; Hebard (1917)]\n    _boliviensis_ Princis\n    _craniifer_ Burmeister (pls. 1, 2)\n    _discoidalis_ Serville [_Blaberus cubensis_ Saussure; Hebard\n    _giganteus_ (Linnaeus) (pl. 3)\n  _Blaptica dubia_ (Serville) [_Blaberus clarazianus_ Saussure; Rehn,\n  _Blatta orientalis_ Linnaeus (pl. 4) [_Periplaneta orientalis_;\n    (_Shelfordella_) _lateralis_ (Walker) [_Shelfordella tartara_\n        (Saussure); Princis (1957). _Periplaneta tartara_ Saussure;\n  _Blattella germanica_ (Linnaeus) (pls. 5, A, B; 31, F)\n      [_Blatella germanica_; Gurney (1952). _Phyllodromia germanica_;\n      Hebard (1917). _Ectobius germanicus_; Gurney (personal\n      communication, 1957)]\n    _humbertiana_ (Saussure) [_Blatta humbertiana_; _Phyllodromia\n        humbertiana_; Hebard (1929)]\n    _lituricollis_ (Walker) (fig. 7, A) [_Blattella bisignata_\n        (Brunner); Bei-Bienko (1950)]\n    _schubotzi_ Shelford\n    _vaga_ Hebard (pl. 5, C, D)\n  _Buboblatta armata_ (Caudell) [_Latindia armata_ Caudell; Hebard\n  _Byrsotria cabrerae_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _fumigata_ (Gu\u00e9rin) (pl. 6)\n  _Cahita borero_ Rehn\n    _nahua_ (Saussure)\n  _Capucinella delicatula_ Hebard\n  _Cariblatta antiguensis_ (Saussure and Zehntner)\n    _cuprea_ Hebard\n    _delicatula_ (Gu\u00e9rin) [_Blattella delicatula_ Gu\u00e9rin; _Cariblatta\n        punctulata_ (Beauvois); Rehn and Hebard (1927)]\n    _hylaea_ Rehn\n    _imitans_ Hebard\n    _insularis_ (Walker)\n    _landalei_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _lutea lutea_ (Saussure and Zehntner)\n    _lutea minima_ Hebard (pl. 7, A, B)\n    _nebulicola_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _orestera_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _punctipennis_ Hebard\n    _reticulosa_ (Walker)\n    _stenophrys_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Cariblattoides instigator_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _suave_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Ceratinoptera picta_ Brunner\n  _Chorisoneura barbadensis_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _flavipennis_ Saussure and Zehntner\n    _formosella_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _parishi_ Rehn\n    _specilliger_ Hebard\n    _texensis_ Saussure and Zehntner [_Chorisoneura plocea_ Rehn; Rehn\n    _translucida_ (Saussure)\n  _Choristima_ sp.\n  _Choristimodes_ sp.\n  _Chromatonotus infuscatus_ (Brunner)\n    _notatus_ (Brunner)\n  _Compsodes schwarzi_ (Caudell)\n  _Comptolampra liturata_ (Serville) [_Compsolampra liturata_;\n      _Comptolampra_ is the original spelling, which is followed by Dr.\n      K. Princis, according to Gurney (personal communication, 1959)]\n  _Cosmozosteria lateralis_ (Walker)\n  _Cryptocercus punctulatus_ Scudder (pl. 8, A)\n    _relictus_ Bei-Bienko\n  _Cutilia nitida_ (Brunner)\n    _soror_ (Brunner)\n    sp. near _sedilloti_ (Bol\u00edvar) (pl. 9) [Determined by Dr. A. B.\n        Gurney from photographs.]\n  _Cyrtotria capucina_ (Gerstaecker)\n  _Dendroblatta sobrina_ Rehn\n  _Derocalymma cruralis_ (St\u00e5l) [_Homalodemas cruralis_ (St\u00e5l); Gurney\n      (personal communication, 1957)]\n    _lampyrina_ Gerstaecker\n    _porcellio_ Gerstaecker\n  _Deropeltis autraniana_ Saussure\n    _erythropeza_ Adelung\n    _melanophila_ (Walker)\n    _nigrita_ Saussure\n  _Diploptera punctata_ (Eschscholtz) (pls. 10, 36) [_Diploptera\n      dytiscoides_ (Serville); Princis (1950). _Eleutheroda\n      dytiscoides_ (Serville); Zimmerman (1948)]\n  _Dryadoblatta scotti_ (Shelford) [_Homalopteryx scotti_ Shelford;\n  _Ectobius africanus_ Saussure\n    _albicinctus_ (Brunner)\n    _duskei_ Adelung\n    _lapponicus_ (Linnaeus) [_Ectobius perspicillaris_ Herbst, as used\n    _lucidus_ Hgb.\n    _nicaeensis_ (Brisout)\n    _pallidus_ (Olivier) (pls. 7, C; 29, A) [_Ectobius lividus_\n        (Fabricius); _Ectobius livens_ (Turton); Kevan (1952); Princis\n        (_in_ Roth and Willis, 1957)]\n    _panzeri_ Stephens [_Ectobius ericetorum_ (Wesma\u00ebl); Ramme (1923)]\n    _panzeri_ var. _nigripes_ Stephens\n    _semenovi_ Bei-Bienko\n    _sylvester_ (Poda) [_Ectobius sylvestris_ (Poda); Ramme (1951)]\n    _tadzihicus_ Bei-Bienko\n    _vittiventer_ (Costa) [_Ectobius vittiventris_ (Costa); Ramme\n  _Ellipsidion_ Saussure [_Apolyta_ Brunner; Hebard (1943)]\n    _affine_ Hebard\n    _australe_ Saussure [_Ellipsidion pellucidum_ (Brunner); Hebard\n    _bicolor_ (Tepper)\n    _simulans_ Hebard\n    _variegatum_ (Fabricius) [_Ellipsidion aurantium_ Saussure; Hebard\n  _Epilampra abdomen-nigrum_ (De Geer)\n    _annandalei_ Shelford\n    _azteca_ Saussure\n    _conferta_ Walker\n    _conspersa_ Burmeister\n    _grisea_ (De Geer)\n    _maya_ Rehn\n    _mexicana_ Saussure\n    _mona_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _notabilis_ Walker\n    _sodalis_ Walker\n    _tainana_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _wheeleri_ Rehn\n  _Eremoblatta subdiaphana_ (Scudder)\n  _Ergaula capensis_ (Saussure) [_Dyscologamia capensis_ Saussure;\n      _Dyscologamia wollastoni_ Kirby; Princis (1957)]\n    _scarabaeoides_ Walker [_Dyscologamia piolosa_ (Walker); Princis\n        (1957). _Parapolyphaga erectipilis_ Chopard; Princis (1950).\n        _Dyscologamia chopardi_ Hanitsch; Bruijning (1948).\n        _Miroblatta silphoides_ Chopard; Hebard (1929)].\n  _Escala_ sp.\n  _Euandroblatta palpalis_ Chopard\n  _Eublaberus posticus_ (Erichson)\n  _Eudromiella bicolorata_ Hebard\n    _calcarata_ Bei-Bienko\n  _Euphyllodromia angustata_ (Latreille)\n    _liturifera_ [_Euphyllodromia decastigmata_ Hebard; Princis (1959)]\n  _Eurycotis bananae_ Bei-Bienko\n    _biolleyi_ Rehn [_Eurycotis carbonaria_ Biolley; Rehn (1918)]\n    _caraibea_ (Bol\u00edvar)\n    _decipiens_ (Kirby)\n    _dimidiata_ (Bol\u00edvar)\n    _ferrum-equinum_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _floridana_ (Walker) (pl. II) [_Platyzosteria ingens_ Scudder;\n        _Platyzosteria sabalianus_ Scudder and hence, by inference,\n        _Eurycotis sabalianus_ (Scudder); Hebard (1917)]\n    _galeoides_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _improcera_ Rehn\n    _kevani_ Princis\n    _lixa_ Rehn\n    _manni_ Rehn\n    _opaca_ (Brunner)\n  _Euthlastoblatta abortiva_ (Caudell)\n  _Euthyrrhapha nigra_ Chopard\n    _pacifica_ Coquebert\n  _Geoscapheus robustus_ Tepper\n  _Graptoblatta notulata_ (St\u00e5l) [_Blatta notulata_ St\u00e5l; Hebard (1929).\n      _Phyllodromia hieroglyphica_ Brunner; Kirby (1904)]\n  _Gromphadorhina laevigata_ S. and Z.\n    _portentosa_ (Schaum) (pl. 12, A, B)\n  _Gyna kazungulana_ Giglio-Tos\n    _maculipennis_ (Schaum) [_Gyna vetula_ Brunner; Shelford (1909b)]\n    _tristis_ Hanitsch\n  _Hebardina concinna_ (Haan) [_Blatta concinna_ Haan;\n      _Blattina concinna_ (Haan); Bei-Bienko (1950)]\n  _Hemiblabera brunneri_ (Saussure)\n  _Henicotyle antillarum_ (Brunner)\n  _Heterogamodes kr\u00fcgeri_ (Salfi)\n    _rugosa_ (Schulthess)\n  _Holocompsa azteca_ (Saussure)\n    _cyanea_ (Burmeister)\n    _fulva_ (Burmeister)\n    _metallica_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _nitidula_ (Fabricius)\n    _zapoteca_ Saussure\n  _Hololampra bivittata_ (Brull\u00e9)\n    _chavesi_ (Bol\u00edvar)\n    _maculata_ (Schreber) [_Aphlebia maculata_ Schreber; Harz (1957);\n        Gurney (personal communication, 1959)]\n    _marginata_ (Schreber)\n    _punctata_ (Charpentier) [_Aphlebia punctata_ Charpentier; Ramme\n  _Hololeptoblatta_ sp.\n  _Homalopteryx laminata_ Brunner\n  _Hoplosphoropyga babaulti_ Chopard\n  _Hormetica apolinari_ Hebard\n    _laevigata_ Burmeister\n    _ventralis_ Burmeister\n  _Ignabolivaria bilobata_ Chopard\n  _Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_ (Brunner) (pl. 12A)\n      [_Temnopteryx deropeltiformis_ Brunner; Hebard (1917)]\n    _panamae_ Hebard\n    _podoces_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _rufa occidentalis_ Saussure\n    _rufa rufa_ (De Geer)\n    _schenklingi_ Karney\n  _Karnyia discoidalis_ (Brunner)\n  _Kuchinga hemerobina_ (Gerstaecker) [_Phyllodromia hemerobina_\n      Gerstaecker; Rehn (1932)]\n    _remota_ Hebard\n  _Lamproblatta albipalpus_ Hebard\n    _meridionalis_ (Brunner)\n  _Latiblattella chichimeca_ (Saussure and Zehntner)\n      [_Blattella chichimeca_ S. and Z.; Hebard (1932)]\n    _lucifrons_ Hebard\n    _rehni_ Hebard\n    _vitrea_ (Brunner)\n    _zapoteca_ (Saussure)\n  _Leucophaea maderae_ (Fabricius) (pl. 13) [_Rhyparobia maderae_;\n      Hebard (1917). _Panchlora maderae_; Kirby (1904). Very probably\n      _\"Blaberus\" maderae_ is a careless reference to this species;\n      Gurney (personal communication, 1957)]\n  _Leurolestes pallidus_ (Brunner)\n  _Litopeltis biolleyi_ (Saussure)\n    _bispinosa_ (Saussure) [_Audreia marginata Caudell_; Hebard (1920)]\n    _deianira_ Rehn\n    _musarum_ Rehn\n  _Lobolampra subaptera_ Rambur\n  _Loboptera decipiens_ (Germar)\n    _thaxteri_ Hebard\n  _Lobopterella dimidiatipes_ (Bol\u00edvar) [_Loboptera dimidiatipes_\n      (Bol\u00edvar); Princis (1957a). _Loboptera sakalava_ (Saussure);\n      Hebard (1933a). _Loboptera extranea_ Perkins; Hebard (1922).\n      Princis (1957a) in erecting _Lobopterella_ pointed out that only\n      the nontypical variety of _sakalava_ is identical with\n      _dimidiatipes_.]\n  _Lophoblatta arawaka_ Hebard\n  _Macropanesthia rhinocerus_ Saussure\n  _Mareta acutiventris_ Chopard\n  _Maretina uahuka_ Hebard\n  _Megaloblatta blaberoides_ (Walker) [_Megaloblatta rufipes_ Dohrn;\n  _Megamareta verticalis_ Hebard\n  _Melanosilpha capensis_ Saussure and Zehntner\n  _Methana canae_ Pope\n    _curvigera_ (Walker)\n    _marginalis_ (Saussure)\n  _Moluchia (?) dahli_ Princis\n  _Monastria biguttata_ (Thunberg)\n  _Muzoa madida_ Rehn\n  _Myrmeblattina longipes_ (Chopard)\n  _Myrmecoblatta rehni_ Mann\n    _wheeleri_ Hebard\n  _Namablatta bitaeniata_ (St\u00e5l)\n  _Nauclidas nigra_ (Brunner) [_Poroblatta nigra_ Brunner; Rehn (1930)]\n  _Nauphoeta cinerea_ (Olivier) (pl. 14) [_Nauphoeta bivittata_\n      Burmeister; Zimmerman (1948)]\n    _flexivitta_ (Walker) [_Nauphoeta brazzae_ (Bol\u00edvar); Rehn (1937)]\n    _punctipennis_ Chopard\n  _Nelipophygus ramsdeni_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Neoblattella brunneriana_ (Saussure) [_Blattella brunneriana_; Gurney\n      (personal communication, 1959)]\n    _carcinus_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _celeripes_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _detersa_ (Walker)\n    _dryas_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _eurydice_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _fratercula_ Hebard\n    _fraterna_ (Saussure and Zehntner)\n    _grossbecki_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _laodamia_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _nahua_ (Saussure) [_Blattella nahua_ Saussure and Zehntner of\n    _proserpina_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _semota_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _tridens_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _vatia_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_ (Stoll) (pl. 15) [_Dorylaea rhombifolia_;\n      Rehn (personal communication, 1956)]\n  _Nesomylacris cubensis_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _relica_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Nocticola bolivari_ Chopard\n    _caeca_ Bol\u00edvar\n    _decaryi_ Chopard\n    _simoni_ Bol\u00edvar\n    _sinensis_ Silvestri\n    _termitophila_ Silvestri\n  _Nothoblatta wasmanni_ (Bol\u00edvar)\n  _Notolampra antillarum_ Shelford\n  _Nyctibora azteca_ Saussure and Zehntner\n    _brunnea_ (Thunberg)\n    _laevigata_ (Beauvois)\n    _lutzi_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _mexicana_ Saussure\n    _noctivaga_ Rehn\n    _obscura_ Saussure\n    _sericea_ Burmeister\n    _stygia_ Walker\n    _tomentosa_ Serville [_Nyctibora latipennis_ Burmeister; Hebard\n  _Oniscosoma granicollis_ (Saussure)\n  _Opisthoplatia maculata_ Shiraki\n    _orientalis_ (Burmeister)\n  _Oulopteryx meliponarum_ Hebard\n  _Oxyhaloa buprestoides_ (Saussure)\n    _deusta_ (Thunberg)\n  _Panchlora antillarum_ Saussure\n    _exoleta_ Burmeister\n    _fraterna_ Saussure and Zehntner\n    _nivea_ (Linnaeus) (pl. 16) [_Panchlora cubensis_ Saussure; Gurney\n        (1955). _Pycnosceloides aporus_ Hebard; Hebard (1921c)]\n    _peruana_ Saussure\n    _sagax_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _virescens_ (Thunberg)\n  _Panesthia angustipennis_ (Illiger) [_Panesthia javanica_ Serville;\n    _australis_ Brunner (pl. 8, B)\n    _laevicollis_ Saussure\n    _lobipennis_ Brunner\n    _spadica_ (Shiraki)\n  _Parahormetica bilobata_ (Saussure)\n  _Parcoblatta americana_ (Scudder)\n    _bolliana_ (Saussure and Zehntner) [_Kakerlac schaefferi_ Rehn;\n    _caudelli_ Hebard [[F][F] of _Ischnoptera insolita_ R. and H.;\n        _Ischnoptera uhleriana fulvescens_ S. and Z. (in part); Hebard\n    _desertae_ (Rehn and Hebard) [[M][M] of _Ischnoptera insolita_ R.\n    _divisa_ (Saussure and Zehntner) [_Ischnoptera divisa_ S. and Z.;\n    _fulvescens_ (Saussure and Zehntner)\n        [_Ischnoptera uhleriana fulvescens_ S. and Z. (in part); Hebard\n    _lata_ (Brunner) [_Ischnoptera couloniana_ R. and H. (not Saussure);\n        _Ischnoptera major_ R. and H. (not S. and Z.); Hebard (1917)]\n    _notha_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _pensylvanica_ (De Geer) (pl. 17, A) [_Ischnoptera pennsylvanica_\n        Saussure; Hebard (1917)]\n    _uhleriana_ (Saussure) (pl. 18) [_Ischnoptera uhleriana_ Saussure;\n    _virginica_ (Brunner) (pls. 17, B; 27, A; 33, C; fig. 6)\n        [_Ischnoptera borealis_ Brunner; Hebard (1917)]\n    _zebra_ Hebard\n  _Pelmatosilpha coriacea_ Rehn\n    _kevani_ Princis\n    _marginalis_ Brunner\n    _purpurascens_ (Kirby)\n    _rotundata_ Scudder\n    _vagabunda_ Princis\n  _Periplaneta americana_ (Linnaeus) (pls. 19, 35)\n      [_Stylopyga americana_; _Blatta americana_ L.; Hebard (1917)]\n    _australasiae_ (Fabricius) (pls. 20, 32)\n    _brunnea_ Burmeister (pl. 21)\n    _cavernicola_ Chopard\n    _fuliginosa_ (Serville) (pl. 22)\n    _ignota_ Shaw\n    _lata_ (Herbst)\n  _Perisphaerus armadillo_ Serville\n    _glomeriformis_ (Lucas)\n  _Phaetalia pallida_ (Brunner)\n  _Phidon (?) dubius_ Princis\n  _Phlebonotus pallens_ (Serville)\n  _Pholadoblatta inusitata_ (Rehn)\n  _Phorticolea boliviae_ Caudell\n    _testacea_ Bol\u00edvar\n  _\"Phyllodromia\" treitliana_ Werner\n  _Phyllodromica brevipennis_ (Fischer)\n    _graeca_ (Brunner)\n    _irinae_ (Bei-Bienko)\n    _maculata_ (Schreber)\n    _megerlei_ (Fieber)\n    _polita_ (Krauss)\n    _pygmaea_ (Bei-Bienko)\n    _tartara_ (Saussure)\n    _tartara nigrescens_ Bei-Bienko\n  _Platyzosteria analis_ (Saussure) [_Polyzosteria analis_ Saussure;\n    _armata_ Tepper\n    _bifida_ (Saussure)\n    _castanea_ (Brunner)\n    _novae seelandiae_ (Brunner) (pl. 23) [_Periplaneta fortipes_\n        Walker; Shelford (1912); _Platyzosteria novae-zealandiae_]\n    _scabra_ (Brunner)\n  _Plectoptera dorsalis_ (Burmeister)\n    _infulata_ (Rehn and Hebard)\n    _lacerna_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _perscita_ Rehn and Hebard\n    _poeyi_ (Saussure) [_Plectoptera floridana_ Hebard; Rehn and Hebard\n    _porcellana_ (Saussure)\n    _pygmaea_ (Saussure)\n    _rhabdota_ (Rehn and Hebard)\n    _vermiculata_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Polyphaga aegyptiaca_ (Linnaeus) [_Blatta aegyptiaca_ L.; Bei-Bienko\n      (1950). _Heterogamia aegyptiaca_ (L.); Gurney (personal\n      communication, 1957). _\"Polygamia\" aegyptiaca_; according to\n      Gurney (p. c.), there is no genus _Polygamia_ and almost surely\n      the reference is to _Polyphaga aegyptiaca_.]\n    _indica_ Walker [_Polyphaga pellucida_ (Redtenbacher); Princis\n    _saussurei_ (Dohrn)\n  _Polyzosteria limbata_ Burmeister\n    _melanaria_ (Erichson)\n  _Pseudoderopeltis aethiopica_ (Saussure) [_Blatta aethiopica_\n      Saussure; Gurney (personal communication, 1957)]\n  _Pseudomops cincta_ (Burmeister) [_Thyrsocera cincta_ Scudder; Hebard\n    _laticornis_ Perty\n    _septentrionalis_ Hebard\n  _Pseudophoraspis nebulosa_ (Burmeister)\n  _Pycnoscelus niger_ (Brunner)\n    _striatus_ (Kirby) [_Leucophaea striata_ Kirby; Gurney (personal\n        communication, 1957)]\n    _surinamensis_ (Linnaeus) (pl. 24) [_Leucophaea surinamensis_ (L.);\n        Hebard (1917). _Blatta melanocephala_ Stoll; Kirby (1904)]\n  _Rhicnoda natatrix_ Shelford\n  _Rhytidometopum dissimile_ Princis\n  _Riatia fulgida_ (Saussure) [_Lissoblatta fulgida_ (Saussure); Gurney\n      (personal communication, 1959)]\n    _orientis_ Hebard\n  _Robshelfordia circumducta_ (Walker) [_Escala circumducta_ (Walker);\n      Gurney (personal communication, 1957)]\n    _longiuscula_ (Walker) [_Escala longiuscula_ (Walker); Gurney\n        (personal communication, 1957)]\n  _Salganea morio_ (Burmeister)\n  _Sibylloblatta panesthoides_ (Walker)\n  _Simblerastes jamaicanus_ Rehn and Hebard\n  _Spelaeoblatta gestroi_ Bol\u00edvar\n  _Sphecophila polybiarum_ Shelford\n    _ravana_ Fernando\n    _termitium_ Shelford\n  _Steleopyga (?) sinensis_ Walker [Dr. Gurney (personal communication,\n      1957) could not find a reference to this species. Walker\n      described species named _sinensis_ in three different genera of\n      cockroaches, and it is uncertain which one this combination\n      represents.]\n  _Stictolampra buqueti concinula_ (Walker)\n  _Styphon bakeri_ Rehn\n  _Supella hottentotta_ (Saussure)\n    _supellectilium_ (Serville) (pls. 25; 30, B-E; 31, A-E)\n        [_Phyllodromia supellectilium_ (Serv.); Bei-Bienko (1950)]\n  _Symploce breviramis_ (Hanitsch)\n    _cavernicola_ (Shelford) [_Ischnoptera cavernicola_ (Shelford);\n        _Phyllodromia nigrocincta_ Chopard; Hebard (1929)]\n    _curta_ Hanitsch\n    _flagellata_ Hebard\n    _hospes_ (Perkins) [_Symploce lita_ Hebard; Hebard (1922)]\n    _jamaicana_ (Rehn)\n    _kevani_ Chopard\n    _parenthesis_ (Gerstaecker) [_Phyllodromia parenthesis_\n        Gerstaecker; Rehn (1932)]\n    _remyi_ (Hanitsch) [_Ischnoptera remyi_ Hanitsch; Chopard (1938)]\n    _ruficollis_ (Fabricius) [_Symploce bilabiata_ Rehn and Hebard;\n  _Tartaroblatta karatavica_ Bei-Bienko\n  _Temnopteryx obliquetruncata_ Chopard\n    _phalerata_ (Saussure)\n  _Theganopteryx straminea_ Chopard\n  _Therea nuptialis_ (Gerstaecker) [_Corydia nuptialis_ Gerstaecker;\n  _Tivia australica_ Princis\n    _brunnea_ (Chopard)\n    _fulva_ (Burmeister)\n    _macracantha_ Chopard\n    _obscura_ (Chopard)\n  _Typhloblatta caeca_ (Chopard) [_Spelaeoblatta caeca_ Chopard;\n  _Typhloblattodes madecassus_ Chopard\n  _Xestoblatta festae_ (Griffini)\n    _immaculata_ Hebard\nIII. ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS\nThe ecology of extinct cockroaches is necessarily a highly speculative\nsubject. From the coexistence of fossil cockroaches and fossil plants in\nthe same geological stratum, one might conclude that there had been\nintimate associations between them during prehistoric life. Heer (1864)\nand Goldenberg (1877) suggested that Carboniferous cockroaches fed on\nthe plants with which they have been found as fossils. Scudder (1879)\nconcurred with this hypothesis. However, Bolton (1911), remarking on the\nnoticeable associations of blattoid wings with vegetable remains,\nsuggested that the cockroaches may have been partly carnivorous, feeding\non the snails _Spirorbis pusillus_, which were attached to the leaves of\n_Cordaites_. Yet the proximity of fossil insects and plants in the same\ngeological formation is hardly proof of a similar association during\nlife. In fact, Sellards (1903), Bolton (1921), and Laurentiaux (1951)\nhave all pointed out that the cockroach remains, particularly the more\nresistant wings, may have been washed into streams by heavy rains and\ntransported with drifting plant material to places where permanent\ndeposits were accumulating.\nSome species of fossil cockroaches have long, well-developed\novipositors, very unlike present-day cockroaches whose ovipositors are\nsmall and nonprotruding. Brongniart (1889) and Zalesskii (1939, 1953)\nhave suggested that certain Permian and Carboniferous cockroaches with\nlong ovipositors may have inserted their eggs singly into trees and\nother plants, rather than protecting the eggs with an o\u00f6theca. However,\nLaurentiaux (1951), although conceding the possibility of egg laying in\nvegetable material, suggested that oviposition into the earth is more\nprobable because of the unbending nature of the ovipositor.\nAlthough the ecological associations of modern cockroaches should be\nwell known from direct observation, actually most species are still\nlittle more than names on museum specimens, and our knowledge of them is\nfragmentary. All too frequently ecological observations have been only\nincidental to taxonomic or faunistic studies; yet the biological\ninformation that is contained in such papers is all that we know of many\nspecies. For this reason we have cited these observations in some\ndetail, especially when they were brief; longer accounts of cockroach\nbionomics, of necessity, have been abstracted.\nVery few exclusively ecological studies of insects have included\ncockroaches. The native woodroaches (_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, _P.\nuhleriana_, and _P. virginica_) of the northern United States were\nincluded in ecological studies of the Orthoptera by Hubbell (1922),\nStrohecker (1937), and Cantrall (1943). Fifteen species of cockroaches\nwere included in an ecological study of the Orthoptera of northern\nFlorida by Friauf (1953). The original papers should be consulted for\ndetailed descriptions of the habitats and accounts of the associated\nplants and other Orthoptera.\nIn this chapter the cockroaches are grouped into those that have been\nfound in man-made structures and those that occur in other habitats.\nCertain species may appear in several categories because they live both\nindoors and out. The structural pests are divided into cockroaches that\noccur in land-based structures, those on ships, and those in aircraft.\nThe nonstructural cockroaches are divided into those that occur in quite\nspecific habitats (caves, water, and deserts) and those that occur\ngenerally out of doors. Nests of various arthropods serve as\nmicrohabitats of commensal cockroaches; these latter associations are\ndiscussed on pages 310-318.\nIn this chapter our discussion is limited to the physical environment\nand specific habitats of cockroaches, and only very general references\nare made to associated organisms. The relationships of cockroaches to\nthe biota are examined in detail in subsequent chapters. To show the\nfull extent of the associations, the associates, from bacteroids to\nvertebrates, are arranged phyletically. These associate-centered\nclassifications serve admirably to relate various species of cockroaches\nwithin common bounds, but fail to give an integrated account of the\ntotal biotic relationships in the ecology of each species. Although\nphysically separated in this monograph, the many associates of each\nspecies of cockroach should all be considered in appraising the ecology\nof that species. To assist the reader to achieve this end, we have\nincluded a checklist (p. 290) which serves as a convenient index to\ncertain organisms associated with particular species of cockroaches.\nCAVE HABITATS\nCaves, mines, and animal burrows are somewhat similar habitats that\nprovide many species of cockroaches with shelter and frequently with\nfood. The microclimates of these cockroach habitats have not been\ndescribed in detail in the papers cited, but it seems rather obvious\nthat natural caves, man-made caves (mines), and burrows offer relatively\nstable temperatures and humidities and protection from adverse climatic\nconditions. Although such cavernicolous animals as birds and bats\nperiodically leave caves to search for food, cockroaches find the\naccumulated guano and animal and plant detritus an entirely adequate\ndietary (Chopard, 1938). Cockroaches in mines presumably subsist on the\nfood and feces dropped by man and mine animals (e.g., pit ponies). Food\nstored in their nests by burrowing animals is undoubtedly utilized by\nthe associated cockroaches.\nCavernicolous cockroaches show varying degrees of dependence on and\nadaptation to these specialized habitats. Some of the common domiciliary\nspecies (_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, and _Periplaneta\namericana_) may have accompanied man into caves and remained there after\nhe left (Chopard, 1929a, 1936, 1938). Other species, from the paucity of\nrecords noting their occurrence in caves, are undoubtedly accidental\ninhabitants that may never become established. Besides these, however,\nmany other species of cockroaches have established large breeding\ncolonies in caves. Although some of the latter species show very\npronounced morphological adaptations to a cave life, many others\nresemble their noncavernicolous relatives. The possible origin of\ncavernicolous Orthoptera has been discussed by Chopard (1938).\nCavernicolous cockroaches have been segregated into four groups\naccording to their ability to adapt to their environment and the degree\nof their specialized evolution (Chopard, 1936, 1938): (1) =Trogloxenes=:\nCockroaches that occur in caves in a sporadic fashion (the domiciliary\ncockroaches and accidentals such as _Ectobius_ and _Heterogamodes_). (2)\n=Troglophiles=: Cockroaches found habitually in caves (_Symploce_,\n_Periplaneta cavernicola_). (3) =Guanobies=: Cockroaches that live in\nthe guano of cavernicolous vertebrates (_Gyna_, _Acanthogyna_,\n_Dyscologamia_, _Pycnoscelus_). (4) =Troglobies=: Cockroaches that\napparently cannot live outside of caves and which show very marked\nadaptive characters (_Alluaudellina_, _Nocticola_, _Spelaeoblatta_,\n_Typhloblatta_). For complete discussions of these groups including\ndescriptions of the adaptive characters shown by certain genera, the\noriginal sources should be consulted.\nAlthough we know very little of the ethology of most of the\ncavernicolous cockroaches, it is intriguing that three of the six known\nspecies of _Nocticola_ are cave dwellers, two are inhabitants of termite\nnests (p. 315), and one (_N. bolivari_) was found under stones and\ncement blocks (Chopard, 1950b). In the rather extensive list of\ncavernicolous cockroaches only two (_Arenivaga grata_ and _Parcoblatta_\nsp.) were taken from caves in North America north of Yucatan. All other\nrecords are from Africa, Asia, Central America, Europe, West Indies,\nEast Indies, and the Philippine Islands. This we find puzzling. Packard\n(1888) in his extensive study of the cave fauna of North America listed\nno cockroaches. Dearolf (1941) found only the above-mentioned\n_Parcoblatta_ in one of 37 caves in Pennsylvania. Kohls and Jellison\n(1948) listed no cockroaches among the arthropods from six bat caves in\nTexas. We would expect _Periplaneta americana_ to inhabit mines in North\nAmerica, but we have found no such records. Have cockroaches been\nignored in fauna collections from North American caves, or has our cave\nfauna been less extensively studied than that of other parts of the\nworld?\nThe two species of cockroaches found in mines (_Blattella germanica_ and\n_Periplaneta americana_) are also found in caves. For this reason we\nhave included them in the list headed Cavernicolous Cockroaches. On the\nother hand, the cockroaches found in animal burrows are generally\ndifferent species from those found in caves, so we have grouped these\ntogether in a second list.\nCAVERNICOLOUS COCKROACHES\n=Alluaudellina cavernicola=\n_Tanganyika._--From Kulumusi caves, near Tanga. The eyes of this\ncockroach are reduced to a pair of slender streaks (Shelford, 1910a;\nChopard, 1932a).\n_East Africa._--Chopard (1936).\n=Apotrogia angolensis=\n_Belgian Congo._--A troglophile without well-marked adaptive characters.\nCollected in moist sand on floor of a sandstone grotto inhabited by\nbats (Chopard, 1927, 1950a). Taken in many caves in Bas Congo (Leleup,\n=Apteroblatta perplexa=\n_East Africa._--Accidental inhabitant of cave (Chopard, 1936).\n=Arenivaga grata=\n_Arizona._--\"A female and many nymphs were taken by Flock in the guano\nin a bat cave in the Tucson Mountains\" (Ball et al., 1942).\n=Aspiduchus borinquen=\n_Puerto Rico._--In limestone cavern by thousands in grass and on walls\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1927; Rehn, J. W. H., 1951a).\n=Aspiduchus cavernicola=\n_Puerto Rico._--In limestone cave, in caves inhabited by bats, and\napparently seen in other caves well removed from entrance. \"In this\nlatter situation great numbers were seen on the side walls and roof\"\n=Blaberus atropos=\n_Yucatan._--Found once, in Xmahit cave (Pearse, 1938).\n=Blaberus craniifer=\n_Yucatan._--Collected within three caves, near the entrances (Pearse,\n=Blaberus giganteus=\n_Panama._--Two males and several nymphs were taken under rocks in the\nsecond chamber of the Chilibrillo cave; some also were on the walls\n(Caudell, 1924).\n=Blatta lateralis=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--All stages, but more often females and nymphs, were\nfound in the middle and back part of Bakharden cavern, which was\ninhabited by tens of thousands of bats (Vlasov, 1929).\n=Blatta orientalis=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--All stages found in front part of Bakharden bat cave.\nThis cave was uninhabited by man but supported a variety of other\nanimals (Vlasov, 1929).\n=Blattella germanica=\n_South Africa._--Numerous in a gold mine on the Witwatersrand (Porter,\n_Tonkin._--Chopard (1929a); Colani (1952).\n=Byrsotria fumigata=\n_Cuba._--Cueva de las Cucarachas, La Pantana, Baracoa, Oriente Province:\n21 specimens, \"It is evident ... that the species is also a cave\ninhabitant\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Deropeltis erythropeza=\n_East Africa._--Found at entrance of cave; not a strictly cavernicolous\nform according to Chopard (1936).\n=Ectobius pallidus=\n_France._--Nymph in cave in Basses-Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es, accidental inhabitant\n(Chopard, 1936).\n=Ectobius vittiventer=\n_Italy._--In detritus at base of entrance shaft of Acquaviva cave in the\nVenezia Tridentina (Conci, 1951).\n=Ectobius= sp.\n_Italy._--Found in the heap of saprophytic detritus at the base of the\nentrance shaft in the Acquaviva cave (Conci, 1951).\n=Ergaula scarabaeoides=\n_Sumatra._--West coast (Hebard, 1929).\n_Malaya._--Found burrowing in bat guano among stones at entrance to\ncaves in Selangor (Chopard, 1919, 1929).\n=Euthyrrhapha nigra=\n_Madagascar._--Three males and six females in guano in Antsinomy grotto\n(Chopard, 1949a).\n=Gyna kazungulana=\n_East Africa._--This species is especially found in caves although it\nshows no special adaptive characters. It is a typical guanobe (Chopard,\n=Gyna maculipennis=\n_Belgian Congo._--Troglophile, guanophile. Found in two caves in Lualaba\n(Leleup, 1956).\n=Gyna tristis=\n_Belgian Congo._--In three caves in Uele (Leleup, 1956).\n=Heterogamodes kr\u00fcgeri=\n_North Africa._--An accidental inhabitant of caves (Chopard, 1938).\n=Holocompsa zapoteca=\n_Yucatan._--Common throughout rather dry, dusty caves in southern\nYucatan (Pearse, 1938).\n=Hoplosphoropyga babaulti=\nStated to be a troglophile by Chopard (1938).\n=Nocticola caeca=\n_Philippine Islands._--Bol\u00edvar (1892).\n=Nocticola decaryi=\n_Madagascar._--A true troglobite according to Chopard (1945).\n=Nocticola simoni=\n_Philippine Islands._--Bol\u00edvar (1892).\n=Parcoblatta= sp.\n_Pennsylvania._--Found in Merkle cave, Berks County (Dearolf, 1941).\n=Periplaneta americana=\nIN CAVES\n_East Africa._--Its presence in the cave at Shimoni was thought to\nindicate that man had sought refuge there and brought the cockroaches in\nwith baggage or provisions (Chopard, 1936).\n_India._--Many present in cave at Vengurla, the floor of which was\ncovered with bird guano (Abdulali, 1942).\n_Madagascar._--Thought to have been introduced into the cave entrance by\nman (Chopard, 1945, 1949a).\nIN MINES\n_Great Britain._--In a coal mine at Pontewydd where they had been\nestablished for some years (Lucas, 1916). In the Pentre Pit mine where\nthey were abundant (Lucas, 1918). Abundant in a Welch mine 2,166 feet\nbelow the surface (Lucas, 1925). This species was found quite commonly\nin a number of South Wales coal mines; in one deep mine a white-eyed\nmutant form comprised about 5 percent of the cockroach population for\nthe preceding 11 years (Jefferson, 1958).\n_India, western Bengal._--Very numerous in coal mines where the sole\nfood apparently was human faeces (Chandler, 1926).\n_South Africa._--Numerous in four deep-level gold mines on the\nWitwatersrand.\n_Sumatra._--Numerous males and females from Sawah Lunto \"'from a coal\nmine where they lived in great numbers on the faeces of miners'\"\n(Hanitsch, 1929).\n=Periplaneta australasiae=\n_Sarawak._--Found swarming on walls of caves and in soft bird guano in\ncompany with _Symploce cavernicola_ (Moulton, 1912).\n_Tonkin._--Chopard (1929a); Colani (1952).\n=Periplaneta cavernicola=\n_Malaya._--Taken on walls of inner caverns, where they were particularly\nabundant (Chopard, 1919).\n=Periplaneta lata=\n_Tonkin._--Chopard suggested that its presence in caves is probably\nlinked with man (Chopard, 1929a; Colani, 1952).\n=Periplaneta= sp.\n_Malaya._--From a cave in Jalor (Annandale et al., 1913).\n=Perisphaerus= sp.\n_Malaya._--The wingless females and nymphs mined in bats' guano in a\ncavern of the Jalor caves (Annandale, 1900).\n=Polyphaga aegyptiaca=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Females found in front part of Bakharden bat cave on\nseveral occasions (Vlasov, 1929).\n_Turkey._--At Magharadjik and Arab Dede, found in caves with various\nother animals (Lindberg, 1954).\n=Polyphaga= sp.\n_Burma._--Hsin Dawng Cave, S. Shan States, 1 immature male under stone\nin complete darkness (Chopard, 1924b).\n=Pycnoscelus niger=\n_Tonkin._--Apparently not an accidental inhabitant as nymphs were\npresent (Chopard, 1929a; Colani, 1952).\n=Pycnoscelus striatus=\n_Malaya._--Found burrowing in bats' guano at entrance to caves in\nSelangor, where it was very abundant 50 to 600 feet from entrance; also\non walls of inner cavern (Chopard, 1919, 1929). In the absence of other\nevidence, the presence of _P. striatus_ in a cave indicates that bats\nalso inhabit the cave (Chopard, 1929a).\n=Pycnoscelus surinamensis=\n_Assam._--Found 300 to 400 feet from entrance of Siju cave in the Garo\nHills (Chopard, 1924b).\n_South Celebes._--Hanitsch (1932).\n=Spelaeoblatta gestroi=\n_Burma._--Chopard stated that this species shows marked characteristics\nof adaptation to a life in darkness (Bol\u00edvar, 1897; Annandale, 1913;\nChopard, 1919).\n=Symploce breviramis=\n_South Celebes._--Hanitsch (1932).\n=Symploce cavernicola=\n_Sarawak, Borneo._--Swarming on walls of caves and in soft bird guano on\nthe cave floor (Moulton, 1912). Hanitsch (1931) noted that this species\nwas first recorded by Shelford from a cave in Sarawak and that there is\na series from a cave in the Oxford University Museum, taken by Banks in\n_Malaya._--On the walls of the inner cavern of a cave at Biserat; the\ninsects covered the walls in places (Chopard, 1919).\n_Sumatra._--From Baso cavern, on the west coast (Hebard, 1929).\n=Symploce curta=\n_South Celebes._--Hanitsch (1932).\n=Symploce remyi=\n_Tonkin._--This seems to be a true cavernicolous species (Chopard,\n=Tivia macracantha=\n_Belgian Congo._--A troglophile without well-marked adaptive characters\n(Chopard, 1950a). At Haut-Katanga, troglophile and guanophile (Leleup,\n=Tivia= sp.\n_Madagascar._--Last-stage nymphs captured in guano in Antsinomy grotto\n(Chopard, 1949a).\n=Typhloblatta caeca=\n_India, Assam._--An eyeless species with noticeably elongated appendages\n(Chopard, 1945).\n=Typhloblattodes madecassus=\n_Madagascar._--Unpigmented integument and reduced eyes (Chopard, 1945).\n=Xestoblatta immaculata=\n_Panama._--Found under rocks on guano-covered floor of the Chilibrillo\nbat caves (Caudell, 1924).\n=Unidentified cockroaches=\n_Malaya._--The walls of a cave were covered by dense groups of a species\nof \"_Blatta_\" (Annandale, 1900).\n_England._--\"The chief insect pests of the mines are cockroaches, which\noften swarm in hot mines and those with pit pony stables....\" (Hardy,\nCOCKROACHES FROM THE BURROWS OF VERTEBRATES\n=Arenivaga apacha=\n_Arizona._--In the nests of wood rats, _Neotoma_ sp. (Hebard, 1917).\n=Arenivaga bolliana=\n_Texas._--In the nests of wood rats, _Neotoma_ sp. (Hebard, 1917;\n=Arenivaga erratica=\n_Arizona._--The wingless females were commonly found in burrows of\n_Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis_ Merriam, the kangaroo rat. The\nwinged males were never found in the burrows (Vorhies and Taylor, 1922).\nFound most commonly in wood-rat and ground-squirrel dens in the desert\nregions (Ball et al., 1942).\n=Arenivaga floridensis=\n_Florida._--Found in a burrow of _Peromyscus polionotus rhoadsi_\n(Bangs), the white-footed mouse (Young, 1949).\n=Arenivaga roseni=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Occasionally found in burrows of _Rhombomys opimus_\nLichtenstein; in the burrows of the desert turtle, _Testudo horsfieldi_\nGray; and frequently in burrows of the ground squirrel, _Spermophilopsis\nleptodactylus_ Lichtenstein (Vlasov, 1933; Vlasov and Miram, 1937).\n=Arenivaga tonkawa=\n_Texas._--An immature specimen was found in a prairie-dog hole (Hebard,\n=Cariblatta lutea=\n_Florida._--It has been taken in burrows of the pocket gopher, _Geomys_\nsp. (Hubbell and Goff, 1940).\n=Euthlastoblatta abortiva=\n_Texas._--In the nests of wood rats, _Neotoma_ sp. (Hebard, 1917).\n=Parcoblatta fulvescens=\n_Texas._--In the nests of wood rats, _Neotoma_ sp. (Hebard, 1917).\n=Polyphaga aegyptiaca=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Nymphs and adult females were often found in burrows\nof the sand mouse, _Rhombomys opimus_ (Vlasov, 1933).\n=Polyphaga indica=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--This species prefers sandy soils where it can be found\nin burrows of _Spermophilopsis leptodactylus_ and _Pallasiomys\nmeridionalis pennicilliger_ Heptner (Vlasov and Miram, 1937).\n=Polyphaga saussurei=\n_Tadzhikistan._--Found in burrows of turtles and rodents (Zmeev, 1936).\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Nymphs and adult females are common in burrows of\n_Rhombomys opimus_ and in burrows of _Testudo horsfieldi_. Its principal\nhabitat is rodent burrows in loess dust, where it is not infrequently\nfound in the food stores of the host (Vlasov and Miram, 1937).\n=Pycnoscelus surinamensis=\n_Texas._--In the nests of wood rats, _Neotoma_ sp. (Hebard, 1917).\nDESERT HABITATS\nThere is relatively little ecological information about cockroaches that\nlive in deserts, even though certain species, notably _Polyphaga\naegyptiaca_, have long been known to inhabit arid zones. In fact, so\nlittle is known about the ecology of arid-zone insects in general that\nit is more a subject for research than for review (Pradhan, 1957). In\ntheir account of the cockroaches of Northern Kenya and Jubaland, Kevan\nand Chopard (1954) describe in some detail the vegetational areas of\nthis arid desert or semidesert country, which averages only about 10\ninches of rain per year. The other sources that are cited below contain\nvery little more biological information than the abstracted material\nthat is given under each species.\nNearly all the Polyphaginae are said to be marked xerophiles whose\ndistribution coincides with that of the deserts (Bei-Bienko, 1950). With\nthe exception of _Arenivaga floridana_, the species of Polyphaginae in\nthe United States all occur in the Southwest, where they are (with a few\nexceptions) the only cockroaches that inhabit the desert regions proper\n(Hebard, 1917). The Polyphaginae reach their greatest diversity in the\ndeserts of Northern Africa and Anterior and South-Central Asia\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950). Some of the desert-inhabiting species have also been\nfound under nondesert conditions. This only further exemplifies the\nplasticity of cockroaches in adapting to different environments.\nThe ability of desert insects to live under what appear to be extremely\nunfavorable conditions has been abundantly illustrated by Pradhan\n(1957). Uvarov (1954) has pointed out that a desert \"covers a great\nvariety of landscapes, which provide desert animals with a wide range of\nhabitats, some of them offering very favorable conditions for life.\"\nPradhan (1957) stated that many desert animals avoid the extremes of\ndesert climates by choosing suitable microclimates for diurnal resting\nplaces, that a permanent or temporary underground existence is very\ncommon among insects in arid zones, and that many nocturnal Orthoptera\nburrow into the soil or hide under stones where temperatures are lower.\nFor example, the type of _Parcoblatta desertae_ was found under a\nboulder on the bare desert (Rehn and Hebard, 1909).\nSymbiosis with burrowing animals is another solution to the problem of\nexistence in the desert; in fact, symbiosis is a mode of life adopted by\nnearly half of the desert cockroaches about which we have any\ninformation. Vlasov and Miram (1937) found _Polyphaga indica_,\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, and _Arenivaga roseni_ in the burrows of rodents\nand desert turtles. In the desert regions of Arizona, females of\n_Arenivaga erratica_ were found commonly in burrows of the kangaroo rat\n(Vorhies and Taylor, 1922) and in dens of wood rats and ground squirrels\n(Ball et al., 1942). _Arenivaga apacha_ and _Arenivaga bolliana_ have\nalso been found inhabiting the nests of wood rats (Hebard, 1917; 1943a).\nBei-Bienko (1950) has suggested that the adaptation of desert-inhabiting\ncockroaches to rodent burrows might enable these insects to survive in\nthe severe climatic conditions of deserts in summer.\nUnder desert conditions in southern Arizona, the relative humidity\noutside of the burrows of the kangaroo rat is 1 to 15 percent during the\nday and 15 to 40 percent at night; but inside the burrows the relative\nhumidity is 30 to 50 percent, and the temperature, even during the day,\nis below 30\u00b0 C. (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1949). Thus by living in rodent\nburrows during the day and going outside at night, the desert\ncockroaches could avail themselves of the most favorable microclimates\nobtainable. Presumably whatever food these insects eat provides them\nwith sufficient water to enable them to survive under desert conditions.\nBodenheimer (1953) has suggested that the extent of utilization of dew,\nwhich is sometimes heavy in the desert, should be investigated; he\nstated that tenebrionid beetles have been seen in the early morning\neating dry [dead?] herbs that were still wet with dew. It is obvious\nthat there is a need for additional detailed information without which\nwe can only guess about the ecology of desert cockroaches.\nIn the following list we have cited only those species that were stated\nto have been found under desert conditions. Undoubtedly, related species\nthat have been taken in similar localities are also desert-inhabiting\nforms, as, for example, other species of _Arenivaga_ that were collected\nin Texas by Hebard (1943a). In the absence of specific information\nlinking such other species with deserts, we have arbitrarily relegated\nthose forms to the section on outdoor habitats. In addition to the\nspecies listed below, desert cockroaches are said to be found in the\nfollowing genera: _Anisogamia_, _Mononychoblatta_, and _Nymphytria_\n(Chopard, 1938).\nDESERT COCKROACHES\n=Agis orientalis=\n_Northern Kenya._--In desert-grass and thorn-bush country; scattered,\ndry tufts of grasses interspersed among acacia bush and scattered trees\n(Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Arenivaga apacha=\n_U.S.A._--Inhabits desert regions of the Southwest, has been found in\nnests of wood rats (Hebard, 1917).\n=Arenivaga bolliana=\n_U.S.A._--On gravelly hillocks, in scattered scrub, and in the nests of\nwood rats in Texas. It is a desert inhabitant in the Southwest (Hebard,\n=Arenivaga erratica=\n_U.S.A._--Inhabits desert regions of the Southwest (Hebard, 1917). In\nArizona it has been found in rodent burrows in the desert (Vorhies and\nTaylor, 1922; Ball et al., 1942).\n=Arenivaga roseni=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Predominantly found in burrows in sand; all stages\n\"swim\" in sand and loess dust (Vlasov and Miram, 1937).\n=Blattella vaga=\n_Arizona._--Found in small numbers on the dry desert (Flock, 1941a).\n=Compsodes schwarzi=\n_U.S.A._--Occurs in the Southwest where it is confined to the desert and\nsemidesert mountainous areas, rarely being found on the desert floor\n(Hebard, 1917). Taken in an ant nest in mountains of Arizona (Ball et\n=Cyrtotria capucina=\n_Eastern Africa._--\"Commonly met with under d\u00e9bris, the apterous females\nbeing most frequent.\" Thorn-bush country (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Derocalymma lampyrina=\n_Northern Kenya._--Very abundant; both sexes under d\u00e9bris in\ndesert-grass and thorn-bush country (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Derocalymma porcellio=\n_Northern Kenya._--Taken in upland grassland and bush (Kevan and\nChopard, 1954).\n=Deropeltis autraniana=\n_Northern Kenya._--In thorn-bush country (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Deropeltis melanophila=\n_Northern Kenya._--\"Very commonly found at the base of tufts of grass\nand other d\u00e9bris, the apterous female particularly in the latter\nsituation\"; in upland grassland near forest; in thorn-bush country\n(Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Deropeltis nigrita=\n_Northern Kenya._--Taken in upland grassland and bush (Kevan and\nChopard, 1954).\n=Eremoblatta subdiaphana=\n_U.S.A._--Apparently found in greatest abundance in the extreme desert\nconditions of the southwestern United States (Hebard, 1917). Two small\ngroups of males were observed in the midst of the sandy desert north of\nYuma, Ariz.; these insects alternately flew and ran over the sand in the\nhot sun while headed in a southwesterly direction (Wheeler, 1911).\n=Euandroblatta palpalis=\n_Northern Kenya._--In desert-grass and thorn-bush country (Kevan and\nChopard, 1954).\n=Heterogamodes rugosa=\n_Northern Kenya._--\"All from desert grass and thorn bush (on sand).\" It\nwas stated (under discussion of _Tivia fulva_) that _Heterogamodes_\nfemales live more or less buried in the sand (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Namablatta bitaeniata=\n_Southwestern Africa._--Limited in distribution to the more arid\nportions, being peculiar to extreme desert conditions (Rehn, 1937).\n=Nauphoeta punctipennis=\n_Northern Kenya._--In desert grass and thorn bush; \"probably the\ncommonest of all the medium-sized cockroaches occurring in the area\nunder discussion, coming very freely to light\" (Kevan and Chopard,\n=Parcoblatta desertae=\n_U.S.A._--In the desert and semidesert mountainous areas of the\nSouthwest; it is rarely found on the desert floor (Hebard, 1917). Found\nunder boulder on bare desert (Rehn and Hebard, 1909).\n=Polyphaga aegyptiaca=\n_Caucasus._--The wingless female was found buried in sand and dust\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Although this species is secondarily encountered in\ndwellings and courtyards, it is a very characteristic insect of the\nTrans-Caspian deserts; the females are encountered fairly frequently as\ninhabitants of sand, where they run slowly over the surface, or dig\nthemselves into the sand to continue their forward motion not far below\nthe surface (Fausek, 1906). Uvarov (_in_ Chopard, 1929b) indicated that\nfemales of this genus are found in various desert localities,\nparticularly where vegetative debris occurs, but they are not strictly\nattached to sandy terrain.\n=Polyphaga indica=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--This species prefers sandy soils where the nymphs,\nalate males, and wingless females \"swim\" readily through the sand; they\ncan also be found in the burrows of desert animals (Vlasov and Miram,\n=Polyphaga saussurei=\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Its principal habitats are rodent burrows in loess\ndust and burrows of the desert turtle (Vlasov and Miram, 1937).\n=Supella hottentotta=\n_Northern Kenya._--Taken in bushes by dry river bed and in desert-grass\nand thorn-bush country at several stations (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n\"...taken with light at night running on bark of a large acacia tree\"\n=Symploce kevani=\n_Northern Kenya._--In desert grass and thorn-bush country (Kevan and\nChopard, 1954).\n=Theganopteryx straminea=\n_Northern Kenya._--Taken at three stations in desert grass and thorn\nbush (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Tivia brunnea=\n_Northern Kenya._--In open sandy, riverine bush (scanty ground cover\namong acacia trees and doum palms) (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Tivia fulva=\n_Northern Kenya._--In desert grass and thorn bush; distributed in\nsemidesert areas south of Sahara; the apterous females probably live\nburied in sand (Kevan and Chopard, 1954).\n=Tivia obscura=\n_Northern Kenya._--In desert grass and thorn bush (Kevan and Chopard,\nAQUATIC HABITATS\nThe so-called aquatic or amphibious cockroaches are all members of the\nsubfamily Epilamprinae (Chopard, 1938). These forms are not nearly as\naquatic as water beetles or aquatic Hemiptera, but in their relations to\nwater they behave differently from nonamphibious cockroaches, which tend\nto avoid water except for drinking. There are apparently no special\nmorphological characteristics that distinguish amphibious cockroaches\n(Shelford, 1907, 1909a; Chopard, 1938), although Takahashi (1926) listed\nseveral characters that he considered made _Opisthoplatia maculata_\nadapted for an aquatic life: (1) Back of body easily wetted; (2) long\nhairs on underside of thorax trap air; (3) terminal abdominal spiracles\nopen into tubes that extend rearward; (4) long hairs on ventral surfaces\nof cerci \"protect\" terminal abdominal spiracles. Annandale (1906) also\nsuggested that the position of the posterior abdominal spiracles, at the\nbase of tubes that project rearward from beneath the seventh tergite,\nare an adaptation to an aquatic life. However, as Shelford (1907) and\nChopard (1938) have pointed out, this same feature may be observed in\nmany terrestrial cockroaches. The legs of amphibious cockroaches are\nsimilar to those of nonaquatic species and are not modified for swimming\n(Shelford, 1909a; Takahashi, 1926).\nBiological observations have been made on relatively few species, but\nrepresentatives of at least six genera occur in quasi-aquatic habitats.\nStrictly speaking, these cockroaches live on land at the edges of\nstreams or pools and spend relatively brief periods in the water. A few\nspecies are found in water-filled bromeliads. The behavior of the known\namphibious species of cockroaches in relation to their habitats is\ndiscussed below.\nAMPHIBIOUS COCKROACHES\n=Audreia bromeliadarum=\n_Panama._--These insects when disturbed would dive into the water that\nhad collected in the base of the bromeliad; they would disappear beneath\nthe surface and remain submerged for some considerable time (Caudell,\n=Dryadoblatta scotti=\n_Trinidad._--This species was taken from the leaf bases of _Tillandsia_\nsp. at 3,100 feet; water had collected between the leaves and the insect\nwas presumed to be more or less amphibious (Scott, 1912). Subaquatic in\nthe bromeliad _Glomeropitcairnia erectiflora_: \"This large and handsome\nspecies [_D. scotti_] is very common in the larger, water-filled,\nepiphytic bromeliads of the rain forest. Within these plants it is\nusually to be found, often in considerable numbers, just above the\nsurface of the water or partly immersed in it. The cockroaches will\ndescend rapidly into the water when alarmed and probably obtain their\nnourishment from the accumulated organic matter in the water. Floating\nmaterial is probably taken and it seems less likely that they feed below\nthe surface. They appear to be ovoviviparous.\" (Princis and Kevan,\n=Epilampra abdomen-nigrum=\n_Puerto Rico._--Abundant in wet \"malojillo\" meadows. The nymphs swim\neasily and remain under water for long periods, as do the adults (Se\u00edn,\n_Panama._--A swimming nymph, captured in a dipper with mosquito larvae\nin a lagoon of the Rio Chilibre, was kept under observations in an\naquarium. If disturbed, the insect dived into the water from floating\nvegetation and swam rapidly below the surface for a minute or two.\nFinally becoming quiescent, the cockroach would then cling to submerged\nroots; twice it remained still for 15 minutes before climbing to the\nsurface, where it remained for five or more minutes before emerging\ncompletely (Crowell, 1946).\n=Epilampra annandalei=\n_Lower Burma._--One male and three nymphs were collected in the Dawna\nHills by Annandale who made the following observations: \"The wingless\nspecimens were under stones in a jungle stream and behaved just as the\none I obtained in Chota, Nagpur, did [Annandale, 1906]. The winged\nspecimen was under a stone at the edge of the stream, but swam readily.\nIt did not seem so much at home in the water, however, and apparently\ncould not, owing to the wings, raise the tip of its abdomen above the\nsurface.\" (Shelford, 1909a.)\n=Epilampra= sp.\n_Siamese Malay States._--Wingless females rested on floating logs from\nwhich they would dive into the water upon the least disturbance; they\nremained under water for several minutes, then surfaced beneath the\nshelter of the log. In the jungle all females were taken either in the\nwater or among matted roots on the sides of the stream. Winged males\nwere seen rising from the surface of the water (Annandale, 1900).\n_Sarawak._--All specimens were immature; they swam and dived well, but\nwere soon drowned if prevented from rising to the surface to breathe.\n\"When at rest the body of the cockroach is almost entirely submerged,\nthe tip of the abdomen alone projecting above the surface of the water;\nthe abdomen moves gently up and down and every 30-40 seconds a bubble of\nair issues from the prothoracic spiracle on each side.\" (Shelford, 1901,\n_India._--A nymphal female, found in a jungle stream at Chota Nagpur,\ncould swim with belly or back upward. When held under water it drowned\nin a few minutes. The tip of the abdomen was held out of water\n(Annandale, 1906).\nShelford (1907) has suggested that the immature stages of terrestrial\nspecies of _Epilampra_ may well be amphibious. This is an area that\ncould profit by more field observations.\n=Opisthoplatia maculata=\n_Formosa._--Invariably found under or between rocks near mountain\nstreams. The wingless adult and the nymph have similar habits. Normally\nthe cockroach lives on land, and when it goes into the water it returns\nto land within a few minutes. This cockroach rarely swims, but when it\ndoes, it maintains its body in a horizontal position just below the\nsurface of the water. Ordinarily, it walks on the river bottom or on\nwater-covered rocks. This insect feeds on decayed leaves and, according\nto Shikano, it will eat human feces. (Takahashi, 1926.)\nThis species has a large number of long hydrophobic hairs on the ventral\nsides of the thorax and anterior abdominal segments. When the insect\nsubmerges, air is trapped in these hairs. The thoracic and one pair of\nabdominal spiracles open into the bubble of trapped air. However, the\ninsect apparently does not use this plastron of air to replenish its\ntracheal air supply, but, like _Rhicnoda natatrix_ (see below), it\ninspires air while at the surface through its posterior abdominal\nspiracles and expires air into the bubble under the thorax. While the\ninsect is submerged, the air bubble increases in volume until part of it\nbreaks away and floats to the surface. (Takahashi, 1926.)\n=Opisthoplatia orientalis=\n_Formosa._--Lives on or in swampy ground (Takahashi, 1924).\n=Rhicnoda natatrix=\n_Sarawak._--Immature cockroaches were found in sodden leaves at the edge\nof a pool, where they rested for hours at a time. Generally the fore\npart of the body was in the water but the tip of the abdomen was always\nin air. When disturbed the insects dived into the water and hid under\nsticks and stones on the bottom. Air is inspired through the posterior\nabdominal spiracles, when they projected above the water surface, and\nexpired through the thoracic spiracles. In experiments in which the\ninsects' abdomens were held immersed in water, with the thorax exposed,\nthe insects died in 6 to 12 hours or less. (Shelford, 1907.)\n=Stictolampra buqueti concinula=\n_Westsumba._--Found under moist fallen leaves on gravelly shore of\nMelolo River. The nymphs distinguished themselves through their\namphibious mode of life and were often good swimmers (Princis, 1957a).\n=Unidentified epilamprines=\n_Brazil._--These cockroaches were found under stones at the side of a\nrocky stream at Ouro Preto. When disturbed they ran down under the\nsurface of the water and hid under stones at the bottom. When thrown on\nthe water surface, they were helpless, and to get beneath the water\nsurface they had to walk down some object. When they had penetrated the\nsurface film they could swim freely. Specimens kept in jars lived\nseveral days with only a portion of their abdomens exposed to the air.\n(Bristowe, 1925.)\nOUTDOOR HABITATS\nThis category is a catchall for all cockroaches that are not limited to\nthe more circumscribed habitats that have been previously considered.\nSome cockroaches in this section select specific microhabitats (e.g.,\n_Cryptocercus_ spp., which live exclusively in rotten logs; and\n_Neoblattella dryas_, _N. eurydice_, and _N. grossbecki_ in bromeliads).\nOthers are found in a wide variety of habitats (e.g., _Ischnoptera\nderopeltiformis_ and _Parcoblatta_ spp.). But some species are so little\nknown that their actual habitats are barely suggested in the collection\ndata.\nWilliams (1941) made an ecological study of the floor fauna of the\nPanama rain forest. He found Orthoptera (nearly all were unidentified\nnymphal cockroaches) in the litter of dead leaves, twigs, and other\nplant products in over 90 percent of the quadrats he examined. These\ninsects represented about 0.25 percent of the total animal population.\nDelamare Deboutteville (1948) made a quantitative study of the animal\npopulation in suspended soil that had accumulated between the roots of\nforest epiphytes of the lower Ivory Coast. He analyzed 2 dm.^3 samples\nof soil from an epiphyte located 45 meters above ground on a main branch\nof _Parinarium_, with these results: _Horizon A._--Superficial zone of\nlarge rootlets, 6 cm. deep: 2 cockroaches, 4 arachnids, and 4 beetles.\n_Horizon B._--Zone of fine rootlets, 6 cm. deep: 6 cockroaches and\nnumerous other arthropods. _Horizon C._--Humid zone, 8 cm. deep: 7\ncockroaches and numerous other arthropods. Plants, such as _Palissota_,\nwere also living in this very original biotype.\nThe species of cockroaches listed below have been found in the following\nkinds of outdoor microhabitats: In jungle, forest, and woodlands they\nhave been found in rotten wood; under bark of living, dead, and fallen\ntrees; in decay cavities in trees; burrowing in living bark; on foliage\nof trees, shrubs, bushes, and low herbage; on vines and in bromeliads\nand epiphytic ferns; under signs on trees and stumps; in piles of logs\nand firewood; under dead leaves and debris; in and under decaying fruit\non the ground. Cockroaches have been found between the leaves and under\nleaf sheaths of sugarcane, corn, and other grasses; under dry fibers and\nfronds of coconut trees; in hollow stems and bases of tree-fern fronds;\nunder bracts of banana blossoms and in bunches of bananas (p. 146).\nCockroaches also inhabit abandoned cocoons and larval tents, wasp nests,\nant nests, termite nests, bird nests, rat nests, and burrows of other\nrodents (pp. 23-25, 310-319). Cockroaches have been found in rock\ncrevices and under rocks; under boards and other objects on ground;\nunder seaweed, drift, and other debris on beaches; burrowing in soil and\nunder clods of earth; in marshes and swamps; in dumps and rubbish\nheaps.\nThe above list does not exhaust the available outdoor microhabitats that\ncockroaches find suitable for their continued existence, but it is\nfairly representative. Although we have no measurements to substantiate\nthis conclusion, we suggest that the microhabitats cited above have a\nmore constant temperature and a relatively higher humidity than is\nprovided by the surrounding macrohabitats. We would expect insects such\nas cockroaches, whose water balance is dependent on a continuous supply\nof fluid water or moist food, to seek moist environments or to avoid\nsituations in which their transpiration might increase. Deviations,\npresumably brief, from this expected behavior must occur to account for\nthe cockroaches that are found under relatively unfavorable\nenvironmental conditions. Despite the apparent preference for cryptic\nhabitats, some cockroaches are found in hot sunlight (_Ellipsidion_\nspp.; Tepper, 1893); Rehn (1945) has stated that many kinds are diurnal\nrather than nocturnal. Movement of cockroaches between habitats may be\nassumed to occur; but movement from an unfavorable environment to a more\nfavorable one, following a shift in water balance, has not been observed\nin nature; however, laboratory experiments suggest that the mechanism\nfor mediating such behavior is present in some species of cockroaches\n(Gunn and Cosway, 1938; Roth and Willis, 1952a). Obviously, additional\nresearch is needed on the bionomics of all species. Further conclusions\nbased on current limited knowledge can only be speculative and possibly\nmisleading.\nCOCKROACHES FROM OUTDOOR HABITATS\n(Except Amphibious, Desert, and Cavernicolous Forms)\n=Aglaopteryx absimilis=\n_Puerto Rico._--Living in rotten, wooden fence; living between leaves of\n_Samanea saman_ and in abandoned cocoons of _Megalopyge krugii_ on\nbucare trees (Wolcott, 1950).\n_Leeward Islands._--On coconut tree (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Aglaopteryx facies=\n_Puerto Rico._--As _diaphana_, in dead branch 10 feet above the ground\non Mona Island (Hebard, 1917). In trunks of trees under bark and very\noften in abandoned cocoons of the \"plumilla\" (Se\u00edn, 1923). On rotten,\nwooden fence; in empty cocoons of _Megalopyge krugii_ on trunks of\nbucare trees, _Erythrina glauca_; on trunk of _Inga laurina_; in larval\ntents of _Tetralopha scabridella_ on _Inga vera_ (Wolcott, 1936). In\nlarge numbers in nests of the gray kingbird (Wolcott, 1950).\n=Aglaopteryx diaphana=\n_West Indies._--In Cuba, under corky bark of large tree in open;\nJamaica, under loose bark of shade trees and in bracts of banana\nblossoms; in bromeliads and hollow bases of dead tree-fern fronds (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1927).\n=Aglaopteryx gemma=\n_Florida._--On Long Key, under coquina boulder in heavy scrub; under\nloose, dry fibers near head of standing coconut palm (Rehn and Hebard,\n1912). Climbing on roots of red mangrove, _Rhizophora mangle_, in swamp;\nunder loose bark on trunk of _Exothea paniculata_ in dense jungle; under\nlimestone boulder in keys scrub; under signs on oaks, sweet gum, and\nlongleaf pines in southeastern and southern States (Hebard, 1917).\nInfrequent in the shrub growth of the Sandhills habitat (Friauf, 1953).\n_Texas._--In undergrowth of pine forest; under sign on oak near river;\nin _Tillandsia_ sp. (Hebard, 1917). Usually in hiding places on trees;\nonly once found under a stone on ground (Hebard, 1943a).\n=Allacta similis=\n_Hawaii._--Common in hollow stems and under bark (Swezey and Williams,\n=Amazonina emarginata=\n_Trinidad._--On low herbage, on hibiscus at night, and in banana bunch\n(Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Anaplecta asema=\n_Panama._--Under dead leaves in jungle (Hebard, 1920).\n=Anaplecta decipiens=\n_Costa Rica._--In decayed leaves (Rehn, 1906).\n=Anaplecta fallax=\n_Costa Rica._--Under stones on borders of Surubres River (Rehn, 1906).\n=Anaplecta hemiscotia=\n_Panama._--Under rubbish at edge of jungle and in overgrowth of heavy\nvines on low bushes (Hebard, 1920).\n=Anaplecta lateralis=\n_Panama._--Under drift on edge of coral-sand beach (Hebard, 1920).\n=Arenivaga bolliana=\n_Texas._--In dense jungle brush of the river plain; on gravelly hillocks\nin scattered scrub; under debris and leaf mold under mesquite trees; in\nrat's nests, _Neotoma_ sp. (Hebard, 1917). In dry earth under bush;\ninhabits litter on ground and nests of rats (Hebard, 1943a).\n=Arenivaga floridensis=\n_Florida._--Male on ground under leaves of cabbage palmetto (Blatchley,\n1920). Females in sand under boards and debris along lake shore (Friauf\n_in_ Cantrall, 1941). Infrequent on bare soil and ground under\nvegetation in the longleaf-pine flatwoods habitat (Friauf, 1953). In\nrodent burrow (Young, 1949).\n=Arenivaga grata=\n_Texas._--Under stones in upper canyon; under rocks in pine-oak forest;\nfrom oak-manzanita forest along dry stream bed (Hebard, 1943a).\n=Aristiger histrio=\n_Malaya._--Lives freely on bushes and flowers of _Passiflora_ sp.\n=Aspiduchus boriquen=\n_Puerto Rico._--\"Apparently the species [as _deplanatus_] is locally\nnumerous in suitable locations, such as caves, rock crevices and the\nshelter of large stones.\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Audreia bromeliadarum=\n_Panama._--Perfectly at home in bromeliads (see p. 31) (Caudell, 1914).\n=Audreia jamaicana=\n_Jamaica._--In bromeliads; under dead wood in dense forest (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Balta godeffroyi=\n_Australia._--Under bark (Hebard, 1943).\n=Balta quadricaudata=\n_Australia._--From sugarcane (Hebard, 1943).\n=Balta scripta=\n_Australia, Queensland._--On leaves, grass, and sugarcane (Hebard,\n=Balta torresiana=\n_Australia._--From leaves, under bark, from sugarcane (Hebard, 1943).\n=Balta verticalis=\n_Australia._--In leaves, from tree, from sugarcane (Hebard, 1943).\n=Blaberus atropus=\n_Trinidad._--Female in rotting log (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Blaberus discoidalis=\n_Jamaica._--Under dead coconut petioles in open spot. Gundlach found it\nunder stones in a field in Cuba (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Blaberus giganteus=\n_Trinidad._--Nymph in rotten palm tree (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Blaberus= spp.\n_Venezuela._--Only taken in the forests of the Orinoco near the trunks\nof rotten trees at night (Doumerc _in_ Blanchard, 1837).\n_Panama._--Among dead leaves and debris on floor of rain forest (E. C.\nWilliams, Jr., 1941).\n=Blatta lateralis=\n_U.S.S.R._--Found among rocks at 2,000 or more meters elevation. It is\nfound in cultivated areas as well as in mountainous landscapes and in\nsemideserts (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Blatta orientalis=\n_Great Britain._--One female nymph under bark of tree 10 feet above the\nground (Burr, 1900). Swarming within a rubbish heap in February (Lucas,\n1912). In refuse tip under old sacks and sheets of linoleum (Hallett\n_in_ Lucas, 1922). Male under bark of oak far from houses (Donisthorpe,\n1918). One adult female and nymph in prone dead elm 50 yards from house\n(Burr, 1937). An immature male at the roots of _Ballota nigra_ (Buck\n_in_ Gardner, 1954). Four additional records of this species outdoors\naway from houses (Lucas, 1920).\n_Southern Crimea._--Under stones, dead leaves, and detritus in small\ncopses of _Quercus pubescens_, _Carpinus orientalis_, _Cornus mas_,\n_Paliurus aculeatus_, and _Dictamnus fraxinella_; 19 specimens,\napparently breeding outdoors (Adelung, 1907).\n_North-central U.S._--Observations since 1950 indicate a marked increase\nin frequency and duration of infestations outdoors; observed in bare\nsoil, vegetation, debris, alongside foundations in sodded areas, along\nsidewalks, and at edge of parking areas throughout the year; in some\nurban residential areas, the yards of whole blocks of houses were\n\"alive\" with this species on warm summer nights; in winter they have\nbeen found under stones, leaf debris, and soil near structures (Shuyler,\n=Blattella germanica=\n_Algeria._--Under moist leaves in woods (Lucas, 1849).\n_California._--Under rubbish and on date palms (Herms, 1926).\n_Connecticut._--In city dump under loose material, very numerous\n(Walden, 1922). Additional infestations of dumps by this species have\nbeen reported in New York (Felt, 1926, 1928) and New Jersey (Hansens,\n_England._--Swarming within a rubbish heap in February (Lucas, 1912).\n_Formosa._--Lives among fallen leaves on the ground (Takahashi, 1924).\n_North-central U.S._--Reported living outdoors near buildings and in\nsoil under basementless buildings from early summer to late fall\n(Shuyler, 1956).\n=Blattella humbertiana=\n_India._--Common among decaying vegetation and on trees (Chopard and\nChatterjee, 1937).\n_Formosa._--Normally found in sugarcane fields, pineapple fields, and\ngrasslands where it feeds on decayed leaves and other decayed vegetable\nmatter and dead insects. It lies concealed among and under fallen leaves\nand clods of earth on or close to ground and never on the upper parts of\nplants, except pineapple where it is found among the leaves (Takahashi,\n=Blattella vaga=\n_Arizona._--Typically an inhabitant of irrigated fields and yards, it is\nfound in fewer numbers on the dry desert. It is found under stones,\nplant debris, and clumps of earth; found in greatest numbers around\ndecaying dates on ground (Flock, 1941a).\n_Texas._--Beneath duff under athel trees; rather abundant in clumps of\nRhodes grass (Riherd, 1953).\n=Byrsotria cabrerae=\n_Cuba._--In sea-coast woods: \"The species [this and _Byrsotria\nfumigata_] are ground-dwelling, hiding under stones and other shelter\"\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Byrsotria fumigata=\n_Cuba._--Ground dwelling, hiding under stones, etc.; also a cave\ninhabitant (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cahita borero=\n_Brazil, Matto Grosso._--Beaten from tree foliage in dry scrub, from\ntree foliage at edge of dry riverine tangle, and from undergrowth in a\ndry forest area (Rehn, 1937a).\n=Cahita nahua=\n_Honduras._--All beaten from foliage along roads or in thickets, during\nrainy season (Rehn, 1937a).\n=Cariblatta antiguensis=\n_Virgin Islands, St. Croix._--Common under heaps of rubbish (Beatty,\n_Trinidad._--On herbage below bananas; all stages on _Hibiscus_ at\nnight; in grass at dusk; on low herbage under old coconut (Princis and\n=Cariblatta cuprea=\n_Jamaica._--In leaves on leaf mold in hillside forest (Hebard, 1916a).\n=Cariblatta delicatula=\n_West Indies._--In debris in short grass in open, Cuba. Under dead\npetioles of coconut palms, San Domingo. In leaves on leaf mold in\nhillside forest, Jamaica (Hebard, 1916a).\n=Cariblatta hylaea=\n_Honduras._--Found at foot and on lower slopes of first ridges of the\nSierra Pija, from 75 to at least 800 feet above sea level, where\nvegetation ranged from abandoned banana patches overgrown with\n_Heliconia_ and _Cecropia_ and interspersed with forest trees, at the\nfoot of the hills, to primeval lowland forest (ceibas, figs, palms,\netc.) on the slopes. In the banana patches _C. hylaea_ was found on\nhanging dead banana and _Cecropia_ leaves; on the slopes it was found on\nundergrowth foliage, hanging dead leaves, and in dead leaves on ground\n=Cariblatta imitans=\n_Panama._--Among loose leaves on leaf mold in heavy jungle (Hebard,\n=Cariblatta insularis=\n_Jamaica._--One of the most frequently encountered orthopterous insects\nin bromeliads on trees (Hebard, 1916a, 1917; Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cariblatta jamaicensis=\n_Jamaica._--In decaying herbage (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cariblatta landalei=\n_Jamaica._--All specimens taken from under drying bracts of banana\nblossoms (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cariblatta lutea lutea=\n_North Carolina._--Under pine straw on ground in woods (Brimley, 1908).\n_Southeastern U.S._--Under dead oak leaves; under dead needles in\nlongleaf-pine woods; in wire grass; under refuse; beaten from\nundergrowth in pine and oak woods (Rehn and Hebard, 1916). In\nundergrowth of shortleaf-pine, longleaf-pine, and oak woods; in heavy\nscrub in damp spot of sand dune area; from high bushes, _Ilex coriacea_\n[=_lucida_] along inland swampy area (Hebard, 1916a). \"The species is\nin large part terrestrial, being usually found among dead leaves and\nlitter on the ground. Occasional specimens are, however, sometimes\nbeaten from bushes. Individuals are decidedly active and are usually to\nbe found in the greatest numbers in sandy situations\" (Hebard, 1917).\n_Florida._--Throughout winter and spring they are frequent beneath\nleaves and other debris on ground, especially in dry, sandy locations\n(Blatchley, 1920). Friauf (1953) found this species under debris, fallen\nleaves, leaf mold, or decaying wood in these habitats: Dry, ruderal\ngrassland (infrequent), scrub (frequent), sandhills (dominant), xeric\nhammock (infrequent), mesic hammock (dominant), pond margin\n(infrequent), longleaf-pine flatwoods (frequent), bayhead (occasional),\nlow hammock (frequent), and alluvial hammock (occasional). In the shrub\nstratum in these habitats: Scrub (frequent), sandhills (dominant), and\nxeric hammock (infrequent). In herbaceous stratum in these habitats:\nSandhills (dominant), mesic hammock (dominant), and black-pine flatwoods\n(infrequent). On bare soil or bare sand under vegetation in these\nhabitats: Sandhills (dominant), pond margin (infrequent), longleaf-pine\nflatwoods (frequent), and slash-pine flatwoods (frequent) (Friauf,\n=Cariblatta lutea minima=\n_Florida._--Series of specimens captured on Long Key under dead petioles\nof coconut palm on moist ground at edges of pools of brackish water.\nSpecimens from Key West were in dry dead grass under boards (Rehn and\nHebard, 1912). Nymphs frequent under bark on decaying pine logs in pine\nwoods; occasional in leaf mold in heavy junglelike scrub (Rehn and\nHebard, 1914). In water-soaked leaves in heavy red-mangrove swamp\n(Hebard, 1915). Under dead petioles of coconut palm on sandy soil in\ngrapefruit grove (Hebard, 1916a). Numerous at bases of tufts of coarse\ngrass growing just back of sea beach (Blatchley, 1920). Friauf (1953)\nfound this species in leaf duff, leaf mold, debris, or decaying wood in\nthese habitats: Dry, ruderal grassland (occasional), scrub (infrequent),\nsandhills (infrequent), mesic hammock (infrequent), pond margin\n(occasional), longleaf-pine flatwoods (occasional), and low hammock\n(infrequent). On bare soil or bare sand under vegetation in these\nhabitats: Longleaf-pine flatwoods (occasional) and slash-pine flatwoods\n(occasional). Dominant in the spartina marsh habitat in the grass\nstratum and duff around clumps. Frequent in the saw-grass marsh habitat\nin the grass stratum and, during the dry season, in decaying vegetation\non the marsh floor.\n=Cariblatta nebulicola=\n_Jamaica._--Adults in dead leaf litter alongside the trail in dense\nforest of tree ferns, _Podocarpus_, _Cyrilla_, and other trees; the\nforest was bathed in fog much of the time (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cariblatta reticulosa=\n_Jamaica._--In leaves on leaf mold in hillside forest (Hebard, 1916a).\nModerately numerous in leaf litter in mangrove swamp; in decaying\nherbage (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cariblatta stenophrys=\n_Puerto Rico._--Between the leaves and under the leaf sheaths of corn\n=Cariblatta= spp.\n_West Indies._--The tropical species of this genus inhabit heavy forest,\nliving among the fallen leaves resting on the leaf mold, in epiphytic\nbromeliads, and in dead agaves (Hebard, 1916a; Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cariblattoides instigator=\n_Cuba._--In siftings from under sea grapes, other shrubs, and low trees\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Cariblattoides suave=\n_Puerto Rico._--On dry limestone hills (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Ceratinoptera picta=\n_Trinidad._--Under bark of old cacao tree (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Chorisoneura flavipennis=\n_Costa Rica._--Under stones on borders of Surubres River (Rehn, 1906).\n=Chorisoneura formosella=\n_Jamaica._--Swept from huckleberry trees (_Vaccinium meridionale_) (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1927).\n=Chorisoneura parishi=\n_Panama._--From jungle undergrowth (Hebard, 1920).\n=Chorisoneura specilliger=\n_Panama._--In grass (Hebard, 1920).\n=Chorisoneura texensis=\n_Florida._--\"The almost impenetrable jungle on Key Largo was examined,\nand in its depths the two specimens of this species were secured by\nbeating the lower branches of gumbo limbo, other trees and the lower\nbushes and shrubs, among which latter are to be found such tropical\nforms as _Ocotea catesbyana_ [=_Nectandra coriacea_] and _Citharexylum\nvillosum_\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1912). In nests of webworm and beaten from\nbushes of bayberry, _Myrica cerifera_, along edge of pine woods (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1916). Beneath dead leaves in oak woods and beaten from\nfoliage of oak and bayberry (Blatchley, 1920). Infrequent in the tall\nshrub stratum of the xeric hammock habitat (Friauf, 1953).\n_Texas._--The great majority of specimens were beaten from foliage of\nbushes (Hebard, 1943a).\n_Southeastern and southern U.S._--In undergrowth in pine woods; beaten\nfrom shrubbery, from bayberry bushes, from lower branches of gumbo limbo\nand other trees, from lower bushes and shrubs in jungle, and from low\noaks on hills. In Texas, beaten from tall weeds in opening in\nriver-plain jungle scrub (Hebard, 1917).\n=Chorisoneura translucida=\n_Panama._--In jungle vegetation, including vines covering low bushes\n(Hebard, 1920).\n=Chromatonotus infuscatus=\n_Trinidad._--Males on low herbage under old cacao tree (Princis and\n=Chromatonotus notatus=\n_Trinidad._--Males in orchard on low herbage at night; females under\nrefuse and in grass (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Comptolampra liturata=\n_Malaya._--Often found between dry foliage in the beakers of the\nepiphytic fern, _Asplenium nidus_, although the species lives mainly in\nbamboo bushes (Karny, 1924).\n=Cryptocercus punctulatus=\n_North Carolina._--\"They were never found except in parts of the logs\n[chestnut] where the decayed wood was soft, punky and wet\" (Rehn and\nHebard, 1910).\n_Oregon._--In fir logs where sap wood was soggy (Hebard, 1917).\n_Virginia._--In decaying chestnut and pine logs; taken six times in\nchestnut and once in pine (Hebard, 1917). In rotten logs in deep ravines\nof moist woods (Davis, 1926).\n_Appalachian Mountains, U.S._--In southern Virginia and eastern\nTennessee, it is usually quite abundant in well-forested areas at\nelevations from 3,000 to 5,000 feet; \"sometimes even a majority of the\ndead logs on a mountain side have roaches in them\" (Cleveland et al.,\n1934). This cockroach not only lives in rotten, dead logs but also in\nsound logs that have been down only a few years. In Virginia it is found\nmore often in chestnut and hemlock. \"It occurs fairly often in oak, and\nhas been found in pine, spruce, and arbor vitae.... There is little\nevidence that they ever leave the log and enter the ground\" (Cleveland\n=Cryptocercus relictus=\n_Eastern Manchuria._--In great numbers under rotting fallen trees and in\nrotten dead wood (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Cutilia soror=\n_Marquesas Islands._--Males under stones and dead log (Hebard, 1933a).\n_Hawaii._--In soil about roots of pineapple (Illingworth, 1927). Often\nfound about roots of grasses and weeds and other debris (Williams et\nal., 1931). Under stones and pineapple mulching paper (Fullaway and\nKrauss, 1945).\n_Wake Island._--Numerous, some from rotten logs. Found in bunch grass on\nOcean Island (Bryan, 1926).\n=Cutilia= spp.\n_Australia._--Frequent woods where they leave shelter soon after sunset\nand run actively on ground or ascend shrubs and trees in quest of prey\n(Tepper, 1893).\n=Dendroblatta sobrina=\n_Panama._--Colony on tree trunk; on surface of trunk of fallen tree\n(Hebard, 1920).\n=Diploptera punctata=\n_Hawaii._--\"Crowds of these insects in various stages of development\nsometimes gather in cypress trees, in suitable chinks, in old flowerhead\nsheaths of palms, etc., and even more or less openly on leafy twigs, in\nbunch grass, and the species is at times locally abundant behind the\nolder leaf bases of sugar cane\" (Williams et al., 1931). Williams also\nlists the following as food plants: _Cryptomeria_, algaroba, lime trees,\nripening mangoes, papayas, and oranges. However, Bianchi (personal\ncommunication, 1954) doubted that any of the above are the main dietary,\nbecause the largest populations he had seen \"were found in the fairly\ndry litter of Star Jasmine (_Jasminum pubescens_ Willd.), well removed\nfrom any of the plants mentioned by Williams.\"\n_Raiatea, Society Islands._--Beaten out of bracken (Cheesman, 1927).\n_Uahuka, Marquesas Islands._--Under bark (Hebard, 1933a).\n=Dryadoblatta scotti=\n_Trinidad._--Very common in water-filled, epiphytic bromeliads in the\nrain forest (see p. 31) (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Ectobius africanus=\n_Belgian Congo._--Females in forest margin and in forest undergrowth\n=Ectobius albicinctus=\n_South France._--Females and young beneath stones (Blair, 1922).\n=Ectobius duskei=\n_U.S.S.R._--In the steppe belt, it is a very characteristic member of\nfeather-grass steppes, where it is found in associations of typically\nsteppe vegetation, with feather grasses at the head (_Stipa lessingiana_\nand others), and on rocky slopes; it occurs frequently in cultivated\nfields of young crops and also in young geological strata in sections\nwith virgin soil. The populations of this steppe cockroach average 6 to\n8 individuals per square meter from the middle to the end of July. By\nthe end of summer most individuals were observed at the bases of straw\nstacks with a canopy, having their south sides sheltered. This is the\nonly species of _Ectobius_ adapted to a purely steppe biocenose.\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950.)\n=Ectobius lapponicus=\n_Southeastern Europe._--Numerous under stones on Trebovic (Burr, 1898).\n_U.S.S.R._--Found in wooded communities and peat bogs (in northern part\nof its range); males occur predominantly on herbaceous plants and\nbushes, but females hide under fallen leaves, moss, etc. (Bei-Bienko,\n1950). It populated about 25 percent of the aspen trees in an\nexperimental plot, feeding in galleries in the bark of young branches;\nthere were 25 or more individuals per tree (Stark _in_ Bei-Bienko,\n_Germany._--Abundant in woods; in pine woods in company with\n_Stenobothrus vagans_ and _Tettix kraussi_. Numerous in low aspen bushes\nin forest. Numerous in deciduous and coniferous forests on trees and\nunderbrush; under fallen leaves and moss; on oaks (Zacher, 1917). In\nfoliage of young oak on top of mountain (Ramme, 1923).\n_Great Britain._--Under moss and dry leaves, among woodland undergrowth,\nand, generally, on vegetation close to the ground; occasional on bushes\nand trees (Lucas, 1920). Nymphs in heather in February and later; adults\namong rushes fringing pond in July (Lucas, 1925). Nymphs and males on\nrushy vegetation; unusually abundant on low herbage in dried-up swamp\n=Ectobius nicaeensis=\n_France._--In dry woods, on bushes, and at the base of trees (Chopard,\n=Ectobius pallidus=\n_Algeria._--Under stones; in moist places that are shaded and covered\nwith plants (Lucas, 1849).\n_England._--Very abundant on sand dunes and among bracken in July\n(Buxton, 1914).\n_Germany._--In deciduous and coniferous forests; at edge of forest, from\nbare woods and bushes; numerous under leaves in oak woods and under moss\n(Zacher, 1917). In forest well lighted by the sun (Ramme, 1923).\n_Massachusetts._--Under loose lichens and bark on oak trees; under\nboxes, baskets, paper, etc., near houses; on Swiss chard (Flint, 1951).\nOn roofs of houses, in shrubbery (Gurney, 1953). We have collected this\nspecies for several summers in a fairly dense, wooded area near\ndwellings, among fallen leaves and climbing on the erect stems and\nundersides of the leaves of periwinkle. O\u00f6thecae were found on the\nground under leaves and debris.\n=Ectobius panzeri=\n_England._--Abundant on sandhills along shoreline among roots of grass\n(Burr, 1908). Under dead seaweed and other rubbish a few yards from\nshore on ground that would be washed by the sea (Lucas, 1896). Nymphs\nfound among marram grass (Buxton, 1914). On sandhills near coast and\ncovered with marram grass; often found on heather and low herbage; under\nold bark and rotten wood on posts; in decayed stump (Lucas, 1920).\nSwarming on _Beta maritima_ and other plants in July (Lucas, 1920a).\nVery common in all stages in August, being frequently found under stones\n(Lucas, 1925). Common on sand dunes especially under stems of dead\nmarram grass. Viable o\u00f6thecae found buried in sand (Brown, 1952).\n_Germany._--In beech woods and in pine woods (Zacher, 1917).\n=Ectobius semenovi=\n_Kazakhstan._--Along the shores of the Syr-daria it is found on and\naround living willows and on _Populus euphratica_; under loose bark of\ndying and dead trees (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Ectobius sylvester=\n_U.S.S.R._--In wooded steppe zones; probably only occurs in association\nwith forests (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Ectobius tadzhicus=\n_Tadzhikistan._--Great numbers at the roots of _Eleagnus_ shrubs on the\nbanks of reservoirs and frequently under the bark of old trees\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Ectobius vittiventer=\n_South France._--One male beneath stone (Blair, 1922).\n=Ellipsidion affine=\n_Australia._--From leaves, from scrub (Hebard, 1943). Collected in trees\n=Ellipsidion australe=\n_Australia._--On eucalyptus leaves, on wattle, under bark (Hebard,\n1943). Collected in trees (Pope, 1953a).\n=Ellipsidion bicolor=\n_Australia._--In corn and from tree (Hebard, 1943).\n=Ellipsidion simulans=\n_Australia._--From sugarcane (Hebard, 1943).\n=Ellipsidion= spp.\n_Australia._--All stages are diurnal moving about the foliage of shrubs\nand small trees in bright sunlight on hottest summer days (Tepper,\n=Epilampra abdomen-nigrum=\n_Trinidad._--In dried-up drain; among grass; in debris under old cacao\ntree; under old leaves (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n_Puerto Rico._--Abundant in damp lowlands (Se\u00edn, 1923). Under dead\nleaves in wet malojillo meadow (Wolcott, 1936).\nThis species is amphibious (p. 31). Shelford (1907) suggested that\nimmature stages of other species of the genus may be aquatic, which\nwould place them in moist situations on the shores of rivers and other\nbodies of water.\n=Epilampra azteca=\n_Panama._--Very scarce, under palm trees in decaying leaf mold and\nlitter; one found under decaying bark of a log (Hebard, 1921a).\n=Epilampra mona=\n_Mona Island, Puerto Rico._--One specimen under bark of dead tree\n=Epilampra tainana=\n_Cuba._--Under dead leaves on stream bank (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Epilampra wheeleri=\n_Puerto Rico._--In siftings from high-altitude primeval forest (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Epilampra= spp.\n_Australia._--By day the insects live under bark, stones, logs, dead\nvegetable debris, or buried in loose dust or soil. After sunset females\nwander in grass or ascend low objects (Tepper, 1893).\n=Ergaula capensis=\n_Uganda._--In open bush and short grass (Princis, 1955).\n=Eudromiella bicolorata=\n_Panama._--Under rubbish on edge of jungle (Hebard, 1920).\n=Euphyllodromia liturifera=\n_Colombia._--In brushwood (Princis, 1946).\n=Eurycotis biolleyi=\n_Costa Rica._--Numbers of individuals were found in the large bromeliads\nof the temperate localities (Picado, 1913).\n=Eurycotis decipiens=\n_Trinidad._--In old, rotten coconut stump (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Eurycotis dimidiata=\n_Cuba._--\"This species was recorded from under stones in the fields ...\nby Gundlach\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Eurycotis ferrum-equinum=\n_Cuba._--Under stones in woods (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Eurycotis floridana=\n_Florida._--Moderately common under bark of dead pine stumps and logs;\nat Key West it fairly swarmed under coquina boulders in the woods (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1905). Many specimens under palmetto leaves on ground\n(Caudell, 1905). In pine woods under dry bark of dead logs; on Long Key\nin dry fibers at the base of the heads of coconut palms; \"at Key West,\na large colony was discovered among boards lying on dry grass in a\nfield, and several were captured upon turning over coquina boulders in\nthe dense bush\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1912). Particularly numerous in tree\ncavities and under bark along the edge of hammock areas (Hebard, 1915).\nAbundant between basal leaves of _Tillandsia utriculata_; beneath loose\nbark of logs and stumps; in and beneath decaying palmetto trunks and\nleaves; under rubbish (Blatchley, 1920). On ground in heavy tangle after\ndark; in decaying log of _Sabal palmetto_; in bromeliads; common under\ndebris and bark in jungle; under signs on _Pinus caribaea_; in almost\nevery sheltered outdoor place (Hebard, 1917). It moves about at night\nand hides under bark of logs and in other recesses during the day; where\npines are present it almost invariably hides under bark of dead logs and\nstumps (Rehn and Hebard, 1914). Friauf (1953) found this species in leaf\nduff, leaf mold, or decaying wood in these habitats: Sandhills\n(infrequent), xeric hammock (dominant), mesic hammock (frequent), and\nlow hammock (dominant); on tree trunks in sandhills habitat (infrequent)\nand mesic hammock (frequent); infrequent in saw-grass marsh habitat in\nthe grass stratum and, during the dry season, in decaying vegetation on\nfloor of marsh. Under the bark of logs and beneath logs in the woodpile\nhabitat (Friauf, 1953).\n=Eurycotis galeoides=\n_Cuba._--Under stones in deep woods (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Eurycotis kevani=\n_Trinidad._--Under debris, trash, and vegetable refuse (Princis and\n=Eurycotis opaca=\n_Cuba._--In pine and palmetto region (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Euthlastoblatta abortiva=\n_Texas._--Under dense tangle of bushy vegetation, palms, and vines near\nRio Grande; in leaves and dry litter on ground; on dead petiole hanging\nfrom palm tree (Hebard, 1917). Under bark of dead hackberry; abundant in\ndead leaves, dry litter, and rats' (_Neotoma_ sp.) nests in heavy scrub\n(Hebard, 1943a).\n=Graptoblatta notulata=\n_Tahiti._--On foliage in sun or concealed among dead leaves that collect\nbetween the fronds of tree ferns (Cheesman, 1927).\n_Hawaii._--Quite active during the day, occurring on sugarcane, etc., in\nthe wetter districts; it is also a household insect (Williams et al.,\n=Hemiblabera brunneri=\n_Puerto Rico._--Under bark of tamarind tree (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\nUnder the bark on a fence post (Wolcott, 1950).\n=Henicotyle antillarum=\n_Dominica._--From rotting wood and wood soil (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Holocompsa metallica=\n_Dominican Republic._--Along railroad through jungle and swamp (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Hololampra bivittata=\n_Canary Islands._--Found in numbers among pine needles; nymphs were in\nthe majority, adults rare (Burr, 1911).\n=Hololampra chavesi=\n_Azores._--Very common in the hedges, particularly in brambles. Contrary\nto most species of this genus, which live on the ground under stones,\nthis species is exclusively dendricolous and is only captured by beating\nthe bushes on which it abounds (Chopard, 1932).\n=Hololampra maculata=\n_Germany._--Abundant in deciduous forest in grass and under fallen\nleaves; in pine forests under lichens and between fallen needles; in\nedge of coniferous forest; under stones (Zacher, 1917).\n=Hololampra marginata=\n_Macedonia._--Usually found crawling on the flowers and stems of giant\nthistles in May; common on thistles in June (Burr, 1923).\n=Hololampra= sp.\n_Caucasus._--Numerous beneath dry leaves in a garden (Burr, 1913).\n=Hololeptoblatta= sp.\n_Seychelles._--Apparently only inhabits _Pandanus_ between the leaf\n=Homalopteryx laminata=\n_St. Vincent._--In decaying leaves in forest (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Trinidad._--In forest debris and debris under old cacao trees; it is\nnot uncommon under dry leaves; it feigns death when disturbed (Princis\nand Kevan, 1955).\n=Hormetica laevigata=\n_Brazil._--From crown of palm between leaf bases (Hancock, 1926).\n=Ignabolivaria bilobata=\n_U.S.S.R._--Under rocks and on the edges of woods in the lowlands in the\nnorth and in the mountains in the south (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Ischnoptera deropeltiformis=\n_North Carolina._--Under pine straw on ground in woods (Brimley, 1908).\n_Georgia._--Under dead oak leaves; under debris in garden; running on\nground in pine and oak woods (Rehn and Hebard, 1916).\n_Indiana._--It is \"a ground-frequenting, forest-loving insect, hiding\nbeneath cover or about the edges of deep woodland, more frequently in\ndamp places, and rarely taken beneath bark, signs, or at lights\"\n(Blatchley, 1920).\n_Missouri._--Twenty to 30 males found resting on heads of wild oats on\nsuccessive evenings (Rau, 1947).\n_Texas._--It preferred damp, open woodlands (Hebard, 1943a).\n_Eastern and southeastern U.S._--Under stone in heavy deciduous forest;\nunder damp, dead leaves on edges of forests; under bark of pine log; in\nwire grass and sphagnum bordering stream thicket; in leaf mold and\nrubbish about pothole in pine woods, _Pinus caribaea_; under debris and\nleaf mold in hammock; under dead oak leaves in heavy deciduous forest\n(Hebard, 1917).\n_Florida._--\"This species is distinctly geophilous and appears to prefer\ndamp surroundings\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1912). Under boards on very wet\nground in everglades; in debris and leaf mold in heavy, junglelike areas\nof trees, bushes, and vines (Rehn and Hebard, 1914). Adults and numerous\nnymphs beneath weeds, grass, and other debris washed up on beach of Lake\nOkeechobee (Blatchley, 1920). Friauf (1953) found this species in leaf\nduff, leaf mold, and/or decaying wood on ground in these habitats: Dry,\nruderal grassland (infrequent), scrub (infrequent), sandhills\n(occasional), xeric hammock (frequent), mesic hammock (dominant),\nshrubby, longleaf-pine flatwoods (infrequent), bayhead (dominant), and\nlow hammock (dominant). On open bare soil or bare sand under vegetation\nin these habitats: Dry, ruderal grassland (infrequent), mesic hammock\n(dominant), moist, ruderal grassland (infrequent), pond margin\n(occasional), longleaf-pine flatwoods (infrequent), slash-pine flatwoods\n(infrequent), and low hammock (dominant). Infrequent in the herbaceous\nstratum of these habitats: Dry, ruderal grassland, moist, ruderal\ngrassland, and longleaf-pine flatwoods. Infrequent in the shrub stratum\nof the dry, ruderal grassland habitat. (Friauf, 1953.)\n_Tennessee._--Taken in traps baited with cantaloupe in a parklike stand\nof oak, gum, hickory, and tulip trees in a creek bottom, and in a stand\nof oak on a dry ridge (Walker, 1957).\n=Ischnoptera panamae=\n_Panama._--Under rubbish at edge of jungle and under drift on edge of\ncoral-sand beach (Hebard, 1920).\n=Ischnoptera podoces=\n_Jamaica._--In dead leaf litter along side trail through mountain forest\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Ischnoptera rufa rufa=\n_Virgin Islands, St. Croix._--Common under rubbish and on shrubbery at\nnight (Beatty, 1944).\n_Barbados._--Occasionally found in cane fields (Tucker, 1952).\n_West Indies._--In Puerto Rico, under stones in cultivated area, under\ndebris on alkalie flat. In Jamaica, under dry petioles of coconut palm\nin grassy area; under logs, logwood on docks, and litter on limestone\nand near beach. In Panama, under drift on edge of coral-sand beach;\nunder rubbish at edge of jungle (Hebard, 1916c).\n_Jamaica._--Under limbs and leaf litter in mangrove swamp (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Lamproblatta albipalpus=\n_Panama._--Under drift on edge of coral-sand beach. Several under\ndecayed banana stem (Hebard, 1920).\n=Lamproblatta meridionalis=\n_Trinidad._--Under debris in forest and debris under old cacao trees\n(Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Latiblattella chichimeca=\n_Costa Rica._--Very common in the bromeliads of all Costa Rica (Picado,\n=Latiblattella lucifrons=\n_Arizona._--\"Most commonly seen feeding on pollen and dead insects on\nthe flower stalks of _Yucca elata_ in June in the Santa Rita Mountains\"\n(Ball et al., 1942).\n=Latiblattella rehni=\n_Florida._--Widely distributed throughout pine woods (_Pinus caribaea_);\nunder signs on _Pinus clausa_ and _Pinus caribaea_ (Hebard, 1917).\nBeneath bark of dead pine tree; beating Spanish moss; they seldom\nattempt flight when disturbed, but hide in crevices or drop to ground\n(Blatchley, 1920).\n=Latiblattella zapoteca=\n_Costa Rica._--Under stones on borders of Surubres River (Rehn, 1906).\n=Leucophaea maderae=\n_Barbados._--In cane fields (Tucker, 1952).\n_Dominica._--In vegetation of royal palms, guava, etc.; under loose bark\nand banana sheaths. In Jamaica, on logwood docks (Rehn and Hebard,\n=Litopeltis biolleyi=\n_Costa Rica._--Under bark of tree in forest; in epiphytic bromeliads\n=Litopeltis bispinosa=\n_Panama Canal Zone._--About 80 specimens from rotting banana stalks at\nbases of leaves; boring in decaying banana stem (Hebard, 1920).\n=Litopeltis deianira=\n_Costa Rica._--In tree stump on edge of mountain forest; in dead wood on\nground (Rehn, 1928).\n=Litopeltis musarum=\n_Costa Rica._--Shaken from dead banana leaves. Footnote to specific\nname: \"In relation to the liking of species of this genus for bananas\n(_Musa_) as shelter and possibly food\" (Rehn, 1928).\n=Lobolampra subaptera=\n_France._--Under stones and dead leaves, always rare (Chopard, 1947).\n=Loboptera decipiens=\n_France._--All stages common beneath stones (Blair, 1922). Under stones\nand dead leaves (Chopard, 1947).\n_Maltese Islands._--Quite common in open country under stones (Valletta,\n_Dalmatia._--On seashores under rocks and seaweed cast up on shore\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Loboptera thaxteri=\n_Argentina._--Common in rubbish and leaf litter in small woodlot\n(Hebard, 1932).\n=Lobopterella dimidiatipes=\n_Hawaii._--Abundant in wet districts, both in lowlands and to a\nconsiderable altitude in the forests, under trash, stones, boards, etc.\n(Williams et al., 1931). Often it is found with nymphs of _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_ (Fullaway and Krauss, 1945).\n=Lophoblatta arawaka=\n_Trinidad._--On grass, maize, and cut sugarcane fodder; under vegetable\nand garden refuse; under old cacao (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Macropanesthia rhinocerus=\n_Australia._--Infrequently seen during dry season from March to October.\n\"They burrow quite deeply, about two feet below the surface of the sandy\nsoil in stands of cypress pine (_Callitris_ sp.). They make a nest of\ndead leaves, grass roots, etc., frequently among the pine roots. The\nyoung nymphs rarely appear above ground, but following rain the adults\nburrow to the surface, especially at night.... This species is also\nfound in the brigalow (_Acacia harpophylla_) scrub about 70 miles west\nof Rockhampton, Queensland, and on Fraser Island off the Coast of\nQueensland\" (Henson _in_ Day, 1950).\n=Megaloblatta blaberoides=\n_Panama._--Under bark on tree (Hebard, 1920).\n_Ecuador._--Under a dense pile of dead leaves around base of tree\n=Megamareta verticalis=\n_Australia._--In sugarcane (Hebard, 1943).\n=Methana canae=\n_Australia._--Under loose bark on dead upright tree (Pope, 1953a).\n=Methana curvigera=\n_Australia._--Under loose bark on trees and logs; many specimens on\nwattle trees where in strong sunlight they hid in curled-up leaves;\no\u00f6thecae attached to underside of loose bark and leaves (Pope, 1953a).\n=Methana marginalis=\n_Australia._--Under loose bark of trees and logs (Pope, 1953a).\n=Moluchia (?) dahli=\n_Chile._--Collected from lichens and mosses on tree trunks (Princis,\n=Muzoa madida=\n_Costa Rica._--Under dead wood in dense second-growth forest; in thick\nmat of hanging dead vegetation in dense forest; under leaves in forest\n=Nauclidas nigra=\n_St. Vincent._--Under rotten fruit (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Nelipophygus ramsdeni=\n_Cuba._--Under rotten bark (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Neoblattella detersa=\n_Jamaica._--Under dried leaves of coconut palm; in dry leaves under\nacacia on hillside; in debris on beach; under stones on coral rock; in\nleaf mold under dense brush on hillside; under bracts of banana blossoms\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Neoblattella dryas=\n_Jamaica._--In bases of dead tree-fern fronds; numerous in bromeliads;\nnearly all collected specimens were taken in these plants (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Neoblattella eurydice=\n_Jamaica._--Nearly all collected specimens taken in bromeliads (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Neoblattella grossbecki=\n_Jamaica._--In epiphytic bromeliads and hollow bases of dead tree-fern\nfronds; nearly all collected specimens taken in bromeliads (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Neoblattella proserpina=\n_Jamaica._--Under bark of huckleberry; nearly all collected specimens\ntaken in bromeliads (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Neoblattella semota=\n_Jamaica._--All specimens collected from under drying bracts of banana\nblossoms (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Nesomylacris cubensis=\n_Cuba._--In dry region of palmettos and pines (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Nesomylacris relica=\n_Jamaica._--Widely distributed from sea level to 5,700 feet elevation;\nin bromeliads in mountain forest; among dead leaves in heavy leaf mold\nunder dense hillside scrub; under stones and in ground litter about\nbanana trees; under bark of tree in dense ridge-type forest; in dead\nagave in scrub forest (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Nocticola bolivari=\n_Ethiopia._--Always found under stones or cement blocks, but not\nnecessarily deeply buried in the ground (Chopard, 1950b).\n=Nyctibora laevigata=\n_Jamaica._--In cracks in dead stump of mimosa; in bromeliads (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Nyctibora lutzi=\n_Puerto Rico._--Possibly to be found most often in rotten tree trunks in\nthe highest mountains; found in rotten stump with termites, ants, and\nbeetle grubs (Wolcott, 1950).\n=Nyctibora obscura=\n_Trinidad._--Under pile of cornstalks (Princis and Kevan, 1955)\n=Nyctibora stygia=\n_Haiti._--Under loose dead bark of mesquite tree, 52 specimens (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Oniscosoma spp.=\n_Australia._--The females bury themselves in loose soil or dust (Tepper,\n=Opisthoplatia orientalis=\n_Formosa._--On or in swampy ground or under rotten trees on the ground\n(Takahashi, 1924).\n=Panchlora antillarum=\n_Dominican Republic._--In cultivated grounds, palms, fruits, etc. (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1927).\n=Panchlora nivea=\n_Panama._--As _Pycnosceloides aporus_, in jungle under decaying banana\nstem in which were boring individuals of _Litopeltis bispinosa_ (Hebard,\n_Texas._--Lives in foliage and in the green sheaths of plants (Hebard,\n_Cuba._--On cane leaves; according to Gundlach this genus lives under\nthe loose bark of trees (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Puerto Rico._--In rotting trunks of coconut palms (Se\u00edn, 1923). Most\nspecimens have been collected from the very rotten interior of coconut\npalms (Wolcott, 1950).\n_Trinidad._--On corn; under old log; flies readily to lights (Princis\nand Kevan, 1955).\n=Panchlora sagax=\n_Dominica._--In decaying stump in banana patch and in rotting wood. In\nPuerto Rico, in rotten coconut palm (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Panesthia australis=\n_Australia._--In burrows under the thick bark of fallen and rotting\ntrees (Shaw, 1914). In loose detritus, beneath clods of earth, and in\nfissures at foot of cliffs along the seashore beyond direct action of\nthe waves (Tepper, 1893).\n=Panesthia laevicollis=\n_Australia._--Under decayed logs in coastal scrub. It burrows into the\nsoft part of the log (Froggatt, 1906).\n=Parcoblatta bolliana=\n_North Carolina._--Under pine straw on ground in pine woods (Brimley,\n_Texas._--Under dry cow dung in pine woods (Hebard, 1917).\n_Nebraska._--Under pile of old boards (Hauke, 1949).\n=Parcoblatta caudelli=\n_North Carolina._--From under the bark of dead trees (Rehn and Hebard,\n_Virginia._--At night on shrubbery. In South Carolina, under sign on\ntree (Hebard, 1917).\n_Tennessee._--In traps baited with cornmeal, cantaloupe, or fish in a\nstand of oak on dry ridge, and in abandoned rocky field on a\nsouth-facing slope (Walker, 1957).\n=Parcoblatta desertae=\n_Texas._--From mountains, arid, and semi-arid regions; under small\nboulder on desert (Hebard, 1917). On ground in dry-creek bed through\nscrub oak, pine, and juniper forest (Hebard, 1943a).\n=Parcoblatta divisa=\n_Eastern and southeastern U.S._--All specimens taken from under signs on\nred oaks and longleaf and shortleaf pines in Georgia and Virginia (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1916). Trapped in molasses-baited jar in oak forest in New\nJersey; under signs on red and white oaks, sweet gum, and other\ndeciduous trees; under signs on shortleaf and longleaf pines and pine\nstumps (Hebard, 1917). Widespread in southeastern U.S. in habitats as\ndiverse as dry pine lands, oak scrub, moist hammocks in northern\nFlorida, and deep, cool ravines along Apalachicola River (Hebard,\n=Parcoblatta fulvescens=\n_Eastern and southeastern U.S._--Trapped in molasses jars: in heavy,\nbarrier-beach forest; in typical pine-barrens undergrowth; in pine\nbarrens with heavy, grassy undergrowth; on border of pine barrens and on\nedge of swamp; in heavy deciduous forest; in heavy oak woods. Found\nunder debris in dead, shortleaf-pine needles; under dead leaves on edge\nof oak and shortleaf-pine woods; under bark of pine log; among dead\nleaves under live oaks; under sign on _Pinus caribaea_ (Hebard, 1917).\n_Georgia._--From under bark of pine log, among dead leaves under live\noaks, and under leaves on edge of oak and shortleaf-pine woods (Rehn and\nHebard, 1916).\n_Florida._--Very common among dead leaves, under logs, beneath loose\nbark, and wanders about at night in pinelands, hammock, turkey oak, and\nsand-scrub habitats (Hubbell and Goff, 1940). Beneath drift, cow dung,\nleaves, boards, bark of logs, and other debris, usually in open pine\nwoods in sandy areas; frequent at the base of thistle leaves (Blatchley,\n1920). Friauf (1953) found this species in leaf duff, debris, or\ndecaying wood in these habitats: Scrub (dominant), sandhills (dominant),\nxeric hammock (dominant), mesic hammock, longleaf-pine flatwoods\n(infrequent), low hammock (infrequent), and alluvial hammock\n(infrequent). In the shrub stratum in these habitats: Scrub (dominant),\nsandhills (dominant), xeric hammock (dominant), and longleaf-pine\nflatwoods (infrequent). In the herbaceous stratum of the longleaf-pine\nflatwoods habitat, and under bark and beneath logs in the woodpile\nhabitat.\n=Parcoblatta lata=\n_Southeastern and southern U.S._--Under bark of pine logs and stumps; in\nsweet-gum logs and stumps; moderately numerous under bark of dead\nshortleaf pines; under bark of longleaf-pine stumps; under signs on red\noak and longleaf pines; in dead oak. In Texas, under bark of pine stumps\n(Hebard, 1917).\n_North Carolina._--All stages under loose bark of dead pines, both\nprostrate and upright, and stumps. \"It seems to prefer the space under\nthe bark to be rather damp\" (Brimley, 1908). Under bark of dead pine\ntrees (Rehn and Hebard, 1910).\n_Florida._--Infrequent in leaf duff and decayed wood of low hammock\nhabitat (Friauf, 1953).\n_Indiana._--Beneath rocks on sides and tops of high hills, in limestone\nglades where cedar abounds (Blatchley, 1920).\n_Missouri._--In leaf stratum of oak-hickory forest (Dowdy, 1951).\nEarlier, Dowdy (1947) reported finding numerous immature Pseudomopinae\n[presumably _Parcoblatta_ sp.] in soil and leaf strata of oak-hickory\nforest.\n_Texas._--Captured in molasses-baited traps in low, wet, oak woods and\nin dry woodlot on hillside (Hebard, 1943a).\n=Parcoblatta pensylvanica=\n_Eastern and southeastern U.S._--Trapped in molasses-baited jars; in oak\nand in chestnut forests, and on knoll with high deciduous trees. Found\nin oak and pine woods, under bark of decaying chestnut log and dead\nchestnut stump, and under signs on trees including oaks (Hebard, 1917).\n_North Carolina._--In all stages under loose bark of upright, dead\npines, when the space under the bark was dry (Brimley, 1908).\n_Virginia, North and South Carolina._--Under signs on trees (white and\nred oaks); under bark of dead shortleaf-pine and sweet-gum logs and\nstumps (Rehn and Hebard, 1916).\n_Indiana._--Beneath bark of logs and stumps; empty o\u00f6thecae common\nbeneath loose bark of logs, especially shellbark hickory (Blatchley,\n1920). Under loose bark on logs in January (Blatchley, 1895).\n_Illinois._--In pine forest associes, in black oak forest on sand, in\noak-hickory forest on clay, and in climax forest; it evidently moved\ninto the pine associes nightly, great numbers of o\u00f6thecae were found\nunder bark of pine logs, where, in October and November, hibernating\nnymphs were found (Strohecker, 1937). In nests of _Vespula maculata_\n(Balduf, 1936; McClure, 1936).\n_Missouri._--Usually in hollow trees, under loose bark, in woodpiles,\nand in cracks in rural buildings (Rau, 1940).\n_Michigan._--Common in oak-dune and beech-maple forests, under loose\nbark on dead trees and fallen logs, and under debris on forest floor\n(Hubbell, 1922). \"A characteristic inhabitant of the low\nshrub-terrestrial and probably the terrestrial-hypogeic stratum.\" It\noccurred throughout the upland forests; groups were found established in\nand under logs 100 to 200 feet from the nearest forest (Cantrall, 1943).\n_Ontario._--Very abundant in rocky, sparsely-wooded country, where it\noccurred in rotten logs and under loose bark; on tree trunk at night on\nrocky island in lake (Walker, 1912).\n=Parcoblatta uhleriana=\n_North Carolina._--Under pine straw on ground in woods (Brimley, 1908).\nUnder bark of dead trees; 92 males attracted to lights (Rehn and Hebard,\n_Virginia._--Resting on woods foliage; at night on road (Rehn and\nHebard, 1916).\n_Eastern and southeastern U.S._--Trapped in molasses-baited jars: in oak\nand pine woods, in heavy barrier-beach forest, in both scant and typical\nundergrowth on pine barrens, in heavy grassy undergrowth on pine\nbarrens, on border of pine barrens, on edge of swamp, in heavy deciduous\nforest, in heavy oak woods, in upland oak and chestnut forest, in\nchestnut forest, in forested ravine, and on ridge with heavy oak,\nchestnut, and maple forest. Found under damp leaves on edge of forest,\nunder bark of decayed chestnut log, inside decaying chestnut log with\n_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, under palmetto roots, under bark of pine\nstump, and in dry leaves under live oaks (Hebard, 1917).\n_Tennessee._--In traps baited with cornmeal or cantaloupe in\nmaple-gum-oak forest in a mesic valley, and in a stand of oak on a dry\nridge (Walker, 1957).\n_Indiana._--Beneath cover on slopes of high wooded hills. \"This is\nessentially a forest-loving species; usually occurring beneath leaves\nand other debris on or along the borders of heavy hardwood timber.\"\n(Blatchley, 1920.)\n_Illinois._--In oak-hickory forest on clay and in climax forest\n(Strohecker, 1937).\n_Michigan._--In oak-dune woods (Hubbell, 1922). Restricted to woodlands,\nwhere it inhabited piles of moist dead leaves and rotten logs in\noak-hickory forest (Cantrall, 1943).\n_U.S.A._--This species, _P. uhleriana_, and _P. virginica_ were\nattracted at night to honeydew secreted by aphids on _Pyrus_ sp. (Davis,\n=Parcoblatta virginica=\n_New England._--Females under loose stones, boards, and other debris on\nground; beneath loose bark (Morse, 1920).\n_North Carolina._--Under debris in dead shortleaf-pine needles (Rehn and\nHebard, 1916).\n_Florida._--Infrequent in the shrub stratum of the scrub habitat. This\nwas the only habitat of 25 studied in which this species was found\n(Friauf, 1953).\n_Eastern and southeastern U.S._--Trapped in molasses-baited jars: in\npine and oak woods, in pine barrens, in pine woods with heavy grass\nundergrowth, in oak forest, in heavily forested ravine, on rocky slope\nwith few deciduous trees, on knoll with high deciduous trees, in lofty\nchestnut forest, and in heavy low chestnut and oak forest on high ridge;\nunder bark of decaying chestnut log and stump; under stones in chestnut\nforest; under bark of pine stumps (Hebard, 1917).\n_Indiana._--Frequents borders of open woods and fields; under debris,\nloose bark, and half-buried logs (Blatchley, 1920).\n_Illinois._--In black-oak forest on sand, in oak-hickory forest on clay,\nand in climax forest (Strohecker, 1937).\n_Michigan._--Common in oak-dune and beech-maple forests; under loose\nbark on dead trees and fallen logs and under debris on forest floor\n(Hubbell, 1922). Restricted to woodlands, where it inhabited piles of\nmoist dead leaves and rotten logs in oak-hickory forest (Cantrall,\n_Texas._--Captured in molasses traps in moist woods of maple, oak, and\npine with much undergrowth and a heavy layer of duff; in open, rather\ndry woodlot of Spanish oak and other trees; and in low wet woods of\nwillow and oak along creek (Hebard, 1943a).\n=Parcoblatta zebra=\n_Indiana._--Beneath log in cypress swamp (Blatchley, 1920).\n_Louisiana and Mississippi._--In decay cavity in sweet gum; under sign\non shortleaf pine (Hebard, 1917).\n=Parcoblatta= spp.\n_Alabama._--In the dry wall of a sweet-gum stump together with\nserropalpid and tenebrionid beetles (Snow, 1958).\n_Ohio._--O\u00f6thecae under loose bark of fallen trees, where as many as 184\no\u00f6thecae were found within a few feet of each other; others found under\nboards and in piles of firewood (Edmunds, 1952).\n=Pelmatosilpha coriacea=\n_Puerto Rico._--Mona Island, under bark of dead trees and under guava\nleaves (Ramos, 1946). Under bark of _Sideroxylon foetidissimum_\n(Wolcott, 1941). Common along the coast and in mountains. \"Very much at\nhome\" under the loose bark of _Sideroxylon foetidissimum_ (Wolcott,\n=Pelmatosilpha kevani=\n_Trinidad._--Under debris in bush (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Pelmatosilpha purpurascens=\n_Dominica._--In decaying logs in forest (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Periplaneta americana=\n_Bermuda._--Among and under decaying debris, just above high-tide line\n(Verrill, 1902).\n_Johnson Island._--Nocturnal, coming out at night in great numbers about\n_Tribulus_ blossoms. Under timbers on French Frigate Shoals (Bryan,\n_United States._--Alleyways and yards may be overrun during the summer;\nadults and hundreds of nymphs found in decaying maple trees along\nresidential street (Gould and Deay, 1938, 1940). Around fumaroles where\na railroad fill was burning internally (Davis, 1927). Common in palm\ntrees along the gulf coast of Texas, where they often fly around street\nlights at night (Zimmern _in_ Gould and Deay, 1940).\n=Periplaneta australasiae=\n_Bermuda._--Very abundant under stones (Rehn, 1910).\n_Jamaica._--Under bark of dead tree and under bases of leaves of coconut\npalms (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Virgin Islands, St. Croix._--Common in sugarcane fields and in\nwoodlands (Beatty, 1944).\n_Florida._--Juveniles under bark of dead logs of _Pinus caribaea_\n(Hebard, 1915). Frequently found under signs on trees near borders of\ntowns; under bases of dead petioles of cabbage palmetto (Hebard, 1917).\nBeneath logs, burlap bags, and other cover in old orange orchards\n(Blatchley, 1920).\n_Marquesas Islands._--Under coconut fronds and grass (Hebard, 1935).\n_Nihoa Island._--Nymphs only, on _Sida_, _Pritchardia_, bunch grass, and\nabout camp (Bryan, 1926).\n=Periplaneta brunnea=\n_Georgia._--Under signs on oaks (Rehn and Hebard, 1916).\n_Florida._--Beneath bark of stump (Blatchley, 1920).\n=Periplaneta fuliginosa=\n_Southeastern and southern U.S._--\"This species is usually encountered\nout of doors, in or near towns. Over its range it is frequently found\nunder signs on trees\" (Hebard, 1917).\n=Phidon (?) dubius=\n_Chile._--Collected from mosses and lichens on tree trunks (Princis,\n=Phoraspis= spp.\n_Brazil and Guiana._--In grasslands, plantations of maize, sugarcane,\nand other plants on the borders of forests; the cockroaches were always\nfound between the leaves which form the branches of the plants (Doumerc\n_in_ Blanchard, 1837).\n=Phyllodromica brevipennis=\n_Asia Minor and western Europe._--On ground among grasses; under moss\nand brushwood in mountain meadows (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica graeca=\n_U.S.S.R., western Georgia._--In pine forest mixed with deciduous trees\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica irinae=\n_U.S.S.R., Turan Lowland._--Along margins of \"tugas\" under half-fallen\nbushes of _Salsola kali_ that overhang the ground (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica maculata=\n_Central Europe and western U.S.S.R._--On the edges of forests of the\ncentral-European type that are lighted by the sun; under fallen leaves;\non bushes and conifers (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica meglerei=\n_U.S.S.R._--Among fallen leaves under bushes; on oak branches; under\nmown hay (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica polita=\n_Caucasus._--Under fallen leaves on slopes of mountains covered by\nforest or brushwood (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica pygmaea=\n_U.S.S.R._--In the sands of Un-dzhal-kum and Zhety-konur it is found in\nthe dense turf of _Aristida pennata_ (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica tartara=\n_Central Asia._--In lowlands and in mountains up to 2,500 meters; in\nfruit orchards under trap rings fastened to trees to combat lesser apple\nworm (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Phyllodromica tartara nigrescens=\n_Southern Uzbekistan._--Under bark of _Juniperus_ sp., under stones and\non flowers of _Scorzonera acanthoclada_ (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Platyzosteria castanea=\n_Australia._--Under loose wood or bark (Shaw, 1914).\n=Platyzosteria novae seelandiae=\n_New Zealand._--Swarms under loose dry bark and logs (Walker, 1904).\n=Plectoptera dominicae=\n_Dominica._--On moss-covered lime trees. \"The species of the genus\n_Plectoptera_ are all foliage and flower frequenters, generally secured\nby beating low arborescent vegetation, or are attracted to light\" (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1927).\n=Plectoptera dorsalis=\n_Puerto Rico._--In caladium, grass, weeds, coffee, and bananas; in\nflowers of _Ipomoea tiliasea_ (Rehn and Hebard, 1927). \"... living in\ntrees between leaves, or in 'butterfly-nests' of _Tetralopha\nscabridella_ in leaves of _Inga vera_, or of _Pilocrocis secernalis_ in\nthe leaves of 'cap\u00e1 blanco' (_Petitia domingensis_) in the mountains.\nAlong the coast they have been found under the bracts of cotton squares\nor bolls, and under the leaf-sheaths of sugar cane, in curled-up leaves\nof grapefruit, or in the dry flower clusters of 'espino rubial'\n(_Zanthoxylum caribaeum_).\" These observations apply also to\n_Plectoptera infulata_ and _P. rhabdota_ (Wolcott, 1950).\n=Plectoptera floridana=\n_Florida._--On fringe of tall bushes at edge of mangrove swamp (Rehn and\nHebard, 1914). Rehn and Hebard (1927) stated that on the Keys it\nfrequented dry scrubby vegetation, particularly _Ilex cassine_.\n=Plectoptera infulata=\n_Puerto Rico._--See Wolcott's (1950) comments under _Plectoptera\ndorsalis_ above.\n=Plectoptera lacerna=\n_Cuba._--In grasses, sedges, etc., about a waterhole; on grass, pines\nand oak (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Plectoptera perscita=\n_Dominica._--On moss-covered lime trees (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Plectoptera porcellana=\n_Cuba._--Taken on flowers of \"J\u00facaro\" (Gundlach _in_ Rehn and Hebard,\n=Plectoptera pygmaea=\n_Jamaica._--In relatively dense forest foliage; in shrubbery (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n=Plectoptera rhabdota=\n_Puerto Rico._--In mixed vegetation; on grapefruit tree and guava\n(_Psidium guajava_); on bushes and shrubs (Rehn and Hebard, 1927). On\ncoffee trees; on _Spondias_; on sugarcane; in caterpillar nests of\n_Tetralopha scabridella_ on _Inga vera_; in old cotton bolls; on\ngrapefruit (Wolcott, 1936). See also Wolcott's (1950) comments under\n_Plectoptera dorsalis_.\n=Plectoptera vermiculata=\n_Cuba._--On pine in palmetto region (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Polyphaga aegyptiaca=\n_Algeria._--Nymphal females under decaying leaves at the end of November\n_Transcaucasia._--In burrows in argillaceous cliffs along ravines.\nFemales often covered by attached clay particles, an indication,\naccording to Bei-Bienko, that this species is ecologically connected to\ncompact clay soils or at least does not avoid them (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\nSee also the section on desert habitats (p. 29).\n=Polyphaga saussurei=\n_South-central Asia._--Occupies compact clay soils; distributed in drier\nregions than _P. aegyptiaca_; frequently found near dwellings, in yards,\nstables, and houses (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Polyzosteria limbata=\n_Australia._--Common, usually \"resting among the foliage or sunning\nitself on a fence or stumps, seldom or never hiding under bark or logs\nlike most of the species\" (Froggatt, 1906).\n=Poroblatta= spp.\n_Tropical America._--\"The species of _Poroblatta_ apparently live as\nborers in stumps and logs in a manner similar to those of _Cryptocercus_\nScudder in the United States\" (Gurney, 1937).\n=Pseudomops septentrionalis=\n_Texas._--In dead-brush pile; not scarce in heavy weeds, sunflowers,\netc., in openings of river-plain jungle scrub (Hebard, 1917). It lives\nlargely in herbage (Hebard, 1943a).\n=Pycnoscelus surinamensis=\n_Florida._--Under stones and rubbish; very abundant under coquina\nboulders in woods at Key West (Rehn and Hebard, 1905). \"This species is\ncommon under planks, stones, and other debris on the ground ... also\nfound at Long Key in the dry fibres at the base of the petioles of a\ncoconut palm\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1912). At Musa Isle, found burrowing in\nsand (Hebard, 1915). In fallen leaves and decaying wood in xeric and\nmesic hammock habitats (Friauf, 1953).\n_Hawaii._--The soil swarmed with young of various stages during the\nsummer (Illingworth, 1915). In soil about roots of pineapple under\nmulching paper; feeding on pineapple roots (Illingworth, 1927, 1929).\n_Fakarava, Tuamoto Archipelago._--Numerous among dead leaves in tree\nholes (Cheesman, 1927).\n_West Indies._--Under decayed stalks of sugarcane and in siftings from\nmangrove swamps, Cuba. Under manure, bases of leaves of coconut palm,\nlitter, logs, and stones on coral rock and in bromeliads, Jamaica. Under\nwood, tiles, and boards in stable yards; immature individuals bored into\nthe soil, Puerto Rico. (Rehn and Hebard, 1927.)\n_Barbados._--Frequents cane fields (Tucker, 1952).\n_Puerto Rico._--\"Altho primarily a xerophytic species: collected among\ndry stones on Mona Island, under dry cow dung at Boquer\u00f3n, and under\nboxes at Gu\u00e1nica, it is reasonably common in the more humid parts of\nPuerto Rico\" (Wolcott, 1950).\n_Virgin Islands, St. Croix._--Common under rubbish; frequently seen\nfeeding on chicken feces around chicken roosts (Beatty, 1944). By\nfeeding on chicken feces it may become the vector of the chicken\neyeworm, _Oxyspirura mansoni_, as described in the references cited on\npage 204.\n_Egypt._--Large numbers were found in moist soil at the site of a manure\npile (Chakour, 1942).\n_Germany._--Under greenhouse conditions the depth to which _P.\nsurinamensis_ penetrated the soil was determined; 21 dug down to a depth\nof 8 to 10 cm., 3 dug down 10 to 12 cm., but only one dug 13 cm. below\nthe surface. Often the tubes in the soil ended in a chamber which the\ncockroach might not leave for several days; nymphs molted in such\nchambers and females bore their young there (Roeser, 1940).\n=Rhytidometopum dissimile=\n_Trinidad._--Male on low herbage in orchard at night; under sacking; on\n_Hibiscus_ at night (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Riatia orientis=\n_Trinidad._--Numerous specimens of both sexes at night on roadside\n_Hibiscus rosa-sinensis_ or low herbage in orchard (Princis and Kevan,\n=Simblerastes jamaicanus=\n_Jamaica._--Numerous in fragmentary debris of an abandoned termite nest\non ground in the dry Liguanea Plain; a specimen was also taken under a\nstone in a field of short grass (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Styphon bakeri=\n_Costa Rica._--Among humus and rubble in crevices and large cavities in\nrocks of the Tertiary limestone rim and the metamorphosed and igneous\nrocks of the interior of the islands (Baker _in_ Rehn, 1930).\n=Supella supellectilium=\n_Virgin Islands, St. Croix._--Under rubbish heaps; in sugarcane straw\n(Beatty, 1944).\n_Africa._--\"A cosmotropical species which occurs both out of doors and\nas a household pest in many warmer parts of the world. It is apparently\nendemic to non-forested areas in much of Africa north of the Equator.\"\n(Kevan and Chopard, 1954.)\n=Symploce flagellata=\n_Puerto Rico._--Under low trees on hillside and dead leaves in thicket\nof sea grape (Hebard, 1916c).\n=Symploce hospes=\n_Hawaii._--Under stones and rubbish (Illingworth, 1915).\n_Virgin Islands, St. Croix._--Under rubbish and on shrubbery at night\n(Beatty, 1944).\n=Symploce jamaicana=\n_Jamaica._--In dead leaves under acacia and other shrubs in desert\ntract; under log and rubbish in open on limestone sand near beach\n(Hebard, 1916c). Very common in short dry grass in roadside gutter at\nnight, often clustered together; under beach trash in stony wash of Hope\nRiver (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Symploce ruficollis=\n_Virgin Islands, St. Croix._--Under rubbish and on shrubbery at night\n(Beatty, 1944).\n_Puerto Rico._--In siftings from sea-grape thicket on sandy soil (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1927). Often living under leaf-sheaths of sugarcane\n(Wolcott, 1950).\n=Tartaroblatta karatavica=\n_Asia, Kara-tau Mountains._--Many hundreds of individuals found only\nunder stones on moist earth and not where ground seemed dry; found on\nvery stony slopes with sparse vegetation, often with undergrowth present\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950).\nSTRUCTURAL HABITATS\nIn this category we include all man-made structures, whether inhabited\nby man or not, that may become infested with cockroaches. A\nnonexhaustive list of such structures would include dwellings,\nrestaurants, mess halls, barracks, groceries, markets, bakeries,\ndairies, drug stores, department stores, hotels, hospitals, warehouses,\nmills, factories, packing houses, animal houses, breweries,\nincinerators, privies, sewers, sewage treatment plants, ships, aircraft,\netc. Although dwellings are only one of the many kinds of structures\nthat are colonized by cockroaches, the several species that have adopted\nthis mode of life are generally referred to as domiciliary cockroaches.\nThis term is adequate only if we remember that these cockroaches are not\nrestricted to domiciles but are pests in other structures as well.\nAssociations between man and certain species of cockroaches possibly\nstarted as casually as the short-lived association that Beebe (1953)\nobserved when he discovered three cockroaches in the newly built couch\nof an orang-utan. Obviously, when man came down from the trees, his\nfellow travelers found his cave dwellings and other abodes particularly\nfavorable habitats. From such primitive beginnings, domiciliary\ncockroaches have spread into every kind of structure that man has since\ndevised. We predict that when man develops a suitable vehicle,\ncockroaches will someday accompany him into space. Yet despite the\napparent predilection of certain species of cockroaches for man, man is\nonly incidental to these associations. Only the shelter and food that\nman unwittingly provides for these unwelcome guests attract cockroaches\nto him; man's physical presence is unnecessary.\nMost, if not all, of the common domiciliary cockroaches apparently\noriginated in the Tropics or sub-Tropics from whence they have spread,\nthrough normal commercial channels, into most of the inhabited world. At\nleast eight domiciliary cockroaches originated in Africa (Rehn, 1945):\n_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, _Leucophaea maderae_,\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_, _Oxyhaloa buprestoides_, _Periplaneta americana_,\n_P. australasiae_, and _Supella supellectilium_; and, perhaps,\n_Periplaneta brunnea_ as well; _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_ was probably\nof Indo-Malayan origin; _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ was of oriental\norigin; and _Leurolestes pallidus_ was endemic in the West Indies (Rehn,\n1945). Princis (1954a) rejected Africa as the original home of _Blatta\norientalis_ and advanced reasons for placing its origin in Central Asia.\nSeveral domiciliary species have become well established in temperate\nzones and some even in the Arctic. Bei-Bienko (1950) listed the\nfollowing 10 species as sinanthropes in the Palearctic zone: _Blatta\nlateralis_, _B. orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, _Leucophaea\nmaderae_, _Periplaneta americana_, _P. australasiae_, _Polyphaga\nsaussurei_, _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, and _Supella supellectilium_. In\nthe warmer parts of the temperate regions, as in their native Tropics,\ncertain domiciliary species breed outdoors as well as indoors. In the\nless temperate extensions of their ranges most domiciliary species are\nnearly always found indoors. In regions with low winter temperatures\nthese cockroaches do not survive in unheated structures; but in heated\nbuildings _Blattella germanica_, for example, has been able to withstand\nthe rigorous climate of Alaska, where it has caused severe infestations\n(Chamberlin, 1949).\nThe limiting factors that determine whether man-made structures will\nprovide suitable habitats for cockroaches are favorable temperature and\navailability of water and food. The range of temperatures that man\nprovides for his own comfort and protection fosters the rapid increase\nof cockroach populations indoors. Gunn (1934, 1935) has demonstrated\nthat the preferred temperature range (zone of indifference) of _Blatta\norientalis_ is 20-29\u00b0 C. The upper limit of the preferred temperature of\n_Blattella germanica_ and _Periplaneta americana_ is 33\u00b0 C. (Gunn,\n1935). The lower limits of temperature tolerance were not sharply\ndefined in Gunn's work. However, less than optimum temperatures, if they\nlast for only short periods, are not necessarily lethal. The 24-hour\nmortality for _P. americana_ that had been held for one hour at 0\u00b0 C.\nwas only 2\u00b12 percent (Knipling and Sullivan, 1957). Gunn (1934) observed\nthat _Blatta orientalis_ would not settle at temperatures above 33\u00b0 C.\nand would react violently against higher temperatures (e.g., 39\u00b0 C.) by\nrunning away; thus the thermotactic behavior of cockroaches might be\npresumed to bring them into favorable environments within structures.\nThermal death points have been determined for the above three species by\nGunn and Notley (1936).\nIt is common knowledge among those who rear cockroaches experimentally\nthat, unless the water content of the food is high, fluid water is\nessential in the insects' dietary. Ten species of domiciliary\ncockroaches have been shown to be unable to survive as long on dry food\nalone as they could on food and water at 36-40 percent relative\nhumidity (Willis and Lewis, 1957). _Blatta orientalis_, when in a state\nof normal water balance, usually spent more time in the drier part of a\nhumidity gradient; but desiccated insects tended to become hygropositive\n(Gunn and Cosway, 1938). We presume that other domiciliary species\nbehave similarly. If water is available nearby, it may be presumed that\npartially desiccated cockroaches could locate a source through the\nmediation of a humidity sense. Hygroreceptors have been demonstrated on\nthe antennae of _Blattella germanica_ (Roth and Willis, 1952a) and\nsuggested for _Blatta orientalis_ (Gunn and Cosway, 1938).\nDrinking water is available to cockroaches in the traps of sinks, wash\nbasins, tubs, and toilet bowls; in flush tanks; as condensation on cold\npipes, flush tanks, and windows; around leaking pipes and faucets; as\nspillage; in miscellaneous water-filled containers, such as pet drinking\ndishes, aquaria, vases; empty beverage bottles; and drainage from ice\nboxes. Soft, juicy fruits and vegetables can provide both moisture and\nfood. There seems to be a tendency for certain species (_Blatta\norientalis_ and _Blattella germanica_) to become established in the more\nhumid parts of structures, such as basements, around sinks, and in\nbathrooms. Whether this is a reaction to a preferred humidity or merely\na fortuitous aggregation near sources of drinking water and food has\nnever been clearly demonstrated. The rather widespread dissemination of\nthese species into zones of low as well as high humidity suggests that\ndetailed studies of the microclimatic conditions of structural\nmicrohabitats will be needed before meaningful conclusions can be drawn\nabout the stratification of cockroaches within structures according to\nspecies.\nIn nearly all structures infested by cockroaches, food of some kind is\navailable, either in the structure itself or nearby. This may be the\nfood stored by man for his own use or the use of kept animals; it may be\ncrumbs, food spillage, garbage, or excreta; glues and pastes on cartons,\nboxes, stamps, envelopes, labels, and wall paper; sizing on cloth and\nbook covers; various dried animal and plant products; dead insects;\nliving plants; etc. In fact, it is almost impossible, despite good\nhousekeeping, to keep any structure used by man free of all food\nsuitable for cockroaches.\nThat the requisite temperature, water, and food are provided, more or\nless adequately, by a variety of structures is attested by the\ninnumerable infestations of cockroaches that develop when control\nmeasures are relaxed. Within structures the accessibility of certain\nharborages to cockroaches probably depends on the habits of the species\nand to some extent on their size. Similar types of harborages in\ndifferent structures may be used by the same species, although there\nseems to be some overlapping by different species into the same kinds of\ndaytime shelters. The comparative ecology of domiciliary cockroaches has\nnot been thoroughly investigated, so any interpretation of observational\ndata is necessarily speculative and inconclusive at this time. Our\ndiscussion on pages 324 to 343 is also pertinent to this section.\nLAND-BASED STRUCTURES\nDwellings provide a variety of microhabitats that are acceptable to\ncockroaches. It has been stated that old houses, or houses that have\nmany cracks and crevices, or have basement kitchens that are not kept\nclean and in good repair are particularly liable to invasion by\ncockroaches (Laing, 1946; British Museum [Nat. Hist.], 1951). Although\nthis statement is undoubtedly true, it has been our personal experience,\nas well as the experience of others, that new, clean, and well-planned\nhouses and apartments are also easily and sometimes quickly invaded by\ncockroaches. Mallis (1954) has cited the following places that are\nfrequently infested by cockroaches in homes. In the kitchen, cockroaches\nare found in and around sinks, in cupboards above and below sinks, under\ntables and chairs, in stoves, around breadboards, in utility cabinets,\nin kitchen closets, under linoleum, behind, under, and inside\nrefrigerators and iceboxes. In living rooms cockroaches are found in\nfurniture, studio couches, sewing machines, closets, and bookshelves;\nbehind picture frames, pennants, calendars, and other wall ornaments. In\nbathrooms cockroaches are found in and behind utility cabinets and\ntoilets; they may be found in wicker clothes hampers, in brooms and\nmops, and in door hinges. Ordinarily, cockroaches are not found in\nbedrooms unless they are abundant elsewhere in the dwelling. Additional\nharborages are cited under specific cockroaches in the list below.\nIn markets DeLong (1948) found the German cockroach in bags of potatoes\nand onions, in crates of citrus fruits, in pads and shredded papers in\nbanana boxes, and in cases of bottled beverages. The insects were\nattracted by coffee and crawled into the folds of coffee bags. They were\nfound in cartons of canned goods; in bread and baked goods; in cartons\nof packaged cookies, cakes, and crackers. Packaged cereals were\nattractive, and cockroaches were sometimes found in packages of\ncigarettes. The insects occurred in scales (by the hundreds) and in cash\nregisters. Rather heavy infestations were found under stainless-steel\ncappings that covered wooden arms on the fish cleaning stand. The\ninsects were numerous in display cases where they were warm and\nsheltered. They were also found behind mirrors above produce racks, in\nelectrical switch boxes and conduits, and in telephone boxes, as well as\ngenerally in cracks and behind loose moldings or loose wall boards.\nEnclosed boxlike tables were frequently heavily infested.\nIn restaurants cockroaches may be found in the following places:\nCrevices in wood, plaster, concrete, and metal; in the bar; in the\nkitchen and in the associated equipment; in cupboards, lavatories, and\ngarbage storage areas; and on the undersides of chairs and tables\n(Mallis, 1954).\nIn drug stores Frings (1948) found cockroaches behind the mirror and\nbetween the sink and the cooler. Thousands were found in hollow\nornamental shelf edging. The hollow bases of malted-milk dispensers and\ndrink mixers were cockroach havens.\nIn a hospital Frings (1948) found cockroaches in decorative trim around\ndoorways, by the thousands in wicker laundry baskets, and in incubators\nfor premature babies. In military hospitals we have seen cockroaches\n(_Blattella germanica_) in kitchens and dining halls in the usual hiding\nplaces mentioned above and on the undersides of stainless-steel serving\ntables.\nIn department stores cockroaches have been found in food departments,\nbeauty salons, rest rooms, dressing rooms, linen departments, and\nstationery departments (Anonymous, 1952). The infestation in the linen\ndepartment was traced to clean towels which, when returned from the\nlaundry, contained at least 500 cockroaches per bundle. The insects were\ncarried into the rest rooms and beauty salon when the towels were\ndistributed.\nThe microhabitats of cockroaches in privies and sewers have not been\nstudied. These habitats are particularly important in view of the\ndemonstrated migrations of cockroaches from sewers into dwellings and\nthe possible dissemination of pathogenic microorganisms from feces to\nfood. The reader is referred to our 1957(a) paper for a summary of the\nknown information on cockroach dispersal from sewers.\nCOCKROACHES ASSOCIATED WITH LAND-BASED STRUCTURES\nMost of the cockroaches listed below are either known domiciliary\nspecies or they have been found one or more times in houses or other\nman-made structures. The known structural pests breed within the\nbuilding. Certain other species, which have been observed only\ninfrequently in structures and are not known to breed there, may\npossibly be incipient pests; these latter species may attain future\neconomic importance if they establish breeding colonies within a\nstructure. A few species have undoubtedly wandered indoors by accident.\nIt is difficult to decide whether a particular species was an accidental\ninvader or whether it was attracted indoors in response to some\nstimulus. Only additional information will provide the desired answers.\n=Aglaopteryx ypsilon=\n_Trinidad._--Male found indoors (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Allacta similis=\n_Hawaii._--Found only indoors at Nauhi. Otherwise this is apparently an\noutdoor species (Swezey and Williams, 1932).\n=Blaberus craniifer=\n_Cuba._--Household pest (Deschapelles, 1939). Particularly abundant in\nhouses in Santiago and Havana (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Florida._--Under boards in woodshed (Rehn and Hebard, 1912, 1914).\n=Blaberus discoidalis=\n_Ecuador._--In eating places (Campos R., 1926).\n_Hispaniola._--In houses (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_New Jersey._--In greenhouse (Weiss, 1917).\n_Puerto Rico._--In homes (Se\u00edn, 1923). In fruit stores (Wolcott, 1950).\n=Blatta lateralis=\n_Central Asia._--Household pest, often found in homes with clay floors\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n_Turkmen S.S.R._--Males and females occurred in dwellings (Vlasov,\n=Blatta orientalis=\nThis species is a cosmopolitan domiciliary pest (Hebard, 1917; Rehn,\n1945). It is reported to occur particularly in basements and crawl\nspaces under basementless houses (Mallis, 1954). In damp basements where\nfood is available large colonies are not unusual, but it also may infest\noffices and apartments several floors off the ground (Gould and Deay,\n1940). The number encountered on upper floors is seldom large, but the\nfrequency of occurrence may reach 30 percent of the observations (Spear\net al., _in_ Shuyler, 1956). In supermarkets this species hides during\nthe day inside concrete blocks or cracks in the foundation, under\nfurniture, or behind cartons; it is conspicuous on the floors of the\nmarkets at night (De Long, 1948). In Great Britain the kitchen is\npreferred by this pest (and by _Blattella germanica_); they shelter\nbeneath steam radiators and gas stoves, behind hot-water pipes,\nunderneath furniture and floor coverings, sinks and baths; basements and\nunderground kitchens are especially likely to be infested (Laing, 1946;\nBritish Museum [Nat. Hist.], 1951). Goodliffe (1958) noted that _B.\norientalis_ may travel long distances to find food.\n=Blattella germanica=\nThis species is a cosmopolitan domiciliary pest (Hebard, 1917; Rehn,\n1945). It is one of the commonest insects in homes and restaurants\n(Gould and Deay, 1940). It is found in kitchens, larders, bathrooms,\nfurnace rooms, and storage rooms of bakeries, breweries, hospitals,\nbarracks, as well as dwellings, where, during daylight, it hides behind\ncupboards, furniture, hanging pictures, panels and skirting boards, in\ncracks around drains, water pipes, electric wires, and hot-water and\nsteam heating units (Wille, 1920). The German cockroach may be found in\ncracks around baseboards, pipes, conduits, sinks, and drawers; behind\ncabinets; inside switch boxes and refrigerators; on under surfaces of\ntables, chairs, and shelves; between stacks of stored goods, and in\nalmost every place that is not readily observed (Kruse, 1948). We have\nalso seen this species packed in electric-clock cases and loud-speaker\nbaffles, in cash registers, and clinging to the undersurface of\nstainless-steel steam tables. The infestation of markets by this species\nhas been described above. Very narrow cracks provide refuges for the\nGerman cockroach. Wille (1920) found first-instar nymphs in cracks 0.5\nmm. wide and adult males and females without o\u00f6thecae in cracks 1.6 mm.\nwide.\nShuyler (1956) has observed extensions into relatively new structural\nhabitats by _Blattella germanica_ in the north-central area of the\nUnited States. A few German cockroaches are now being encountered in\nliving rooms, bedrooms, clothes closets, bedroom furniture, lobbies,\nentrance halls, checkrooms, nonfood storerooms, nonfood warehouses, and\ncoin-vending machine repair shops. In these situations this species is\nbehaving much like the brown-banded cockroach, _Supella supellectilium_.\n=Blattella schubotzi=\n_Cameroon._--Five specimens in a house (Princis, 1955).\n=Blattella vaga=\n_U.S.A._--Although this is mostly an outdoor species, during dry seasons\nit may temporarily enter houses in great numbers, occasionally breeding\nindoors in Arizona (Flock, 1941a). Two adults were collected indoors in\nTexas (Riherd, 1953).\n=Chromatonotus notatus=\n_Trinidad._--A male was found indoors (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Cutilia soror=\n_Hawaii._--Almost as common in houses as _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_\n(Hebard, 1922).\n=Ectobius duskei=\n_U.S.S.R._--Frequently occurs in living apartments in farming localities\nas an accidental inhabitant (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Ectobius pallidus=\n_Massachusetts._--A summertime pest in houses along coast (Gurney, 1953;\nE. R. Willis, personal observation). Generally an outdoor species.\n=Epilampra abdomen-nigrum=\n_Trinidad._--Male, indoors (Princis and Kevan, 1955). An outdoor species\ngenerally.\n=Ergaula capensis=\n_Cameroon._--A male taken in a house (Princis, 1955).\n=Eublaberus posticus=\n_Trinidad._--Indoors, feeding on bat feces (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Eurycotis floridana=\n_Florida._--Occasionally found in homes (Creighton, 1954; Roth and\nWillis, 1954a).\n=Euthyrrhapha pacifica=\n_Hawaii._--Found outdoors and indoors where it breeds in neglected\ncupboards and in rubbish (Fullaway and Krauss, 1945).\n=Holocompsa azteca=\n_Mexico._--Household pest (Ball et al., 1942).\n=Holocompsa cyanea=\n_Costa Rica._--One specimen in house (Rehn, 1906).\n=Holocompsa nitidula=\nApparently domiciliary in American Tropics (Hebard, 1917). In houses\nunder chests, etc., Cuba (Gundlach, 1890-1891); Puerto Rico (Gundlach,\n1887). In folds of burlap bag, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1914).\n=Ischnoptera rufa occidentalis=\n_Panama._--Thrives about human habitations under litter, though not\ndomiciliary (Hebard, 1920).\n=Ischnoptera rufa rufa=\n_Jamaica._--In hotel. \"While hardly a domiciliary form it would seem to\nfrequent environments where man has considerably disturbed natural\nconditions, as under debris, docks, under logs and stones in cultivated\nareas\" (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Leucophaea maderae=\n_West Indies._--In habitations, warehouses, and other structures; \"At\ntimes it is a very abundant and serious pest\" (Rehn, 1945). In Puerto\nRico it was also found in fruit stores, markets, and inns (Se\u00edn, 1923;\nWolcott, 1950).\nReported as a domiciliary pest in Madeira (Heer, 1864); Windward Islands\n(Marshall, 1878); Tropics and sub-Tropics (Rehn, 1937); Philippine\nIslands (Uichanco, 1953); New York City (Anonymous, 1953; Gurney, 1953);\nTrinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955). This species is also established in\ncoastal Brazil, Central America, all the Greater Antilles, several other\ntropical islands, and tropical Africa, where it probably originated\n=Leurolestes circumvagans=\n_Hispaniola, Grenada._--Largely domiciliary (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Leurolestes pallidus=\n_Cuba._--All over island, in houses, under lockers, etc. (Rehn, 1945;\n_Florida._--Rehn and Hebard (1914).\nThis species has been recorded from various islands in the West Indies,\nfrom Mexico, Guatemala, and Brazil (Rehn, 1945).\n=Methana marginalis=\n_Australia._--Reported entering houses (Pope, 1953a).\n=Nauphoeta cinerea=\n_Australia._--In hospital (Mackerras and Mackerras, 1948). In dwellings,\ngrain stores, and fowl-feeding pens (Pope, 1953).\n_Sudan._--Domiciliary in huts of the Shilluk natives; fairly widely\ndistributed in eastern Africa (Rehn, 1945).\n_Hawaii._--In feed rooms of poultry plants (Illingworth, 1942).\n_Florida._--Established in feed mills around Tampa (Gresham, 1952;\nGurney, 1953).\nThe wide distribution of this species from East Africa, where it\noriginated, to the Orient and the New World was undoubtedly mediated by\nshipping (Rehn, 1945).\n=Neoblattella= sp.\n_Puerto Rico._--Observed [as _Blatta caraibea_, Rehn and Hebard (1927)]\nin houses (Gundlach, 1887).\n=Neostylopyga rhombifolia=\nDomiciliary in Indo-Malaya and New World Tropics (Rehn, 1945);\nPhilippine Islands (Uichanco, 1953); and Hawaii (Hebard, 1922).\n=Oxyhaloa buprestoides=\nPresumably to some extent domiciliary, as it evidently spread from\nAfrica to the New World via slave ships (Rehn and Hebard, 1927; Rehn,\n=Panchlora nivea=\n_Colombia._--A male and a female taken in a dwelling (Princis, 1946).\nThis is primarily an outdoor species which is frequently taken indoors\nas an adventive on bananas (see p. 150 for references).\n=Parcoblatta fulvescens=\n_Florida._--Males found in laboratory and dormitory buildings,\nostensibly attracted by lights (Friauf, 1953).\n=Parcoblatta lata=\n_Connecticut._--Domiciliary pest (Moore, 1957). Generally an outdoor\nspecies.\n=Parcoblatta notha=\n_Arizona._--It may occasionally be a nuisance in houses (Ball et al.,\n=Parcoblatta pensylvanica=\n_U.S.A._--Country houses often badly infested, Indiana (Blatchley,\n1920). Frequently taken in houses in wooded areas, Michigan (Hubbell,\n1922). Infestation by males, females, and nymphs on fourth floor of\nbuilding, South Dakota (Severin, 1952). Houses in wooded areas infested\nby nymphs and occasionally by adults (Gould and Deay, 1940).\n_Canada._--Pest in summer cottages in Ontario (Walker, 1912).\n=Periplaneta americana=\nThis is a cosmopolitan domiciliary pest (Hebard, 1917; Rehn, 1945). It\nis common in restaurants, grocery stores, bakeries, and where food is\nprepared or stored; it was trapped regularly in the basement and upper\nfloors of store buildings, and it was also found in all heated parts of\nan old meat-packing plant (Gould and Deay, 1938). _P. americana_ was\nnumerous in latrines in Iran (Bei-Bienko, 1950) and in privies in Texas\n(Dow, 1955) and Georgia (Haines and Palmer, 1955). Large numbers of this\nspecies also occur in sewers adjacent to human habitations (Roth and\nWillis, 1957a).\n=Periplaneta australasiae=\nGenerally domiciliary, but also occurs outdoors in the West Indies (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1927). It is a very abundant domiciliary pest in tropical\nAfrica and tropical America (Rehn, 1945); Ecuador (Campos R., 1926);\nPuerto Rico (Sein, 1923); Philippine Islands (Uichanco, 1953); Australia\nAlso occurs as a pest in greenhouses in Pennsylvania (Thilow and Riley,\n1891); France (Giard, 1900); Italy (Boettger, 1930); Great Britain\n(Laing, 1946; British Museum [Nat. Hist.], 1951).\n=Periplaneta brunnea=\nCircumtropical domiciliary pest which is apparently more nearly peculiar\nto the Tropics and adjacent regions than _P. americana_ (Hebard, 1917).\nThis species has been trapped in significant numbers in privies and\ndwellings in Georgia (Haines and Palmer, 1955). It is the species of\n_Periplaneta_ present in homes in San Antonio, Texas (Mallis, 1954).\n=Periplaneta fuliginosa=\n_U.S.A._--Frequently encountered out of doors, but has been reported\ncommon after dark about a hotel in Alabama and was captured in a house\nin Louisiana; it was also extremely abundant on the wharves at night in\nJacksonville, Florida (Hebard, 1917). As a domiciliary pest it was, next\nto _Blattella germanica_, the most common cockroach inside homes in\nsouthwest Georgia, where it was also the most common cockroach in\nprivies (Haines and Palmer, 1955). This species has become a very common\ndomiciliary pest in Texas (Eads, personal communication, 1955). It\ninfested a greenhouse for five years in Indiana (Gould and Deay, 1940).\n=Periplaneta ignota=\n_Australia._--It occurs in dwellings occasionally (Pope, 1953).\n=Phaetalia pallida=\n_Colombia._--Three specimens from three dwellings (Princis, 1946).\n_Trinidad._--Male indoors; male and female at light (Princis and Kevan,\n=Plectoptera dorsalis=\n_Puerto Rico._--According to Gundlach (1887) it enters houses at night\nattracted by light (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Polyphaga aegyptiaca=\n_Iraq._--Common in houses (Weber, 1954).\n_Caucasus._--Winged male in kitchen (Burr, 1913).\n_U.S.S.R._--Listed as a sinanthrope (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Polyphaga saussurei=\n_South-central Asia._--One of the commonest domiciliary species\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Pseudophoraspis nebulosa=\n_East Indies._--This species is sometimes difficult indoors (Karny,\n=Pycnoscelus surinamensis=\nA household pest in the East Indies (Karny, 1925); Philippine Islands\n(Uichanco, 1953); Tanganyika (Smith, 1955); Trinidad, eight records\nindoors (Princis and Kevan, 1955). It is also a greenhouse pest (Hebard,\n1917; Zappe, 1918; Doucette and Smith, 1926; Saupe, 1928; Roeser,\n1940). Common in or around chicken batteries and yards in Hawaii\n(Schwabe, 1949).\n=Supella supellectilium=\nDomiciliary wherever distributed (Rehn, 1945), this species is\nespecially difficult to control because of its apparently nonselective\ndispersal throughout dwellings. For example, Mallis (1954) observed in\nTexas that it was widely distributed throughout the apartment and was\nprobably the most common cockroach seen in the bedroom; its favorite\nharborages were beneath and behind corner braces on kitchen chairs,\nunderneath tables, behind pictures and other objects on walls, and in\nshower stalls; its o\u00f6thecae were commonly fastened on walls and ceilings\nthroughout the house. Gould and Deay (1940) reported that this species\nprefers high locations, such as shelves in closets, behind pictures, and\npicture molding; o\u00f6thecae were found about kitchen sink, desks, tables,\nand other furniture, and even in bedding. Hafez and Afifi (1956) stated\nthat the adult wanders in nearly all rooms of the house and only visits\nthe kitchen when searching for food; it hides in cupboards, pantries,\nclosets, bookshelves, drawers, and behind picture frames; the nymphs\nnormally hide in the corners of drawers, behind frames, and in similar\nsituations.\n=Symploce bicolor=\n_Puerto Rico._--In houses, Sardinera Beach, Mona Island (Ramos, 1946).\n=Symploce hospes=\n_North American Tropics._--Domiciliary, but not exclusively so, and\napparently widely distributed (Hebard, 1917). In Florida, as\n_Ischnoptera rufescens_, found in a greasy cupboard (Rehn and Hebard,\n_Hawaii._--Illingworth (1915).\nSHIPS\nSailing ships have long been notorious for their unwelcome hordes of\ncockroaches, and it was by ship that at least 11 domiciliary species\nmigrated from their centers of origin to other parts of the world (Rehn,\n1945). Over 40 nondomiciliary species have been carried by ship from the\nAmerican Tropics to other parts of the world in cargoes of bananas (p.\n146). In addition to these, other adventive cockroaches appear from time\nto time in ports to which they have been carried by ships. Yet by far\nthe most numerous cockroaches on shipboard are the breeding populations\nof a few common domiciliary pests. Except in the most rigorously\ndisinsectized ships, this commerce in cockroaches has continued to the\npresent day.\nCockroaches undoubtedly infested the first ships that sailed the\nMediterranean; of these we have no records. The earliest recognizable\nrecord of cockroaches on shipboard is Moffett's (1634) statement that\nwhen Drake captured the ship _Philip_, he found it overrun with\ncockroaches [_Blattarum alatarum_]. Bligh (1792) described disinfesting\nH.M.S. _Bounty_ with boiling water to kill cockroaches. Chamisso (1829)\nreported that he had seen ships casks, in which rice or grain had been\nstored, that were found to be filled with _Blattella germanica_ when\nopened. During a voyage from England to Van Diemen's Land, Lewis (1836)\nwas greatly annoyed by hundreds of cockroaches flying about his cabin at\nnight; the most numerous resembled _Periplaneta americana_ and another\nwas similar to _Ectobius lapponicus_. This latter was undoubtedly _B.\ngermanica_, which is the only ship-infesting species that resembles the\nferal _E. lapponicus_. Lewis continued, _P. americana_ \"were in immense\nprofusion, and had communication with every part of the ship, between\nthe timbers or skin. The ravages they committed on everything edible\nwere very extensive; not a biscuit but was more or less polluted by\nthem, and amongst the cargo 300 cases of cheeses, which had holes in\nthem to prevent their sweating, were considerably damaged, some of them\nbeing half devoured and not one without some marks of their residence.\"\nKingsley (1870), Kellogg (1908), Gates (1912), Heiser (1936), and\nBronson (1943) have all reported that cockroaches were so numerous on\nships that they gnawed the skin and nails of the men on board. These are\nall independent observations of what may well have been a common\noccurrence on ships. We have discussed in detail the subject of\ncockroaches biting man in our 1957(a) paper.\nMosely (1892) reported, \"At the time that England was left the ship\n[H.M.S. _Challenger_] seemed nearly free of animals, other than men,\ndogs, and livestock required for food. The first cockroaches apparently\ncame on board at St. Vincent, Cape Verdes.... Cockroaches soon became\nplentiful on board, and showed themselves whenever the ship was in a\nwarm climate.\n\"At one period of the voyage, a number of these insects established\nthemselves in my cabin, and devoured parts of my boots, nibbling off all\nthe margins of leather projecting beyond the seams on the upper\nleathers.\"\nSir Edmund Freemantle (1904) recalled some of his experiences in the\nBritish Navy. \"Cockroaches in the tropics were also terrible scourges.\nOne saw little of them in fine, dry weather, but in damp, wet weather\nthey seemed to come from every hidden corner ... our remedy in the\n'Spartan' was to make the boys catch them--on pain of being caned....\nOne brig, the 'Lily,' was so overrun by cockroaches that the officers'\nclothes smelt of them.\"\nThe quotation from Sonan (1924) on page 348 describes similar conditions\nin the Japanese Navy.\nOn modern cargo ships cockroaches are reported to be extremely numerous\nin the galley, the crew's quarters, and sometimes in the holds; they\ndwell in hot, humid environments such as the casing around steam pipes\n(Monro, 1951). Williams (1931) reported that _Blattella germanica_ was\nthe most important cockroach pest on ships seen at New York. Although\noften numerous in the holds, the cockroaches as a rule congregated in\nliving quarters. They were also frequently found between tarpaulins\ncovering the hatches. It was not unusual to kill 20,000 to 50,000 in the\nforecastle, and more than 20,000 have been taken from a single\nstateroom. Simanton (1946) inspected the S.S. _William Kieth_ when it\nberthed at San Francisco from a 10-month voyage to the South Pacific.\nThe holds were infested with thousands of _Periplaneta americana_, but\nin the crew's quarters, mess halls, and storerooms _B. germanica_\npredominated. After insecticidal treatment about 2,000 _P. americana_\nwere seen in each hold and as many as 24 _B. germanica_ in each cabin.\nRichardson (1947) reported that in Army transports inspected between\n1943 and 1946 at New York, _P. americana_ was found in the galleys and\nmesses, and occasionally heavy infestations were found deep in the\nholds; _B. germanica_ was found in the galleys and messes; _Blatta\norientalis_ was found only in the hold.\nAdditional references indicating the presence of _Blattella germanica_\non ships may be found in the account of its parasite _Ripidius\npectinicornis_ (p. 232). Although Rice (1925) and Williams (1931) cite\n_B. germanica_ as the most numerous cockroach on ships, Brooke (1920)\nstated that the great majority of ship cockroaches were _Periplaneta\namericana_. In addition to citing cockroach infestations on ships, the\nfollowing authors reported various methods for disinfecting ships:\nCanalis (1916), Pryor (1918), Brooke (1920), Rice (1925), Williams\n(1931), Simanton (1946), Richardson (1947), and Anonymous (1951, 1954).\nCOCKROACHES ASSOCIATED WITH SHIPS\nIn the following list we include some previously unpublished data on\ncockroaches that were recovered from ships at the Miami, Fla.,\nQuarantine Station for the periods November 1945 through May 1946; May,\nJune, August, and September 1950; and 17 July 1957 (Porter, personal\ncommunication, 1958). These data were lumped, without breakdown to\nspecies, under the entry Orthoptera in Porter (1958).\nCertain of the species listed below occur only accidentally on shipboard\nand will probably never establish breeding colonies on ships or become\npests on shipboard or elsewhere; some were merely passengers between one\nland-based colony and another. Others, the truly domiciliary pests, are\nas likely to be pests on shipboard as they are in land-based structures.\n=Blaberus discoidalis=\n_Hispaniola._--On board ship (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Blatta orientalis=\n_U.S.A._--At Port of New York (Richardson, 1947).\n=Blattella germanica=\n_At sea?_--In ships casks (Chamisso, 1829).\n_U.S.A._--Port of New York (Williams, 1931; Richardson, 1947). San\nFrancisco (Simanton, 1946). At Miami, 7,852 live specimens recovered\nfrom ships (Porter, personal communication, 1958). Most numerous species\non ships (Rice, 1925).\n=Epilampra maya=\n_At sea._--One male and one female found dead on S.S. _Tenadores_\n(Hebard, 1917).\n=Epilampra= sp.\n_Florida._--One dead specimen, Miami (Porter, personal communication,\n=Ischnoptera= sp.\n_Florida._--Five live and one dead specimen, Miami (Porter, personal\ncommunication, 1958).\n=Latiblattella= sp.\n_At sea._--One female alive in hold of S.S. _Tenadores_ (Hebard, 1917).\n=Leucophaea maderae=\nBrought from West Africa to West Indies and Brazil by slave ships (Rehn,\n=Nauphoeta cinerea=\nWidely disseminated by sailing ships (Rehn, 1945).\n=Neoblattella fratercula=\n_At sea._--Two females found dead on S.S. _Tenadores_ (Hebard, 1917).\n=Neoblattella fraterna=\n_At sea._--One male found dead in hold of S.S. _Tenadores_ (Hebard,\n=Neoblattella nahua=\n_At sea._--One female dead in hold of S.S. _Tenadores_ (Hebard, 1917).\n=Neoblattella= sp.\n_Florida._--Five dead specimens recovered from ships, Miami (Porter,\npersonal communication, 1958).\n=Neostylopyga rhombifolia=\nWidely distributed by sailing ships (Rehn, 1945).\n_England._--Captured on a sugar vessel from Java (Lucas, 1920).\n=Nyctibora noctivaga=\n_At sea._--One male and one female nymph found dead on S. S. _Tenadores_\n(Hebard, 1917).\n=Nyctibora= sp.\n_Florida._--Two dead specimens recovered from ships at Miami (Porter,\npersonal communication, 1958).\n=Oxyhaloa buprestoides=\nSpread from Africa to New World by ships (Rehn and Hebard, 1927; Rehn,\n=Panchlora nivea=\n_At sea._--One female dead in hold of S.S. _Tenadores_ (Hebard, 1917).\n_Florida._--Fifteen dead specimens taken from ships, Miami (Porter,\npersonal communication, 1958).\nFrom the numerous records of this species as an adventive taken on\nbananas (p. 150), it may be presumed to be a frequent traveler on banana\nboats.\n=Periplaneta americana=\n_At sea._--Lewis (1836). Hebard (1933a) stated that this is \"often a\nserious pest on the smaller ships sailing the South Seas.\"\n_U.S.A._--San Francisco (Simanton, 1946). Port of New York (Richardson,\n1947). At Miami, 62 live and 123 dead specimens (Porter, personal\ncommunication, 1958).\n=Periplaneta australasiae=\nMigrated from West Africa to America in slave ships (Rehn, 1945).\n=Pycnoscelus surinamensis=\nProbably in part reached the New World by way of Africa in slave ships\n=Supella supellectilium=\nReached America from West Africa by slave ship (Rehn, 1945).\n=Xestoblatta festae=\n_At sea._--One female found dead in hold of S.S. _Tenadores_ (Hebard,\nAIRCRAFT\nMichel (1935) stated that the development of air transportation brought\nthe same insect dispersal problems that exist in land and water\ntransportation; in addition, the problem of cockroach infestation had\nbecome a very serious one, quite aside from the hygienic point of view,\nbecause it had been discovered that these insects seek out the wings of\nairplanes, where they subsisted on the glue and dope used in airplane\nconstruction. However, Dethier (1945) found no cockroaches in dismantled\nor wrecked wing and tail structures of metal aircraft in central Africa.\nIn fact, all-metal aircraft would seem to provide little in the way of\nfood or water for stowaway cockroaches.\nLaird (1951, 1952, 1956a) found living specimens of _Blattella\ngermanica_, _Periplaneta americana_, and _Periplaneta australasiae_ in\nbaggage compartments and/or kitchens in aircraft. Other species which\nhave been recovered from undisclosed spaces in aircraft are listed\nbelow. Some of the cockroaches that were reported as dead may not have\ndied from exposure during flight but may have been killed by insecticide\napplied by inspecting personnel at the airports.\nCOCKROACHES ASSOCIATED WITH AIRCRAFT\nIn the following list we include some previously unpublished data on\ncockroaches that were recovered from aircraft in Miami, Fla.,\nInternational Airport from 1 July 1956 through 30 June 1957 (Porter,\npersonal communication, 1958). These data were lumped under the entry\nOrthoptera without breakdown to species in Porter (1958).\nSpecies reported by Hughes (1949), and cited below as from southern\nUnited States, were recovered from aircraft that arrived at Brownsville,\nFort Worth, Miami, New Orleans, and San Juan. There was no way of\nlinking a specific record with any particular city.\nThe comments we made above about species that are infrequently\nencountered on ships apply with equal validity to similar species found\non aircraft.\n=Anaplecta= sp.\n_U.S.A._--One live and 15 dead specimens recovered from 16 aircraft at\nMiami (Denning et al., 1947).\n=Blatta orientalis=\n_U.S.A._--Six live and four dead specimens recovered from six aircraft\nat Miami (Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\n=Blattella germanica=\n_Hawaii._--Williams (1946a).\n_Khartoum._--Whitfield (1940).\n_U.S.A._--At Miami 193 live and 184 dead specimens were recovered from\n141 aircraft (Denning et al., 1947). Recovered at airports in southern\nU.S. (Hughes, 1949). Recovered at Miami, 51 live and 24 dead specimens\n(Porter, personal communication, 1958). Exposed experimentally in jet\naircraft (Sullivan et al., 1958).\n=Blattella= sp.\n_Khartoum._--Whitfield (1940).\n_Southern U.S._--Hughes (1949).\n=Cariblatta= ssp.\n_U.S.A._--One live and three dead specimens recovered from three\naircraft at Miami (Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\n=Epilampra= sp.\n_U.S.A._--One dead specimen, Miami (Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S.\n(Hughes, 1949).\n=Eublaberus posticus=\n_Southern U.S._--Hughes (1949).\n=Ischnoptera rufa rufa=\n_U.S.A._--Two dead specimens recovered from two aircraft at Miami\n(Denning et al., 1947).\n=Ischnoptera= sp.\n_U.S.A._--Two live and one dead specimen recovered from three aircraft,\nMiami (Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949). One dead\nspecimen, Miami (Porter, personal communication, 1958).\n=Leucophaea maderae=\n_U.S.A._--Three dead specimens recovered from three aircraft at Miami\n(Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\n=Nauphoeta cinerea=\n_U.S.A._--One live and one dead specimen, Miami (Denning et al., 1947).\n=Neoblattella= sp.\n_U.S.A._--One dead specimen recovered at Miami (Denning et al., 1947).\n=Panchlora nivea=\n_U.S.A._--Two dead specimens recovered from two aircraft, Miami (Denning\n=Periplaneta americana=\n_U.S.A._--Five live and three dead specimens recovered from seven\naircraft, Miami (Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\nThree live and five dead, Miami (Porter, personal communication, 1958).\nExperimentally exposed in jet aircraft, U.S. (Sullivan et al., 1958).\n_New Zealand._--Laird (1951, 1952).\n=Periplaneta australasiae=\n_U.S.A._--Two dead specimens recovered from two aircraft, Miami (Welch,\n1939). Five live and three dead from five aircraft, Miami (Denning et\nal., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949). Three live and two dead, Miami\n(Porter, personal communication, 1958).\n_New Zealand._--Laird (1952).\n=Periplaneta= spp.\n_U.S.A._--One live and three dead specimens from four aircraft, Miami\n(Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949). One live and six\ndead, Miami (Porter, personal communication, 1958).\n=Pycnoscelus surinamensis=\n_U.S.A._--Two live and three dead specimens from five aircraft, Miami\n(Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\n_New Zealand._--Laird (1956a).\n=Supella supellectilium=\n_U.S.A._--Two live and one dead specimen from one aircraft, Miami\n(Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\n_Khartoum._--Whitfield (1940).\n=Supella= sp.\n_U.S.A._--Two live specimens from two aircraft, Miami (Welch, 1939).\nSouthern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\n=Symploce= sp.\n_U.S.A._--Two live and one dead specimen from three aircraft, Miami\n(Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949).\n=Unidentified cockroaches=\n_Anglo-Egyptian Sudan._--At Khartoum (Whitfield, 1940).\n_Brazil._--From flying boats, 62 specimens; from land planes, 45\nspecimens (Carneiro de Mendon\u00e7a and Cerqueira, 1947).\n_Central Africa._--Dethier (1945).\n_Kenya._--At Kisumu (Symes in Whitfield, 1940).\n_New Zealand._--Laird (1956a).\n_U.S.A._--Four live and 14 dead specimens from 4 aircraft, Miami (Welch,\n1939). One live and 15 dead specimens (adults?) from 16 aircraft; 8\no\u00f6thecae from 7 planes; 147 live and 83 dead nymphs from 108 planes,\nMiami (Denning et al., 1947). Southern U.S. (Hughes, 1949). Five live\nand 7 dead specimens, Miami (Porter, personal communication, 1958).\nIV. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ASSOCIATIONS\nAsano (1937) classified the natural enemies of cockroaches into two\ntypes as follows:\n     1. Enemies that feed mainly on cockroaches (certain ripiphorid\n        beetles and certain chalcid, evaniid, and ampulicid wasps).\n     2. Organisms which, in their search for food, devour cockroaches\n        that may be encountered (certain species of scorpions, spiders,\n        ticks, centipedes, Strepsiptera, ants, birds, rats, and\n        \"parasitic bacteria\").\nCameron (1955) arranged the associates of cockroaches in two groups as\nfollows:\n     Group A. Parasites and predators.\n       1. Parasites: Hymenoptera (Evaniidae, Eulophidae, Eupelmidae,\n            Encyrtidae, Pteromalidae, Cleonymidae) and Coleoptera\n            (Ripiphoridae).\n       2. Predators: Hymenoptera (Ampulicidae), Hemiptera (Reduviidae),\n            Coleoptera (Dermestidae), Arachnida (Araneae, Acarina).\n     Group B. Parasites and symbionts.\n       1. Protozoa (including examples of both parasites and\n            commensals).\n       2. Nematoda (including both primary \"parasites\" and secondary\n       3. Bacteria (including the mutualistic bacteroids).\n       4. Algae [_Arthromitis_ (= _Hygrocrocis_) _intestinalis_; see p.\nAsano's arrangement, although essentially true, is limited; Cameron's\nsystem is divided into arthropods (group A) and lower forms (group B),\nbut does not include higher animals. Both attempts at classification\nneed amplification; this we have endeavored to do below.\nIn classifying the biotic associates of cockroaches, we were immediately\nconfronted with a problem in semantics. The concepts parasitism,\npredatism, and symbiosis have all been used with various shades of\nmeaning by different authors. The problem is not solved merely by\naccepting as authoritative specific definitions, however apt they seem\nto be, because, unfortunately, these concepts are not mutually\nexclusive. For example, among the entomophagous insects, as Sweetman\n(1936) has pointed out, there can be no definite line of separation\nbetween parasitism and predatism: the two intergrade, only the extremes\nbeing quite distinct. In fact, Andrewartha and Birch (1954) generalized\nthese relationships by calling both categories predatism. These authors\ndivided natural populations of associated organisms into nonpredators\nand predators. Although this simplifies their presentation of the\ngeneral principles of ecology, for our purpose more narrowly defined\nterms have proved useful.\nIn the main we have followed Sweetman (1936) and Allee et al. (1949) in\narriving at the following definitions:\n=Symbiosis= is the living together in more or less intimate association\nof organisms of different species; it includes virtually all\nrelationships between cockroaches and other organisms, such as\nparasitism, predatism, commensalism, and mutualism. Allee et al. (1949)\napparently do not include predatism in symbiosis.\n=Mutualism= is symbiosis in which both members benefit by the\nassociation. The smaller partner has commonly been called a symbiont or\nsymbiote by authors.\n=Commensalism= includes associations in which neither party appears to\nbenefit or be harmed. One partner may live on the surplus food or wastes\nof the other; shelter and transport may be involved.\n=Parasitism= is the state of symbiosis in which one of the members feeds\nupon the other during the whole of either the immature or mature feeding\nstage; the host is harmed in some way and may be killed.\n=Predatism= is an association in which one member attacks and feeds\nupon, or stores as food for its progeny, one or more other organisms;\nthe predator spends less than the immature or mature feeding period on\nthe prey. This category includes a few invertebrates and all the\nvertebrates that capture, kill, and feed on cockroaches. This\nassociation may be divided into interspecies predatism, in which the\npredator preys upon a different species, and intraspecies predatism\n(cannibalism) in which the predator preys upon its own species.\nAlthough we have attempted to adhere to these definitions throughout\nthis discussion, we realize that in doing so we may have tended to\noversimplify complex relations. Some questionable interpretations stem\nfrom insufficient knowledge of the basic relationships between\ncockroaches and their associates. Only further study will clarify these\nrelationships. Some of the problems are discussed below.\nProbably many of the so-called parasites (e.g., Protozoa like\n_Nyctotherus_, and intestinal nematodes of the family Thelastomatidae),\nwhich do not invade the host's tissues and seem to have no effect on the\nactivity and vitality of the host, are commensals. Although we consider\nthese forms to be commensals, we realize that they might actually affect\nthe host in some way even though this has not been shown. It is possible\nthat Rothschild and Clay's (1957) statement about bird parasites may\nwell apply to the apparently harmless organisms found in the cockroach.\nThese authors wrote, \"It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the\neffect of all types of parasites on the host is detrimental. If we find\nthat a bird seems little, if at all, inconvenienced by the presence of\nProtozoa or worms or lice, or a cuckoo in the nest, we can nevertheless\nassume that it would be better off without them.... Small effects such\nas lack of vitality, loss of voice, excessive blinking, or perverted\nhabits like dirt eating are extremely difficult to gauge. Nevertheless,\nit is only a question of degree. Potentially all parasites are harmful.\"\nIt should also be pointed out that some workers would consider certain\nof our commensals of cockroaches to be parasites. Thus Faust (1955)\nstated that \"A truly successful parasite is one which has developed a\nstate of equilibrium with its host, so that no detectable damage is\nproduced which endangers the health or life of the host. In a suitable\nhost the parasite may obtain food and shelter without any evidence of\ntrauma or toxicity. The damage produced may be so slight that repair and\nfunctional readjustment keep pace with the injury.\" Faust's successful\nparasite would be indistinguishable from a commensal, but there is\nundeniably a difference between an organism causing slight, and\nundetectable, damage to a host and one causing none. Certain of the\norganisms we list as commensals may eventually be shown to be parasites.\nCertain organisms which live in cockroaches appear to have no effect on\nthe vitality of the host even though the tissues of the host are\ninvaded. Gregarines may penetrate the intestinal wall of the cockroach\nwithout seeming to injure the host. Fungi of the genus _Herpomyces_\ninvade the cuticle of cockroaches producing pathological changes; yet\nthe insects' behavior is apparently unaffected (see p. 129). We consider\nthese organisms to be parasites because the host's tissues are invaded\nand, as far as we know, no benefit to the host results.\nIn the literature certain insects have been considered to be either\nparasites or predators or both. Among these are the ensign wasps\n(Evaniidae), whose larvae feed on the eggs of cockroaches within the\no\u00f6theca, and the ampulicid wasps, which capture, paralyze, and store in\ntheir nests (as food for their larvae) nymphs and adults of cockroaches.\nClausen (1940) claimed that the evaniid _Zeuxevania splendidula_ is a\ntrue egg parasite when it destroys the first egg in a cockroach o\u00f6theca;\nbut after the wasp larva molts and proceeds to devour the other eggs, he\nconsidered it to be a predator. Clausen's definition of an entomophagous\nparasite is an insect that in its larval stage develops either\ninternally or externally upon a _single_ host which is eventually\nkilled; with few exceptions the adults are free-living and their food is\nusually different from that of the larvae. A predatory insect, by\nClausen's definition, is principally free-living in the larval as well\nas adult stage, kills the host immediately by direct attack, and\nrequires a number of victims to reach maturity; the predator is of\ngreater size than the prey, and the food sources of the adults and\nimmature stages are frequently the same.\nIt is apparent, as Clausen and other writers have pointed out, that\nthere are instances of a particular species showing characteristics\nwhich fit both the definitions for predator and parasite. Thus, among\nthe evaniids one wasp larva destroys all the eggs in an o\u00f6theca, but in\nspite of this the larva has more of the characteristics of a parasite\nthan of a predator; the adult wasp does not utilize the same food as the\nlarva (adults have been taken on flowers and on honeydew from scale\ninsects). It is questionable whether the evaniid larva kills the\ncockroach egg outright. The wasp larva, being restricted to the inside\nof the o\u00f6theca, is not free-living. Probably the only criterion by which\nthe evaniid could be judged to be a predator, by Clausen's definition,\nis that more than a single egg is devoured by the maturing wasp larva.\nAmong the other wasp parasites (Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, Eupelmidae) of\ncockroach eggs many individuals develop in a single o\u00f6theca. When a\nhundred or more wasps emerge from an o\u00f6theca which contained less than\n20 eggs, it is obvious that a single cockroach egg supported more than\none wasp, yet it is possible that one particular wasp larva may have fed\nupon more than one cockroach egg before becoming an adult. We consider\nall entomophagous wasps that develop in cockroach o\u00f6thecae to be\nparasites rather than predators.\nOn the other hand, even though _Anastatus floridanus_, _A. tenuipes_,\nand _Tetrastichus hagenowii_ are egg parasites as larvae, the adult\nfemales are, in a sense, predators when they sometimes eat part of the\ncockroach egg that oozes through the oviposition puncture (Roth and\nWillis, 1954a, 1954b). Williams (1929) has seen the female of _Ampulex\ncanaliculata_ imbibe blood that oozed from the cut ends of the\ncockroach's antennae after she had clipped them off before leading the\nprey to her nest. Yet despite this evident predatism on the part of the\nadult, the larva feeds as a parasite on the stored cockroaches in\naccordance with Sweetman's (1936) (though not Clausen's 1940) definition\nof parasitism, which is \"that form of symbiosis in which one symbiont\nlives in or on the host organism and feeds at its expense during the\nwhole of either the immature or mature feeding stage.\" The ampulicid\nlarva, as the evaniid, is not free-living and does not kill the host\nimmediately by direct attack, even though it may require more than one\nvictim to reach maturity. Thus, within one individual both parasitic and\npredatory behavior are operant during different stages of its life\nhistory.\nWith the above discussion in mind we have summarized below the various\nbiotic associations of cockroaches. Only a few examples are given for\neach section, but all organisms with similar habits presumably would be\nclassified in the same categories.\n  Class A. Associations in which cockroaches serve as hosts, vectors,\n           or prey for other organisms.\n    Type I. Obligate associates. Animals and plants that normally\n            develop only on or in the cockroach; in general, these\n            organisms depend entirely upon the cockroach for survival.\n      Group 1. Mutuals (symbiotes or symbionts of authors).\n        (a) Bacteria-like organisms (bacteroids which are found in the\n            fat body of all cockroaches that have been examined; p. 96).\n        (b) Bacteria (wood-digesting forms in _Panesthia_, and possibly\n            certain bacteria in the intestines, of other cockroaches;\n        (c) Protozoa (several genera and species found in\n      Group 2. Commensals.\n        (a) Protozoa (_Nyctotherus_, _Herpetomonas_, _Lophomonas_, etc.;\n        (b) Nematodes (Thelastomatidae; p. 193).\n      Group 3. Parasites.\n        (a) Fungi (Laboulbeniales; p. 134).\n        (b) Protozoa (gregarines, _Plistophora_, etc.; p. 181).\n        (c) Helminths.\n            (1) Primary parasites (mermithids and gordian worms;\n            (2) Secondary parasites (_Gongylonema neoplasticum_,\n                _Oxyuris mansoni_, _Moniliformis_ spp.; p. 206).\n        (d) Arthropods.\n            (1) Mites (_Pimeliaphilus podapolipophagus_; p. 219).\n            (2) Insects (larvae of ripiphorids, evaniids, and\n    Type II. Facultative associates. Animals and plants that prey on\n     cockroaches or are incidentally or accidentally picked up by the\n     cockroach, but which can survive or propagate readily on some\n     other host or prey. Steinhaus (1946) emphasized the importance of\n     the environment in determining the type of microbial flora\n     associated with the cockroach which may carry one type of flora\n     in an area which is exposed to filth and a different type in\n     other areas. Because many of these organisms survive passage\n     through or on the cockroach, the blattid may act as a vector of\n     these animals and plants.\n      Group 1. Commensals.\n        (a) Viruses (strains of poliomyelitis virus; p. 103).\n        (b) Bacteria (Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonadaceae,\n            Micrococcaceae, etc.; p. 111).\n        (c) Fungi (_Aspergillus_; p. 130).\n        (d) Protozoa (_Iodamoeba_, _Dobellina_, and cysts of\n            _Entamoeba coli_ and _Entamoeba histolytica_; p. 179).\n        (e) Helminths (cysts of various helminths parasitic in\n        (f) Arthropods.\n            (1) Mites (_Tyrophagus lintneri_; p. 218).\n      Group 2. Parasites.\n        (a) Bacteria (_Serratia marcescens_; p. 117).\n        (b) Helminths (_Protospirura_ spp.; p. 206).\n        (c) Arthropods.\n            (2) Insects (_Melittobia chalybii_; p. 248).\n      Group 3. Predators, active.\n        (a) Arthropods.\n           (4) Mites (_Rhizoglyphus tarsalus_; p. 218).\n           (5) Insects (dermestids, reduviids, and on occasion adult\n               females of _Tetrastichus_, _Anastatus_, _Ampulex_;\n        (b) Vertebrates.\n      Group 4. Predators, passive: Pitcher plants (p. 154).\n  Class B. Associations in which cockroaches serve as commensals or\n      predators.\n      Group 1. Commensal cockroaches.\n        (a) Associates of social insects (_Attaphila_ spp., etc.;\n        (b) Obscure associates (p. 316).\n      Group 2. Predatory cockroaches.\n        (a) Interspecies predators (p. 319).\n        (b) Intraspecies predators (p. 322).\n  Class C. Associations of cockroaches with other cockroaches.\n      Group 1. Intraspecies associations.\n        (a) Familial associations (p. 325).\n        (b) Other conspecific associations (aggregations and fighting)\n      Group 2. Interspecies associations.\n        (a) Compatible associations (p. 337).\n        (b) Antagonistic associations (p. 329).\n  Class D. Ecological associations of cockroaches with higher\n      Group 1. Benign associations (p. 139).\n      Group 2. Associations detrimental to plants (p. 162).\nV. MUTUALISM\nBACTEROIDS\nBlochmann (1887, 1888) discovered intracellular particles (the\nbacteroids or symbiotes of authors) that resembled bacteria in the fat\nbody of males and females of _Blatta orientalis_ and _Blattella\ngermanica_ (pl. 26), in the ova of these insects, and in their embryos.\nBacteroids have since been found in at least 25 species and 19 genera of\ncockroaches. Presumably such microorganisms are universally distributed\nthroughout the Blattaria. General reviews of the bacteroids of\ncockroaches and other insects have been published by Glaser (1930b),\nSchwartz (1935), Steinhaus (1946, 1949), Buchner (1952, 1953), Brooks\n(1954), and Richards and Brooks (1958). The reader is referred to these\npapers, and those of authors cited in the list at the end of this\nsection, for discussions of the morphology of the bacteroids, their\ndistribution within the host, and attempts to culture them in vitro.\nIt has long been assumed, without proof, that cockroaches and their\nbacteroids form a mutually beneficial association. As it has not been\npossible to cultivate bacteroids apart from their cockroach hosts, it\nmay be assumed that the host is essential to the continued existence of\nthe microorganism, which also derives from the association other obvious\nbenefits as well. Experiments to show that the host also benefits from\nthe association have centered around rendering cockroaches bacteroid\nfree. Starvation, parasites, electromagnetic radiation, heat or cold, or\nchemicals have all been used in attempts to eliminate the bacteroids. Of\nthese, only chemical treatment has provided a satisfactory technique.\nFew chemicals other than antibiotics have proved to be useful in the\nelimination or reduction of bacteroids. Yetwin (1932) injected various\ndilutions of 22 compounds into _Blattella germanica_. He observed\ndecreases in the bacteroids of the fat body only following injection of\nmethylene blue, but did not pursue this lead further. Gier (_in_\nSteinhaus, 1946) observed reduction in the numbers of bacteroids after\ncockroaches were injected with crystal violet, hexylresorcinol, or\nmetaphen. Bode (1936) reported that injection of irritants such as\nlithium salts or quinine hydrochloride had no apparent effect on the\nsymbiotes.\nBrooks (1957) reared _Blattella germanica_ on diets containing different\nconcentrations of inorganic ions. On a manganese-deficient diet the\ncockroaches grew poorly and some of their progeny lacked normal\nbacteroids; about 10 percent of the aposymbiotic generation grew and\nreproduced on a diet fortified with yeast. Varying the concentrations of\nother salts in the diets gave results in which the progeny were either\naposymbiotic or the fat body was abnormal but the mycetocytes were\nabundant; all these cockroaches soon died even on fortified diets.\nThe administration of certain antibiotic drugs has produced cockroaches\nvery nearly free of bacteroids. Brues and Dunn (1945) found that\nalthough sulfa drugs had no effect on the bacteroids, penicillin in\nlarge doses reduced the number of bacteroids in _Blaberus craniifer_,\nbut the cockroaches died within a few days. Death was attributed to lack\nof bacteroids rather than effect of the drug; this is perhaps an\nunwarranted conclusion in view of the survival of aposymbiotic\ncockroaches that have been produced by other drugs (Brooks, 1954; Brooks\nand Richards, 1955). Glaser (1946) found that the bacteroids of\n_Periplaneta americana_ could be adversely affected or destroyed by\nsulfathiazole, or sodium or calcium penicillin. Fraenkel (1952)\nquestioned the conclusions of Brues and Dunn (1945) and of Glaser (1946)\nbecause of the high mortality in their experiments, and he suggested\nthat the described phenomena \"were due rather to direct toxic effects on\nthe host than to loss of the symbionts.\" Noland (_in_ Brooks, 1954;\nBrooks and Richards, 1955) confirmed Glaser's results with penicillin\nand extended sulfa treatments to include _Blattella germanica_. Every\nfemale whose bacteroids were reduced to the vanishing point resorbed her\novaries and was incapable of reproduction. Brooks (1954; Brooks and\nRichards, 1955) found that administration of several antibiotics did not\neliminate the bacteroids from the fat body of _B. germanica_ unless the\ndose was so high that it caused excessive mortality. Frank (1955, 1956)\nwas able to eliminate bacteroids from _Blatta orientalis_ by injecting\nor feeding chlortetracycline, oxytetracycline, or penicillin; survival\nof treated insects was not good and reproduction was poor; the\naposymbiotic individuals were smaller than normal. As Richards and\nBrooks (1958) have pointed out, it is uncertain how much of this\ndifference was the result of loss of bacteroids and how much the effect\nof the drug. It is obvious that in all these experiments the action of\nthe drugs on the bacteroids was accompanied by equivocal side effects\nwhich confused interpretation of the results. The effect on the\ncockroach of a loss of bacteroids cannot be separated from a possible\ntoxic effect of the drug.\nFortunately Brooks (1954; Brooks and Richards, 1955) obtained completely\naposymbiotic offspring from _Blattella germanica_ that had been reared\non aureomycin. These bacteroid-free nymphs were practically incapable of\ngrowth on a natural diet that was adequate for nymphs with symbiotes.\nHowever, the addition of large amounts of dried yeast to the diet\nenabled aposymbiotic nymphs to mature in two to three times the period\nrequired by normal nymphs. Final proof of the function of the bacteroids\nwas obtained by reestablishing them in aposymbiotic cockroaches. The\ninsects that received implants of normal fat body of _B. germanica_\nshowed a slow, steady gain in weight over the controls (Brooks, 1954;\nBrooks and Richards, 1956). Obviously, the intracellular symbiotes\nsubserve the normal nutrition of the cockroach. Whether the bacteroids\nproduce only vitaminlike substances, as suggested by Keller (1950), or\nfunction in some other way is still to be determined. Brooks (1954)\nconcluded that the amount of vitamin-containing food required for\nincreased growth by aposymbiotic cockroaches is much greater than the\nknown vitamin requirements; hence the factor(s) needed is unknown and\npresent in low concentration, or it serves as a precursor of a second\nfactor(s) whose synthesis is aided by the bacteroids. Brooks (_in_\nRichards and Brooks, 1958) has since found that the bacteroids of\n_Blattella germanica_ \"can supply the insect with B vitamins, amino\nacids and some larger protein fragment.\"\nGier (1947) stated that the symbiotes of cockroaches are generically all\nthe same. However, as the symbiotes are presumed to have been associated\nwith cockroaches for over 300,000,000 years (Buchner, 1952) they may be\nassumed to have developed specific differences that link them\ninseparably to their respective hosts. Ries (1932) transplanted\nsymbiote-containing fat body from _Blatta orientalis_ into the mealworm\nand larva of _Ephestia k\u00fchniella_, and from _Blattella germanica_ and\n_Stegobium paniceum_ (=_Sitodrepa panicea_) into _B. orientalis_. The\nimplants did not become established in the new host, although most of\nthe transplantations were successful in that the hosts survived and the\nimplants remained intact for some time before they were encapsulated by\nhost tissue. Brooks (1954; Brooks and Richards, 1956) transplanted fat\nbody of _Periplaneta americana_ and _B. orientalis_ into aposymbiotic\n_B. germanica_. The growth of the cockroaches injected with foreign\ntissue was not different from that of aposymbiotic controls. Sections of\nhost insects did not contain mycetocytes and no bacteroids were found.\nHaller (1955a) injected bacteroids or implanted mycetocytes of _B.\ngermanica_ into gryllids, acridids, and locustids. These implants and\ninnoculations were rapidly destroyed by the hosts. But as Richards and\nBrooks (1958) have pointed out, none of these experiments provide\ninformation about the specificity of the bacteroids themselves.\nCOCKROACHES IN WHICH BACTEROIDS HAVE BEEN FOUND\n     _Bantua stigmosa._ Fraenkel (1921)\n     _Blaberus craniifer._ Brooks (1954); Brues and Dunn (1945); Hoover\n     _Blaberus giganteus._ Blochmann (1892).\n     _Blatta orientalis._ Blochmann (1887, 1888, 1892); Bode (1936);\n       Gropengiesser (1925); Gubler (1948); Heymons (1895); Hollande\n     _Blattella germanica._ Blochmann (1887, 1888, 1892); Bode (1936);\n       Borghese (1946, 1948, 1948a); Brooks (1954); Brooks and Richards\n     _Cryptocercus punctulatus._ Gier (1936, 1947); Hoover (1945).\n     _Derocalymma cruralis._ Fraenkel (1921).\n     _Ectobius lapponicus._ Heymons (1892); Cu\u00e9not (1896); Koch (1949).\n     _Ectobius pallidus._ Heymons (1892, 1895); Cu\u00e9not (1896).\n     _Epilampra grisea._ Fraenkel (1921).\n     _Eurycotis floridana._ Gier (1936, 1947).\n     _Loboptera decipiens._ Buchner (1930).\n     _Nauphoeta cinerea._ Fraenkel (1921).\n     _Nyctibora noctivaga._ Gier (1947).\n     _Parcoblatta lata._ Gier (1936, 1947).\n     _Parcoblatta pensylvanica._ Brooks (1954); Gier (1936, 1947).\n     _Parcoblatta uhleriana._ Gier (1936, 1947); Hoover (1945).\n     _Parcoblatta virginica._ Glaser (1920); Gier (1947).\n     _Periplaneta americana._ Baudisch (1956); Bode (1936); Cu\u00e9not\n       Gubler (1948); Hertig (1921); Hoover (1945); Ketchel and\n     _Periplaneta australasiae._ Gier (1936, 1947); Koch (1949).\n     _Platyzosteria armata._ Fraenkel (1921).\n     _Polyphaga aegyptiaca._ Fraenkel (1921).\n     _Pseudoderopeltis aethiopica._ Fraenkel (1921).\n     _Pycnoscelus surinamensis._ Bode (1936); Koch (1949).\n     _Supella supellectilium._ Brooks (1954).\nBACTERIA\nEvidence showing that intestinal bacteria contribute to the nutrition of\ncockroaches is meager. Cleveland et al. (1934) isolated a bacterial\norganism from the foregut of the wood-feeding cockroach _Panesthia\nangustipennis_. The bacterium digested cellulose rapidly in vitro and\nthese workers believe that this cockroach and other related wood-feeding\nspecies are dependent on symbiotic bacteria for the digestion of their\nfood.\nMencl (1907) described cell nuclei in \"symbiotic,\" not closely defined\ntypes of bacilli that he found in abundance in the digestive tract of\nthe K\u00fcchenschabe, _Periplaneta_ (presumably _Blatta orientalis_).\nUnfortunately, he was more concerned about the morphology of the\nbacteria than the stated mutualistic relationship, so nothing is known\nof their physiology.\nThe growth rates of _Periplaneta americana_ and _Blattella germanica_\nwere retarded when the insects were reared aseptically, which suggests\nthat microorganisms normally found in the digestive tract supply certain\nnecessary dietary constituents (Gier, 1947a; House, 1949). Noland et al.\n(1949) suggested that microorganisms in the digestive tract of _B.\ngermanica_ synthesized riboflavin since the nymphs reared on a low\nriboflavin diet accumulated more of the vitamin than could have been\ningested in the diet. However, Metcalf and Patton (1942) found little or\nno bacterial synthesis of riboflavin in _P. americana_. Noland and\nBaumann (1951) suggested that methionine, one of the amino acids\nessential for rapid growth of _B. germanica_, was synthesized by\nintestinal microorganisms in the insects.\nPROTOZOA\nIt is probable that with few exceptions protozoa found in the digestive\ntract are not necessary for survival of the cockroach. However, very few\nexperiments have been performed to determine the importance, if any, of\nthese microorganisms to the host. Cleveland (1925) removed the protozoa\nfrom the cockroach (possibly _Periplaneta americana_) by oxygenation at\n3.5 atmospheres. The ciliates _Nyctotherus_ and _Balantidium_,\nflagellates _Lophomonas_ and _Polymastix_, the amoeba _Endamoeba\nblattae_, and three unidentified protozoa were killed by this treatment,\nyet the insects lived normally after defaunation.\nArmer (1944) studied the effects of high-carbohydrate, high-fat, and\nhigh-protein diets, as well as starvation, on the intestinal protozoa\n(_Nyctotherus ovalis_, _Endamoeba blattae_, _Endolimax blattae_,\n_Lophomonas striata_, and _Lophomonas blattarum_) in _Periplaneta\namericana_. Starvation of the host lowered the incidence or eliminated\nmost of the protozoa, but a high-carbohydrate diet maintained them at a\nrelatively high level. _Lophomonas blattarum_ was eliminated by a\nhigh-protein diet, and practically eliminated by a high-fat diet.\n_Lophomonas striata_ was eliminated from some hosts that were kept on\nhigh-fat and high-protein diets. _Endamoeba blattae_ showed a decrease\nin infection rate when the cockroaches were maintained on high-fat and\nhigh-protein diets. The effects of diets on _Endolimax blattae_ were not\nuniform.\nIt has been shown by Cleveland (1930, 1948) and Cleveland et al. (1931,\n1934) that the wood-feeding cockroach _Cryptocercus punctulatus_ depends\nupon certain intestinal protozoa for survival; these protozoa utilize as\nfood the wood ingested by this cockroach. The wood is broken down into\ncompounds the cockroach can utilize by the protozoa which elaborate a\ncellulase and possibly a cellobiase (Trager, 1932). Only molting nymphs\nof _Cryptocercus_ can pass the protozoa on to the newly hatched young,\nso that molting and hatching must happen concurrently each year or the\nyoung die.\nThe sexual cycles in species of protozoa in the genera _Trichonympha_,\n_Saccinobaculus_, _Oxymonas_, _Monocercomonoides_, _Hexamita_,\n_Eucomonympha_, _Leptospironympha_, _Urinympha_, _Rhynchonympha_,\n_Macrospironympha_, and _Barbulanympha_ (fig. 3, B) are induced by\nhormones produced by _Cryptocercus_ only during its molting period\n(Cleveland, 1931, 1947, 1947a, 1949-1956a). Perhaps the prothoracic\ngland hormone of the host may be responsible for initiation of the\nflagellate sexual cycles (Cleveland and Nutting, 1955). The protozoan\nsexual cycles may be used as indicators of the onset of molting in\n_Cryptocercus_; thus different species of protozoa begin their sexual\ncycles from 35 days before to 2 days after molting of the cockroach\n(Cleveland and Nutting, 1954). Hollande (1952) and Grass\u00e9 (1952) have\nreviewed the roles and the evolution of the flagellates in\n_Cryptocercus_ and in termites.\nThe protozoa of cockroaches and termites are clues to the relationship\nbetween these two groups of insects. Kirby (1927) pointed out\nsimilarities between _Endamoeba blattae_ of _Periplaneta_ and the\namoebae of the termite _Mirotermes_, suggesting that these protozoans\nwere probably derived from an amoeba in an ancestor common to both\nblattid and termite. Kirby (1932, _in_ Kidder, 1937) found a species of\n_Nyctotherus_ in _Amitermes_ that resembles _Nyctotherus ovalis_ from\ndomestic cockroaches. The belief that the termites and cockroaches had a\ncommon origin is also strengthened by the similarities between the\nhypermastigotes of both _Cryptocercus_ and termites (Cleveland et al.,\nThe cockroaches _Cryptocercus_ and _Panesthia_ both feed on wood, but\nthe protozoa found in _Panesthia_ resemble more closely the species in\ndomestic cockroaches than those in _Cryptocercus_. The Clevelandellidae\n(from _Panesthia_) are closely related to _Nyctotherus_ and have\nprobably evolved from common ancestors. However, the separation of the\nClevelandellidae from _Nyctotherus_ must have taken place at a later\ndate than the divergence of their hosts, otherwise representatives of\nthat family would probably also be found in _Periplaneta_ and _Blatta_\n(Kidder, 1937).\nThe protozoa of _Cryptocercus_ can be transferred from one individual to\nanother (Nutting and Cleveland, 1954). They can also be transferred to\nthe termite _Zootermopsis_ where they survive only until the host molts;\nthe reverse is also true, _Zootermopsis_ Protozoa can survive in\n_Cryptocercus_ until the cockroach molts (Nutting and Cleveland, 1954a).\nVI. VIRUSES ASSOCIATED WITH COCKROACHES\nAnnotations on some of the following observations may be found in Roth\nand Willis (1957a). Use of asterisk is explained in footnote 3, page 4.\nPOLIOMYELITIS VIRUSES\n* =Lansing strain=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Hurlbutt, 1949,\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hsiang et al., 1952).\n* =Brunhilde type, Minnesota and Mahoney strains=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Fischer and\nSyverton, 1951; Syverton et al., 1952).\n* =Columbia SK virus=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Great Britain?\n(Findlay and Howard, 1951): Results with _Blattella germanica_ were\nnegative.\n* =Four unspecified strains=\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Blattella vaga_,\n_Periplaneta americana_ and/or _Periplaneta brunnea_, and _Supella\nsupellectilium_, U.S.A. (Syverton et al., 1952; Dow, 1955; Dow _in_ Roth\nand Willis, 1957a).\nOTHER VIRUSES\n* =Coxsackie viruses=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Fischer and\nSyverton, 1951a, 1957): Recently Fischer and Syverton (1957) found that\nafter feeding a single meal of Coxsackie virus to _Periplaneta\namericana_, the gastrointestinal tracts of the insects, which were\nremoved at 5-day intervals up to 20 days, contained sufficient virus to\nparalyze and kill test mice. Cockroach salivary glands, removed 5 days\nafter the insects had fed, contained the virus which caused paralysis\nand death in test mice; mice were also infected by virus obtained from\nsalivary glands removed from the insects 10 and 20 days after the\ncockroaches had fed once on the virus. The virus was also isolated from\nthe cockroaches' feces and rarely from the fat bodies and reproductive\norgans. Fischer and Syverton concluded that it is possible that\ncockroaches could acquire the virus, by feeding on mammalian excreta,\nmaintain it for a period of time, and transmit it by contamination of\nfood. The virus could also be transmitted through the feces of wild mice\nif the mice happened to feed on virus-infected cockroaches.\n* =Mouse encephalomyelitis virus=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Syverton and\nFischer, 1950).\n* =Yellow-fever virus=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, Great Britain? (Findlay\nand MacCallum, 1939).\nVII. BACTERIA ASSOCIATED WITH COCKROACHES\nClassification of the bacteria follows Breed et al. (1948). Synonymy in\nmost cases was taken from the same source. Names of bacteria preceded by\nthe symbol [cross] are either not listed by Breed et al. or are stated\nby them to be insufficiently characterized for definite classification.\nUse of asterisk is explained in footnote 3, page 4.\nPhylum SCHIZOPHYTA\nClass SCHIZOMYCETES\nOrder EUBACTERIALES\nFamily PSEUDOMONADACEAE\n* =Pseudomonas aeruginosa= (Schroeter) Migula\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949).\n_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Olson and Rueger, 1950).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Olson and Rueger, 1950; Janssen and\nWedberg, 1952).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949, 1949a; Olson\nand Rueger, 1950).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Herms and\nNelson, 1913).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n* =Pseudomonas eisenbergii= Migula\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao,\n* =Pseudomonas fluorescens= Migula\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao,\n1898, 1906; Spinelli and Reitano, 1932).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Gier, 1947): The organism was\npathogenic to the cockroach when injected.\n[cross] =Spirillum periplaneticum= Kunstler and Gineste\n_Habitat._--_Periplaneta americana_, France? (Kunstler and Gineste,\n1906): From intestinal tract.\n[cross] =Spirillum \u03b1, \u03b2, and \u03b3= Dobell\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Dobell, 1911, 1912): From hind\ngut.\n=Spirillum= sp.\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Zasukhin, 1930): From\nintestinal tract.\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926): From digestive tract.\n* =Vibrio comma= (Schroeter) Winslow et al.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898; Spinelli\nand Reitano, 1932).\n_Blattella germanica_, Orient (Toda, 1923); Germany (Jettmar, 1927).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Philippine Islands (Barber, 1914); Netherlands\n(Akkerman, 1933); Formosa (Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Formosa (Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926).\n* =Vibrio metschnikovii= Gamal\u00e9ia\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898, 1906).\n=Vibrio tyrogenus= (Fl\u00fcgge) Holland\n_Synonymy._--_Vibrio_ of Deneke.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898): The\norganism passed through the intestinal tract unchanged.\n[cross] =Vibrio Types I and II= Heiberg\n_Habitat._--Water.\n_Natural vectors._--Cockroaches, India (Pasricha et al., 1938): The\nvibrios were found in 16 or 17 percent of 94 cockroaches and resembled\n_Vibrio comma_ in their morphology and their main biochemical reactions;\nhowever, serum-agglutination reactions differed.\n=Vibrio= sp.\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Leidy, 1853): From intestine.\nFamily RHIZOBIACEAE\n=Chromobacterium violaceum= (Schroeter) Bergonzini\n_Synonymy._--_B. violaceus._\n_Habitat._--Water.\n_Experimental vectors._--Cockroach, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913): Recovered\nfrom outer part of body and intestinal tract.\nFamily MICROCOCCACEAE\n* =Micrococcus aurantiacus= (Schroeter) Cohn\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n* =Micrococcus citreus= Migula\n_Natural vectors._--Cockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\n* =Micrococcus epidermidis= (Winslow and Winslow) Hucker\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n[cross] =Micrococcus nigrofaciens= Northrup\n_Source._--Diseased June beetle larvae.\n_Experimental infection._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Northrup,\n1914): Three of four adults were infected by feeding them bread\nsaturated with a broth culture of the _Micrococcus_. After 11 days the\ntarsi of the cockroaches became infected, and the hind legs split and\nbroke off. Antennae and setae also were affected and micrococci were\nrecovered from the feces.\n* =Micrococcus pyogenes= var. =albus= (Rosenbach) Schroeter\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al.,\n_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Tauber, 1940; Tauber and Griffiths, 1942).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Herms and Nelson, 1913; Herms, 1939;\nJanssen and Wedberg, 1952).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898); U.S.A.\n(Tauber and Griffiths, 1942).\n_Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _albus_ (=_Staphylococcus albus_) and an\nunidentified short rod form were found by Tauber (1940) in the hemolymph\nof _B. orientalis_. These microorganisms were never found together in\nthe same insect and caused loss of appetite, sluggishness, irregular\nrespiratory movements, and paralysis in the cockroach; in the final\nstages of the disease the legs were folded under the body, the head was\ntucked beneath the forelegs, the whole insect became arched and\nmaintained this position until death. In some cockroaches infected with\nthe rod pathogen, conjunctival folds, particularly those between the\ndorsal abdominal sclerites, and the joints of the metathoracic legs\nruptured liberating thick white hemolymph filled with bacteria. Tauber\nsuggested that the infection might be spread by contact, especially to\nnewly molted individuals or by actual ingestion of the bacteria by the\ncockroaches feeding on dead or dying individuals. All the roaches died\nafter successful inoculation with the _Micrococcus_. The bacterial\ninfection was associated with high total hemocyte counts and high\npercentages of mitotically dividing hemolymph cells (Tauber, 1940);\nthese responses of the insect were interpreted as a mechanism whereby\nthe number of hemocytes increases resulting in an increase in the number\nof phagocytes for combating the bacteria (Tauber and Griffiths, 1942).\n* =Micrococcus pyogenes= var. =aureus= (Rosenbach) Zopf\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949).\n_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1906).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Herms, 1939).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n=Micrococcus ureae= Cohn\n_Habitat._--Stale urine and soil containing urine.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n1952): From intestinal tract and feces.\n* =Micrococcus= spp.\nThese organisms were obtained from pus or were designated as\nstaphylococci [i.e., pathogenic micrococci (Blair _in_ Dubos, 1948)].\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Spinelli and Reitano,\n1932); Germany (Jettmar, 1935).\n_Blattella germanica_, Germany (Jettmar, 1935).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, on shipboard (Morrell,\n1911); Germany (Vollbrechtshausen, 1953).\n=Micrococcus= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana?_ (\"_Blatella americana_\"),\nEngland (Shrewsbury and Barson, 1948): From intestinal tract.\n[cross] =Sarcina alba= Zimmermann\n_Habitat._--Water.\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao\n1898, 1906): From intestinal contents.\n=Sarcina aurantiaca= Fl\u00fcgge\n_Habitat._--Air and water.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1906):\nIntestinal contents.\n=Sarcina lutea= Schroeter\n_Habitat._--Air, soil, water, skin surfaces.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1906): From\nintestinal contents.\n[cross] =Sarcina symbiotica= Pribram\n_Habitat._--O\u00f6thecae of _Blatta orientalis_ and/or _Blattella\ngermanica_, Germany (Gropengiesser, 1925): It was described as \"eine\ngelbe _Sarcina_\"; Pribram (1933) named the organism.\n=Sarcina ventriculi= Goodsir\n_Habitat._--Garden soil, dust, mud; isolated from a diseased stomach.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nFrom intestinal tract.\n=Sarcina= sp.\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A.\n(Gier, 1947): Organism not pathogenic to the cockroach when injected.\n[cross] =Sarcina= sp.\n_Synonymy._--_Sarcina_ \"blanche\" of Sartory and Clerc.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Sartory and Clerc,\n1908): Isolated from intestinal tract.\n*[cross] =Sarcina= sp.\n_Synonymy._--_Sarcina alba_ \"patogena\" of Cao.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898, 1906).\n*[cross] =Sarcina= sp.\n_Synonymy._--_Sarcina_ \"bianca\" and \"gialla\" of Cao.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\nFamily NEISSERIACEAE\n* =Neisseria meningitidis= (Albrecht and Ghon) Holland\n_Experimental vectors._--Cockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n* =Veillonella parvula= (Veillon and Zuber) Pr\u00e9vot\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hatcher, 1939).\nFamily LACTOBACTERIACEAE\n* =Diplococcus pneumoniae= Weichselbaum\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n[cross] =Enterococcus= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Spinelli and Reitano,\n1932): From intestinal tract.\n=Lactobacillus fermenti= Beijerinck\n_Habitat._--Fermenting plant or animal products.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nFrom intestinal canal.\n[cross] =Pneumococcus Type I, No. 1231=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, Germany\n(Vollbrechtshausen, 1953).\n* =Streptococcus faecalis= Andrewes and Horder\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Steinhaus, 1941).\n_Periplaneta americana?_ (\"_Blatella americana_\"), England (Shrewsbury\nand Barson, 1948).\nCockroaches [presumably any or all of the above three species], Egypt\n(El-Kholy and Gohar, 1945).\n* =Streptococcus liquefaciens= Sternberg emend. Orla-Jensen\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946).\n*[cross] =Streptococcus microapoika= Cooper, Keller, and Johnson\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946).\n*[cross] =Streptococcus non-hemolyticus II= Holman\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana?_ (\"_Blatella americana_\"),\nEngland (Shrewsbury and Barson, 1948).\n* =Streptococcus pyogenes= Rosenbach\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1906).\n_Experimental vectors._--Cockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n* =Streptococcus= sp. (pyogenic group)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Jettmar, 1935).\n* =Streptococcus= sp. (_viridans_ group)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Jettmar, 1935).\n* =Streptococcus= spp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Jettmar, 1935).\n_Blattella germanica_, Germany (Jettmar, 1935); U.S.A. (Janssen and\nWedberg, 1952).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\nFamily CORYNEBACTERIACEAE\n* =Corynebacterium diphtheriae= (Fl\u00fcgge) Lehmann and Neumann\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\nFamily ACHROMOBACTERIACEAE\n[cross] =Achromobacter hyalinum= (Jordan) Bergey et al.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hatcher, 1939):\nIsolated from feces.\n=Achromobacter= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n=Alcaligenes faecalis= Castellani and Chalmers\n_Synonymy._--_Bacillus faecalis alkaligenes_; _Bacillus alcaligenes\nfaecalis_; _B. alcaligenes faecalis_.\n_Habitat._--Intestinal canal of man. Has been isolated from feces,\nabscesses related to intestinal canal, and occasionally in the\nbloodstream. However, it is generally considered nonpathogenic.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nIsolated from feces.\n_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946): Isolated from\nintestinal tract.\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg, 1952): From\nintestinal tract and feces.\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949): Isolated\nfrom intestinal tract.\nCockroaches [presumably _Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_\nand/or _Periplaneta americana_], Egypt (El-Kholy and Gohar, 1945): From\nsuspensions of macerated whole insects.\n=Alcaligenes recti= (Ford) Bergey et al.\n_Synonymy._--_B. alcaligenes recti._\n_Habitat._--Intestinal canal.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nIsolated from intestinal tract.\n=Alcaligenes viscosus= (Weldin and Levine) Weldin\n_Habitat._--Water, dairy utensils; produces ropiness in milk.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n1952): Isolated from intestine and feces.\nFamily ENTEROBACTERIACEAE\n=Aerobacter aerogenes= (Kruse) Beijerinck\n_Synonymy._--_Bacillus lactis aerogenes._\n_Habitat._--Grains, plants, intestinal tract of man and other animals.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nIsolated from feces.\n_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946): Isolated from\nintestinal tract.\n_Blattella germanica_, on shipboard (Morrell, 1911): Isolated from\nfeces.\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949): Isolated\nfrom intestinal tract.\nCockroaches [presumably _Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_\nand/or _Periplaneta americana_], Egypt (El-Kholy and Gohar, 1945):\nIsolated from outer surface of body, intestinal tract, and suspensions\nof macerated whole insects.\n=Aerobacter cloacae= (Jordan) Bergey et al.\n_Synonymy._--_Bacillus cloacae._\n_Habitat._--Sewage, soil, water, human and other animal feces.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, on shipboard (Morrell, 1911):\nFrom feces. U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg, 1952; Steinhaus, 1941): From\nintestinal tract, feces, and o\u00f6theca.\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949): From\nintestinal tract.\n=Aerobacter= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\nWilliams, 1949): Isolated from intestines.\n[cross] =Eberthella oedematiens= Assis\n_Habitat._--Intestinal canal.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\nWilliams, 1949): Intestinal tract.\n* =Escherichia coli= (Migula) Castellani and Chalmers\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao 1898, 1906; Spinelli\nand Reitano, 1932); France (Sartory and Clerc, 1908); Europe (Jettmar,\n1935); Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Steinhaus, 1941).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949, 1949a).\nCockroaches [presumably one or all of the above three species], Egypt\n(El-Kholy and Gohar, 1945).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, Germany\n(Vollbrechtshausen, 1953): When injected anally or orally the bacteria\ninvaded the intestinal cells and in heavy infections killed the\ncockroaches.\n=Escherichia coli= var. =acidilactici= (Topley and Wilson) Yale\n_Synonymy._--_Bacillus acidi lactici._\n_Source._--Diseased nun moth larvae.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Europe (Filatoff, 1904):\nOrganism pathogenic to cockroach when injected but not when fed.\n=Escherichia coli= var. =communior= (Topley and Wilson) Yale\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nFrom feces.\n=Escherichia freundii= (Braak) Yale\n_Habitat._--Soil, water, intestinal canal of man and other animals.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nFrom feces.\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg, 1952): From\nintestinal canal and feces.\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949): From\nintestinal tract.\n=Escherichia intermedium= (Werkman and Gillen) Vaughn and Levine\n_Habitat._--Soil, water, intestinal canal of man and other animals.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\nWilliams, 1949): From intestinal canal.\n* =Klebsiella pneumoniae= (Schroeter) Trevisan\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\n* =Paracolobactrum aerogenoides= Borman, Stuart and Wheeler\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949).\n* =Paracolobactrum coliforme= Borman, Stuart and Wheeler\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949).\n* =Paracolobactrum= spp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Olson and Rueger,\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Olson and Rueger, 1950).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949; Olson and\nRueger, 1950).\n* =Paracolon bacilli=\n_Natural vectors._--Cockroaches [presumably _Blatta orientalis_,\n_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_], Egypt (El-Kholy\nand Gohar, 1945).\n* =Proteus mirabilis= Hauser\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\n* =Proteus morganii= (Winslow et al.) Rauss\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\nCockroaches [presumably _Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\nand/or _Periplaneta americana_], Egypt (El-Kholy and Gohar, 1945).\n* =Proteus rettgeri= (Hadley et al.) Rustigian and Stuart\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\nWilliams, 1949).\n* =Proteus vulgaris= Hauser\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949).\n_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Spinelli and Reitano, 1932).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949, 1949a).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n* =Proteus= spp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Olson and Rueger,\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and Williams, 1949; Olson and\nRueger, 1950).\n* =Salmonella anatis= (Rettger and Scoville) Bergey et al.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella choleraesuis= (Smith) Weldin\n_Experimental vectors._--_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_\nPavlovskii, 1948).\n* =Salmonella enteritidis= (Gaertner) Castellani and Chalmers\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Rozengolts and\n\u020a\u0217dina _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Olson and Rueger, 1950); U.S.S.R.\n(Rozengolts and \u020a\u0217dina _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n* =Salmonella morbificans= (Migula) Haupt\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Australia (Mackerras and\n_Experimental vectors._--_Nauphoeta cinerea_, _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, _Periplaneta ignota_, and _Supella supellectilium_,\nAustralia (Mackerras and Pope, 1948).\n* =Salmonella paratyphi= (Kayser) Castellani and Chalmers\n_Experimental vectors._--_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_\nPavlovskii, 1948).\n* =Salmonella schottmuelleri= (Winslow et al.) Bergey et al.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922).\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Adelaidae=)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Nauphoeta cinerea_, _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, _Periplaneta ignota_, and _Supella supellectilium_,\nAustralia (Mackerras and Pope, 1948).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Bareilly=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Bredeny=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Derby=)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Nauphoeta cinerea_, _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, and _Supella supellectilium_, Australia (Mackerras and\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Kentucky=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Kottbus=)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, Australia\n(Mackerras and Pope, 1948).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Meleagris=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Montevideo=)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Jung and\nShaffer, 1952).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Newport=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Oranienburg=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\nWilliams, 1949, 1949a; Eads et al., 1954).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, and\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Olson and Rueger, 1950).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Panama=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Rubislaw=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella= sp. (=Type Tennessee=)\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Eads et al., 1954).\n* =Salmonella typhimurium= (Loeffler) Castellani and Chalmers\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, Belgium (Graffar and Mertens,\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_, Australia (Mackerras and Mackerras, 1948).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al.,\n_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Rozengolts and \u020a\u0217dina _in_ Pavlovskii,\n_Blattella germanica_, Belgium (Graffar and Mertens, 1950); U.S.A.\n(Olson and Rueger, 1950; Janssen and Wedberg, 1952; Beck and Coffee,\n1943); U.S.S.R. (Rozengolts and \u020a\u0217dina _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_, Australia (Mackerras and Pope, 1948).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Beck and Coffee, 1943; Jung and\nShaffer, 1952).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_ and _Supella supellectilium_, Australia\n(Mackerras and Pope, 1948).\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n* =Salmonella typhosa= (Zopf) White\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Antonelli, 1930, 1943).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al.,\n_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Spinelli and Reitano, 1932); U.S.A.\n(McBurney and Davis, 1930); U.S.S.R. (Rozengolts and \u020a\u0217dina _in_\nPavlovskii, 1948).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg, 1952); Germany\n(Jettmar, 1927); U.S.S.R. (Rozengolts and \u020a\u0217dina _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922); Netherlands\n(Akkerman, 1933); Formosa (Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926); U.S.A.\n(Olson _in_ Roth and Willis, 1957a).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Formosa (Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926).\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\nCockroaches [presumably _Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\nand/or _Periplaneta americana_], Egypt (El-Kholy and Gohar, 1945).\n=Serratia marcescens= Bizio\n_Synonymy._--_Bacillus prodigiosus_, _Bacterium prodigiosum_.\n_Habitat._--Water, soil, milk, foods, and various insects.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nFrom intestinal tract. Italy (Spinelli and Reitano, 1932).\n_Blattella germanica_, Canada (Heimpel and West, 1959).\n_Diploptera punctata_, _Nauphoeta cinerea_, _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_,\n_Panchlora nivea_, _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, and _Supella\nsupellectilium_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1958): The\norganism was isolated and identified by Dr. Hillel Levinson,\nQuartermaster bacteriologist, from dead specimens found in our\nlaboratory colonies which showed the red coloration characteristic of\ninsects that have died with infections of _S. marcescens_ (pl. 16, A,\n_Leucophaea maderae_, U.S.A. (Levinson, personal communication, 1958):\nThe organism was isolated from the hemolymph of living insects while\nattempting to determine the cause of unexplained mortality in our\nlaboratory colony of this insect.\n_Leucophaea maderae_ or _Periplaneta americana_, Philippine Islands\n(Barber, 1912): From hemolymph.\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Gier, 1947; Steinhaus, 1959).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_ and _Periplaneta brunnea_ (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data [1954]): In laboratory colonies. Isolated from\nsuspensions of ground insects. In 1954 we received a culture of\n_Periplaneta brunnea_ from the Department of Public Health, University\nof Minnesota. These insects began to die off rapidly and the normally\nlightly pigmented parts of the body became red. Dr. Hillel Levinson,\nQuartermaster bacteriologist, cultured _Serratia marcescens_ from\nseveral moribund individuals. The Department of Public Health of\nMinnesota had at times in the past cultured _S. marcescens_ but had\ndiscarded the cultures and was unaware that it might be surviving in the\ncockroach colonies (Richards, personal communication, 1954).\n_Periplaneta_ sp., U.S.A. (Olson _in_ Roth and Willis, 1957a): Isolated\nfrom an undetermined species of _Periplaneta_, received in a shipment\nfrom the South, a strain of _S. marcescens_ which was toxic to mice when\nadministered intraperitoneally.\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al.,\n1949): When fed in small numbers, _S. marcescens_ increased to such an\nextent that the insect's extremities and upper halves of their bodies\nturned deep red. The insects died after this color appeared and\npractically pure cultures of _Serratia_ were recovered from the reddened\nareas.\n_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898): Isolated from intestinal\ncontents. Passed unchanged through the gut.\n_Blattella germanica_, Canada (Heimpel and West, 1959): Not normally\npathogenic per os; LD_{50} by injection, is approximately 38,000\nbacteria per insect.\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Gier, 1947): Organism toxic to the\ncockroach when injected.\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913): Isolated from legs and viscera\nafter feeding experiments.\n* =Shigella alkalescens= (Andrewes) Weldin\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Bitter and\n* =Shigella dysenteriae= (Shiga) Castellani and Chalmers\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Spinelli and\nReitano, 1932).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Formosa (Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926).\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n* =Shigella paradysenteriae= (Collins) Weldin\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta lateralis_, Tadzhikistan (Zmeev, 1940).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922).\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, U.S.S.R. (Zmeev _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nFamily PARVOBACTERIACEAE\n=Bacteroides uncatus= Eggerth and Gagnon\n_Habitat._--Probably intestinal canal of mammals; from human feces.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nFrom intestinal canal.\n* =Brucella abortus= (Schmidt and Weis) Meyer and Shaw\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Ruhland and\nHuddleson, 1941).\n=Fusiformis lophomonadis= Grass\u00e9\n_Habitat._--Surface of a flagellate (_Lophomonas striata_) which lives\nin the intestine of cockroaches (Breed et al., 1948; Grass\u00e9 1926,\n* =Malleomyces mallei= (Zopf) Pribram\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\n* =Pasteurella multocida= (Lehmann and Neumann) Rosenbusch and Merchant\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (K\u00fcster, 1902,\n* =Pasteurella pestis= (Lehmann and Neumann) Holland\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Hongkong (Hunter, 1906).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898); Germany\n(K\u00fcster, 1903).\n_Blattella germanica_, Germany (Jettmar, 1927).\n_Leucophaea maderae_ and _Periplaneta americana_, Philippine Islands\n(Barber, 1912).\nFamily BACTERIACEAE\n[cross] =Bacterium alkaligenes= Nyberg\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana?_ (\"_Blatella americana_\"),\nEngland (Shrewsbury and Barson, 1948): From intestinal tract.\n[cross] =Bacterium delendae-muscae= Roubaud and Descazeaux\n_Source._--Diseased fly larvae.\n_Experimental infection._--Cockroach, France (Roubaud and Descazeaux,\n1923): Organism pathogenic to cockroach when injected.\n=Bacterium haemophosphoreum= Pfeiffer and Stammer\n_Habitat._--Diseased larvae of _Mamestra oleracea_.\n_Experimental infection._--_Blatta orientalis_ and _Blattella\ngermanica_, Germany (Pfeiffer and Stammer, 1931): Organism pathogenic,\nwhen injected, to eight _B. orientalis_ and two _B. germanica_.\n=Coccobacillus cajae= Picard and Blanc\n_Experimental host._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Picard and Blanc,\n1913): The organism was pathogenic to _B. orientalis_ when injected.\nFamily BACILLACEAE\n* =Bacillus anthracis= Cohen emend. Koch\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898, 1906);\nGermany (K\u00fcster, 1903).\n[cross] =Bacillus b\u00fctschlii= Schaudinn\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Schaudinn, 1902): Isolated\nfrom intestinal tract. Three percent of the cockroaches from Berlin\nbakeries were infected.\n=Bacillus cereus= Frankland and Frankland\n_Synonymy._--_Bacillus albolactis._\n_Habitat._--Soil, dust, milk, plants.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nFrom feces.\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hatcher, 1939): In feces.\n_Experimental host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Babers, 1938):\nThe cockroaches died within 96 hours after being injected with 10^{-3}\nml. of a 24-hour broth culture.\n=Bacillus circulans= Jordan\n_Habitat._--Soil, water, dust.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n1952): From intestine and feces.\n[cross] =Bacillus flacheriae= (Hoffman)\n_Source._--Diseased nun moth larvae.\n_Experimental infection._--_Blatta orientalis_, Europe (Filatoff, 1904):\nThe organism was not pathogenic when fed to the cockroach, but killed\nthe insects when injected into the body cavity; after the insects died\nFilatoff reisolated this pathogen together with another bacillus from\nthe cadavers. He succeeded in culturing the new microorganism and found\nit to be pathogenic when injected into, but not when fed to, the\ncockroaches. The diseased insects became sluggish, failed to eat or\ndrink, turned over on their backs, their extremities became totally\nparalyzed, and they finally died.\n=Bacillus megaterium= De Bary\n_Habitat._--Soil, water, decomposing materials.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana?_ (\"_Blatella americana_\"),\nEngland (Shrewsbury and Barson, 1948): From intestinal tract.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898):\nOrganism recovered, apparently unchanged, from intestinal contents.\n[cross] =Bacillus monachae= (von Tubeuf) Eckstein\n_Synonymy._--_Bacterium monache._\n_Source._--Diseased larvae of nun moth, _Lymantria monacha_.\n_Experimental infection._--_Blatta orientalis_, Europe (Filatoff, 1904):\nOrganism pathogenic to the cockroach when injected but not when fed.\n[cross] =Bacillus periplanetae= Tichomiroff\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R.? (Tichomiroff, 1870[?], _in_\nFilatoff, 1904): The infected insects suffered from a diarrhea and the\nliquid feces were yellow-brown.\n[cross] =Bacillus stellatus= Hollande\n_Natural infection._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Hollande, 1934):\nOrganism observed regularly in the intestine (especially rectum).\nExtensive description given.\n[cross] =Bacillus radiciformis=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao 1898): Organism\nrecovered, apparently unchanged, from intestinal contents.\n* =Bacillus subtilis= Cohn emend. Prazmowski\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al.,\n_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898, 1906; Spinelli and Reitano,\n1932); France (Sartory and Clerc, 1908); Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946).\n_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A. (Hatcher, 1939).\n_Periplaneta americana?_ (\"_Blatella americana_\"), England (Shrewsbury\nand Barson, 1948).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Longfellow, 1913).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898, 1906).\n\"=Bacillus subtilis= group\"\n_Natural infection._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Ronzoni, 1949):\nIsolated from o\u00f6thecae.\n[cross] =Bacillus tritus= Batchelor\n_Habitat._--Isolated from feces (man?).\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nIsolated from intestinal tract.\n* =Clostridium feseri= Trevisan\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\n=Clostridium lentoputrescens= Hartsell and Rettger\n_Habitat._--Soil, intestinal tract of man.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nIsolated from intestinal tract.\n* =Clostridium novyi= (Migula) Bergey et al. or\n* =Clostridium sporogenes= (Metchnikoff) Bergey et al.\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao,\n* =Clostridium perfringens= (Veillon and Zuber) Holland\n_Natural vectors._--Cockroaches [presumably _Blatta orientalis_,\n_Blattella germanica_, and/or _Periplaneta americana_], Egypt (El-Kholy\nand Gohar, 1945).\n* =Clostridium tetani= (Fl\u00fcgge) Holland\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\n* =Clostridium= spp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana?_ (\"_Blatella americana_\"),\nEngland (Shrewsbury and Barson, 1948).\nOrder ACTINOMYCETALES\nFamily MYCOBACTERIACEAE\n* =Mycobacterium avium= Chester\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Ekzempliarskaia\n_in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n=Mycobacterium friedmannii= Holland\n_Habitat._--Parasitic in turtles and possibly sparingly distributed in\nsoils.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., Texas (Micks, in\nRoth and Willis, 1957a): Organism isolated from batches of intestinal\ntracts of cockroaches collected at random.\n* =Mycobacterium lacticola= Lehmann and Neumann?\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Leibovitz, 1951).\n* =Mycobacterium leprae= (Armauer-Hansen) Lehmann and Neumann\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_, Southern Rhodesia and Kenya\n_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta australasiae_, Formosa\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926); Belgian Congo (Radna, 1939).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Europe (Paldrock _in_\nKlingm\u00fcller, 1930); Nyasaland (Lamborn, 1940).\n_Blattella germanica_, Europe (Paldrock _in_ Klingm\u00fcller, 1930);\nSouthern Rhodesia and Kenya (Moiser, 1945, 1946, 1946a, 1947; Anonymous,\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_, Nyasaland (Lamborn, 1940).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922); Formosa\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Formosa (Arizumi, 1934, 1934a).\nCockroaches, Belgian Congo (Radna, 1939); Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n* =Mycobacterium lepraemurium= Marchoux and Sorel\n_Experimental vectors._--Cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Radna, 1939).\n* =Mycobacterium phlei= Lehmann and Neumann\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Leibovitz, 1951;\nMicks _in_ Roth and Willis, 1957a).\n* =Mycobacterium piscium= Bergey et al.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Leibovitz, 1951).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Ekzempliarskaia\n_in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n* =Mycobacterium tuberculosis= (Schroeter) Lehmann and Neumann\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898); Germany\n(K\u00fcster, 1903); U.S.S.R. (Ekzempliarskaia _in_ Pavlovskii, 1948).\n_Blattella germanica_, on shipboard (Morrell, 1911).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922).\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926); U.S.A. (Read, 1933).\n* =Mycobacterium= spp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Leibovitz, 1951;\nMicks _in_ Roth and Willis, 1957a).\nFamily ACTINOMYCETACEAE\n* =Nocardia= sp.?\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Leibovitz, 1951).\nFamily STREPTOMYCETACEAE\n=Streptomyces leidynematis= Hoffman\n_Habitat._--Surface of the nematodes _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_ and\n_Leidynema appendiculata_ in _Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hoffman,\n1952, 1953): Eighteen percent of 192 nematodes found in 52 adult\ncockroaches were infected with the bacterium.\nOrder CARYOPHANALES\nFamily ARTHROMITACEAE\n=Arthromitus intestinalis= (Valentin) Peshkoff\n_Synonymy._--_Hygrocrocis intestinalis._\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, Europe (Valentin, 1836; Robin, 1847,\n1853; Peshkoff, 1940): Isolated from intestinal tract. The organism\nappears as fragments in fecal masses or as fibers adhering to the mucous\nmembrane of the large intestine (Robin, 1853).\nCockroach, France? (Chatton and P\u00e9rard, 1913).\nOrder SPIROCHAETALES\nFamily SPIROCHAETACEAE\n[cross] =Spirochaeta blattae= Tejera\n_Habitat._--_Blaberus atropos_, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926): Isolated from\nintestinal tract.\n* [cross] =Spirochaeta periplanetae= Laveran and Franchini\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Laveran and Franchini, 1920a).\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926): Tejera reported finding\n\"_Spirochaeta blatarum_ Laveran et Franchini\" which may have been a\nlapsus.\nFamily TREPONEMATACEAE\n[cross] =Treponema parvum= Dobell\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Dobell, 1912); U.S.S.R.?\nZasukhin (1930): From intestinal tract.\n[cross] =Treponema stylopygae= Dobell\n_Synonymy._--_Spirochaeta stylopygae_ Zuelzer.\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Dobell, 1912); U.S.S.R.?\nZasukhin (1930): From intestinal tract.\n=Unidentified spirochaetes=\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller, 1922):\nSpirochaetes and spirilla were found in the intestines of 70 percent of\n124 specimens collected in Petrograd.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922).\nADDITIONAL BACTERIA WHOSE TAXONOMIC POSITION IS UNKNOWN\n* \"=B. aerobio del pseudoedema maligno=\" of Cao\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1906).\n=B. alcaligenes beckeri=\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Poland (Nicewicz et al., 1946):\nIsolated from intestinal tract.\n* \"=B. del pseudoedema maligno=\" of Cao\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1906).\n* \"=Bacillo proteisimile=\" of Cao\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao,\n* \"=Bacillo del barbone dei bufali=\" of Cao\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898).\n* \"=Bacillo similcarbonchio=\" of Cao\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao,\n* \"=Bacillo similtifo=\" or \"=Bacillo tifosimile=\" of Cao\n_Natural and experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao,\n\"=Bacillus=\"\n_Natural infection._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Heinecke, 1956):\nDisease organism found in the hemolymph of infected cockroaches. It can\nbe spread by mouth and through wound infection. The animals died with\nsymptoms of paralysis in 85-90 days. The organism has been isolated and\nis in the culture collection of the Institute for Microbiology and\nExperimental Therapy, Jena, under the numbers SG 896, Strain A; SG 897,\nStrain B; SG 898, Strain C.\n_Experimental infection._--_Blattella germanica_, Germany (Heinecke,\n1956): Infected animals died in 26-30 days.\n_Periplaneta americana_ was unaffected even by heavy inoculations of the\npathogen.\n\"=Bacterium=\"\n_Source._--(I) Diseased silkworm larvae. (II) Diseased _Ocneria dispar_\nlarvae and blood of _Blatta orientalis_.\n_Experimental infection._--(I)(II) _Blatta orientalis_, Europe\n(Filatoff, 1904): Organism pathogenic when injected, nonpathogenic when\ningested.\n(I) Cockroach, U.S.A. (Glaser, 1925): Organism pathogenic to cockroach\nwhen injected.\n\"=Coccobacillus=\"\n_Natural infection._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Hollande, 1934):\nOrganism described morphologically.\n\"=Colon bacilli=\"\n_Natural vectors._--Cockroaches [presumably _Blatta orientalis_,\n_Blattella germanica_, and/or _Periplaneta americana_], Egypt (El-Kholy\nand Gohar, 1945): From the outer surface, intestinal tract, and\nsuspensions of macerated insects.\n\"=Diplococci=\"\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Jettmar, 1935): From\nintestinal tract.\n_Blattella germanica_, Germany (Jettmar, 1935): From outer surface of\nbody.\n\"=Diphtheroid I and II=\"\n_Source._--_Periplaneta americana._\n_Natural and experimental infections._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A.\n(Gier, 1947): Pathogenicity to the cockroach variable when organism\ninjected.\n\"=Gram positive rods=\"\n_Source._--Feces of _Blattella germanica_.\n_Experimental vector._--_Blattella germanica_, Germany\n(Vollbrechtshausen, 1953): Nonpathogenic to the insect when injected\ninto the mouth or anus.\n\"=Silkworm disease bacillus=\"\nCockroaches that were inoculated with living cultures succumbed in a few\ndays (Glaser, 1925).\n[cross] =Spirillochaeta blattae= Hollande\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Hollande, 1934; Hollande and\nHollande, 1946): Organism found in hind intestine. This spirillum was\nstated to be related in external morphology to _Spirillum\nperiplaneticum_ Kunstler and Gineste, but it was believed that _S.\nblattae_ should be in the Spirochaetaceae rather than the Spirillaceae.\n\"=Spirochaetoid bacteria=\"\n_Habitat._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Hollande, 1934): Two kinds\ndescribed but not named.\n[cross] =Tetragenous= sp.\n_Natural and experimental infections._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A.\n(Gier, 1947): Pathogenicity to the cockroach variable when organism\ninjected.\nVIII. FUNGI AND YEASTS\nBy far the greatest number of fungi known to be associated with\ncockroaches belong to the Laboulbeniaceae, genus _Herpomyces_, the\nspecies of which are restricted to parasitizing cockroaches (Thaxter,\n1908). Most species are hyaline, small and inconspicuous (Thaxter, 1931)\nand are usually, but not exclusively, found on the insects' antennae.\nSpecies of _Herpomyces_ are highly, but not completely, host specific\n(Richards and Smith, 1954). While attached to the host, these fungi\nappear like minute dark-colored, yellow, or white (e.g., _H. arietinus_)\nbristles or bushy hairs (pl. 27, A).\n  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram illustrating the relationship between a\n  mature plant of _Herpomyces stylopygae_ and the integument of _Blatta\n  orientalis_. (Reproduced from Richards and Smith [1956], through the\n  courtesy of Dr. A. G. Richards.)]\nRichards and Smith (1955, 1955a) have studied the life history of\n_Herpomyces stylopygae_ on the oriental cockroach. The plants grow only\non living cockroaches, and the infection is disseminated by contact. The\nmature plants are found mostly on the antennae (pl. 27, B), either on\nsetae or on hard or soft cuticle. Spores are ejected from perithecia\nsingly or in groups of 2 to 4 spores, although groups as large as 12\nspores have been found. The presence of single, paired, or multiple\nspore groups on the surface of the host was correlated with the presence\nof single, paired, or multiple plants on infected cockroaches.\nDevelopment from spore to mature perithecia takes about two weeks. The\nplant obtains nutriment from the host by means of a tubular haustorium\nthat extends through the cockroach's cuticle and expands into a large\nbulb in the underlying epidermal cells (fig. 1). Infections on nymphs\nare lost when the nymph moults, but infections on adults persist\nthroughout life. However, nymphs which have lost the fungus upon\nmoulting are readily reinfected. Collart's (1947) statement that nymphs\nare never infected with _Herpomyces_ is not true.\nRichards and Smith (1956) concluded that there is no evidence of\npathogenicity in _Herpomyces_ infections because heavily infected\ncockroaches appear fully active in laboratory colonies; they can run at\nthe same speed as uninfected cockroaches; they reproduce normally and do\nnot appear to die prematurely. These workers stated that the infections\ncause a dermatitis which is neither pathogenic nor debilitant. So far as\nwe know there are no comparative data on longevity and reproductive\nperformance of fungus-infected versus normal cockroaches. However, Gunn\nand Cosway (1938) have shown that the presence of these fungi\n(identified as _Stigmatomyces_ sp.; see p. 138) on the antennae seemed\nto interfere with the humidity reactions of _Blatta orientalis_.\nAlthough Richards and Smith (1956) admit that humidity receptors and\nother sense organs on the antennae may be destroyed by the fungus, they\nstate that \"insects possess such a large number of sensilla that the\nresult may well be more distressing to the sensory physiologist than to\nthe insect.\" Yet it seems to us that the loss of sense organs from\nfungal infection and concomitant shortening of the antennae (pl. 27, A)\nmight be considerably more of a handicap to free-living cockroaches than\nthose in laboratory colonies.\nBode (1936) studied the flora of _Periplaneta americana_ and cultured\nAspergillaceae and Mucorinae from the insect's body surface and\nintestinal contents; he also found nonsporulating yeasts in _P.\namericana_. To prevent fungal growth on o\u00f6thecae of _P. americana_,\nGriffiths and Tauber (1942a) autoclaved their rearing containers and\ndipped the o\u00f6thecae in 70-percent alcohol for 10 seconds.\nMercier (1906) isolated and cultured a pathogenic yeastlike parasite\nwhich had invaded the fat body and blood of _Blatta orientalis_. The\nabdomens of the infected insects became swollen, distended, and soft.\nMcShan (unpublished MS., 1953) consistently isolated Saccharomycetes\nfrom the feces of _Periplaneta americana_.\nFUNGI ASSOCIATED WITH COCKROACHES\nThe use of the asterisk (*) is explained in footnote 3, page 4.\nPhylum THALLOPHYTA\nClass FUNGI IMPERFECTI\nOrder MONILIALES\nFamily PSEUDOSACCHAROMYCETACEAE\n=Candida zeylanoides= (Castellani) Langeron and Guerra\n_Natural host._--O\u00f6theca of _Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Ronzoni, 1949).\n=Torulopsis= sp.\n_Natural host._--O\u00f6theca of _Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Ronzoni, 1949).\nFamily MONILIACEAE\n=Spicaria prasina= (Maublanc) Sawada\n_Natural host._--_Ischnoptera rufa rufa_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): A\ndead specimen of this cockroach was found stuck to a leaf and covered\nwith this fungus.\n=Aspergillus flavus= Link\n_Natural hosts._--O\u00f6thecae of _Blattella germanica_ and _Eurycotis\nfloridana_, U.S.A., Pennsylvania (Roth and Willis, unpublished data,\n1952): On outer surface. Determination by Miss Mary Downing.\nO\u00f6thecae of _Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., Pennsylvania (Roth and\nWillis, unpublished data, 1952): Inside o\u00f6thecae. Determination by Miss\nMary Downing.\n* =Aspergillus fumigatus= Fresenius\n_Natural vector._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Sartory and Clerc,\n1908): From intestine.\n* =Aspergillus niger= van Tieghem\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., Texas (McShan in\nRoth and Willis, 1957a): From feces.\n_Experimental vector._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898): Organism\npassed unchanged through the gut of the insects.\n=Aspergillus sydowi= (Bainier and Sartory) Thom and Church\n_Natural host._--O\u00f6theca of _Eurycotis floridana_, U.S.A., Pennsylvania\n(Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1952): On outer surface.\nDetermination by Miss Mary Downing.\n=Aspergillus tamarii= Kita\n_Natural host_.--O\u00f6thecae of _Blattella germanica_, U.S.A., Pennsylvania\n(Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1952): On exterior surface.\nDetermination by Miss Mary Downing.\n=Aspergillus= sp.?\n_Natural and experimental vector._--_Blattella germanica_, on shipboard\n(Morrell, 1911): Isolated from feces. Experimentally Morrell also showed\nthat the spores of the fungus could be recovered from feces of\ncockroaches that had fed on them.\n=Aspergillus= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, England (Bunting, 1956): The\nfungus was isolated mostly from imperfectly excreted feces.\n=Beauveria bassiana= (Balsamo) Vuillemin\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_ and _Periplaneta americana_,\nU.S.A. (Dresner, 1949, 1950): The nymphs of American cockroaches became\ninfected when they (1) were injected with a 1-percent suspension of\nspores, (2) ate rat pellets sprayed with the spore suspension, or (3)\nwere dusted with the fungus spores. The symptoms of the fungus infection\nwere paralysis followed by death; some of the infected insects\nliquefied, others dried up after the appearance of a subcuticular\nblackening.\n=Cephalosporium= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., Texas (McShan,\nunpublished MS., 1953): From feces of cockroaches collected in the\nbasement of a grain elevator at the docks in Galveston.\n* =Geotrichum candidum= Link\n_Experimental vector._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Cao, 1898): Organism\nretained its pathogenicity after passing through the insect's gut.\n=Penicillium= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nFrom feces.\n_Periplaneta americana_, England (Bunting, 1956): Mostly from\nimperfectly excreted feces.\n=Metarrhizium anisopliae= (Metschnikoff) Sorokin\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattidae_, Seymour (1929); Charles (1941).\n_Panesthia australis_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data, 1957): Growing on adult specimens that were found dead\nin a laboratory colony. Determination by Miss Dorothy Fennell.\n_Periplaneta americana_, England (Bunting, 1956): Growing on genitalia\nof females where it prevented o\u00f6thecal formation.\nCockroach, Puerto Rico (Johnston, 1915): From a \"small roach\" in the\npathological collection at Rio Piedras (no data).\nFamily DEMATIACEAE\n=Memnoniella echinata= (Rivolta) Galloway\n_Natural host._--O\u00f6theca of _Blattella germanica_, U.S.A., Pennsylvania\n(Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1952): On material that had oozed\nfrom a damaged o\u00f6theca. Determination by Miss Mary Downing.\n=Torula acidophila= Owen and Mobley\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Owen and Mobley,\n1948): The digestive tract of this cockroach is the normal habitat of\nthis yeast which was transmitted to sirup by the insects. The yeast\nsuperimposed a foreign taste, suggestive of malic acid, upon the\noriginal flavor of the sirup.\n=Torula gropengiesseri= Lodder\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Gropengiesser, 1925;\nLodder, 1934): Isolated from fat body and o\u00f6thecae. Gier (1947) is of\nthe opinion that the so-called yeasts that supposedly may displace the\nbacteroids in the fat body (Mercier, 1907b; Gropengiesser, 1925) may\nactually represent poorly fixed and insufficiently stained bacteroids.\n=Torula rosea= Preuss\n_Experimental host._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al.,\n1949): Upon repeated feeding of massive doses of this yeast to the\ncockroach, these workers were able to isolate the organism from the\nfeces up to six days thereafter. There was no evidence that _T. rosea_\nwas pathogenic for _B. craniifer_.\nClass PHYCOMYCETES\nOrder MUCORALES\nFamily MUCORACEAE\n=Mucor guilliermondii= Nadson and Filippov\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.S.R. (Nadson and Filippov,\n1925; Filippov, 1926): Isolated and cultured from intestine.\n=Mucor= sp.\n_Natural host._--O\u00f6theca of _Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A.,\nPennsylvania (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1952): Inside o\u00f6theca.\nDetermination by Miss Mary Downing.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Germany (Bode, 1936): Isolated from fat body\nwhich it had stained red.\n=Rhizopus nigricans= Ehrenberg\n_Natural vector._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nFrom feces.\n=Rhizopus= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., Texas (McShan,\nunpublished MS., 1953): From feces.\n=Syncephalastrum= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., Texas (McShan,\nunpublished MS., 1953): From feces.\nOrder ENTOMOPHTHORALES\nFamily BLASTOCYSTIDACEAE\n=Blastocystis hominis= Brumpt\n_Natural vector._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Zasukhin, 1930): In\nhind gut in 40 percent of over 3,000 cockroaches.\n=Blastocystis= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller,\n1922): Found in the intestinal contents of 29 percent of 124 _B.\norientalis_.\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nThe placement of the following fungus is problematic.\n=Coccidioides periplanetae= Avrech\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Avrech, 1931): Found in\ncells lining the lumen of midgut and caeca. The whole upper part of the\nepithelium was filled with sporangia and spores.\nClass ASCOMYCETES\nOrder ENDOMYCETALES\nFamily SACCHAROMYCETACEAE\n=Saccharomyces cerevisiae= Hansen\n_Natural vector._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Wedberg et al., 1949):\nIn feces.\n=Saccharomyces= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Janssen and Wedberg,\n1952): Found consistently in alimentary tract of _B. germanica_ fed\nsucrose solutions.\nOrder HYPOCREALES\nFamily HYPOCREACEAE\n=Cordyceps amazonica= Hennings\n_Natural host._--Cockroaches, British Honduras (Mains, 1940).\n=Cordyceps blattae= Petch\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, Ceylon (Petch, 1924): Collected\nat Hakgala twice. A slight covering of brown mycelium overran the insect\nand fastened it to the underside of a living leaf.\nOrder LABOULBENIALES\nFamily LABOULBENIACEAE\n=Herpomyces amazonicus= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--_Nyctibora obscura_, Brazil, Natal (Thaxter, 1931): On\nantennae.\n=Herpomyces anaplectae= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Anaplecta_ sp., Venezuela, Caracas (Thaxter, 1905,\n1908); Trinidad (Thaxter, 1931): On antennae.\nCockroach, Sumatra (Thaxter, 1931).\n=Herpomyces appendiculatus= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--_Platyzosteria scabra_, Australia, N.S.W. (Thaxter,\n1931): On antennae.\n=Herpomyces arietinus= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Ischnoptera_ sp., U.S.A., Georgia (Thaxter, 1908).\n_Parcoblatta uhleriana_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Roth, unpublished data,\n1957): The nymphs were in a culture of _Parcoblatta virginica_ which was\ninfected with this fungus; it is possible that these _P. uhleriana_\nbecame infected by contact with _P. virginica_. Fungus identified by Dr.\nR. K. Benjamin.\n_Parcoblatta virginica_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Roth, unpublished data,\n1957): Fungus determined by Dr. R. K. Benjamin. Fungus found on\nantennae, palpi, legs, body surface (pl. 27, A).\n_Parcoblatta_ sp., U.S.A., Kentucky, Massachusetts (Thaxter, 1902,\n1908): On antennae.\nIt is likely that Thaxter's host records (certainly those assigned to\n_Temnopteryx_ and possibly those assigned to _Ischnoptera_) were species\nof _Parcoblatta_. Hebard (1917) has shown that all the species referred\nto _Ischnoptera_ in the United States, except _I. deropeltiformis_, now\nbelong in the genus _Parcoblatta_. All species originally referred to\nthe genus _Temnopteryx_ in the United States are now synonymized with\nspecies of _Parcoblatta_.\n=Herpomyces chaetophilus= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Thaxter, 1931).\n_Periplaneta_ sp., Zanzibar and Mauritius (Thaxter, 1902, 1908): On\nspines of legs, antennae, and cerci.\n=Herpomyces chilensis= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Chile (Thaxter, 1918): On antennae.\n=Herpomyces diplopterae= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Diploptera punctata_, Ascension Island (Thaxter,\n1902, 1908): On antennae. This species also was infected experimentally\n(Richards and Smith, 1954).\nCockroach, Fiji (Thaxter, 1931).\n=Herpomyces ectobiae= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Thaxter,\n1902, 1908); Burma, Tenasserim (Spegazzini, 1915); Argentina, Buenos\nAires (Spegazzini, 1917): On antennae. U.S.A., Minnesota (Richards and\nSmith, 1955): Scattered over entire body, wings. France? (Picard, 1913):\nOn tibial spines. Chile and Philippine Islands (Thaxter, 1931).\n\"_Ectobia_\" spp., Zanzibar and Saint Kitts, B.W.I. (Thaxter, 1902,\n1908): Possibly on species that are now in the genus _Blattella_ rather\nthan in the genus _Ectobius_ as it is known today, because Thaxter also\nused the synonym _Ectobia germanica_ for the German cockroach,\n_Blattella germanica_.\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blattella germanica_ and _Blattella vaga_,\nU.S.A. (Richards and Smith, 1954).\n=Herpomyces forficularis= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, Mauritius? and Fiji (Thaxter, 1902, 1908,\n1931): On antennae.\n=Herpomyces gracilis= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--_Blattella humbertiana_, Philippine Islands, Luzon\n(Thaxter, 1931): On antennae.\n=Herpomyces grenadinus= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Grenada, B.W.I. (Thaxter, 1931): On antennae\nof a \"brown wingless blattid.\"\n=Herpomyces leurolestis= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--_Leurolestes pallidus_, British Guiana and Trinidad\n(Thaxter, 1931): On antennae.\n=Herpomyces lobopterae= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--_Loboptera_ sp., Argentina (Thaxter, 1931): On\nantennae.\n=Herpomyces macropus= Spegazzini\n_Natural host._--_Blaberus_ sp.?, Argentina (Spegazzini, 1917).\nCockroaches, Peru, Puerto Rico, Ecuador, and Haiti (Spegazzini, 1915,\n1917): Material previously assigned by Spegazzini (1915) to _H.\nparanensis_ was also placed by him in this new species. However, Thaxter\n(1931) believed that _H. macropus_ may be synonymous with _H.\nparanensis_, but he provisionally retained _H. macropus_ because he had\nnot seen Spegazzini's material.\n=Herpomyces nyctoborae= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Nyctibora tomentosa_, U.S.A., Texas (Thaxter, 1905,\n1908): On antennae. This cockroach is not established in Texas, and the\nspecimen may have been misidentified (Gurney, personal communication,\n_Nyctibora_ sp., Argentina (Spegazzini, 1917): On antennae.\n=Herpomyces panchlorae= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Panchlora nivea_, Trinidad (Thaxter, 1931): On\nantennae.\n=Herpomyces panesthiae= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia lobipennis_, Ceylon (Thaxter, 1915): On\nantennae.\n=Herpomyces paranensis= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaberus_ sp.? Brazil (Thaxter, 1902, 1908): On\nantennae.\n_Blaberus_ sp., Brazil and Argentina (Spegazzini, 1917): On antennae.\nCockroaches, Trinidad and Argentina (Thaxter, 1931).\n=Herpomyces periplanetae= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaberus_ sp.?, Argentina (Spegazzini, 1917).\n_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Thaxter, 1902, 1908);\nLocality? (Spegazzini, 1915); France? (Picard, 1913).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Bermuda and U.S.A., Massachusetts (Thaxter,\n1902, 1908); Plains of Biajar, Italian Somaliland, and Argentina\n(Spegazzini, 1915, 1917).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Bermuda (Thaxter, 1902, 1908).\n_Periplaneta brunnea_, Brazil (Thaxter, 1931).\n_Periplaneta_ sp., Mexico, West Indies, Panama, Brazil, Africa, South\nSeas, and China (Thaxter, 1902, 1908).\nCockroaches, Belgium (Collart, 1947).\nAdditional locality records: Grenada, Trinidad, B.W.I., and Tangier\n(Thaxter, 1931).\nThe fungus was found growing on spines, tegmina, integument, and\nantennae, at times abundantly.\n_Experimental hosts._--All the following data are from Richards and\n_Blatta orientalis_: A few plants matured.\n_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_: Some development but no mature plants.\n_Periplaneta americana_: Fungus developed prolifically with a density\nequal to that on original host.\n_Periplaneta australasiae_: Some development but no mature plants.\n_Periplaneta brunnea_: Fungus developed prolifically with a density\nequal to that on original host.\n=Herpomyces phyllodromiae= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--\"_Phyllodromia_\" sp., Abyssinia (Thaxter, 1905, 1908):\nOn antennae.\n=Herpomyces platyzosteriae= Thaxter\n_Natural host._--\"_Eurycotis floridana_,\" Mexico (Thaxter, 1905, 1908):\nOn antennal setae.\nSince this cockroach is not found in Mexico (J. A. G. Rehn, personal\ncommunication, 1957), _E. floridana_ is undoubtedly not the host for\nthis fungus. W. B. Brown (personal communication, 1957) searched the\ncockroach collection at the Museum of Comparative Zoology but was unable\nto find Thaxter's insect for reidentification.\n=Herpomyces stylopygae= Spegazzini\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Argentina (Spegazzini, 1917);\nU.S.A. (Richards and Smith, 1955a).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_ (Richards and Smith,\n1954): A few plants matured.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ (Richards and Smith, 1954): Some development\nbut no mature plants.\nThe fungus (fig. 1) is found on antennae (pl. 27, B, C), palpi, cerci,\nand femurs. Thaxter (1931) believed _H. stylopygae_ to be synonymous\nwith _H. periplanetae_. However, Richards and Smith (1954) concluded\nthat _H. stylopygae_ would not grow on _P. americana_ under their\nlaboratory conditions although _H. periplanetae_ would grow on _B.\norientalis_. This indicated a strain or species difference between the\ntwo fungi. Gunn and Cosway (1938) reported a species of _Stigmatomyces_\non the antennae of _B. orientalis_; this fungus was probably _H.\nstylopygae_ (Richards and Smith, 1956).\n=Herpomyces supellae= (Thaxter)\n_Natural host._--_Supella supellectilium_, Trinidad (Thaxter, 1931): On\nantennal spines.\n=Herpomyces tricuspidatus= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A., Key West (Richards and\n_Blaberus_ sp. and _Epilampra?_ sp., Panama (Thaxter, 1902, 1908).\n_Epilampra_ sp., Saint Kitts, B.W.I., and Haiti (Thaxter, 1902, 1908).\n_Leucophaea maderae_, Fernando Po (Spegazzini, 1915).\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_, Brazil (Thaxter, 1931).\nCockroaches, China? (Thaxter, 1902); Philippine Islands, Mindanao\n(Thaxter, 1931).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Richards and Smith,\nInfections on the antennae. Richards and Smith (1954) were unable to\nsecure experimental infections in _L. maderae_ with _H. tricuspidatus_.\nExperiments with _N. cinerea_ showed some development but no mature\nplants although identification of the growing fungus was uncertain\nbecause of simultaneous exposure to _H. ectobiae_, _H. stylopygae_, and\n_H. tricuspidatus_.\n=Herpomyces zanzibarinus= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--_Eurycotis manni_, Brazil (Thaxter, 1931): On\nantennae.\n_Gyna_ sp.?, Isle of Nias (Spegazzini, 1915): On antennae.\nCockroach, Zanzibar (Thaxter, 1902): On antennae.\n=INCERTAE SEDIS=\nAccording to Dr. R. K. Benjamin (personal communication, 1957) and Dr.\nE. G. Simmons (personal communication, 1957), the phylogenetic position\nof the following genus is uncertain.\n=Amphoromorpha blattina= Thaxter\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, Grenada, B.W.I. (Thaxter, 1920): On the\naxis of the antennae of a dark wingless and a pale winged blattid.\n=Amphoromorpha= sp.\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Grenada, B.W.I. (Thaxter, 1920): On antennal\nsetae.\nIX. HIGHER PLANTS\nThe significance of many observed associations between cockroaches and\nthe higher plants is still obscure. Undoubtedly many associations are\necological, but lack of adequate supporting evidence makes this\nconclusion somewhat tentative. The ecological aspects are covered in\nSection III (p. 14). Other associations may be accidental (e.g., certain\nunique observations that have never again been confirmed). In the\nabsence of contrary evidence, most associations are presumed to be\nbenign; exceptions to this conclusion are found among the cockroaches\nthat feed on living plants (p. 162) and those allegedly captured as prey\nby the carnivorous pitcher plants (_Sarracenia_ and _Nepenthes_). In all\nthe records cited below the cockroaches were stated to have been on, in,\nor feeding on the plant.\nThe plants are listed below by family according to the taxonomic\narrangement of Lawrence (1951). Botanical nomenclature follows Bailey\n(1925), Fernald (1950), or Dr. R. A. Howard (personal communications,\n1958, 1959). We take full responsibility for referring to appropriate\ntaxa certain plants that were reported by common name only in the cited\nliterature.\nDivision PTERIDOPHYTA\nFamily CYATHEACEAE\n=Alsophila= sp.\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Louisiana (Anonymous, 1893):\nFeeding on heart of tree fern.\nFamily POLYPODIACEAE\n=Asplenium nidus= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Comptolampra liturata_, Malaya (Karny, 1924): Often found\nbetween dry foliage of the beakers of this fern.\nDivision EMBRYOPHYTA SIPHONOGAMA\nFamily PINACEAE\n=Pinus australis= Michaux\n_Associates._--_Aglaopteryx gemma_ and _Parcoblatta lata_, Alabama\n(Hebard, 1917): The former species was common under signs on longleaf\npines, and _P. lata_ was occasional.\n_Parcoblatta divisa_, Georgia (Rehn and Hebard, 1916): Under signs.\n=Pinus caribaea= Morelet\n_Associates._--_Eurycotis floridana_, _Latiblattella rehni_, and\n_Parcoblatta fulvescens_, Florida (Hebard, 1917): Many records under\nsigns on the tree trunks.\n=Pinus clausa= Vasey\n_Associate._--_Latiblattella rehni_, Florida (Hebard, 1917): Under sign\non tree.\n=Pinus echinata= Mill.\n_Associates._--_Parcoblatta divisa_, Virginia (Rehn and Hebard, 1916):\nUnder signs on shortleaf pine.\n_Parcoblatta zebra_, Mississippi (Hebard, 1917): Under sign.\n=Pinus sylvestris= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Ectobius pallidus_, England (Milton, 1899; Burr, 1899b):\nOn Scotch fir.\n=Pinus= spp.\n_Associates._--_Plectoptera lacerna_ and _Plectoptera vermiculata_, Cuba\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Latiblattella rehni_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1905): Under signs.\nCuba (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\nFamily TAXODIACEAE\n=Cryptomeria= sp.\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Pemberton and Williams,\nFamily CUPRESSACEAE\n=Cupressus macrocarpa= Hartweg\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Hebard, 1922): \"The species\nis common and injurious in the territory infesting particularly the\nMonterey cypress trees ... and doing particular damage by gnawing away\nthe bark.\" Similar injury has been cited by Pemberton (1934), Fullaway\nand Krauss (1945), and Zimmerman (1948).\n=Juniperus= sp.\n_Associate._--_Phyllodromica tartara nigrescens_, Southern Uzbekistan\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950): Under bark.\nFamily PANDANACEAE\n=Freycinetia= sp.\n_Associate._--_Graptoblatta notulata_ and _Kuchinga remota_, Tahiti\n(Hebard, 1933).\n=Pandanus= sp.\n_Associate._--_Hololeptoblatta_ sp., Seychelles (Scott, 1910, 1912).\nFamily GRAMINEAE\n=Aristida pennata= Trin.\n_Associate._--_Phyllodromica pygmaea_, U.S.S.R. (Bei-Bienko, 1950):\nFound in the dense turf.\n=Bamboo=\n_Associate._--_Comptolampra liturata_, Malaya (Karny, 1925).\n=Chloris gayana= Kunth\n_Associate._--_Blattella vaga_, Texas (Riherd, 1953): This field\ncockroach was rather abundant in clumps of Rhodes grass.\n=Panicum purpurascens= Raddi\n_Synonymy._--_Panicum barbinode_ [Hitchcock, 1936].\n_Associate._--_Epilampra abdomen-nigrum_, Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn, 1923;\nWolcott, 1936): Abundant in \"malojillo\" meadow.\n=Saccharum officinarum= Linnaeus\n_Associates._--_Balta quadricaudata_, _Balta scripta_, _Balta\ntorresiana_, _Balta verticalis_, _Ellipsidion simulans_, and _Megamareta\nverticalis_, Australia, Queensland (Hebard, 1943): All collected by J.\nF. Illingworth on sugarcane.\n_Blattella humbertiana_, _Ischnoptera schenklingi_, and _Pycnoscelus\nsurinamensis_, Formosa (Box, 1953).\n_Cariblatta stenophrys_, Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn, 1923; Wolcott, 1936):\nBetween the leaves and under the leaf sheaths.\n_Panchlora nivea_, Cuba (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): On the leaves.\n_Pelmatosilpha coriacea_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936).\n_Phoraspis_ spp., Brazil and Guiana (Doumerc in Blanchard, 1837).\n_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptora infulata_, and _Plectoptera\nrhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): Under the leaf sheaths.\n_Symploce ruficollis_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): Often found living\nunder the leaf sheaths.\nCockroaches, Philippine Islands (Uichanco _in_ Williams et al., 1931):\nBetween cane leaf sheaths.\n=Setaria verticillata= (Linnaeus) Beauv.\n_Synonymy._--_Chaetochloa verticillata_ (Linnaeus) [Howard, personal\ncommunication, 1958].\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Severin, 1911): The\ncockroach was caught on the barbed awns of this grass.\n=Wild oats=\n_Associate._--_Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_, Missouri (Rau, 1937).\n=Zea mays= Linnaeus\n_Associates._--_Cariblatta stenophrys_, Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn, 1923;\nWolcott, 1936).\n_Ellipsidion bicolor_, Australia, Queensland (Hebard, 1943).\n_Lophoblatta arawaka_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n_Phoraspis_ sp., Brazil and Guiana (Doumerc _in_ Blanchard, 1837).\n_Supella supellectilium_, New Caledonia (Cohic, 1956).\nFamily CYPERACEAE\n=Cyperus= sp.\n_Associate._--_Maretina uahuka_, Marquesas Islands, Uahuka (Hebard,\nFamily PALMAE\n=Acrocomia aculeata= (Jacq.) Lodd.\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan,\n1955): On \"gru-gru\" fruits.\n=Cocos nucifera= Linnaeus\n_Associates._--_Aglaopteryx gemma_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1912).\n_Cariblatta lutea minima_, Florida, and _Cariblatta delicatula_, San\nDomingo (Hebard, 1916a).\n_Eurycotis floridana_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1912; Hebard, 1917).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1912; Hebard,\n1917). Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Phoenix dactylifera= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Blattella germanica_, California (Herms, 1926): On date\npalms.\n=Pritchardia= sp.\n_Associate._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, Nihoa Island (Bryan, 1926).\nHawaii (Zimmerman, 1948).\n=Roystonea regia= O. F. Cook\n_Associate._--_Cariblatta punctulata_, San Domingo (Hebard, 1916a).\n=Sabal palmetto= Lodd.\n_Associate._--_Eurycotis floridana_, Florida (Scudder, 1879).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Florida (Hebard, 1917).\n=Undetermined palms=\n_Associates._--_Euthlastoblatta abortiva_, Texas (Hebard, 1917).\n_Hormetica laevigata_, Brazil (Hancock, 1926).\n_Panchlora antillarum_, Dominican Republic (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Texas (Zimmern _in_ Gould and Deay, 1940).\nFamily ARACEAE\n=Arum= sp.\n_Associate._--_Latiblattella vitrea_, Mexico (Hebard, 1921b): In flower\nshaft.\n=Caladium= sp.\n_Associate._--_Plectoptera dorsalis_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard,\nFamily BROMELIACEAE\n=Aechmaea porteoides= Britton\n_Associate._--_Dryadoblatta scotti_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Ananas comosus= Merr.\n_Associates._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Illingworth, 1927,\n1929): Feeding on roots of pineapple.\n_Blattella humbertiana_, Formosa (Takahashi, 1940): Imago and grown\nnymphs occasionally lie concealed in the leaves.\n=Catopsis fulgens= Griseb.\n_Associates._--Cockroaches, Costa Rica (Calvert and Calvert, 1917).\n=Glomeropitcairnia erectiflora= Mez\n_Associate._--_Dryadoblatta scotti_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Grevisia= sp.\n_Associate._--_Notolampra antillarum_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan,\n1955): One male only.\n=Tillandsia fasciculata= Swartz\n_Associate._--_Eurycotis floridana_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1914;\nHebard, 1917).\n=Tillandsia usneoides= Linnaeus\n_Associates._--_Parcoblatta_ sp., Louisiana (Rainwater, 1941).\n_Latiblattella rehni_, Florida (Blatchley, 1920): By beating.\nCockroaches, Louisiana (Rosenfeld, 1911, 1912): One mature and 39\nimmature blattids were collected from 8 of 12 samples of Spanish moss.\n=Tillandsia uttriculata= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Epilampra mona_, Mona Island, West Indies (Rehn and\nHebard, 1927): The type and one paratypic female of _E. mona_ were\ncollected in this bromeliad.\n_Eurycotis floridana_, Florida (Blatchley, 1920).\n=Tillandsia= sp.\n_Associates._--_Aglaopteryx gemma_, Texas (Hebard, 1917).\n_Dryadoblatta scotti_, Trinidad (Scott, 1912): Found in the leaf bases.\n=Undetermined bromeliads=\n_Associates._--_Aglaopteryx diaphana_, Jamaica (Hebard, 1917; Rehn and\nHebard, 1927).\n_Anaplecta azteca_ and _Anaplecta_ sp., Costa Rica (Picado, 1913).\n_Anaplecta mexicana_, Costa Rica (Calvert and Calvert, 1917).\n_Audreia bromeliadarum_, Panama (Caudell, 1914).\n_Audreia jamaicana_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Blattella_ sp., Costa Rica (Picado, 1913).\n_Buboblatta armata_, Panama (Caudell, 1914): \"Probably not a typical\nbromeliadicolous species.\"\n_Cariblatta insularis_, Jamaica (Hebard, 1916a, 1917; Rehn and Hebard,\n_Cariblatta nebulicola_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927); One immature\nmale.\n_Dryadoblatta scotti_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n_Epilampra conspersa_, Dominica (Scott, 1912).\n_Epilampra maya_, Panama (Hebard, 1920).\n_Epilampra sodalis_, Panama (Caudell, 1914).\n_Epilampra_ sp. and _Hormetica laevigata_, Brazil (Hancock, 1926).\n_Eurycotis biolleyi_, Costa Rica (Picado, 1913).\n_Ischnoptera rufa occidentalis_, Mexico (Caudell, 1914).\n_Latiblattella chichimeca_, Costa Rica (Picado, 1913).\n_Litopeltis biolleyi_, Costa Rica (Rehn, 1928).\n_Litopeltis bispinosa_, Panama (Caudell, 1914).\n_Neoblattella brunneriana_, Costa Rica (Calvert and Calvert, 1917).\n_Neoblattella dryas_, _Neoblattella eurydice_, _Neoblattella\ngrossbecki_, and _Neoblattella proserpina_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard,\n_Neoblattella fratercula_, Mexico (Hebard, 1921b).\n_Neoblattella nahua_, Mexico (Caudell, 1914).\n_Nesomylacris relica_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Nyctibora brunnea_(?), Panama (Caudell, 1914): According to Hebard\n(1920) Caudell's specimen was almost certainly incorrectly identified.\nIt may have been _Nyctibora noctivaga_ or a smaller species of the\ngenus. Brazil (Hancock, 1926).\n_Nyctibora laevigata_, Jamaica (Hebard, 1917; Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Nyctibora lutzi_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): \"in epiphytes\nwith pencil-like leaves.\"\n_Pelmatosilpha rotundata_, Panama (Caudell, 1914).\n_Pseudomops laticornis_, Costa Rica (Picado, 1913).\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Costa Rica (Picado, 1913). Mexico (Caudell,\n1914). Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n\"_Rhicnoda_\" sp., Costa Rica (Picado, 1913). This genus is now\nrecognized as not being in the New World fauna. Probably the specimen\nwas a species of _Epilampra_ or _Hyporhicnoda_ as suggested by Gurney\n(personal communication, 1959) and confirmed by Rehn (p.c., 1959).\nCockroaches, Costa Rica (Calvert, 1910): Cockroaches were said to be\ncommon in bromeliads on the moist Atlantic slope.\nFamily LILIACEAE\n=Yucca elata= Engelman\n_Associate._--_Latiblattella lucifrons_, Arizona (Ball et al., 1942).\n=Easter lilies=\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Connecticut (Zappe, 1918).\nFamily MUSACEAE\n=Bananas=\nCockroaches have been captured in bunches of bananas, in bracts of\nbanana flowers, under banana leaves, and burrowing in rotten banana\nstalks. Although many of the species associated with bananas are\nindigenous to the banana-growing areas of the American Tropics, most of\nthe specimens cited below were captured elsewhere as adventitious\ninsects that had been imported with the fruit. It is obvious that many\nof these insects must have been closely associated with bananas on the\nplantations, where, undoubtedly, the growing plants provided attractive\necological niches. Bunting (1956) deduced, from the presence of healthy\ncockroaches on bananas allegedly sprayed with copper arsenate, that the\ninsects did not feed on stems or fruit but hid among the bananas and\nforaged elsewhere; however, certain reports are of cockroaches actually\nfeeding on bananas. Some of the records cited by Hebard (1917) were\ncompiled from earlier reports not all of which we have seen. Numbers in\nparentheses following certain citations indicate the number of times the\nassociation had been observed. Known or suspected adventive material is\nso indicated.\n_Aglaopteryx diaphana_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): Found in bracts\nof banana blossoms. England (Bunting, 1955): Adventive, on bananas from\nDominica.\n_Aglaopteryx vegeta_, Finland (Princis, 1947): Adventive, in banana box.\n_Amazonina emarginata_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955): In banana\nbunch.\n_Archimandrita marmorata_, Denmark (Henriksen, 1939): Adventive (2), in\nbananas from Jamaica(?). As Princis (1947) and Gurney (personal\ncommunication, 1959) point out, this is a Central American species, so\nJamaica may be an error.\n_Archimandrita tessellate_, Sweden (Princis, 1947): Adventive, from\nHonduras.\n_Blaberus atropos_(?), Denmark (Henriksen, 1939): Adventive, from\nJamaica. Princis (1947) pointed out that this species was more likely to\nhave been _Blaberus craniifer_ or _Blaberus discoidalis_, which are West\nIndian species, than _B. atropos_ which is a South American species.\n_Blaberus boliviensis_, Ecuador (Princis, 1952): In a shipment of\nbananas from near Puna.\n_Blaberus discoidalis_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): From banana\nripening room. Great Britain (Pearce, 1929): Adventive. England\n(Bunting, 1955, 1956): Adventive, from Dominica.\n_Capucinella delicatula_, California (Caudell, 1931): Adventive.\n_Cariblatta delicatula_, Cuba (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Cariblatta hylaea_, Honduras (Rehn, 1945a): Shaken from hanging dead\nbanana leaves.\n_Cariblatta insularis_, Finland (Frey, 1948): Adventive.\n_Cariblatta landalei_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): All specimens\ntaken from under drying bracts of banana blossoms.\n_Cariblatta punctipennis_ and _Chorisoneura barbadensis_, England\n(Bunting, 1956): Adventive, from Dominica.\n_Epilampra abdomen-nigrum_ and _Epilampra_ sp., England (Bunting, 1955):\nAdventive, from Dominica.\n_Epilampra maya_, Massachusetts (Hebard, 1917): Adventive.\n_Epilampra mexicana_(?), Denmark (Henriksen, 1939): Adventive (2), from\nDanish West Indies. Princis (1947) suggested that this should be\n_Epilampra_ sp., because _E. mexicana_ is not a West Indian species.\n_Eudromiella calcarata_ and _Eurycotis bananae_, U.S.S.R., Leningrad\n(Bei-Bienko, 1947): Adventive, from Colombia.\n_Euphyllodromia angustata_, Sweden (Princis, 1947): Adventive.\n_Eurycotis caraibea_, New York (Hebard, 1917): Adventive.\n_Eurycotis dimidiata_, Washington, D. C. (Caudell, 1931): Adventive.\n_Eurycotis lixa_, New York (Rehn, 1930): Adventive, on banana ship from\nJamaica.\n_Graptoblatta notulata_, Marquesas Islands, Uahuka (Hebard, 1933a): In\nbanana leaves.\n_Holocompsa nitidula_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955): Eating banana\npulp.\n_Hormetica laevigata_, Wales (Sandemann, 1934): Adventive, in pile of\nbanana sacks.\n_Hormetica ventralis_, Sweden (Princis, 1947): Adventive, in local\nwarehouse of banana company.\n_Hormetica_ spp., Europe and North America (Bei-Bienko, 1950):\nAdventive, introduced with bananas and other tropical fruits.\n_Ischnoptera rufa rufa_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): Brought into\nhouses on bunches of bananas.\n_Kuchinga remota_, Society Islands, Moorea (Hebard, 1933a): In dead\nbanana leaves.\n_Lamproblatta albipalpus_, Panama Canal Zone (Hebard, 1920): Several\nunder decayed banana stem.\n_Latiblattella_ sp., Finland (Frey, 1948): Adventive.\n_Leucophaea maderae_, New York (Hebard, 1917): Adventive. Dominica (Rehn\nand Hebard, 1927): Under banana sheaths. England (Palmer, 1928):\nAdventive, captured at railroad station after bananas had been unloaded.\nEngland (Bunting, 1955): Adventive, from Dominica. Trinidad (Princis and\nKevan, 1955): Nymph, eating bananas in cupboard. Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn,\n1923): Se\u00edn stated that bananas are the favorite food of _L. maderae_.\n_Litopeltis bispinosa_, Panama Canal Zone (Hebard, 1920): From rotting\nbanana stalks at bases of leaves.\n_Litopeltis musarum_, Costa Rica (Rehn, 1928): Shaken from dead banana\nleaves.\n_Nauclidas nigra_, England (Bunting, 1955, 1956): Adventive, from\nDominica.\n_Nauphoeta flexivitta_, Denmark (Vestergaard, 1958): Adventive.\n_Neoblattella carcinus_, _Neoblattella celeripes_, and _Neoblattella\nlaodamia_, England (Bunting, 1956): Adventive, from Dominica. Bunting\n(1955) first reported these as _Neoblattella_ spp. and stated that they\nwere common.\n_Neoblattella detersa_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): From under the\nbracts of banana blossoms. Sweden (Princis, 1947): Adventive.\n_Neoblattella detersa_ and _Neoblattella tridens_, Finland (Frey, 1948):\nAdventive.\n_Neoblattella fratercula_, Nebraska (Hebard, 1916b): Adventive.\n_Neoblattella semota_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): From under\ndrying bracts of banana blossoms.\n_Neoblattella vatia_, Cuba (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n_Neoblattella_ sp., Finland (Princis, 1947): Adventive, from Jamaica.\n_Nyctibora azteca_, England (Bunting, 1955): Adventive, from Dominica.\nBunting reported this species as _Nocticola azteca_. Dr. A. B. Gurney\ncalled our attention to the fact that _Nocticola_ is an Old World genus,\npresumably combined in error with the New World species _azteca_. The\ntrue identity of the specimen was confirmed by Dr. D. Ragge (personal\ncommunication, 1958), who examined it at the British Museum (Natural\nHistory).\n_Nyctibora holoserica_, Canada (Walker, 1912): Adventive.\n_Nyctibora laevigata_, Canada, Maine, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania (2)\n(Hebard, 1917): Adventive. Taken from banana boat _Annetta_ at\nPhiladelphia (Rehn and Hebard, 1927). England (Bunting, 1956):\nAdventive, from Dominica. Sweden, Denmark (Princis, 1947): Adventive.\n_Nyctibora mexicana_(?), Denmark (Henriksen, 1939): Adventive (5), from\nJamaica and West Indies. Princis (1947) suggested that these specimens\nwere probably the West Indian _Nyctibora noctivaga_, because _N.\nmexicana_ is not a West Indian insect.\n_Nyctibora noctivaga_, Canada, Idaho, Illinois, Massachusetts, Nebraska\n(4), Virginia (Hebard, 1917): Adventive. Nebraska (Hauke, 1949):\nAdventive (2). Panama Canal Zone (Hebard, 1920): From banana stalks.\nEngland (Blair _in_ Turner, 1930): Adventive, from Costa Rica.\nWashington (Hatch, 1938): Adventive. Sweden (Princis, 1947): Adventive\n(2). Finland (Princis, 1947): Adventive, from Jamaica.\n_Nyctibora obscura_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955): In banana\nbunch.\n_Nyctibora sericea_, Canada (Stevenson, 1905; Walker, 1912): Adventive;\nHebard (1917) synonymized Walker's specimen under _N. laevigata_. Isle\nof Wight (Meade-Waldo, 1910): Adventive, from Jamaica. England (Tulloch,\n1939): Adventive, in banana crates from Brazil.\n_Nyctibora_ sp., England (Welch, 1935): Adventive, in railway truck that\nhad carried bananas. England (Tulloch, 1939): Adventive, from Brazil.\n_Oxyhaloa deusta_, U.S.S.R., Leningrad (Bei-Bienko, 1947): Adventive,\nfrom Colombia.\n_Panchlora antillarum_, England (Bunting, 1955): Adventive, from\nDominica.\n_Panchlora exoleta_, Scotland (Distant, 1902): Adventive. Great Britain\n(Shaw, 1902): Adventive. England (Coney, 1918): Adventive. Sweden,\nNorway (Princis, 1947): Adventive, Norwegian specimen from Brazil.\nGermany (Zacher, 1917): Adventive, from Jamaica.\n_Panchlora nivea_, Colorado, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York (2), Utah\n(Hebard, 1917): Adventive. Nebraska (Hauke, 1949): Adventive. Washington\n(Hatch, 1938): Adventive. Massachusetts (Roth and Willis, 1958):\nAdventive. England (Bunting, 1955): Adventive, from Dominica. U.S.S.R.\n(Bei-Bienko, 1947): Adventive, from Colombia. Sweden (13), Norway (3),\nFinland (3) (Princis, 1947): Adventive, mostly females; origin (where\nknown) Jamaica.\n_Panchlora fraterna_(?) and _Panchlora peruana_(?), Denmark (Henriksen,\n1939): Adventive; origin (where known) Danish West Indies and Jamaica;\nPrincis (1947) suggested that both species were probably _Panchlora\nnivea_.\n_Panchlora sagax_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936).\n_Panchlora virescens_, Canada (Walker, 1912): Adventive; this was\nprobably _P. nivea_ as we now know it (Gurney, personal communication,\n_Panchlora_ sp., Canada (Walker, 1912): Adventive. England (Tulloch,\n1939): Adventive, from Brazil.\n_Pelmatosilpha coriacea_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936).\n_Pelmatosilpha marginalis_ and _Pelmatosilpha purpurascens_, England\n(Bunting, 1955, 1956): Adventive, from Dominica; both species common.\n_Pelmatosilpha vagabunda_, New Zealand (Princis, 1954): Adventive,\nprobably from South America.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Belgium (Schepdael, 1931): Adventive, on\nbananas from the American Tropics.\n_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta brunnea_, England (Bunting,\n1955, 1956): Adventive, from Dominica.\n_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta australasiae_, England (Watson,\n1907): Adventive; they ate ripening bananas in the tropical plant house\nof the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, where they hid in \"the sheathing\nbases of palm, banana and pandanus leaves.\" Sweden (Princis, 1947):\nAdventive.\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Canada (Walker, 1912): Adventive. Denmark\n(Henriksen, 1939): Adventive (9); origin mostly Jamaica. England\n(Tulloch, 1939): Adventive, from Brazil. England (Bunting, 1955, 1956):\nAdventive, from Dominica; common.\n_Platyzosteria bifida_, Nebraska (Hebard, 1917): Adventive.\n_Plectoptera dorsalis_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): Captured by\nbeating banana plants.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Canada (Walker, 1912; Hebard, 1917):\nAdventive: Marquesas Islands, Nukuhiva (Hebard, 1933a): In banana\nleaves. England (Goodliffe, 1958): Adventive, doing considerable damage\nto banana plants growing in a conservatory.\n_Sibylloblatta panesthoides_, Massachusetts (Rehn, 1937a): Adventive,\nfrom Jamaica.\nFamily ZINGIBERACEAE\n=Renealmia= sp.\n_Associate._--_Cariblatta orestera_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927):\nThe male was taken in a head of wild ginger.\nFamily CANNACEAE\n=Canna= sp.\n_Associate._--_Periplaneta americana_, Hawaii (Zimmerman, 1948).\nFamily ORCHIDACEAE\n=Cattleya= sp.\n_Associates._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1940a).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, England (Lucas, 1918).\n=Vanda= sp.\n_Associates._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1940a).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, England (Lucas, 1918).\n=Undetermined orchids=\n_Associates._--_Blaberus discoidalis_, _Blatta orientalis_, _Periplaneta\namericana_, Hawaii (Swezey, 1945).\n_Blatta orientalis_, _americana_, _cinerea_, _maderae_, unidentified\ncockroaches, England, in bulb from Ecuador (Westwood, 1876).\n_Graptoblatta notulata_, Hawaii (Swezey, 1945): On orchid from India.\n_Homalopteryx laminata_ and _Hormetica apolinari_, New York (Hebard,\n1912c): In orchids shipped from Colombia.\n_Pelmatosilpha coriacea_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Germany (Tashenberg, 1884).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, England (Wainwright, 1898). Pennsylvania\n(Skinner, 1905). Massachusetts (Morse, 1920).\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, England (Westwood, 1869). Germany (Zacher,\n1920). Massachusetts (Morse, 1920). Hawaii (Swezey, 1945).\nFamily CASUARINACEAE\n=Casuarina= sp.\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Zimmerman, 1948).\nFamily SALICACEAE\n=Populus euphratica= Oliv.\n_Synonymy._--_Populus diversifolia_ Schrenk. [Howard, personal\ncommunication, 1959].\n_Associate._--_Ectobius semenovi_, Kazakhstan (Bei-Bienko, 1950).\n=Populus= sp.\n_Associate._--_Ectobius lapponicus_, U.S.S.R. (Stark _in_ Bei-Bienko,\n1950): On aspen.\n=Salix= sp.\n_Associate._--_Ectobius semenovi_, Kazakhstan (Bei-Bienko, 1950): On\nwillow.\nFamily MYRICACEAE\n=Myrica cerifera= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Chorisoneura texensis_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1916):\nOn bayberry. Florida (Blatchley, 1920): Beaten from foliage.\nFamily FAGACEAE\n=Quercus alba= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, Virginia (Rehn and Hebard,\n1916): Under signs on white oaks.\n=Quercus rubra= Linnaeus\n_Associates._--_Parcoblatta divisa_, Virginia, and _Parcoblatta\npensylvanica_, North Carolina (Rehn and Hebard, 1916): Under signs on\nred oak.\n_Parcoblatta lata_, North Carolina (Hebard, 1917): Under sign.\n=Quercus virginiana= Mill.\n_Associate._--_Eurycotis floridana_, Georgia (Rehn and Hebard, 1916):\nUnder dead bark on live-oak tree. Georgia (Hebard, 1917): In cavity in\ntree.\n=Quercus= spp.\n_Associates._--_Aglaopteryx gemma_, Alabama, Georgia, Florida,\nLouisiana, Texas (Hebard, 1917): Under signs on oaks.\n_Blatta orientalis_, England (Donisthorpe, 1918): Under bark.\n_Cariblatta lutea lutea_, Mississippi (Hebard, 1916a): By beating low\noaks on hills.\n_Chorisoneura texensis_, Mississippi (Hebard, 1917). Florida (Blatchley,\n1920): By beating.\n_Ectobius pallidus_, England (Milton, 1899; Burr, 1899b). Massachusetts\n(Flint, 1951): Under loose lichens and bark.\n_Parcoblatta divisa_, Georgia, Louisiana, and _Parcoblatta\npensylvanica_, Georgia (Hebard, 1917): Under signs.\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1905): Ten\nspecimens taken from under a tin sign.\n_Periplaneta brunnea_, Georgia (Rehn and Hebard, 1916): Under signs.\n_Phyllodromica megerlei_, U.S.S.R. (Bei-Bienko, 1950): By shaking oak\nbranches.\n_Plectoptera lacerna_, Cuba (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\nFamily MORACEAE\n=Cecropia= sp.\n_Associate._--_Cariblatta hylaea_, Honduras (Rehn, 1945a).\nFamily CHENOPODIACEAE\n=Beta maritima= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Ectobius panzeri_, England (Lucas, 1920a).\n=Beta vulgaris= var. =cicla= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Ectobius pallidus_, Massachusetts (Flint, 1951): Many\nspecimens collected in the bases of Swiss chard plants.\nFamily LAURACEAE\n=Nectandra coriacea= (Sw.) Griseb.\n_Synonymy._--_Ocotea catesbyana_ Sarg. [Howard, personal communication,\n_Associate._--_Chorisoneura texensis_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1912).\nFamily SARRACENIACEAE\nOnly a few records have been found of cockroaches being trapped in the\npitchers of carnivorous plants of this and the following family. The\ninsects drown in the fluid within the pitcher where they are apparently\ndigested by proteinases secreted by the plant (Meyer and Anderson, 1939;\n=Sarracenia flava= Linnaeus\n_Natural prey_--_Cariblatta lutea lutea_, _Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_,\n_Parcoblatta lata_, and nymphs of _Parcoblatta_ sp., North Carolina\n(Wray and Brimley, 1943): Most of the cockroaches seemed to have been\ntrapped accidentally with the possible exception of _C. lutea lutea_, 11\nof which were found in _Sarracenia_ pitchers.\n=Sarracenia purpurea= Linnaeus\n_Natural prey._--_Cariblatta lutea lutea_, North Carolina (Wray and\nBrimley, 1943).\n=Sarracenia minor= Walter\n_Synonymy._--_Sarracenia variolaris_ Michx. [Howard, personal\ncommunication, 1958].\n_Natural and experimental prey._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, Florida\n(Treat, 1876): After the insect imbibed some of the fluid in the pitcher\nit became docile; others became highly active and rushed wildly about\nbefore becoming quiescent. See also Treat _in_ Scudder (1877).\nCockroaches, U.S.A. (Riley, 1875).\nFamily NEPENTHACEAE\n=Nepenthes ampularia= Jack\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Singapore (Dover, 1928).\n=Nepenthes gracilis= Korth.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Singapore (Dover, 1928).\n=Nepenthes= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroach, Old World Tropics? (Hooker, 1874): The\ninsect was apparently attracted into the pitcher, where it drowned, by a\npiece of cartilage placed there by Hooker.\nFamily CUNONIACEAE\n=Weinmannia= sp.\n_Associates._--_Aneurina viridis_, Marquesas Islands, Nukuhiva and\nFatuhiva (Hebard, 1933a).\n_Maretina uahuka_, Marquesas Islands, Uahuka (Hebard, 1933a).\nFamily HAMAMELIDACEAE\n=Liquidambar styraciflua= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Parcoblatta divisa_, Georgia (Rehn and Hebard, 1916):\nUnder sign on sweet gum.\n_Parcoblatta zebra_, Louisiana (Hebard, 1917): In decay cavity.\nFamily ROSACEAE\n=Crataegus= sp.?\n=Associates.=--_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptera infulata_,\n_Plectoptera rhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): In the dry flower\nclusters of \"espino rubial.\"\n=Rosa= sp.\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Connecticut (Zappe, 1918);\nRhode Island and Pennsylvania (Caudell, 1925); Pennsylvania (Doucette\nand Smith, 1926): Feeding on canes in greenhouses.\n=Rubus= spp.?\n_Associate._--_Hololampra chavesi_, Azores (Chopard, 1932): This species\nis exclusively dendricolous and was found only by beating the bushes on\nwhich it abounds. It was very common in hedges, particularly on brambles\n(ronces).\nFamily LEGUMINOSAE\n=Acacia farnesiana= Willd.\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Bridwell and Swezey, 1915;\nZimmerman, 1948): Feeding on pods.\n=Acacia= sp.\n_Associates._--_Ellipsidion australe_, Australia, New South Wales\n(Hebard, 1943).\n_Methana curvigera_, Australia, Queensland (Pope, 1953a).\n=Ceratonia siliqua= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Pemberton and Williams,\n1938): Damaging algarroba.\n=Erythrina glauca= Willd.\n_Associates._--_Aglaopteryx absimilis_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): In\nabandoned cocoon.\n_Aglaopteryx facies_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936): In empty cocoons.\n=Inga laurina= Willd.\n_Associate._--_Aglaopteryx facies_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936): On\ntrunk.\n=Inga vera= Willd.\n_Associates._--_Aglaopteryx facies_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936): In\nlarval tents.\n_Cariblatta stenophrys_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936): On leaves.\n_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptera infulata_, and _Plectoptera\nrhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): In \"butterfly nests\" in leaves.\n=Mesquite=\n_Associate._--_Nyctibora stygia_, Haiti (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Samanea saman= Merr.\n_Associate._--_Aglaopteryx absimilis_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950).\n=Tamarindus indica= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Hemiblabera brunneri_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard,\nFamily GERANIACEAE\n=Geraniums=\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Zimmerman, 1948).\nFamily ZYGOPHYLLACEAE\n=Tribulus= sp.\n_Associates._--_Periplaneta americana_ and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_,\nJohnston Island (Bryan, 1926). Zimmerman (1948) lists _Tribulus_ as a\nhost plant for these cockroaches.\nFamily RUTACEAE\n=Citrus aurantifolia= Swingle\n_Associates._--_Plectoptera dominicae_ and _Plectoptera perscita_,\nDominica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927): Beaten from moss-covered lime trees.\n=Citrus maxima= Merr.\n_Associates._--_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptera infulata_,\n_Plectoptera rhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950).\n_Plectoptera rhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Citrus sinensis= Osbeck\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Bridwell and Swezey, 1915;\nZimmerman, 1948): Feeding on oranges on tree.\n=Citrus= sp.\n_Associates._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Zimmerman, 1948).\n_Riatia_ [=_Lissoblatta_] _fulgida_, Panama, Rio Trinidad (Hebard,\n_Plectoptera porcellana_, Puerto Rico (Sein, 1923).\n=Zanthoxylum caribaeum= Lam.\n_Associates._--_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptera infulata_,\n_Plectoptera rhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): In the dry flower\nclusters.\nFamily BURSERACEAE\n=Bursera simaruba= (L.) Sarg.\n_Associate._--_Chorisoneura texensis_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1912;\nHebard, 1917): Beaten from the lower branches of gumbo limbo.\nFamily EUPHORBIACEAE\n=Poinsettia= sp.\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Connecticut (Zappe, 1918): Ate\nbark of greenhouse plants.\nFamily ANACARDIACEAE\n=Mangifera indica= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Bridwell and Swezey, 1915;\nZimmerman, 1948): Feeding on mangoes on the tree.\n=Spondias mombin= Linnaeus\n_Associates._--_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptera infulata_,\n_Plectoptera rhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950): Living on leaves of\n\"jobo.\"\n=Spondias purpurea= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Eurycotis biolleyi_, Costa Rica (Rehn, 1918): In the\ncrown of dry jocoto.\nFamily AQUIFOLIACEAE\n=Ilex cassine= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Plectoptera poeyi_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1912, 1914;\nHebard, 1917).\n=Ilex coriacea= (Pursh) Chapm.\n_Synonymy._--_Ilex lucida_ [Fernald, 1950].\n_Associate._--_Cariblatta lutea lutea_, Florida (Hebard, 1916a).\nFamily SAPINDACEAE\n=Exothea paniculata= (Juss.) Radlk.\n_Associate._--_Aglaopteryx gemma_, Florida (Hebard, 1917).\nFamily MALVACEAE\n=Gossypium= spp.\n_Associates._--_Graptoblatta notulata_, Marquesas Islands, Tahuata\n(Hebard, 1933a).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, St. Kitts, B.W.I. (Ballou, 1916).\n_Periplaneta fuliginosa_ and _Plectoptera poeyi_, Florida (Rainwater,\n_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptera infulata_, _Plectoptera rhabdota_,\nPuerto Rico (Wolcott, 1950).\n=Hibiscus rosa-sinensis= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Riatia orientis_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\n=Hibiscus= sp.\n_Associates._--_Amazonina emarginata_, _Cariblatta antiguensis_,\n_Eurycotis kevani_, and _Rhytidometopum dissimile_, Trinidad (Princis\nand Kevan, 1955).\n=Sida= sp.\n_Associate._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, Nihoa Island (Bryan, 1926).\nHawaii (Zimmerman, 1948).\nFamily STERCULIACEAE\n=Theobroma cacao= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Ceratinoptera picta_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\nFamily BIXACEAE\n=Bixa= sp.\n_Associate._--_Notolampra antillarum_, Trinidad (Princis and Kevan,\n1955): Nymphs in dry fruits on \"annato\" tree.\nFamily FLACOURTIACEAE\n=Xylosma suaveolens= Forst.\n_Associate._--_Graptoblatta notulata_, Marquesas Islands, Uahuka\n(Hebard, 1933a).\nFamily PASSIFLORACEAE\n=Passiflora= sp.\n_Associate._--_Aristiger_ [=_Plumiger_] _histrio_, Malaya (Karny, 1924).\nFamily CARICACEAE\n=Carica papaya= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Bridwell and Swezey, 1915;\nZimmerman, 1948): Feeding on papaya fruit on tree.\nFamily RHIZOPHORACEAE\n=Rhizophora mangle= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Aglaopteryx gemma_, Florida (Hebard, 1917).\nFamily COMBRETACEAE\n=Conocarpus erectus= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Plectoptera poeyi_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1914):\nRunning on leaves.\nFamily MYRTACEAE\n=Eucalyptus= sp.\n_Associate._--_Ellipsidion australe_, Australia, New South Wales\n(Hebard, 1943).\n=Eugenia aromatica= Baill.\n_Synonymy._--_Syzygium aromaticum_ [Bailey, 1925].\n_Associate._--_Plectoptera dorsalis_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1936): On\nflowers of \"pomarrosa.\"\n=Metrosideros collina= Gray\n_Associates._--_Aneurina viridis_, Marquesas Islands: Nukuhiva,\nFatuhiva, and Tahuata (Hebard, 1933a)\n_Aneurina tahuata_, Marquesas Islands, Tahuata (Hebard, 1933a).\n_Graptoblatta notulata_, Marquesas Islands, Nukuhiva (Hebard, 1933a).\n=Psidium guajava= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Plectoptera rhabdota_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard,\nFamily ONAGRACEAE\n=Jussiaea natans= Humb. and Bonpl.\n_Associate._--_Epilampra abdomen-nigrum_, Panama (Crowell, 1946): In an\naquarium the cockroach fed on leaves of this aquatic plant which had\nbeen collected in the lagoon where the insect was captured.\nFamily ERICACEAE\n=Calluna vulgaris= Salisb.\n_Associates._--_Ectobius lapponicus_, England (Lucas, 1925): \"Nymphs of\nvarying size were beaten out of heather ... on 9 February and later.\"\n_Ectobius panzeri_, England (Lucas, 1927): \"numerous imagines of both\nsexes were swept from heather.\"\n=Vaccinium meridionale= Sw.\n_Associates._--_Chorisoneura formosella_, _Neoblattella dryas_,\n_Neoblattella proserpina_, Jamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\nFamily SAPOTACEAE\n=Sideroxylon foetidissimum= Jacq.\n_Associate._--_Pelmatosilpha coriacea_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1941):\nUnder bark.\nFamily APOCYNACEAE\n=Vinca minor= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Ectobius pallidus_, Massachusetts (Willis, unpublished\nobservation, 1958).\nFamily CONVOLVULACEAE\n=Ipomoea tiliasea= Choisy\n_Associate._--_Plectoptera dorsalis_, Puerto Rico (Rehn and Hebard,\nFamily BORAGINACEAE\n=Cordia dentata= Poiret\n_Synonymy._--_Calyptracordia alba_ [Howard, personal communication,\n_Associates._--_Cariblatta antiguensis_, _Ischnoptera rufa rufa_,\n_Supella supellectilium_, _Symploce ruficollis_ and _Symploce hospes_,\nSt. Croix, Virgin Islands (Beatty, 1944): On fruits of _C. dentata_\nexcept _S. supellectilium_ which was found at night on the flowers.\nFamily VERBENACEAE\n=Citharexylum villosum= Jacq.\n_Associate._--_Chorisoneura texensis_, Florida (Rehn and Hebard, 1912).\nFamily SOLANACEAE\n=Nicotiana= sp.\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Sumatra (Roeser, 1940).\n=Solanum tuberosum= Linnaeus\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Haiti (Hoffman, 1927): Feeding\non tubers in field.\nFamily GESNERIACEAE\n=Cyrtandra= sp.\n_Associate._--_Aneurina viridis_, Marquesas Islands, Nukuhiva (Hebard,\nFamily RUBIACEAE\n=Canthium barbatum= (Forst.) Seem.\n_Associate._--_Graptoblatta notulata_, Marquesas Islands, Uahuka\n(Hebard, 1933a).\n=Cinchona pubescens= Vahl.\n_Associate._--_Periplaneta americana_, Puerto Rico (Plank and Winters,\n1949): In greenhouse.\n=Coffea= sp.\n_Associate._--_Plectoptera porcellana_, Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn, 1923).\nFamily COMPOSITAE\n=Goldenrod=\n_Associate._--_Eurycotis floridana_, Florida (Hebard, 1917): \"Climbing\nabout on top of goldenrod at night.\"\n=Helianthus= sp.\n_Associate._--_Pseudomops septentrionalis_, Texas (Hebard, 1917).\n=Scorzonera acanthoclada= Franch.\n_Associate._--_Phyllodromica tartara nigrescens_, Southern Uzbekistan\n(Bei-Bienko, 1950): On the flowers.\nDAMAGE TO PLANTS BY COCKROACHES\nCockroaches characteristically feed on dead plant and animal material.\nDamage to living plants occurs principally in the Tropics or under\nsubtropical conditions in greenhouses in temperate regions. Among the\ndepredations attributed to cockroaches in text books, damage to plants\nis seldom emphasized. This is surprising in view of the many records\ncited below.\nCapt. William Bligh (1792), while collecting breadfruit trees in Tahiti\nto take to the West Indies, wrote in his log during January 1789: \"This\nmorning, I ordered all the chests to be taken on shore, and the inside\nof the ship to be washed with boiling water, to kill the cockroaches. We\nwere constantly obliged to be at great pains to keep the ship clear of\nvermin, on account of the plants.\"\nWestwood (1869) stated that _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ was very\ndestructive in orchid houses feeding on buds and young shoots. Later\nWestwood (1876) exhibited the bulb of an orchid from Ecuador which\ncontained six species of cockroaches: _Blatta orientalis_,\n[_Periplaneta_?] _americana_, [_Nauphoeta_?] _cinerea_, [_Leucophaea_?]\n_maderae_, and two others unknown to him. Fullaway (1938) stated that\ncockroaches damage root tips, buds, and flowers of orchids. _Periplaneta\namericana_ has been said to eat the root tips and blossoms of orchids\n(Taschenberg, 1884) and to devour the open flower petals of _Cattleya_\norchids as well as the aerial roots and flower spikes of _Vanda_ orchids\n(Rau, 1940a). Wainwright (1898) stated that _Periplaneta australasiae_\nhad been observed in an orchid house in Perthshire where over a period\nof three years it had caused a good deal of damage. Skinner (1905)\nreported that _P. australasiae_ in greenhouses in Pennsylvania showed no\npreference for any one plant but ate both plants and flowers of orchids,\nroses, and carnations. Lucas (1918) received specimens of _P.\naustralasiae_ which had played havoc with orchids especially _Cattleya_\nand _Vanda_. Morse (1920) reported that both _P. australasiae_ and\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ were obnoxious in a conservatory in\nMassachusetts where they gnawed the tips of the aerial roots of orchids.\nSwezey (1945) in Hawaii stated that the following cockroaches have been\nreported as occasional minor pests on orchids: _Blatta orientalis_,\n_Blaberus discoidalis_, _P. americana_, and _P. surinamensis_; he\nfurther stated that _Graptoblatta notulata_ had been intercepted at\nHonolulu on orchids from India.\nWatson (1907) stated that _Blatta orientalis_, _Periplaneta americana_,\nand _Periplaneta australasiae_ were injurious in the tropical plant\nhouses at Kew: \"at night they come out and run or fly about among the\nplants, devouring flowers and leaves like rabbits. Such plants as\n_Eucharis_, _Crinum_ and _Alpinia_, when in flower, have little chance\nin the palm house, where the cockroaches are most abundant; they also\nfind out the ripening bananas and soon devour them.\" Raffill (1910)\nstated that in plant houses in England _B. orientalis_, _P. americana_,\nand _P. australasiae_ commonly, and _Nauphoeta cinerea_, _Nauphoeta\nflexivitta_, and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ more rarely, are extremely\ndestructive to plants. Flowers having a strong perfume, such as orchids,\n_Eucharis_, _Crinum_, and _Hedychium_, were often attacked while other\nflowers nearby were left uninjured.\nPlank and Winters (1949) reported that in Puerto Rico the species of\nOrthoptera most injurious under greenhouse conditions was _Periplaneta\namericana_. Large nymphs destroyed 25 to 30 percent of freshly planted\nseed of _Cinchona pubescens_. In Hawaii the host plants of _P.\namericana_ are blossoms of _Canna_ and _Tribulus_, and the host plants\nof _Periplaneta australasiae_ are _Pritchardia_ and _Sida_ (Zimmerman,\n1948). On St. Kitts, B.W.I., young cotton plants were severely attacked\nby _P. australasiae_; this caused loss of the stand on a considerable\narea and necessitated replanting (Ballou, 1916). _P. australasiae_ was\nreported damaging the _Polystichum aristatum_ Presl [=_Lastrea aristata\nvariegata_] in a greenhouse (Thilow and Riley, 1891). Laing (1946;\nBritish Museum [Natural History], 1951) stated that _P. australasiae_\nabounds in greenhouses and forcing pits where it may do considerable\ndamage to the plants. _Periplaneta fuliginosa_ is also troublesome in\ngreenhouses because of its tendency to feed on seedlings and succulent\nplants (Dodge and Rickett, 1943).\n_Ectobius lapponicus_ has been observed feeding in galleries in the\nthick skin of young aspen in 25 percent of the trees examined (Stark\n_in_ Bei-Bienko, 1950). The aquatic cockroach _Epilampra abdomen nigrum_\nfed on the leaves of _Jussiaea natans_ in an aquarium (Crowell, 1946).\n_Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_ has been taken while it was feeding on a\nfleshy fungus (_Agaricus_ sp.) in dense woods in Indiana (Blatchley,\n_Diploptera punctata_, the cypress roach or beetle roach, has been found\nin Hawaii feeding on ripening mangoes and papayas, oranges on the tree,\nand the outer covering of the pods of _Acacia farnesiana_ (Bridwell and\nSwezey, 1915). Pemberton (1934) stated that _D. punctata_ \"disfigures\nour cypress trees by eating the bark from the young branches, often\ngiving them a dead appearance over much of their leaf area.\" Fullaway\nand Krauss (1945) added, \"This injury [to cypress] is so severe that\nsometimes areas of leaves die and turn brown. The Japanese cedar,\nironwood, citrus and algaroba (kiawe) trees are attacked in a similar\nmanner.\" Similar injury to cypress was described by Hebard (1922). In\naddition to girdling _Cupressus_, _D. punctata_ injures _Cryptomeria_ in\nthe same fashion and also attacks algaroba, lime, and other plants\n(Pemberton and Williams, 1938). Zimmerman (1948) cited the following\nhost plants for _D. punctata_ in Hawaii: \"_Cupressus macrocarpa_,\n_Casuarina_, _Cryptomeria_, _Citrus_, geraniums, _Acacia farnesiana_\npods, mango fruits, orange fruits, papaya fruits.\"\nIn the reports of damage to plants by cockroaches, _Pycnoscelus\nsurinamensis_ has been implicated most often. This species is\nundoubtedly one of the economically most important cockroaches, being\nthe vector of the chicken eyeworm as well as feeding on plants. In\naddition to the few reports of damage caused by this species that have\nalready been mentioned, _P. surinamensis_ has been reported to be very\ndestructive in New Orleans to palms and ferns, attacking large\nalsophilas avidly, eating out the hearts (Anonymous, 1893). Zappe (1918)\nin Connecticut reported damage in a greenhouse to roses valued, at that\ntime, at several hundred dollars; _P. surinamensis_ had girdled the rose\nbushes, done much damage to Easter lilies, and in another greenhouse had\neaten the bark from the stems of poinsettias. In Germany this species\nbit off the tips of the aerial roots and ate the petals of orchids\n(Zacher, 1920). Lucas (1923) reported damage to cucumber plants in a\ngreenhouse in Surrey. Damage by _P. surinamensis_ to the stems of rose\nbushes has been reported in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania; the canes\nwere attacked both under and above ground (Caudell, 1925). Doucette and\nSmith (1926) reported a heavy infestation of _P. surinamensis_ in a\nrange of greenhouses in Philadelphia: \"The roaches were present\nliterally by the millions.... Although the roaches had been observed in\ncabinets and trash barrels for several months, it was not until the\nmanager had occasion to go through the house one evening that he\ndiscovered that roaches were the cause of the troubles previously\nattributed to soil condition, watering, fungus, and other agencies....\nAbout 30,000 to 35,000 rose plants from a total of 200,000 in the three\nmore heavily infested houses were so badly injured by the gnawing off of\nthe bark, young buds, and shoots of the main stems, that they were not\nin condition to be kept in the beds for another season.\"\nIn Haiti _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ damaged the tubers of growing\npotatoes (Hoffman, 1927). Illingworth (1927, 1929) reported that in\nHawaii _P. surinamensis_ was a minor pest of pineapples, feeding on the\nroots. This species was very plentiful in a propagating pit in England\nwhere it did much damage to various seeds and seedlings (Lucas, 1930).\nRoeser (1940) summarized some of the above-mentioned damage caused by\n_P. surinamensis_ and added damage to chrysanthemums in Hawaii and\ntobacco in Sumatra where this cockroach destroyed 300,000 plants in a\nfew days. Roeser was of the opinion that living plants were eaten only\nas a substitute when the earth became poor in food material. Zimmerman\n(1948) listed as host plants of _P. surinamensis_ in Hawaii: \"blossoms\nof _Tribulus_; reported feeding at roots of pineapples, and unconfirmed\nreports of damage to underground parts of some other plants.\" Goodliffe\n(1958) reported damage by this species to banana plants in a\nconservatory in northern England. Cohic (1956) implied that in New\nCaledonia \"Racines de l\u00e9gumes\" were attacked by _P. surinamensis_ and\nthat _Zea mays_ Linnaeus was attacked by _Supella supellectilium_.\nWolcott (1924a) reported that _P. surinamensis_ damaged transplanted\ntobacco plants in Puerto Rico by eating the interior of the stalks.\nTobacco planters in Cuba consider _P. surinamensis_ injurious to the\nroots of tobacco plants (Bruner and Scaramuzza, 1936); this belief was\nconfirmed in the laboratory, where adults and nymphs destroyed the roots\nand stems of tobacco plants two inches high and ate into the edges of\nthe leaves. Dammerman (1929) reported that in Malaya this species often\nappeared in large numbers in gardens where it gnawed at the underground\nparts of vegetables and ornamental plants. Lever (1947) listed it as a\npest on the leaves of pineapple.\n_Blattella vaga_ may occasionally damage seedlings in the laboratory\n(Flock, 1941a), but no damage has been reported in the field (Ball et\nal., 1942). Heer (1864) reported receiving a shipment of cycads from\nCuba with all stages of _Periplaneta americana_ living in holes in the\nbranches, apparently subsisting on the starchy tissues. Goldenberg\n(1877) stated that sago trees provide cockroaches with their favorite\nnourishment. Scudder (1879) found _Eurycotis floridana_ living in the\ntops of the cabbage palmetto, on which he presumed it fed. _Parcoblatta\namericana_ has been observed feeding on an apple 6 feet above ground\n(Fulton, 1930).\nX. PROTOZOA ASSOCIATED WITH COCKROACHES\nThe classification of the Protozoa follows that of Kudo (1954). The use\nof the asterisk (*) is explained in footnote 3, page 4.\n=Phylum PROTOZOA=\nClass MASTIGOPHORA\nOrder EUGLENOIDINA\nFamily EUGLENIDAE\n=Euglena= sp.\n_Experimental host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hegner, 1929):\nWhen fed to the insects in concentrated culture, _Euglena_ could\nwithstand conditions in the crop up to 5 hours and were passed into the\nstomach in a viable state up to 6 hours. However, the majority were\nkilled in the crop within 2 hours and very few reached the stomach\nalive.\nOrder PROTOMONADINA\nFamily OIKOMONADIDAE\n=Oikomonas blattarum Tejera=\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n=Oikomonas= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller,\n1922): _Oikomonas_ sp. and _Monas_ sp. were found in the intestines of\n83 percent of 124 cockroaches.\nCockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nFamily TRYPANOSOMATIDAE\n=Leptomonas blaberae= Tejera\n_Natural host._--_Blaberus_ sp., Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n=Leptomonas= sp.\n_Natural hosts._--_Parcoblatta lata_, _Parcoblatta pensylvanica_,\n_Parcoblatta virginica_, U.S.A., Ohio (Semans, 1939, 1941): Hind\nintestine. Of 70 specimens examined, 86 percent harbored _Leptomonas_\nsp.\n* =Herpetomonas periplanetae= Laveran and Franchini\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy, France (Laveran and\nFranchini, 1920, 1920a).\nFamily MONADIDAE\n=Monas= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller,\n1922): _Monas_ sp. and _Oikomonas_ sp. were found in the intestines of\n83 percent of 124 cockroaches examined.\nCockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nFamily BODONIDAE\n=Bodo blattae=\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Lankester, 1865).\n=Bodo= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_,\nSouth Africa (Porter, 1930).\n=Retortamonas blattae= (Bishop)\n_Synonymy._--_Embadomonas blattae_ Bishop [Wenrich, 1932].\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Bishop, 1931): Hind\nintestine. The organism occurred in about 40 percent of the cockroaches\nexamined. L. G. Feo (_in_ Wenrich, 1932) successfully cultured this\nprotozoan (fig. 2, F).\n=Retortamonas= sp.?\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Philippine Islands (Hegner and\n  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Representative Protozoa associated with\n  cockroaches. A, _Monocercomonoides melolonthae_, \u00d7 3094 (after Grass\u00e9).\n  B, _Coelosporidium periplanetae_, \u00d7 1310 (after Sprague); trophozoite\n  with spores and chromatoid bodies. C, _Endamoeba blattae_, \u00d7 273 (after\n  Kudo); trophozoite. D, _Lophomonas striata_, \u00d7 330 (after Kudo). E,\n  _Lophomonas blattarum_, \u00d7 660 (after Kudo). F, _Retortamonas blattae_,\n  \u00d7 3094 (after Wenrich). G, _Nyctotherus ovalis_, \u00d7 175 (after Kudo). H,\n  _Gregarina rhyparobiae_, c. \u00d7 52: mature trophozoite attached to\n  intestinal wall of _Leucophaea maderae_. (Redrawn from J. M. Watson\n  [1945].) I, _Diplocystis schneideri_, c. \u00d7 14.4 (after Kunstler). J,\n  _Gregarina blattarum_, c. \u00d7 57 (after Kudo). K, _Protomagalhaesia\n  serpentula_, \u00d7 36 (after Pinto). L, _Gamocystis tenax_, magnification\n  not known (after Schneider). (All figures except H redrawn from Kudo\n  [1954] after sources indicated.)]\nOrder POLYMASTIGINA\nFamily CHILOMASTIGIDAE\n=Chilomastix mesnili= (Wenyon)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_ and _Periplaneta\namericana_, South Africa (Porter, 1918): The cockroaches were fed human\nexcrement that contained cysts of _C. mesnili_. The cysts passed\nunharmed through the insects' digestive tract. Rats became infected with\nthis protozoan on eating food that had been contaminated with feces from\nthese cockroaches.\nFamily POLYMASTIGIDAE\n=Eutrichomastix= sp.\n_Synonymy._--_Trichomastix_ [Kudo, 1954].\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_,\nSouth Africa (Porter, 1930).\n=Monocercomonoides globus= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934): Organism occurs in\npractically all hosts.\n=Monocercomonoides melolonthae= (Grassi)\n_Natural host._--_Platyzosteria novae seelandiae_, New Zealand (Laird,\n1956): Found in the intestinal tracts of the adult cockroaches, and of\nother species of insects.\n=Monocercomonoides orthopterorum= (Parisi)\n_Synonymy._--_Trichomonas_ (_Trichomastix_) _orthopterorum_ Parisi;\n_Monocercomonas orthopterorum_ [B\u011bl\u01cer, 1916]; _Trichomastic\northopterum?_ [Zasukhin, 1930]; _Monocercomonoides orthopterorum_\n[Travis, 1932; Cleveland et al., 1934]; _Retortamonas orthopterorum_\n[Semans, 1943].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy (Parisi, 1910); U.S.S.R.\n(Zasukhin, 1930).\n_Ectobius lapponicus_, Italy (Parisi, 1910).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Philippine Islands (Hegner and Chu, 1930).\n\"K\u00fcchenschaben,\" Austria (B\u011bl\u01cer, 1916).\nThe protozoan is found in the hind gut. Zasukhin (1930) found the\norganism in 85 percent of over 3,000 _B. orientalis_. Parisi (1910)\nfound the flagellate present in very large numbers.\n=Monocercomonoides panesthiae= Kidder\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Kidder,\n1937): In hind gut.\n=Tetratrichomastix blattidarum= Young\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Young, 1935): The organism when present\noccurs in large numbers in the posterior part of the intestine near the\nanus. The protozoan was successfully cultivated in a hemoglobin-saline\nmedium.\nFamily OXYMONADIDAE\n=Oxymonas doroaxostylus= (Cleveland et al.)\n_Synonymy._--_Saccinobaculus doroaxostylus_ Cleveland et al. [Cleveland,\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Oxymonas nana= Cleveland\n_Synonymy._--_Saccinobaculus minor_ Cleveland et al. [Cleveland, 1950].\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\nFamily DINENYMPHIDAE\n=Saccinobaculus ambloaxostylus= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Saccinobaculus lata= Cleveland\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A. (Cleveland, 1950b):\nThere are at least two other species of _Saccinobaculus_ in _C.\npunctulatus_ that have not been described.\n=Notila proteus= Cleveland\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland, 1950b).\nFamily TRICHOMONADIDAE\n* =Trichomonas hominis= (Davaine)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, South Africa (Porter,\n1918); Italy (Mariani and Besta, 1936).\n_Periplaneta americana_, South Africa (Porter, 1918); U.S.A. (Hegner,\n=Trichomonas= sp.\n_Natural vector._--Cockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926): Organism found\nin digestive tract of the cockroach.\nFamily HEXAMITIDAE\n=Hexamita cryptocerci= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural hosts._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A. (Cleveland et al.,\n_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Kidder, 1937).\n=Hexamita periplanetae= (B\u0115l\u0103r)\n_Synonymy._--_Octomitus periplanetae_ B\u0115l\u0103r [Kudo, 1954].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Zasukhin, 1930):\nOrganism is found in the hind gut. Eighty-five percent of over 3,000 _B.\norientalis_ contained this organism.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Philippine Islands (Hegner and Chu, 1930).\n\"K\u00fcchenschaben,\" Austria (B\u0115l\u0103r, 1916).\n=Hexamita= sp.?\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Philippine Islands (Hegner and\nChu, 1930): The flagellates were present in large numbers.\n* =Giardia intestinalis= (Lambl)\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, South Africa (Porter,\n_Blattella germanica_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1927).\n_Eurycotis floridana_, U.S.A. (Young, 1937).\n_Leucophaea maderae_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1927).\n_Periplaneta americana_, South Africa (Porter, 1918); Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922); Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1927); U.S.A. (Young, 1937).\n_Periplaneta brunnea_, U.S.A. (Young, 1937).\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926); Argentina (Bacigalupo, in Tejera,\n* =Giardia= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--Cockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nOrder HYPERMASTIGINA\nFamily HOLOMASTIGOTIDAE\n=Leptospironympha eupora= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian area\n(Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Leptospironympha rudis= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian area\n(Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Leptospironympha wachula= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian area\n(Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Macrospironympha xylopletha= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian area\n(Cleveland et al., 1934).\nFamily LOPHOMONADIDAE\n=Lophomonas blattarum= Stein\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Czechoslovakia (Stein, 1860);\nGermany (B\u00fctschli, 1878; Schubotz, 1905; Chen, 1933); U.S.A. (Leidy,\n1908); U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller, 1922; Zasukhin, 1930); Poland\n(Lorenc, 1939).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A., Ohio (McAdow, 1931).\n_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_, Egypt (DeCoursey\n_Periplaneta americana_, England (Schuster, 1898); Europe (Janicki,\nPhilippine Islands (Hegner and Chu, 1930).\n_Periplaneta_ sp., Goa (Mello and Lima Ribeiro, 1924, 1925).\n\"K\u00fcchenschaben,\" Austria (B\u011bl\u01cer, 1916).\nThe protozoan (fig. 2, E) is found in the host's colon, particularly\nanterior portion; encysted stages of organism are found throughout hind\ngut. Of 1,400 _B. orientalis_ studied, 32 percent harbored this organism\n(Kudo, 1925, 1926). Yakimov and Miller (1922) found 7 percent of 124\n_B. orientalis_ infested. Zasukhin (1930) found 10 percent of over 3,000\n_B. orientalis_ infested. The flagellate does not harm the host and is\nnever present in the host tissue; it should be considered a commensal\n=Lophomonas striata= B\u00fctschli\n_Synonymy._--_Lophomonas sulcata_ Schuster is most probably identical\nwith _L. striata_ (Kudo, 1926b).\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (B\u00fctschli, 1878;\n1926b; McAdow, 1931); U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller, 1922; Zasukhin,\n1930); Poland (Lorenc, 1939).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A., Ohio (McAdow, 1931).\n_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_, South Africa\n(Porter, 1930).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Indochina (Weill, 1929); Philippine Islands\n(Hegner and Chu, 1930); U.S.A. (Kudo, 1926b; McAdow, 1931; Armer, 1944).\nCockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926); England or U.S.A.? (Lucas, 1928).\n\"K\u00fcchenschaben,\" Austria (B\u011bl\u01cer, 1916).\nFound in the host's colon, particularly the anterior portion. _L.\nstriata_ (fig. 2, D) was found in 29 percent of 1,400 _B. orientalis_\nand in 2 of 30 _P. americana_ (Kudo, 1926, 1926b). Yakimov and Miller\n(1922) found the organism in 9.6 percent of 124 specimens of _B.\norientalis_. Zasukhin (1930) found 8.6 percent of over 3,000 _B.\norientalis_ infested.\nGrass\u00e9 (1926, 1926a) identified corrugations on the surface of _L.\nstriata_ as a bacterial parasite which he named _Fusiformis\nlophomonadis_.\n=Prolophomonas tocopola= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, California, Oregon,\nVirginia, West Virginia (Cleveland et al., 1934): Not abundant.\nFamily HOPLONYMPHIDAE\n=Barbulanympha estaboga= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n_Barbulanympha coahoma_ (Cleveland et al., 1934) represents the diploid\nform of _B. estaboga_ (Cleveland, 1953).\n=Barbulanympha laurabuda= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934): This species, _B.\nufalula_, and _Rhynchonympha tarda_ occur in all parts of the colon,\nespecially in the enlarged, flexed part near the ileum.\n=Barbulanympha ufalula= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Barbulanympha wenyoni= Cleveland\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Pacific coast area\n(Cleveland, 1953).\n=Rhynchonympha tarda= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Pacific coast area\n(Cleveland et al., 1934): Fairly abundant in every specimen examined\nfrom Pacific coast.\n=Urinympha talea= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934): Present in fairly great\nnumbers in every cockroach examined.\nFamily STAUROJOENINIDAE\n=Idionympha perissa= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian area\n(Cleveland et al., 1934): Present in only a few specimens.\nFamily TRICHONYMPHIDAE\n=Trichonympha acuta= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Trichonympha algoa= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934): Fairly abundant and\npresent in most specimens.\n  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Protozoa from the gut of the wood-feeding\n  cockroach _Cryptocercus punctulatus_. A, _Eucomonympha imla_, female\n  above, male below, c. \u00d7 375. (From Cleveland [1950c].) B,\n  _Barbulanympha_ sp. (From Cleveland [1953].) C, _Urinympha talea_,\n  c. \u00d7 712. (From Cleveland [1951a].) D, _Rhynchonympha tarda_,\n  c. \u00d7 450. (From Cleveland [1952].) E, _Trichonympha okolona_ or\n  (From Cleveland [1949].) (All drawings reproduced through the courtesy\n  of Dr. L. R. Cleveland.)]\n=Trichonympha chula= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Trichonympha grandis= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Pacific coast areas\n(Cleveland et al., 1934): Fairly abundant in all specimens from Pacific\narea.\n=Trichonympha lata= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n=Trichonympha okolona= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934): Found in only a few\nspecimens, never abundant.\n=Trichonympha parva= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934): This organism is smaller\nthan any known species of _Trichonympha_; it is more resistant to warm\nweather than the other hypermastigotes.\nFamily EUCOMONYMPHIDAE\n=Eucomonympha imla= Cleveland et al.\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A., Appalachian and\nPacific coast areas (Cleveland et al., 1934): Organism (fig. 3, A)\nsometimes becomes attached to the intestinal wall; attached individuals\nwere seen in 2 to 3 percent of the cockroaches examined.\n=Unidentified flagellate=\n_Natural host._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Schwabe, 1950): A\nsmall flagellate was found in the digestive tract and malpighian\ntubules.\nClass SARCODINA\nOrder MYCETOZOA\nINCERTAE SEDIS\n=Peltomyces periplanetae= (L\u00e9ger)\n_Synonymy._--_Peltomyces blattellae._ Sprague (1940a) synonymizes\n_Peltomyces periplanetae_, with _Coelosporidium periplanetae_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Debaisieux, 1927).\n_Blattella germanica_, France (L\u00e9ger, 1909; Debaisieux, 1927).\nThe organism inhabits the malpighian tubules of cockroaches. L\u00e9ger and\nDebaisieux concluded that their organism was a mycetozoan, but they may\nhave erred in synonymizing _Plistophora periplanetae_ with the organism\nthey studied. Debaisieux found intracellular stages of _Peltomyces\nperiplanetae_ that have not been found in _Plistophora periplanetae_ or\n_Coelosporidium periplanetae_.\nOrder AMOEBINA\nFamily AMOEBIDAE\n=Hartmannella blattae= Ivani\u0107\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Yugoslavia (Ivani\u0107, 1937): Found\nin the hind gut.\nFamily ENDAMOEBIDAE\nIn the following classification we have accepted the conclusions of\nKirby (1945), Kudo (1954), and others that species of _Endamoeba_ are\ngenerically different from species of _Entamoeba_ and that the latter\ngenus is not a homonym of _Endamoeba._\n=Dobellina= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta\namericana_, Egypt (DeCoursey and Otto, 1956, 1957): Thirty out of 261\ncockroaches examined contained this protozoan.\n=Endamoeba blattae= (B\u00fctschli)\n_Synonymy._--_Amoeba blattae_, _Entamoeba blattae_, _Entamoeba\nblattarum_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (B\u00fctschli, 1878;\nU.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller, 1922; Zasukhin, 1929, 1930); England\n(Thomson and Lucas, 1926; Lucas, 1927, 1927a, 1928); Yugoslavia (Ivani\u0107,\n_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_, South Africa\n(Porter, 1930); Egypt (DeCoursey and Otto, 1956, 1957): Seven out of 217\ncockroaches examined harbored the protozoan.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Philippine Islands (Hegner and Chu, 1930);\nU.S.A. (Morris, 1936; Armer, 1944); Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, U.S.A. (Morris, 1936).\nCockroaches, Paraguay? (Elmassian, 1909); Austria (B\u011bl\u01cer, 1916); U.S.A.\n(Morris, 1935, 1936; Balch, 1932); Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nThe habitat of _E. blattae_ (fig. 2, C) is the hind intestine and rectum\nof the cockroach. The incidence of infection varies: Kudo (1925a) found\nin 1,255 oriental cockroaches infections in 5 percent in March and 50\npercent in the summer; Schubotz (1905) found 5 to 20 percent of the\nexamined cockroaches to be infested; Yakimov and Miller (1922) found 4\npercent of 124 oriental cockroaches infested; Zasukhin (1930) found up\nto 50 percent of over 3,000 _B. orientalis_ infested; Meglitsch (1938,\n1940) found almost 100 percent infection in _B. orientalis_ kept in a\ncrowded culture for several weeks. Chen (1933) developed two synthetic\nmedia in which _E. blattae_ could be grown for 45 to 50 days.\nMercier (1907a) observed a fungus, _Nucleophaga_ sp., hyperparasitic in\nthe nucleus of _Endamoeba blattae_.\n=Endamoeba javanica= Kidder\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands, and\n_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937): Occurred in 50 percent of _P.\nangustipennis_ examined and in one of four _P. spadica_. The endoplasm\nof this amoeba contains large amounts of wood and cellulose fibers.\n=Endamoeba philippinensis= Kidder\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Kidder,\n1937): Occurred in about 10 percent of the _Panesthia_ examined. The\nfood vacuoles contained bacteria, no wood.\n=Entamoeba coli= (Grassi)\n_Synonymy._--_Endamoeba coli_, _Amoeba coli_ [Kirby, 1945].\n_Natural vectors._--_Blaberus atropos_, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926): In a\nlot of 60 cockroaches captured in latrines, two were found that carried\napparently live cysts similar to cysts of _E. coli_.\n_Blattella germanica_ or _Periplaneta americana_, Egypt (DeCoursey and\nOtto, 1956, 1957): One out of 44 cockroaches collected in a village\nharbored _E. coli_.\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922): In nine experiments cysts of _E. coli_ were fed to the\ncockroaches. In seven of the experiments cysts of _E. coli_ were found\nin the feces. Cysts were observed in the feces for only one to three\ndays, and eventually disappeared completely. The cysts appeared to be\nunharmed. No amoebae were found.\n* =Entamoeba histolytica= Schaudinn\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\n_Periplaneta americana_, _Periplaneta australasiae_, and/or _Supella\nsupellectilium_, Peru (Schneider and Shields, 1947).\n_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_, Egypt (DeCoursey\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italian Somaliland\n(Mariani and Besta, 1936).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922); U.S.A. (Frye\nand Meleney, 1936).\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n=Entamoeba pitheci= Prowazek?\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Formosa (Morischita and\nTsuchimochi, 1926): Eleven of 15 cockroaches fed feces of a monkey\n[_Macaca cyclopis_ (Swinhoe)] containing cysts of the amoeba voided live\ncysts in their own feces.\n=Entamoeba thomsoni= Lucas\n_Synonymy._--_Endamoeba thomsoni_ [Kudo, personal communication, 1957].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Lucas, 1927a, 1928);\nU.S.A. (Taliaferro, 1928; McAdow, 1931); U.S.S.R. (Zasukhin, 1930);\nGermany (Chen, 1933).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (McAdow, 1931).\n_Periplaneta americana_, England (Lucas, 1927a); U.S.A. (Smith and\nBarret, 1928; McAdow, 1931); Philippine Islands (Hegner and Chu, 1930).\nThe organism is found in the hind intestine and rectum of the cockroach.\nSmith and Barret (1928) developed a synthetic medium in which cultures\nof _E. thomsoni_ were carried through successive transfers for 24\nmonths.\n=Entamoeba= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony (Macfie,\n1922): Under the heading \"_Entamoeba histolytica_ and _E. coli_\" Macfie\n(p. 445) stated, \"The cockroaches used in these experiments had\npreviously been carefully examined for amoebic infections a precaution\nwhich was doubly necessary, because some of these insects at Accra had\nbeen found naturally infected.\"\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922): _Entamoeba_, resembling _E. coli_, from feces of the\nmonkey [_Erythrocebus patas patas_ (Schreber)] were fed to cockroaches,\nand on the second to fourth days thereafter apparently healthy cysts\nwere recovered in the cockroach feces.\n=Endolimax blattae= Lucas\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Lucas, 1927, 1927a);\nU.S.S.R. (Zasukhin, 1930); Germany (Chen, 1933).\n_Periplaneta americana_, England (Lucas, 1927, 1927a); Indochina (Weill,\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, U.S.A. (Steinhaus, 1946).\nOrganism is found in the hind gut of the cockroach. Zasukhin (1930)\nfound 3-percent infestation in over 3,000 _B. orientalis_ examined.\n=Endolimax nana= (Wenyon and O'Connor)?\n_Synonymy._--_Entamoeba nana._\n_Natural host._--_Blaberus atropos_, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926): A small\namoeba greatly resembling _E. nana_ was found in the intestinal contents\nof the cockroach. In inoculations this amoeba was not pathogenic.\n=Endolimax= sp.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Zasukhin, 1930): This\norganism was found in the hind gut of 0.3 percent of over 3,000\ncockroaches examined.\n_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_, Egypt (DeCoursey\nand Otto, 1956, 1957): Seventy-four out of 261 cockroaches examined\nharbored this protozoan.\n=Iodamoeba= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Blattella garmanica_ and/or _Periplaneta\namericana_, Egypt (DeCoursey and Otto, 1956, 1957): Fifty-nine of 261\ncockroaches examined contained this protozoan. _Iodamoeba_ sp. was\ncommon in human feces in villages in which the cockroaches were\ncollected.\n=Undetermined species of Amoeba=\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands. (Kidder,\n1937): Found in only one specimen.\nClass SPOROZOA\nOrder GREGARINIDA\nFamily DIPLOCYSTIDAE\n=Diplocystis schneideri= Kunstler\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, England (Woodcock, 1904; Jameson,\n=Periplaneta americana=, France (Kunstler, 1884, 1887); England\n(Jameson, 1920); Germany (Foerster, 1939).\nIn body cavity of host. Cysts containing spores are ingested during\ncannibalistic feeding on infected cockroaches. Sporozoites penetrate the\ngut wall which later ruptures, freeing the gregarines into the coelom.\nThere is no apparent pathogenic effect. Jameson (1920) found 81 percent\nof _P. americana_ infested with _D. schneideri_.\n=Diplocystis= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hertig, 1921): Heavy\ninfections in body cavity.\nCockroach, India (Ray and Dasgupta, 1955): A large number of\ncockroaches, both adults and nymphs, collected in Calcutta were all\ninfected.\n=Diplocystis= sp.?\n_Natural host._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Nutting, 1953): From 1 to\n12 or more paired trophozoites or cysts may be found in the hemocoele\nand occasionally in the thorax.\nFamily STENOPHORIDAE\n=Stenophora= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, India (Bal and Rai, 1955): Organism\nfound in the midgut of the cockroach.\nFamily GREGARINIDAE\n=Gregarina blattarum= von Siebold\n_Synonymy._--_Gregarina blattae orientalis_; _Clepsidrina blattarum_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Siebold, 1837, 1839;\nStein, 1848; B\u00fctschli, 1881; Wolters, 1891; Marshall, 1892; Wellmer,\nCrawley, 1903; Watson, 1917; Kudo, 1922; McAdow, 1931; Sprague, 1940,\n1941); England (Lankester, 1863); France (Schneider, 1875; Cu\u00e9not, 1901;\nLaveran and Franchini, 1920a); Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900; Pinto, 1919);\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Crawley, 1903); South Africa (Fantham,\n1929; Porter, 1930: these appear to be the same record).\n_Blattella germanica_ and/or _Periplaneta americana_, Egypt (DeCoursey\n_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900); U.S.A. (Crawley,\n1903; 1907; McAdow, 1931); South Africa (Fantham, 1929; Porter, 1930:\nthese appear to be the same record); Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922).\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A., Michigan (Ellis, 1913a).\nCockroaches, Germany (Schiffmann, 1919: probably used the oriental\ncockroach); Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nOrganism usually found in the intestinal tract of cockroaches where it\nis attached to the gut cells. Cysts are passed in the feces.\nOccasionally, _G. blattarum_ (fig. 2, J) is found in the body cavity\n(Leidy, 1853a; Hall, 1907). Though this is considered to be one of the\ncommonest of the Sporozoa encountered in cockroaches, DeCoursey and Otto\n(1956) found only 10 of 217 _P. americana_ and _B. germanica_, collected\nin restaurants in Egypt, infested with this species. Watson (1917) found\na dozen or more in one specimen of _Blatta orientalis_. Zasukhin (1929,\n1930) found 2.6 percent of 3,000 oriental cockroaches infected with this\nparasite.\n=Gregarina fastidiosa= Harrison\n_Natural host._--_Aptera fusca_, South Africa (Harrison, 1955): All\nmature females were heavily infected; in all specimens there were over\n100 parasites in the gut. All nymphs were infected, the earlier instars\nmore lightly than the later instars. Gregarines were found in all parts\nof the gut except the crop and gizzard.\n=Gregarina gibbsi= Harrison\n_Natural host._--_Temnopteryx phalerata_, South Africa (Harrison, 1955):\nAlthough the cockroaches were found in groups, only 32 percent were\ninfected and only 10 percent heavily. The gregarines were found in the\nanterior mesenteron but none in the hepatic caeca. All cysts were found\nin the hind gut or rectum.\n=Gregarina illinensis= M. E. Watson\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A., Illinois (Watson,\n1915, 1916): The intestine of one cockroach was found to contain 25 of\nthese gregarines.\n=Gregarina impetuosa= Harrison\n_Natural host._--_Melanosilpha capensis_, South Africa (Harrison, 1955):\nAll specimens of this gregarine were found in the anterior mesenteron of\nthe host.\n=Gregarina l\u00e9geri= Pinto\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Pinto, 1918, 1918a,\n1919): Intestinal canal.\n=Gregarina neo-brasiliensis= Al. Cunha\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (R. de Almeida Cunha\n=Gregarina ohioensis= Semans\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta virginica_, U.S.A., Ohio (Semans, 1939):\nThe protozoan was present in large numbers in the insect's midgut.\n=Gregarina panchlorae= Frenzel\n_Natural host._--_Panchlora exoleta_, Argentina (Frenzel, 1892): Midgut.\n=Gregarina parcoblattae= Semans\n_Natural hosts._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ and _Parcoblatta\nuhleriana_, U.S.A., Ohio (Semans, 1939): Midgut.\n=Gregarina rhyparobiae= J. M. Watson\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Uganda (Watson, 1945): Midgut.\nTrophozoites could be seen in sections attached to cells of the\nintestinal wall (fig. 2, H).\n=Gregarina sandoni= Harrison\n_Natural host._--_Melanosilpha capensis_, South Africa (Harrison, 1955):\nThis gregarine was found in the anterior and middle parts of the\nmesenteron and in the hepatic caeca.\n=Gregarina thomasi= Semans\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A., Ohio (Semans,\n1939): Enteric caeca and midgut.\n=Protomagalhaesia serpentula= (de Magalh\u00e3es)\n_Synonymy._--_Gregarina serpentula_ [Pinto, 1918a, 1919; Semans, 1943].\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900): In\nthe coelom and alimentary canal. The host of this parasite (fig. 2, K)\nwas incorrectly cited as _Blatta orientalis_ by Watson (1916).\n=Gamocystis tenax= Schneider\n_Natural hosts._--_Ectobius lapponicus_, France (Schneider, 1875);\nGermany (Wellmer, 1910, 1911; Foerster, 1938).\n_Ectobius pallidus_, Germany (Foerster, 1938): In intestine.\nFamily ACTINOCEPHALIDAE\n=Pileocephalus blaberae= (Frenzel)\n_Synonymy._--_Gregarina blaberae_ [Watson, 1916].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaptica dubia_ and related forms, Argentina\n(Frenzel, 1892): In midgut.\n=Unidentified Gregarinida=\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data, 1953): Possibly _Diplocystis_ sp. (pl. 28, A, B).\n_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A. (Cleveland et al., 1934).\n_Leucophaea maderae_, Philippine Islands (Hegner and Chu, 1930): In\nintestines of host. U.S.A. (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1958):\nCysts in feces (pl. 28, C).\n_Gromphadorhina portentosa_, U.S.A., in laboratory colony (Roth and\nWillis, unpublished data, 1958): In intestine of adult female.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Schwabe, 1950): A cephaline\ngregarine was found in the cockroach's digestive tract; it was also\nclaimed to be present in new-born nymphs.\nOrder COCCIDIA\nFamily ADELEIDAE\n=Adelina cryptocerci= Yarwood\n_Natural host._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A. (Yarwood, 1937):\nThis intracellular parasite was found in the fat body in light\ninfestations. In heavy infections the coccidia were found in the head,\nantennae, mouthparts, muscles, legs, salivary glands, nerve cord, as\nwell as fat body. Infection in freshly collected specimens was about 3\npercent; when large numbers of cockroaches were kept together in\nculture, the rate of infection increased because the insects ate their\ndead companions.\nCleveland et al. (1934) mentioned a coccidium which was sometimes\ngenerally distributed through the body (head, legs, antennae, etc.) of\n_C. punctulatus_; this parasite was probably the species described by\nYarwood.\nOrder HAPLOSPORIDIA\n=Haplosporidium periplanetae= Georg\u00e9vitch\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Yugoslavia (Georg\u00e9vitch, 1953):\nThis organism was described from the malpighian tubules of the cockroach\nwhere it apparently occurred in a mixed infection with the\nmicrosporidian _Plistophora periplanetae_. See synonymy under\n_Plistophora periplanetae_.\n=Coelosporidium periplanetae= (Lutz and Splendore)\n_Synonymy._--_Nosema periplanetae_, _Coelosporidium blattellae_,\n_Bertramia blatellae_ [after Semans, 1943]. Some of the observations\ncited under _Plistophora periplanetae_ may pertain to _C. periplanetae_\n(see Sprague, 1940). See also _Haplosporidium periplanetae_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.S.R. (Epshtein, 1911); U.S.A.\n(Kudo, 1922; Sprague, 1940); Yugoslavia (Ivani\u0107, 1926).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Crawley, 1905); Germany (Wellmer, 1910,\n_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Lutz and Splendore, 1903).\nThis organism (fig. 2, B) passes its life cycle living free in the\nlumina of the malpighian tubules of cockroaches. The elongate\ntrophozoite is firmly attached to the wall of the tubule as are clusters\nof immature spores. Mature spores are freed into the lumina of the\ntubules from whence they pass to the exterior. Sprague (1940) examined\nabout 200 wild-caught _B. orientalis_ and found them to be practically\n100 percent infected.\nOrder MICROSPORIDIA\nFamily NOSEMATIDAE\n=Plistophora kudoi= Sprague and Ramsey\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A., Illinois, West Virginia,\nKentucky (Sprague and Ramsey, 1941, 1942): Found in the epithelial\ncells of caeca and midgut. Considerable damage is done to these cells.\nSeventy-five percent of 52 _B. orientalis_ harbored the parasite.\n=Plistophora periplanetae= (Lutz and Splendore)\n_Synonymy._--_Nosema periplanetae_, _Pleistophora periplanetae_ [after\nSemans, 1943]. Georg\u00e9vitch (1953) has pointed out that one may find in\nthe malpighian tubules of cockroaches a mixed infection of\nMicrosporidia, Haplosporidia, and Mycetozoa, and that some of the\ndiscrepancies in the earlier literature may be attributed to attempts to\ncombine in one organism disparate stages belonging to different orders.\nSee also comments under _Coelosporidium periplanetae_, _Haplosporidium\nperiplanetae_, and _Peltomyces periplanetae_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Mercier, 1906a;\nDebaisieux, 1927); England (Perrin, 1906, 1906b); U.S.S.R. (Zhivago,\n1909); Yugoslavia (Georg\u00e9vitch, 1925, 1926, 1926a, 1927); Germany\n_Blattella germanica_, France (L\u00e9ger, 1909; Debaisieux, 1927); U.S.S.R.\n(Zhivago, 1909).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Lutz and Splendore, 1903).\nThis organism lives in the lumen of the malpighian tubules of\ncockroaches. The cited authors appear to have been convinced that this\norganism was a microsporidian. Georg\u00e9vitch (1927, 1953) described the\npolar capsule and filament characteristic of this order.\n=Plistophora= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Mercier, 1908a): The\norganism parasitized the fat body of the cockroach. Mitoses, often\nabnormal, were induced in the fat cells. Infected cockroaches were\neasily recognizable by their distended abdomens. The fat body became\nchalky white and showed through the intersegmental membranes.\nPorter (1930) reported finding an unidentified microsporidian in the fat\nbodies of _Blattella germanica_ and _Periplaneta americana_ collected in\nSouth Africa. It may or may not have been a species of _Plistophora_.\nClass CILIATA\nOrder HOLOTRICHA\nFamily PARAMECIIDAE\n=Paramecium= sp.\n_Natural associate._--Cockroaches, U.S.A., Maryland (Cleveland, 1927):\nThree of 30 cockroaches collected in the basement of a department store\nhad paramecia in their stomachs but none in the rectum.\n_Experimental associate._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Hegner,\n1929): Paramecia fed to the cockroaches were recovered from the crop at\nintervals from one-half to six and one-half hours. In no case were the\nprotozoa recovered from the stomach alive.\nCockroaches, U.S.A., Maryland (Cleveland, 1927). About 200 starved\ncockroaches were fed a culture of _Paramecium_. Few, if any, of the\nprotozoa were killed in the stomach during the first two hours, but all\nwere killed within 5 to 6 hours after ingestion.\nFamily ISOTRICHIDAE\n=Isotricha caulleryi= Weill\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, Indochina (Weill, 1929):\nAlimentary canal.\nOrder SPIROTRICHA\nFamily BURSARIIDAE\n=Balantidium blattarum= Ghosh\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, India (Ghosh, 1922; Bhatia and\nGulati, 1927); Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922): Intestinal tract.\n* =Balantidium coli= (Malmsten)\n_Experimental vector._--Cockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n=Balantidium ovatum= Ghosh\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, India (Ghosh, 1922a; Bhatia\nand Gulati, 1927); Indochina, Saigon (Weill, 1929): Intestinal tract.\n=Balantidium praenucleatum= Kudo and Meglitsch\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A., Illinois (Kudo and\nMeglitsch, 1938; Meglitsch, 1940): This protozoan is found in the lumen\nof the anterior region of the colon in association with several other\nspecies of protozoa. Only 7.6 percent of 500 cockroaches examined\ncontained _B. praenucleatum_. The largest number encountered in a single\nhost was 59, but as a rule each host harbored a smaller number.\n=Balantidium= sp.?\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900):\nThese organisms were numerous in the intestine.\nFamily SPIROSTOMIDAE\n=Nyctotherus buissoni= Pinto\n_Natural host._--\"Barata sylvestre,\" Brazil (Pinto, 1926): Organism\nfound in the cockroach's intestine.\n=Nyctotherus ovalis= Leidy\n_Synonymy._--_Bursaria blattarum_; _Plagiotoma blattarum_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Leidy, 1850, 1853, 1853b,\nMeglitsch, 1940); Germany (Stein, 1860; Schubotz, 1905; Chen, 1933);\nEngland (Lankester, 1865; Schuster, 1898; Lucas, 1927a, 1928); Spain\n(Zulueta, 1916); U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller, 1922; Zasukhin, 1928,\n1930; Ostroumov, 1929); Portugal (Lima Ribiero, 1924); Brazil (Pinto,\n1926); Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n_Blattella germanica_, South Africa (Porter, 1930); U.S.A. (Balch, 1932;\nMcAdow, 1931).\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A. (Semans, 1939, 1941).\n_Periplaneta americana_, India (Bhatia and Gulati, 1927); Indochina\n(Weill, 1929); Philippine Islands (Hegner and Chu, 1930); South Africa\n(Porter, 1930); U.S.A. (McAdow, 1931; Hatcher, 1939; Meglitsch, 1940;\nArmer, 1944); Goa (Mello et al., 1934); China (Pai and Wang, 1947);\nCzechoslovakia (Low, 1956).\n\"Barata sylvestre,\" Brazil (Pinto, 1926).\n\"K\u00fcchenschaben,\" Austria (B\u011bl\u01cer, 1916).\n_Nyctotherus ovalis_ (fig. 2, G) inhabits the hind gut of cockroaches,\nwhere it occurs almost always in the anterior half of the colon in\nassociation with other species of Protozoa (Kudo, 1936). Ninety percent\nof 500 _B. orientalis_ contained _N. ovalis_ (Kudo and Meglitsch, 1938).\nYakimov and Miller (1922) found _N. ovalis_ in 68 percent of 124 _B.\norientalis_. Zasukhin (1930) found this organism in 63 percent of over\n3,000 _B. orientalis_. Zasukhin (1928, 1934) found a fungus and possibly\na bacterium hyperparasitic in the cytoplasm of _N. ovalis_. _N. ovalis_\nhas been cultured outside the cockroach in several media (Lucas, 1928;\n=Nyctotherus uichancoi= Kidder\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands, and\n_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937): About 90 percent of all _P.\nangustipennis_ harbored this ciliate in their hindguts.\n=Nyctotherus viannai= Pinto\n_Natural host._--\"Barata sylvestre,\" Brazil (Pinto, 1926): In the\nintestine of the cockroach.\nFamily CLEVELANDELLIDAE\nMost of the Clevelandellidae are parasitized by rod-shaped or spherical\nbacteria-like organisms usually in clusters (Kidder, 1937).\n_Synonymy._--Clevelandiidae (Kidder, 1938).\nGenus CLEVELANDELLA\n_Synonymy._--The generic name _Clevelandia_ Kidder (1937) is\npreoccupied; it was therefore changed to _Clevelandella_ by Kidder in\n1938. All of the following species of _Clevelandella_ were originally\ndescribed as _Clevelandia_.\n=Clevelandella constricta= (Kidder)\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands, and\n_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937): In the posterior end of\nhindgut.\n=Clevelandella contorta= (Kidder)\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands, and\n_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937).\n=Clevelandella elongata= (Kidder)\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Kidder,\n=Clevelandella hastula= (Kidder)\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Kidder,\n1937): Common in hindgut.\n=Clevelandella nipponensis= (Kidder)\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937).\n=Clevelandella panesthiae= (Kidder)\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands, and\n_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937): In the hindgut. This\nprotozoan is commonly parasitized by the microorganism _Sphaerita_.\n=Clevelandella parapanesthiae= (Kidder)\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Kidder,\n=Paraclevelandia brevis= Kidder\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands, and\n_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937): Present in 100 percent of _P.\nangustipennis_ and in nearly all _P. spadica_.\n=Paraclevelandia simplex= Kidder\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Kidder,\n1937, 1938): Incidence of infection about 50 percent.\n_Panesthia spadica_, Japan (Kidder, 1937).\n=Unidentified ciliate=\n_Natural host._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Schwabe, 1950): A\nlarge ciliate was found in the digestive tract and malpighian tubules.\nNEGATIVE FINDINGS\nIn a recent experimental study Schmidtke (1955) failed to demonstrate a\nhost-parasite relationship between _Periplaneta americana_ and the\nhaemosporidian _Toxoplasma gondii_ Nicolle and Manceaux. This protozoan\nis a blood parasite in a rodent in North Africa (Kudo, 1954).\nXI. HELMINTHS\nIntestinal nematodes of the family Thelastomatidae have no apparent\npathological effect on their cockroach hosts. Galeb (1878) has shown\nexperimentally that oxyurids eat the same food as the host insect and\nthat if one starves them, by withholding food from the host, the\noxyurids die and disappear. In other words, these worms are not\nparasites, in the sense that we use the term in this paper, but\ncommensals. Dobrovolny and Ackert (1934) stated that \"all observations\nseemed to indicate that the health, fertility and activity of the\nheavily infested cockroaches were comparable with those of the\nnon-parasitised specimens.\"\nVery few papers have dealt with the ecology of the oxyurid parasites of\ncockroaches. According to Galeb (1878), usually one species of nematode\nis found in a single cockroach, but sometimes two species live together\nin the same host (e.g., in _Blatta orientalis_ and _Polyphaga\naegyptiaca_) where they compete for food. Galeb claimed that\n_Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_ would replace _Leidynema appendiculata_;\nhe observed that _H. diesingi_ surpassed _L. appendiculata_ in numbers\nand the latter became uncommon in the intestines of the cockroaches. On\nthe other hand, Sobolev (1937) found that 48 percent of his oriental\ncockroaches were infected with both of the above species of nematodes.\nThe average number of both species was 7.5, and the maximum number was\n97; the mean number of _H. diesingi_ was 5.1 and the maximum 64; the\nmean number of _L. appendiculata_ was 2.4 and the maximum 33. More than\n40 nematodes were found in each cockroach of 1.3 percent of those\nexamined. These results apparently contradict Galeb's conclusions\ninasmuch as the number of each species in mixed infections was\nessentially the same as the number found in cockroaches infected by only\none species (see pp. 195 and 197). Dobrovolny and Ackert (1934) found\nthat 29 percent of 222 _Periplaneta americana_ contained both of the\nabove species of nematodes; whereas 40 percent contained _L.\nappendiculata_ only, and 21 percent contained _H. diesingi_ only. The\ninfestation ranged from 1 to 36 worms per cockroach with averages of 3.8\nper male, 5.1 per female, and 2.7 per nymph.\nThe eggs of some helminths pass unharmed through the guts of cockroaches\nthat serve as vectors of these ova and have no effect on the insect.\nHowever, helminths that are secondary parasites in cockroaches damage\nthe insect to varying degrees depending upon the extent of the\ninfection. Thus the larvae of _Moniliformis moniliformis_ pass through\nthe gut wall and some may become embedded in the fat tissue (Moore,\n1946). First stage larvae of _Oxyspirura mansoni_ also burrow through\nthe midgut wall into the fat body; Sanders (1929) believed that\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ could be killed if at one time a sufficient\nnumber of migrating larvae of _O. mansoni_ penetrated the cockroach's\nintestinal wall. _Gongylonema neoplasticum_ migrates through the\ndigestive tract and encysts in the muscles of the thorax and legs of the\nhost (Fibiger and Ditlevsen, 1914). Infective larvae of _Protospirura\nmuricola_, after hatching from ingested eggs, pass through the\ncockroach's gut wall and encyst mainly in the thorax, around the crop,\nand at the bases of the large muscles of the prothoracic legs (Foster\nand Johnson, 1939). It is probably generally true that nematodes which\nare secondary parasites in cockroaches do some damage to the host's\nintestinal tract at least, and they probably also damage other organs in\nwhich they may encyst.\nCockroach tissues may react defensively to infections by parasitic\nnematodes. For example, encysted third-stage larvae of _Physaloptera\nturgida_ have been found enclosed in a thin, brown, chitinous substance\nthat was undoubtedly deposited by the tissue of the cockroach (Alicata,\n1937). Cysts of similar appearance have been found in cockroaches\ninfected with _Physaloptera rara_, _P. maxillaris_, _P. hispida_ (Petri,\n1950; Hobmaier, 1941; Schell, 1952), and _Gongylonema pulchrum_\n(Schell, 1952a); in the latter species the deposit eventually completely\nsurrounded the nematode larva which was killed and \"chitinized.\"\nApparently these pigmented cysts surround unhealthy or dead larvae and\nare secreted as a defensive mechanism by the host (Schell, 1952a).\nOswald (1958) has reported finding similar pigmented cysts in _Blatta\norientalis_ and _Periplaneta americana_ that were experimentally\ninfected with _Rictularia coloradensis_.\nOur classification of the helminths follows Hyman (1951, 1951a).\nHELMINTHS FOR WHICH COCKROACHES SERVE AS PRIMARY HOSTS\nPhylum ASCHELMINTHES\nClass NEMATODA\nOrder MERMITHOIDEA\nFamily MERMITHIDAE\n=Undetermined mermithids=\n_Natural Hosts._--_Ectobius pallidus_, U.S.A., Plymouth, Massachusetts\n(Roth and Willis, 1957): This mermithid lies coiled in the body cavity\nof the host and one end may extend into the thorax. Apparently, the host\nis eventually killed and the worms may leave the cockroach ventrally\nbetween the thorax and abdomen (pl. 29, A) or thorax and head.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Germany (Bode, 1936): Attacked by \"_Mermis_\" or\n\"_Gordius_.\" It has been suggested that the name _Mermis_ is often\napplied without critical identification to immature Nematoda found in\ninsects (Buxton, 1955).\nOrder RHABDITOIDEA\nFamily DIPLOGASTERIDAE\n=Diplogaster= sp.\n_Synonymy._--_Lycolaimus_ [Goodey, 1951].\n_Experimental Host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Christie and\nCrossman, 1933).\nFamily STEINERNEMATIDAE\n=Neoaplectana= sp.\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, _Nauphoeta cinerea_, and\n_Periplaneta americana_. U.S.A. (Dutky and Hough, 1955): This nematode,\nfound in codling moth larvae, is close to _Neoaplectana chresima_\nSteiner but apparently is a new species. _Nauphoeta cinerea_ was very\nsusceptible to infection; _B. germanica_ and _P. americana_ were less\nsusceptible.\nOrder OXYUROIDEA\nFamily THELASTOMATIDAE\nThese nematodes are found in the intestinal tract of cockroaches.\n=Aorurus philippinensis= Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Chitwood\nand Chitwood, 1934).\n=Binema mirzaia= (Basir, 1940) Basir, 1956\n_Synonymy._--_Periplaneticola mirzaia_ Basir, 1940.\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, India, Aligarh (Basir, 1940).\n=Blattelicola blattelicola= Basir, 1940\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, India, Aligarh (Basir, 1940).\n=Blatticola blattae= (Graeffe, 1860) Chitwood, 1932\n_Synonymy._--_Oxyuris blattae_ Graeffe, 1860; _Oxyuris blatticola_\nGaleb, 1878; _Blatticola blatticola_ (Galeb, 1877) Schwenck, 1926\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa,\n1926; Schwenck, 1926); U.S.A. (Chitwood, 1930; Bozeman, 1942); Egypt?\nCzechoslovakia (Groschaft, 1956).\n_Ectobius lapponicus_, _Ectobius pallidus_, Egypt? (Galeb, 1877, 1878).\n_Polyphaga aegyptiaca_, France (Graeffe, 1860).\nThe life cycle has been studied by Bozeman (1942): He found never more\nthan four worms in the large intestine of each cockroach. Embryos\ndeveloped to \"resting\" stage in vitro. The resting stage was infective\nwhile the active stage was not. The worms seemed to have no effect on\nthe vital activities of the host. Alicata (1934b) found that the embryo\nundergoes a molt before hatching.\nChitwood (1930) found 75 percent of the German cockroaches examined from\nhouses in Washington infected. As a rule, one adult female, one or two\nmales, and possibly two larval females are found in a single individual,\napparently only in the rectum.\nSobolev (1937) found 72 percent of _Blattella germanica_ collected in\nGorkov (U.S.S.R.) infected with _Blatticola blattae_. The mean number of\nworms per host was 1.8, the maximum 5. Sondak (1935) found about 30\npercent of 788 _B. germanica_ collected in Leningrad to be infected with\n_B. blattae_. Groschaft (1956) regularly found only single worms in _B.\ngermanica_, collected in a laboratory in Prague, except for two females\nthat contained 2 and 3 worms each.\n=Blattophila sphaerolaima= Cobb, 1920\n_Synonymy._--_Aorurus sphaerolaima_ (Cobb, 1920) Travassos, 1929.\nAlthough Chitwood (1932) indicated that the taxonomic position of this\nnematode is questionable, Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934, apparently\naccepted it as a valid species in describing the variety _javanica_.\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia laevicollis_ [Cobb recorded the host as\n_Panesthia brevicollis_, but no such cockroach exists. Van Zwaluwenburg\n(1928) and Caudell (in Chitwood, 1932) believed that Cobb meant\n_Panesthia laevicollis_. According to Gurney (personal communication,\n1957) Caudell's notes show that in 1933 he wrote to Dr. Chitwood and\nexplained that he had compared Cobb's figure of the cockroach with\n_laevicollis_ Saussure (figures and description) and had found them the\nsame.] Australia, New South Wales (Cobb, 1920).\n=Blattophila sphaerolaima var. javanica= Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Chitwood\nand Chitwood, 1934).\n=Blattophila supellaima= Basir, 1941\n_Natural host._--_Supella supellectilium_, India, Aligarh (Basir, 1941).\n=Cephalobellus brevicaudatum= (Leidy, 1851) Christie, 1933\n_Synonymy._--_Thelastoma brevicaudatum_ Leidy, 1851 [Christie, 1933].\n_Thelastoma indiana_ Basir, 1940 [Basir, 1949].\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea_ sp., India, Aligarh (Basir, 1940, 1949).\n=Cephalobellus magalh\u0101esi= (Schwenck, 1926) Basir, 1956\n_Synonymy._--_Bulh\u1ee1esi magalh\u0101esi_ Schwenck, 1926; _Thelastoma\nmagalh\u0101esi_ (Schwenck, 1926) Travassos, 1929 [Basir, 1956].\n_Natural host._--\"Barata selvagem,\" Brazil, S\u00e3o Paulo (Schwenck, 1926).\n=Euryconema paradisa= Chitwood, 1932\n_Natural host._--_Eurycotis floridana_, U.S.A., Florida (Chitwood,\n=Galebia aegyptiaca= (Galeb, 1878) Chitwood, 1932\n_Synonymy._--_Oxyuris aegyptiaca_ Galeb, 1878; _Blatticola aegyptiaca_\n(Galeb, 1878) Schwenck, 1926 [Chitwood, 1932].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, Brazil (Schwenck, 1926).\n_Polyphaga aegyptiaca_, Egypt? (Galeb, 1878).\n=Hammerschmidtiella diesingi= (Hammerschmidt, 1838) Chitwood, 1932\n_Synonymy._--_Anguillula macrura_ Diesing, 1851; _Aorurus diesingi_\n(Hammerschmidt, 1838) Travassos, 1929; _Streptostomum gracile_ Leidy,\n1850; _Oxyuris diesingi_ Hammerschmidt, 1838; _Oxyuris blattae\norientalis_ Hammerschmidt, 1838 [Chitwood, 1932]. _Oxyuris macrura_ of\nLankester (1865).\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Europe (Hammerschmidt 1838, 1847;\nB\u00fctschli, 1871); Egypt? (Galeb, 1878); England (Lankester, 1865; Lee,\n1958); U.S.A. (Leidy, 1850a); U.S.S.R. (Yakimov and Miller, 1922;\nSobolev, 1937; Sondak, 1935); Brazil (Travassos, 1929); China (Chitwood,\n1932); Czechoslovakia (Groschaft, 1956).\n_Leucophaea maderae_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1926).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900; Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa,\n1926). U.S.A.: Texas (Todd, 1943); Kansas (Dobrovolny, 1933; Dobrovolny\nand Ackert, 1934); North Carolina (Hatcher, 1939); Iowa, North Dakota,\nMichigan (Hoffman, 1953). China (Chitwood, 1932). India (Basir, 1940).\nCzechoslovakia (Groschaft, 1956). England (Lee, 1958).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1926).\n_Polyphaga aegyptiaca_ (Linstow, 1878).\nCockroaches (_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, and/or\n_Periplaneta americana_), U.S.A. (McAdow, 1931).\nCockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nAccording to Hammerschmidt (1847) this worm may be found throughout the\nintestinal canal but especially in the small intestine. It is frequently\nfound in adults and seldom in the nymphs. There were seldom more than 5\nto 10 worms in one cockroach and female worms were found more frequently\nthan males; the male worms were found only in winter and spring while\nthe females were present at all times of the year. B\u00fctschli (1871)\nstated that all stages from those just hatching to mature males and\nfemales are found.\nYakimov and Miller (1922) found _H. diesingi_ in 50.8 percent of 124 _B.\norientalis_ collected in Petrograd. Sobolev (1937) found 96 percent of\n_B. orientalis_ infected with _H. diesingi_ with a mean number of 5.6\nand maximum number of 22 in one cockroach. Groschaft (1956) found 18 in\none specimen of _B. orientalis_. Dobrovolny and Ackert (1934) found\nabout 50 percent of 222 _P. americana_ infected with _H. diesingi_.\nSondak (1935) found about 36 percent of 412 _B. orientalis_ infected\nwith either or both _H. diesingi_ and _Leidynema appendiculata_.\nTwo molts occur during development of the eggs; the first takes place\noutside the host resulting in a resting or infective stage. After the\negg in the infective stage is eaten by the host, the second molt occurs\nbefore the egg hatches. Completion of the second molt and hatching\nperhaps are connected with ammonia present in the digestive tract; the\nammonia seems to arise from the bacteria present in the gut. There\nappears to be a relationship between the intestinal bacteria of the\ncockroach and development and hatching of nematode eggs (Todd, 1944).\nAt the time of oviposition the nematode eggs are in the very earliest\nstages of cleavage. In 36 hours a motile, tadpole-like stage is reached\nand in a few days the embryo becomes quiescent and nonmotile. This\nnonmotile stage is infective whereas the motile embryonic stage is not.\nFeeding experiments proved that transmission of the nematode is direct.\nThe worm reaches sexual maturity in 20 or 30 days after being ingested\nby the cockroach (Dobrovolny, 1933).\nThe bacterium _Streptomyces leidynematis_ Hoffman grows on the cuticle\nof _H. diesingi_ (Hoffman, 1953). The bacterium apparently is only\nanchored to the nematode and probably obtains its food from the\nintestinal contents of the cockroach. See notes under _Leidynema\nappendiculata_.\n=Hammerschmidtiella neyrai= Serrano S\u00e1nchez, 1945\n_Synonymy._--_Hammerschmidtiella neyrae_ Serrano S\u00e1nchez, 1947.\n[According to M. B. Chitwood, personal communication, 1957, Serrano\nS\u00e1nchez's emendation is apparently an error.]\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Spain, Grenada (Serrano S\u00e1nchez,\n1947): Of 2,943 specimens examined, 1,143 were parasitized by oxyurids\nand of these 45 percent contained _H. neyrai_.\n=Leidynema appendiculata= (Leidy, 1850) Chitwood, 1932\n_Synonymy._--_Oxyuris blattae orientalis_ Hammerschmidt, 1847, of\nB\u00fctschli, 1871, and _Oxyuris blattae-orientalis_ of Magalh\u00e3es, 1900;\n_Oxyuris blattae_ Hammerschmidt, 1847, of Galeb, 1878; _Aorurus_\n(_Thelastoma_) _appendiculatus_ Leidy, 1850. [Chitwood, 1932.] Serrano\nS\u00e1nchez (1947) has divided this species into three geographical\nvarieties as follows: _L. appendiculata_ (Leidy, 1852) (Dobrovolny and\nAckert, 1934) var. _indiana_; _L. appendiculata_ (Leidy, 1852)\n(Chitwood, 1932) var. _americana_; _L. appendiculata_ (Serrano S\u00e1nchez,\n1947) var. _hispana_. However, Basir (1956) does not recognize these\nvarieties. The Russians recognize _hispana_ (M. B. Chitwood, personal\ncommunication, 1957).\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaberus atropos_, South America (Chitwood, 1932).\n_Blatta orientalis_, Egypt? (Galeb, 1878); Europe (B\u00fctschli, 1871);\nU.S.S.R. (Sobolev, 1937; Sondak, 1935); U.S.A., Nebraska (Todd, 1944);\nSpain (Serrano S\u00e1nchez, 1947): Recorded as var. _hispana_.\nCzechoslovakia (Groschaft, 1956). England (Lee, 1958a).\n_Blatta orientalis_ or _Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es,\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A.: Texas (Todd, 1943); Nebraska (Todd,\n1944); Kansas (Dobrovolny, 1933; Dobrovolny and Ackert, 1934); North\nCarolina (Hatcher, 1939); Iowa, North Dakota, Michigan (Hoffman, 1953).\nCzechoslovakia (Groschaft, 1956). England (Lee, 1958a).\nCockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\nCockroaches (_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, and/or\n_Periplaneta americana_), U.S.A. (McAdow, 1931).\nChitwood (1932) also listed China for distribution of the worm, but we\ncould not tell which host was involved.\nThe worms are found in the colon and rectum of the host. Galeb (1878)\nfound as many as 20 individuals in a single _B. orientalis_. Sobolev\n(1937) found 52 percent of _B. orientalis_ infected with _L.\nappendiculata_; the mean number of worms per roach was 1.5 and the\nmaximum 2. Dobrovolny and Ackert (1934) found 69 percent of 222 _P.\namericana_ infected with this species.\nTwo molts occur within the egg during development of the larva. The\nfirst molt occurs outside the host resulting in the formation of an\ninfective resting stage. The second molt occurs inside the cockroach\nTransmission of the nematode is direct, eggs in the resting embryonated\nstage being infective (Dobrovolny and Ackert, 1934).\nHoffman (1953) described a filamentous bacterium, _Streptomyces\nleidynematis_ Hoffman, which grows on the cuticle of _L. appendiculata_\nin _P. americana_. Leidy (1853) noted the presence of simple,\ninarticulate, amorphous filaments, growing from nematodes infecting _B.\norientalis_. B\u00fctschli (1871) and Magalh\u00e3es (1900) described similar\nfilaments adhering to the surface of oxyurids from cockroaches.\n=Leidynema appendiculata= (Leidy, 1850) Chitwood, 1932?\n_Natural host._--_Eurycotis floridana_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Roth and\nWillis, unpublished data, 1955): Determined by Dr. G. Steiner who wrote\nus, \"In _Eurycotis floridana_ there were ten specimens of the nematode\n_Leidynema appendiculata_ (Leidy, 1850). This cockroach is obviously a\nnew host for this nematode. I am not sure that the nematode exactly\nagrees with the description as given in the literature.\"\n=Leidynema cranifera= Chitwood, 1932\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A., Florida (Chitwood,\n1932); Massachusetts (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1955).\nDetermined by Dr. G. Steiner.\n_Blaberus atropos_?, U.S.A., Florida (Chitwood, 1932): _B. craniifer_\nhas generally been recorded as _B. atropos_ of Stoll which is a closely\nrelated but distinct South American species (Rehn and Hebard, 1927).\n=Leidynema delatorrei= Chitwood, 1932\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Cuba, Havana (Chitwood, 1932).\n=Leidynema nocalum= Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Chitwood\nand Chitwood, 1934).\n=Leidynemella fusiformis= Cobb, 1934\n_Natural hosts._--_Panesthia laevicollis_?, Philippine Islands (Cobb\n_in_ Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934).\n_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Chitwood and Chitwood,\n=Leidynemella panesthiae= (Galeb, 1878) Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934\n_Synonymy._--_Oxyuris panesthiae_ Galeb, 1878, in part; _Thelastoma\npanesthiae_ (Galeb, 1878) Travassos, 1929. [Chitwood, 1932; Chitwood and\nChitwood, 1934.]\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia_ sp., New Guinea (Galeb, 1878): About 40\nnematodes may be found in one insect.\n=Leidynemella paracranifera= Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Chitwood\nand Chitwood, 1934).\n=Oxyuris= (?) =heterogamiae= Galeb, 1878\n_Synonymy._--_Thelastoma heterogamiae_ (Galeb, 1878) Travassos, 1929.\nThe taxonomic position of this species is questionable; it might\npossibly belong in _Blatticola_ or _Protrellina_ (Chitwood, 1932). Basir\n(1956) placed it in an appendix to the family Thelastomatidae.\n_Natural host._--_Polyphaga aegyptiaca_, Egypt? (Galeb, 1878).\n=Protrelleta floridana= Chitwood, 1932\n_Natural host._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A., Florida (Chitwood, 1932).\n=Protrellus aureus= Cobb, 1920\n_Synonymy._--The taxonomic position of this nematode is questionable\n(Chitwood, 1932).\n_Natural host._--_Polyzosteria melanaria_?, Australia, New South Wales\n(Cobb, 1920). [Caudell (_in_ Chitwood, 1932) stated that this host was\nprobably _Platyzosteria analis_.]\n=Protrellus aurifluus= (Chitwood, 1932) Chitwood, 1933\n_Synonymy._--_Protrellina aurifluus_ Chitwood, 1932.\n_Natural hosts._--_Parcoblatta lata_, U.S.A., North Carolina, Maryland\n(Chitwood, 1932).\n_Parcoblatta uhleriana_, North Carolina (Hatcher, 1939).\n=Protrellus australasiae= (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1926) Travassos, 1929\n_Synonymy._--_Oxyuris australasiae_ Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1926;\n_Protrellina australasiae_ (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1926) Chitwood, 1932\n[Chitwood, 1933].\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa,\n=Protrellus galebi= Schwenck, 1926\n_Synonymy._--_Protrellina galebi_ (Schwenck, 1926) Chitwood, 1932\n[Chitwood, 1933].\n_Natural host._--\"Barata selvagem,\" Brazil (Schwenck, 1926).\n=Protrellus k\u00fcnckeli= (Galeb, 1878) Travassos, 1929\n_Synonymy._--_Oxyuris k\u00fcnckeli_ Galeb, 1878; _Protrellina k\u00fcnckeli_\n(Galeb, 1878) Chitwood, 1932 [Chitwood, 1933].\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Egypt? (Galeb, 1877, 1878).\n[Chitwood (1932) questioned the determination of this host because he\nfailed to find this nematode in a large number of specimens from U.S.A.\nand China.] Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1926).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1926).\n=Protrellus manni= (Chitwood, 1932) Chitwood, 1933\n_Synonymy._--_Protrellina manni_ Chitwood, 1932.\n_Natural host._--_Aglaopteryx diaphana_, Cuba (Chitwood, 1932).\n=Protrellus phyllodromi= (Basir, 1942) Basir, 1956\n_Synonymy._--_Protrellina phyllodromi_ Basir, 1942.\n_Natural host._--_Blattella humbertiana_, India, Aligarh (Basir, 1942):\nFound in the rectum.\n=Protrelloides paradoxa= Chitwood, 1932\n_Natural host._--_Eurycotis floridana_, U.S.A., Florida (Chitwood,\n=Schwenkiella icemi= (Schwenck, 1926) Basir, 1956\n_Synonymy._--_Bulh\u00f5esia icemi_ Schwenck, 1926; _Thelastoma icemi_\n(Schwenck, 1926) Travassos, 1929; _Thelastoma aligarhica_ Basir, 1940.\n_Natural hosts._--\"Barata selvagem,\" Brazil, S\u00e3o Paulo (Schwenck, 1926).\n_Periplaneta americana_, India, Aligarh (Basir, 1940); U.S.A., Nebraska\n_Periplaneta brunnea_, U.S.A., Louisiana (Todd, 1943).\n=Severianoia magna= Pereira, 1935\n_Natural host._--\"Blattidae sylvestres,\" Brazil (Pereira, 1935).\n=Severianoia severianoi= (Schwenck, 1926) Travassos, 1929\n_Synonymy._--_Bulh\u00f5esia severianoi_ Schwenck, 1926 [Travassos, 1929].\n_Natural hosts._--\"Baratas de pau podre,\" Brazil (Schwenck, 1926).\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A., Florida (Chitwood, 1932).\n=Suifunema caudelli= Chitwood 1932\n_Natural host._--_Steleopyga? sinensis_, Asia: Suifu, Szchuen, China\n(Chitwood, 1932).\n=Thelastoma pachyjuli= (Parona, 1896) Travassos, 1929\n_Synonymy._--_Oxyuris bulh\u00f5esi_ de Magalh\u00e3es, 1900; _Bulh\u00f5esia bulh\u00f5esi_\n(Magalh\u00e3es, 1900) Schwenck, 1926 [Travassos, 1929; Chitwood, 1932];\n_Thelastoma bulh\u00f5esi_ (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900) Travassos, 1929; although this\nlast combination (from Chitwood, 1932) is not given by Basir (1956), it\nis implied by the synonymy that he does cite under _T. pachyjuli_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Czechoslovakia (Groschaft, 1956).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900); North America\n(Chitwood, 1932); U.S.A., North Carolina (Hatcher, 1939).\n=Thelastoma palmettum= Chitwood and Chitwood, 1934\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia angustipennis_, Philippine Islands (Chitwood\nand Chitwood, 1934).\n=Thelastoma riveroi= Chitwood, 1932\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta_ sp., Cuba (Chitwood, 1932).\n=Undetermined nematodes=\n_Natural host._--_Cutilia_ sp. near _sedilloti_, U.S.A. (hosts imported\nfrom New Zealand) (Roth, unpublished data, 1957).\nClass NEMATOMORPHA\nOrder GORDIOIDEA\nThe immature stages of the following gordian worms have been found in\nthe body cavity of cockroaches.\nFamily CHORDODIDAE\n=Chordodes morgani= Montgomery, 1898\n_Synonymy._--_Chordotes_ [sic] _puerilis_ Montgomery, 1898 [Ward, 1918].\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, U.S.A. (Montgomery, 1898); Pennsylvania,\nMaryland, Michigan, Ohio, Florida, Iowa, Nebraska (Ward, 1918).\nFamily GORDIIDAE\n=Gordius aquaticus= Linnaeus, 1758\n_Natural host._--_Blatta_ sp., U.S.A. (Stiles and Hassall, 1894).\nLeidy (1879) identified a 9-inch-long nematode which came from a\ncockroach (_Blatta orientalis?_) as probably being _Gordius aquaticus_.\nRansom (_in_ Pierce, 1921) states that _G. aquaticus_ may be an\naccidental parasite of man. Faust (1955) summarizes the few reported\ncases of human parasitism. Dorier (1930) reported that the regurgitated\nliquid of _Blatta orientalis_ had no effect on cysts of _G. aquaticus_\nafter one hour.\n=Gordius blattae orientalis= Diesing, 1851\n_Synonymy._--_Gordius orientalis_ of Lankester (1865).\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Siebold, 1842; Linstow,\n1878): Found in abdomen. Von Siebold called this \"Filarien\" but did not\notherwise name or describe the worm.\n=Gordius pilosus= (M\u00f6bius, 1855) Diesing, 1861\n_Synonymy._--_Chordodes pilosus_ M\u00f6bius, 1855 [Diesing, 1861.]\n_Natural host._--_Blaberus giganteus_, Venezuela (M\u00f6bius, 1855): From\nthe insect's abdomen.\n=Gordius= sp.\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, South Africa (Porter, 1930);\nGermany (Bode, 1936): Bode's record may have referred to a _Mermis_ or\nother nematode.\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Miall and Denny, 1886; Burr, 1899a; Tejera,\n=Parachordodes raphaelis= (Camerano, 1893) Camerano, 1897\n_Synonymy._--_Gordius raphaelis_ Camerano, 1893 [Camerano, 1897].\n_Natural hosts._--_Symploce parenthesis_ and _Kuchinga hemerobina_,\nFrench Equatorial Africa (Camerano, 1893, 1897).\n=Undetermined gordian worms=\n_Natural hosts._--_Eurycotis floridana_, Florida (T. Eisner, personal\ncommunication, 1958): See plate 29, B.\n_Parahormetica bilobata_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1929): Worm\nreferred to as \"gordiaceo.\"\nCockroaches, Australia (E. F. Riek, personal communication, 1953): Three\nundescribed gordian worms were found in undetermined cockroaches of the\nsubfamily Blattinae.\nHELMINTHS[4] FOR WHICH COCKROACHES SERVE AS INTERMEDIATE HOSTS\nThe use of the asterisk (*) is explained in footnote 3, page 4.\nPhylum ACANTHOCEPHALA\nOrder ARCHIACANTHOCEPHALA\nFamily OLIGACANTHORHYNCHIDAE\n* =Prosthenorchis elegans= (Diesing, 1851) Travassos, 1915\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain, 1938,\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blaberus atropos_ and _Leucophaea maderae_,\nFrance (Brumpt and Desportes, 1938).\n* =Prosthenorchis spirula= (Olfers in Rudolphi, 1819) Travassos, 1917\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain, 1938,\n1938a; Brumpt et al., 1939); Netherlands (Thiel and Wiegand Bruss,\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, Netherlands (Thiel and\nWiegand Bruss, 1946).\n_Blaberus atropos_ and _Leucophaea maderae_, France (Brumpt and\nDesportes, 1938).\nFamily MONILIFORMIDAE\n* =Moniliformis dubius= Meyer, 1932\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1898;\nTravassos, 1917); Gold Coast (Southwell, 1922); India (Pujatti, 1950);\nU.S.A. (Burlingame and Chandler, 1941; Moore, 1946).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, India (Pujatti, 1950).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, Japan (Yamaguti and\nMiyata, 1942).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Chandler, 1941; Moore, 1946); Japan\n(Yamaguti and Miyata, 1942).\n* =Moniliformis kalahariensis= Meyer, 1931\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, India (Meyer, 1931, 1932).\n* =Moniliformis moniliformis= (Bremser _in_ Rudolphi, 1819) Travassos,\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Argentina (Bacigalupo, 1927,\n1927a, 1928); Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1929); Algeria (Seurat, 1912);\nBurma (Subramanian, 1927); South Africa (Porter, 1930); Madras (Sita,\n_Periplaneta_ spp., New Caledonia (Rageau, 1956).\nCockroaches, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blaberus atropos_, _Blatta orientalis_,\n_Blattella germanica_, _Leucophaea maderae_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n_Periplaneta americana_, Japan (Yamaguti and Miyata, 1942); France\n(Brumpt, 1949); Madras (Sita, 1949).\nPhylum ASCHELMINTHES\nClass NEMATODA\nOrder OXYUROIDEA\nFamily SUBULURIDAE\n* =Subulura jacchi= (Diesing, 1861) Railliet and Henry, 1914\n_Synonymy._--_Subulura jacchi_ (Marcel, 1857) [Dr. J. T. Lucker,\npersonal communication, 1957].\n_Experimental host._--_Blaberus atropos_, France (Chabaud and Larivi\u00e8re,\nOrder SPIRUROIDEA\nFamily THELAZIIDAE\n* =Oxyspirura mansoni= (Cobbold, 1879) Ransom, 1904\n_Natural hosts._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Australia (Fielding, 1926,\nFormosa (Kobayashi, 1927); Antigua (Hutson, 1938, 1943); Hawaii\n(Illingworth, 1931; Schwabe, 1950, 1950a, 1950b, 1951); New Caledonia\n(Rageau, 1956).\nWe have recently found (Roth and Willis, 1960) that two strains of\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ exist; a parthenogenetic strain (from\nFlorida), and a bisexual strain (from Hawaii) which does not reproduce\nparthenogenetically. The parthenogenetic strain is undoubtedly the form\nthat has been shown to be the host of _O. mansoni_ in the United States\nand Antigua, because only this form is found in the New World. Probably\nthe parthenogenetic strain was the form involved in most Pacific areas.\nHowever, from internal evidence in his papers, we concluded that\nSchwabe, in Hawaii, may well have been working with the bisexual strain\nand possibly also with the parthenogenetic strain; if this is true, then\nboth parthenogenetic and bisexual strains of _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_\nmay serve as intermediate hosts of the eyeworm.\n_Experimental hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Antigua (Hutson, 1943).\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A. (Sanders, 1929); Australia (Fielding,\n=Rictularia coloradensis= Hall, 1916\n_Natural hosts._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ and _Parcoblatta\nvirginica_, U.S.A., Ohio (Oswald, 1958): Of 49 wood roaches collected,\none of each species contained a single larva each.\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, _Parcoblatta virginica_, _Periplaneta\namericana_, and _Supella supellectilium_, U.S.A. (Oswald, 1958): The\nlarvae underwent normal development in all species of cockroaches except\n_B. orientalis_ and _P. americana_ in which cysts developed that\ncontained a reddish-brown pigment; larvae in such cysts were dead or\ndying. Eggs of _R. coloradensis_ hatched in the midgut of _B. germanica_\nand first-stage larvae entered the hindgut epithelium within 24 hours.\nThe larvae underwent two molts within a cyst formed by tissues of the\nhost's gut, the second molt occurring during the twelfth or thirteenth\nday. In _Parcoblatta_, cysts were found free in the body cavity as well\nas attached to the hindgut. In _B. germanica_ and _S. supellectilium_\nthe cysts remained attached to the hindgut. Usually over 20 cysts\ndeveloped in each infected _Parcoblatta_; fewer than 10 per insect\ndeveloped in the other species. Larvae became infective to the\ndefinitive host, the white-footed mouse [_Peromyscus leucopus\nnoveboracensis_ (Fischer)], as early as the tenth day.\nFamily SPIRURIDAE\n* =Agamospirura parahormeticae= Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1929\n_Natural host._--_Parahormetica bilobata_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa,\n* =Gongylonema ingluvicola= Ransom, 1904\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Cram, 1935).\n* =Gongylonema neoplasticum= (Fibiger and Ditlevsen, 1914) Ransom and\nHall, 1916\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Netherlands (Baylis, 1925).\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Hitchcock and Bell, 1952).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Denmark and St. Croix (Fibiger, 1913, 1913a;\nFibiger and Ditlevsen, 1914); Netherlands (Baylis, 1925); Argentina\n(Bacigalupo, 1930); England (Leiper, 1926); South Africa (Porter, 1930);\nU.S.A. (Hitchcock and Bell, 1952); Formosa (Yokagawa, 1924, 1925,\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Formosa (Yokagawa, 1924, 1925, 1925a).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, Denmark (Fibiger and\nDitlevsen, 1914); U.S.A. (Hitchcock and Bell, 1952); France (Brumpt,\n_Blatta orientalis_, Denmark (Fibiger and Ditlevsen, 1914).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Denmark and St. Croix (Fibiger, 1913; Fibiger\nand Ditlevsen, 1914); U.S.A. (Hitchcock and Bell, 1952).\n* =Gongylonema pulchrum= Molin, 1857\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Ransom and Hall,\n1915, 1916, 1917; Stiles and Baker, 1927; Schwartz and Lucker, 1931;\nLucker, 1932; Alicata, 1934a, 1935); Europe (Baylis et al., 1925, 1926,\n_Parcoblatta_ sp., Alicata (1934, 1935).\n* =Gongylonema= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1900);\nAlgeria (Seurat, 1916); England? (Leiper, 1926).\n* =Microtetrameres helix= Cram, 1927\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Cram, 1934).\n* =Protospirura bonnei= Ortlepp, 1924\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Venezuela (Brumpt, 1931).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\n_Leucophaea maderae_, France (Brumpt, 1931).\n* =Protospirura columbiana= Cram, 1926\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Cram, 1926).\n* =Protospirura muricola= Geodoelst, 1916\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Panama (Foster and Johnson, 1938,\n* =Seurocyrnea colini= (Cram, 1927) Cram, 1931\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Cram, 1931, 1931a,\n* =Spirura gastrophila= (M\u00fcller, 1894) Seurat, 1913\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Europe? (Deslongchamps, 1824,\n_in_ Seurat, 1911); Italy (Grassi, 1888); Algeria (Seurat, 1916).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Pess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa, 1929).\nCockroach, Venezuela (Tejera, 1926).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, France (Galeb, 1878a);\n\"Cafards,\" Algeria (Roger, 1906, 1907).\n* =Tetrameres americana= Cram, 1927\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Cram, 1931b, personal\ncommunication, 1956); Hawaii (Alicata, 1938, 1947).\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Cram, 1931b).\n* =Tetrameres pattersoni= Cram, 1933\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Cram, 1933).\nFamily PHYSALOPTERIDAE\n* =Physaloptera hispida= Schell, 1950\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Schell, 1952,\n* =Physaloptera maxillaris= Molin, 1860\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Hobmaier, 1941).\n* =Physaloptera praeputialis= von Linstow, 1889\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Petri and Ameel,\n* =Physaloptera rara= Hall and Wigdor, 1918\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Petri and Ameel,\n* =Physaloptera turgida= Rudolphi, 1819\n_Experimental host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Alicata, 1937;\nSchell, 1952).\nHELMINTHS WHOSE EGGS HAVE BEEN CARRIED BY COCKROACHES\nThe use of the asterisk (*) is explained in footnote 3, page 4.\nPhylum PLATYHELMINTHES\nClass TREMATODA\nOrder DIGENEA\nFamily SCHISTOSOMATIDAE\n* =Schistosoma haematobium= (Bilharz, 1852) Weinland, 1858\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922).\nClass CESTODA\nOrder TAENIOIDEA\nFamily HYMENOLEPIDIDAE\n* =Hymenolepis= sp.\n_Natural vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Formosa (Morischita and\nTsuchimochi, 1926).\n_Polyphaga saussurei_, Tadzhikistan (Zmeev, 1936).\nFamily TAENIIDAE\n* =Taenia saginata= Goeze, 1782\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922).\n=Echinococcus granulosis= (Batsch, 1786) Rudolphi, 1805\n_Synonymy._--_Taenia echinococcus_ (Zeder, 1803) [Faust, 1939].\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Uruguay (P\u00e9rez Fontana,\n1955): Eggs were recovered from the feces of artificially infested\ncockroaches under \"natural\" conditions.\nFamily Unknown\n* =Undetermined tapeworm ova=\n_Natural vector._--_Polyphaga saussurei_, Tadzhikistan (Zmeev, 1936).\nPhylum ASCHELMINTHES\nClass NEMATODA\nOrder OXYUROIDEA\nFamily OXYURIDAE\n* =Enterobius vermicularis= (Linnaeus, 1758) Leach in Baird, 1853\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_ and _Blattella germanica_,\nU.S.S.R. (Sondak, 1935).\nOrder ASCAROIDEA\nFamily ASCARIDAE\n* =Ascaris lumbricoides= Linnaeus, 1758\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, South Africa (Porter, 1930):\nThe eggs may have been those of _A. suum_ Goeze, 1782.\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922); India (Chandler, 1926).\n_Periplaneta americana_, _Periplaneta australasiae_, _Neostylopyga\nrhombifolia_, Formosa (Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926).\n* =Ascaris= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italian Somaliland (Mariani and\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Uruguay (P\u00e9rez Fontana,\n1955): Eggs recovered from the insects' feces.\nOrder STRONGYLOIDEA\nFamily ANCYLOSTOMIDAE\n* =Ancylostoma caninum= (Ercolani, 1859) Hall, 1913\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Netherlands (Akkerman,\n* =Ancylostoma ceylanicum= (Looss, 1911) Leiper, 1915\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922); Netherlands (Akkerman, 1933).\n* =Ancylostoma duodenale= (Dubini, 1843) Creplin, 1845\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, South Africa (Porter, 1929,\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922).\n* =Necator americanus= (Stiles, 1902) Stiles, 1906\n_Natural vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, India (Chandler, 1926).\n_Experimental vector._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922).\n* =Hookworm ova=\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, Formosa (Morischita and\nTsuchimochi, 1926).\nFamily TRICHOSTRONGYLIDAE\n* =Trichostrongylus= sp.\n_Natural vector._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italian Somaliland (Mariani and\nOrder TRICHUROIDEA\nFamily TRICHURIDAE\n* =Capillaria hepatica= (Bancroft, 1893) Travassos, 1915\n_Experimental vector._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italy? (Giordano, 1950).\n* =Trichuris trichiura= (Linnaeus, 1771) Stiles, 1901\n_Natural vectors._--_Blatta orientalis_, Italian Somaliland (Mariani and\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.S.R. (Sondak, 1935).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony (Macfie, 1922); Formosa\n(Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926).\n_Experimental vectors._--_Periplaneta americana_, Gold Coast Colony\n(Macfie, 1922); India (Chandler, 1926); Uruguay (P\u00e9rez Fontana, 1955).\n_Periplaneta americana_, _Periplaneta australasiae_, and _Neostylopyga\nrhombifolia_, Formosa (Morischita and Tsuchimochi, 1926).\nXII. ARTHROPODA\nThe classification follows Brues et al. (1954) with the following\nexceptions. The Acarina are arranged according to Dr. J. H. Camin\n(personal communication, 1955). Family Eupelmidae of the Hymenoptera\nfollows the classification of Peck (1951).\nClass ARACHNIDA\nIn this class, representatives of at least four orders have utilized\ncockroaches as food: the whip scorpions, scorpions, spiders, and mites.\nApparently none of these feed exclusively on cockroaches, but the\nPhilippine forest scorpion _Heterometrus_ (=_Palamnaeus_) _longemanus_\nseems to prefer blattids to other insects (Schultze, 1927).\nOrder PEDIPALPIDA\nFamily THELYPHONIDAE\n=Mastigoproctus giganteus= (Lucas)\n_Synonymy._--_Thelyphonus giganteus_ Lucas [Dr. R. E. Crabill, personal\ncommunication, 1958].\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, U.S.A. (Marx, 1892, 1894): Immature\nwhip scorpion captured and fed on one or two cockroaches a week. It\nlived on this diet for about two years.\n=Mastigoproctus= sp.\n_Common name._--Whip scorpion.\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A., Florida [Dr. B. J.\nKaston, personal communication, 1953].\nOrder SCORPIONIDA\nPocock (1893) noticed that a scorpion whose pectines had come in contact\nwith a cockroach immediately turned back and ate the insect. He\nconcluded that the scorpion detected the cockroach by means of the\npectines. However, Cloudsley-Thompson (1955) has demonstrated that the\nmain function of the pectines is probably the detection of ground\nvibrations. He accounted for Pocock's observation by the presence of\nsensory spines (presumably tactile) which project from beneath the\npectines. In a house in Arizona, Lyon (1951) observed over 60 scorpions\nliving in a kitchen cabinet that enclosed a sink. They were apparently\nthriving on a heavy infestation of cockroaches. Stahnke (1953) stated\nthat he used _Periplaneta americana_ as the principal food for scorpions\nat the Poisonous Animals Research Laboratory of Arizona State College.\nCloudsley-Thompson (1955a) cited cockroaches as one of the arthropods\nthat scorpions feed upon.\nFamily BUTHIDAE\n=Buthus australis= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Androctonus australis_ [Crabill, personal communication,\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, England (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1955a):\nThis African species ate at least one cockroach per week during the\nsummer months. It can, however, survive four months' starvation and is\nparticularly adapted to a dry climate (Cloudsley-Thompson, personal\ncommunication, 1956).\n=Centruroides gracilis= (Latreille)\n_Experimental prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Roth, unpublished\ndata, 1953): Scorpion collected in Florida by Roth and identified by Dr.\nM. H. Muma.\n=Centruroides hentzi= (Banks)\n_Experimental prey._--_Periplaneta australasiae_ and _Pycnoscelus\nsurinamensis_, U.S.A. (Muma, personal communication, 1953): This\nscorpion occurs in large numbers in the Florida citrus groves, together\nwith _P. australasiae_ which is probably an important natural prey.\n=Centruroides vitattus= (Say)\n_Natural prey._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ (?), U.S.A., Florida (Muma,\npersonal communication, 1953). This may have been another species of\nthis genus, possibly _P. divisa_, as _P. pensylvanica_ is not known from\nFlorida (Rehn, personal communication, 1958).\n_Experimental prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\n_Periplaneta americana_, and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A., Florida\n(Muma, personal communication, 1953).\n=Parabuthus capensis= (Hemprich and Ehrenberg)\n_Experimental prey._--\"Common house-cockroach\" (Pocock, 1893): The\nscorpions were collected in Cape Town, South Africa.\nFamily CHACTIDAE\n=Euscorpius germanus= (Koch)\n_Synonymy._--_Euscorpius carpathicus_ [Cloudsley-Thompson, 1955a].\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, England? (Pocock, 1893).\n_Periplaneta americana_, nymphs, England? (Cloudsley-Thompson, personal\ncommunication, 1956): This scorpion is found naturally in southern\nEurope and North Africa.\n=Euscorpius italicus italicus= (Herbst)\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches including nymphs of _Periplaneta_,\nEngland? (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1951): The cockroaches had to be disabled\nbefore the scorpion would feed on them. Prey is apparently detected by\ntactile and auditory senses, sight being poorly developed and not used.\nThe scorpion is found in southern Europe and North Africa.\nFamily VEJOVIDAE\n=Hadrurus arizonensis= Ewing\n_Experimental prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Stahnke, 1949):\nThis record is a photograph showing the scorpion eating the cockroach.\nFamily ISCHNURIDAE\n=Hormurus caudicula= (Koch)\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroach, Australia (McKeown, 1952): This record\nis a photograph showing the scorpion feeding on a cockroach.\nFamily SCORPIONIDAE\n=Heterometrus longimanus= (Herbst)\n_Synonymy._--_Palamnaeus longimanus_ [Cloudsley-Thompson, personal\ncommunication, 1956].\n_Natural prey._--\"Large wood cockroach,\" Philippine Islands (Schultze,\n1927): On several occasions Schultze found fragments of wings and legs\nof the large wood cockroach in a scorpion cavity, under a rotten log.\n_Experimental prey._--_Leucophaea maderae_, _Periplaneta americana_, and\nother species of Blattidae, Philippine Islands (Schultze, 1927):\nBlattids seemed to be the favored food. This scorpion is usually found\nin humid, damp places in forest and jungle. Schultze describes in detail\nfeeding behavior of the scorpion and method of capturing its prey.\n=Urodacus novaehollandiae= Peters\n_Experimental prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, Australia (Glauert,\n1946): An injured cockroach was accepted at once by the scorpion, which\nheld the insect in its claws and tore it with the alternately moving\nchelicerae. The scorpion ate all the soft parts and most of the\nsclerotized exoskeleton.\nOrder ARANEIDA\nMany observations of spiders feeding on cockroaches are quite general,\nand many observers have failed to identify either the spider or its\nprey. Belt (1874) stated that \"the cockroaches that infest houses in the\ntropics ... have numerous enemies--birds, rats, scorpions, and spiders.\"\nWhen Belt tried to drive a cockroach toward a large cockroach-eating\nspider, the insect rushed away from him until it came within a foot of\nthe spider when it would double back, never advancing nearer.\nBeebe (1925) watched a giant \"wood roach,\" which was in the grasp of a\n2-inch ctenid spider, fly through the window of his British Guiana\nlaboratory. While the spider ate the cockroach, the insect gave birth to\n51 nymphs. Sonan (1924) reported that large gray spiders devour nymphs\nand adults of _Periplaneta americana_ and _P. australasiae_ in Formosa;\nthis spider also occurs on Hiyakejima Island and Okinawa. Passmore\n(1936), who has produced some excellent photographs of tarantulas,\nstated that they destroy cockroaches. Rau (1940) stated that American\nand oriental cockroaches were the principal item of diet of a friend's\npet tarantula for several years. Kaston (personal communication, 1953)\nsuccessfully fed a tarantula with _Periplaneta americana_.\nBristowe (1941) found that the British species of _Ectobius_ are readily\naccepted by _Xysticus_, _Clubiona_, _Drassodes_, _Zelotes_, _Tarantula_,\nand the web-builders _Ciniflo_ and _Aranea_. The British domestic\ncockroaches were accepted by _Tegenaria_ and _Ciniflo_, spiders large\nenough to overpower them, and were useful as food for tropical\navicularids, ctenids, and sparassids in captivity.\nFamily THERAPHOSIDAE\n=Avicularia avicularia= (Linnaeus) and =Avicularia= sp.?\n_Common name._--Bird-eating spider.\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, Trinidad (Main, 1924, 1930):\nThe remains of the host were compressed into globular form by the spider\nafter it had extracted the nutritive parts.\n=Phormictopus cancerides= (Latreille)\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroach, West Indies (Wolcott, 1953).\nFamily SPARASSIDAE\n=Heteropoda venatoria= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Heteropoda regia_ Fabricius.\n_Common names._--Banana spider (Comstock, 1912); huntsman spider\n(Gertsch, 1949); big brown house spider (Bryan, 1915).\n_Natural and experimental prey._--Cockroaches, Bermuda (Verrill, 1902);\nPuerto Rico (Sein, 1923; Wolcott, 1924a; Petrunkevitch, 1930a); Hawaii\n(Bryan, 1915, Williams et al., 1931); British Guiana (Moore _in_\nWilliams et al., 1931); Panama (Gertsch, 1949); New Zealand (adventive)\n(Parrott, 1952); England (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1953); Comstock (1912);\nHawaii (Pemberton, 1917).\nThis (pl. 30, A) is a tropical species frequently imported into northern\nlocalities with bunches of bananas (Comstock, 1912; Cloudsley-Thompson,\n1953). Adults measure 3 to 4 inches across with bodies over an inch\nlong. They seldom leave their resting places during the day, but are\nactive at night and search for food. The female does not spin a web\n(Bryan, 1915; Gertsch, 1949). The spider turns the cockroach over onto\nits back at the instant of seizure and holds it firmly against the\nsubstrate. The cockroach dies in 10 minutes and is gradually rolled up\nby the spider as it sucks out the nutriment (Moore _in_ Williams et al.,\n1931). The spider does not attempt to bite when captured, but if it\ndoes, its bite is said to be painful but not dangerous\n(Cloudsley-Thompson, 1953). Zimmerman (1948) found scores of\n_Periplaneta australasiae_ breeding in rock piles in Hawaii; also\npresent were large numbers of these spiders and centipedes which\npresumably preyed upon the cockroaches.\nFamily THERIDIIDAE\n=Latrodectus indistinctus= Pickard-Cambridge\n_Common name._--Button spider.\n_Natural prey._--_Karnyia discoidalis_, South Africa, Western Cape\nProvince (Hesse, 1942): The nest is constructed on the ground among\ngrass stems or other vegetation. Preferred sites are slight hollows,\nhoof imprints, etc. Nests are roughly tubular. The remains of insects\nare entangled in the walls of the nest where they form dense\naccumulations. Predatory activities of the spider are limited to an area\nclose to the tubular entrance to the nest and do not extend beyond the\ntrapping strands near the entrance. Capture is dependent upon accidental\ncontact of the insect with sticky threads surrounding the entrance. This\nspider apparently attacks any insect or arachnid that becomes entangled\nin the nest. In an examination of 40 nests, remains of 6 _K.\ndiscoidalis_ were found.\n=Latrodectus mactans= (Fabricius)\n_Common names._--Black widow, hourglass, or shoe-button spider.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Puerto Rico (Petrunkevitch, 1930). U.S.A.,\nFlorida, on shipboard (Anonymous, 1939): This is a presumptive host\nrecord, as the spiders were not reported as having been seen eating\ncockroaches; however, heavy infestations of both were found together.\nFamily LYCOSIDAE\n=Lycosa helluo= Walckenaer\n_Experimental prey._--Young nymphs of _Diploptera punctata_, U.S.A.\n(Eisner, 1958): Larger nymphs and adults repelled the spider by ejecting\na repellent secretion, which has been identified as a mixture of\n_p_-benzoquinone and its derivatives by Roth and Stay (1958).\n=Lycosa= sp.\n_Experimental prey._--_Supella supellectilium_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data, 1953): The lycosid (pl. 30, B-E) was probably _L.\navida_ Walckenaer (tentatively identified by Dr. B. J. Kaston from a\nphotograph).\nOrder ACARINA\nFamily PHYTOSEIIDAE\n=Blattisocius tineivorus= (Oudemans)\n_Synonymy._--_Blattisocius triodons_ Keegan [Baker and Wharton, 1952].\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Keegan, 1944): Three\nmites found on 238 cockroaches examined; others taken in debris from\nfloor of cockroach cage (Keegan, 1944). Members of this family are\npredaceous (Baker and Wharton, 1952).\nFamily LAELAPTIDAE\n=Blattilaelaps nauphoetae= Womersley\n_Natural host._--_Nauphoeta cinerea_, Australia, Brisbane (Womersley,\n=Coleolaelaps= (?) sp.\n_Natural host._--_Gromphadorhina portentosa_, the hosts were imported\ninto U.S.A. from Madagascar via Europe (Roth and Willis, unpublished\ndata, 1958): The mites (pl. 12, C) were tentatively determined by Dr. E.\nW. Baker.\n=Hypoaspis= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia australis_, imported into U.S.A. from\nAustralia (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1955): Cockroach\ndetermined by J. A. G. Rehn. Generic determination of mite made by Dr.\nR. W. Strandtmann (Camin, personal communication, 1955).\nFamily UROPODIDAE\n=Uropoda= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Blattella humbertiana_, Formosa (Takahashi, 1940).\nNymphs of the cockroach may be destroyed (Takahashi, 1940). Uropodids\nfrequently attach themselves to insects, especially in nymphal stages\nbut probably are harmless (Baker and Wharton, 1952).\nFamily DIPLOGYNIIDAE\n=Undetermined diplogyniid=\n_Natural host._--_Panesthia australis_, imported into U.S.A. from\nAustralia (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1955): Cockroach\ndetermined by J. A. G. Rehn. According to Dr. J. H. Camin (personal\ncommunication, 1955) this is a new genus and new species in the\nsubfamily Diplogyniinae, and is most closely related to the genus\n_Lobogynioides_. Mites of this family live as ectoparasites and\ncommensals on beetles and possibly other insects (Baker and Wharton,\nFamily ANOETIDAE\n=Histiostoma feroniarum= (Dufour)\n_Natural host._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Germany (Roeser, 1940):\nThough not parasitic, the mites at times became so numerous that the\ninsects were hindered in their movement, were unable to feed, and died.\nThe mites were introduced with soil and leaves and had originally been\nattached to millipedes, waterfleas, and sowbugs.\nThe deutonymphs, hypopial forms, or travelers are found on insects; the\nother stages are found in decaying organic matter (Baker and Wharton,\nFamily ACARIDAE\n=Caloglyphus spinitarsus= (Hermann)\n_Natural host._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Germany (Roeser, 1940): See\nnotes following _Histiostoma feroniarum_ above.\n=Caloglyphus= sp.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_ and _Periplaneta americana_,\nU.S.A. (Piquett and Fales, 1952): Mite feeds on organic matter but can\nreduce the vigor of a cockroach colony.\n=Tyrophagus lintneri= (Osborne)\n_Common name._--Mushroom mite.\n_Associate._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data, 1953): Mite determined by Dr. E. W. Baker (personal\ncommunication, 1953). Although this mite was found on the cockroach, it\nis a known pest in stored foods (Baker and Wharton, 1952) and probably\nwas brought into the culture with food. Rau (1924) reported that the\nfood of _Blatta orientalis_ often became infested with this species, but\nit did not affect the health or mortality of the cockroaches in his\nculture.\n=Tyrophagus noxius= A. Z.\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data, 1953): Mite determined by Dr. E. W. Baker (personal\ncommunication, 1953). Mites were found in the o\u00f6thecal cavity of a\nfemale cockroach that had been isolated for her entire adult life. The\nmites were in a closely packed mass behind a plug of what appeared to be\nfeces, disintegrated eggs, and dried blood; none of the mites were\nvisible until this plug was removed. Baker (personal communication,\n1953) stated that the mite is probably not parasitic and that species of\nthe genus feed on organic matter.\n=Rhizoglyphus tarsalus= Banks\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1940a): Not\nnormally parasitic on cockroaches, but the mites became so numerous at\ntimes they would attack living as well as dead and dying cockroaches.\nFamily GLYCIPHAGIDAE\n=Chaetodactylus= sp.\n_Synonymy._--_Trichotarsus_ sp. [Baker and Wharton, 1952].\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn, 1923): Mites\nfound on cockroach's thorax and particularly among the folds of the\nwings (Se\u00edn, 1923). Mites of this genus are found infesting organic\nmatter (Baker and Wharton, 1952).\nFamily PODAPOLIPODIDAE\n=Locustacarus= sp.\n_Natural hosts._--_Diploptera punctata_ and _Nauphoeta cinerea_, U.S.A.\n(Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1954): Mite genus determined by Dr.\nE. W. Baker (personal communication, 1954). The mites cluster thickly on\nintersegmental membranes, particularly around the coxae and neck.\nDespite a heavy infestation, the colony of _Nauphoeta_ thrived for\nseveral years. This mite was found first on _N. cinerea_ and possibly\ntransferred to _D. punctata_ when the latter was brought into the\nlaboratory from Hawaii.\nFamily IOLINIDAE\n=Iolina nana= Pritchard\n_Natural hosts._--_Blaberus craniifer_ (originally from a culture at\nHarvard University) and _Diploptera punctata_ (originally from Hawaii),\nU.S.A., Pennsylvania (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1953;\nPritchard, 1956): The mites usually attached near the wing bases of the\ninsects. Morphologically, the species is intermediate between certain\npredaceous and phytophagous mites (Pritchard, 1956).\nFamily PTERYGOSOMIDAE\n=Pimeliaphilus podapolipophagus= Tr\u00e4g\u00e5rdh\n_Common name._--Cockroach mite.\n_Natural hosts._--_Parcoblatta_ sp., U.S.A. (Edmunds, 1953a).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Piquett and Fales, 1952).\nCockroaches. U.S.A. (Baker and Wharton, 1952).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, and\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Cunliffe, 1952).\nEggs of this mite (fig. 4) are usually laid indiscriminately in the\nrearing cages, rarely on the host. Eggs are coated with a sticky\nsecretion which enables those laid on the host to adhere. Hatching\noccurs in 6-11 days at 90-95\u00b0 F., and in 9-11 days at 80\u00b0 F. The newly\nhatched larva starts to feed immediately on the cockroach. Larval stage\nlasts 4-6 days, rests 2-3 days, and molts. During the single nymphal\ninstar, the mite feeds on the host and moves about for 6-7 days. The\nmite then rests 3-4 days before molting. Entire life cycle covers a\nperiod of 28-32 days. Adult mite lives 2-3 weeks, during which time it\ncan produce 2-3 batches of from 1 to 20 eggs; the usual batch is about\n12 eggs. The mites are unable to live on cockroach feces, cast skins, or\ndead cockroaches. Mites died within 4-5 days unless live cockroaches\nwere supplied. Parasitism was proved by detecting radioactivity in mites\nthat had fed on cockroaches which had been previously fed radioactive\nNaCl (Cunliffe, 1952).\nThe mites can destroy laboratory cultures of cockroaches (Piquett and\nFales, 1952; Edmunds, 1953a). A cockroach attacked by 25 mites succumbed\nafter about an hour, falling on its back; it died after 5 hours\n(Cunliffe, 1952).\nWhen found in homes and offices, these mites are an indication of the\npresence of cockroaches; the mite has been twice accused of biting\npeople (Baker et al., 1956).\nRECORDS OF UNIDENTIFIED MITES\n_Natural hosts._--_Aglaopteryx facies_, Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn, 1923): Four\nred \"tick\" nymphs found under wings of female.\n_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A., Florida (Hebard, 1917): \"A number of lice\n[mites] are present on many of these specimens [28[F][F]].\"\n_Blaberus discoidalis_, adventive from West Indies, taken in Scotland\n(Stewart, 1925): A considerable number of mites were all over the body\nand hind wings.\n_Blatta orientalis_, Germany (Cornelius, 1853): Ex sexual organs of\nmale.\n_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A., in laboratory (Parker, 1939): Under\nconditions of high humidity, the cockroaches became heavily infested\nwith mites. In cages where the infestation was heavy, an abnormally\nlarge number of females dropped their o\u00f6thecae, and the percentage of\neggs hatching was low.\n_Parcoblatta uhleriana_, U.S.A., North Carolina (Hatcher, 1939): Hypopi\nof mites were found deeply embedded in the fat body of two individuals.\nMites in the hypopial stage attach to insects by which they are\ndispersed. Hypopi have been found in the gill chambers of a mollusk and\nin the gonads of a millipede (Baker and Wharton, 1952).\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., in laboratory (Fisk, 1951): The insects\nwere sluggish and molted with difficulty. Gold Coast Colony (Macfie,\n1922): Larvae of a tarsonemid mite were found in the feces.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Illingworth, 1915): During the\nsummer the soil was literally swarming with young of various stages.\nEarly in September most of the adults were dead and all were covered\nwith mites. U.S.A., Connecticut, in laboratory (Zappe, 1918a). Hawaii,\nin laboratory (Schwabe, 1950): Some of the cockroaches apparently died\nfrom mite infestations.\n  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The cockroach mite, _Pimeliaphilus\n  podapolipophagus_. (From Baker et al. [1956]; reproduced through the\n  courtesy of Dr. E. W. Baker and the National Pest Control\n  Association.)]\nCockroach, England? (Ealand, 1915): Cockroaches may carry the hypopial\nstage of the cheese mite.\nCONTROL OF MITES IN COCKROACH COLONIES\nFisk (1951) eliminated the mites [possibly _Pimeliaphilus\npodapolipophagus_ (Baker et al., 1956)] in his cockroach colony by using\na 5-percent spray and a 5-percent dust of p-chlorophenyl,\np-chlorobenzene sulfonate. The exterior of the cockroach containers were\nsprayed with the solution and the interior, including the insects, were\ndusted. Within a month the mites had disappeared and the vigor of the\ncockroach colony improved. Piquett and Fales (1952) used flowers of\nsulfur and general sanitary procedures for eliminating the mites in\nlaboratory colonies of _Blatta orientalis_; they cleaned the dishes\nevery few days and applied grease around the edges of the containers to\nprevent new mite invasions. Qadri (1938) employed similar control\nmeasures.\nClass CHILOPODA\nLarge centipedes which entered houses in India probably sought out\ncockroaches (Maxwell-Lefroy, 1909). In Puerto Rico, centipedes entered\nhomes to which they were attracted by cockroaches (Se\u00edn, 1923). In\nHawaii, centipedes preyed on insects generally but especially on\ncockroaches (Bryan, 1915). Sonan (1924) reported that in Formosa and\nOkinawa Islands a species of centipede 5 to 6 inches long comes into the\nhouses and devours both adults and nymphs of _Periplaneta americana_ or\n_P. australasiae_. Zimmerman (1948) found _P. australasiae_ breeding by\nscores in rock piles in Hawaii accompanied by large numbers of\n_Scolopendra_ and large spiders that probably preyed upon the\ncockroaches.\nOrder SCUTIGEROMORPHA\nFamily SCUTIGERIDAE\n=Scutigera coleoptrata= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Scutigera forceps_ Rafinesque [Crabill, 1952].\n_Common name._--House centipede.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, U.S.A. (Felt, 1909; Back, 1947; Auerbach,\n1951; Crabill, 1952; and others): This predator-prey relationship seems\nto be based on good circumstantial evidence (Crabill, personal\ncommunication, 1953).\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, newly hatched nymphs and\nadult female, U.S.A. (Snodgrass, 1930; Roth and Willis, unpublished\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis, unpublished data,\n_Supella supellectilium_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis, unpublished data,\n1953): See plate 31.\nOur specimen caught a small American cockroach nymph that we placed in\nits jar. Before it had finished its meal, it caught and held two other\nnymphs with its legs while it continued to feed on the first. The body\nof this centipede reaches a maximum length of 27 mm. and it is usually\nfound in basements, dark corners, or in spaces in the walls (Auerbach,\n1951). Introduced from Europe, this species is now widespread in the\nUnited States (Crabill, 1952).\n=Allothereua maculata= (Newport)\n_Synonymy._--_Scutigera maculata_ [Crabill, personal communication,\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Malay peninsula, Batu caves (Ridley in\nAnnandale et al., 1913): This is a presumptive host record.\nOrder SCOLOPENDROMORPHA\nFamily SCOLOPENDRIDAE\n=Scolopendra cingulata= Latreille\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, England (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1955):\nAfter capture in France, this specimen was kept for four weeks without\nfood. She was then fed medium-sized nymphal cockroaches of which she ate\nan average of about one per week throughout the summer. Adult\ncockroaches were attacked only after they had been disabled.\n=Scolopendra morsitans= Linnaeus\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Guadeloupe (Lherminier, 1837).\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, India, Nagpur (Jangi, 1955): As soon\nas the centipede became aware of its prey, it rapidly embraced the\ncockroach within its legs and with its fangs gripped the insect's\nthorax. The predator continued to hold the prey with its fangs while its\nmouth parts prodded the victim's body. After feeding on an adult\ncockroach, the centipede is not inclined to kill another for 2-3 days.\n=Scolopendra subspinipes= Leach\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Hawaii (Williams et al., 1931): This is a\ncommon species with a body length of 6 or more inches. It is reported to\nbe a great enemy of cockroaches.\n=Scolopendra= sp.\n_Natural prey._--_Ectobius panzeri_, England (Lucas, 1911, 1920): When\ncaptured, the centipede was holding a live cockroach which it had\napparently just caught. The insect was held beneath its captor's body,\nventral surface upward, by several of the anterior legs while the\ncentipede fed.\nClass INSECTA\nWe have found representatives of only 10 orders that have preyed on or\nparasitized cockroaches: Beetles, flies, bugs, ants, wasps, stylops, and\ncockroaches occurred in nature; the others resulted from feeding\ncockroaches to captive insects or were laboratory observations.\nOrder ODONATA\nFamily AESHNIDAE\n=Anax strenuus= Hagen\n_Common name._--Giant Hawaiian dragonfly.\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, Hawaii (Williams, 1936): The\ndragonfly nymph was fed with medium large cockroaches and other insects.\nOrder BLATTARIA\nIn this chapter the relations of other arthropods to cockroaches are\neither as parasites or as predators. Certain cockroaches have turned the\ntables on their adversaries and become predators themselves. This aspect\nof cockroach behavior is discussed in chapter XVI. Other associations of\ncockroaches, as commensals with other insects and as associates of other\ncockroaches, are discussed in chapters XV and XVII.\nOrder ORTHOPTERA\nFamily MANTIDAE\n=Hierodula tenuidentata= (Saussure) (?) (Serville)\n_Experimental prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Diploptera punctata_,\n_Eurycotis floridana_, _Leucophaea maderae_, _Nauphoeta cinerea_,\n_Neostylopgya rhombifolia_, and _Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A.\n(Rilling, personal communication, 1957): Mrs. Rilling wrote us that with\nthe exception of _N. rhombifolia_, all the above cockroaches were\nreadily eaten. All the mantids initially rejected _N. rhombifolia_ after\ngrasping and making a brief attempt to chew the cockroaches. However, if\nspecimens of _N. rhombifolia_ were left in the jars with the mantids,\nthe cockroaches were usually eaten within the next 24 hours. _N.\nrhombifolia_ ejects an odorous substance when seized and the mantids\nprobably ate these insects after most of this secretion had been\ndepleted. It is highly probable that the secretion of _N. rhombifolia_\nmay deter the mantid's attack, but it should be pointed out that, with\nthe possible exception of _N. cinerea_, all the other species fed to\nthese mantids give off odorous substances when seized or disturbed.\nApparently, certain naturally repellent compounds will deter this\nmantid, whereas others that are presumed to be repellent will not;\nhowever, the nutritional state of the mantid is undoubtedly a factor\nwhich may limit the effectiveness of certain repellent secretions\nagainst this predator.\n_Byrsotria fumigata_, teneral males, and _Periplaneta australasiae_,\nnymphs, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1958).\n_Diploptera punctata_, U.S.A. (Eisner, 1958).\n=Mantis religiosa= Linnaeus\n_Common name._--European mantis.\n_Experimental prey._--_Nauphoeta cinerea_, and _Periplaneta americana_,\nU.S.A. (Rilling, personal communication, 1957).\n=Metallyticus semiaeneus= Westwood\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, Borneo (Shelford, 1916).\n=Sphodromantis viridus= (Forsk\u00e5l)\n_Synonymy._--_Sphodromantis bioculata_ Burmeister [Gurney, personal\ncommunication, 1958].\n_Experimental prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, Egypt (Adair, 1923): This\nspecies of cockroach was apparently used regularly as food for the\nmantid in the laboratory.\n=Stagmomantis carolina= (Johansson)\n_Common name._--Carolina mantis.\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_ and _Periplaneta americana_,\nU.S.A. (Breland, 1941): The mantids were fed 1-2 German cockroaches\ndaily. One female mantid consumed 10 adult German cockroaches plus one\no\u00f6theca and part of another in 2.5 hours. An adult German cockroach was\nconsumed in an average of 8.5 minutes (range 5.5-15 minutes).\n_Blatta orientalis_, nymphs, and _Diploptera punctata_, U.S.A. (Roth and\nWillis, unpublished data, 1953).\n=Tarachodes maurus= (Stal)\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, South Africa (Faure, 1940).\n=Tenodera aridifolia sinensis= Saussure\n_Common name._--Chinese mantis.\n_Experimental prey._--_Nauphoeta cinerea_ and _Periplaneta americana_,\nU.S.A. (Rilling, personal communication, 1957).\nFamily GRYLLACRIDIDAE\n=Diestrammena apicalis= Br. v. Wattenwyl\nand\n=Diestrammena japanica= Blatchley\n_Natural prey._--Cockroach eggs, Japan (Asano, 1937): These are\nquestionable records. Asano found _D. apicalis_ and _D. japanica_\nbeneath his house near several empty cockroach o\u00f6thecae which appeared\nto have been eaten into. He assumed from the condition of the o\u00f6thecae\nand the proximity of the stone crickets that the insects had devoured\nthe cockroach eggs.\n_Experimental prey._--Eggs of _Blattella germanica_ and _Periplaneta\njapanica_, Japan (Asano, 1937): Seven eggs of _B. germanica_ (obtained\nfrom an o\u00f6theca being carried by a female) and eggs of _P. japanica_\n(presumably in o\u00f6thecae) were fed to both species of stone crickets in\nthe evening. The eggs were devoured by the next morning.\nOrder DERMAPTERA\nFamily FORFICULIDAE\n=Undetermined earwigs=\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, France (Chopard, 1938): According to\nChopard, Brisout de Barneville in 1848 indicated that earwigs in\ncaptivity can be fed small cockroaches.\nOrder HEMIPTERA\nFamily LYGAEIDAE\n=Clerada apicicornis= Signoret\n_Natural prey._--Cockroach, Hawaii (Illingworth, 1917): This predaceous\nbug is commonly found about buildings. Illingworth says that Kirkaldy\nsuspected that it fed on small blattids and that Dr. Perkins saw it\nfeeding on a dead cockroach.\nFamily REDUVIIDAE\n=Spiniger domesticus= Pinto\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil, Matto Grosso (Pinto,\n1927, 1927a): This bug preys principally on cockroaches and was observed\ninfesting the walls of dwellings where it preyed on _P. americana_.\n=Triatoma arthurneivai= Lent and Martins\n_Natural prey._--_Monastria_ sp., Brazil, Minas Gerais (Martins, 1941):\nThis bug probably feeds on cockroaches of this genus, as well as on\nrodents.\n=Undetermined reduviids=\n_Natural prey._--_Arenivaga roseni_ and _Polyphaga saussurei_, Turkmen\nS.S.R. (Vlasov and Miram, 1937): These desert cockroaches are found in\nburrows of rodents and desert turtles around Ashkhabad. Reduviids are\ntheir main enemies. Vlasov (1933) found nymphs of _Reduvius christophi_\nJak. and _R. fedtschenkianus_ Osch. in similar burrows in this same\narea, although he did not specifically cite them as enemies of the\ndesert cockroaches.\nFamily NEPIDAE\n=Ranatra= sp.\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, U.S.A. (Hoffman, 1924).\nOrder NEUROPTERA\nFamily ASCALAPHIDAE\n=Undetermined larva=\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, Kenya Colony (Someren,\nOrder DIPTERA\nFrom the few observations that have come to our attention, it seems that\nflies are comparatively rare parasites in cockroaches.\nFamily PHORIDAE\n=Megaselia= sp.\n_Host._--Eggs of _Parcoblatta_ sp., Ohio (Edmunds, 1952a).\nFamily CONOPIDAE\n=Stylogaster stylata= (Fabricius)\n_Hosts._--Cockroaches, Brazil (Souza Lopes, 1937): L. Travassos was\nquoted as having observed this species pursue cockroaches that were\nescaping columns of the army ant _Eciton_ sp. Souza Lopes (1937) stated\nthat the female deposits eggs on the cuticle of the host near the end of\nthe body; the egg is barely inserted and two recurrent hooks prevent it\nfrom falling off. Souza Lopes (1937) also observed other species of\n_Stylogaster_ pursue Orthoptera, but he was unable to devote proper\nattention to the behavior of the flies.\n=Stylogaster= spp.\n_Hosts._--_Chorisoneura_ sp., Brazil (Souza Lopes, 1937): An adult\nspecimen was found in a museum collection with an egg of _Stylogaster_\nattached to the posterior end of its abdomen.\nCockroaches, Panama (C.W. Rettenmeyer, personal communication, 1959):\n\"Seven species were collected hovering over army ant swarms and a few\nflies were seen apparently attacking cockroaches that had been flushed\nby the ants.\"\nFamily LARVAEVORIDAE\n=Calodexia= (?) =venteris= Curran\n_Hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Souza Lopes, 1937): Obtained\ncomplete evolution of the parasite in this host. This may have been an\nexperimental host.\n=Calodexia= spp.\n_Hosts._--Cockroaches, Panama (Rettenmeyer, personal communication,\n1959): Swarms of army ants are accompanied by about 20 species of\n_Calodexia_. These flies larviposit on the cockroaches, crickets, and\npossibly other arthropods that are flushed from cover by the ants.\nLarvae were found in one(?) cockroach. Larvae from an adult of\n_Calodexia_ were introduced experimentally into a cockroach and\nsuccessfully reared.\n=Undetermined tachinids=\n_Hosts._--_Eurycotis floridana_, from Florida (Roth, unpublished data,\n1953): Three larvae (det. by W.W. Wirth) were found in a living adult\nmale.\n_Panesthia australis_, from Australia (Roth, unpublished data, 1957):\nReared from a wild-caught cockroach that was maintained in a laboratory\ncolony.\nCockroaches, Australia (E. F. Riek, personal communication, 1955):\nReared from some of the larger species.\nFamily MUSCIDAE\n=Coenosia basalis= Stein\n_Host._--Eggs of _Parcoblatta_ sp., Ohio (Edmunds, 1952a).\nFamily SARCOPHAGIDAE\n=Sarcophaga omani= Hall\n_Host._--_Arenivaga bolliana_, Texas (Wirth, personal communication,\n1953): Specimens in U.S. National Museum.\n=Sarcophaga lambens= Wied.\n_Synonymy._--_Sarcophaga sternodontis_ (Towns.).\nHoffman (1927) claimed that approximately 40 percent of some specimens\nof _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ collected in southern Haiti were\nparasitized by _S. lambens_. However, according to entomologists at the\nUniversity of Puerto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, Hoffman was\nincorrect in his observations: _S. lambens_ was never reared from a\nliving insect and had been recovered only from dead cockroaches and\nother dead insects and was considered saprophytic rather than parasitic\n(Schwabe, 1950b).\n=Sarcophaga= spp.\nSanjean (1957) reared various species of sarcophagid larvae on\n_Periplaneta americana_ which were freshly killed or chopped up; first\ninstar larvae were also introduced into the body cavity of cockroaches\nwhich had their heads and legs removed. Adult sarcophagids were\ncollected and freshly killed American cockroaches used as bait.\nOrder COLEOPTERA\nFamily CARABIDAE\n=Harpalus pennsylvanicus= De Geer\n_Experimental prey._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A. (Cleveland et\nal., 1934): This beetle is often found in the galleries of _C.\npunctulatus_ in nature. In the laboratory it killed and devoured\ncockroaches as large as itself.\nFamily DYTISCIDAE\n=Rhantus pacificus= Boisduval\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, disabled, Hawaii (Williams, 1936):\nThis beetle, which is common in mountain streams, located wounded\ncockroaches in an aquarium by sense of smell or taste rather than sight.\nFamily LAMPYRIDAE\n=Undetermined larva=\n_Experimental prey._--_Parcoblatta virginica_, adult female (pl. 33, C),\nU.S.A. (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1953).\nFamily RIPIPHORIDAE[5]\n=Neonephrites partiniger= Riek\n_Natural host._--Cockroach (undescribed genus belonging to the\nPseudomopinae), Australia Capital Territory (Riek, 1955).\n=Neorhipidius neoxenus= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Robshelfordia longiuscula_ or _Robshelfordia\ncircumducta_, Australia Capital Territory (Riek, 1955).\n=Paranephrites xenus= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Oniscosoma granicollis_, Australia Capital Territory\n=Rhipidioides ableptus= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Balta patula_, Australia, Victoria (Riek, 1955): Pupal\nstage lasted only 3 days.\n=Rhipidioides adynatus= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Escala_ sp. or an undescribed genus of Pseudomopinae,\nAustralia, Victoria (Riek, 1955).\n=Rhipidioides fuscatus= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Ellipsidion affine_, Australia, New South Wales (Riek,\n=Rhipidioides helenae= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Robshelfordia longiuscula_ or _Robshelfordia\ncircumducta_, Australia Capital Territory (Riek, 1955).\n=Rhipidioides mollis= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Robshelfordia longiuscula_ or _Robshelfordia\ncircumducta_, Australia Capital Territory (Riek, 1955).\n=Rhipidioides rubricatus= Riek\n_Natural host._--_Choristima_ sp. and _Choristimodes_ sp., Australia\nCapital Territory (Riek, 1955).\n=Riekella australis= (Riek)\n_Synonymy._--_Nephrites australis_ Riek [Selander, 1957].\n_Natural host._--_Cutilia_ sp., Australia Capital Territory (Riek,\n1955): Two females emerged from one host.\n=Riekella nitidioides= Selander\n_Synonymy._--_Nephrites nitidus_ of Riek not Shuckard [Selander, 1957].\n_Natural host._--_Platyzosteria_ sp., Tasmania (Riek, 1955).\n=Riekella= sp.\n_Synonymy._--_Nephrites_ sp. [Selander, 1957].\n_Natural host._--_Platyzosteria castanea_, Australia Capital Territory\n_Biology of Australian Ripidiini._--The Australian species of Ripidiini\nare parasites of apparently endemic, ground-dwelling species of\ncockroaches. There is some correlation between host subfamily and\nparasite genus: _Riekella_ spp. [= _Nephrites_] have only been bred from\nBlattinae. _Rhipidioides_ spp. occur only in the closely related\nEctobiinae and Pseudomopinae. _Neonephrites_ and _Neorhipidius_ also\noccur in the Pseudomopinae. _Paranephrites_ occurs in the Panchlorinae.\nThere is some evidence that the parasitized cockroaches migrate onto\ntrees when the larval parasite is mature, as pupae have only been found\non the trunks of eucalyptus trees. In all species the larva leaves the\nhost dorsally through an intersegmental membrane. The host continues to\nlive for a few days after the parasite emerges. The larva attaches\nitself to bark on the tree trunk by a few strands of silk before\npupating. The larviform, wingless female remains near the pupal skin and\nis sought out by the winged male. The eggs are laid in a mass around the\npupal skin (Riek, 1955).\n=Ripidius[5] boissyi= Abeille\nBalduf (1935) lists _Ripidius boissyi_ as parasitic on nymphs of\n_Ectobius pallidus_ giving Abeille de Perrin (1909) as a source for\nthis information. However, Abeille de Perrin simply presumed that _R.\nboissyi_ parasitized _E. pallidus_ because he collected this cockroach\nin the same habitat as the beetle. Abeille de Perrin suggested that the\nspecies of the genus _Ripidius_ lived in the bodies of cockroaches, but\nthere are no rearing records, as far as we know, of _R. boissyi_ from\ncockroach hosts.\n=Ripidius denisi= Chobaut\nChobaut (1919), in France, collected both _R. denisi_ and _Ectobius\npallidus_ when beating an oak tree. Because of the known association of\nother species of _Ripidius_ with cockroaches, he presumed that this\nbeetle was parasitic on _E. pallidus_, a cockroach common in this\nbeetle's habitat.\n=Ripidius pectinicornis= Thunberg\n_Synonymy._--_Symbius blattarum_ Sundevall [Leng, 1920].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, on shipboard (Sundevall, 1831);\nGermany (Aclogue and Fowler, _in_ Burr, 1899a); on steamship \"Samui\"\n(Stamm, 1936); on cruiser \"Duguay-Trouin\" (Barbier, 1947); Hawaii\n(Williams, 1946a): This last record was based on a specimen dissected\nfrom an adult German cockroach collected on an airplane from the South\nPacific. The parasite was reported as _Ripidius_ sp. by Williams, but\nWeber (1948) made the specific identification.\n_Ectobius pallidus_? Abeille de Perrin (1909) stated that _R.\npectinicornis_ was first described by Sunders [sic] as _blattarum_\nbecause it had been captured in the body of _Ectobia livida_. We presume\nthat Abeille de Perrin was referring to Sundevall's work in which the\nhost was given as _Blattella germanica_.\n_Periplaneta americana_, on shipboard (Sundevall, 1831): One nymph only.\nWith the exception of the single nymph of _P. americana_, _R.\npectinicornis_ apparently attacks only adult females and nymphs of _B.\ngermanica_. Barbier (1947) found only _B. germanica_ parasitized,\nalthough both _Blatta orientalis_ and _Supella supellectilium_ were\nprevalent on board the ship. Primary larvae of the parasite failed to\nparasitize _Supella_.\n_Adult behavior._--The winged male is relatively active compared to the\napterous female; it runs around, flies well, and jumps on the female\nwhen in her vicinity. The female remains stationary and lays eggs around\nher by bending her long ovipositor (Sundevall, 1831). The eggs (50-100)\nare laid among a network of silk fibers secreted by the female. The\nfemale dies after completing oviposition (Barbier, 1947).\n_Development._--The eggs hatch after 14 days, and the primary\n(triungulin) larvae ascend the host's legs to its body; the larvae then\ncut the intersegmental membrane between the metasternum and first\nabdominal segment of the cockroach, in order to enter the host's abdomen\n(Barbier, 1947). Chobaut (1892) first suggested this method of attack by\nthe ripiphorid larva. As the parasites develop, the abdomen of the host\nbecomes swollen. Developing larvae apparently eat the host's fat body,\nleaving the vital organs until the last. Parasitized female hosts were\nsterile and the eggs, when formed, never hatched. Development of the\no\u00f6theca was also inhibited. There were usually two larval parasites per\nhost, but three or four were found several times (Barbier, 1947).\nSundevall (1831) found only one larva per cockroach except one host\nwhich, when crushed, yielded five. Stamm (1936) found three hosts\ninfested with five larvae each. In a little over 100 cockroaches, Stamm\nfound 10 that were parasitized.\nThe day before the parasite leaves the host, the cockroach shows an\nabrupt uneasiness and runs about, finally falling over on its back. The\nparasite larva emerges from the host through an opening it makes in the\nmembrane between penultimate and last tergite. The host dies a few hours\nafter the larva has left. The larva seeks a sheltered area and pupates\nwithin 48 hours. Adults emerge in 9 days (females) and 13 days (males)\n(Barbier, 1947).\n_Distribution._--Adult males have been collected in light traps in\nHawaii (Van Zwaluenburg, 1946), and the first female was reported by\nWeber (1948); the parasite is now established in the islands around\nPearl Harbor (Dr. F. X. Williams, personal communication, 1953). The U.\nS. National Museum has specimens of _R. pectinicornis_ from England,\nGuatemala, Hawaii, Panama, and from Florida and Georgia in the U. S.\n(Dr. E. A. Chapin, personal communication, 1953). Kono (_in_ Asano,\n1937) reported two species in Japan. It is noteworthy that all these\nrecords are from localities adjacent to oceans and on ships; none are\nfrom interiors of continents. The only biological data were obtained\nfrom parasites found on board ships. Sundevall (1831) believed that the\nparasites boarded his ship with their hosts during loading in Calcutta,\nsince before that not any were seen on board. Barbier (1947) suggested\nthat the parasite must be spread very easily in ports between\nneighboring ships by parasitized cockroaches in baskets or sacks of\nprovisions.\n=Ripidius scutellaris= Heller\n_Natural hosts._--Blattidae, Philippine Islands (Schultze, 1925).\nFamily DERMESTIDAE\n=Dermestes ater= De Geer\n_Common name._--Black larder beetle.\n_Natural prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data, 1953): _Dermestes ater_ is generally a scavenger, but\nwe have seen adult beetles, which had developed in our cockroach colony,\nclinging to and feeding on living oriental cockroaches, eventually\nkilling them; the beetles probably attack only the weakened or injured\ncockroaches in a culture. This was a natural infestation of a laboratory\nculture by a predator.\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, o\u00f6thecae, U.S.A. (Roth and\nWillis, 1950): The beetle larvae can penetrate unhatched o\u00f6thecae of the\nGerman but not those of the American or oriental cockroaches.\n=Dermestes= sp.\n_Natural prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, o\u00f6thecae, U.S.A., Missouri: Rau\n(1924) stated that _Dermestes_ larvae often infest the egg cases of this\ncockroach; it is probable that Rau was referring to cockroaches in\nlaboratory cultures.\nOrder STREPSIPTERA\nPierce (1909) predicted that the Blattoidea and the Grylloidea would be\nthe only groups of the Orthoptera which would be parasitized by\nStrepsiptera. Essig (1926) made the statement that certain cockroaches\nare among the hosts of Strepsiptera. E. F. Riek (personal communication,\n1952) found a strepsipteron in a late nymph of _Cutilia_ sp. from\nWaroona, Western Australia; he wrote us, \"The female parasite is\nextruded between a pair of sternites towards the base of the abdomen and\nappears to belong to the family Halictophagidae.\" This is the only\nrecord that we have been able to find of a strepsipteron parasitizing\ncockroaches.\nOrder HYMENOPTERA\nPREDATORS AND PARASITES OF COCKROACH EGGS\nWasps from at least six families of Hymenoptera have been recorded as\ndeveloping on cockroach eggs. All the Evaniidae are presumed to be\nparasitic in the egg capsules of cockroaches (Clausen, 1940; Townes,\n1951), although hosts for many of the described species have yet to be\ndiscovered. The presence of evaniids in dwellings indicates the presence\nof cockroaches (Gross, 1950). At times these wasps may become a\nnuisance; a family in Worthington, Ohio, complained of the evaniid wasps\nthat they found on the windows and in other areas of their home, but\nthey were apparently not annoyed by the oriental cockroaches in the\nbasement (Edmunds, 1953).\nThe known parasites of cockroach eggs are listed below with summaries of\ntheir biology.\nFamily EVANIIDAE\n=Acanthinevania princeps= (Westwood)\n_Synonymy._--_Evania princeps_ [Dr. H. Townes, personal communication,\n_Natural host._--Cockroach eggs, Australia (Froggatt, 1906).\n=Brachygaster minutus= (Olivier)\n_Synonymy._--_Evania minuta_ Olivier [Kieffer, 1920].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, Europe? (Schletterer, 1889;\nKiefer, 1912; Crosskey, 1951.)\n_Ectobius lapponicus_, Europe? (Schletterer, 1889; Kieffer, 1912;\nCrosskey, 1951.)\n_Ectobius panzeri_ var. _nigripes_? Great Britain (Blair, 1952): This is\na presumptive record. The wasp was collected at Niton and Headon Hill,\nIsle of Wight, an area in which this variety of _E. panzeri_ was the\nonly species of cockroach known to occur.\n_Ectobius_ sp., England (Cameron, 1955, 1957): Natural History Museum\nrecords.\nAdult wasps have been collected on _Asparagus officinalis_ Linnaeus\n(Schmiedeknecht _in_ Schletterer, 1889; Crosskey, 1951). Thompson's\n(1951) citation of records of _B. minutus_ and _Evania appendigaster_\nfrom _Blatta orientalis_ and _Blattella germanica_, and Cameron's (1957)\ncitation of these records and one from _Ectobius lapponicus_, all\nattributed to Kadocsa (1921), are almost certainly in error. Kadocsa\n(1921, p. 33) listed these wasps as egg parasites of cockroaches but not\nnecessarily in Hungary and did not name specific cockroach hosts.\nThe present writers have found no information, other than host reports,\non the biology of _Brachygaster minutus_. The records of this wasp\nparasitizing _B. germanica_ may trace back to Schletterer, but his\nlisting may not have been an original observation. Since the female of\n_B. germanica_ carries its o\u00f6theca attached to the abdomen until or just\nbefore the eggs hatch, it would seem that the female of _B. minutus_ (if\nthe host records are valid) must oviposit into the o\u00f6theca of this\nspecies while it is still being carried by the female; this would not\nnecessarily be true for the other hosts which drop the egg case long\nbefore the eggs hatch.\n_Distribution._--Europe: Sweden, Russia, England, France, Germany,\nAustria, Hungary, Switzerland, Italy (Kieffer, 1920).\n=Evania appendigaster= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Evania desjardinsii_ Bordage, _Evania laevigata_ Latreille\n[Dalla Torre, 1901-1902].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta_, \"exotic species\" (Westwood, 1854, 1954a).\n_Blatta orientalis_, Europe? (Schletterer, 1886; Howard, 1888, Kieffer,\nerroneously attributed another record to Marlatt (1902);[see footnote 6].\nSee also notes under _Brachygaster minutus_ with respect to Kadocsa.]\n_Blattella germanica_? (Girault 1907, 1914). [This record is obviously\nan error. Girault attributed the record to Marlatt (1902); see footnote\n_Cutilia soror_, Hawaii (Swezey, 1929; Zimmerman, 1948).\n_Leucophaea maderae_ (Schletterer, 1889; Bordage, 1896; Kieffer, 1912):\nThese records are probably erroneous inasmuch as this cockroach\nincubates its eggs internally (Roth and Willis, 1954). Later, after\nfinding that _L. maderae_ is ovoviviparous, Bordage (1913) admitted\nhaving misidentified a parasitized o\u00f6theca from some other species; he\nconcluded that the developing eggs of this species are protected against\negg parasites because they are carried within the female. Clausen\n(1940), in classifying the placement of parasitic wasp eggs in relation\nto the host, erected the category: Egg placed in the embryo while the\nlatter is still within the parent. He stated that although this behavior\nwas not definitely known to occur, it probably could occur. However, the\nrecords cited above do not indicate that the alleged parasitization\nfollowed this pattern.\n_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, Hawaii (Swezey, 1929).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Europe (Schletterer, 1889; Bordage, 1896;\nKieffer, 1912); R\u00e9union Island (Bordage, 1913); Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn,\n1923); Jamaica (Gowdey, 1925); Hawaii (Swezey, 1929); Palestine\n(Bodenheimer, 1930); U.S.A., Florida (Ashmead, 1900); Maryland (Piquett\nand Fales, 1952); Saudi Arabia, Jedda (Cameron, 1957); Canton Island and\nSamoa (Dumbleton, 1957).\n_Periplaneta americana_ or _P. australasiae_, Formosa (Sonan, 1924).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, U.S.A., Florida (Ashmead, 1900); Hawaii\n(Swezey, 1929; Zimmerman, 1948). [Girault (1914) erroneously attributed\nanother record to Marlatt (1902); see footnote 6, above.]\n_Experimental host._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Haber, 1920).\nRelatively little detailed information was known about this wasp (fig.\n5), one of the earliest parasites of cockroach eggs to be discovered,\nuntil Cameron (1957) studied its biology. Arnold (Kirby and Spence,\n1826) discovered that the genus _Evania_ parasitized _Blatta_, but did\nnot know whether the wasp developed on the cockroach eggs or in the\nnymphs. MacLeay (Westwood, 1843) determined that _Evania_ developed\nwithin the o\u00f6thecae of cockroaches. Westwood (1854a) found the larvae,\npupae, and adults of _E. appendigaster_ in egg cases of an unidentified\nspecies of cockroach found on orchids received from Calcutta.\n_Adult behavior._--Adult wasps visited flowers of parsley, _Petroselium\ncrispum_, and fennel, _Foeniculum vulgare_ (Margretti _in_ Schletterer,\n1886; Crosskey, 1951). In Hawaii the adult wasps have been seen resting\non leaves coated with honey dew (Williams et al., 1931); _Evania_ sp.\nwere attracted to the honey dew secreted by a diaspine scale insect\n(Williams, 1931). Adults lived two to three weeks in captivity with\nample food and water (Cameron, 1957).\n_Oviposition._--Shelford (1912, 1916) erroneously supposed that\n_Evania_, by means of her cleaverlike abdomen, opened the o\u00f6theca at the\ncrista and then deposited her egg or eggs on the eggs of the cockroach.\nHaber (1920) observed and described oviposition. The female wasp\ncrawled over the surface of the o\u00f6theca, actively vibrating her\nantennae, and settled with the axis of her body parallel to the axis of\nthe egg case as it lay upon its right side. Lying on her right side, the\nwasp extended her ovipositor and punctured the o\u00f6theca in the fifth cell\non the left side; she remained in this position for about 15 minutes.\nCameron (1957) described similar oviposition behavior that lasted about\nhalf an hour. Kieffer (1912) and Crosskey (1951) stated that the female\ndeposits her eggs before the walls of the o\u00f6theca harden.\n  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Evania appendigaster._ Left, dorsal view, \u00d7 8.\n  Right, side view, \u00d7 5. (Reproduced with permission. British Museum\n  [Natural History], 1951, figs. 1A and 1B.)]\n_Development._--Kieffer (1912) stated that the larvae in this family eat\nthe cockroach eggs and pupate in the o\u00f6theca without forming a cocoon.\nSmith (1945) stated that the larva feeds on one cockroach egg after\nanother until all are destroyed; by that time it is full grown and it\npupates within the o\u00f6theca. Cameron (1957) found that there are five\nlarval instars and that in material from Saudi Arabia there are three or\npossibly four generations a year.\n_Distribution._--Tropical and subtropical parts of the world as far\nnorth as New York City, and all of Europe except the northern part\n(Kieffer, 1920; Townes, 1949). The wide distribution of _Evania_ has\nbeen attributed to the abundance of host cockroaches on ships between\nthe Tropics (Haldeman, 1847). Kieffer (1903) appears to have shown some\ncorrelation between the numbers of species of cockroaches found in\nvarious geographical regions and the numbers of species of evaniids\nfound in similar regions. However, the number of blattids he listed is\nsmall.\n=Evania dimidiata= Fabricius\n_Synonymy._--_Evania abyssinica_ Westwood [Schletterer, 1889].\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Egypt? (Alfieri, 1914).\n=Evania subspinosa= Kieffer\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta_ sp., Fiji (Lever, 1946): Although Lever\n(1946) listed this species as a cockroach-egg parasite, he did not state\nthat he actually reared it from _Periplaneta_ o\u00f6thecae.\n=Hyptia dorsalis= of Ashmead\n_Synonymy._--Dr. H. Townes, (personal communication, 1956) believes that\nthis wasp was probably either _H. reticulata_, _H. harpyoides_, or _H.\nthoracica_; it is not possible to tell which without reexamining\nAshmead's specimens; these apparently have been lost.\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A., Mississippi\n(Ashmead, 1900).\n=Hyptia harpyoides= Bradley\n_Natural hosts._--_Parcoblatta virginica_, U.S.A., Ohio (Edmunds, 1952a,\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A. (Muesebeck, 1958).\n_Parcoblatta uhleriana_, U.S.A., Natick, Mass.: O\u00f6theca collected by L.\nRoth, May 17, 1956; wasp emerged June 12, 1956 (pl. 33, B); determined\nby Dr. H. Townes. The keel region of the o\u00f6theca of _P. uhleriana_ (pl.\n18, B) is different from that of any other species of _Parcoblatta_\n(Hebard, 1917; Lawson, 1954) so there can be no doubt as to the species\nof cockroach parasitized by this wasp.\n_Development._--The last instar larva overwinters inside the cockroach\no\u00f6theca (Edmunds, 1954). Five o\u00f6thecae yielded one parasite each\n(Edmunds, 1953a).\n_Distribution._--Canada, Ontario. U.S.A.: New Hampshire and Minnesota to\nSouth Carolina, Mississippi, Texas, and Kansas. Upper and Lower Austral\nZones (Townes, 1951).\n=Hyptia reticulata= Say\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A., Missouri (Rau,\nAdult wasps have been taken on parsnip, _Pastinaca sativa_ (Robertson,\n_Distribution._--U.S.A.: Pennsylvania to Florida and Louisiana. Mexico.\nUpper Austral to Tropical Zones (Townes, 1951).\n=Hyptia thoracica= (Blanchard)\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A., Ohio (Edmunds,\n_Adult behavior._--Copulation was rapid, lasting only a few seconds.\nBlooms of _Asmorrhiza longistylis_ were placed in a cage with adult\nwasps. The insects were attracted to and fed on the flowers (Edmunds,\n_Development._--Entire contents of o\u00f6theca are eaten by the single\nlarva. Last instar larva overwinters inside the o\u00f6theca. Emergence in\nOhio was around the middle of June. The emergence hole made by this\ngenus was about 2 mm. in diameter. The hole was made at the top side of\nthe o\u00f6theca near one end. Adult took about 65 minutes to emerge from the\ntime its mandibles first broke through the o\u00f6thecal wall. (Edmunds,\n_Distribution._--Canada, Ontario, U.S.A.: Connecticut to Wisconsin,\nsouth to Florida and Texas. Upper Austral to Tropical Zones. (Townes,\n=Hyptia= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Cariblatta delicatula_, Cuba (Hebard, 1916a); Parasite\nidentified by Ashmead.\n=Hyptia= sp. (undescribed)\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta_ sp., U.S.A., Ohio (Edmunds, 1952a).\n=Prosevania punctata= (Brull\u00e9)\n_Synonymy._--_Evania punctata_ Brull\u00e9 [Townes, 1949].\n_Natural and experimental hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Istrian\nPeninsula (Fahringer, 1922); Algeria (Cros, 1942); U.S.A., Ohio\n(Edmunds, 1954).\n_Blattella germanica_? Europe? (Girault 1907, 1914); Europe (Fahringer,\n1922). [The records on this host are extremely doubtful. Girault\nerroneously cited Marlatt (1902) as the source of this record; see\nfootnote 6, page 236. Fahringer, however, claimed that he obtained\nseven female parasites from o\u00f6thecae of _Blattella germanica_. He placed\nfemale parasites with adults of _B. germanica_ in a glass cage. As soon\nas o\u00f6thecae could be seen between folds of a woolen rag, he removed all\nthe larger cockroaches and held the o\u00f6thecae until the parasites\nemerged. Fahringer may have been dealing with a different species of\ncockroach, because placing o\u00f6thecae in crevices (or between folds of\nrag) is a habit foreign to _B. germanica_, the female of which usually\ncarries her o\u00f6theca until hatching or until about a day before. Edmunds\n(1953b) could not induce this wasp to parasitize eggs of _B.\ngermanica_.]\n_Periplaneta americana_, Istrian Peninsula (Fahringer, 1922); Palestine\n(Bodenheimer, 1930); U.S.A., Ohio (Edmunds, 1952, 1953b, 1954).\n_Adult behavior._--The wasps (pl. 33, A) are very active; they walk\nabout a great deal and fly short distances. They are often found in\nabundance in buildings infested with the larger domiciliary cockroaches\nwhere they may reproduce for many generations without leaving the\npremises. Specimens have also been collected outdoors. (Edmunds, 1953,\n1954.) As the adult walks about, the laterally compressed abdomen moves\nup and down like a waving flag; because of this behavior, these insects\nare commonly known as ensign-flies. Cros (1942) maintained adults 17\ndays without food. Edmunds (1954) fed adults on unidentified flowers in\nthe laboratory. He also maintained them for 20 days after capture on a\n5-percent honey solution.\n_Oviposition._--A female _P. punctata_ selected o\u00f6thecae of _P.\namericana_ for oviposition and ignored those of _B. orientalis_ and\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ in the same cage. Oviposition was\naccomplished as described for _Evania appendigaster_. One o\u00f6theca was\nturned over onto its right side by the wasp before she oviposited.\n(Edmunds, 1952.) Although there seemed to be a \"preferred\" position for\noviposition, it was not obligatory. The usual position was for the\nfemale to face the keel of the o\u00f6theca, but she also oviposited from the\nopposite side or, rarely, directly down into the side of the o\u00f6theca.\nThe average time spent by females in 10 ovipositions was 29 minutes\n(range 16-62 minutes). The wasp apparently could not determine whether\nthe eggs had been previously parasitized. The wasp laid her egg between\nthe cockroach eggs rather than in them and she oviposited into o\u00f6thecae\nthat had just been dropped and those two weeks old or older. On three\noccasions nymphal cockroaches emerged within a few hours after the wasp\nhad oviposited. (Edmunds, 1954.) Apparently, for successful\nparasitization the wasp must oviposit before the cockroaches have\nreached the final stages of preemergence development. Edmunds (1954)\nplaced females of _Periplaneta americana_ that were carrying o\u00f6thecae,\ninto cages with _Prosevania_; some of the female wasps showed\nconsiderable interest in the attached o\u00f6thecae, but he observed\noviposition only into egg cases that had been dropped by the\ncockroaches.\nCros (1942) described an interesting reaction that he called\n\"instinctive hostility\" of the oriental cockroach toward _Prosevania_. A\nwasp was placed in a jar in which a cockroach had just deposited its\no\u00f6theca. The wasp tried to oviposit into the egg case but was upset and\npursued by the cockroach. The cockroach placed herself over the o\u00f6theca,\nstanding high on her legs, and remained there motionless. The wasp then\napproached from the rear, slipped under the cockroach, and, unnoticed by\nthe cockroach, climbed on the o\u00f6theca and oviposited successfully.\n_Development._--In _Blatta orientalis_: The developmental period was\ncompleted in 40-57 days in summer and fall (Cros, 1942). Time from\noviposition to emergence of adult varied from 45-177 days; three\nparthenotes from an oviposition by an unfertilized female wasp developed\nin 45-53 days (Edmunds, 1954). In _Blattella germanica_: Almost 4 weeks\nspent in development (Fahringer, 1922). In _Periplaneta americana_:\nThree wasps developed in 127 days (Edmunds, 1952). Only one parasite\ndevelops in each o\u00f6theca. There were three generations a year in Ohio.\n(Edmunds, 1954.) In Algeria there were two to three generations per\nyear. The adult emerged from the o\u00f6theca through a hole 4 mm. in\ndiameter. (Cros, 1942.) Parthenogenesis exists; the unfertilized eggs\nproduced only males (Edmunds, 1954).\n_Distribution._--Eastern U.S.A., from New York and Ohio south to Georgia\n(Townes, 1949). Europe, Syria, Palestine (Kieffer, 1920).\n=Szepligetella sericea= (Cameron)\n_Synonymy._--_Evania sericea_ Cameron [Townes, 1949, personal\ncommunication, 1956]. _Evania impressa_ Schletterer [Townes, p. c.,\n_Natural hosts._--_Cutilia soror_ and _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, Hawaii\n(Swezey, 1929).\n_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta australasiae_, Hawaii (Swezey,\n_Periplaneta_ sp., Fiji (Lever, 1943, 1946).\nAdults are sometimes found resting on leaves covered with honey dew\n(Williams et al., 1931).\n=Zeuxevania splendidula= Costa\n_Natural hosts._--_Loboptera decipiens_, France (Lavagne, 1914; Genieys,\nPicard (1913) believed that _Z. splendidula_ parasitized _L. decipiens_\nand not its eggs; however, Lavagne (1914) explained the true\nrelationship by dissecting two specimens of _Z. splendidula_ from\no\u00f6thecae of _L. decipiens_.\nThe following information is taken from Genieys (1924):\n_Oviposition._--Wasp egg is introduced into the still-soft o\u00f6theca\nbefore the wall hardens. Some o\u00f6thecae had four oviposition scars but\nnever contained more than two parasite eggs. _Development._--Larva\ncommences development in July or August. Only one larva completes\ndevelopment, but it eats all the eggs in the o\u00f6theca. The wasp passes\nthe winter as a last instar larva and pupates in the spring; the adult\nemerges during the spring or in June. _Hyperparasitism._--About 10\npercent of the o\u00f6thecae of _Loboptera decipiens_ that were parasitized\nby _Z. splendidula_ were also hyperparasitized by an eulophid (see\n_Syntomosphyrum ischnopterae_, p. 249).\nFamily CLEONYMIDAE\n=Agamerion metallica= Girault\n_Natural hosts._--_Ellipsidion australe_, Australia, Queensland (Dodd,\n1917): \"the parasite when ready to emerge fully occupies the whole space\nof the destroyed eggs.\"\nCockroach, Australia, New South Wales (Dr. B. D. Girault, 1915a).\nFamily ENCYRTIDAE\n=Blatticida pulchra= Ashmead\n_Natural host._--Cockroach eggs on orange leaves, Australia, New South\nWales (Gahan and Peck, 1946). According to Dr. A. B. Gurney the o\u00f6theca\nassociated with the type specimens of the wasps in the United States\nNational Museum is possibly _Balta_ sp. (Burks, personal communication,\n=Blatticidella ashmeadi= (Girault)\n_Synonymy._--_Blatticida ashmeadi._ _Blatticida_ Girault, 1915, is\npreoccupied by _Blatticida_ Ashmead, 1904. In 1923 Gahan and Fagan\nrenamed _Blatticida_ Girault, _Blatticidella_. [Burks, p. c., 1956.]\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Australia, Queensland (Girault, 1915).\n=Cheiloneurus viridiscutum= (Girault)\n_Synonymy._--_Cristatithorax_ Girault = _Cheiloneurus_ Westwood [Mercet,\n_Natural host._--_Ellipsidion australe_, Australia, Queensland (Dodd,\n=Comperia merceti= (Compere)\n_Synonymy._--_Comperia merceti_ var. _falsicornis_ Gomes [Peck, 1951].\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, Brazil, Distrito Federal\n(Gomes, 1941): In the English summary of his paper, Gomes states that\n_C. merceti_ var. _falsicornis_ was reared from _B. germanica_. However,\nin the body of the paper, he states that the _supposed_ origin of the\nparasite was the o\u00f6theca of _B. germanica_. Burks (personal\ncommunication, 1956) does not believe that this wasp parasitizes the\neggs of _B. germanica_. We (unpublished data, 1957) exposed six o\u00f6thecae\nof _B. germanica_ to _C. merceti_. In order to retard water loss the\no\u00f6thecae were removed from the females by cutting the insects in two so\nthat each o\u00f6theca remained attached to the posterior part of the\nabdomen. No wasps developed in these o\u00f6thecae.\n_Supella supellectilium_, U.S.A., Kansas (Lawson, 1954a); Hawaii\n(Zimmerman, 1944; Compere, 1946; Keck, 1951).\n_Adult behavior._--Males and nonovipositing females showed a flea-like\njumping tendency. Adults were attracted to light and were found near\nwindows. Both sexes pursued an erratic course in walking and continually\ntouched the surface with their antennae. (Lawson, 1954a.)\n_Oviposition._--The wasp (pl. 34, B) selected a site on an o\u00f6theca with\nthe sheath of her ovipositor; it was uncertain whether there was a\ndefinite preference for oviposition sites. Wasp tended to choose a\nnearly horizontal position for oviposition. She preferred to oviposit\ninto eggs about 2 weeks old, although she would place eggs in o\u00f6thecae\nless than a week old and in embryos in the green band stage. There were\n1-50 oviposition punctures per o\u00f6theca. (Lawson, 1954a.)\n_Development._--If enough wasp larvae were present, they ate all eggs in\nan o\u00f6theca. Occasionally wasps developed in one end of an o\u00f6theca while\ncockroaches developed in the other; when this occurred, the cockroach\nnymphs always emerged last. The developmental period was 30-41 days at\nroom temperature. There were 5-25 parasites per o\u00f6theca. The single exit\nhole in the o\u00f6theca varied from 0.6 to 0.9 mm. in diameter. (Lawson,\n_Distribution._--U.S.A.: New Jersey south to Florida, west to Illinois,\nKansas, and Arizona. West Indies; Central and South America; Hawaii.\n(Burks, personal communication, 1956.)\n=Dicarnosis alfierii= Mercet\n_Natural hosts._--\"_Phyllodromia_\" sp., Egypt (Mercet, 1930): According\nto Mercet, Dr. Alfieri claimed that this wasp parasitized one of the\nspecies of \"_Phyllodromia_\" found in Egypt, namely, _Phyllodromia_\n[= _Blattella_] _germanica_, _Phyllodromia_ [= _Supella_] _supellectilium_\nand/or _Phyllodromia treitliana_. We do not know to which modern genus\nthe host of this wasp belonged.\nCockroach, Egypt? (Mercet in Compere, 1938.)\n=Eutrichosomella blattophaga= Girault\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Australia, Queensland (Girault, 1915).\nFamily EUPELMIDAE[7]\n=Anastatus blattidifurax= Girault\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Australia, Queensland (Girault, 1915).\n=Anastatus floridanus= Roth and Willis\n_Natural host._--_Eurycotis floridana_, U.S.A., Florida (Roth and\nWillis, 1954a).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Eurycotis floridana_, and\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis, 1954a).\n_Adult behavior._--Female wasps are sexually receptive almost\nimmediately on leaving the o\u00f6theca. Mating takes 3-4 seconds. Males mate\nrepeatedly and may fertilize several females; females may also mate more\nthan once. At about 80\u00b0 F. the female wasps lived 2-4 days, males one\nday.\n_Oviposition._--The female wasp first probes the o\u00f6theca with her\nsheathed ovipositor until she finds an acceptable spot; she then drills\nthrough the wall of the o\u00f6theca with her ovipositor. One female\noviposited for 5 hours, but briefer periods were more usual. We have\nseen six or more females ovipositing simultaneously into an o\u00f6theca of\n_Eurycotis floridana_. One female was seen to feed on material that\noozed from the oviposition puncture. The wasp (pl. 34, A) may oviposit\ninto the o\u00f6theca of _E. floridana_ while it is still being carried by\nthe female, as well as in o\u00f6thecae that have been dropped and which have\nhard walls. Eggs 36 days old were successfully parasitized.\n_Development._--In _Eurycotis floridana_: In the laboratory, development\nwas completed in 34-36 days at about 85\u00b0 F. This time was regulated to\nsome extent by the number of parasites in the o\u00f6theca.\nThere is evidence that larvae eat unhatched wasp eggs or other larvae.\nIn 34 o\u00f6thecae exposed to many female wasps, the maximum number of\nparasites to emerge was 306; yet an average of 601 wasp larvae were\ndissected from four o\u00f6thecae that had each been exposed to 50 female\nwasps one week earlier. The larvae usually eat all the host eggs.\nCockroach eggs that were not eaten by the wasp larvae sometimes\ndeveloped but usually failed to hatch. Adult wasps made one to six\nemergence holes in the o\u00f6theca; the average number in 42 o\u00f6thecae was\ntwo holes.\n_Number of parasites per o\u00f6theca._--In _Blatta orientalis_: One of 111\no\u00f6thecae exposed to female wasps yielded 48 parasites. In _Eurycotis\nfloridana_: One o\u00f6theca parasitized in the field yielded 68 parasites; 8\no\u00f6thecae exposed to single wasps for their entire lifespan yielded an\naverage of 50 \u00b1 6 parasites (range 23-81); 34 o\u00f6thecae exposed to many\nwasps for their entire lifespan yielded an average of 198 \u00b1 8 parasites\n(range 93-306). In _Periplaneta americana_: Nine o\u00f6thecae of 152 exposed\nto the wasps were found to be parasitized when dissected; 11 adults\nemerged from one o\u00f6theca; no parasites emerged from the other 8\no\u00f6thecae.\n_Sex ratio._--4 [F][F]:1 [M] from ovipositions by isolated females. In\nthe one o\u00f6theca collected in the field, the ratio was 21.6 [F][F]:1 [M].\nParthenogenesis exists; the unfertilized eggs produced only males.\n=Anastatus tenuipes= Bol\u00edvar y Pieltain\n_Synonymy._--_Anastatus blattidarum_ Ferri\u00e8re. Dr. C. Ferri\u00e8re (personal\ncommunication, 1957) is of the opinion that his _A. blattidarum_ is a\nsynonym of _A. tenuipes_. He stated \"I have never been able to see the\nunique type of _A. tenuipes_ B. y P., which is in Madrid, but the\ndescription agrees with _A. blattidarum_. I had not yet knowledge of\nBol\u00edvar's description, when describing my species. The parasite of\ncockroaches eggs [_Supella supellectilium_] should be called _A.\ntenuipes_ Bol.\" Mani (1938) synonymized _Solindenia blattiphagus_ Mani\nwith _Anastatus blattidarum_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Supella supellectilium_, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan\n(Ferri\u00e8re, 1930, 1935); U.S.A., Arizona (Flock, 1941); Egypt (Alfieri,\n_in_ Hafez and Afifi, 1956). Ohio (Hull and Davidson, 1958).\n_Periplaneta americana_, India (Burks _in_ Roth and Willis, 1954a).\nCockroach, Hawaii (Weber, 1951); India (Mani, 1936).\nThe following is based on parasites that developed on eggs of _Supella\nsupellectilium_ (Flock, 1941): _Adult behavior._--Wasp may be seen\nrunning rapidly on walls in buildings infested with the cockroach host.\nThe wasp rarely flies but hops proficiently; when disturbed it can hop\nfrom several inches to several feet. The female licks up the drop of\nfluid that oozes from the oviposition puncture. Females die in a few\ndays, but if fed honey and water may live two weeks. _Oviposition._--The\nfemale selects an o\u00f6theca by feeling with her antennae. Flock stated,\nwithout citing experimental evidence, that the age of the egg case was\napparently the chief factor determining choice. The wasp took 15-45\nminutes to oviposit. Three females oviposited simultaneously into a\nsingle o\u00f6theca; a single female repeatedly oviposited into one o\u00f6theca\nat intervals. _Development._--Completed in an average of 32.6 days at a\nconstant temperature of 82\u00b0 F.\n_Number of parasites per o\u00f6theca._--Average about 10.7 (range 4-16)\n_Sex ratio._--4 [F][F]:1 [M] (Ferri\u00e8re, 1935); average of 6 [F][F]:1 [M]\n(Flock, 1941). Parthenogenesis occurs; the unfertilized eggs produced\nonly males (Flock, 1941).\n_Distribution._--U.S.A.: Maryland, south to Florida, west to Illinois,\nKansas, and Arizona. Guatemala; Hawaii; India; Egypt; Sudan. (Burks,\npersonal communication, 1956).\n=Eupelmus atriflagellum= Girault\n_Natural host._--_Blattella germanica_, Australia, Queensland (Girault,\n=Eupelmus= sp.\n_Natural host._--\"Tree cockroach,\" U.S.A., Florida (Howard, 1892).\n=Solindenia picticornis= Cameron\n_Natural hosts._--_Allacta similis_, Hawaii (Perkins, 1906, 1913;\nTimberlake, 1924; Swezey, 1929; Zimmerman, 1948).\nOther species of cockroaches, Hawaii (Perkins, 1913).\nFamily PTEROMALIDAE\n=Pteromalus= sp.?\n_Natural host._--_Leucophaea maderae_?, Jamaica (Westwood, 1839; Sells,\n1842). [This host is undoubtedly an error. Sells stated that the o\u00f6theca\nwhich contained 96 unidentified chalcids had 16 dentations at the edge;\nthe description fits the o\u00f6theca of an oviparous cockroach and not that\nof _L. maderae_ (see Roth and Willis, 1954). Westwood (1839, footnote p.\n423) stated that at the meeting of the Entomological Society in 1838 Mr.\nSells exhibited 94 specimens of a small _Pteromalus_ (apparently\nidentified by Westwood) obtained from one cockroach o\u00f6theca. This same\nrecord of Sells was published posthumously in 1842, although in this\npaper he identified the host o\u00f6theca as \"_Blaberus_\" _maderae_. Cameron\n(1955) lists a European record of _Pteromalus_ sp. from _Periplaneta\namericana_ citing Girault (1914) as the source of the record. Girault's\nrecord was apparently taken from Westwood's footnote mentioned above.]\n=Systellogaster ovivora= Gahan\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A., Illinois (Gahan, 1917).\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, Canada, Ontario (Judd, 1955).\n_Parcoblatta_ sp., U.S.A., Ohio (Edmunds, 1952a, 1953a).\n\"Blattid,\" U.S.A., Maryland (Gahan, 1917).\nOne o\u00f6theca of _P. pensylvanica_ yielded 14 parasites with a sex ratio\nof 2.5 [F][F]: 1[M] (Judd, 1955). The average number of parasites in 11\no\u00f6thecae of _Parcoblatta_ sp. collected in 1950-51 was 27 wasps\n(Edmunds, 1952a, 1953a). The adults made two to three emergence holes in\nthe o\u00f6theca (Edmunds, 1953a; Judd, 1955).\nFamily EULOPHIDAE\n=Melittobia chalybii= Ashmead\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A., Missouri (Rau, 1940a):\n_M. chalybii_ is normally a parasite of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera\n(Peck, 1951). This is the only record from cockroach eggs. Burks\n(personal communication, 1956) stated that this species will attack any\ninsect to which it is exposed and can be a serious pest in insect\ncultures of practically any insect order. In nature it seems to prefer\nthe nests of aculeate Hymenoptera; Rau suggested that the parasites were\nprobably brought into his laboratory with mud nests of _Sceliphron\ncaementarium_ (Drury).\n=Mestocharomyia oophaga= Dodd\n_Natural host._--_Ellipsidion australe_, Australia, Queensland (Dodd,\n=Syntomosphyrum blattae= Burks\n_Natural hosts._--_Parcoblatta_ sp., U.S.A., Ohio (Burks, 1952; Edmunds,\n1952a, 1953a): Ten o\u00f6thecae yielded an average of 92 wasps (Edmunds,\n1952a). Five o\u00f6thecae, collected a year later, yielded an average of 74\nwasps; adults sometimes made two to three exit holes in the o\u00f6theca\n(Edmunds, 1953a).\nCockroach, U.S.A., West Virginia (Burks, 1952).\n=Syntomosphyrum ischnopterae= (Girault)\n_Synonymy._--_Epomphaloides ischnopterae_ Girault [Peck, 1951].\nParker and Thompson (1928) called their hyperparasite _Tetrastichus_ sp.\nHowever, Dr. B. D. Burks (personal communication, 1955) has examined the\nteneral specimens which Parker and Thompson deposited in the U.S.\nNational Museum; he stated that the species is apparently\n_Syntomosphyrum ischnopterae_. In view of the experimental work by\nParker and Thompson (see below), this wasp may prove to be a\nhyperparasite on evaniids in cockroach o\u00f6thecae rather than a primary\nparasite on cockroach eggs. (See _Zeuxevania splendidula_, p. 243.)\n_Natural hosts._--_Ischnoptera_ sp. [probably _Parcoblatta_ sp. (Rehn,\npersonal communication, 1958)]. U.S.A., Maryland (Girault, 1917).\n_Zeuxevania splendidula_ Costa (an evaniid in the o\u00f6thecae of _Loboptera\ndecipiens_), France (Parker, 1924; Parker and Thompson, 1928).\nThe following information is from Parker and Thompson (1928): _Adult\nbehavior._--Courtship and mating were accomplished as soon as adults\nemerged, and in a manner similar to that in other chalcids. The females\noviposited only into o\u00f6thecae that were parasitized by _Zeuxevania_,\nnever into normal, nonparasitized o\u00f6thecae. _Oviposition._--Oviposition\noccurred two days after mating. The female wasp stroked the o\u00f6theca with\nher antennae, selected a site, and bored into the o\u00f6theca with her\novipositor. She inserted the ovipositor deeply and oviposited for 10-30\nminutes. The eggs were deposited randomly on the evaniid larva, some\nupright and others lying down. _Development._--Eggs of the hyperparasite\nhatched within 3 days and the larvae commenced feeding on the host\nlarva. There were 30 and 50 hyper-parasites in two o\u00f6thecae. _Sex\nratio._--5 [F][F]:1 [M] (from 3 o\u00f6thecae).\n_Distribution._--U.S.A., District of Columbia, Maryland (Burks, 1952).\n=Tetrastichus australasiae= Gahan\n_Natural host._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, Sumatra (Gahan, 1923).\n=Tetrastichus hagenowii= (Ratzeburg)\n_Synonymy._--_Entedon hagenowii_ Ratzeburg, _Blattotetrastichus\nhagenowii_ (Ratzeburg) [Burks, 1943]. _Tetrastichodes asthenogmus_\nWaterston. G. J. Kerrich (personal communication, 1957) compared the\ntype of _Tetrastichodes asthenogmus_ Waterston with authentically\ndetermined material of _Tetrastichus hagenowii_ and concluded that _T.\nasthenogmus_ is only a weakly developed specimen of _T. hagenowii_. He\nstated, \"The longitudinal dorsal grooves of the scutellum, which are\nstrongly developed in normal _hagenowii_, are only rather faintly\ndeveloped in Waterston's type and also the second specimen, which was\ndissected and mounted on a series of ten microscope slides. No doubt it\nwas this faint development that caused Waterston to describe the species\nin _Tetrastichodes_, a segregate that has since been recognized by Dr.\nBurks (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1943) as being not truly generically\ndistinct from _Tetrastichus_.\"\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, Seychelles (Ratzeburg, 1852);\nIndia (Usman, 1949).\n_Blatta_ sp., U.S.A., Louisiana (Gahan, 1914).\n_Blattella germanica_ (Burks, 1943; Peck, 1951). [In personal\ncommunications, Burks and Peck cite Howard (1892) and Marlatt (1902, and\nthe 1908 revision of 1902) as sources for this host record. However, _B.\ngermanica_ is not mentioned specifically as a host of _T. hagenowii_ in\nthe sources cited nor in the 1915 revision of Marlatt's 1902 paper cited\nby Burks (1943); see footnote 6, p. 236.]\n_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, Hawaii (Pemberton, 1941): This record is\nbased on one parasitized o\u00f6theca. We have exposed, at three different\ntimes, groups of 10 to 20 o\u00f6thecae of _N. rhombifolia_ to many newly\nemerged _T. hagenowii_, but none of the eggs was parasitized (Roth and\nWillis, unpublished data, 1957).\n_Parcoblatta_ sp., U.S.A., Ohio (Edmunds, 1953a).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Africa (Crawford, 1910; Nash, 1955): Nash's\nrecord was incorrectly attributed to _Syntomosphyrum glossinae_ Wtstn.,\na parasite of tse-tse fly pupae (Jordan, 1956), Formosa (Takahashi,\n1924; Sonan, 1924); Palestine (Bodenheimer, 1930); Puerto Rico (Se\u00edn,\n1923; Plank, 1947, 1950; Wolcott, 1951); St. Croix, Virgin Islands\n(Beatty, 1944); Hawaii (Schmidt, 1937); U.S.A.: Missouri (Rau, 1940a);\nOhio (Edmunds, 1955); Florida (parasitized o\u00f6thecae were collected near\nOrlando by members of the Orlando Laboratory, Entomology Research\nBranch, U.S. Department of Agriculture; the parasites were identified by\nBurks, personal communication, 1955). Fiji (Lever, 1943); India (Mani,\n1936; Usman, 1949); Trinidad and Saudi Arabia (Cameron, 1955). Westwood\n(1839) stated that 70 parasites belonging to the genus _Eulophus_\nemerged from an o\u00f6theca of _P. americana_ collected on shipboard. Burks\n(personal communication, 1955) stated that the wasp was probably _T.\nhagenowii_.\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Australia (Shaw, 1925); India (Usman, 1949);\nSaudi Arabia, Trinidad (Cameron, 1955); Formosa (Sonan, 1924).\n_Periplaneta brunnea_, U.S.A., Florida (parasitized o\u00f6thecae were\ncollected near Orlando, by members of the Orlando Laboratory, Entomology\nResearch Branch, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The parasites were\nidentified by Burks, p. c., 1955).\nCockroach eggs, Formosa (Maki, 1937); Ceylon (Waterston, 1914): Taken on\nan o\u00f6theca.\n\"Domestic cockroaches,\" U.S.A., Louisiana (Girault, 1917).\n\"Roach egg cases,\" Panama Canal Zone (Rau, 1933).\n_Evania_ sp., Hawaii (Ashmead, 1901; Perkins, 1913); Guam (Fullaway,\n1912); Fiji (Lever, 1946); Europe, Cuba, Florida (Marlatt, 1902, 1915).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Blatta orientalis_, _Eurycotis floridana_, and\n_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Roth and Willis, 1954b): We have\nmaintained _T. hagenowii_ for over two years through more than 30\ngenerations on eggs of both _B. orientalis_ and _P. americana_.\n_Periplaneta fuliginosa_, U.S.A., Pennsylvania (Roth and Willis, 1954b);\nMassachusetts (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1957).\nSchmidt (1937) deduced that _T. hagenowii_ was a primary parasite of\neggs of _P. americana_ because the parasitized o\u00f6theca was obtained from\na cage covered with screen too fine to permit entry of a larger\nparasite, such as an evaniid. As noted above, we have reared _T.\nhagenowii_ for more than 30 generations on cockroach eggs, none of which\nwas ever exposed to parasitization by an evaniid. If _T. hagenowii_ were\never hyperparasitic on _Evania_, this relationship would be accidental,\nthe eulophid happening to oviposit into an o\u00f6theca already containing an\nevaniid, or vice versa.\n_Adult behavior._--The male mates soon after becoming adult; he mounts\nthe female from behind, grasps her antennae with his own antennae, and\nvibrates his wings during copulation. Mating is accomplished in from\n\"several\" to 20 seconds (Takahashi, 1924; Edmunds, 1955). The adults are\npositively phototactic and are capable of hopping for some distance\n(Edmunds, 1955). The females feed on material that oozes through the\noviposition puncture (Roth and Willis, 1954b). Females lived 10 days\n(Se\u00edn, 1923). Without food, females lived 7.8 days and males 3.4 days,\nbut when fed dilute honey females lived 12.5 days (Usman, 1949). Females\nlived 5-11 days (Roth and Willis, 1954b). Fed water and sugar, the wasps\nlived 2-6 weeks at 65\u00b0F. (Cameron, 1955). Without food, 9 females lived\nan average of 3.5 days and 9 males an average of 1.7 days, but when fed\non raisins, 9 females lived an average of 25 days and 9 males 15 days\n(Edmunds, 1955). In Formosa there were six generations from April to\nDecember (Maki, 1937).\nIn Hawaii, Severin and Severin (1915) caught 571 _T. hagenowii_ in 10\nkerosene traps that were set up to sample populations of Mediterranean\nfruitfly. Apparently the parasite is attracted by the odor of kerosene.\n_Oviposition._--The female wasp explores the surface of the o\u00f6theca with\nvibrating antennae (Edmunds, 1955). She bends her abdomen ventrad and\nrepeatedly touches the surface of the o\u00f6theca with her valvae; when she\nfinds an acceptable oviposition site, the wasp unsheathes her ovipositor\nand bores through the wall of the o\u00f6theca (Roth and Willis, 1954b). The\nwasp deposited her eggs in 2-5 minutes (Edmunds, 1955). Wasps oviposited\n(pl. 34, C) into young or old eggs of _P. americana_ (Roth and Willis,\n1954b). A single wasp parasitized more than one o\u00f6theca and more than\none wasp oviposited into the same o\u00f6theca (Roth and Willis, 1954b;\nEdmunds, 1955). We found freshly laid wasp eggs in 34 empty but\npreviously parasitized o\u00f6thecae from which the wasps had emerged (Roth\nand Willis, 1954b).\n_Development._--In _Periplaneta americana_: Development is completed in\nan average of 36 days (range 29-58 days) (Maki, 1937); 29-40 days\n(Lever, 1943); average of 23.6 days (range 22-26 days) at 62\u00b0-85\u00b0 F.\n(Usman, 1949); about 3 months at 60\u00b0-65\u00b0 F. (Cameron, 1955); 31-60 days\nat 70\u00b0-80\u00b0 F. (Edmunds, 1955). We found that the wasps completed\ndevelopment in 23-56 days at about 85\u00b0 F., but the period depended on\nthe number of wasps in the o\u00f6theca; the larger the number of wasps (up\nto an average of about 70 wasps per o\u00f6theca), the shorter the time\nrequired to complete development. Wasps in o\u00f6thecae containing 70 or\nmore parasites developed in an average of about 32 days (Roth and\nWillis, 1954b). Wasp larvae eat the contents of the cockroach egg in\nwhich they start development, then rupture the chorion and attack\nadjoining eggs (Cameron, 1955; Edmunds, 1955). All eggs are consumed\nwhen the parasite density is high, but if too few larvae develop per\no\u00f6theca, some cockroach eggs survive and the embryos complete\ndevelopment (Roth and Willis, 1954b). However, a certain number of\ncockroach nymphs must complete development to enable the survivors to\nforce open the crista and emerge from the o\u00f6theca; fewer than this\nnumber of surviving nymphs will be trapped and killed as effectively as\nif they had been eaten by the parasite. The adult parasites emerge from\none to three holes cut through the wall of the o\u00f6theca (Usman, 1949;\nRoth and Willis, 1954b).\n_Number of offspring per female._--In _Blatta orientalis_: In the\nlaboratory, 5 o\u00f6thecae were left with each of 25 female wasps for their\nentire lifespans; of the 125 o\u00f6thecae, 32 were parasitized. The average\nnumber of offspring per female was 66 (range 5-164) (Roth and Willis,\n1954b). In _Periplaneta americana_: Each of 206 o\u00f6thecae was exposed to\na single female wasp for 24 hours; the average number of offspring per\nfemale was 103 (range 50-139). Five o\u00f6thecae were left with each of 38\nfemales for their entire lifespans; of the 190 o\u00f6thecae, 81 were\nparasitized. The average number of offspring per female was 94 (range\n45-168 [from original data]) (Roth and Willis, 1954b).\n_Number of parasites per o\u00f6theca._--In _Eurycotis floridana_: In the\nlaboratory, 3 o\u00f6thecae that had been exposed to 20 female wasps yielded\nan average of 648 parasites (range 606 [from original data] to 685)\n(Roth and Willis, 1954b). In _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_: One o\u00f6theca\nyielded 73 parasites (Pemberton, 1941). In _Parcoblatta_ sp.: Two\no\u00f6thecae yielded an average of 100 parasites (Edmunds, 1953a). In\n_Periplaneta americana_: 100 parasites per o\u00f6theca (Se\u00edn, 1923); 140\n(Wolcott, 1951); 4 o\u00f6thecae exposed to 20 female wasps yielded an\naverage of 204 wasps (range 164 [from original data] to 261) (Roth and\nWillis, 1954b); average of 30-40 (Cameron, 1955); 39 o\u00f6thecae yielded an\naverage of 93 parasites (range 12-187) (Edmunds, 1955). In _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_: O\u00f6thecae yielded an average of 40-50 adult parasites\n(Cameron, 1955); about 50 (Shaw, 1925).\n(Edmunds, 1955). Parthenogenesis exists; the unfertilized eggs produced\nonly males (Roth and Willis, 1954b; Edmunds, 1955).\n_Distribution._--Probably worldwide. Eastern and southern U.S.A.;\nCentral and South America; Europe; Arabia; Africa; India; Formosa;\nHawaii.\n=Tetrastichus periplanetae= Crawford\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Mozambique (Crawford, 1910);\nUnion of South Africa (parasites reared from o\u00f6thecae collected in\nDurban, Natal, by the City Health Department): The parasites were\nidentified by Burks (personal communication, 1956). Jamaica (Gowdey,\n1925); R\u00e9union Island (Bordage, 1913).\n\"Domestic cockroach,\" Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1951).\n=Tetrastichus= sp. I\n_Taxonomy._--Burks (personal communication, 1956) stated that this\nspecies (specimens of which are in the U.S. National Museum) is very\nclose to _T. hagenowii_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, Union of South Africa\n(parasites reared from o\u00f6thecae collected in Durban, Natal, by the City\nHealth Department [Burks, p. c., 1956]).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Manila, Philippine Islands (Burks, p. c.,\n=Tetrastichus= sp. II\n_Synonymy._--Because of the war, Cros (1942) could not determine this\ninsect specifically. He designated it provisionally and with reserve\nunder the name _Eulophus_ sp. However, Burks (p. c., 1956) stated that\nthe species is most certainly a _Tetrastichus_ from the description\ngiven; but, it is apparently not _T. hagenowii_ because of its brilliant\nsteel-blue color.\n_Natural host._--_Blatta orientalis_, Algeria (Cros, 1942): _Adult\nbehavior._--Mating began as soon as wasps emerged from an o\u00f6theca. Males\nmated repeatedly. Adults lived up to 5 days in summer and up to 12 days\nin fall. There were up to four generations per year in the laboratory.\n_Oviposition._--Wasps oviposited into o\u00f6thecae 6, 22, 40, and 43 days\nold, and the parasites developed successfully. More than one female\noviposited into the same o\u00f6theca. Oviposition was of long duration.\n_Development._--From egg to eclosion took an average of 34 days in\nsummer (range: 30-38 days, 5 o\u00f6thecae), and an average of 67 days in\nfall (range: 58-73 days, 3 o\u00f6thecae). An average of 55 parasites\ndeveloped per o\u00f6theca (range 21-105, 5 o\u00f6thecae); over 130 wasps emerged\nfrom a sixth o\u00f6theca. _Sex ratio._--10-20 [F][F]:1 [M].\nHOST SELECTION BY EGG PARASITES\nThe nature of the oviposition stimulus(i) for the wasp parasites of\ncockroach eggs is unknown. Edmunds (1954) noted that _Prosevania\npunctata_ showed more interest in o\u00f6thecae that had been cemented to the\nsubstrate than in clean o\u00f6thecae that had simply been dropped. Cros\n(1942) experimented with two females of _P. punctata_ to see if the\nwasps could find o\u00f6thecae that had been buried in sand by the oriental\ncockroach. After prospecting the sand with their antennae, the wasps dug\ndeep excavations with their front legs but always mistook the location\nof the o\u00f6thecae. Cros suggested that the wasps were misled by the odor\nleft in the jar by the cockroaches. It is quite possible that odor helps\nthe wasp find the host o\u00f6theca.\nThe extent of host selection varies among these parasites; some species\nwill oviposit into the eggs of more than one species of cockroach, but\nothers show some degree of host specificity. Positive selection of\nspecific hosts by certain parasites appears in correlative data from\ndifferent investigators on pages 235 to 254. There is a small body of\ndata that shows nonacceptance of certain hosts by some of these wasps.\nFor example, _Comperia merceti_ would not parasitize eggs of _Blatta\norientalis_ or _Periplaneta americana_ in the laboratory (Lawson,\n1954a). We (unpublished data, 1957) exposed a soft o\u00f6theca, recently\nremoved from _Eurycotis floridana_, to _C. merceti_; no wasps developed;\nwe had similar negative results with _C. merceti_ and o\u00f6thecae of _B.\ngermanica_. We (1954b) could not induce _Tetrastichus hagenowii_ to\nparasitize eggs of _Blattella germanica_, _B. vaga_, or _Parcoblatta\nvirginica_ in the laboratory. In our experiments, _T. hagenowii_\noviposited into eggs of _Supella supellectilium_, but the wasp eggs\neither failed to hatch, or if they hatched, the larvae died before\ncompleting development. Neither would _T. hagenowii_ parasitize eggs of\n_N. rhombifolia_ (Roth and Willis, unpublished data, 1957). _Anastatus\ntenuipes_ would not parasitize the eggs of _Latiblattella lucifrons_\nHebard, _Periplaneta americana_, _B. germanica_, or _B. vaga_ (Flock,\n1941). _Anastatus floridanus_ would not oviposit into eggs of _S.\nsupellectilium_ and only rarely into eggs of _P. americana_ or _B.\norientalis_ (Roth and Willis, 1954a); in the laboratory, this wasp could\nnot be maintained beyond one generation on the eggs of _P. americana_.\nEdmunds (1953b) could not induce _Prosevania punctata_ to parasitize\neggs of _B. germanica_. Cros (1942) induced _P. punctata_ to oviposit\ninto a mantid o\u00f6theca, but neither mantids nor parasite developed.\nCOCKROACH-HUNTING WASPS\nA number of wasps of the families Ampulicidae, Sphecidae, and a very few\nspecies of Pompilidae have been found to provision their nests with\nnymphal or adult cockroaches. This habit of preying on cockroaches is\nprimitive (Leclercq, 1954); Leclercq (personal communication, 1955)\nstated that this habit is always associated with the conservation of a\nnumber of structures considered as archaic from a purely morphological\npoint of view.\nThe records of wasps of the genus _Astata_ capturing cockroaches (e.g.,\nSickmann, 1893; St. Fargeau _in_ Sharp, 1899) \"all trace back to a\nquestionable record by Lepeletier (1841) which probably was a\nmisidentification of the predator\" (K. V. Krombein, personal\ncommunication, 1956). Marshall (1866) suggested that the braconid\n_Paxylomma buccata_ Br\u00e9b., which he found frequenting cockroach runs in\nPembrokeshire, was parasitic on _Ectobius nigripes_ Stephens; however,\nthis wasp is undoubtedly parasitic on ants, probably on ant larvae\n(Donisthorpe and Wilkinson, 1930).\nThe wasps that are known to capture cockroaches, and summaries of their\nbiology, are listed below.\nWASPS THAT PROVISION THEIR NESTS WITH COCKROACHES\nFamily POMPILIDAE\n=Pompilus bracatus= Bingham\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, India (Bingham, 1900).\n=Pompilus= sp.\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, Nyasaland (Lamborn _in_ Poulton, 1926): The\nwasp was collected leading a nymph of the cockroach by its antenna. The\ncockroach was in a stupefied state, and its antennae were bitten off to\nabout half their length.\n=Salius verticalis= Smith\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, India (Bingham, 1900).\nFamily AMPULICIDAE\nThe species of _Ampulex_ do not appear to make special nests in which to\nlay their eggs but drag their prey to any convenient hole, or crack in\nthe ground (Arnold, 1928). Although many species of _Ampulex_ have been\ndescribed, the prey of only a small number of species have been\ndiscovered, but the known prey are all cockroaches.\n=Ampulex amoena= St\u00e5l\n_Synonymy._--_Ampulex novarae_ Saussure [Krombein, personal\ncommunication, 1957].\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, both as small nymphs, Formosa (Sonan, 1924, 1927): The\nwasp stings a nymph about one inch long and carries it to a suitable\nplace, such as bamboo pipes, folds of newspaper, or books (in houses),\nfor oviposition.\n_Periplaneta picea_, Japan (Kamo, 1957; Kohriba, 1957).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Periplaneta picea_, Japan (Kamo, 1957; Kohriba,\nKamo (1957) observed that in the field both males and females sucked\njuices from wounds they made in the stems of _Clerodendron_\n_trichotomum_ Thunberg or _Ilex rotunda_ Thunberg. Kohriba (1957), on\nthe other hand, found both sexes sucking sap of _Abies_ sp. and other\ntrees from points injured by the rostrum of cicadas. Kamo (1957)\nobserved that the female wasp grasped the cockroach by a tergum and\nstung it several times in the thorax. The wasp always amputated the\nantennae of the prey and sucked up the fluid oozing from the cut\nantennae. The wasp egg was placed on the mesocoxa of the cockroach. In\nthe laboratory as many as three cockroaches, each with a wasp egg, were\nstored in artificial nests per day. Kohriba (1957) observed similar\nbehavior in the laboratory and made these additional notes. The\nparalyzed cockroach could move its legs and was led to the nest by the\nwasp which seized its antennae. The egg hatched in 2 days, and after\nsucking up body fluid for 2 days the larva began to devour the prey.\nThree days later the larva spun its cocoon, and about one month after\nspinning a female wasp emerged.\n=Ampulex assimilis= Kohl\n_Natural hosts._--_Blatta lateralis_, wingless females, Iraq (Hingston,\n1925): Nesting sites are holes in palm trees, galleries of beetles, or\ntunnels in ground. The wasp first seizes a cockroach by the edge of its\nthorax and stings it in the thoracic region, then seizes the cockroach\nby an antenna and pulls and leads it to the nest. The wasp deposits her\negg on the outer surface of the femur of the cockroach's midleg. The\nnest is closed with debris; later the cockroach recovers from the sting.\nThe wasp larva first feeds externally, then bores into the cockroach and\ndevours the internal organs. Pupation occurs inside the exoskeleton of\nthe cockroach.\n=Ampulex canaliculata= (Say)\n_Synonymy._--_Rhinopsis caniculatus._\n_Natural hosts._--_Ischnoptera_ sp., U.S.A. (Krombein, 1951).\n_Lobopterella dimidiatipes_, Hawaii (Williams, 1928a, 1929).\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_? MacNay (1954) referred to a rare sphecoid\nwasp in eastern Canada which provisioned its nest with nymphs and adults\nof _P. pensylvanica_. Dr. W. R. M. Mason (personal communication, 1957)\nwrote us that although this wasp was _Ampulex canaliculata_, it was not\nreared from the cockroach but was swept from a pine tree. There are no\npositive records linking _A. canaliculata_ with _P. pensylvanica_.\n_Experimental host._--_Parcoblatta virginica_, females, U.S.A., Missouri\n(Williams, 1928a, 1929): figure 6.\nNesting sites are in twigs (Krombein, 1951). The adult behavior is\nsimilar to that of _A. compressa_; the female wasp imbibes blood that\noozes from the amputated antennae of the cockroach; the egg hatches in\n2-3 days, and the development of one male was completed in 33 days\n(Williams, 1929).\n  [Illustration:\n  FIG. 6. _Ampulex canaliculata_ attacking _Parcoblatta virginica_. A,\n  Female wasp stinging her prey, c. \u00d7 4.8. B, Wasp's egg attached to the\n  coxa of the mesothoracic leg of the cockroach. C, Larva of _A.\n  canaliculata_ (about three-quarters grown) feeding on the internal\n  organs of the host from the exterior, c. \u00d7 4. (Reproduced from F. X.\n  Williams [1929], through the courtesy of Dr. F. X. Williams and F. A.\n  Bianchi, Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association.)]\n_Distribution._--U.S.A.: Connecticut south to Georgia; Ohio, Wisconsin,\nMissouri, Kansas; in open woods (Krombein, 1951).\n=Ampulex compressa= (Fabricius)\n_Synonymy._--Gu\u0115pe ichneumon of R\u00e9aumur [Williams, 1929]; _Chlorion_\n(_Ampulex_) _compressum_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_, New Caledonia (Lucas, 1879);\nIndia (Dutt, 1912); Reunion (Bordage, 1912).\n_Periplaneta australasiae_, Hawaii (Swezey, 1944).\n_Periplaneta_ sp., India (Maxwell-Lefroy, 1909).\nCockroach. Mauritius (R\u00e9aumur, 1742); Burma (Bingham, 1897).\n_Experimental hosts._--_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, _Periplaneta\namericana_, and _Periplaneta australasiae_, Hawaii (Williams, 1942,\n1942a). Zimmerman's (1948) listings probably were taken from Williams.\n_Nesting sites._--Holes in walls; holes in banyan and fig trees; in\nhouses in drawers and cartons. _Behavior._--Similar to that of _A.\nassimilis_. Bordage (1912) gives a complete description of capture of\nprey. The female wasp cuts off part of the cockroach's antennae, legs,\nand wings; she sticks her egg onto the host's mesothoracic coxa. The\nwasp frequents houses in search of prey. Five [F][F], supplied with a\ncockroach per day, stored an average of 57\u00b114 cockroaches; 8 [F][F]\nstored an average of 45\u00b13 cockroaches; these latter wasps were not\nsupplied with a cockroach per day throughout (mean values computed from\nWilliams, 1942). This wasp will not attack _Nauphoeta cinerea_\n(Williams, 1942a) or _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ (Schwabe, 1950b). On one\noccasion, _A. compressa_ stung _Diploptera punctata_, but did not\noviposit (Williams, 1942a). _Development._--Minimum 34 days, maximum 140\ndays (Williams, 1942). About 6 weeks (Swezey, 1944). _Longevity of\nadults._--13 [F][F] lived an average of 110\u00b111 days (minimum 31, maximum\n159); several [M][M] lived 2 months (Williams, 1942).\n=Ampulex fasciata= Jurine\n_Natural host._--_Ectobius pallidus_, France (Picard, 1911, 1919):\nNesting sites are in brier or bramble stems, or in crevices in fig\ntrees; the female possibly uses old nests of leaf-cutter bees. The\nfeeding of the wasp larva is similar to that of other _Ampulex_. Adult\nwasp emerges by cutting open a passage through its cocoon and through\nthe anus of the cockroach.\n=Ampulex ruficornis= (Cameron)\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, Oriental region (Rothney _in_ Sharp,\n1899): Nesting sites are in crevices in bark. The female grasps the\ncockroach by an antenna to drag it to her nest.\n=Ampulex sibirica= Fabricius\n_Synonymy._--Perkins referred to this species as _Ampulex sibirica_.\nWilliams (1942a), referring to Perkins's observations, mentions the\nspecies as \"_A. compressiventris_ Gu\u00e9rin (=_A. siberica_ Sauss.).\"\nKrombein (personal communication, 1956) has commented upon this synonymy\nas follows: _Ampulex siberica_ Sauss. is apparently a misidentification\nby Saussure of _sibirica_ Fab. Kohl (1893) in his revision of the genus\n_Ampulex_ considered _A. compressiventris_ Gu\u00e9rin to be the correct name\nfor this common African species and that _sibirica_, described from\nSiberia, must be another species. However, Turner (1912) stated that he\nhad seen Fabricius's type specimen and that it was identical with what\nhad been called _compressiventris_; he considered the Siberian locality\ngiven by Fabricius as an error. Krombein suggested that Williams's use\nof the combination _siberica_ Sauss. was a lapsus and that the valid\nname, if Turner is correct, is _sibirica_ Fab.\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, West Africa (Perkins _in_ Sharp, 1899):\nNesting sites are keyholes. Enters apartments in search of cockroaches.\nWasp cocoon protrudes from dead body of cockroach.\n=Ampulex sonnerati= Kohl\n_Synonymy._--\"La mouche bleue\" of Sonnerat (Kohl, 1893).\n_Natural host._--\"Kakkerlac,\" Philippine Islands (Sonnerat, 1776):\nNesting sites are readymade crevices. The wasp seizes the cockroach by\nan antenna and stings the host many times in the \"abdomen.\" She drags\nthe cockroach by an antenna to the nest, and, after depositing her egg,\nplugs the opening with moistened earth.\n=Dolichurus bicolor= Lepeletier\n_Synonymy._--Schulz (1912) considered this to be _Dolichurus\ncorniculus_. Berland (1925) stated that this is possibly a color variety\nof _D. corniculus_. Soyer (1947), from a study of the behavior of the\nwasps, believed that both _D. bicolor_ and _D. haemorrhous_ are\nvarieties of _D. corniculus_. Krombein (personal communication, 1956)\nstated that _D. corniculus_ and _D. bicolor_ differ in characters other\nthan color alone and that _D. bicolor_ is considered a valid species\ntoday.\n_Natural host._--Cockroach, France (Benoist, 1927): The wasp was\nobserved closing the entrance to its burrow. Its egg was attached to the\ncoxa of the midleg of the cockroach.\nManeval (1932) stated that _D. bicolor_ is found at the edge of dry\nwoods along with _D. corniculus_ and that the wasp will also accept the\nprey of _D. corniculus_ if presented to it.\n=Dolichurus corniculus= (Spinola)\n_Synonymy._--_Dolichurus haemorrhous_ Costa [Schulz, 1912]. Berland\n(1925) listed _D. haemorrhous_ separately but stated that it is perhaps\na color variety of _D. corniculus_.\n_Natural hosts._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Benoist, 1927).\n_Ectobius lapponicus_, Germany (Sickmann, 1893); Denmark (Nielsen,\n1903); Sweden (Adlerz, 1903); Italy (Grandi, 1931, 1954); France\n(Benoist, 1927; Maneval, 1928).\n_Ectobius pallidus_, France (Maneval, 1932; Soyer, 1947).\n_Ectobius panzeri_, France (Soyer, 1947).\n_Ectobius_ sp., Italy (Grandi, 1954).\n_Hololampra punctata_, Pitten (Handlirsch, 1889).\n_Loboptera decipiens_, France (Ferton, 1894).\nCockroach, Netherlands (Bouwman, 1914).\n_Nesting sites._--The wasp uses already-made cavities such as rotting\ndead branches on ground, fissures in the earth, abandoned ant holes,\nchinks in stone, or the empty cocoon of the ichneumon _Ophion luteus_\n(Ferton, 1894; Maneval, 1932).\n_Behavior._--The prey is immobile while being dragged to the nest but\nrecovers sufficiently from the sting so that if dug up it will run\naround (Ferton, 1894; Bouwman, 1914; Benoist, 1927; Grandi, 1954). The\nwasp cuts off about two-thirds of the cockroach's antennae prior to\nputting its prey in its nest (Adlerz, 1903; Bouwman, 1914; Soyer, 1947).\nOne cockroach is placed in the nest and the wasp's egg is attached to\nthe midcoxa (Ferton, 1894). Oviposition takes 5 to 6 minutes (Maneval,\n1939). Wasp fills and seals its nest with bits of earth and stones\n(Ferton, 1894; Grandi, 1954). The wasp larva feeds externally and\ndevours the entire cockroach, including its exoskeleton (Ferton, 1894).\n_Development._--Hatching occurs in 3 to 4 days (Ferton, 1894) or longer\nduring cooler weather (Maneval, 1939). Larval development takes 6 days\n(Grandi, 1954), 8 days (Ferton, 1894), or 10 to 25 days depending on\nseason (Maneval, 1939).\n=Dolichurus gilberti= Turner\n_Natural hosts._--\"Small Blattidae,\" India (Turner, 1917).\n=Dolichurus greenei= Rohwer\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta_ sp., U.S.A., Virginia (Krombein, 1951,\n1955): Nesting sites are under leaf litter. The prey was a paralyzed\nthird-instar nymph. _Distribution._--Ontario. U.S.A. from Canadian\nborder south to Florida in coastal States (Krombein, 1951).\n=Dolichurus ignitus= Sm.\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, Natal and Southern Rhodesia (Arnold,\n1928): The wasp is \"usually seen running up and down the trunks of\ntrees searching for small cockroaches in the crevices of the bark.\"\n=Dolichurus stantoni= (Ashmead)\n_Natural hosts._--_Allacta similis_, nymphs, Hawaii (Williams et al.,\n_Blattella lituricollis_, usually nymphs, Philippine Islands, Hawaii\n(Williams, 1919).\n_Cutilia soror_, nymphs, Hawaii (Williams et al., 1931; Zimmerman,\n\"_Phyllodromia_\" sp., Philippine Islands, Hawaii (Williams, 1918;\nBridwell, 1920).\n_Experimental hosts._--\"Field cockroaches,\" Philippine Islands\n(Williams, 1944).\n_Nesting site._--Readymade crevices or holes in ground; porosity in\nlava. _Behavior._--The wasp seizes the cockroach by a cercus or leg and\nstings it in the thorax. She (fig. 7, A) then drags the cockroach to the\nnest by the base of an antenna. Wasp bites off distal part of host's\nantennae. She deposits her egg on one of the host's midcoxae. Nest is\nplugged with lumps of soil. The larva eats the entire host.\n_Development._--Eggs hatched in about a day and a half. Adults emerged\nabout 3 weeks later. About five generations per year. (Williams, 1918,\n1919; Williams et al., 1931.)\n=Dolichurus= sp.\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, nymphs, South Africa (Bridwell, 1917).\nAdult female cockroach carrying an o\u00f6theca, France (Deleurance, 1943).\n_Nesting site._--Plant stem, or in ground possibly an old abandoned nest\nof _Ammophile_. _Behavior._--Bridwell noted that one wasp larva ate two\ncockroach nymphs before pupating; the adult emerged about 4 months after\ncocoon formation. Deleurance observed the wasp close its nest with small\npebbles, balls of earth, and small dead branches. The wasp egg was\nplaced on the femur of the midleg. The prey in the nest is alert when\ndisturbed. Deleurance believed the wasp was a variety of _D.\ncorniculus_.\n=Trirhogma caerulea= Westwood\n_Natural hosts._--_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, Formosa (Sonan, 1924): The wasp stings a nymph about one\ninch long and carries it to a suitable place (bamboo pipe) for\noviposition.\n  [Illustration:\n  FIG. 7.--Cockroach-hunting wasps. A, _Dolichurus stantoni_ leading a\n  nymph of _Blattella lituricollis_ to her nest, c. \u00d7 4. (Reproduced\n  from F. N. Williams [1919].) B, _Podium haematogastrum_ attaching her\n  egg to an _Epilampra_ sp. while on the side of a termite mound that\n  contains the wasp's nest, c. \u00d7 1.6. C, _Epilampra_ sp. parasitized\n  by _P. haematogastrum_ showing the wasp's egg attached to the right\n  fore coxa, c. \u00d7 3.2. (B and C reproduced from Williams [1928],\n  through the courtesy of Dr. F. X. Williams and F. A. Bianchi.)]\n=Trirhogma= sp.\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, Oriental region (Williams, 1918, 1928):\nAs far as is known species of this genus of wasps hunt cockroaches.\nFamily SPHECIDAE\n=Tachysphex blatticidus= Williams\n_Natural hosts._--_Chorisoneura_ sp., adults, Trinidad, St. Augustine\n(Callan, 1942): The wasps nest gregariously in sandy places. The wasp\nitself is parasitized by the mutillid _Timulla_ (_Timulla_) _eriphyla_\nMickel.\nCockroaches, Trinidad (Williams, 1941a; Callan, 1950).\n=Tachysphex coriaceus= Costa\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, Italy (Beaumont, 1954).\n=Tachysphex fanuiensis= Cheesman\n_Natural hosts._--_Graptoblatta notulata_, Society Islands (Cheesman,\nCockroach (\"except for its smaller size [it] much resembles\n_Graptoblatta notulata_.\"), New Caledonia (Williams, 1945).\n_Nesting sites._--Patches of dry soil (Cheesman, 1928); coarse sand at\nbase of a bank (Williams, 1945). _Behavior._--The female wasp pounces on\nthe cockroach and stings it into immobility; she carries her prey in\nflight to the nest. Two to 13 cockroaches may be found in one nest; and\none or more wasp eggs may be deposited in one nest. The egg is attached\nat one end to the host's thorax behind a forecoxa. Nest is sealed with\ndry pellets of soil. The cockroaches apparently do not recover from the\nwasp's sting.\n=Tachysphex lativalvis= (Thomson)\n_Natural hosts._--_Ectobius lapponicus_, adults, Sweden (Adlerz, 1906);\nFrance (Maneval, 1932).\n_Ectobius pallidus_, nymphs, France (Ferton, 1894, 1901; Maneval, 1932;\nDeleurance, 1946); Italy (Grandi, 1928).\n_Ectobius panzeri_, Netherlands (Bouwman, 1914).\n_Ectobius_ sp., Denmark (Nielsen, 1933).\nFerton (1914) stated that he had reported in 1912 that this species\nhunted Hemiptera, but that this observation was a lapsus. _Nesting\nsite._--In the ground of sandy woodlot or border of dry woods; the nest\nis a hole 5.5 to 8 cm. long ending in a horizontal cell. Grandi (1928)\nstated that the entrance to the nest descended obliquely for 5 to 6 cm.\nand ended 4 cm. below the surface of the ground. _Behavior._--Two\ncockroaches, either sex, adults or nymphs, were stored in the cell\n(Adlerz, 1903; Grandi, 1928). The wasp laid her egg on the first prey\nbrought, attaching it behind the front coxa. The cockroaches were not\nexcitable and their antennae had not been injured. Grandi (1928) stated\nthat the claws of the hind tarsi of the victims may be amputated. The\nhatched larva may consume one of its victims in four days leaving only\nthe head, pronotum, tegmina, wings, and the urosternum.\n=Podium abdominale= (Perty)\n_Synonymy._--_Trigonopsis abdominalis_ Perty [Kohl, 1902].\n_Natural hosts._--Cockroaches, nymphs, Ecuador (Williams, 1928): These\nwasps are apparently mainly arboreal mud daubers. The female wasp\nconstructs a mud nest on underside of a palm leaf. Wasp egg is attached\nbehind one of the forecoxae of the cockroach. Several cockroaches are\nstored in each nest. The prey is not immobilized as a result of the\nsting, and its antennae are left intact.\n=Podium carolina= Rohwer\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, nymphs (Rau, 1937): Nesting\nsites are mud nests of _Sceliphron caementarium_ (Drury). One to three\ncockroach nymphs are stored per nest; mud partitions are placed in tube;\nthe nest is plugged with mud which is coated with resin.\n_Distribution._--U.S.A., New York to North Carolina (Murray, 1951);\nFlorida (Krombein and Evans, 1955).\n=Podium dubium= Taschenberg\n_Natural hosts._--Epilamprine cockroaches, Brazil (Williams, 1928):\nBurrows, lenticular in cross section, are found on shaded trails. The\nwasp's habits are similar to those of _P. flavipenne_ and _P.\nhaematogastrum_.\n=Podium flavipenne= Lepeletier\n_Natural host._--_Epilampra abdomen-nigrum_, British Guiana (Williams,\n1928): _Nesting site._--Burrows, about 2 inches deep and lenticular in\ncross section, are dug in the ground in well-drained, partly sheltered\nareas; also old _Podium_ nests are used. _Behavior._--The wasp stings\nthe cockroach to helplessness and flies with it back to her nest where\nthe host may recover from the sting; one or more cockroaches are stored\nper nest; the egg is deposited behind the forecoxa while the cockroach\nis still outside the burrow. The nest is sealed with mud. The larva\nfeeds on most of the cockroach and leaves only some heavily sclerotized\nportions in the cell. In 153 nests examined, there was an average of 2.2\n\u00b1 0.08 [standard error computed from cited data] cockroaches per cell;\nfour nests contained five cockroaches apiece. Of the 331 cockroaches in\nthe nests, only 6 percent were adults. _Development._--Egg hatches in\nabout 2 days; larva feeds about 4 days and pupates about 2 weeks later;\nadult emerges about 10-12 days later.\n=Podium haematogastrum= Spinola\n_Natural host._--_Epilampra_ sp., Brazil, Par\u00e1 (Williams, 1928): The\nfemale wasp (fig. 7, B) burrows into the surface of termite mounds, in\nbanks, and in level ground. This wasp's behavior is similar to that of\n_P. flavipenne_. There was an average of 1.6 cockroaches (fig. 7, C) per\ncell in 74 nests examined. Of the 121 cockroaches collected, 28 percent\nwere adults. Under artificial conditions, the life cycle varied from\nabout a month to 45 days or more.\n=Podium luctuosum= Smith\n_Natural host._--_Parcoblatta virginica_, female, U.S.A., New York\n_Distribution._--U.S.A.: New York to Texas (Murray, 1951).\n=Podium rufipes= Fabricius\n_Natural hosts._--\"Wood roaches,\" British Guiana (Howes, 1917, 1919);\nBrazil (Williams, 1928): Nesting sites were clay column nests on houses,\nsides of stumps, or forest trees; banks; termite mound. Variable numbers\nof cockroaches were placed in the nests with one wasp egg attached\nbehind forecoxa of the last host. The egg hatches in 2 days, the larva\npupates about 2 weeks later, and the adult emerges 24 days later.\n=Podium= sp.\n_Natural host._--_Epilampra conferta_, Brazil (Poulton, 1917): The\nburrow contained several cockroaches of the same species.\nANTS PREDACEOUS ON COCKROACHES\n     A large roach endeavored to escape by crossing the main front of\n     the army. The creature made several powerful jumps, but each time\n     it touched the ground ... its legs were grasped by the fearless\n     ants.... In the end it fell ... and was instantly torn to bits and\n     carried to the rear.... Another ant with the body of a wood roach\n     was assisted by a worker who held the carrier's abdomen high in the\n     air out of the way of her burden, all the way to the nest.\nFamily FORMICIDAE\nFrom the known entomophagous habits of the lower ants (Wheeler, 1928),\nwe wonder that there are not more records of ants feeding on\ncockroaches, because this act must occur frequently. Kirby and Spence\n(1822) stated that R. Kittoe had observed in Antigua that ants which\nnested in the roofs would seize a cockroach by the legs so it could not\nmove, kill it, and carry it up to their nest. Hotchkiss (1874) observed\nants kill cockroaches on shipboard. Cockroaches attracted to sugar in\nthe pantry were killed and carried off by the ants. The destruction of\ncockroaches by army ants has been recorded by Bates (1863), Wallace\n(1891), Beebe (1917, 1919), Howes (1919), and others. Dead and mutilated\nspecimens of _Ischnoptera_ sp. [undoubtedly _Parcoblatta americana_\n(Gurney, personal communication, 1958)] are common in the nests of\nspecies of _Formica_ in California (Mann, 1911).\n=Aphaenogaster picea= Emery\n_Natural prey._--_Ectobius pallidus_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Roth and\nWillis, 1957).\n=Camponotus pennsylvanicus= (De Geer)\n_Common name._--Carpenter ant.\n_Natural prey._--_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1940): The\nants entered traps set up to capture the cockroach and carried off about\na dozen adults of both sexes.\n=Dorylus (Anomma) nigricans= subsp. =sj\u00f6stedi Emery=\n_Natural prey._--Small cockroach, Belgian Congo (Raignier and van Boven,\n=Dorylus (Anomma) wilverthi= Emery\n_Natural prey._--Small cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Raignier and van\n=Dorylus= sp.\n_Common name._--\"Safari ant.\"\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Africa, Lake Victoria (Carpenter, 1920):\nWhen the \"Safari ants\" were hunting, many species of cockroaches were\ndriven from hiding among dead leaves in the forest. The cockroaches\nrushed about but easily fell prey to the ants which tore them to bits.\n=Eciton burchelli= (Westwood)\n_Common name._--Army ant.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Panama Canal Zone (Johnson, 1954;\nSchneirla, 1956).\n=Formica omnivora=\n_Synonymy_.--The identity of this form is unknown. There are no species\nof _Formica_ on Ceylon. There was another _Formica omnivora_ described\nfrom tropical America, whose identity is also unknown (W. L. Brown,\npersonal communication, 1956).\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Ceylon (Kirby and Spence, 1822).\n=Iridomyrmex humilis= Mayr\n_Common name._--Argentine ant.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, injured individuals only (Ealand, 1915).\n=Lasius alienus= (F\u00f6rster)\n_Natural prey._--_Ectobius pallidus_, U.S.A., Massachusetts (Roth and\nWillis, 1957).\n=Pheidole megacephala= (Fabricius)\n_Common name._--Big-headed ant.\n_Natural prey._--_Holocompsa fulva_, Hawaii (Illingworth, 1916).\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_ and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Illingworth,\n1914, 1942): The ants followed and killed _N. cinerea_ and _P.\nsurinamensis_ as they burrowed in moist soil and attacked and destroyed\n_N. cinerea_ in breeding cages.\nXIII. VERTEBRATA\nClass PISCES\nIn British Guiana, Beebe (1925a) found undetermined cockroach remains in\nthe stomachs of four species of fish belonging to three families, as\nfollows:\nFamily POTAMOTRYGONTIDAE\n=Potamotrygon humboldti= (Dum\u00e9ril)\n(= _Potamotrygon hystrix_)\nFamily PIMELODIDAE\n=Rhamdia sebae= Cuvier and Valenciennes\nFamily CHARACIDAE\n=Cyrtocharax magdalenae essequibensis= (Eigenmann)\n(= _Cynopotamus essequibensis_)\n=Chalceus macrolepidotus= Cuvier and Valenciennes\nThe only other records of cockroaches being eaten by fish pertain to the\nuse of cockroaches as bait.[8] Captain William Owen (_in_ Webster, 1834)\nstated that the Chinese used cockroaches as bait in their fishing\nexcursions. At Reelfoot Lake, Tennessee, _Blatta orientalis_ were kept\nin large numbers by bait dealers and were sold to fishermen who used\nthem for catching _Lepomis pallidus_, a sunfish locally known as bream,\nblue bream, or bluegill (Rau, 1944). In Indiana, oriental cockroaches\nwere collected at a city dump by fishermen (Gould, 1941). Peterson\n(1956) states that cockroaches are satisfactory bait for bluegills,\ncrappies, channel cat, blue heads, and large mouth black bass.\nClass AMPHIBIA[9]\nOrder CAUDATA\nFamily PLETHODONTIDAE\n=Plethodon glutinosus= (Green)\n_Natural prey._--_Cryptocercus punctulatus_, U.S.A. (Honigberg, 1953):\nProtozoa which are normally only found in _C. punctulatus_ were present\nin the intestine of the salamander indicating that this cockroach had\nbeen eaten by the amphibian.\nOrder SALIENTIA\nFamily BUFONIDAE\n=Bufo funereus= Bocage\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Noble, 1924): The stomachs\nof 62 out of 72 specimens contained food; this included 3 cockroaches.\n=Bufo ictericus= Spix\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Brazil (Valente, 1949): Stomach contents\nrevealed the prothorax, legs, and wings of cockroaches, and fragments of\nwood-cockroaches. This toad frequently feeds at night.\n=Bufo marinus= (Linnaeus)\n_Common name._--Giant toad, marine toad, Surinam toad.\n_Natural prey._--_Epilampra abdomen-nigrum_, Trinidad (Weber, 1938):\nFound in the stomachs of two toads.\n_Diploptera punctata_, Hawaii (Pemberton and Williams, 1938).\n_Periplaneta_ sp., Fiji (Lever, 1939): Many householders in Suva have\nseen the toad eat considerable numbers of these cockroaches.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Alicata, 1938; Illingworth, 1941).\nCockroaches, Nicaragua (Noble, 1918): Stomach contents of toads captured\nat street lamps in Rio Grande consisted chiefly of large cockroaches.\nPuerto Rico (Wolcott, 1937).\n=Bufo valliceps= Wiegmann\n_Experimental prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Moore, 1946):\nCockroaches containing infective acanthellas of _Moniliformis dubius_\nwere fed to three toads.\nFamily HYLIDAE\n=Hyla cinerea= (Schneider)\n_Common name._--Green tree frog.\n_Natural prey._--_Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_, _Periplaneta americana_,\nand undetermined cockroaches, U.S.A., Georgia (Haber, 1926): Cockroaches\nwere found in 11 of 100 stomachs.\nFamily RANIDAE\n=Arthroleptis variabilis= Matschie\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Noble, 1924): Of 52\nspecimens examined, the stomach contents of 17 contained food, including\n3 cockroaches.\n=Hyperolius picturatus= Peters\n_Natural prey._--Cockroach, Belgian Congo (Noble, 1924): The stomachs of\n12 of 56 specimens examined contained food, including one cockroach.\n=Leptodactylus albilabris= (G\u00fcnther)\n_Natural prey._--Cockroach, Puerto Rico (Schmidt, 1920): One of 25\nstomachs contained a medium-sized cockroach.\n=Leptodactylus pentadactylus= (Laurenti)\n_Common name._--\"Smoky jungle frog\" or \"pepper frog.\"\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Nicaragua (Noble, 1918): Cockroach wings\nwere found in the stomach of a frog caught around human habitation.\nBrazil (Valente, 1949).\n=Leptopelis calcaratus= (Boulenger)\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Noble, 1924): The stomachs\nof 35 specimens were examined of which 13 contained food, including 2\ncockroaches.\n=Leptopelis rufus= Reichenow\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Noble, 1924): Forty-five of\n83 stomachs examined contained food, including 2 cockroaches.\n=Megalixalus fornasinii= (Bianconi)\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Noble, 1924): The stomachs\nof 3 of 40 specimens contained food, including 2 cockroaches.\n=Rana catesbeiana= Shaw\n_Common name._--Bullfrog.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Puerto Rico (Derez, 1949).\n=Rana mascareniensis= Dum\u00e9ril and Bibron\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Belgian Congo (Noble, 1924): The stomach\ncontents of 138 specimens were examined, 39 of which contained food,\nincluding 2 cockroaches.\n=Rana pipiens= Schreber\n_Common name._--Leopard frog.\n_Experimental prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Moore, 1946):\nCockroaches containing infective acanthellas of _Moniliformis dubius_\nwere fed to two frogs.\n_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, U.S.A. (Dr. T. Eisner, personal\ncommunication, 1958.)\n=Frogs=\n_Natural prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1924): Frogs which\nescaped from a tank in the cellar consumed quantities of this cockroach.\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, U.S.A. (Frost, 1924): One adult specimen\nrecovered from alimentary canal of a frog, probably _Rana_ sp.\n=Unidentified batrachians=\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, Germany, Frankfurt am Main,\nZoological Garden (Lederer, 1952): These insects were preferred by all\nthe insect eaters in the zoo.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Germany, Frankfurt am Main, Zoological Garden\n(Lederer, 1952): Newly molted individuals were accepted as food, but\nothers were usually passed by or consumed unwillingly.\nClass REPTILIA[10]\nOrder CHELONIA\nFamily EMYDIDAE\n=Chrysemys picta= (Schneider)\n_Common name._--Painted turtle.\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, England (Lucas, 1916,\n1920): The cockroach, apparently injured, fell into water in the\ntortoise house, Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, and the terrapin ate\nit.\nOrder SAURIA\nFamily GEKKONIDAE\n=Gekko gecko= (Linnaeus)\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Philippine Islands, Laguna (Villadolid,\n1934): The geckos frequent holes in trees and underside of bark which\nare favorable haunts of cockroaches. Stomach contents mostly Blattidae\nand \"Locustidae.\"\n=Hemidactylus frenatus= Dum\u00e9ril and Bibron\n_Common name._--House lizard.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Philippine Islands, Laguna (Villadolid,\n1934): Bulk of stomach contents of 22 lizards consisted of Orthoptera,\nmostly cockroaches.\n=Sphaerodactylus= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): The above\nlizard is found in houses.\n=Thecadactylus= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): The above\nlizard is found in houses.\n=Undetermined geckos=\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Australia, Flinders River (Froggatt,\n1906): The lizard lived in the walls of the hut and hunted cockroaches\nupon the roof at night. Arno Atoll (Usinger and La Rivers, 1953).\nFamily IGUANIDAE\n=Anolis carolinensis= Voigt\n_Experimental prey._--_Diploptera punctata_, U.S.A. (Eisner, 1958).\n=Anolis cristatellus= Dum\u00e9ril and Bibron\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella_ sp., _Cariblatta delicatula_, _Epilampra\nwheeleri_, _Periplaneta americana_, _Periplaneta australasiae_, and\n_Symploce flagellata_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1924): The last-named\ncockroach may have been _S. ruficollis_ Rehn and Hebard, the females of\nwhich are hard to distinguish from _flagellata_. Rehn and Hebard (1927)\nstated that in all probability _flagellata_ does not occur on the island\nof Puerto Rico. Wolcott (1950) stated that _Symploce ruficollis_\n[= _bilabiata_] serves as food for the crested lizard.\nCockroaches, Puerto Rico (Schmidt, 1920): Of 100 stomachs examined, 16\ncontained Orthoptera, including cockroaches. Puerto Rico (Wolcott,\n1924): One hundred _A. cristatellus_ had eaten 8 cockroaches, 4.14\npercent of the total food, or 25 percent of the food for 8 lizards.\n=Anolis pulchellus= Dum\u00e9ril and Bibron\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1924): Two small\ncockroaches found in 50 lizards examined.\n=Anolis equestris= Merrem\n_Experimental prey._--_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, U.S.A. (Eisner,\npersonal communication, 1958.)\n=Anolis grahami= Garman\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta_ spp. and Blattidae, Bermuda (Simmonds,\n1958): Stomachs of 176 lizards yielded 6 cockroaches.\n=Anolis leachi= Dum\u00e9ril and Bibron\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta_ spp. and Blattidae, Bermuda (Simmonds,\n1958): Stomachs of 46 lizards yielded 31 cockroaches.\n=Anolis sagrei= Cocteau\n_Natural and experimental prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Cuba\n(Darlington, 1938): This species was eaten both in captivity and in\nnature. The lizard ate most readily soft, immature cockroaches.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ is probably a staple food of the lizard in\nnature, as Darlington observed wild lizards catch the nymphs.\n=Anolis stratulus= Cope\n_Natural prey._--_Aglaopteryx facies_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1924): One\ncockroach was found in 50 lizards examined.\nCockroach, Puerto Rico (Schmidt, 1920): One of 25 stomachs contained a\ncockroach.\n=Anolis= sp.\n_Natural prey._--\"Wood roaches,\" British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): The\nabove lizard is arboreal on foliage in low jungle.\nFamily SCINCIDAE\n=Leiolopisma laterale= Say\n_Common name._--Brown skink.\n_Natural prey._--Woodroaches, U.S.A., Louisiana (Slater, 1949): Analysis\nof stomach contents of 84 adult skinks showed that nymphal and adult\nwoodroaches comprised the majority of Orthoptera.\n=Tropidophorus grayi= G\u00fcnther\n_Common name._--Spiny lizard.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Philippine Islands, Laguna (Villadolid,\n1934): Food of this species was mostly Blattidae.\n=Unidentified skinks=\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Arno Atoll (Usinger and La Rivers, 1953).\nFamily AGAMIDAE\n_Experimental prey?_--Cockroaches, Australia (Lee and Mackerras, 1955):\nA general statement was made that in captivity Agamidae were observed\nfeeding avidly on cockroaches and other insects. Three agamids studied\nby these workers were _Amphibolurus barbatus_ (Gray), _Physignathus\nlesueurii_ Gray, and _Chlamydosaurus kingii_ Gray.\nFamily CHAMAELEONTIDAE\n=Chamaeleon chamaeleon= (Linnaeus) and =Chamaeleon oustaleti= Mocquard\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, Amsterdam (Portielje, 1914): Large\ncockroaches were fed to these lizards in the reptile house of Artis.\nFamily TEIIDAE\n=Ameiva exsul= Cope\n_Common name._--Iguana, ground lizard.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroach (nymph), _Epilampra wheeleri_, and\n_Periplaneta americana_, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1924): Stomach contents\nof 15 lizards were analyzed. _E. wheeleri_ formed 30 percent of the food\nof one lizard. The cockroach nymph formed 5 percent of the food of one\nlizard. One _P. americana_ formed 20 percent of the food of one lizard;\nanother formed 50 percent of the food of a second lizard.\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroach nymphs, Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1924).\n=Ameiva= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): The above\nlizard is terrestrial and found near clearings. The stomach contents of\n18 out of 40 reptiles contained cockroach remains.\n=Cnemidophorus= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): This is a\nterrestrial lizard found near clearings. The stomach contents of 4 out\nof 40 lizards contained cockroaches.\n=Unidentified lizards=\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, West Indies (H., 1800).\n_Experimental prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1924): Rau\ncalled the predator a common gray lizard.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Germany, Frankfurt am Main, Zoological Garden\n(Lederer, 1952): Newly molted cockroaches were accepted as food, but\nothers were usually passed by or consumed unwillingly.\nOrder SERPENTES\nFamily COLUBRIDAE\n=Heterodon platyrhinos= Latreille\n_Synonymy._--_Heterodon contortrix_ [Dr. Doris M. Cochran, personal\ncommunication, 1957].\n_Common name._--Hog-nosed snake.\n_Experimental prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, U.S.A. (Moore, 1946):\nCockroaches containing infective acanthellas of _Moniliformis dubius_\nwere fed to one snake.\n=Garter Snake=\n_Experimental prey._--_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1924).\nClass AVES\n  The cockroach is always wrong when arguing with a chicken.\nArboreal cockroaches hidden in and under bark are much more likely to be\nencountered by birds than by other predators, and insectivorous birds\nundoubtedly consume many more cockroaches than the few records would\nindicate. Most of the records we have located identify the birds at\nleast by common name. Where possible we have given the scientific names\nfor those birds whose common names are recognizably specific. We have\nfollowed the systematic classification of Wetmore (1940).\nFiguier (1869) stated that poultry and owls are very fond of\ncockroaches. Perkins (1913) made the general statement that some of the\nnative birds of Hawaii are partial to the endemic _Allacta similis_.\nAsano (1937) stated that in Japan natural enemies of cockroaches may be\nfound in the Galliformes, Strigiformes, Passeriformes, and Piciformes.\nAlthough Lederer (1952) successfully fed newly molted _Periplaneta\namericana_ to insectivorous birds in the Zoological Garden, Frankfurt am\nMain, _Blattella germanica_ were preferred by these birds. The following\nrecords are of specific birds feeding on cockroaches.\nOrder ANSERIFORMES\nFamily ANATIDAE\n=Domestic duck=\n_Natural prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Australia (Fielding 1926):\nThe ducks became infected with Manson's eye worm of which _P.\nsurinamensis_ is the only known intermediate host.\nCockroach, Bermuda (Jones, 1859): \"All kinds of poultry feed greedily\nupon the cockroach; tame ducks spending entire moonlight nights in their\ncapture.\"\nOrder GALLIFORMES\nFamily PHASIANIDAE\n=Bambusicola thoracica= Temminck\n_Common name._--Kojukei.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Japan (Asano, 1937).\n=Gallus= sp.\n_Common name._--Jungle fowl.\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta australasiae_, Hawaii (Schwartz and\nSchwartz, 1949).\n=Phasianus calchicus karpowi= Buturlin\n_Common name._--Korean pheasants.\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_ and _Periplaneta picea_,\nJapan (Asano, 1937): Adults of these cockroaches were devoured at once\nwhen they were fed with the heads cut off.\n=Phasianus= sp.\n_Common name._--Pheasant.\n_Natural prey._--Blattidae, unidentified (below 1 percent of the diet),\n_Cutila soror_ (below 1 percent of the diet), _Diploptera punctata_\n(above 6 percent of the diet), and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ (6 percent\nof the diet), Hawaii (Schwartz and Schwartz, 1949).\n=Coturnix coturnix japonica= (Temminck and Schlegel)\n_Common name._--Japanese quail.\n_Natural prey._--Blattidae (unidentified) and _Lobopterella\ndimidiatipes_, Hawaii (Schwartz and Schwartz, 1949).\n=Domestic chicken=\n_Natural and experimental prey._--_Blaberus craniifer_, U.S.A., Key\nWest, Florida. J.A.G. Rehn in 1912 (personal communication) observed\nchickens feeding on nymphs of _B. craniifer_ which had dropped to the\nground from among stacked coffins in an undertaker's shack.\n_Blatta orientalis_, U.S.A. (Rau, 1924): The chickens ate cockroaches\nthat were caught in traps.\n_Hebardina concinna_, Japan (Asano, 1937): Experimental feeding to white\nLeghorn chickens.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Surinam (Stage, 1947): Several cockroaches ran\noff the floor of a house, which was being sprayed with DDT, and were\neaten by chickens. Although some chickens had DDT tremors the next day,\nall appeared normal two days later.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Australia (Fielding, 1926); Formosa,\nexperimental feeding (Kobayashi, 1927); Australia, experimental feeding\n(Fielding, 1927, 1928); U.S.A., Florida, experimental feeding (Sanders,\n1928); Antigua (Hutson, 1943); Hawaii (Illingworth, 1931; Schwabe, 1949,\n1950a, 1950b). This cockroach is the intermediate host of _Oxyspirura\nmansoni_, the chicken eye worm.\nCockroaches, Guadeloupe (Dutertre, 1654); Africa (Moiser, 1947):\n\"Poultry\" ate cockroaches which had been killed by DDT and sodium\nfluoride. Hawaii (Zimmerman, 1948).\n=Partridge=\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): The food of\ntwo small species of leaf-colored partridges that lived on the jungle\nfloor, consisted chiefly of cockroaches and beetles.\nFamily MELEAGRIDIDAE\n=Meleagris gallopavo= (Linnaeus)\n_Common name._--Turkey.\n_Natural prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Antigua (Hutson, 1943):\nTurkeys were found heavily infected with Manson's eye worm of which _P.\nsurinamensis_ is the only known intermediate host. These turkeys\ntherefore were presumed to have fed on this cockroach.\nOrder COLUMBIFORMES\nFamily COLUMBIDAE\n=Streptopelia chinensis= (Scopoli)\n_Common name._--Chinese dove.\n_Natural prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Schwabe, 1950b).\n=Pigeon=\n_Experimental prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Australia (Fielding,\n1927); U.S.A., Florida (Sanders, 1928).\nOrder STRIGIFORMES\nFamily STRIGIDAE\n=Gymnasio nudipes= (Daudin)\n_Common name._--Bare-legged owl.\n_Natural prey._--_Epilampra_ sp., Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916): One\nspecimen identified in stomach of a wild-caught owl.\nCockroaches, Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916): These insects were found in\nstomachs of five owls.\nOrder CORACIFORMES\nFamily TODIDAE\n=Todus mexicanus= Lesson\n_Common name._--Porto Rican tody.\n_Natural prey._--_Plectoptera poeyi?_, Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916): The\nstomachs of 89 birds were examined; a single bird had eaten the above\ncockroach. According to Wolcott (1950) _P. poeyi_ could be _Plectoptera\ndorsalis_, _P. rhabdota_, or _P. infulata_.\nFamily BUCEROTIDAE\n=Tockus birostris= (Scopoli)\n_Synonymy._--_Lophocerus birostris_ [Dr. H. Friedmann, personal\ncommunication, 1957].\n_Common name._--Common gray hornbill.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, India, Central Provinces (D'Abreu, 1920).\nOrder PICIFORMES\nFamily PICIDAE\n=Dendrocopus mahrattensis= (Latham)\n_Synonymy._--_Liopicus mahrattensis_ [Friedmann, p. c. 1957].\n_Common name._--Yellow-fronted pied woodpecker.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, India, Central Provinces (D'Abreu, 1920).\n=Melanerpes portoricensis= (Daudin)\n_Common name._--Puerto Rican woodpecker.\n_Natural prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Puerto Rico (Wetmore,\n1916): One specimen found in 59 bird stomachs examined.\nOrder PASSERIFORMES\nFamily FORMICARIIDAE\n=Gymnopithys leucaspis= (Sclater)\n_Common name._--Bicolored antbird.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Panama Canal Zone (Johnson, 1954): This\nbird feeds on small cockroaches, and other arthropods, which are flushed\nfrom their hiding places by swarms of the army ant, _Eciton burchelli_.\nFamily ORIOLIDAE\n=Icterus portoricensis= (Bryant)\n_Common name._--Puerto Rican oriole.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916): Cockroaches\nand o\u00f6thecae found in the birds' stomachs.\nFamily CORVIDAE\n=Aphelocoma coerulesens= (Bosc)\n_Common name._--Florida jay.\n_Experimental prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A., Florida\n(Sanders, 1928).\n=Cyanocitta cristata= (Linnaeus)\n_Common name._--Blue jay.\n_Experimental prey._--_Diploptera punctata_, U.S.A. (Eisner, 1958).\n_Eurycotis floridana_, _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, and _Periplaneta\namericana_, U.S.A. (Eisner, personal communication, 1958): _E.\nfloridana_ was only eaten after the odor of 2-hexenal, which was\nreleased by the insect on being attacked by the bird, had dissipated.\nFamily PARADISEIDAE\n=Paradisea papuana= Bechstein\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, Malaya and on shipboard (Wallace,\n1869): Two adult males fed voraciously on rice, bananas, and\ncockroaches. Wallace collected cockroaches every night on board ship to\nfeed the birds. \"At Malta ... I got plenty of cockroaches from a\nbakehouse, and when I left, took with me several biscuit-tins full, as\nprovision for the voyage home.\"\nFamily TROGLODYTIDAE\n=Troglodytes aedon= Vieillot\n_Common name._--House wren.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, U.S.A. (Greenewalt and Jones, 1955): The\nwren carried three small cockroaches to nestlings; the records probably\nrepresent incidental captures.\n=Troglodytes audax= Tschudi\n_Common name._--Cucarachero.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroach (called Chilicabra by Peruvian Indians), Peru\n(Tschudi, 1847): The bird seized the cockroach and bit off its head then\ndevoured the body discarding the wings.\nFamily LANIIDAE\n=Lanius ludovicianus= Linnaeus\n_Common name._--Loggerhead shrike.\n_Experimental prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A., Florida\n(Sanders, 1928).\nFamily STURNIDAE\n=Acridotheres tristis= Bonnaterre and Vieillot\n_Common name._--Myna, mynah.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Hawaii, Lanai (Illingworth, 1928):\nIllingworth reported that he had never seen as many cockroaches anywhere\nelse in Hawaii. The birds followed tractors that were destroying cactus\nand kept close to the chain that turned over the stumps. The following\nspecies were collected: _Allacta similis_, _Blattella germanica_,\n_Cutilia soror_, _Diploptera punctata_, _Leucophaea maderae_,\n_Periplaneta americana_, _Periplaneta australasiae_, _Pycnoscelus\nsurinamensis_. Illingworth did not state whether the birds ate all these\nspecies indiscriminately.\n_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Williams et al., 1931; Schwabe,\n1950b): In many places this species forms an important fledgling food\nfor mynah birds.\nFamily VIREONIDAE\n=Vireo latimeri= Baird\n_Common name._--Latimer's vireo.\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta_ sp., Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916):\nCockroaches were found in one of 43 stomachs examined.\nFamily ICTERIDAE\n=Agelaius xanthomus= (Sclater)\n_Common name._--Yellow-shouldered blackbird.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916): O\u00f6thecae and\nremains of adult cockroaches found in stomachs.\n=Dolichonyx oryzivorus= (Linnaeus)\n_Common name._--Bobolink.\n_Experimental prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A., Florida\n(Sanders, 1928).\n=Holoquiscalus brachypterus= (Cassin)\n_Common name._--Puerto Rican blackbird.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916): A few eggs\n(o\u00f6thecae) of cockroaches in stomachs.\n=Black bird=\n_Experimental prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, U.S.A., Florida\n(Sanders, 1928).\nFamily FRINGILLIDAE\n=Passer domesticus= (Linnaeus)\n_Common name._--English sparrow.\n_Natural prey._--_Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, Hawaii (Illingworth, 1931;\nSchwabe, 1950b): Remains of this cockroach were found in the stomach of\nthe sparrow.\n=Sparrow=\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, England (Lucas, 1908, 1920).\nCockroaches, Japan (Asano, 1937).\n=Tiaris bicolor omissa= (Jardine)\n_Common name._--Carib grassquit.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Puerto Rico (Wetmore, 1916): Animal food\nwas found in 5 of 72 stomachs examined; one bird had eaten two\ncockroaches among other insects.\nClass MAMMALIA[11]\nOrder MARSUPIALIA\nFamily DIDELPHIDAE\n=Monodelphis= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): The above\nopossum is nocturnal and arboreal but nests on the ground in grass.\nOrder INSECTIVORA\nFamily ERINACEIDAE\n=Erinaceus europaeus= Linnaeus\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): Two hedgehogs were fed cockroaches infested with _Prosthenorchis\nelegans_ and _P. spirula_.\n=Erinaceus= sp.\n_Common name._--Hedgehog.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, England (Samouelle, 1841; Cowan, 1865).\nOrder CHIROPTERA\nFamily MOLOSSIDAE\n=Molossus= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a): The above\nbat is a common house bat of the area.\nOrder PRIMATES\nFamily LEMURIDAE\n=Lemur coronatus= Gray\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): The monkey apparently became infested naturally with\n_Prosthenorchis spirula_ for which _B. germanica_ was the intermediate\nhost in the monkey house.\n=Lemur fulvus= E. Geoffroy\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comment under _Lemur coronatus_.\nFamily LORISIDAE\n=Loris tardigradus= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Lemur tardigradus_ [Dr. D. H. Johnson, personal\ncommunication, 1957].\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, on board ship (Cowan, 1865).\n=Perodicticus potto= (P. L. S. M\u00fcller)\n_Common name._--Potto.\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comment under _Lemur coronatus_.\n_Experimental prey._--Blattidae, East Africa (Pitman, 1931): Both sexes\nof the potto ate freely of all types of cockroaches.\nFamily TARSIIDAE\n=Tarsius= sp.\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, Borneo (Shelford, 1916).\nFamily CEBIDAE\n=Aotes zonalis= Goldman\n_Synonymy._--_Aotus_ [Simpson, 1945].\n_Common name._--Canal Zone night monkey.\n_Natural prey._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Panama (Foster and Johnson,\n1939): Captive monkeys became naturally infested with _Protospirura\nmuricola_ by eating cockroaches that contained infective larvae of the\nworm.\n=Ateles dariensis= Goldman\n_Common name._--Darien black spider monkey.\n_Natural prey._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Panama (Foster and Johnson,\n1939): See comment under _Aotes zonalis_.\n=Cebus apella= (Linnaeus)\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comment under _Lemur coronatus_.\n=Cebus capucinus= (Linnaeus)\n_Common name._--White-faced monkey.\n_Natural prey._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Panama (Foster and Johnson,\n1939): Favorite item of food in the laboratory. See comment under _Aotes\nzonalis_.\n=Saimiri sciurea= Linnaeus\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comment under _Callithrix chrysoleucos_.\nFamily CALLITHRICIDAE\n=Callithrix chrysoleucos= (Natterer)\n_Synonymy._--_Callithrix chrysolevea_ [Johnson, personal communication,\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): The monkey apparently became infested naturally with\n_Prosthenorchis elegans_ for which _B. germanica_ was the intermediate\nhost in the monkey house.\n=Callithrix jacchus= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Simia jacchus._\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comment under _Lemur coronatus_.\nCockroaches, on board ship (Neill, 1829; also cited by Samouelle, 1841,\nand Cowan, 1865): \"It was quite amusing to see it at its meal. When he\nhad got hold of one of the largest cockroaches, he held it in his fore\npaws, and then invariably nipped the head off first; he then pulled out\nthe viscera and cast them aside, and devoured the rest of the body,\nrejecting the dry elytra and wings, and also the legs of the insect,\nwhich are covered with short stiff bristles. The smaller cockroaches he\neat[s] without such fastidious nicety.\"\n=Leontocebus oedipus= (Linnaeus)\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comment under _Callithrix chrysoleucos_.\n=Leontocebus rosalia= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Midas rosalia_ [Simpson, 1945].\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comments under _Lemur coronatus_ and _Callithrix\nchrysoleucos_.\n=Leontocebus ursulus= (E. Geoffroy)\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comments under _Callithrix chrysoleucos_.\nFamily CERCOPITHECIDAE\n=Cercopithecus= sp.\n_Experimental prey._--Cockroaches, East Africa (Carpenter, 1921, 1925):\nThe monkey rarely tasted and usually ignored cockroaches offered to it.\nIn one experiment the monkey had to be deprived of food before it would\neat the cockroach.\n=Macaca mulatta= (Zimmermann)\n_Synonymy._--_Macaca rhesus_ [Johnson, personal communication, 1957].\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938, 1938a): The macaque was fed cockroaches infested with\n_Prosthenorchis elegans_ and _P. spirula_.\n=Macaca sylvanus= (Linnaeus)\n_Synonymy._--_Inuus sylvanus_ [Simpson, 1945].\n_Common name._--Macaque.\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): See comment under _Lemur coronatus_.\n=Papio papio= (Desmarest)\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938, 1938a): This baboon was fed cockroaches infested with\n_Prosthenorchis elegans_ and _P. spirula_.\nFamily PONGIDAE\n=Pan= sp.\n_Common name._--Chimpanzee.\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, Netherlands (Thiel and Wiegand\nBruss, 1946): Indirect evidence for this relationship was shown by these\nworkers who found two animals heavily infected with _Prosthenorchis\nspirula_ in a zoo in Rotterdam; the intermediate host of the worm was\nshown to be _B. germanica_.\nFamily HOMINIDAE\n=Homo sapiens= Linnaeus\n_Natural prey._--O\u00f6thecae of _Blatta orientalis_ and _Neostylopyga\nrhombifolia_, Thailand (Bristowe, 1932).\n_Periplaneta americana_, Formosa (Takahashi, 1924).\n_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta australasiae_, Australia,\nChina, and Japan (Bodenheimer, 1951).\nCockroaches, Annam and French Guinea (Brygoo, 1946).\nIn addition to the above records of cockroaches being used as food by\nman these insects have also been eaten for medicinal purposes (see Roth\nand Willis, 1957a).\nOrder EDENTATA\nFamily DASYPODIDAE\n=Dasypus novemcinctus= Linnaeus\n_Synonymy._--_Tatu novemcinctum_ [Johnson, personal communication,\n_Natural prey._--_Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_, Texas (Hebard, 1917): A\nspecimen of this cockroach in the U. S. National Museum was taken from\nthe stomach of the armadillo.\nOrder RODENTIA\nFamily MURIDAE\n=Mus musculus= Linnaeus\n_Experimental prey._--_Diploptera punctata_, U.S.A. (Eisner, 1958).\n=Rattus norvegicus= (Berkenhout)\n_Synonymy._--_Mus decumanus; Epimys norvegicus._\n_Natural prey._--_Leucophaea maderae_, Venezuela (Brumpt, 1931): Rats\ninfested with _Protospirura bonnei_ presumably ate this cockroach which\nis the intermediate host of the worm.\n_Periplaneta americana_, Brazil (Magalh\u00e3es, 1898): Remains found in the\nstomachs of brown rats. Denmark (Fibiger and Ditlevsen, 1914): This\ncockroach was found to be the intermediate host of _Gongylonema\nneoplasticum_, a parasite of rats.\n=Rattus rattus= (Linnaeus)\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, Denmark (Fibiger and\nDitlevsen, 1914): See comment after these authors under _Rattus\nnorvegicus_.\n=Rattus= spp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, India (Maxwell-Lefroy, 1909); Burma\n(Subramanian, 1927).\nFamily CAVIIDAE\n=Cavia= sp.\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Hobmaier, 1941):\nGuinea pigs were fed cockroaches infested with _Physaloptera\nmaxillaris_.\nOrder CARNIVORA\nFamily CANIDAE\n=Canis familiaris= Linnaeus\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Hobmaier, 1941):\nDogs were fed cockroaches infested with _Physaloptera maxillaris_.\nU.S.A. (Petri and Ameel, 1950): Cockroaches infested with _Physaloptera\nrara_ were fed to a dog.\n=Canis latrans= Say\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Petri and Ameel,\n1950): Cockroaches infested with _Physaloptera rara_ were fed to a\ncoyote.\n=Vulpes= sp.\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938a): A fox was successfully infected when fed cockroaches infested\nwith _Prosthenorchis elegans_ and _P. spirula_.\nFamily PROCYONIDAE\n=Bassariscus astutus= (Lichtenstein)\n_Common names._--Cacomistle, ring-tailed cat.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, U.S.A., Arizona (Dr. H. Stahnke, personal\ncommunication, 1953): The ring-tailed cat enters dwellings located on\nthe desert and feeds on cockroaches and other arthropods.\n=Nasua narica= (Linnaeus)\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938): The coati apparently became infested naturally with\n_Prosthenorchis spirula_ for which _B. germanica_ was the intermediate\nhost in the laboratory.\n=Nasua nasua= (Linnaeus)\n_Natural prey._--_Blattella germanica_, on board ship (Myers, 1931):\nThis insect was eaten when other insects were absent.\nCockroach, a small outdoor species, Trinidad (Myers, 1931).\n=Nasua= sp.\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, British Guiana (Beebe, 1925a).\nFamily MUSTELIDAE\n=Meles= sp.\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, France (Brumpt and Urbain,\n1938a): A badger was successfully infected when fed cockroaches infested\nwith _Prosthenorchis elegans_ and _P. spirula_.\nFamily VIVERRIDAE\n=Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus= Hodgson\n_Natural prey._--_Epilampra wheeleri_, _Eurycotis improcera_, _Panchlora\nnivea_, _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, and others unidentified to species,\nSt. Croix and Puerto Rico (Wolcott, 1953): Based on 37 or more\ncockroaches obtained from stomachs of 42 mongooses collected in St.\nCroix (by Seaman) and 56 collected in Puerto Rico (by Pimentel).\nPimentel (personal communication, 1958) has given us the following\npercentage occurrence of cockroach species in the total number of\nmongoose stomachs that he examined in Puerto Rico: _Epilampra wheeleri_\n1.8, _Ischnoptera rufa rufa_ 3.6, _Panchlora nivea_ 1.8, _Periplaneta\namericana_ 1.8, and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ 19.6.\n=Herpestes= sp.\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta australasiae_,\nHawaii (Perkins, 1913): Large numbers of these cockroaches are devoured.\nCockroach, East Africa (Loveridge, 1923): Cockroach remains found in\nstomach of mongoose.\nFamily FELIDAE\n=Felis catus= Linnaeus\n_Natural prey._--_Periplaneta americana_, Hawaii (Williams et al.,\nCockroaches, U.S.A., Arizona (Stahnke, personal communication, 1953).\n_Experimental prey._--_Blattella germanica_, U.S.A. (Hobmaier, 1941):\nCats were fed cockroaches infested with _Physaloptera maxillaris_.\nU.S.A. (Petri and Ameel, 1950): Cockroaches infested with _Physaloptera\nrara_ were fed to a kitten. France (Brumpt and Urbain, 1938a): A young\ncat was fed cockroaches infested with _Prosthenorchis elegans_ and _P.\nspirula_.\n=Felis pardalis mearnsi= J. A. Allen\n_Natural prey._--Cockroaches, Panama (Dr. H. L. Sweetman, personal\ncommunication, 1958): An ocelot was seen collecting and feeding on\ncockroaches, possibly _Blaberus_ sp. \"The ocelot was quite efficient and\nseemed to relish the roaches.\"\nXIV. CHECKLIST OF COCKROACHES AND SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATES\nOnly naturally occurring associations are included in this list.\nCommensal cockroaches are listed on page 315. Bacteroids are not listed\nbecause they undoubtedly occur in all species. The higher plants were\nexcluded because most of the associations may be too casual to\nconstitute symbiosis; however, many of the plant associations were\nincluded in the chapter on ecology. The cockroaches and the associates\nwithin each category are arranged alphabetically by genus and species.\nPage references are to citations in the classified sections where\ndetails of the associations and/or sources of the records are given.\n=Aglaopteryx facies=\n  Mite: Undetermined, p. 220.\n  Reptile: _Anolis stratulus_, p. 274.\n=Aglaopteryx diaphana=\n  Nematode: _Protrellus manni_, p. 200.\n=Allacta similis=\n  Insects:\n    _Dolichurus stantoni_, p. 262.\n    _Solindenia picticornis_, p. 247.\n=Anaplecta= sp.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces anaplectae_, p. 134.\n=Aptera fusca=\n  Protozoan: _Gregarina fastidiosa_, p. 182.\n=Arenivaga bolliana=\n  Insect: _Sarcophaga omani_, p. 229.\n=Arenivaga roseni=\n  Insects: Undetermined reduviids, p. 227.\n=Balta patula=\n  Insect: _Rhipidioides ableptus_, p. 230.\n=Blaberus atropos=\n  Bacterium: _Spirochaeta blattae_, p. 125.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Endolimax nana_, p. 180.\n    _Entamoeba coli_, p. 178.\n  Nematodes:\n    _Leidynema appendiculata_, p. 197.\n    _Leidynema cranifera_, p. 198.\n=Blaberus craniifer=\n  Bacteria:\n    _Aerobacter aerogenes_, p. 111.\n    _Alcaligenes faecalis_, p. 111.\n    _Bacillus cereus_, p. 120.\n    _Bacillus subtilis_, p. 121.\n    _Escherichia coli_ var. _communior_, p. 113.\n    _Escherichia freundii_, p. 113.\n    _Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _albus_, p. 106.\n    _Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _aureus_, p. 107.\n    _Proteus vulgaris_, p. 114.\n    _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_, p. 104.\n  Fungi:\n    _Herpomyces tricuspidatus_, p. 138.\n    _Penicillium_ sp., p. 131.\n    _Rhizopus nigricans_, p. 133.\n    _Saccharomyces cerevisiae_, p. 133.\n  Protozoan: _Diplocystis_ (?) sp., pp. 181, 184.\n  Nematodes:\n    _Leidynema cranifera_, p. 198.\n    _Protrelleta floridana_, p. 199.\n  Mite: _Iolina nana_, p. 219.\n    Undetermined, p. 220.\n  Bird: Chicken, p. 278.\n=Blaberus discoidalis=\n  Mite: Undetermined, p. 220.\n=Blaberus giganteus=\n  Hair worm: _Gordius pilosus_, p. 202.\n=Blaberus= sp.\n  Fungi:\n    _Herpomyces macropus_, p. 136.\n    _Herpomyces paranensis_, p. 136.\n    _Herpomyces periplanetae_, p. 137.\n    _Herpomyces tricuspidatus_, p. 138.\n  Protozoan: _Leptomonas blaberae_, p. 167.\n=Blaptica dubia=\n  Protozoan: _Pileocephalus blaberae_, p. 184.\n=Blatta (Shelfordella) lateralis=\n  Bacterium: _Shigella paradysenteriae_, p. 119.\n  Insect: _Ampulex assimilis_, p. 257.\n=Blatta orientalis=\n  Bacteria:\n    _Aerobacter aerogenes_, p. 111.\n    _Alcaligenes faecalis_, p. 111.\n    _Alcaligenes recti_, p. 111.\n    _Arthromitus intestinalis_, p. 124.\n    B. aerobio del pseudoedema maligno, p. 125.\n    _B. alcaligenes beckeri_, p. 125.\n    B. del pseudoedema maligno, p. 125.\n    Bacillo proteisimile, p. 126.\n    Bacillo similcarbonchio, p. 126.\n    Bacillo similtifo (Bacillo tifosimile), p. 126.\n    _Bacillus b\u00fctschlii_, p. 120.\n    _Bacillus periplanetae_, p. 121.\n    _Bacillus stellatus_, p. 121.\n    _Bacillus subtilis_, p. 122.\n    _Bacillus tritus_, p. 122.\n    _Bacteroides uncatus_, p. 119.\n    _Clostridium lentoputrescens_, p. 122.\n    _Clostridium novyi_ or _Clostridium sporogenes_, p. 122.\n    _Enterococcus_ sp., p. 109.\n    _Escherichia coli_, p. 112.\n    _Lactobacillus fermenti_, p. 109.\n    _Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _albus_, p. 107.\n    _Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _aureus_, p. 107.\n    _Micrococcus_ sp., p. 108.\n    _Paracolobactrum_ sp., p. 113.\n    _Pasteurella pestis_, p. 119.\n    _Proteus vulgaris_, p. 114.\n    _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_, p. 104.\n    _Pseudomonas eisenbergii_, p. 105.\n    _Pseudomonas fluorescens_, p. 105.\n    _Salmonella typhosa_, p. 117.\n    _Sarcina alba_, p. 108.\n    _Sarcina symbiotica_ (host may have been _B. germanica_), p. 108.\n    _Sarcina ventriculi_, p. 108.\n    _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n    _Spirillochaeta blattae_, p. 127.\n    _Spirillum_ \u03b1, \u03b2 and \u03b3, p. 105.\n    _Spirillum_ sp., p. 105.\n    _Spirochaeta periplanetae_, p. 125.\n    _Streptococcus faecalis_, p. 109.\n    _Streptococcus liquefaciens_, p. 110.\n    _Streptococcus microapoika_, p. 110.\n    _Streptococcus pyogenes_, p. 110.\n    _Streptococcus_ sp., p. 110.\n    _Treponema parvum_, p. 125.\n    _Treponema stylopygae_, p. 125.\n  Fungi:\n    _Aspergillus fumigatus_, p. 130.\n    _Blastocystis hominis_, p. 133.\n    _Blastocystis_ sp., p. 133.\n    _Candida zeylanoides_, p. 129.\n    _Coccidioides periplanetae_, p. 133.\n    _Herpomyces periplanetae_, p. 137.\n    _Herpomyces stylopygae_, p. 137.\n    _Torula gropengiesseri_, p. 132.\n    _Torulopsis_ sp., p. 130.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Balantidium praenucleatum_, p. 187.\n    _Bodo blattae_, p. 167.\n    _Coelosporidium periplanetae_, p. 185.\n    _Diplocystis schneideri_, p. 181.\n    _Endamoeba blattae_, p. 177.\n    _Entamoeba thomsoni_, p. 179.\n    _Endolimax blattae_, p. 180.\n    _Endolimax_ sp., p. 180.\n    _Gregarina blattarum_, p. 181.\n    _Haplosporidium periplanetae_, p. 185.\n    _Hartmannella blattae_, p. 177.\n    _Herpetomonas periplanetae_, p. 167.\n    _Hexamita periplanetae_, p. 171.\n    _Lophomonas blattarum_, p. 172.\n    _Lophomonas striata_, p. 173.\n    _Monocercomonoides orthopterorum_, p. 169.\n    _Nyctotherus ovalis_, p. 188.\n    _Oikomonas_ sp., p. 166.\n    _Peltomyces periplanetae_, p. 177.\n    _Plistophora kudoi_, p. 185.\n    _Plistophora periplanetae_, p. 186.\n    _Plistophora_ sp., p. 186.\n    _Retortamonas blattae_, p. 167.\n    _Stenophora_ sp., p. 181.\n    _Tetratrichomastix blattidarum_, p. 170.\n  Helminths:\n    _Enterobius vermicularis_, p. 209.\n    _Gongylonema neoplasticum_, p. 206.\n    _Gordius blattae orientalis_, p. 202.\n    _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_, p. 195.\n    _Hammerschmidtiella neyrai_, p. 196.\n    _Leidynema appendiculata_, p. 197.\n    _Spirura gastrophila_, p. 207.\n    _Thelastoma pachyjuli_, p. 201.\n    _Trichostrongylus_ sp., p. 210.\n    _Trichuris trichiura_, p. 210.\n  Mite: Undetermined, pp. 220, 222.\n  Insects:\n    _Dermestes ater_, p. 234.\n    _Dermestes_ sp., p. 234.\n    _Evania appendigaster_, p. 236.\n    _Evania dimidiata_, p. 239.\n    _Prosevania punctata_, p. 240.\n    _Systellogaster ovivora_, p. 248.\n    _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 250.\n    _Tetrastichus_ sp., p. 254.\n  Bird: Chicken, p. 278.\n  Mammal: _Homo sapiens_, p. 286.\n=Blatta= sp.\n  Hair worm: _Gordius aquaticus_, p. 201.\n  Insects:\n    _Evania appendigaster_, p. 236.\n    _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 250.\n=Blattella germanica= and/or =Blattella vaga=\n  Viruses: Unspecified strains of poliomyelitis virus, p. 103.\n=Blattella germanica=\n  Bacteria:\n    _Achromobacter_ sp., p. 110.\n    _Aerobacter aerogenes_, p. 111.\n    _Aerobacter cloacae_, p. 112.\n    _Alcaligenes faecalis_, p. 111.\n    _Alcaligenes viscosus_, p. 111.\n    _Bacillus circulans_, p. 120.\n    _Escherichia coli_, p. 112.\n    _Escherichia freundii_, p. 113.\n    _Micrococcus aurantiacus_, p. 106.\n    _Micrococcus epidermidis_, p. 106.\n    _Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _albus_, p. 107.\n    _Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _aureus_, p. 107.\n    _Micrococcus ureae_, p. 107.\n    _Micrococcus_ sp., p. 108.\n    _Mycobacterium leprae_, p. 123.\n    _Paracolobactrum aerogenoides_, p. 113.\n    _Paracolobactrum coliforme_, p. 113.\n    _Paracolobactrum_ sp., p. 113.\n    _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_, p. 104.\n    _Sarcina symbiotica_ (host may have been _B. orientalis_), p. 108.\n    _Salmonella typhimurium_, p. 116.\n    _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n    _Streptococcus faecalis_, p. 109.\n    _Streptococcus_ sp., p. 110.\n  Fungi:\n    _Aspergillus flavus_, p. 130.\n    _Aspergillus tamarii_, p. 130.\n    _Aspergillus_ sp., p. 130.\n    _Cordyceps blattae_, p. 134.\n    _Herpomyces ectobiae_, p. 135.\n    _Memnoniella echinata_, p. 132.\n    _Saccharomyces_ sp., p. 133.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Bodo_ sp. (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 167.\n    _Coelosporidium periplanetae_, p. 185.\n    _Dobellina_ sp. (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 177.\n    _Endamoeba blattae_ (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 177.\n    _Endolimax_ sp. (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 180.\n    _Entamoeba coli_ (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 178.\n    _Entamoeba histolytica_ (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 179.\n    _Entamoeba thomsoni_, p. 179.\n    _Eutrichomastix_ sp. (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 169.\n    _Gregarina blattarum_, p. 182.\n    _Iodamoeba_ sp. (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 180.\n    _Lophomonas blattarum_, p. 172.\n    _Lophomonas striata_, p. 173.\n    _Nyctotherus ovalis_, p. 188.\n    _Peltomyces periplanetae_, p. 177.\n    _Plistophora periplanetae_, p. 186.\n    _Tetratrichomastix blattidarum_, p. 170.\n  Helminths:\n    _Blattelicola blattelicola_, p. 193.\n    _Blatticola blattae_, p. 193.\n    _Enterobius vermicularis_, p. 209.\n    _Galebia aegyptiaca_, p. 195.\n    _Gongylonema neoplasticum_, p. 206.\n    _Moniliformis kalahariensis_, p. 203.\n    _Prosthenorchis elegans_, p. 203.\n    _Prosthenorchis spirula_, p. 203.\n    _Tetrameres americana_, p. 207.\n    _Trichuris trichiura_, p. 210.\n  Mites:\n    _Blattisocius tineivorus_, p. 216.\n    _Caloglyphus_ sp., p. 218.\n    Undetermined, p. 220.\n  Insects:\n    _Brachygaster minutus_, p. 235.\n    _Eupelmus atriflagellum_, p. 247.\n    _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n    _Ripidius pectinicornis_, p. 232.\n  Mammals:\n    _Callithrix chrysoleucos_, p. 285.\n    _Callithrix jacchus_, p. 285.\n    _Cebus apella_, p. 284.\n    _Lemur coronatus_, p. 283.\n    _Lemur fulvus_, p. 283.\n    _Leontocebus oedipus_, p. 285.\n    _Leontocebus rosalia_, p. 285.\n    _Leontocebus ursulus_, p. 285.\n    _Macaca sylvanus_, p. 286.\n    _Nasua narica_, p. 288.\n    _Nasua nasua_, p. 288.\n    _Perodicticus potto_, p. 284.\n    _Saimiri sciurea_, p. 285.\n=Blattella humbertiana=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces gracilis_, p. 135.\n  Nematode: _Protrellus phyllodromi_, p. 200.\n  Mite: _Uropoda_ sp., p. 217.\n=Blattella lituricollis=\n  Insect: _Dolichurus stantoni_, p. 262.\n=Blattella= sp.\n  Reptile: _Anolis cristatellus_, p. 273.\n=Cariblatta delicatula=\n  Insect: _Hyptia_ sp., p. 240.\n  Reptile: _Anolis cristatellus_, p. 273.\n=Cariblatta lutea lutea=\n  Plants:\n    _Sarracenia flava_, p. 154.\n    _Sarracenia purpurea_, p. 154.\n=Chorisoneura= sp.\n  Insects:\n    _Stylogaster_ sp., p. 228.\n    _Tachysphex blatticidus_, p. 264.\n=Choristima= sp.\n  Insect: _Rhipidioides rubricatus_, p. 231.\n=Choristimodes= sp.\n  Insect: _Rhipidioides rubricatus_, p. 231.\n=Cryptocercus punctulatus=\n  Bacterium: _Bacillus subtilis_, p. 122.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Adelina cryptocerci_, p. 184.\n    _Barbulanympha estaboga_, p. 173.\n    _Barbulanympha laurabuda_, p. 174.\n    _Barbulanympha ufalula_, p. 174.\n    _Barbulanympha wenyoni_, p. 174.\n    _Eucomonympha imla_, p. 176.\n    _Hexamita cryptocerci_, p. 171.\n    _Idionympha perissa_, p. 174.\n    _Leptospironympha eupora_, p. 172.\n    _Leptospironympha rudis_, p. 172.\n    _Leptospironympha wachula_, p. 172.\n    _Macrospironympha xylopletha_, p. 172.\n    _Monocercomonoides globus_, p. 169.\n    _Notila proteus_, p. 170.\n    _Oxymonas doroaxostylus_, p. 170.\n    _Oxymonas nana_, p. 170.\n    _Prolophomonas tocopola_, p. 173.\n    _Rhynchonympha tarda_, p. 174.\n    _Saccinobaculus ambloaxostylus_, p. 170.\n    _Saccinobaculus lata_, p. 170.\n    _Trichonympha acuta_, p. 174.\n    _Trichonympha algoa_, p. 174.\n    _Trichonympha chula_, p. 176.\n    _Trichonympha grandis_, p. 176.\n    _Trichonympha lata_, p. 176.\n    _Trichonympha okolona_, p. 176.\n    _Trichonympha parva_, p. 176.\n    _Urinympha talea_, p. 174.\n    Undetermined gregarine, p. 184.\n  Amphibian: _Plethodon glutinosus_, p. 269.\n=Cutilia soror=\n  Insects:\n    _Dolichurus stantoni_, p. 262.\n    _Evania appendigaster_, p. 236.\n    _Szepligetella sericea_, p. 242.\n  Bird: _Phasianus_ sp., p. 277.\n=Cutilia= sp.\n  Nematode: Undetermined, p. 201.\n  Insects:\n    _Riekella australis_, p. 231.\n    Undetermined strepsipteron, p. 234.\n=Diploptera punctata=\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces diplopterae_, p. 135.\n  Mites:\n    _Iolina nana_, p. 219.\n    _Locustacarus_ sp., p. 219.\n  Insect: _Nauphoeta cinerea_, p. 324.\n  Amphibian: _Bufo marinus_, p. 270.\n  Bird: _Phasianus_ sp., p. 277.\n=Ectobius lapponicus=\n  Protozoa:\n    _Gamocystis tenax_, p. 184.\n    _Monocercomonoides orthopterorum_, p. 169.\n  Nematode: _Blatticola blattae_, p. 193.\n  Insects:\n    _Brachygaster minutus_, p. 235.\n    _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n    _Tachysphex lativalvis_, p. 264.\n=Ectobius pallidus=\n  Protozoan: _Gamocystis tenax_, p. 184.\n  Helminths:\n    _Blatticola blattae_, p. 193.\n    Undetermined mermithid, p. 192.\n  Insects:\n    _Ampulex fasciata_, p. 259.\n    _Aphaenogaster picea_, p. 267.\n    _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n    _Lasius alienus_, p. 268.\n    _Ripidius boissyi_ (presumptive record), p. 231.\n    _Ripidius denisi_ (presumptive record), p. 232.\n    _Tachysphex lativalvis_, p. 264.\n=Ectobius panzeri=\n  Centipede: _Scolopendra_ sp., p. 224.\n  Insects:\n    _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n    _Tachysphex lativalvis_, p. 264.\n=Ectobius= sp.\n  Insects:\n    _Brachygaster minutus_, p. 235.\n    _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n    _Tachysphex lativalvis_, p. 264.\n=Ellipsidion affine=\n  Insect: _Rhipidioides fuscatus_, p. 230.\n=Ellipsidion australe=\n  Insects:\n    _Agamerion metallica_, p. 243.\n    _Cheiloneurus viridiscutum_, p. 244.\n    _Mestocharomyia oophaga_, p. 248.\n=Epilampra abdomen-nigrum=\n  Insect: _Podium flavipenne_, p. 265.\n  Amphibian: _Bufo marinus_, p. 270.\n=Epilampra conferta=\n  Insect: _Podium_ sp., p. 266.\n=Epilampra= sp.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces tricuspidatus_, p. 138.\n  Insect: _Podium haematogastrum_, p. 266.\n  Bird: _Gymnasio nudipes_, p. 279.\n=Epilampra wheeleri=\n  Reptiles:\n    _Ameiva exsul_, p. 275.\n    _Anolis cristatellus_, p. 273.\n  Mammal: _Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus_, p. 289.\n=Escala= (?) sp.\n  Insect: _Rhipidioides adynatus_, p. 230.\n=Eurycotis floridana=\n  Fungi:\n    _Aspergillus flavus_, p. 130.\n    _Aspergillus sydowi_, P. 130.\n  Helminths:\n    _Euryconema paradisa_, p. 194.\n    _Leidynema appendiculata_(?), p. 198.\n    _Protrelloides paradoxa_, p. 200.\n    Undetermined gordian worm, p. 202.\n  Insects:\n    _Anastatus floridanus_, p. 245.\n    Undetermined tachinid, p. 228.\n=Eurycotis improcera=\n  Mammal: _Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus_, p. 289.\n=Eurycotis manni=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces zanzibarinus_, p. 138.\n=Graptoblatta notulata=\n  Insect: _Tachysphex fanuiensis_, p. 264.\n=Gromphadorhina portentosa=\n  Protozoan: Undetermined gregarine, p. 184.\n  Mite: _Coleolaelaps_ ? sp., p. 216.\n=Gyna= sp.(?)\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces zanzibarinus_, p. 138.\n=Holocompsa fulva=\n  Insect: _Pheidole megacephala_, p. 268.\n=Hololampra punctata=\n  Insect: _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n=Ischnoptera deropeltiformis=\n  Plant: _Sarracenia flava_, p. 154\n  Amphibian: _Hyla cinerea_, p. 270.\n  Mammal: _Dasypus novemcinctus_, p. 287.\n=Ischnoptera rufa rufa=\n  Fungus: _Spicaria prasina_, p. 130.\n  Mammal: _Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus_, p. 289.\n=Ischnoptera= sp.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces arietinus_, p. 134.\n  Insects:\n    _Ampulex canaliculata_, p. 257.\n    _Syntomosphyrum ischnopterae_, p. 249.\n=Karnyia discoidalis=\n  Spider: _Latrodectus indistinctus_, p. 215.\n=Kuchinga hemerobina=\n  Hair worm: _Parachordodes raphaelis_, p. 202.\n=Leucophaea maderae=\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces tricuspidatus_, p. 138.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Gregarina rhyparobiae_, p. 183.\n    _Retortamonas_ (?) sp., p. 167.\n    Undetermined gregarine, p. 184.\n  Nematodes:\n    _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_, p. 195.\n    _Leidynema delatorrei_, p. 198.\n    _Protospirura bonnei_, p. 206.\n    _Protospirura muricola_, p. 206.\n  Mite: _Chaetodactylus_ sp., p. 218.\n  Mammals:\n    _Aotes zonalis_, p. 284.\n    _Ateles dariensis_, p. 284.\n    _Cebus capucinus_, p. 284.\n    _Rattus norvegicus_, p. 287.\n=Leucophaea= sp.\n  Nematode: _Cephalobellus brevicaudatum_, p. 194.\n=Leurolestes pallidus=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces leurolestis_, p. 136.\n=Loboptera decipiens=\n  Insects:\n    _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n    _Zeuxevania splendidula_, p. 243.\n=Loboptera= sp.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces lobopterae_, p. 136.\n=Lobopterella dimidiatipes=\n  Insect: _Ampulex canaliculata_, p. 257.\n  Bird: _Coturnix coturnix japonica_, p. 277.\n=Melanosilpha capensis=\n  Protozoa:\n    _Gregarina impetuosa_, p. 183.\n    _Gregarina sandoni_, p. 183.\n=Monastria= sp.\n  Insect: _Triatoma arthurneivai_, p. 227.\n=Nauphoeta cinerea=\n  Bacteria:\n    _Salmonella typhimurium_, p. 116.\n    _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces tricuspidatus_, p. 138.\n  Mites:\n    _Blattilaelaps nauphoetae_, p. 216.\n    _Locustacarus_ sp., p. 219.\n  Insect: _Pheidole megacephala_, p. 268.\n=Neostylopyga rhombifolia=\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n  Insects:\n    _Evania appendigaster_, p. 237.\n    _Szepligetella sericea_, p. 242.\n    _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 250.\n  Mammal: _Homo sapiens_, p. 286.\n=Nyctibora obscura=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces amazonicus_, p. 134.\n=Nyctibora= sp.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces nyctoborae_, p. 136.\n=Nyctibora tomantosa=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces nyctoborae_, p. 136.\n=Oniscosoma granicollis=\n  Insect: _Paranephrites xenus_, p. 230.\n=Panchlora exoleta=\n  Protozoan: _Gregarina panchlorae_, p. 183.\n=Panchlora nivea=\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces panchlorae_, p. 136.\n  Mammal: _Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus_, p. 289.\n=Panesthia angustipennis=\n  Protozoa:\n    _Clevelandella constricta_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella contorta_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella elongata_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella hastula_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella panesthiae_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella parapanesthiae_, p. 189.\n    _Endamoeba javanica_, p. 178.\n    _Endamoeba philippinensis_, p. 178.\n    _Hexamita cryptocerci_, p. 171.\n    _Monocercomonoides panesthiae_, p. 170.\n    _Nyctotherus uichancoi_, p. 188.\n    _Paraclevelandia brevis_, p. 190.\n    _Paraclevelandia simplex_, p. 190.\n    Undetermined amoeba, p. 181.\n  Nematodes:\n    _Aorurus philippinensis_, p. 193.\n    _Blattophila sphaerolaima_ var. _javanica_, p. 194.\n    _Leidynema nocalum_, p. 198.\n    _Leidynemella fusiformis_, p. 198.\n    _Leidynemella paracranifera_, p. 198.\n    _Thelastoma palmettum_, p. 201.\n=Panesthia australis=\n  Fungus: _Metarrhizium anisopliae_, p. 131.\n  Mite:\n    _Hypoaspis_ sp., p. 217.\n    Undetermined diplogyniid, p. 217.\n  Insect: Undetermined tachinid, p. 228.\n=Panesthia laevicollis=\n  Nematode: _Blattophila sphaerolaima_, p. 194.\n=Panesthia laevicollis= (?)\n  Nematode: _Leidynemella fusiformis_, p. 198.\n=Panesthia lobipennis=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces panesthiae_, p. 136.\n=Panesthia spadica=\n  Protozoa:\n    _Clevelandella constricta_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella contorta_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella nipponensis_, p. 189.\n    _Clevelandella panesthiae_, p. 189.\n    _Endamoeba javanica_, p. 178.\n    _Nyctotherus uichancoi_, p. 188.\n    _Paraclevelandia brevis_, p. 190.\n    _Paraclevelandia simplex_, p. 190.\n=Panesthia= sp.\n  Nematode: _Leidynemella panesthiae_, p. 198.\n=Parahormetica bilobata=\n  Helminths:\n    _Agamospirura parahormeticae_, p. 205.\n    Undetermined gordian worm, p. 202.\n=Parcoblatta lata=\n  Plant: _Sarracenia flava_, p. 154.\n  Protozoan: _Leptomonas_ sp., p. 167.\n  Nematode: _Protrellus aurifluus_, p. 199.\n=Parcoblatta pensylvanica=\n  Protozoa:\n    _Gregarina blattarum_, p. 182.\n    _Gregarina illinensis_, p. 183.\n    _Gregarina parcoblattae_, p. 183.\n    _Gregarina thomasi_, p. 184.\n    _Leptomonas_ sp., p. 167.\n    _Nyctotherus ovalis_, p. 188.\n  Nematode: _Rictularia coloradensis_, p. 205.\n  Scorpion: _Centruroides vittatus_ (?), p. 212.\n  Insects:\n    _Camponotus pennsylvanicus_, p. 267.\n    _Hyptia dorsalis_, p. 239.\n    _Hyptia harpyoides_, p. 239.\n    _Hyptia reticulata_, p. 240.\n    _Hyptia thoracica_, p. 240.\n    _Podium carolina_, p. 265.\n    _Systellogaster ovivora_, p. 248.\n  Amphibian: _Rana_ (?) sp., p. 272.\n=Parcoblatta uhleriana=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces arietinus_, p. 134.\n  Protozoan: _Gregarina parcoblattae_, p. 183.\n  Nematode: _Protrellus aurifluus_, p. 199.\n  Mite: Undetermined, p. 220.\n  Insect: _Hyptia harpyoides_, p. 239.\n=Parcoblatta virginica=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces arietinus_, p. 134.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Gregarina ohioensis_, p. 183.\n    _Leptomonas_ sp., p. 167.\n  Nematode: _Rictularia coloradensis_, p. 205.\n  Insects:\n    _Hyptia harpyoides_, p. 239.\n    _Podium luctuosum_, p. 266.\n=Parcoblatta= sp.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces arietinus_, p. 134.\n  Plant: _Sarracenia flava_, p. 154.\n  Mite: _Pimeliaphilus podapolipophagus_, p. 219.\n  Insects:\n    _Coenosia basalis_, p. 229.\n    _Dolichurus greenei_, p. 261.\n    _Megaselia_ sp., p. 227.\n    _Syntomosphyrum blattae_, p. 248.\n    _Systellogaster ovivora_, p. 248.\n    _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 250.\n=Periplaneta americana=\n  Viruses: Unspecified strain(s) of poliomyelitis virus\n    (host may have been _P. brunnea_), p. 103.\n  Bacteria:\n    _Achromobacter hyalinum_, p. 110.\n    _Aerobacter aerogenes_, p. 111.\n    _Aerobacter cloacae_, p. 112.\n    _Aerobacter_ sp., p. 112.\n    _Alcaligenes faecalis_, p. 111.\n    _Bacillus cereus_, p. 120.\n    _Bacillus megaterium_, p. 121.\n    _Bacillus subtilis_, p. 122.\n    _Bacterium alkaligenes_, p. 119.\n    _Clostridium_ sp., p. 122.\n    _Eberthella oedematiens_, p. 112.\n    _Escherichia coli_, p. 112.\n    _Escherichia freundii_, p. 113.\n    _Escherichia intermedium_, p. 113.\n    _Mycobacterium friedmannii_, p. 123.\n    _Mycobacterium lacticola_, p. 123.\n    _Mycobacterium leprae_, p. 123.\n    _Mycobacterium phlei_, p. 123.\n    _Mycobacterium piscium_, p. 124.\n    _Mycobacterium_ sp., p. 124.\n    _Paracolobactrum aerogenoides_, p. 113.\n    _Paracolobactrum coliforme_, p. 113.\n    _Paracolobactrum_ sp., p. 113.\n    _Proteus mirabilis_, p. 114.\n    _Proteus morganii_, p. 114.\n    _Proteus rettgeri_, p. 114.\n    _Proteus vulgaris_, p. 114.\n    _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_, p. 104.\n    _Pseudomonas fluorescens_, p. 105.\n    _Salmonella anatis_, p. 114.\n    _Salmonella morbificans_, p. 115.\n    _Salmonella schottmuelleri_, p. 115.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Bareilly), p. 115.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Bredeny), p. 115.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Kentucky), p. 115.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Meleagris), p. 116.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Newport), p. 116.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Oranienburg), p. 116.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Panama), p. 116.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Rubislaw), p. 116.\n    _Salmonella_ sp. (Type Tennessee), p. 116.\n    _Serratia marcescens_, p. 118.\n    _Shigella alkalescens_, p. 118.\n    _Spirillum periplaneticum_, p. 105.\n    _Streptococcus faecalis_, p. 109.\n    _Streptomyces leidynematis_, pp. 196, 197.\n    _Tetragenous_ sp., p. 127.\n    _Veillonella parvula_, p. 109.\n  Fungi:\n    _Aspergillus flavus_, p. 130.\n    _Aspergillus niger_, p. 130.\n    _Aspergillus_ sp., p. 131.\n    _Cephalosporium_ sp., p. 131.\n    _Herpomyces chaetophilus_, p. 135.\n    _Herpomyces periplanetae_, p. 137.\n    _Metarrhizium anisopliae_, p. 131.\n    _Mucor guilliermondii_, p. 132.\n    _Penicillium_ sp., p. 131.\n    _Rhizopus_ sp., p. 133.\n    _Syncephalastrum_ sp., p. 133.\n    _Torula acidophila_, p. 132.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Balantidium blattarum_, p. 187.\n    _Balantidium ovatum_, p. 187.\n    _Balantidium_ sp., p. 187.\n    _Bodo_ sp. (host may have been _B. germanica_), p. 167.\n    _Coelosporidium periplanetae_, p. 185.\n    _Diplocystis schneideri_, p. 181.\n    _Diplocystis_ sp., p. 181.\n    _Dobellina_ sp. (host may have been _B. germanica_), p. 177.\n    _Endamoeba blattae_, p. 177.\n    _Endolimax blattae_, p. 180.\n    _Endolimax_ sp. (host may have been _B. germanica_), p. 180.\n    _Entamoeba coli_ (host may have been _B. germanica_), p. 178.\n    _Entamoeba histolytica_ (host may have been _B. germanica_), p. 179.\n    _Entamoeba_ sp., p. 179.\n    _Entamoeba thomsoni_, p. 179.\n    _Eutrichomastix_ sp. (host may have been _B. germanica_), p. 169.\n    _Gregarina blattarum_, p. 182.\n    _Gregarina l\u00e9geri_, p. 183.\n    _Gregarina neo-brasiliensis_, p. 183.\n    _Hexamita periplanetae_, p. 171.\n    _Iodamoeba_ sp. (host may have been _B. germanica_) p. 180.\n    _Isotricha caulleryi_, p. 187.\n    _Lophomonas blattarum_, p. 172.\n    _Lophomonas striata_, p. 173.\n    _Monocercomonoides orthopterorum_, p. 169.\n    _Nyctotherus ovalis_, p. 188.\n    _Plistophora periplanetae_, p. 186.\n    _Protomagalhaesia serpentula_, p. 184.\n    _Tetratrichomastix blattidarum_, p. 170.\n  Helminths:\n    _Ancylostoma duodenale_, p. 209.\n    _Ascaris lumbricoides_ or _Ascaris suum_, p. 209.\n    _Binema mirzaia_, p. 193.\n    _Gongylonema neoplasticum_, p. 206.\n    _Gongylonema_ sp., p. 206.\n    _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_, p. 195.\n    _Hymenolepis_ sp., p. 208.\n    _Leidynema appendiculata_, p. 197.\n    _Moniliformis dubius_, p. 203.\n    _Moniliformis moniliformis_, p. 204.\n    _Necator americanus_, p. 210.\n    _Protrellus k\u00fcnckeli_, p. 199.\n    _Schwenkiella icemi_, p. 200.\n    _Spirura gastrophila_, p. 207.\n    _Thelastoma pachyjuli_, p. 201.\n    _Trichuris trichiura_, p. 210.\n  Mites:\n    _Caloglyphus_ sp., p. 218.\n    _Pimeliaphilus podapolipophagus_, p. 219.\n    _Rhizoglyphus tarsalus_, p. 218.\n    _Tyrophagus noxius_, p. 218.\n    Undetermined, p. 220.\n  Spiders:\n    _Avicularia avicularia_, p. 214.\n    _Avicularia_ sp., p. 214.\n  Centipedes: Undetermined, p. 222.\n  Insects:\n    _Ampulex amoena_, p. 256.\n    _Ampulex compressa_, p. 259.\n    _Anastatus tenuipes_, p. 246.\n    _Calodexia_ (?) _venteris_, p. 228.\n    _Evania appendigaster_, p. 237.\n    _Melittobia chalybii_, p. 248.\n    _Prosevania punctata_, p. 241.\n    _Ripidius pectinicornis_, p. 232.\n    _Spiniger domesticus_, p. 227.\n    _Szepligetella sericea_, p. 242.\n    _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 250.\n    _Tetrastichus periplanetae_, p. 253.\n    _Tetrastichus_ sp., p. 254.\n    _Trirhogma caerulea_, p. 262.\n  Amphibian:\n    _Hyla cinerea_, p. 270.\n  Reptiles:\n    _Ameiva exsul_, p. 275.\n    _Anolis cristatellus_, p. 273.\n  Birds:\n    Chicken, p. 278.\n    Sparrow, p. 282.\n  Mammals:\n    _Felis catus_, p. 289.\n    _Herpestea javanicus auropunctatus_, p. 289.\n    _Herpestes_ sp., p. 289.\n    _Homo sapiens_, p. 286.\n    _Rattus norvegicus_, p. 287.\n    _Rattus rattus_, p. 287.\n=Periplaneta australasiae=\n  Bacteria:\n    _Mycobacterium leprae_, p. 123.\n    _Serratia marcescens_, p. 118.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces periplanetae_, p. 137.\n  Plant: _Sarracenia minor_, p. 154.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Endamoeba blattae_, p. 177.\n    _Endolimax blattae_, p. 180.\n  Nematodes:\n    _Gongylonema neoplasticum_, p. 206.\n    _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_, p. 195.\n    _Moniliformis dubius_, p. 203.\n    _Protrellus australasiae_, p. 199.\n    _Protrellus k\u00fcnckeli_, p. 200.\n  Centipedes: Undetermined, p. 222.\n  Insects:\n    _Ampulex amoena_, p. 256.\n    _Ampulex compressa_, p. 259.\n    _Evania appendigaster_, p. 237.\n    _Szepligetella sericea_, p. 242.\n    _Tetrastichus australasiae_, p. 249.\n    _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 250.\n    _Tetrastichus_, sp., p. 254.\n    _Trirhogma caerulea_, p. 262.\n  Reptiles:\n    _Anolis cristatellus_, p. 273.\n    _Chrysemys picta_, p. 272.\n  Bird: _Gallus_ sp., p. 277.\n  Mammals:\n    _Herpestes_ sp., p. 289.\n    _Homo sapiens_, p. 287.\n=Periplaneta brunnea=\n  Viruses: Unspecified strain(s) of poliomyelitis virus\n    (host may have been _P. americana_), p. 103.\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 118.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces periplanetae_, p. 137.\n  Nematode: _Schwenkiella icemi_, p. 200.\n  Insect: _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 251.\n=Periplaneta fuliginosa=\n  Insect: _Ampulex amoena_, p. 256.\n=Periplaneta= sp.\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 118.\n  Fungi:\n    _Herpomyces chaetophilus_, p. 135.\n    _Herpomyces periplanetae_, p. 137.\n  Protozoan: _Lophomonas blattarum_, p. 172.\n  Helminths: _Thelastoma riveroi_, p. 201.\n    _Moniliformis moniliformis_, p. 204.\n  Insects:\n    _Ampulex compressa_, p. 259.\n    _Evania subspinosa_ (presumptive record?), p. 239.\n    _Szepligetella sericea_, p. 242.\n  Amphibian: _Bufo marinus_, p. 270.\n  Reptiles:\n    _Anolis grahami_, p. 274.\n    _Anolis leachi_, p. 274.\n  Bird: _Vireo latimeri_, p. 281.\n\"=Phyllodromia=\" sp.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces phyllodromiae_, p. 137.\n  Insects:\n    _Dicarnosis alfierii_, p. 245.\n    _Dolichurus stantoni_, p. 262.\n=Platyzosteria castanea=\n  Insect: _Riekella_ sp., p. 231.\n=Platyzosteria novae seelandiae=\n  Protozoan: _Monocercomonoides melolonthae_, p. 169.\n=Platyzosteria scabra=\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces appendiculatus_, p. 134.\n=Platyzosteria= sp.\n  Insect: _Riekella nitidioides_, p. 231.\n=Plectoptera= sp.\n  Bird: _Todus mexicanus_, p. 279.\n=Polyphaga aegyptiaca=\n  Nematodes:\n    _Blatticola blattae_, p. 193.\n    _Galebia aegyptiaca_, p. 195.\n    _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_, p. 195.\n    _Oxyuris_ (?) _heterogamiae_, p. 199.\n=Polyphaga saussurei=\n  Helminths:\n    _Hymenolepis_ sp., p. 208.\n    Undetermined tapeworm ova, p. 208.\n  Insects: Undetermined reduviids, p. 227.\n=Polyzosteria melanaria= (?) or =Platyzosteria analis=\n  Nematode: _Protrellus aureus_, p. 199.\n=Pycnoscelus surinamensis=\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n  Fungus: _Mucor_ sp., p. 132.\n  Protozoa:\n    Undetermined ciliate, p. 190.\n    Undetermined flagellate, p. 176.\n    Undetermined gregarine, p. 184.\n  Nematodes:\n    _Oxyspirura mansoni_, p. 204.\n    _Severianoia severianoi_, p. 200.\n  Mites:\n    _Caloglyphus spinitarsus_, p. 217.\n    _Histiostoma feroniarum_, p. 217.\n    _Tyrophagus lintneri_, p. 218\n    Undetermined, p. 220.\n  Insects:\n    _Pheidole megacephala_, p. 268.\n    Undetermined ants, p. 350.\n  Amphibian: _Bufo marinus_, p. 270.\n  Reptile: _Anolis sagrei_, p. 274.\n  Birds:\n    _Acridotheres tristis_, p. 281.\n    _Melanerpes portoricensis_, p. 280.\n    _Meleagris gallopavo_, p. 278.\n    _Passer domesticus_, p. 282.\n    _Phasianus_ sp., p. 277.\n    _Streptopelia chinensis_, p. 278.\n  Mammal: _Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus_, p. 289.\n=Robshelfordia circumducta= or =Robshelfordia longiuscula=\n  Insects:\n    _Neorhipidius neoxenus_, p. 230.\n    _Rhipidioides helenae_, p. 230.\n    _Rhipidioides mollis_, p. 231.\n=Steleopyga= (?) =sinensis=\n  Nematode: _Suifunema caudelli_, p. 200.\n=Supella supellectilium=\n  Viruses: Unspecified strain(s) of poliomyelitis virus, p. 103.\n  Bacterium: _Serratia marcescens_, p. 117.\n  Fungus: _Herpomyces supellae_, p. 138.\n  Nematode: _Blattophila supellaima_, p. 194.\n  Insects:\n    _Anastatus tenuipes_, p. 246.\n    _Comperia merceti_, p. 244.\n=Symploce flagellata= or =Symploce ruficollis=\n  Reptile: _Anolis cristatellus_, p. 273.\n=Symploce parenthesis=\n  Hair worm: _Parachordodes raphaelis_, p. 202.\n=Temnopteryx phalerata=\n  Protozoan: _Gregarina gibbsi_, p. 182.\n=Undetermined Cockroaches=\n  Bacteria:\n    _Arthromitus intestinalis_, p. 124.\n    _Bacillus subtilis_, p. 122.\n    _Clostridium perfringens_, p. 122.\n    _Escherichia coli_, p. 112.\n    _Fusiformis lophomonadis_, p. 119.\n    _Micrococcus citreus_, p. 106.\n    _Micrococcus pyogenes_ var. _aureus_, p. 107.\n    _Mycobacterium leprae_, p. 123.\n    Paracolon bacilli, p. 113.\n    _Proteus morganii_, p. 114.\n    _Proteus vulgaris_, p. 114.\n    _Spirillum_ sp., p. 105.\n    _Spirochaeta periplanetae_, p. 125.\n    _Streptococcus_ sp., p. 110.\n    _Vibrio_ Types I and II Heiberg, p. 106.\n  Fungi:\n    _Amphoromorpha blattina_, p. 139.\n    _Amphoromorpha_ sp., p. 139.\n    _Blastocystis_ sp., p. 133.\n    _Cordyceps amazonica_, p. 134.\n    _Herpomyces anaplectae_, p. 134.\n    _Herpomyces chilensis_, p. 135.\n    _Herpomyces diplopterae_, p. 135.\n    _Herpomyces forficularis_, p. 135.\n    _Herpomyces grenadinus_, p. 136.\n    _Herpomyces macropus_, p. 136.\n    _Herpomyces paranensis_, p. 136.\n    _Herpomyces periplanetae_, p. 137.\n    _Herpomyces platyzosteriae_, p. 137.\n    _Herpomyces tricuspidatus_, p. 138.\n    _Herpomyces zanzibarinus_, p. 138.\n    _Metarrhizium anisopliae_, p. 131.\n  Plants:\n    _Nepenthes ampularia_, p. 154.\n    _Nepenthes gracilis_, p. 154.\n    _Nepenthes_ sp., p. 154.\n  Protozoa:\n    _Diplocystis_ sp., p. 181.\n    _Endamoeba blattae_, p. 177.\n    _Entamoeba histolytica_, p. 179.\n    _Gregarina blattarum_, p. 182.\n    _Hexamita periplanetae_, p. 171.\n    _Lophomonas blattarum_, p. 172.\n    _Lophomonas striata_, p. 173.\n    _Monocercomonoides orthopterorum_, p. 169.\n    _Nyctotherus buissoni_, p. 188.\n    _Nyctotherus ovalis_, p. 188.\n    _Nyctotherus viannai_, p. 189.\n    _Oikomonas blattarum_, p. 166.\n    _Oikomonas_ sp., p. 166.\n    _Paramecium_ sp., p. 186.\n    _Trichomonas_ sp., p. 171.\n  Helminths:\n    _Cephalobellus magalh\u00e3esi_, p. 194.\n    _Chordodes morgani_, p. 201.\n    _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_, p. 195.\n    _Leidynema appendiculata_, p. 197.\n    _Moniliformis moniliformis_, p. 204.\n    _Protrellus galebi_, p. 199.\n    _Schwenkiella icemi_, p. 200.\n    _Severianoia magna_, p. 200.\n    _Severianoia severianoi_, p. 200.\n    _Spirura gastrophila_, p. 207.\n    Undetermined gordian worms, p. 202.\n  Scorpion: _Heterometrus longimanus_, p. 213.\n  Spiders:\n    _Heteropoda venatoria_, p. 215.\n    _Latrodectus mactans_, p. 216.\n  Mite: _Pimeliaphilus podapolipophagus_, p. 219.\n  Centipedes:\n    _Allothereua maculata_ (circumstantial evidence), p. 223.\n    _Scolopendra morsitans_, p. 223.\n    _Scolopendra subspinipes_, p. 224.\n    _Scutigera coleoptrata_ (circumstantial evidence), p. 222.\n  Insects:\n    _Acanthinevania princeps_, p. 235.\n    _Agamerion metallica_, p. 243.\n    _Ampulex compressa_, p. 259.\n    _Ampulex ruficornis_, p. 259.\n    _Ampulex sibirica_, p. 260.\n    _Ampulex sonnerati_, p. 260.\n    _Anastatus blattidifurax_ p. 245.\n    _Anastatus tenuipes_, p. 246.\n    _Blatticida pulchra_, p. 243.\n    _Blatticidella ashmeadi_, p. 243.\n    _Calodexia_ spp., p. 228.\n    _Clerada apicicornis_, p. 226.\n    _Dicarnosis alfierii_, p. 245.\n    _Diestrammena apicalis_, p. 226.\n    _Diestrammena japonica_, p. 226.\n    _Dolichurus bicolor_, p. 260.\n    _Dolichurus corniculus_, p. 261.\n    _Dolichurus gilberti_, p. 261.\n    _Dolichurus ignitus_, p. 261.\n    _Dolichurus_ sp., p. 262.\n    _Dorylus nigricans sj\u00f6stedi_, p. 267.\n    _Dorylus wilverthii_, p. 267.\n    _Eciton burchelli_, p. 268.\n    _Eupelmus_ sp., p. 247.\n    _Eutrichosomella blattophaga_, p. 245.\n    \"_Formica omnivora_,\" p. 268.\n    _Iridomyrmex humilis_, p. 268.\n    _Neonephrites partiniger_, p. 230.\n    _Podium abdominale_, p. 265.\n    _Podium dubium_, p. 265.\n    _Podium rufipes_, p. 266.\n    _Pompilus bracatus_, p. 256.\n    _Pompilus_ sp., p. 256.\n    _Salius verticalis_, p. 256.\n    _Ripidius scutellaris_, p. 233.\n    _Solindenia picticornis_, p. 247.\n    _Stylogaster_ spp., p. 228.\n    _Stylogaster stylata_, p. 228.\n    _Syntomosphyrum blattae_, p. 248.\n    _Systellogaster ovivora_, p. 248.\n    _Tachysphex blatticidus_, p. 264.\n    _Tachysphex coriaceus_, p. 264.\n    _Tachysphex fanuiensis_, p. 264.\n    _Tetrastichus hagenowii_, p. 251.\n    _Tetrastichus periplanetae_, p. 253.\n    _Trirhogma_ sp., p. 264.\n    Undetermined tachinid, p. 229.\n  Fish:\n    _Chalceus macrolepidotus_, p. 269.\n    _Cyrtocharax magdalenae essequibensis_, p. 269.\n    _Potamotrygon humboldti_, p. 268.\n    _Rhamdia sebae_, p. 268.\n  Amphibians:\n    _Arthroleptis variabilis_, p. 270.\n    _Bufo ictericus_, p. 270.\n    _Bufo funereus_, p. 270.\n    _Bufo marinus_, p. 270.\n    _Hyla cinerea_, p. 270.\n    _Hyperolius picturatus_, p. 271.\n    _Leptodactylus albilabris_, p. 271.\n    _Leptodactylus pentadactylus_, p. 271.\n    _Leptopelis calcaratus_, p. 271.\n    _Leptopelis rufus_, p. 271.\n    _Megalixalus fornasinii_, p. 271.\n    _Rana catesbeiana_, p. 271.\n    _Rana mascareniensis_, p. 271.\n    Tree frogs, p. 351.\n  Reptiles:\n    _Ameiva exsul_, p. 275.\n    _Anolis cristatellus_, p. 273.\n    _Anolis grahami_, p. 274.\n    _Anolis leachi_, p. 274.\n    _Anolis pulchellus_, p. 273.\n    _Anolis stratulus_, p. 274.\n    _Cnemidophorus_ sp., p. 275.\n    _Gekko gecko_, p. 272.\n    _Hemidactylus frenatus_, p. 272.\n    _Leiolopisma laterale_, p. 274.\n    Lizards, p. 275.\n    _Sphaerodactylus_ sp., p. 273.\n    _Thecadactylus_ sp., p. 273.\n    _Tropidophorus grayi_, p. 274.\n  Birds:\n    _Acridotheres tristis_, p. 281.\n    _Agelaius xanthomus_, p. 282.\n    _Bambusicola thoracica_, p. 277.\n    Chickens, p. 278.\n    _Coturnix coturnix japonica_, p. 277.\n    _Dendrocopus mahrattensis_, p. 279.\n    _Gymnasio nudipes_, p. 279.\n    _Gymnopithys leucaspis_, p. 280.\n    _Holoquiscalus brachypterus_, p. 282.\n    _Icterus portoricensis_, p. 280.\n    Partridge, p. 278.\n    _Phasianus_ sp., p. 277.\n    Sparrow, p. 282.\n    _Tiaris bicolor omissa_, p. 282.\n    _Tockus birostris_, p. 279.\n    _Troglodytes aedon_, p. 281.\n    _Troglodytes audax_, p. 281.\n  Mammals:\n    _Bassariscus astutus_, p. 288.\n    _Callithrix jacchus_, p. 285.\n    _Erinaceus_ sp., p. 283.\n    _Felis catus_, p. 289.\n    _Felis paradalis mearnsi_, p. 290.\n    _Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus_, p. 289\n    _Herpestes_ sp., p. 289.\n    _Homo sapiens_, p. 287.\n    _Loris tardigradus_, p. 284.\n    _Molossus_ sp., p. 283.\n    _Monodelphis_ sp., p. 283.\n    _Nasua nasua_, p. 288.\nXV. COCKROACHES AS COMMENSALS\n     These particular associations may well have been accidental and due\n     to a predilection for the same type of nesting site. But this fact\n     in no way detracts from the interest of such records. Chance must\n     play a very considerable part in first bringing symbiotic or\n     commensal partners together. Once such a partnership between\n     species has been firmly established, it is on the whole, fairly\n     obvious, ... On the other hand, in the early stages before the\n     relationship has become fixed as a specific habit, individual cases\n     are generally dismissed as coincidences. It is, however, unwise to\n     disregard such isolated observations or dismiss them lightly.\nThe following social insects have been found harboring cockroaches in a\nstate of commensalism in which the cockroaches presumably benefit by\nacquiring food from their hosts. Benefits accruing to the hosts are not\napparent. Unfortunately, biological details are not always sufficient to\nsubstantiate the suspected association. However, it seems significant\nthat the cockroach commensals of the insects listed below have been\nfound only in association with their hosts and, so far as we know, have\nnever been found apart from them. Chopard (1938) has pointed out that\nthe myrmecophilous cockroaches are all small, being only a very few\nmillimeters long; they are apterous or subapterous; their eyes are\nreduced; and they are all of American origin.\nHOSTS OF COMMENSAL COCKROACHES\nOrder ISOPTERA\nFamily RHINOTERMITIDAE\n=Coptotermes ceylonicus= Holmgren\n_Commensal._--_Sphecophila ravana_, Ceylon (Fernando, 1957): Six\nfemales, 50 males, and nymphs of both sexes were found among decaying\ntimber in the ground in association with a colony of this termite. The\nantennae of most specimens were mutilated unsymmetrically.\nFamily TERMITIDAE\n=Macrotermes barneyi= Light\n_Commensal._--_Nocticola sinensis_, Kowloon (Silvestri, 1947): Among\nspecimens of termites collected from a nest.\n=Macrotermes bellicosus= (Smeathman)\nor\n=Macrotermes natalensis= (Haviland)\n_Synonymy._--_Termes bellicosus_ [Snyder, 1949].\n_Commensal._--_Sphecophila termitium_, Kibonoto, East Africa (Shelford,\n1910): Two males were collected in a termite mound.\n=Macrotermes malaccensis= (Haviland)\n_Synonymy._--_Termes malaccensis_ Haviland [Snyder, 1949].\n_Commensal._--_Nocticola termitophila_, Tonkin (Silvestri, 1946): The\ncockroach was found in the termite nest.\n=Odontotermes= sp.\n_Commensals._--_Nocticola sinensis_, Kowloon (Silvestri, 1946): In\ntermite nest.\n_Nocticola termitophila_, Penang (Silvestri, 1946): In termite nest.\n=Termes= sp.\n_Commensal._--_Nocticola sinensis_, Repulse Bay, Australia(?)\n(Silvestri, 1946): In a termite gallery.\n=Termites=\n_Commensal._--_Ergaula capensis_ [= _Dyscologamia wollastoni_] French\nEquatorial Africa, Brazzaville (Rehn, 1926; Chopard, 1949).\nOrder HYMENOPTERA\nFamily FORMICIDAE\nSubfamily FORMICINAE\n=Camponotus femoratus= (Fabricius)\n_Commensal._--_Phorticolea boliviae_, Bolivia, Cachuela Esperanza\n(Caudell, 1923): Three males collected in the joint nests of _C.\nfemoratus_ and _Crematogaster limata_.\n=Camponotus maculatus= (Fabricius)?\n_Note._--Dr. W. L. Brown (personal communication, 1957) states that this\nant is an Old World species only. So presumably Mann's record pertains\nto a different species.\n_Commensal._--_Myrmecoblatta rehni_, Mexico (Mann, 1914): \"They were\nvery abundant, several occurring in almost every nest, where they are no\ndoubt very efficient scavengers.\"\n=Camponotus rufipes= (Fabricius)\n_Commensals._--_Atticola mortoni_, _Nothoblatta wasmanni_, and\n_Phorticolea testacea_, Brazil, San Leopoldo (Bol\u00edvar, 1905): Found in\nthe formicaries of _C. rufipes_.\n=Formica rufibarbis= Fabricius\nand\n=Formica subcyanea= Wheeler\n_Commensal._--_Myrmecoblatta rehni_, Mexico (Mann, 1914): \"They were\nvery abundant, several occurring in almost every nest.\"\nSubfamily MYRMICINAE\n=Acromyrmex lobicornis= Emery\n_Commensal._--_Attaphila bergi_, or possibly a variety of this species,\nHuas\u00e1n, Argentina? (Bruch, 1916).\n=Acromyrmex lundi= (Gu\u00e9rin)\n_Synonymy._--_Atta lundi_ [Brown, personal communication, 1957].\n_Commensal._--_Attaphila bergi_, Argentina and Uruguay (Bol\u00edvar, 1901):\nThe cockroach was found in the nests of the ants sitting on the back,\nneck, or head of sexual individuals. It remains attached to the ant\nduring swarming. The antennae seem always to be mutilated. Bruch (1916)\nstated that in La Plata _A. bergi_ is encountered by hundreds in every\nnest of _A. lundi_.\n=Acromyrmex niger= (F. Smith)\n_Synonymy._--_Atta nigra_ Schupp [Brown, p.c., 1957].\n_Commensal._--_Attaphila schuppi_, Brazil, Porto Alegre (Bol\u00edvar, 1905):\nFound outside the nest of the ant and mixed in the columns of ants on\nthe march.\n=Acromyrmex octospinosus= (Reich)\n_Synonymy._--_Atta octospinosa_ [Brown, p.c., 1957].\n_Commensals._--_Attaphila fungicola_, Panama (Wheeler, 1928): Taken in\nthe fungus gardens of the ant.\n_Attaphila aptera_, Esperanza, Dibulla, Colombia (Bol\u00edvar, 1905).\n=Acromyrmex silvestrii= Emery\n_Commensal._--_Attaphila bergi_, or possibly a variety of this species,\nSan Luis Province, Argentina (Bruch, 1916): According to Bruch, the\nbehavior of this species of _Attaphila_ is identical with the one\nencountered in Huas\u00e1n in the nests of _Acromyrmex lobicornis_ Emery; it\ndiffered from _A. bergi_ in size and color.\n=Atta cephalotes= (Linnaeus)\n_Commensal._--_Attaphila fungicola_, British Guiana (Wheeler, 1928):\nTaken in the fungus gardens of the ant.\n_Attaphila_ sp., British Guiana (Beebe, 1921): 7 of 12 queens in one\nnest had cockroaches hanging on them.\n=Atta sexdens= (Linnaeus)\n_Commensal._--_Attaphila sexdentis_, Brazil, San Leopoldo (Bol\u00edvar,\n1905): Found in nests of the ant.\n=Atta texana= (Buckley)\n_Synonymy._--_Atta fervens_ Say [Wheeler, 1910].\n_Commensal._--_Attaphila fungicola_, U.S.A., Texas (Wheeler, 1900,\n1910): The cockroach does not feed on the fungus in the ants' nest, as\nWheeler (1900) first supposed, but mounts the back of the soldiers and\nlicks their surfaces. It is tolerated by the ants with no signs of\nhostility. The antennae of the cockroach are clipped short. Although\nWheeler (1910) stated that this is probably accidental or unintentional,\nit is peculiar that Bol\u00edvar (1905) noticed the same invariable\nmutilation of the antennae of _Attaphila bergi_. Wheeler (1900) had\noriginally suggested that the antennae were probably clipped off by the\nants which are continuously trimming the fungus hyphae. Louisiana\n(Moser, personal communication, 1959): Numerous specimens were\nencountered in some nests of _A. texana_. This cockroach is the most\nclosely associated inquiline in the nest and maintains very intimate\nterms with the ants. It is found living in the fungus cavities and\ntunnels.\n=Crematogaster limata parabiotica= Forel\n_Commensal._--_Phorticolea boliviae_, Bolivia, Cachuela Esperanza\n(Caudell, 1923): Collected in joint nests of _C. limata_ and _Componotus\nfemoratus_.\n=Solenopsis geminata= (Fabricius)\n_Commensal._--_Myrmecoblatta wheeleri_, Guatemala (Hebard, 1917a):\nCollected from a colony of this ant under a stone on the shores of Lake\nAtitlan, altitude 11,719 feet.\n=Unknown host=\n_Cockroach._--_Attaphila flava_, British Honduras (Gurney, 1937):\nBecause the known hosts of the other five species of _Attaphila_ are\nants, we presume that this species also lives in the nest of some\nmyrmecine ant.\nSubfamily PONERINAE\n=Odontomachus affinis= (Gu\u00e9rin)\n_Commensal._--_Myrmeblattina longipes_, Brazil, Rio de Janeiro (Chopard,\n1924, 1924a; Hancock, 1926): Originally described as _Phileciton\nlongipes_ by Chopard (1924) from the nest of an ant mistakenly\nidentified as _Eciton_ sp.\nFamily VESPIDAE\n=Polybia pygmaea= Fabricius\n_Commensal._--_Sphecophila polybiarum_, French Guiana (Shelford, 1906a):\nShelford stated that it was probable that the cockroaches living on the\nfloor of the paper nest fed on small fragments of insects and spiders\nthat were dropped by the wasp larvae feeding in the cells above.\nFamily MEGACHILIDAE\n=Melipona nigra= Lepeletier\n_Commensal._--_Oulopteryx meliponarum_, Brazil (Hebard, 1921): According\nto Hebard, this cockroach is the first one to be known to inhabit the\nnests of bees. Nothing is known of the relationship between the\ncockroach and the bees. [See comment by Sonan (1924) on page 318.]\nCHECKLIST OF COMMENSAL COCKROACHES WITH THEIR HOSTS\nThe cockroaches are arranged alphabetically by genus and species. The\npage references are to citations in the classified section above, where\ndetails and/or sources of the records are given.\n=Attaphila aptera=\n  Ant: _Acromyrmex octospinosus_, p. 313.\n=Attaphila bergi=\n  Ants: _Acromyrmex lobicornis_, p. 312.\n    _Acromyrmex lundi_, p. 312.\n    _Acromyrmex silvestrii_, p. 313.\n=Attaphila flava=\n  Host unknown, presumably an ant, p. 314.\n=Attaphila fungicola=\n  Ants: _Acromyrmex octospinosus_, p. 313.\n    _Atta cephalotes_, p. 313.\n    _Atta texana_, p. 313.\n=Attaphila schuppi=\n  Ant: _Acromyrmex niger_, p. 312.\n=Attaphila sexdentis=\n  Ant: _Atta sexdens_, p. 313.\n=Attaphila= sp.\n  Ant: _Atta cephalotes_, p. 313.\n=Atticola mortoni=\n  Ant: _Camponotus rufipes_, p. 312.\n=Ergaula capensis=\n  Termites, p. 311.\n=Myrmeblattina longipes=\n  Ant: _Odontomachus affinis_, p. 314.\n=Myrmecoblatta rehni=\n  Ants: _Camponotus maculatus_(?), p. 312.\n    _Formica rufibarbis_, p. 312.\n    _Formica subcyanea_, p. 312.\n=Myrmecoblatta wheeleri=\n  Ant: _Solenopsis geminata_, p. 314.\n=Nocticola sinensis=\n  Termites: _Macrotermes barneyi_, p. 311.\n    _Odontotermes_ sp., p. 311.\n=Nocticola termitophila=\n  Termites: _Macrotermes malaccensis_, p. 311.\n    _Odontotermes_ sp., p. 311.\n=Nothoblatta wasmanni=\n  Ant: _Camponotus rufipes_, p. 312.\n=Oulopteryx meliponarum=\n  Bee: _Melipona nigra_, p. 314.\n=Phorticolea boliviae=\n  Ants: _Camponotus femoratus_, p. 311.\n    _Crematogaster limata parabiotica_, p. 312.\n=Phorticolea testacea=\n  Ant: _Camponotus rufipes_, p. 312.\n=Sphecophila polybiarum=\n  Wasp: _Polybia pygmaea_, p. 314.\n=Sphecophila ravana=\n  Termite: _Coptotermes ceylonicus_, p. 310.\n=Sphecophila termitium=\n  Termite: _Macrotermes bellicosus_ or _Macrotermes natalensis_, p. 311.\nOBSCURE ASSOCIATIONS\nCockroaches that are sometimes found in the nests of, or in association\nwith, other animals are not necessarily commensals. This is particularly\ntrue of cockroaches that normally are found unassociated with other\nanimals or that merely occupy the same habitat with the other animals\nbecause of similar microclimatic requirements (see Chopard, 1924c).\nMcCook (1877) excavated in February a nest of _Formica rufa_ in\nPennsylvania. A hundred or more lively cockroaches occupied a part of\nthe nest that contained few ants. Near the cockroaches McCook also found\na colony of _Termes flavipes_. _Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_ has been\nfound in the company of ants, but it is probably not myrmecophilous\n(Donisthorpe, 1900). Mann (1911) found an \"_Ischnoptera_\" sp. (probably\na species of _Parcoblatta_) abundant in the nests of, and tolerated by,\n_Camponotus maccooki_ Forel in California. Dead and mutilated specimens\nof this cockroach were common in the nests of \"Formicas.\"\n\"_Ischnoptera_\" sp. was also common in the nests of _Veromessor andrei_\n(Mayr) [= _Stenamma andrei_]. Hebard (1917) reported that W. M. Wheeler\ncollected _Eremoblatta subdiaphana_ in Arizona as an ant guest. Rehn\n(1906a; Rehn and Hebard, 1927) reported that _Pholadoblatta inusitata_\nhad also been taken by Wheeler from the galleries of a jumping ant,\n_Odontomachus clarus_ Roger [= _O. haematodes insularis_ Gu\u00e9rin var.\n_pallens_ Wheeler; Brown (personal communication, 1958)], on Andros\nIsland, Bahamas; Rehn and Hebard (1927) stated that \"This genus and\nspecies is the only blattid, which is presumably a myrmecophile, known\nfrom the West Indies.\" Rehn (1932a) reported _Dendroblatta sobrina_ as\ntaken in an ant nest in a tree in the Amazon Basin. _Tivia australica_\nwas taken in an ant nest in Australia (Princis, 1954). The male of\n_Compsodes schwarzi_ was taken in an ant nest in the Santa Rita\nMountains of Arizona (Ball et al., 1942). A male and female of\n_Stilpnoblatta minuta_ were taken in a migrating column of the ant\n_Myrmicaria natalensis_ Sm. subsp. _eumenoides_ Gerst. in Nyasaland\n(Princis, 1949). Princis cautioned that it is premature to derive any\ninference from this, possibly accidental, association. Four females of\n_Parcoblatta desertae_ were taken about a nest of an ant, _Ischnomyrmex_\nsp. (Hebard, 1943a). A nymph of _Parcoblatta virginica_ was found in a\nnest of _Formica_ sp. (Hauke, 1949).\n_Chorisoneura texensis_ has been found in nests of webworm in Florida\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1916). Karny (1924) in Malaya found an o\u00f6theca of\n_Aristiger histrio_ (sp.?) between leaves (_Costus_ sp.) that had been\nstuck together by a thysanopteron, _Anaphothrips_ sp. He pointed out\nthat the o\u00f6theca would not adhere to leaves that were not stuck together\nbut would fall to the ground.\nSe\u00edn (_in_ Rehn and Hebard, 1927) in Puerto Rico found _Aglaopteryx\nfacies_ in abandoned cocoons of _Megalopyge krugii_ (Dewitz) and in\nleaves webbed together by caterpillars and in abandoned spiders nests.\nWolcott (1950; and _in_ Rehn and Hebard, 1927) also found _A. facies_ in\nthe empty cocoons of _M. krugii_ and in the larval tents of _Tetralopha\nscabridella_ Ragonot on _Inga vera_ (coffee shade tree); and \"Where\nthere are no butterfly-nests, it lives in abandoned spider-nests on the\nleaves of other forest trees.\" Cotton (_in_ Wolcott, 1950) found the\ntype of _Aglaopteryx absimilis_ also living in the abandoned cocoon of\n_M. krugii_ on bucare trees in Puerto Rico. Wolcott (1950) reported that\n_Plectoptera dorsalis_, _Plectoptera infulata_, and _Plectoptera\nrhabdota_ have been found living in trees between leaves or in\n\"butterfly-nests\" of _Tetralopha scabridella_ in leaves of _Inga vera_,\nor nests of _Pilocrocis secernalis_ (M\u00f6schler) in the leaves of _Petitia\ndomingensis_ in the mountains of Puerto Rico. Se\u00edn (_in_ Rehn and\nHebard, 1927) had collected _P. rhabdota_ in the nest of larvae of _T.\nscabridella_.\nWolcott (1950) reported that _Nyctibora lutzi_ had been found in a large\nrotten stump associating with \"'comej\u00e9n' termites [_Nasutitermes\ncostalis_ (Holmgren)], yellow wood-ants and rhinoceros beetle grubs.\"\nRehn and Hebard (1927) found _Simblerastes jamaicanus_ in numbers in the\ndebris of an abandoned termites' nest in Jamaica: \"To what extent the\nspecies is dependent upon the protection of the termite or other\nstructures remains to be determined.\"\nIn Virginia _Cryptocercus punctulatus_ has been found living in the same\ngalleries with _Reticulitermes_ sp., and on the Pacific Coast it has\nbeen found occupying the same log with _Termopsis_ sp. (Cleveland et\nShelford (1909) found one male and one female of _Balta platysoma_ in a\nnest of a spider of the genus _Phryganoporus_ and assumed a symbiotic\nassociation. Chopard (1924) recorded _Mareta acutiventris_ from empty\nnests of spiders on Barkuda Island, India; nothing is known of the\nrelationships, if any, between these cockroaches and spiders.\nChopard (1924c) found _Margattea_ sp. in the nest of the ant _Acropyga\nacutiventris_ Roger; he also found _Margattea_ sp., _Periplaneta_ sp.,\n_Polyphaga indica_, and _Temnopteryx obliquetruncata_ in deserted\ntermite mounds in India. However, he believed that none of these species\nwere more than accidental associates of the host insects; he considered\nthem hygrophilous cockroaches which had found a retreat in the nests.\nMcClure (1936) obtained a large nest of _Vespula maculata_ (Linnaeus)\n[= _Vespa maculata_] in March in Illinois. In it were living 65 nymphs of\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, 3 spiders (_Philodromus pernix_ Blackwall),\n2 immature spiders (_Drassus_ sp.), and 6 mites. Balduf (1936) observed\nfour individuals of _Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ in a nest of _Vespula\nmaculata_; he suggested that they probably fed on dead bodies and\norganic wastes of the wasps. However, Rau (1940) has observed this\ncockroach devour a _Polistes_ larva in its cell. Although we do not\nimply that a commensal relationship exists between _Parcoblatta_ and the\nwasp, it is well to recall a statement by Rothschild and Clay (1957): \"A\ncommensal relationship is potentially even more dangerous than a merely\nsocial tie, for by nature it is more intimate. The closer the\nassociation, the more easily is the balance upset. One partner can then\nsuddenly take a mean advantage of the other.\"\nCockroach nymphs may enter bees' nests where, according to Imamura (_in_\nSonan, 1924), they do not feed on honey or pollen but presumably feed on\nexcreta of bees or anything scattered by bees in their nest; the bees\nare not disturbed by the cockroaches.\nCockroaches that have been found in the burrows of vertebrates are\nlisted on pages 23-25.\nPaulian (1950) found immature cockroaches in the nests of birds\n(Ploceinae) in Madagascar and Ivory Coast. All nests of _Fondia_ sp.\nexamined in Madagascar contained many cockroaches, and Paulian believed\nthat the blattid was a species peculiar to the nests of birds. Three\nnests of _Ploceus_ sp. in Ivory Coast yielded one or two cockroaches\neach in association with more numerous mites, Psocoptera, Heteroptera,\nbeetles, and lepidopterous larvae (Delamare, Deboutteville and Paulian,\n1952). These last cited workers also found four cockroaches in a nest of\n_Estrildine_ sp., and two in a nest of an undetermined bird, all in\nassociation with other arthropods. Moulton (1912) observed large numbers\nof _Symploce cavernicola_ and _Periplaneta australasiae_ swarming in\nsoft bird guano on the floor of caves in Borneo. Abdulali (1942) found\nin India many _Periplaneta americana_ in caves containing the\nedible-nest swift; there was no indication of association of the\ncockroaches with the birds. Danforth (_in_ Wolcott, 1950) reported\nfinding large numbers of _Aglaopteryx facies_ \"in the nests of the grey\nkingbird, in the region of the Cartagena Lagoon [Puerto Rico], 'living\namong the twigs.'\" In Trinidad, Kevan found a male of _Blaberus\ndiscoidalis_ in a bird's nest (Princis and Kevan, 1955).\nDavis (_in_ Rehn and Hebard, 1914a) stated that \"At Punta Gorda\n[Florida] there was a vacant house at the end of the town frequented at\nnight by a Nanny and Billy goat, and on warm evenings many _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_ would run about on the piazza floor and on the sides of\nthe house. They were seen feeding on the excrement of the goats and were\nno doubt to a great degree dependent upon them.\" This is another example\nof a coprophagous insect that has taken advantage of a particular\nsituation favorable to its survival. Similar associations exist in which\nmany of the domiciliary cockroaches feed on the feces of man and\ndomestic and other animals (Roth and Willis, 1957a).\nXVI. COCKROACHES AS PREDATORS\nINTERSPECIES PREDATION\nTepper (1893) made the broad statement that the majority of Australian\nand Polynesian cockroaches appear to be wholly carnivorous, eating other\ninsects, eggs, and larvae. He stated that, because of their voracity and\ncannibalistic tendencies, the carnivorous species lead more or less\nsolitary lives so that one rarely meets several in close proximity; they\nare never very numerous at any time because the stronger devour the\nweaker in the absence of other prey. Tepper stated that Australian\nspecies of _Ischnoptera_ hunt for their prey among the foliage of\nshrubs, and that Australian species of _Cutilia_ [= _Drymaplaneta_,\nHebard (1943)] run about actively on the surface, or ascend shrubs and\ntrees in quest of living insects and therefore are highly beneficial.\nTepper (1894) also stated that _Geoscapheus robustus_ ate earthworms,\ngrubs, and caterpillars. Froggatt (1906) and Marlatt (1915) attributed\nto Tepper the statement that cockroaches, like _Epilampra notabilis_,\nwhich are found out-of-doors in Australia, are carnivorous and feed on\ncaterpillars and other soft-bodied insects; but Froggatt (1907) believed\nthat this alleged behavior needed confirmation.\nA number of observations have been recorded which indicate that\nsometimes cockroaches may be predatory. According to Ealand (1915),\nnymphs of the cockroach _Pseudomops cincta_ fed on the Argentine ant\n_Iridomyrmex humilis_. In the laboratory, _Eurycotis floridana_ has been\nobserved to catch and devour the wasp _Anastatus floridanus_ which\nparasitizes the eggs of _Eurycotis_ (Roth and Willis, 1954a).\n_Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ was observed devouring a larva of _Polistes_\nsp. in its cell in a deserted wasps' nest (Rau, 1940). Brigham (1866)\nsaw a cockroach kill and eat a centipede four or five inches long.\nAnnandale (1910) described the destruction in Calcutta of termites by\n_Periplaneta americana_. During a heavy rain storm many termites flew\ninto the dining room and were set upon by the cockroaches which seized\nthem with their mandibles and began to gnaw their abdomens. If\ndisturbed, the cockroaches carried the termites away in their mandibles\nwithout using their legs to seize, hold, or carry the prey. Sometimes\nonly the abdomen, but other times the whole body with the exception of\nthe wings, was devoured. Perhaps this observation led Allyn (Anonymous,\n1937) to theorize that, first, cockroaches could eradicate termites from\nhouses, and then the blattids in turn could be eliminated. Falls (1938)\nhas pointed out the unfeasibility of this idea. _Blattella vaga_ has\nshown some tendency to eat plant lice (Flock, 1941a). Certain small\ncockroaches found beneath cane leaf-sheaths, in the Philippine Islands,\npreyed in part upon leafhoppers (Uichanco, _in_ Williams et al., 1931).\nTakahashi (1924) stated that the American cockroach will eat the eggs of\nthe hemipteron _Cantao ocellatus_ (Thunberg). Cunliffe (1952) observed\nmite-infested cockroaches (_Blatta orientalis_, _Blattella germanica_,\nand/or _Periplaneta americana_) dislodge and eat the mite _Pimeliaphilus\npodapolipophagus_. Sonan (1924) reported that cockroaches (_P.\namericana_ and _P. australasiae_) devoured the egg clusters and first\ninstar larvae of _Prodenia litula_ and the first instar larvae of\n_Attacus atlas_ which were being reared in the laboratory. Lederer\n(1952) stated that _Periplaneta americana_ ate reptile eggs in the\naquarium at Frankfurt am Main. Pettit (1940) stated that cockroaches\n\"are said to have destroyed a large colony of dermestids used to\nskeletonize carcasses at the University of Kansas.\"\nDeFraula (1780) believed that his silent \"gryllon\" [obviously _Blatta\norientalis_ from his drawings; see Willemet (1784)] was the enemy of the\nchirping species of cricket, because after the cockroach became\nestablished in his home he no longer heard crickets chirping. Gilbert\nWhite (1905 ed.), writing in England in the late 18th century, stated\nthat \"Poda says that these [_Blatta orientalis_] and house crickets will\nnot associate together; but he is mistaken in that assertion\"; however,\nin August 1792 White noted that \"Since the _blattae_ have been so much\nkept under, the crickets have greatly increased in number.\" For several\nyears Jolivet (1950) had observed changes in a mixed population of\n_Blatta orientalis_ and _Acheta domesticus_ in an old kitchen in France.\nHe suggested that the cyclical fluctuations in the relative abundance of\nthe cockroaches and crickets might be caused by reciprocal predatism\nwith one species more susceptible than the other at certain stages.\nMallis (1954) has stated that crickets prey on other insects as well as\non one another. Lh\u00e9ritier (1951) had also observed crickets becoming\nrare in bakeries in France, having been superseded everywhere by _B.\norientalis_; however, he doubted that Jolivet's hypothesis was the\ncorrect explanation and suggested that the higher optimum temperature\nrequirements of crickets might be the regulating factor. Lederer (1952)\nstated that the number of crickets decreased in the aquarium buildings\nat Frankfurt am Main as the population of American cockroaches\nincreased.\n_Platyzosteria novae seelandiae_ was found under the bark of trees in\nNew Zealand devouring bugs (Walker _in_ Shelford, 1909b).\nFor years it has been believed that cockroaches feed on bedbugs (_Cimex\nlectularius_ L.) and this statement has been repeated in many reference\nworks and articles. Ealand (1915) stated that cockroaches devour bedbugs\nwith avidity. Even today similar statements are to be found in the\nliterature. \"In the old sailing ship days, they [cockroaches] were often\nwelcomed by crews because of the belief that they would eradicate a\npopulation of bedbugs. This belief was based on scientific fact, as\ncockroaches are known as predators of bedbugs\" (Monro, 1951).\nCockroaches will often \"help rid a house of bedbugs by devouring all the\nlittle parasites they can capture\" (Gaul, 1953). The basis for this\nbelief may have originated with a statement by Webster (1834) who wrote\nthat bedbugs disappeared aboard \"H.M. Sloop Chanticleer\" when\ncockroaches made their appearance. Newman (1855) reported the\nobservations of a friend who claimed to have seen a cockroach seize a\nbedbug in an infested boardinghouse in London. In 1920 Purdy\nreintroduced cockroaches into a house from which they had been\nexterminated, in order to control the bedbugs which had become\nestablished. According to a popular account by Lillingston (1934)\nAfrican natives are said to ask sailors for a cockroach or two to be\nused to hunt bedbugs.\nIn Siberia, Burr (1926, 1939) found _Blattella germanica_ and bedbugs\ninhabiting the same room. Mellanby (1939) studied the populations of an\nanimal house in which bedbugs and cockroaches occurred in large numbers;\nthe bugs apparently were not attacked and their numbers increased\ngreatly over a period of a few weeks (Johnson and Mellanby, 1939). Wille\n(1920) placed starved _B. germanica_ with bedbugs for 20 days, but the\ncockroaches failed to attack the bugs. In India, captive adults and\nnymphs of two species of house cockroaches would not touch living\nbedbugs or their eggs (Cornwall, 1916). In laboratory experiments Gulati\n(1930) found that _Periplaneta americana_ ate young bedbugs which had\nsoft, blood-filled abdomens; adult bedbugs with harder exoskeletons\nsometimes were rejected. The maximum number of bedbugs eaten by a\ncockroach was 3 out of 12 during a period of 48 hours. Johnson and\nMellanby (1939), also in laboratory experiments, were unable to show\nthat bedbugs can be controlled by _Blatta orientalis_ or that bedbugs\nare eaten to any extent by them. The existing evidence indicates that\nthere is little basis for the often repeated statement that cockroaches\ndestroy bedbugs in nature. As Lorando (1929) pointed out, assassin bugs,\ncockroaches, and red ants can hardly be considered as practical factors\nin bedbug control, though he did recommend the use of spiders.\nAccording to Martini (1952), cockroaches prey on mosquitoes and sand\nflies but we have been unable to find any original sources for these\nstatements; the only reference we have found in which cockroaches and\n_Phlebotomus_ are mentioned together is a paper by Whittingham and Rook\n(1923); they fed ground-up cockroaches to larvae of _Phlebotomus\npapatasii_. Wharton (1951) reported that cockroaches and other predators\nattacked mosquitoes knocked down by insecticides and affected the number\nrecovered.\nCockroaches will on occasion attack and bite animals other than insects.\nIn an earlier paper (1957a) we discussed about 20 reports of cockroaches\nbiting man. The injury is usually confined to abrasion of the callused\nportions of hands and feet but may result in small wounds in the softer\nskin of the face and neck. We failed to include the following reference\nin the above-mentioned paper. Sonan (1924) had his toes and breast\nnibbled by cockroaches on Hiyakejima Island during sleep. He had\npreviously learned from a policeman that _Periplaneta americana_ and _P.\naustralasiae_ nibbled people on that island, but he had hardly believed\nit before he experienced the biting himself.\nINTRASPECIES PREDATION\nThose who have reared cockroaches in the laboratory have undoubtedly\nseen cannibalism occur in the cultures. Cannibalism has been observed\namong the common domiciliary species of cockroaches as well as\nlaboratory colonies of _Leucophaea maderae_ (Scharrer, 1953), and\n_Blaberus craniifer_[12] (Saupe, 1928). Edmunds (1957)\nreported that cannibalism was common in a laboratory colony of\n_Periplaneta brunnea_ and that egg capsules deposited by a female were\noften eaten by the other cockroaches.\n_Periplaneta americana_ occasionally ate other cockroaches and their\no\u00f6thecae and also attacked members of their own species (Lederer, 1952).\nGriffiths and Tauber (1942) recorded the killing of male American\ncockroaches by females of the species: \"One female was especially\nvicious and attacked each new male as he was introduced into the\ncontainer. Most of such males had molted less than 2 days previously.\nOlder males were more capable of defending themselves against attacks of\nthese cannibalistic females.\" Even though adequate food may be present,\nfemales of _Periplaneta americana_ may eat their own eggs (Klein, 1933).\nSome females may regularly eat their o\u00f6thecae as soon as they are\ndropped (Griffiths and Tauber, 1942). To be completely eaten an o\u00f6theca\ngenerally must be attacked before it has hardened. If a hole is eaten in\none side of the capsule, the cockroach may devour the eggs and leave a\nportion of the o\u00f6theca. Frequently only the keel or a part of the keel\nis eaten and when this occurs the eggs fail to hatch and usually do not\ncomplete development because of the rapid loss of water (Roth and\nWillis, 1955). When adults of _P. americana_ and _P. australasiae_ were\ndeprived of food, both males and females ate newly deposited eggs and,\nfinally, the females ate the males (Sonan, 1924).\n_Parcoblatta virginica_ in laboratory cultures also may eat part of its\no\u00f6thecae; in this species only the soft end of the recently deposited\no\u00f6theca was eaten (Roth, unpublished data, 1957).\nCros (1942) observed o\u00f6thecae-bearing females of _Blatta orientalis_\nattack and kill males of the same species which were attempting to mate;\nthese males were then eaten by the females. Cros also observed injured\nand recently molted nymphs of _B. orientalis_ to be eaten by others of\nthe same species.\nPettit (1940) noted that cannibalism in his culture of _Blattella\ngermanica_ occurred only when the insects were molting. Adult insects\nattacked the molting cockroaches more often than did the nymphs.\nHowever, nymphs after the fourth instar occasionally set upon other\nmolting nymphs. First-to third-instar nymphs rarely victimized their\nmates. The victims were all older than third instar; the later stadia\nwere progressively more subject to attack, and molting adults suffered\nthe greatest mortality. No direct correlation was noted between\npopulation density and cannibalism.\nGerman cockroaches may attack newly molted nymphs of their own kind and\ncause them to deflate (Gould and Deay, 1938). Lh\u00e9ritier (1951) has\nobserved the hatching nymphs of _B. germanica_ being devoured by their\ncongeners even before they have left the o\u00f6theca.\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_ in laboratory cultures will eat newly hatched young\nof the same species (Roth and Willis, 1954; Willis et al., 1958). In\nHawaii, in nature, _N. cinerea_ may kill and eat the cypress cockroach,\n_Diploptera punctata_ (Illingworth, 1942; Fullaway and Krauss, 1945).\nBunting (1956) stated that species of _Neoblattella_ are omnivorous with\ncarnivorous and cannibalistic tendencies. An adult female _Panchlora_\nsp. was killed and eaten by _Neoblattella_ sp. in captivity. A male,\nprovisionally identified as _N. celeripes_, was killed and partly eaten\nby two other males of the same species.\nThe factors influencing the extent of cannibalism among cockroaches are\nnot completely known. According to Wille (1920) hunger was not the cause\nof cannibalism in _Blattella germanica_. Wille claimed that the tendency\ntoward cannibalism increased at high temperatures and decreased at low\ntemperatures. Pettit (1940) also noted this effect. Gould and Deay\n(1938) stated that under crowded laboratory conditions, when there was a\nscarcity of food, cannibalism among _Periplaneta americana_ was common.\nThe injured cockroaches and those unable to molt were often eaten. Adair\n(1923) made similar observations. Undoubtedly, conditions of crowding,\navailability of food, temperature and other factors all influence\ncannibalism, but practically no experimental work has been done on this\nsubject.\nIt is interesting, in comparison with the above positive examples of\ncannibalism, that both Saupe (1928) and Roeser (1940) observed no\ncannibalism during extensive studies with _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_. In\nfact, Roeser stated that there was never a case of cannibalism in spite\nof long hunger periods imposed on both nymphal and adult insects.\nXVII. ASSOCIATIONS AMONG COCKROACHES\nBesides preying on their own species or on other blattids, cockroaches\nexhibit additional symbiotic relationships among themselves. These\nrelationships are (1) the familial associations of parent and offspring,\n(2) gregariousness, (3) intraspecies fighting, (4) interspecies\ncompatibility, and (5) interspecies antagonism. There are some\ninconsistencies between observations made on the same species by\ndifferent workers, which only further observation and experimentation\nwill explain. Some of the reported observations are unique; this is\nespecially true for the feral species. Because of the paucity of\ninformation, it is impossible at this time to make valid generalizations\nabout some of these interesting relationships.\nFAMILIAL ASSOCIATIONS\nThe females of many species of cockroaches insure varying degrees of\nprotection to the developing young in their ways of disposing of the\no\u00f6theca after it has been formed. The extent of this association between\nthe mother and her developing progeny varies from the minimum amount of\ntime spent by oviparous females in concealing their o\u00f6thecae, to the\nduration of embryogenesis in the so-called viviparous species, a period\nof over a month or more.\nHaber (1920a) observed a female of _Periplaneta americana_ chew a groove\nin a piece of pasteboard into which she attempted to deposit her\no\u00f6theca. The o\u00f6theca failed to adhere to the shallow hole and fell to\nthe floor. After several futile attempts to replace the o\u00f6theca in the\nhole, the female finally left the egg case on the floor of the cage and\ncoated it with an oral secretion to which she attached bits of trash.\nDuring this operation she chased other females away when they ventured\nnear the site. Qadri (1938) described the behavior of the female of\n_Blatta orientalis_ in concealing her o\u00f6theca in a hole that she dug in\nsand; she deposited the egg case in the hole, coated it with saliva and\nsand, and then refilled the pit. Rau (1943) described in detail how\nfemales of _P. americana_ and _B. orientalis_ covered their o\u00f6thecae\nwith wood dust or sand in holes they had prepared in the substrate. Both\nspecies placed a sticky oral secretion in the holes and then deposited\ntheir o\u00f6thecae therein. After coating the o\u00f6thecae with more sticky\nsecretion, the females adjusted the o\u00f6thecae so that the keels were\nuppermost and then carefully concealed the o\u00f6thecae with the excavated\ndebris. Both females spent over an hour in the act. Rau (1924)\npreviously reported that of 90 o\u00f6thecae deposited by _B. orientalis_ in\njars containing earth and trash, 36 were placed in crevices or excavated\nholes, and 38 were hidden by being covered with dirt stuck to them with\nsaliva; only 16 were left uncovered.\nEdmunds (1957) described oviposition by _Periplaneta brunnea_. Some\nfemales spent from 30 to 40 minutes secreting from the mouth a frothy\nsubstance that was smeared on the substrate; the egg capsule was\ndeposited in the secretion and covered with additional froth, which\nhardened into a very strong cement. Some females spent as long as two\nhours coating the capsule after it was deposited. It was not stated\nwhether the o\u00f6theca was otherwise concealed. The female remained with\nher body over the o\u00f6theca for several hours and drove away other\ncockroaches which approached.\nSonan (1924) observed that _Periplaneta americana_ and _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_ spent from 40 minutes to an hour covering their o\u00f6thecae,\nand that if the females were frightened away from this activity, they\nreturned again to complete it. As well as excavating holes in the\nsubstrate in which to deposit its o\u00f6thecae, _P. americana_ also avails\nitself of readymade crevices of appropriate size (Ehrlich, 1943).\nSpecies of _Epilampra_ in Malaya were said by Annandale (1900) to\ndeposit their o\u00f6thecae in crevices in floating logs just above the water\nline. However, Shelford (1906) stated that four genera (including\n_Epilampra_) of the subfamily Epilamprinae are \"viviparous,\" in which\nevent the females would carry their o\u00f6thecae within their bodies during\nembryogenesis and would not place the o\u00f6thecae in crevices in logs.\nThe female of _Cryptocercus punctulatus_ was observed to make a groove\nin a piece of wood, then carry her o\u00f6theca 6 inches from where she had\ndropped it and place it in the groove; she covered the o\u00f6theca so that\nonly a portion was visible (Cleveland _in_ Cleveland et al., 1934). Dr.\nW. L. Nutting (personal communication, 1954) collected a number of\no\u00f6thecae of _C. punctulatus_ in the field and found each one almost\ncompletely sealed off with bits of wood in a deep groove in the roof of\na chamber in a log. The keel of the o\u00f6theca was visible but the rest was\nwell camouflaged. He stated that \"The adult pair usually frequents the\nchamber at this time, while their broods of previous years occupy\nneighboring galleries.\"\nBerland (1924) observed a female of _Loboptera decipiens_ filling a hole\n(the abandoned nest of a hymenopteron) with earth that she carried in\nher mouth; he later found her o\u00f6theca behind the earthen barricade which\nshe had erected.\nIn summary, the following species of oviparous cockroaches have been\nobserved concealing their o\u00f6thecae (only those references not previously\ncited are given): _Blatta orientalis_; _Cryptocercus punctulatus_;\n_Ectobius sylvester_ (Harz, 1956, 1957); _Epilampra_ sp.; _Eurycotis\nfloridana_ (Roth and Willis, 1954a); _Loboptera decipiens_; _Balta\nscripta_, _Methana curvigera_, _Methana marginalis_, and _Methana\ncaneae_ (Pope, 1953a); _Pelmatosilpha marginalis_, _Pelmatosilpha\npurpurascens_, and _Nauclidas nigra_ (Bunting, 1956); _Periplaneta\namericana_ (Haber, 1919; Adair, 1923; Se\u00edn, 1923; Nigam, 1933; Gould and\nDeay, 1938; Rau, 1940a); _Periplaneta australasiae_ (Girault, 1915b;\nSpencer, 1943; Pope, 1953); _Periplaneta brunnea_ (Roth and Willis,\nunpublished data, 1958); _Periplaneta fuliginosa_ (Gould and Deay,\n1940); _Periplaneta ignota_ (Pope, 1953); _Supella supellectilium_\n(Flock, 1941). Undoubtedly other oviparous species that drop their\no\u00f6thecae long before the eggs hatch also make some attempt to conceal\nthe o\u00f6thecae by placing them in crevices or covering them with debris.\nSometimes the o\u00f6thecae are deposited but not concealed. Hafez and Afifi\n(1956) reported that in Egypt _Supella supellectilium_ attaches its\no\u00f6theca to a suitable substrate with a gummy oral secretion but leaves\nthe egg capsule otherwise exposed. We (1954) have noticed similar\nbehavior in laboratory colonies of this species and of _Blatta\norientalis_, as have Gould and Deay (1940). Cornelius (1853) stated that\nthe female of _B. orientalis_ takes care of the safety of her offspring\nto the extent of usually dropping her o\u00f6thecae in places which are dry\nand raised above the ground, although rarely one also may find some\no\u00f6thecae scattered on the ground. For lack of suitable material females\nof _Periplaneta americana_ sometimes did not conceal their o\u00f6thecae\n(Nigam, 1933). Frequently in laboratory colonies _P. americana_ merely\ndrops the o\u00f6thecae loosely in sand or food \"in contrast to _P.\naustralasiae_, which almost always went to considerable trouble to\nfasten their eggs securely and to conceal them with debris\" (Pope,\n1953). If conditions under which _Nauclidas nigra_ is kept are not\nsuitable, the female will drop her o\u00f6theca anywhere (Bunting, 1956). Rau\n(1940) stated that the female of _Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ does not\nconceal her o\u00f6theca. However, Gould and Deay (1940) stated that this\nspecies deposits its o\u00f6thecae loosely behind bark. _Ellipsidion affine_\nand _Ellipsidion australe_ attach their o\u00f6thecae to bark or the\nunderside of leaves but apparently make no attempt to conceal them\nThe females of most of the above species have no further familial\nassociation with their offspring. The eggs hatch with no attention from\nthe mother who is probably not even in the vicinity at that time. The\nyoung apparently do not react to the presence of the parent, as such,\nafter hatching. This is not unexpected, as several additional o\u00f6thecae\nmay have been deposited by these oviparous females before the eggs of\nthe first o\u00f6thecae hatch. However, a different behavior is encountered\namong species that do not form a second o\u00f6theca until after the eggs of\nthe first have hatched (see below) and in the so-called colonial\nspecies.\nShaw (1925) reported that in Australia both _Panesthia australis_ and\n_Panesthia laevicollis_ appear to live in families, and that one usually\nfinds a pair of adults associated with from 12 to 20 nymphs in\ndifferent stages of development; he continued, \"it is only where the\nmolts are very abundant that one loses sight of this familial habit.\"\nTillyard (1926) also stated that the Australian species of _Panesthia_\nlive in burrows in soil in strict family communities of a pair of adults\nand 10 to 20 nymphs. A related colonial species, _Cryptocercus\npunctulatus_, lives in both sound and rotten logs in colonies consisting\nof a pair of adults and 15 or 20 nymphs, probably representing two or\nthree broods (Cleveland et al., 1934; Cleveland, 1948). Chopard (1938)\nhas cited this association as an example of gregariousness, which it may\nwell be; however, the presence of only one pair of adults in each colony\nsuggests a more intimate relationship.\nAmong species of _Blattella_ and certain other genera with similar\nreproductive habits the female carries her o\u00f6theca clasped in her\ngenital cavity with the posterior portion projecting behind her. Each\nnormal o\u00f6theca is carried for approximately the duration of\nembryogenesis and is not dropped until, or shortly before, hatching. We\nhave seen (1954, fig. 65) newly hatched nymphs of _Blattella vaga_ crawl\nover the body of the mother who stood quietly near the dropped o\u00f6theca;\nthis female raised her wings and some of the nymphs crawled under them\nonto the dorsal surface of her abdomen. The nymphs seemed to feed on the\ngrease covering the mother's body. The association was short-lived,\nhowever, and soon the nymphs scattered. Pettit (1940) stated that when\nhatching of _Blattella germanica_ occurs in the open (on a table top),\nthe nymphs may remain near the capsule only a few minutes. Ledoux (1945)\nfound that newly hatched nymphs of _B. germanica_ remained together\nwithout shelter in a single, sparse group. If the nymphs were separated\nby blowing on them, the group quickly reassembled, usually in the same\nspot. Ledoux showed that this gregarious grouping of first-instar nymphs\nwas not necessarily a familial association by placing nymphs from two\no\u00f6thecae together. In groups of 8 to 12 nymphs there was a perfect\nintermingling of the offspring from the two different females.\nIt is among the so-called viviparous cockroaches that the greatest\nnumber of observations have been made of postparturient associations\nbetween female cockroaches and their offspring. The females of these\nspecies carry their o\u00f6thecae in brood sacs within their bodies until\nembryogenesis has been completed. This behavior ensures protection of\nthe young from desiccation and attack by parasites (Roth and Willis,\n1955a). (See Roth and Willis, 1958a, for an analysis of oviparity and\nviviparity in the Blattaria.) Shelford (1906, 1916) reported that he had\ncaptured a female of _Pseudophoraspis nebulosa_ in Borneo with numerous\nyoung nymphs clinging to the undersurface of her abdomen. He also\nrecalled that there was in the Hope Museum (Oxford) a female of\n_Phlebonotus pallens_ to which the following label was attached:\n\"'Ceylon ... carries its young beneath its wing covers. 1878.'\" Pruthi\n(1933) found in South India another female of _P. pallens_ which was\ncarrying over a dozen young nymphs on her back beneath her wings. In his\npaper Pruthi reproduced a photograph of this specimen with the\nlight-colored nymphs in place on the back of the female. Hanitsch (1933)\nreported having seen a museum specimen from Luzon, Philippine Islands,\nof the apterous female of _Perisphaerus glomeriformis_ with nymphs still\nclinging to her undersurface; he also reported having seen a museum\nspecimen of a female of _Ellipsidion variegatum_ from Australia with\nfour young clinging to the upper side of the apex of her tegmina and six\nto the o\u00f6theca which projected beyond her body. Presumably this specimen\nwas giving birth when captured. Gurney (1954; personal communication,\n1958) stated that specimens of _Perisphaerus_ sp. from Mindanao and\nLuzon have been found with young nymphs clinging to the middle and hind\ncoxae. The first-instar nymph has an elongate face and specialized\ngaleae. Karny (1925) also observed that at the slightest alarm the young\nof some species of Phoraspidinae creep under the dome-shaped front wings\nof the mother.\nThe newly hatched young of _Leucophaea maderae_ have also been seen\ncongregated under the mother on several occasions. Se\u00edn (1923) stated\nthat after being born, the nymphs of this species gather under the\nmother and accompany her at night in her excursions in search of food.\nPess\u00f4a and Corr\u00eaa (1928) reported that \"During the first days the free\nlarvae hide under the adult cockroach which becomes restless and active\nin contrast to its usual slow gait.\" Wolcott (1950) stated that \"They\nare not only gregarious, but the mother broods over her young, and\ntogether they sally forth at night in search for food, until they are of\nsuch a size as to mingle with their elders.\"\nThe African mountain cockroach _Aptera fusca_ has been observed during\nlate summer and early winter in familial groups beneath loose bark,\nunder stones, and in dead leaves (Skaife, 1954): \"Each party consists of\na number of black young ones, together with one, two or more adult\nfemales and perhaps a winged male or two. Later on they scatter and live\nmore or less solitary lives.\" In Malaya Karny (1924) often found\nphoraspidine females between leaves surrounded by about 20 young nymphs.\nHe stated that one also often found females of _Perisphaerus armadillo_\nsurrounded by pale, yellowish-white young; similarly he had observed\nthat _Archiblatta hoevenii_ was found mostly in colonies made up of\nmothers and their young. The duration of these associations is not\nknown.\nSaupe (1928) noticed that the newly hatched nymphs of _Blaberus\ncraniifer_ (see footnote II, p. 322) collected together under the body\nof their mother and stated that this is as pronounced a case of brood\ncare as Zacher had observed with _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_. Nutting\n(1953) stated that \"A degree of maternal solicitude is exhibited by this\nroach [_B. craniifer_], for many times I have observed the female to\nremain motionless for an hour or more with her unpigmented brood\nclustered around and beneath her body.\" We, too, have observed similar\nbehavior in laboratory colonies of _B. craniifer_ and _Leucophaea\nmaderae_.\nChopard (1950) noted that after hatching the young of _Gromphadorhina\nlaevigata_ remained grouped around the female for some time; the mother\nstood motionless, high on her legs, with her thorax curved up to make\nroom for the brood which hid under her body. We (unpublished data, 1958)\nhave seen young nymphs of _Gromphadorhina portentosa_ also stay near\ntheir mother for some time after birth; the mother at this time produced\na characteristic hissing sound when she was only slightly disturbed by\nthe movement of our hand near her and her brood. The sound is produced\nas air is expelled through the second abdominal spiracle. We have seen\nrecently hatched nymphs of _Nauphoeta cinerea_ crawl beneath the mother,\neven under her wings, where they remained about an hour (Willis et al.,\n1958). Bunting (1956) observed a female of _Blaberus discoidalis_\ncollect a mound of debris into which she inserted the tip of her\nabdomen; he found young in the mound later the same day. This female\nshowed no maternal care for the young after birth. Whole families of\ncockroaches may be found in bromeliads in Brazil (Ohaus, 1900). Hebard\n(1920) observed a colony of adults and young of _Dendroblatta sobrina_\non a tree trunk in the Panama Canal Zone.\nWhether any of the above associations exemplify maternal care for the\nnewly hatched young is questionable. The behavior of the mother, beyond\nplacing her eggs in a suitable location, seems to be entirely passive.\nThe first-instar nymphs are the active partners in these associations,\nand they may merely be seeking shelter under the nearest convenient\nobject rather than under the mother as such. More extensive studies of\nsome of these relationships will be needed before claims for maternal\ncare, as suggested by Scott (1929), can be substantiated.\nGREGARIOUSNESS\nCasual statements that cockroaches are gregarious are often encountered\nin the literature. There has been some argument to the effect that\nlarge numbers of these insects seeking the same environment in a limited\nspace would appear to be gregarious, whereas there is probably no true\nsocial tendency (Rau, 1924). Reactions of cockroaches to certain stimuli\nin the environment undoubtedly do result in aggregations of individuals.\nHowever, as Chopard (1938) has pointed out, it is difficult to assign\nthe respective parts played in assembling by the attraction of the\nmilieu and by gregarious instincts. Chopard (1938) also stated that\nOrthoptera with a gregarious tendency are found rarely isolated; one\nfinds them, on the contrary nearly always collected in the same\nshelters, close together, as if conscious of a need for contact between\nthemselves. He continued further that one can be tempted to attribute\nthe assembling to taxes but that interattraction equally plays an\nimportant role; for example, if one places a large number of cockroaches\nin a container and offers them similar shelters composed of cardboard\ntubes, one finds that nearly all the individuals will assemble in one of\nthe tubes, ignoring the others. Pettit (1940) claimed that in _Blattella\ngermanica_ gregariousness seemed to depend on the mutual attractiveness\nof body secretions as well as a thigmopositive behavior and love of\nwarmth.\nLedoux (1945) has studied experimentally gregariousness and social\ninterattraction in _Blatta orientalis_ and _Blattella germanica_. He\nalso found that the cockroaches tended to collect in shelters containing\nother cockroaches. He concluded that group formation is not the result\nof chance, but is a social phenomenon, and that interattraction is\nmainly olfactory, conditioned by (1) positive chemotaxis to odors\nemitted by the cockroaches themselves, (2) positive hygrotaxis, and (3)\nthigmotaxis. He found also that large groups are not stable and tend to\nbreak into smaller groups.\nGregariousness in the Orthoptera varies in intensity according to the\nspecies and within a species according to the age or physiological state\nof the insects (Chopard, 1938). This is well exemplified by several of\nthe blattid species discussed below.\nGregarious groupings of cockroaches have been observed most frequently\namong the domiciliary species. A few examples will suffice. Gal'kov\n(1926) observed heavy infestations of undetermined cockroaches in\nworkers' living quarters in the Ural region: \"In the corners near the\nstove, the cockroaches covered the walls in a dense carpet.\" After\nfumigating he collected about 135,000 dead cockroaches from one barracks\nand about 475,000 from another. We have reviewed a few other examples of\nheavy infestations in our 1957(a) paper.\n_Periplaneta americana_ was observed by Gould and Deay (1938) in an old\nmeat-packing building in Indiana. Adult cockroaches were present in\nlarge numbers between closely placed beams, but the nymphs were more\ncommon in cracks between bricks. Clusters of several hundred cockroaches\nwere seen on the open walls of the cold, dark hide room. Gould and Deay\nstated \"American roaches of all sizes live together in perfect harmony.\nYoung nymphs have been noted in clusters underneath adults and crawling\nover the adults as they wander about in rearing jars.\" In the monkey\nhouse of the Hamburg zoo, _P. americana_ spent most of the day in the\ncellars resting on the walls in groups of about 200 individuals\n(Brecher, 1929). Lederer (1952) noted that in closed, dark, heated\nspaces under the aquarium at Frankfurt am Main, _P. americana_ rested in\ngroups of 20 to 30 individuals; he stated that it was remarkable that\nthe \"herd\" divided itself into groups each of which usually contained\ninsects of the same age or stage of development. Eads (1954) found _P.\namericana_ in 40 percent of 762 sewer manholes in Tyler, Tex.; 13\npercent of 670 of these manholes were heavily infested with 100 or more\ncockroaches in each. Other heavy sewer infestations have been reviewed\nin our 1957(a) paper.\nEhrlich (1943) has stated that _Periplaneta americana_ exhibits social\nbehavior. For instance, cockroaches of various ages inhabit a fairly\nlarge space jointly; the adults and older nymphs sense approaches with\ntheir antennae and warn and protect the young by a beating of wings and\nby body movements. There is complete utilization of the available living\nspace; the imagos drive older nymphs from their resting places, and the\nolder nymphs drive out the younger ones, until all cracks, depending on\ntheir size, are occupied by various age groups of different sizes. In\nhis experiments Ehrlich observed that in cages with no hiding places the\ncockroaches would group together; when given a choice of small and large\nshelters, _P. americana_ hid only under the larger ones that could\nshelter more insects. Finally, the cockroaches ceased to bite and fight\neach other when they crowded together in the face of danger.\nOf _Blatta orientalis_ Marlatt (1915) stated \"This species is notably\ngregarious in habit, individuals living together in colonies in the most\namicable way, the small ones being allowed by the larger ones to sit on\nthem, run over them, and nestle beneath them without any resentment\nbeing shown.\" Haber (1919) also observed that this species is often\nnoticed \"huddled together, the younger ones crawling over, around, and\nbeneath the older ones.\"\nWille (1920) observed that nymphs of _Blattella germanica_ remained\nalmost constantly in groups during the first and second instars, but\nless so during the third instar. He believed that the aggregations of\nyoung occurred because they could occupy narrow crevices where the\nlarger insects could not penetrate. At usual room temperatures the older\nnymphs and adults lived completely isolated, but at certain temperatures\nthey gathered together in large, tightly pressed groups.\n_Supella supellectilium_ is said to be gregarious (Gould and Deay,\n1940). The smaller nymphs aggregate in small groups in rearing\ncontainers, but the older ones remain separate from one another (Hafez\nand Afifi, 1956). _Leucophaea maderae_ is sociable and rarely found\nalone; in their favorite hiding places, hills of these cockroaches can\nbe seen hanging together (Se\u00edn, 1923). Wolcott (1950) also stated that\n_L. maderae_ is gregarious. Annandale (1900) observed that in the\n\"Siamese Malay States\" large colonies of _Periplaneta australasiae_\nconceal themselves in hollows of bamboo logs from which houses are\nbuilt. Moulton (1912) stated that he was astonished at the large numbers\nof _P. australasiae_ and _Symploce cavernicola_ that he saw swarming on\nthe sides of caves of Mt. Jibong, Borneo.\nRehn and Hebard (1905) stated that in Key West, Fla., _Eurycotis\nfloridana_ fairly swarmed under the coquina boulders in the woods, in\ngroups of a dozen containing both young and adults; _Pycnoscelus\nsurinamensis_ was very abundant in the same type of habitat. Caudell\n(1905) also found the young of _E. floridana_ with the mature\nindividuals. Hebard (1917) in his discussion of _Lattiblattella rehni_\nagain mentioned finding frequent colonies of _E. floridana_ in Florida.\nHe also found many specimens of _Blaberus craniifer_ under boards on the\nground at Key West. He found _Parcoblatta lata_ numerous under bark of\ndead pine trees in Alabama. However, Dowdy (1955), in an ecological\nstudy of oak-hickory forest in Missouri, stated that \"_Parcoblatta_\n[sp.] were never recorded as being gregarious, in fact they were mostly\nsolitary. However, in some cases two were found together.\" Yet Blatchley\n(1895) stated of _Parcoblatta pensylvanica_ that in the winter in\nIndiana \"One cannot pull the loose bark from an old log without\ndislodging a colony of from ten to a hundred of the nymphs of various\nsizes.\" Males of _Parcoblatta virginica_ were said to be often\ngregarious beneath loose bark and under chunks and rubbish (Blatchley,\nRehn and Hebard (1927) quoted observations made earlier by Hebard on\n_Byrsotria fumigata_ in Cuba: \"I found the specimens under flat stones,\nsometimes in colonies of 3 or 4 mature specimens and numbers of immature\nindividuals in all stages of development.\" These observers also reported\nthat _Aspiduchus borinquen_ was found in Puerto Rico in a limestone\ncavern by thousands in the grass and on the walls. J. W. H. Rehn (1951a)\nstated that a related species, apparently _Aspiduchus cavernicola_, was\nseen in great numbers on the side walls and roof of a cave in Puerto\nRico, but it was not possible to collect any of these and, we infer,\nconfirm the species. Rehn and Hebard (1927) in their account of\n_Simblerastes jamaicanus_ reported finding it in numbers in a termite\nnest. Pemberton and Williams (1938) stated that _Diploptera punctata_ is\nof gregarious habits in Hawaii. Saupe (1928) observed a strong \"herd\ninstinct\" in all age groups of _Blaberus craniifer_. Bunting (personal\ncommunication, 1956) stated that large nymphs and adults of _Blaberus\ndiscoidalis_ \"congregate in narrow cracks or on the underside of some\nlow object. The younger nymphs keep in close communities of\napproximately the same age.\" Sonan (1924) stated that in Formosa(?)\n_Salganea morio_ is usually found in groups of six or seven in decayed\ntrees. Species of the genus _Litopeltis_ may be found in small groups as\nthey are somewhat gregarious (Rehn, 1928).\nThe physiological or psychological effects of gregariousness, or lack of\nit, are interesting aspects of the basic phenomenon. Landowski (1937)\nstudied in _Blatta orientalis_ the effect on development and growth of\nthe transition from life in complete isolation to life in groups. He\nkept nymphs in groups of 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 in jars of identical size\nand shape. Landowski found that (1) mortality increased with the size of\nthe group and with age, as each animal occupied more of the available\nspace. [Presumably these factors are less detrimental in nature where\nthe group is unconfined.] He further found that (2) life in complete\nisolation extended the time required to produce an adult insect; and (3)\nthe mean weight of the adult insect was, generally, in inverse\nproportion to the number of nymphs raised together; isolated insects\nusually attained the greatest adult weight.\nSimilarly, Griffiths and Tauber (1942a) found that isolation extended\nthe period of nymphal development in _Periplaneta americana_. As most of\ntheir isolates died before reaching maturity, these workers concluded\nthat the American cockroach does not thrive when individually isolated\nand that several individuals must be together for optimum development to\noccur. Pettit (1940, 1940a) observed that isolated nymphs of _Blattella\ngermanica_ take longer to mature than those reared in groups. Wallick\n(1954) found indications in _B. germanica_ that there is an inverse\nrelationship between population density and individual weight; as the\npopulation decreased the weight increased. He also noted an inverse\nrelationship between population density and life expectancy in this\nspecies.\nWe (Willis et al., 1958) have confirmed the above observations that\n_Blattella germanica_, _Blatta orientalis_, and _Periplaneta americana_\ncomplete nymphal development in less time when reared in groups rather\nthan individually. We (loc. cit.) also found that nymphs of the\nfollowing additional species matured more quickly when reared in groups:\n_Eurycotis floridana_, _Periplaneta fuliginosa_, _Supella\nsupellectilium_, _Nauphoeta cinerea_, and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_;\nonly a very slight decrease in the average length of the developmental\nperiod was found in grouped nymphs of _Leucophaea maderae_.\nWharton et al. (1954) observed that virgin adult males of _Periplaneta\namericana_ that had been individually isolated upon emergence were\nalmost wholly unresponsive to the sexually stimulating, female odor for\na test period of four weeks. Similar males of comparable age that were\nkept in groups reacted strongly from the sixth day on. Removal of\nreactive males from the group inhibited the reaction in these isolates,\nbut the response returned when the insects were regrouped. We (1952) had\nsimilarly observed that no isolated male of _Blattella germanica_ was\never seen to give a courting response without having received some form\nof external stimulation. Yet when numbers of males were kept together\nisolated from females, on several occasions the males became active and\na few individuals gave a courting response. As the sexual stimulus is\nreceived by the male of _B. germanica_ through contact rather than odor,\nas in _P. americana_, presumably it was mutual contact between the\ngrouped males that released the courting activity.\nCloudsley-Thompson (1953a), in his studies of diurnal rhythms in\n_Periplaneta americana_, observed a steady decline in total activity in\nsuccessive 24-hour cycles: \"When two cockroaches, even of different\nspecies (_P. americana_ and _P. australasiae_) were kept together, this\ndepression did not appear to set in so readily.\" The associates\napparently kept each other active.\nIsolated females of _Periplaneta americana_ can be conditioned to run a\nsimple maze with less time and fewer errors per trial than when paired\nor when a member of a group of three (Gates and Allee, 1933). There was\nless activity, and accordingly fewer errors per minute, among\ncockroaches tested as pairs and groups of three than as isolated\nindividuals. This observation should not be contrasted with that of\nCloudsley-Thompson (1953a), cited above, because the intervals during\nwhich activity was observed were quite different.\nIn the above account we have presumed that aggregations of some species\nare indications of gregariousness. However, until gregariousness has\nbeen proved experimentally for each species, we concede that reactions\nto environmental stimuli might be sufficient to bring about some of the\nobserved groupings without any interaction between individuals.\nIn concluding this section we note that Tepper (1893) stated that\ncarnivorous cockroaches in Australia lead more or less solitary lives,\nand that one rarely meets several together in close proximity. Takahashi\n(1940) observed that in Formosa _Blattella humbertiana_ does not have a\ntendency to throng together. Rau (1947) stated that the adults of\n_Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_ showed no tendency toward gregariousness,\nbut in the laboratory newly hatched young lived close together under\nbark and remained together throughout the nymphal stages. We wonder\nwhether this gregariousness was not imposed by the restricted quarters\nof the cage. As mentioned above, Dowdy (1955) did not find _Parcoblatta_\nsp. to be gregarious in the field.\nINTRASPECIES FIGHTING\nFighting occurs among cockroaches of the same species over food or\nshelter or between males. Saupe (1928) observed late-instar nymphs of\n_Blaberus craniifer_ attack each other and even adults. Additional\nrecords cited in the section on intraspecies predation (p. 322) imply\nfighting within a species. Rau (1924) saw a male of _Blatta orientalis_\nattack another male in copula and bite away a large portion of its wing.\nTwo other males in the container had their wings badly torn overnight,\npresumably as a result of fighting.\nEhrlich (1943) stated that individuals of _Periplaneta americana_ that\nare feeding will ward off intruders by spreading their wings and pushing\nwith their hind legs. However, the intruder will approach again and\nagain biting the feeder in the legs and wings. Frequently the odor of\napproaching food was sufficient to cause the cockroaches to fight and\nbite each other. Biting and fighting also occurred when individuals of\nthis species defended their daytime hiding places. A position of attack\nis assumed when two antagonistic individuals of _P. americana_ meet\n(Ehrlich, 1943, fig. 14). The insects raise their bodies slightly above\nthe ground, by extending their legs, and they stretch their heads\nforward horizontally so that their mouth parts protrude; when the\ninsects jump at each other, they may wound each other severely in the\nsoft parts of the body. Fighting between sexually excited males resulted\nin injury to their legs, wings, cerci, and other parts of the body.\nFrequently an insect that could no longer defend itself was killed.\nLederer (1952) also made similar but less extensive observations on\nfighting in this species.\nPettit (1940) quoted Woodruff as stating that nymphs of _Blattella\ngermanica_, apparently healthy and perfectly normal, would do battle for\nno apparent cause other than a chance meeting, and that occasionally the\nfight was to the finish, the loser being eaten. Pettit could not\nsubstantiate such voracious attacks, although he saw nymphs engage in\nfights lasting about two seconds during which one would be driven off by\nvigorous bites on legs or cerci. Small nymphs of _B. germanica_ tended\nto ignore each other, but third-and later-instar nymphs would engage in\n\"quarrels\" of short duration when two met. Pettit noted that males of\n_B. germanica_ that were crowded together quickly set upon, but did not\nalways kill, other cockroaches introduced into their cage. When he\nisolated a dozen males in a small cage, they became quarrelsome and\nthree of the group were killed and partly eaten. After several days the\nsurviving males had taken positions so that each was equidistant from\nhis neighbors. Some of these males attacked other males and a female\nthat were introduced, by biting their legs and cerci. Females under\nsimilar conditions were much less aggressive, although Pettit saw some\nfemales that roved about biting all large members of the group that were\nwithin easy reach.\nWe have frequently observed aggressive behavior between males of\n_Nauphoeta cinerea_, which resulted in torn wings. The males would\nwrestle with each other rolling over and over.\nINTERSPECIES COMPATIBILITY\nWe agree in essence with Chopard (1938) who stated that it is improper\nto speak of associations apropos of the ecological distribution of\nOrthoptera. He continued that it is clearly evident that different\nspecies of Orthoptera, which are found grouped on a territory more or\nless narrowly limited, have no interdependence among them. Their\ngrouping results uniquely from almost similar reactions to the different\nfactors which characterize this limited milieu. There is neither\ninterdependence nor interaction; the grouping is a false biocoenose,\nborn under the action of the environment, and does not survive a\nmodification of this milieu.\nHowever, as there are numerous examples of mutual toleration between\ndifferent species as well as examples of incompatibility, the subject\nhas more than academic interest even if no true ecological significance.\nOn the other hand, further study may show that certain of these\nassociations are definitely ecological, particularly among the feral\nspecies. As might be expected, most of the following examples pertain to\ndomiciliary cockroaches.\nDozier (1920) occasionally found _Periplaneta americana_ with _Eurycotis\nfloridana_ in decaying stumps, beneath loose bark of decayed trees, and\nbeneath corded wood. Adair (1923) stated that in his house in Egypt\n_Periplaneta americana_, _Blatta orientalis_, and _Blattella germanica_\nwere found together in a cupboard. Sambon (1925) found _B. orientalis_\nand _B. germanica_ side by side but not fraternizing in a home in Italy.\nGould and Deay (1938) observed that apartments over stores were infested\nwith both _B. germanica_ and _P. americana_, but did not indicate\nwhether these occupied the same microhabitat. Gould and Deay (1940)\nobserved that in the Purdue University greenhouse _Periplaneta\nfuliginosa_ was found \"under benches, boxes, pots and other objects in\nassociation with the American roach.\" Dr. L. A. Hetrick (personal\ncommunication, 1954) wrote us that several summers before he had had a\nmixed infestation of cockroaches, which included _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, _Periplaneta fuliginosa_, and _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_,\nin his chicken shed.\nEads (personal communication, 1955), in response to our inquiry about\nthe mixed populations of cockroaches that he had reported infesting\nsewers in Texas (Eads et al., 1954), stated that \"Each of the ten\ncolonies of _B. orientalis_ found in Tyler manholes were associated with\nlarger colonies of _P. americana_. True breeding colonies of _B.\norientalis_ appeared to be present since all the developmental stages\nwere taken. The same situation existed with the _P. fuliginosa_ and the\ntwo species of _Parcoblatta_. Larger colonies of _P. americana_ were\nassociated with the other species in each case. From our limited\nobservations the two species always appeared to be perfectly\ncompatible.\" Eads et al. (1954) had found _Periplaneta fuliginosa_ in\nthree manholes, _Parcoblatta bolliana_ in one manhole and _Parcoblatta\npensylvanica_ in one manhole. We assume that the groups of each species\nwere spacially discrete so that they were recognizable as colonies. Dr.\nT. A. Olson (personal communication, 1958) has observed two or more\nspecies of cockroaches in a single structure but never in mixed\ncolonies. Each species was separated physically from the others. Olson\nconcluded that cockroaches of different species do not mingle freely\nunless forced to do so by some special environmental condition. Pettit\n(1940) found _B. germanica_ and _P. americana_ similarly separated in\nthe same building or even in the same basement laboratory.\nPerkins (1899) found _Lobopterella dimidiatipes_ generally living in\ncompany with the young of _Periplaneta australasiae_ in Hawaii. Rehn and\nHebard (1914) in Florida found _P. australasiae_ abundant with\n_Periplaneta americana_ on a quarter-boat. They also noted that the\nforficulid _Marava_ [= _Prolabia_] _arachidis_ (Yersin) appeared in\nnumbers in a kitchen after dark accompanied by swarms of _P. americana_.\nThese workers also found _Leurolestes pallidus_ in a fruit store in Key\nWest \"where the species was common in a pile of old burlap bags and in\ncracks under the stands which it shared with one fairly large colony of\n_Blattella germanica_, occasional specimens of _Holocompsa nitidula_, a\nfew specimens of _Periplaneta americana_, and one specimen of _Supella\nsupellectilium_.\" They also found _H. nitidula_ with _Blaberus\ncraniifer_ \"between old boards in a woodshed, where nymphs were more\nnumerous than adults.\"\nRehn and Hebard (1914) stated of _Supella supellectilium_ in Florida\nthat \"The females were all taken in cupboards where _Blattella\ngermanica_ was found in swarms.\" The association in human habitations of\n_S. supellectilium_ and _B. germanica_ has been reported also by Sein\n(1923), Puerto Rico; Shaw (1924), Australia; Mallis (1954): \"German and\nbrown-banded roaches were often found in the same crevice.\"; Anonymous\n(1958), Texas; and Anonymous (1958a), Georgia. Gould and Deay (1940)\nstated that other species of cockroaches, especially _B. germanica_, may\nbe found with _S. supellectilium_ in the same part of a building. Yet\nShaw (1925) stated that \"when _Supella supellectilium_ Serv. invades\nplaces already occupied by _Blattella germanica_ L., it tends to oust\nthe latter.\"\n_Blaberus discoidalis_ has been found in homes or in fruit debris in\nPuerto Rico in company with the more common, domiciliary species\n_Leucophaea maderae_, but never in abundance (Sein, 1923; Wolcott,\n1950). Illingworth (1915) in Hawaii found _Symploce hospes_ associated\nwith _Nauphoeta cinerea_, _Graptoblatta notulata_, and _Diploptera\npunctata_.\nHebard (1917) found _Aglaopteryx diaphana_ in a bromeliad on a forest\ntree in Jamaica together with _Nyctibora laevigata_ and numerous\n_Cariblatta insularis_. He also found numerous _Aglaopteryx gemma_ under\nsigns on longleaf pines in Alabama with occasional specimens of\n_Parcoblatta lata_. In Virginia he found _Parcoblatta uhleriana_ in a\ndecaying chestnut log with _Cryptocercus punctulalus_. In Florida he\nfound _Latiblattella rehni_ with _Eurycotis floridana_ and, more rarely,\nwith _Periplaneta australasiae_ under bark of pine trees. In Key West he\nfound _Symploce hospes_ in the cupboard of a hotel with swarms of\n_Blattella germanica_ and a few _Supella supellectilium_.\nRehn and Hebard (1927) in their study of West Indian blattids reported\nfinding _Neoblattella proserpina_ in epiphytic bromeliads in Jamaica in\ncompany with _Neoblattella eurydice_ and _Neoblattella dryas_. They also\nlist most of the associations cited by Hebard (1917).\nRamme (1923) reported that he found in Germany four species of\n_Ectobius_ (_lapponicus_, _lucidus_, _pallidus_, and _sylvester_) living\ntogether in an area about 50 m. by 200 m. Although he had stated that\nhis specimens of _E. lucidus_ were a distinct species in 1923, Ramme\n(1951) later decided that they were a form of _E. sylvester_, _E.\nsylvester_ f. _lucidus_.\nDow (1955) reported trapping _Blattella germanica_, _Periplaneta\namericana_, and _Periplaneta brunnea_ in houses and privies in south\nTexas. At our request Dr. Dow (personal communication, 1958) analyzed\nhis records to determine whether there were indications of associations\nbetween these species, with the following results:\n     As stated in my published note, the roaches were at first\n     classified to genus only. The 83 _Periplaneta_ subsequently\n     identified to species represented 28 different collections, 11 from\n     houses and 17 from privies, all in Pharr, Texas. Tabulation of the\n     data shows first that _P. americana_ was taken only once in a house\n     and that _P. brunnea_ was taken only 4 times in privies. Of course\n     this distribution greatly reduces the probability that they would\n     be caught together, and it is not surprising that _P. americana_\n     was trapped alone in the single house collection. _P. brunnea_,\n     however, was trapped with _P. americana_ 2 of the 4 times it\n     occurred in privy collections.\n     To investigate the occurrence of _Periplaneta_ with and without\n     _Blattella_, an analysis has been made of 560 trap collections\n     taken in 40 houses and 40 associated privies in Pharr, Texas, in\n     weekly intervals (from May 14 to June 23 [1948]). In the houses,\n     _Periplaneta_ and _Blattella_ were caught in the same jar 26\n     times, _Periplaneta_ alone 12 times, _Blattella_ alone 83 times,\n     and neither genus 159 times. In a fourfold table, the value of\n     chi-square (14.7) is significant and indicates that the\n     frequencies are not proportional. The number of times\n     _Periplaneta_ and _Blattella_ actually occurred together (26) is,\n     however, much larger than the expected number calculated from the\n     row and column frequencies (14.8). In the privies, _Periplaneta_\n     and _Blattella_ were caught in the same jar 9 times, _Periplaneta_\n     alone 50 times, _Blattella_ alone 18 times, and neither genus 203\n     times. In a fourfold table, the value of chi-square (1.95) is not\n     significant but the same type of disproportion is evident and the\n     expected frequency of both genera in one trap is 5.7, lower than\n     the actual frequency of 9. Both immature and adult roaches are\n     included in this analysis.\n     The above evidence would be more satisfactory if based on more\n     extensive data. There is also a possible objection in that the\n     traps were operated for at least overnight, during which time one\n     species could theoretically supplant another. Of course, it is\n     doubtful that there is anything involved here like territory (in\n     the ornithologists' sense). On the other hand, it is well to\n     consider that _Periplaneta_ and _Blattella_ are both likely to be\n     more abundant in the same type of favorable location and that this\n     factor might offset in part some direct antagonism between the\n     species.\nThe only known specimen of _Ischnoptera podoces_ was captured in company\nwith the type series of _Cariblatta nebulicola_, in dead leaf litter in\nJamaica (Rehn and Hebard, 1927). In Florida _Periplaneta australasiae_\nwas often taken in company with _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ and\n_Eurycotis floridana_ (Blatchley, 1920).\nINTERSPECIES ANTAGONISM\nIn contrast to the presumably amicable associations mentioned above,\nother observations in the literature seem to indicate that some species\nof cockroaches are incompatible when they attempt to occupy the same\nhabitat niche. Marlatt (1915) stated \"Rarely do two of the domestic\nspecies occur together in the same house. Often, also, of two\nneighboring districts one may be infested with one species, while in the\nother a distinct species is the commoner one. The different species are\nthus seemingly somewhat antagonistic, and it is even supposed that they\nmay prey upon one another, the less numerous species being often driven\nout.\" Phelps (1924) stated \"Roaches of different species are rarely\nfound together, although roaches of the same species live together on\nvery amicable terms.\"\nIn 1859 Darwin (1887) stated that \"In Russia the small Asiatic cockroach\n[_Blattella germanica?_] has everywhere driven before it its great\ncongener [_Blatta orientalis?_].\" Yet in France Girard (1877) suggested\nthat the oriental cockroach be introduced into a restaurant infested\nwith the German cockroach as the best way to expel the latter, because\nthe more robust species drives away cockroaches of smaller size. Wille\n(1920) in Germany found usually only one species of cockroach in a\nhouse. Yet when he placed _B. orientalis_ and _B. germanica_ together,\nthere were no reciprocal attacks even by hungry individuals. Wille\nconcluded that because of their greater speed, smaller size, greater\nnumber of eggs, and faster development, the German cockroaches eat the\navailable food and so make the environment unfavorable for the oriental.\nHowever, he noted that cases may be seen in which the opposite is also\npossible. Laing (1946; British Museum [Natural History], 1951) observed\nthat in the British Isles _B. orientalis_ seems to have lost its\ndominant position to _B. germanica_ in recent years; it was stated that\nthese species are not as a rule found together and that the greater\nrapidity of breeding and ability to climb of _B. germanica_, as well as\nthe layout of modern buildings, are some of the factors that favor the\nspread of _B. germanica_. Ledoux (1945) found that first-instar nymphs\nof _B. germanica_ and fourth-instar nymphs of _B. orientalis_, adults of\n_B. germanica_ and sixth-instar nymphs of _B. orientalis_, as well as\nadults of both species, did not form mixed groups. However, when he\ncombined fifth-and sixth-instar nymphs of _B. germanica_ with\nfourth-and fifth-instar nymphs of _B. orientalis_, which are all\npractically of equal size, sometimes he would find mixed groups, but\ngenerally the groups were distinct. Lucas (1912) stated that Burr had\nfound _B. germanica_ and _B. orientalis_ swarming within a rubbish heap\nin England; presumably both colonies were breeding and multiplying and\none species was not detrimental to the presence of the other.\nShaw (1925) claimed that _Supella supellectilium_ tended to oust\n_Blattella germanica_, but Pope (1953) thought it doubtful in\nQueensland. Wolcott (1950) stated that \"The larger and more powerful\ndomestic cockroaches, _Periplaneta americana_ (L.), _P. australasiae_\n(F.) and _P. brunnea_ Burmeister have very definitely fallen behind in\nPuerto Rico in competition with the little German roach.\" Pess\u00f4a and\nCor\u00eaa (1928) observed that other species of cockroaches were rare in\nBrazil in houses that were infested with _Leucophaea maderae_. Lederer\n(1952) noticed that in the reptile house of the aquarium at Frankfort am\nMain _Blatta orientalis_ was obviously kept down by _Blattella\ngermanica_, even before the appearance of _P. americana_. However, _B.\ngermanica_ was not driven out of the reptile house by _P. americana_\nalthough the populations of each fluctuated for about 22 years after the\nAmerican cockroach had settled there; both species occupied separate\nresting places. Lederer further observed that within four years of the\nintroduction of _P. americana_ into the crocodile house, none of the\noriginal infestation of _B. orientalis_ could be found; a small colony\nof _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ in the reptile house was apparently also\ndriven out by _P. americana_. Chopard (1932, 1938) stated that the\noriental cockroach does not exist in company with _P. americana_ which\nvery probably destroys it. Pettit (1940) kept _B. germanica_ and _P.\namericana_ together in a cage for several weeks but neither species gave\nany indication of feeding on the other.\nFroggatt (1906) stated that \"It is probable that the advent of the\nlarger and more formidable American cockroach into Australia has led to\nthe retirement or destruction of our indigenous species\" [presumably\n_Periplaneta australasiae_]. Tillyard (1926) noted that this statement\nis incorrect as neither species is native to Australia. Yet Shaw (1925)\nstated that in Australia \"When both species live together in the same\nplaces, _australasiae_ Fabr. will probably be found gradually to\ndisplace _americana_ L.\" Local fluctuations in the relative abundance of\nthese species could be a basis for such dissimilar observations.\nHowever, MacDougall (1925) observed that in the plant houses of the\nRoyal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh, the Australian cockroach seemed to\nhave overcome the American which had been more numerous in former years.\nIn conclusion, we emphasize that many of the above observations are\nmerely tentative impressions gathered by workers who have watched many\nspecies of cockroaches in nature. Obviously, additional observations\ncoupled with appropriate experimentation will be needed to disclose the\ntrue structure of each presumed association and to resolve apparent\ndiscrepancies. Although we are greatly indebted to the cited authors for\ntheir contributions to the known information, we anticipate that future\nresults of cleverly designed laboratory experiments will do much to\ndispel the uncertainty that still surrounds our knowledge of the\nrelations of the Blattaria to each other.\nXVIII. DEFENSE OF COCKROACHES AGAINST PREDATORS\n     Irritating or repellent secretions provide many animals belonging\n     to widely unrelated groups with a more or less potent means of\n     defence....\n     It will be seen that this method of defence does not rest merely\n     upon a passive unpalatable attribute, but upon an active emission\n     of the unpalatable substance which, since it occurs when the\n     animal is seized or threatened by an enemy, enforces its\n     effectiveness. In its highest development we find different forms\n     whose specialized habits and modified structure enables them to\n     _project_ secretion at the enemy, and thus to discourage attack.\nThere are very few records indicating that cockroaches are unaccepted as\nfood by other animals. Hutson (1943) found that the duck, guinea fowl,\nand pigeon would not normally eat _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, and in his\nexperiments with the chicken eye worm he had to force-feed his birds\nwith infected cockroaches. Lederer (1952) found that insectivorous birds\nin the Zoological Garden, Frankfurt am Main, either refused hardened (as\nopposed to teneral) American cockroaches or ate them unwillingly.\nCarpenter (1925) reported that a monkey (_Cercopithecus_) failed to feed\non cockroaches and suggested that the insects' odor made them repugnant;\nhowever, there are a number of positive records of monkeys feeding on\ncockroaches (see pp. 284-286).\nCockroaches may escape capture by predators through evasive behavior,\nconcealment, protective coloration, mimicry, or secretion of malodorous\nmaterials. Nocturnal cockroaches may avoid predators that are active\nduring the day (Crawford, 1934), but nocturnal predators are apparently\nquite successful in capturing cockroaches. Some cockroaches may be\nprotected by their swiftness, others by their resemblance to vegetation\n(Williams, 1928). The habit of squeezing into narrow cracks may afford\ncockroaches some protection.\nBurrowing forms such as _Pycnoscelus_ may spend much time in underground\ncells (Roeser, 1940). Polyphagids rapidly burrow into sand (Fausek,\n1906), where they may be protected from predators. Tepper (1893)\ndiscovered that a very large Australian cockroach, _Geoscapheus\nrobustus_, had its fore legs, especially the tibiae, adapted for\ndigging. He observed this species in captivity and in 1894 reported that\nit appeared to sink into the soil without raising any considerable\namount above the surface and that it did not form an unobstructed\ntunnel. Another large Australian cockroach, _Macropanesthia rhinocerus_,\nburrows about two feet below the surface of sandy soil; it also makes\nnests among pine roots and the nymphs rarely appear above ground (Henson\n_in_ Day, 1950). Tepper (1893) observed that Australian cockroaches of\nthe genera _Epilampra_ and _Oniscosoma_ buried themselves in loose soil\nand dust. Baker (_in_ Rehn, 1930) observed that _Styphon bakeri_ is\nfound in humus and rubble in the Dutch West Indies where \"It is sluggish\nin the open, but wedges into the humus quite quickly.\"\n_Therea nuptialis_, found in India, conceals itself at the roots of fig\ntrees, etc. The small hairs on its elytra retain sufficient dust to\nconceal it, or at any rate to render it inconspicuous, when not on the\nwing (Annandale, _in_ Chopard, 1924c). Rehn and Hebard (1914) observed\nthat the nymphs of _Blaberus craniifer_[13] at Key West, Fla., \"were\nusually found half buried in loose damp earth under boards, where they\nremained motionless, looking much like lumps of earth (with which they\nwere usually much dusted) until disturbed.\" Hebard (1917) reported of\n_Monastria biguttata_ from Brazil that \"All of the juveniles are heavily\ncoated with foreign particles\" which adhere \"to a multitude of closely\nplaced, minute and usually curved spines, which cover the dorsal surface\nand marginal portions of the ventral surface.\"\nIt is apparent from the numbers of predators reported herein that many\nanimals are not deterred by the odorous secretions of cockroaches; these\nsecretions, because they may seem repugnant to man, are often claimed to\nbe repellent to predators. However, Cott (1940) points out that \"There\nare many instances in which protective devices and associated warning\ncolours are known to be ineffectual against certain enemies. But this\ndoes not necessarily imply that they are not on the whole beneficial to\nthe species attacked.\" Certain cockroach secretions may well be\nrepellent to many predators, but as this is a purely negative aspect of\nthe predator-prey relationship little thus far has been observed or\npublished. Potential prey that successfully defends itself against\nattack is never found in a predator's stomach.\nCockroaches have a variety of glands which secrete odorous materials.\nCertain secretions, produced by tergal or dorsal glands in males, are\ninvolved in sexual behavior; the females feed on the secretion from\nthese glands prior to copulating (Roth and Willis, 1954). However, other\nsecretions which are produced by both sexes are ejected or given off\nwhen the insect is disturbed; undoubtedly these are defensive weapons\nthat are used against predators. Very few experiments or observations\nare on record to show how effective these secretions may be in\nprotecting the cockroach. Although the morphology of some of the glands\nhas been described, relatively little is known about the chemistry of\ntheir secretions.\nMany species of Australian cockroaches have been reported to emit\n\"disgusting\" odors, though the glands producing these secretions have\nnot been described, nor is the chemistry of the compounds known.\n_Cosmozosteria lateralis_ exposed two orange-red spots on the abdomen\nwhile emitting a pungent odor which deterred a collector from capturing\nit (Shelford, 1912). Another Australian species, _Platyzosteria\ncastanea_, when disturbed on barren ground tilts forward on the vertex\nand straddles out the posterior legs, supporting itself in a vertical\nposition on the head and tarsi; in assuming this attitude it will squirt\na foetid fluid as a fine spray for a distance of 6 or 7 inches (Shaw,\n1914). Spencer (1892) mentions the pungent odor given off by a cockroach\nwhich had been accidentally cut in two. Rageau (1956) stated that in the\nNew Hebrides and New Caledonia _Cutilia nitida_ emits, when disturbed, a\ncorrosive liquid with an extremely disagreeable odor.\nThe adults of _Eurycotis floridana_ emit an odorous fluid when seized\n(Rehn and Hebard, 1905). The fluid, which may irritate sensitive skin\nareas, may be ejected as a spray for a distance of several inches. This\nsecretion has been identified as 2-hexenal (Roth et al., 1956), and the\nventral abdominal glands which produce it have been described (Stay,\n1957). Eisner (personal communication, 1958) has found that the toad\n_Bufo marinus_ and the frog _Rana pipiens_ invariably spit out adults of\n_E. floridana_ which they have seized. The odor of 2-hexenal was\nstrongly apparent after these attacks, and the insect was never damaged.\nHowever, the lizard _Anolis equestris_ seized and crushed _E.\nfloridana_ before releasing its hold and dropping the insect 5 to 10\nminutes later. The blue jay _Cyanocitta cristata_ readily attacked\nadults of _E. floridana_ and killed them but did not eat the insects\nuntil after the odor had dissipated; however, the bird carried nymphs of\n_E. floridana_ to its perch and ate them. Nymphs of this species do not\nsecrete 2-hexenal (Roth et al., 1956). Recently, 2-hexenal has been\ntested for its antibacterial activity and has been found to be active\nagainst seven species of pathogenic bacteria (Valcurone and Baggini,\n1957). _Eurycotis decipiens_ from Trinidad also ejects a fluid which may\nproduce toxic symptoms such as vertigo and nausea (Bunting _in_ Roth and\nWillis, 1957a).\nLarge reservoirs of glands similar in appearance and position to those\nof _Eurycotis floridana_ are present in the adults of both sexes of\n_Neostylopyga rhombifolia_ and _Platyzosteria novae seelandiae_. Walker\n(1904) and Longstaff (_in_ Shelford, 1912) noted that the latter species\nhad a strong odor. Roth (unpublished data, 1957) found that the\nsecretion of _P. novae seelandiae_ when ejected is grayish or milky in\ncolor. In the reservoirs of the ventral gland of this insect the\nsecretion is a milky liquid containing floating greenish globules. Both\ninfrared and mass spectrographic analyses show that the secretion is a\nmixture containing 2-hexenal, the aldehyde that is found in _E.\nfloridana_. Eisner (personal communication, 1958) observed that the\nlizard _Anolis carolinensis_ immediately released _Neostylopyga\nrhombifolia_ without injury, but that _Bufo marinus_, _Anolis\nequistris_, and _Cyanocitta cristata_ ate the insect despite the\nsecretion; several unidentified spiders and the ant _Pogonomyrmex\nbadius_ were not repelled by the secretion of _N. rhombifolia_.\nDorsal and ventral glands have been found in both sexes of _Blatta\norientalis_ and _Periplaneta americana_ (Minchin, 1888, 1890; Kul'vets,\n1898; Oettinger, 1906; Harrison, 1906; Liang, 1956). The ventral glands\nare found in the same general region as those of _Eurycotis_. We have\nalso found similar ventrally located glands in both _Periplaneta\naustralasiae_, and _P. brunnea_. The reservoirs which store the\nsecretion of the ventral glands are smaller in _Blatta_ and\n_Periplaneta_ spp. than those found in _Eurycotis_, _Neostylopyga_, or\n_Platyzosteria_.\nIn _Blatta orientalis_ the dorsal glands can be everted by pressure on\nthe abdomen; the secretion in these glands, according to Haase (1889),\nhas the typical oriental cockroach odor. Although the dorsal glands of\nthe oriental cockroach are usually given a defensive role (Haase, 1889,\n1889a; Kul'vets, 1898; Oettinger, 1906; Kon\u010dek, 1924), the functions of\nsecretions of these nonepigamic dorsal glands and the ventral glands are\nstill open to question. It is possible that some of the odors produced\nby cockroaches have functions other than defense or sex attraction. For\nexample, Ledoux (1945) showed that the species odor is largely\nresponsible for the gregarious behavior shown by _Blatta orientalis_ and\n_Blattella germanica_. The olfactory stimulus acts over a short distance\nonly, and the source of this odor in the insect is unknown. By washing\n_Blattella germanica_ in warm chloroform Dusham (1918) extracted a wax\nwhich had the odor of the German cockroach. However, there is no\nevidence to show that cockroaches respond to the same cockroach odors\nthat are detected by man.\nCertain cockroaches have recently been found to have odorous secretions\nwhich are produced in tracheal glands. In _Diploptera punctata_ the\ntracheae leading to the second abdominal spiracles of nymphs and adults\nare modified into odoriferous glands which produce a mixture of\n2-ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone; 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone; and _para_\nbenzoquinone; this material is ejected as a means of defense. The\noffensive odor emitted by adults and nymphs of _Leucophaea maderae_ also\nissues from the second abdominal spiracles (Roth and Stay, 1958).\n_Diploptera_ is capable of ejecting its quinones from either its right\nor left tracheal gland according to which side of the insect is attacked\n(pl. 36, A-B). Eisner (1958) found that the secretion repelled the ant\n_Pogonomyrmex badius_ (Latreille) (pl. 36, C) and the beetle _Galerita\njanus_ Fabricius when they attacked the cockroach. The spider _Lycosa\nhelluo_ Walckenaer was repelled by large nymphs and adults of _D.\npunctata_ but young nymphs were usually eaten promptly (Eisner, 1958).\nBordas (1901, 1908) believed that the \"conglobate\" gland (Miall and\nDenny, 1886), found in males of _Periplaneta americana_ and _Blatta\norientalis_, was an odoriferous gland used for defense, but Gupta (1947)\nhas shown that in all probability this gland (the phallic gland)\nsecretes the outermost covering of the spermatophore.\nWhat appears to be mimicry occurs in some species of Blattaria. The\nnymphs of many Panchlorini and Blaberinae vaguely resemble sow bugs\n(Chopard, 1938). Certain members of the Perisphaerini (e.g.,\n_Perisphaerus glomeriformis_) from the Malayan region which resemble sow\nbugs (Annandale, 1900; Hanitsch, 1915) can roll themselves up into a\nball thus hiding their antennae and legs (Lucas, 1862). Although these\ncockroaches are found among dead leaves or under stones, in places in\nwhich sow bugs are also found, the benefit to either or both forms is\nquestionable; Annandale (1900) believed that the crustacean and the\ncockroach, living under similar conditions, developed the same general\nbody shape. Rolling up into a ball is nothing more than an exaggeration\nof a reflex common to many young cockroaches, that is, an arched\nposition which these insects assume when they immobilize themselves in\nresponse to certain stimuli (Chopard, 1938).\nThere are cockroaches that resemble various Coleoptera and Hemiptera\n(Belt, 1874; Shelford, 1912; Hanitsch, 1915). Some look like\ncerambycids, lampyrids, coccinellids, pentatomids, etc. Perhaps the most\nstriking examples are the resemblances of cockroaches in the genus\n_Prosoplecta_ of the Epilamprinae to beetles of the family\nCoccinellidae; Shelford (1912) has figured a number of species of\n_Prosoplecta_ together with the species of beetles which they seem to\nhave taken for models. Williams (1928) mentioned diurnal cockroaches\nwhich by a combination of markings, shape, posture, and active flight\nabout vegetation suggest certain wasps.\nUnfortunately, practically nothing is known about the behavior of these\nso-called mimics and models or their relationships with predators in the\nfield. For the most part, the examples are based on a comparison of\npinned insects from museum collections (Burr, 1899); for this reason\nChopard (1938) believed that not much value should be placed on\nsuperficial resemblances of this kind. However, we believe that a lack\nof knowledge of cockroach mimicry is not a valid reason for rejecting\nthe idea that mimicry, if it occurs, may be of some benefit in the\nsurvival of mimetic species. Certainly Cott's (1940) voluminous\ncompilation of the literature on adaptive coloration should make the\nmost skeptic hesitate to conclude dogmatically that these instances of\nmimicry are merely accidental and meaningless.\nXIX. THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF COCKROACHES\n     In the Navy [Japanese] a seaman who has captured 300 cockroaches\n     will be granted one day special shore leave. They call it \"shore\n     leave for cockroaches.\" The purpose is to promote extermination of\n     cockroaches in a warship because, on the one hand, any warship\n     suffers from numerous cockroaches, and, on the other hand, any\n     seaman likes shore leave.... The formalities for a shore leave for\n     cockroaches are as follows. A seaman keeps cockroaches which he\n     captured (mainly _B. germanica_, because _P. americana_ and _P.\n     australasiae_ are seldom found in Japan) in a bottle or in a bag\n     until the number reaches 300. Then he brings them to the deck\n     officer to get the confirmation that he has actually captured more\n     than 300 cockroaches. If the deck officer confirms it, the seaman\n     goes to a cabin where a petty officer reports that the deck\n     officer confirmed the number of cockroaches. The petty officer\n     signs the seaman's name, name of division, rank, and date to be on\n     shore leave in the log book for cockroach shore leaves. The petty\n     officer brings the log book again to the deck officer to get his\n     approval and then goes to the commander for the final approval. In\n     the Navy, they have another special shore leave for rats. In this\n     system, a seaman gets one day shore leave for one rat. The\n     formalities for the latter are the same as for the former, and\n     there is a log book for the rat shore leave in the petty officer's\n     quarters. The author took advantage of these systems frequently.\nLittle is known of the effects of predatism and parasitism on natural\npopulations of cockroaches. Many statements in the literature are very\ngeneral; yet there are a few data on egg parasites (e.g., _Tetrastichus\nhagenowii_) which suggest that, in the absence of parasites, populations\nof domestic cockroaches might be much larger than they are in certain\nareas. We have summarized the literature on natural control and also\nthat on the use by man of predators and parasites in the biological\ncontrol of cockroaches. However, because of the paucity of information,\nwe have been unable to evaluate the effectiveness of biological control\nin reducing the numbers of pest cockroaches. This is an area that might\nreward further investigation.\nINVERTEBRATES\n_Scorpions._--In Puerto Rico, cockroaches are probably the principal\nfood of the scorpions which live in old houses, on tree trunks, etc.\n(Se\u00edn, 1923). The staple diet of scorpions in Arizona is the small\ncockroach commonly known as the water bug (Stahnke, 1949); in the part\nof Arizona where he resides, Stahnke (personal communication, 1953) says\nthat the \"water-bug\" is most generally _Supella supellectilium_ although\n_Blattella germanica_ is also found, but less abundantly.\n_Spiders._--Jefferys (1760) mentioned a large spider which was protected\nin the Antilles and especially on Guadeloupe because it hunted down and\nfed on cockroaches; the spider was reputed to be common in every house.\nSir Hans Sloane (1725, _in_ Cowan, 1865) reported that residents of\nJamaica kept spiders in their houses to destroy cockroaches. Takahashi\n(1924) reported that, in the Taihoku area of Formosa, human habitations\ncontained large numbers of spiders which caught and ate cockroaches.\nSmith (_in_ Marlatt, 1915) reported that Brazilians encourage large\nhouse spiders because they tend to rid the house of \"other insect\npests.\" In British Guiana tarantulas were kept in a bungalow to control\n_Periplaneta_ and _Pycnoscelus_ (Beebe, 1925a).\n_Ants._--A Madam Merian noticed that ants cleared houses of cockroaches\n(Kirby and Spence, 1822). A small reddish-yellow ant, called Pucchu\u00e7i\u00e7i\nby Peruvian Indians, pursued and destroyed a cockroach called Chilicabra\nwhich was a pest in native huts (Tschudi, 1847). Schwabe (1950b) found\nswarms of ants attacking living _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ and stated\nthat ants are probably the chief enemy of this cockroach in Hawaii.\nWallace (1891) stated that in Africa a band of driver ants may enter a\nhouse and clear it of cockroaches and other arthropods. In British\nGuiana, Beebe, (1925) found that several times a year army ants cleared\nthe laboratory of all cockroaches and tarantulas.\n_Wasp egg parasites._--Matsumura (1917, _in_ Asano, 1937) proposed that\nparasitic wasps such as _Evania_ and _Brachygaster_ be protected in\nJapan as the natural enemies of cockroaches. In one area in France, 20\npercent of the o\u00f6thecae of _Loboptera decipiens_ were parasitized by\n_Zeuxevania splendidula_ (Genieys, 1924). Edmunds (1952a) found that 12\npercent of 459 o\u00f6thecae of _Parcoblatta_ collected during December\nthrough April of 1950-51 in Ohio were parasitized; evaniids accounted\nfor about 7 percent of the parasitization. Additional collection data in\n1951-52 Edmunds (1953a) showed that 8.7 percent of 320 wood-cockroach\no\u00f6thecae were parasitized; 2.8 percent of these parasites were evaniids;\nalmost 13 percent of the egg capsules collected showed evidence of\nprevious parasite emergence. Cameron (1957) reported that o\u00f6thecae of\n_Periplaneta americana_ collected in Saudi Arabia were 29 percent\nparasitized in March and 25 percent parasitized in October by _Evania\nappendigaster_. Sonan (1924) found 1 of 65 o\u00f6thecae of _P. americana_\nand _P. australasiae_ parasitized by _E. appendigaster_ in Formosa.\nCottam (1922) stated that the increase of _Supella supellectilium_ in\nKhartoum was checked by a wasp egg-parasite that was later identified as\n_Anastatus tenuipes_ (see p. 246) (Ferri\u00e8re, 1930, 1935). In this\ncountry, this wasp seemed to be effective in decreasing the numbers of\n_Supella_ in certain areas in Arizona (Flock, 1941).\nIn Formosa, _Tetrastichus hagenowii_ was an important parasite of\ncockroach eggs (Maki, 1937). Sonan (1924) reported 30 percent\nparasitization of 65 o\u00f6thecae of _Periplaneta americana_ and _P.\naustralasiae_ collected in Formosa. In Bangalore, India, the natural\nparasitization of randomly collected o\u00f6thecae of _P. americana_ varied\nfrom 21 percent (of 495 o\u00f6thecae), July 1947-June 1948, and 43 percent\n(of 288 o\u00f6thecae), July-December 1948, to 57 percent (of 178 o\u00f6thecae),\nJuly-October 1949 (Usman, 1949). Cameron (1955) obtained _T. hagenowii_\nfrom o\u00f6thecae collected in Trinidad, B.W.I., and Saudi Arabia; some 15\npercent of the o\u00f6thecae of _P. americana_ and _P. australasiae_\ncollected in October in Trinidad were parasitized; a later collection\n(March) was 34 percent parasitized; a small sample of _P. americana_\no\u00f6thecae was 65 percent parasitized. The o\u00f6thecae collected in Saudi\nArabia in March were 20 percent parasitized. Plank (1947) found that the\neggs of the American cockroach in Puerto Rico (probably in laboratory\ncultures) were so heavily parasitized by _T. hagenowii_ that he had to\nuse _P. australasiae_ for experimental purposes; in 1950 Plank stated\nthat more than 50 percent of American cockroach o\u00f6thecae were\nparasitized.\nFahringer (1922) stated that _Prosevania punctata_ could be used to\neradicate cockroaches, but he did not test his hypothesis. Marlatt\n(1902) felt that the usefulness of _Evania appendigaster_ in biological\ncontrol was impaired by _Tetrastichus_ acting as a hyperparasite (see\nfootnote 6, p. 236). However, Wolcott (1951) stated that in Puerto Rico\n_E. appendigaster_ is quite abundant and is a factor of considerable\nimportance in controlling cockroaches. Kadocsa (1921) stated that\n_Brachygaster minutus_ and _Evania appendigaster_ were not important in\nthe biological control of cockroaches. These general statements are not\nsupported by experimental evidence.\nIt is likely that the smaller wasp egg parasites are more effective than\nthe evaniids in controlling cockroaches. Only one evaniid develops in a\nparasitized o\u00f6theca, but many individuals of the other wasps develop in\none o\u00f6theca and the number of females that emerge is usually large.\nHowever, Cameron (1957) concluded that, with a parasitism rate of 25 to\n29 percent and three to four generations a year, against one or less for\nthe host, _Evania appendigaster_ in the areas where it is established is\na valuable control agent.\nThe use of specific egg parasites to control cockroaches has not been\nattempted extensively. Cros (1942) liberated a species of _Tetrastichus_\n(=_Eulophus_ sp.; see p. 254) in his home in Algeria to control the\noriental cockroach; as far as we know, he did not report the parasite's\neffectiveness in reducing the cockroach population. According to\nZimmerman (1948) _Comperia merceti_, when accidentally imported,\npractically wiped out _Supella supellectilium_ in parts of Hawaii; he\nclaimed to have controlled the brown-banded cockroach in a store\nbuilding with this parasite. In some parts of Honolulu, almost 100\npercent of the o\u00f6thecae of this cockroach were parasitized (Zimmerman,\n1944). We (1954b) ran some simulated field tests in which we liberated\n_Tetrastichus hagenowii_ in rooms artificially seeded with o\u00f6thecae;\nfrom 28 to 83 percent of American cockroach o\u00f6thecae and 56 percent of\noriental cockroach o\u00f6thecae were parasitized during these tests.\n_Evania appendigaster_ was introduced from Hawaii into Canton Island in\n1940 against _Periplaneta americana_, and it has become established\n(Dumbleton, 1957). This parasite was also successfully introduced into\nSamoa (Dumbleton, 1957).\n_Cockroach-hunting wasps._--An earnest attempt has been made to\nestablish in Hawaii wasps that prey on cockroaches. Just how effective\nthese wasps are in controlling cockroaches is still unknown. _Dolichurus\nstantoni_ was introduced from the Philippines in 1917 and spread to\nseveral of the Islands (Swezey, 1920, 1921; Williams, 1944). Bridwell\n(1920) stated that as a result of this introduction there was a great\ndecrease in cockroaches of the genus \"_Phyllodromia_.\" A number of\n_Podium haematogastrum_ from Brazil were liberated in Honolulu\n(Williams, 1925) but did not become established (Williams, 1928). The\neffectiveness of _Podium_ was questioned by Williams (1928) who observed\nthat _Podium_ \"destroyed innumerable Blattidae, which nonetheless\nswarmed in their neighborhood, and I must confess from my observations\non the various cockroach-hunting wasps that the blattid more than holds\nits own alongside its enemy.\"\nIntroductions of _Ampulex_ have proved more successful. _Ampulex\ncanaliculata_ was introduced into Hawaii from the United States\n(Williams, 1928a, 1929). Williams also introduced _A. compressa_ into\nHawaii in 1940, and the species was reared in large numbers for\ndistribution (Pemberton, 1942). _A. compressa_ has since become\nestablished on most of the Islands (Pemberton, 1945a, 1947; Williams,\n1946; Van Zwaluwenburg, 1950). The thousand of _A. compressa_ now found\nin the Hawaiian Islands are all descendants of three wasps captured in\nNoumea, New Caledonia (Williams, 1944). According to Williams (1941),\nthe number of cockroaches was noticeably reduced at the University of\nHawaii poultry farm, where some _A. compressa_ were released. Pemberton\n(1953) believed that this wasp has become sufficiently abundant to be of\ndefinite value. Simmonds (1941) recommended importing _A. compressa_\ninto Fiji for cockroach control. _A. compressa_ was introduced from\nHawaii into Guam in 1954 against _Periplaneta americana_ and into the\nCook Islands in 1955 against _Periplaneta_ spp.; it is not yet known\nwhether the parasite became established in either place (Dumbleton,\nVERTEBRATES\n     ... on conserve avec soin les crapauds dans les maisons, et que les\n     dames les tol\u00e8rent, m\u00eame sous leurs robes, en raison de leurs\n     continuels services, car ils se prom\u00e8nent sans cesse \u00e0 la recherche\n     des Kakerlacs.\n_Toads._--_Bufo marinus_ was first introduced into Puerto Rico from\nBarbados in 1920 to reduce several major insect pests including\ncockroaches (Leonard, 1933). It was introduced from Puerto Rico into\nHawaii by C. E. Pemberton in 1932 where it rapidly became established;\nit has since been distributed throughout the Pacific area. _B. marinus_\nis one of the world's largest toads; it attains a body length (exclusive\nof the hind legs) of 7 to 9 inches (Oliver, 1949) and has been kept\nalive for more than 11 years in captivity (Pemberton, 1945). Alicata\n(1938) placed giant toads in a fenced area in Hawaii containing an\ninfestation of _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_; after 24 hours the toads were\ndissected and each was found to have eaten from 11 to 25 cockroaches.\nIllingworth (1941) found that 40 to 90 percent of 53 stools of this toad\nin Hawaii contained remains of _P. surinamensis_. Alicata (1947)\nrecommended the maintenance of _B. marinus_ in poultry yards to reduce\nthe population of _P. surinamensis_, the vector of the chicken eye worm.\nToads have also been recommended for controlling cockroaches in houses\n(Meech, 1889; Sweetman, 1936). Girard (1877) cited a note in a French\nnewspaper which stated that toads were kept in houses in Cuba to control\nthe American cockroach.\n_Tree frogs._--Tree frogs enclosed in a room overnight were said to\neffectively clear it of cockroaches (Marlatt, 1915); on sugar\nplantations in Australia, these amphibians were encouraged in houses and\nkept as pets because they hunted and devoured large brown cockroaches\n(Froggatt, 1906).\n_Birds._--In Guadeloupe, Dutertre (1654) claimed that all the fowls of\nthe country were fond of small cockroaches and lived on practically\nnothing else. In Hawaii (Zimmerman, 1948) and in the Lesser Antilles\n(Ballou, 1912) cockroaches are eaten by poultry whenever the birds can\nfind them. In Puerto Rico, Wetmore (1916) stated that owls kept in\nhouses feed extensively on cockroaches; the stomach of one owl which had\nbeen kept in a native house was filled entirely with cockroaches. In\nBritish Guiana, Beebe (1925) found that cockroaches were eaten by 27\nspecies of birds.\n_Reptiles._--H. (1800) claimed that two lizards cleared his house of the\n\"true brown cockroach\" and suggested that lizards be used for cockroach\ncontrol because the reptiles are docile and harmless. On Arno Atoll\ngeckos and night-feeding skinks eat large numbers of cockroaches\n(Usinger and La Rivers, 1953). According to Wolcott (1924) the number of\ncockroaches eaten by lizards is surprisingly large considering the\nnocturnal habits of these insects. Beebe (1925a) kept geckos in a\nbungalow to help control _Periplaneta_ and _Pycnoscelus_.\n_Mammalia._--Cowan (1865) stated that in England hedgehogs were often\nkept domesticated in kitchens to destroy cockroaches. This writer also\nstated that a lemur was kept on board ship to destroy cockroaches.\nLarge numbers of the American and Australian cockroaches were eaten by\nthe mongoose in Hawaii (Perkins, 1913).\nACKNOWLEDGMENTS\nWe would have been unable to complete this review without the help of\nmany people who have generously given us their time and the benefit of\ntheir special experience. We are exceedingly grateful to these\nindividuals for they have contributed much to whatever merit this work\npossesses; we alone are responsible for the deficiencies and\ninaccuracies that remain in the text.\nDr. A. B. Gurney, Entomology Research Division, U. S. Department of\nAgriculture, and J. A. G. Rehn, Academy of Natural Sciences of\nPhiladelphia, have given us much help and advice throughout the\npreparation of this monograph. Both have patiently answered our many\nqueries, and Mr. Rehn allowed us free access to his large collection of\ncockroach literature. We are especially pleased to thank them for their\nmany favors.\nMany persons have determined at our request the identity of specific\norganisms. These individuals are cited in the text and to them we extend\nour thanks. We thank our colleagues, cited in the text, who have made\ntheir unpublished observations available to us. We also thank the\nindividuals and organizations for the use of photographs and/or drawings\nfor which they are credited in the accompanying legends.\nWe thank the following individuals for supplying us with living\nspecimens of the species indicated: T. Campbell, Commonwealth Scientific\nand Industrial Research Organization, Canberra, New South Wales\n(_Panesthia australis_); Dr. L. R. Cleveland, Harvard University\n(_Cryptocercus punctulatus_); Dr. N. T. Davis, University of Connecticut\n(_Byrsotria fumigata_); Dr. F. Englemann, Albert Einstein Medical School\n(_Gromphadorhina portentosa_); Dr. F. A. Lawson, Kansas State College\n(_Comperia merceti_); Dr. K. D. Roeder, Tufts University (_Hierodula\ntenuidentata_ (?)); Dr. E. O. Wilson, Harvard University (_Ischnoptera\nderopeltiformis_).\nWe thank the following individuals for checking the taxonomy of the\nfollowing organisms or for reading the indicated sections of the\nmanuscript: _Fungi._--Dr. R. K. Benjamin, University of California; Dr.\nE. G. Simmons, Quartermaster Research Laboratories. _Protozoa._--Dr. R.\nR. Kudo, Professor Emeritus, University of Illinois. _Helminths._--Mrs.\nMay Belle Chitwood and Dr. J. T. Lucker, U. S. Department of\nAgriculture. _Centipedes and whipscorpions._--Dr. R. E. Crabill, Jr., U.\nS. National Museum. _Scorpions._--Dr. J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson,\nUniversity of London; Dr. R. E. Crabill, Jr. _Spiders._--Dr. B. J.\nKaston, University of Connecticut; Dr. R. E. Crabill, Jr. _Mites._--Dr.\nJ. H. Camin, Chicago Academy of Sciences; Dr. E. W. Baker, U. S.\nNational Museum. _Cockroaches._--Dr. A. B. Gurney and J. A. G. Rehn.\n_Ants._--Dr. W. L. Brown, Jr., Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard\nCollege. _Hymenopterous parasites of cockroach eggs._--Dr. B. D. Burks,\nU. S. National Museum; Dr. H. K. Townes, University of Michigan.\n_Cockroach-hunting wasps._--Dr. K. V. Krombein, U. S. National Museum.\n_Lepidoptera._--Dr. J. F. G. Clarke, U. S. National Museum; Dr. E. L.\nTodd, U. S. Department of Agriculture. _Miscellaneous insects._--Dr. R.\nS. Beal, Dr. A. B. Gurney, C. W. Sabrosky, Dr. R. I. Sailer, and J. T.\nSpilman, U. S. National Museum. _Fishes._--Dr. L. P. Schultz, U. S.\nNational Museum. _Amphibians and reptiles._--Dr. Doris M. Cochran, U. S.\nNational Museum. _Birds._--Dr. Herbert Friedmann, U. S. National Museum.\n_Mammals._--Dr. D. H. Johnson, U. S. National Museum.\nWe thank the following individuals for reading the entire manuscript: J.\nA. G. Rehn; Dr. A. B. Gurney; Maj. Gordon Field, U. S. Army; and Dr. H.\nL. Sweetman, University of Massachusetts. The monograph has profited by\nthe friendly criticism of these entomologists.\nWe thank Dr. R. A. Howard, Harvard University, for checking lists of\nplant names; Mrs. Maria E. W. Torok, formerly of the Quartermaster\nTechnical Library, for assistance in obtaining obscure literature; Miss\nLouise Bercaw, U. S. Department of Agriculture Library, for identifying\nthe journal containing the paper by Vlasov and Miram; the individuals\nwho translated foreign language articles, for which they are credited in\nthe bibliography; and Miss G. Lillian Fede, Quartermaster Research\nLaboratories, for typing the manuscript.\nREFERENCES\n  ABDULALI, H.\n     1942. The terns and edible-nest swifts at Vengurla, West Coast,\n     India. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. 43, pp. 446-451.\n  ABEILLE DE PERRIN, E.\n     1909. \u00c9tude d'un _Rhipidius_ nouveau de Provence, _R. Boissyi_\n     Abeille. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol., Paris, vol. 67, pp. 854-858.\n  ADAIR, E. W.\n     1923. 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Zool., vol. 30, pp.\n     1881. Kleine Beitr\u00e4ge zur Kenntnis der Gregarinen. Zeitschr. Wiss.\n  BUXTON, P. A.\n     1914. British Blattidae. Ent. Rec. and Journ. Var., vol. 26, p.\n     1955. The natural history of tse-tse flies. London School Hyg.\n  CALLAN, E. MCC.\n     1942. A note on _Timulla_ (_Timulla_) _eriphyla_ Mickel (Hym.,\n     Mutillidae), a parasite of _Tachysphex blatticidus_ F. X. Williams\n     (Hym., Larridae), from Trinidad, B. W. I. Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc.\n     1950. Observations on tropical wasps in Trinidad. Proc. 8th\n     Internat. Congr. Ent., Stockholm, 1948, pp. 204-206.\n  CALVERT, AMELIA S., and CALVERT, P. P.\n     1917. A year of Costa Rican natural history. 577 pp. New York.\n  CALVERT, P. P.\n     1910. Zoological researches in Costa Rica. Old Penn Weekly Rev.,\n     Univ. Pennsylvania, vol. 9, pp. 165-170.\n  CAMERANO, L.\n     1893. Sur quelques gordiens nouveaux ou peu connus. Bull. Soc.\n     1897. Monografia dei Gordii. Mem. Reale Accad. Sci., Torino, ser.\n  CAMERON, EWEN.\n     1955. On the parasites and predators of the cockroach.\n     I.--_Tetrastichus hagenowii_ (Ratz.). Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 46, pp.\n     1957. On the parasites and predators of the cockroach.\n     II.--_Evania apppendigaster_ (L.). Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 48, pp.\n  CAMPOS R., F.\n     1926. Catalogo preliminar de los blatidos (cucarachas) del Ecuador.\n     Rev. Col. Nac. Vicente Rocafuerte, vol. 8, pp. 41-57.\n  CANALIS, P.\n     1916. Note de M. le Professeur P. Canalis, relative \u00e0 quelques\n     exp\u00e9riences sur l'action insecticide du gaz Clayton. Bull. Mens.\n     Off. Internat. Hyg., Paris, vol. 8, pp. 457-463.\n  CANTRALL, I. J.\n     1941. Notes on collecting and preserving Orthoptera. Part 2 of\n     Compendium of entomological methods. 28 pp. Ward's Natural Science\n     Establishment, Rochester, N. Y.\n     1943. The ecology of the Orthoptera and Dermaptera of the George\n     Reserve, Michigan. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool., Univ. 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Journ. Parasitol., vol. 27, pp. 241-244.\n     1949. Introduction to parasitology. 756 pp. New York.\n  CHARLES, VERA K.\n     1941. A preliminary check list of the entomogenous fungi of North\n     America. Insect Pest Survey Bull., vol. 21, Suppl. to No. 9, pp.\n  CHATTON, E., and P\u00c9RARD, C.\n     1913. Schizophytes du caecum du cobaye. I. _Oscillospira\n     Guilliermondi_ n. g., n. sp. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol., Paris, vol.\n  CHEESMAN, L. E. [Miss].\n     1927. A contribution towards the insect fauna of French Oceania.\n     Part I. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, vol. 75, pp. 147-161.\n     1928. A contribution towards the insect fauna of French Oceania.\n     Part II. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 10, vol. 1, pp. 169-194.\n  CHEN, L.\n     1933. Z\u00fcchtungsversuche an parasitischen Protozoen von _Periplaneta\n     orientalis_. (_Endamoeba blattae_, _Nyctotherus ovalis_,\n     _Lophomonas blattarum_.) Zeitschr. Parasitenk., vol. 6, pp.\n     207-219. 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II.\n     Gametogenesis, fertilization, and one-division meiosis in\n     _Oxymonas_. Journ. Morph., vol. 86, pp. 185-214.\n     1950a. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. III.\n     Gametogenesis, fertilization, and one-division meiosis in\n     _Saccinobaculus_. Journ. Morph., vol. 86, pp. 215-228.\n     1950b. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. IV. Meiosis\n     after syngamy and before nuclear fusion in _Notila_. Journ.\n     1950c. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. V.\n     Fertilization in _Eucomonympha_. Journ. Morph., vol. 87, pp.\n     1951. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. VI.\n     Gametogenesis, fertilization, meiosis, o\u00f6cysts, and gametocysts in\n     _Leptospironympha_. Journ. Morph., vol. 88, pp. 199-244.\n     1951a. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. VII.\n     One-division meiosis and autogamy without cell division in\n     _Urinympha_. Journ. Morph., vol. 88, pp. 385-440.\n     1952. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. VIII. Meiosis\n     in _Rhynchonympha_ in one cytoplasmic and two nuclear divisions\n     followed by autogamy. Journ. Morph., vol. 91, pp. 269-323.\n     1953. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. IX. Haploid\n     gametogenesis and fertilization in _Barbulanympha_. Journ. Morph.,\n     1954. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. X. Autogamy\n     and endomitosis in _Barbulanympha_ resulting from interruption of\n     haploid gametogenesis. Journ. Morph., vol. 95, pp. 189-211.\n     1954a. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. XI.\n     Reorganization in the zygote of _Barbulanympha_ without nuclear or\n     cytoplasmic division. Journ. Morph., vol. 95, pp. 213-236.\n     1954b. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. XII. Meiosis\n     in _Barbulanympha_ following fertilization, autogamy, and\n     endomitosis. Journ. Morph., vol. 95, pp. 557-619.\n     1956. Hormone-induced sexual cycles of flagellates. XIV. Gametic\n     meiosis and fertilization in _Macrospironympha_. Arch.\n     1956a. Brief accounts of the sexual cycles of the flagellates of\n     _Cryptocercus_. Journ. Protozool., vol. 3, pp. 161-180.\n  CLEVELAND, L. R.; HALL, S. R.; SANDERS, E. P.; and COLLIER, J.\n     1934. The wood-feeding roach _Cryptocercus_, its protozoa, and the\n     symbiosis between protozoa and roach. Mem. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci.,\n  CLEVELAND, L. R., and NUTTING, W. L.\n     1954. Protozoa as indicators of developmental stages in molting of\n     the roach _Cryptocercus_. Anat. Rec., vol. 120, pp. 785-786.\n     (Abstract.)\n     1955. Suppression of sexual cycles and death of the protozoa of\n     _Cryptocercus_ resulting from change of hosts during molting\n     period. Journ. Exp. Zool., vol. 130, pp. 485-513.\n  CLEVELAND, L. R.; SANDERS, E. P.; and HALL, S. R.\n     1931. The relation of the protozoa of _Cryptocercus_ to the\n     protozoa of termites and the bearing of this relationship on the\n     evolution of termites from roaches. Anat. Rec., vol. 51, Suppl., p.\n     92. (Abstract.)\n  CLOUDSLEY-THOMPSON, J. L.\n     1951. Notes on Arachnida. 16. The behavior of a scorpion. Ent.\n     1953. Notes on Arachnida. 19. Biological observations, etc. Ent.\n     1953a. Studies in diurnal rhythms. III. Photoperiodism in the\n     cockroach _Periplaneta americana_ (L.). Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser.\n     1955. On the function of the pectines of scorpions. Ann. Mag. Nat.\n     1955a. Some aspects of the biology of centipedes and scorpions.\n  COBB, N. A.\n     1920. One hundred new nemas. (Type species of 100 new genera.)\n     Contributions to a science of nematology, IX, pp. 217-343.\n     Baltimore.\n  COHIC, F.\n     1956. Parasites animaux des plantes cultiv\u00e9es en Nouvelle-Cal\u00e9donie\n     et d\u00e9pendances. Inst. Fran\u00e7. Oc\u00e9anie, Noum\u00e9a, 92 pp.\n  COLANI, MLLE.\n     1952. Grottes du Tonkin. Ann. de Sp\u00e9l\u00e9ologie, vol. 7, pp. 143-146.\n  COLLART, A.\n     1947. A la d\u00e9couverte des Laboulb\u00e9niales. Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent.\n  COMPERE, H.\n     1938. A report on some miscellaneous African Encyrtidae in the\n     British Museum. Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 29, pp. 315-337.\n     1946. Identity of the new immigrant parasite of cockroach eggs.\n     Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc., vol. 12, pp. 464-465.\n  COMSTOCK, J. H.\n     1912. The spider book. 721 pp. Garden City, New York.\n  CONANT, N. F.; SMITH, D. T.; BAKER, R. D.; CALLAWAY, J. L.; and MARTIN,\n     1954. Manual of clinical mycology. 2d ed. 456 pp. Philadelphia.\n  CONCI, C.\n     1951. Contributo alla conoscenza della speleofauna della Venezia\n     Tridentina. Mem. Soc. Ent. Ital., vol. 30, pp. 5-76.\n  CONEY, B. A.\n     1918. _Panchlora exoleta._ Entomologist, London, vol. 51, p. 188.\n  COPLIN, W. M. L.\n     1899. The propagation of diseases by means of insects, with special\n     consideration of the common domestic types. Philadelphia Med.\n  CORNELIUS, C.\n     1853. Beitr\u00e4ge zur n\u00e4hern Kenntniss von _Periplaneta_ (_Blatta_)\n     _orientalis_ Linn\u00e9. (Morgenl\u00e4ndische K\u00fcchenschabe, auch Schwabe\n     genannt.) 40 pp., 2 pls., Elberfeld, R. L. Friderichs. [Translated\n     by K. Gingold.]\n  CORNWALL, J. W.\n     1916. A contribution to the study of kala-azar (II). Indian Journ.\n  COTT, H. B.\n     1940. Adaptive coloration in animals. 508 pp. London.\n  COTTAM, R.\n     1922. Observations on the phyllodromine cockroach, _Blattella\n     supellectilium_ Serv., in Khartoum. Ent. Month. Mag., vol. 58, pp.\n  COWAN, F.\n     1865. Curious facts in the history of insects; including spiders\n     and scorpions. 396 pp. Philadelphia.\n  CRABILL, R. E., JR.\n     1952. The centipedes of northeastern North America. Ph.D. thesis,\n     Cornell University, 450 pp., 9 pls.\n  CRAM, ELOISE B.\n     1926. A new nematode from the rat, and its life history. Proc. U.\n     1929. [Note on life history of the gizzard worm of ruffed grouse\n     and bobwhite quail.] Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Washington, Journ.\n     1931. Internal parasites and parasitic diseases of the bobwhite.\n     Methods and general findings. _In_ Stoddard, H. L., The bobwhite\n     quail: its habits, preservation and increase. pp. 229-296. New\n     York.\n     1931a. Developmental stages of some nematodes of the Spiruroidea\n     parasitic in poultry and game birds. U. S. Dept. Agr. Techn. Bull.\n     1931b. The cockroach, _Blattella germanica_, as an intermediate\n     host of _Tetrameres americana_ of poultry. Journ. Parasitol., vol.\n     1933. Observations on the life history of _Tetrameres pattersoni_.\n     Journ. Parasitol., vol. 20, pp. 97-98.\n     1933a. Observations on the life history of _Seurocyrnea colini_.\n     Journ. Parasitol., vol. 20, p. 98.\n     1934. Orthopterans and pigeons as secondary and primary hosts,\n     respectively, for the crow stomach-worm, _Microtetrameres helix_\n     (Nematoda: Spiruridae). Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Washington, vol. 1,\n     1935. New avian and insect hosts for _Gongylonema ingluvicola_\n     (Nematoda: Spiruridae). Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Washington, vol. 2,\n     1937. A species of Orthoptera serving as intermediate host of\n     _Tetrameres americana_ of poultry in Puerto Rico. Proc. Helminthol.\n     Soc. Washington, vol. 4, p. 24.\n  CRAWFORD, J. C.\n     1910. Two new species of African parasitic Hymenoptera. Canadian\n  CRAWFORD, S. C.\n     1934. The habits and characteristics of nocturnal animals. Quart.\n  CRAWLEY, H.\n     1903. List of the polycystid gregarines of the United States. Proc.\n     Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 55, pp. 41-58. 3 pls.\n     1905. _Coelosporidium blattellae_, a new sporozoan parasite of\n     _Blattella germanica_. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol.\n  CREIGHTON, J. T.\n     1954. Household pests. Florida Dept. Agr. Bull., n.s., No. 156, 72\n  CROS, A.\n     1942. _Blatta orientalis_ et ses parasites. I. _Evania punctata_\n     Brull\u00e9; II. _Eulophus_ sp. \u00c9tude Biologique. Eos, vol. 18, pp.\n  CROSSKEY, R. W.\n     1951. Part II. The taxonomy and biology of the British Evanioidea.\n     Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, vol. 102, pp. 282-301.\n  CROWELL, H. H.\n     1946. Notes on an amphibious cockroach from the Republic of Panama.\n  CU\u00c9NOT, L.\n     1896. \u00c9tudes physiologiques sur des Orthopt\u00e8res. Arch. Biol., vol.\n     1901. Recherches sur l'evolution et la conjugaison des gr\u00e9garines.\n  CUNHA, R. DE AL.\n     1919. Sobre a _Gregarina neo-brasiliensis_ Al. Cunha, 1919.\n     Trabalho apresentado \u00e0 Faculdade de Medicina de Bello Horizonte,\n     Estado de Minas Gerais. Brazil. [Original not seen.]\n  CUNLIFFE, F.\n     1952. Biology of the cockroach parasite, _Pimeliaphilus\n     podapolipophagus_ Tr\u00e4g\u00e5rdh, with a discussion of the genera\n     _Pimeliaphilus_ and _Hirstiella_. (Acarina, Pterygosomidae.) Proc.\n     Ent. Soc. Washington, vol. 54, pp. 153-169.\n  D'ABREU, E. A.\n     1920. Some insect prey of birds in the central provinces. Proc. 3d\n  DALLA TORRE, C. G. DE\n     1901/02. Catologus hymenopterorum. Vol. 3, p. 1076. Lipsiae.\n  DAMMERMAN, K. W.\n     1929. The agricultural zoology of the Malay Archipelago. 473 pp.\n     Amsterdam.\n  DARLINGTON, P. J., JR.\n     1938. Experiments on mimicry in Cuba, with suggestions for future\n     study. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, vol. 87, pp. 681-695.\n  DAVIS, W. T.\n     1918. The honeydew of aphids very attractive to moths and roaches.\n     Journ. New York Ent. Soc., vol. 26, p. 227.\n     1926. An annotated list of the Dermaptera and Orthoptera collected\n     in mid-summer at Wingina, Virginia, and vicinity. Journ. New York\n     1927. [_Periplaneta americana_ outdoors.] _In_ Proceedings of the\n     Society, Meeting of December 16, 1926. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc.,\n  DARWIN, C.\n     1887. The origin of species by means of natural selection. 458 pp.\n     New ed., from 6th English ed., with additions and corrections. New\n     York.\n  DAY, M. F.\n     1950. The histology of a very large insect, _Macropanesthia\n     rhinocerus_ Sauss. (Blattidae.) Australian Journ. Sci. Res., B,\n  DEAROLF, K.\n     1941. The invertebrates of 37 Pennsylvania caves. Proc.\n     Pennsylvania Acad. Sci., vol. 15, pp. 170-180.\n  DEBAISIEUX, P.\n     1927. A propos des cnidosporidies des blattides. Compt. Rend. Soc.\n  DECOURSEY, J. D., and OTTO, J. S.\n     1956. Some protozoan organisms in cockroaches in the Cairo, Egypt\n     area, with special reference to _Endamoeba histolytica_. U. S. Nav.\n     1957. _Endamoeba histolytica_ and certain other protozoan\n     organisms found in cockroaches in Cairo, Egypt. Journ. New York\n  DEFRAULA, T. F. J.\n     1780. M\u00e9moire sur la g\u00e9n\u00e9ration singuli\u00e8re d'une esp\u00e8ce de gryllon\n     qui d\u00e9couvre un fait de plus, de l'analogie, qui existe entre les\n     r\u00e8gnes animal et v\u00e9g\u00e9tal. Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Let. Beaux Arts\n     Belgique, vol. 3, pp. 219-225. [Same article in Journ. de Physique\n  DELAMARE DEBOUTTEVILLE, C.\n     1948. \u00c9tude quantitative du peuplement animal des sols suspendu et\n     des \u00e9piphytes en for\u00eat tropicale. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., Paris,\n  DELAMARE DEBOUTTEVILLE, C., and PAULIAN, R.\n     1952. Recherches sur la faune des nids et des terriers en Basse\n     C\u00f4te d'Ivoire. Encycl. Biogeogr. et Ecol., No. 8, 116 pp. Paris.\n  DELEURANCE, E. P.\n     1943. Notes sur la biologie de quelques pr\u00e9dateurs de la r\u00e9gion de\n     Montignac (Dardogne). Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Marseille, vol. 3, pp.\n     1946. \u00c9tudes sur quelques \u00e9l\u00e9ments de la faune entomologique du\n     bois des Ri\u00e8ges (Camargue). Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1944, vol. 113,\n  DELONG, D. M.\n     1948. The supermarket's roach problem. Soap. San. Chem., vol. 24,\n  DENNING, D. G.; PRATT, J. J., JR.; STAEBLER, A. E.; and WIRTH, W. W.\n     1947. A tabulation of insects recovered from aircraft entering the\n     United States at Miami, Florida, during the period July 1943\n     through December 1944. Foreign Plant Quar. Mem. No. 474, 41 pp.\n     (Processed.)\n  DEREZ, M. E.\n     1949. The food of _Rana catesbeiana_ Shaw in Puerto Rico. Program\n     61st Ann. Meet. Amer. Assoc. Econ. Ent., No. 74, pp. 35-36.\n     (Abstract.)\n  DESCHAPELLES, J. B.\n     1939. Las cucarachas. Rev. Agr., Cuba, vol. 23, pp. 41-47.\n     [Translated by J. Gotlob.]\n  DETHIER, V. G.\n     1945. The transport of insects in aircraft. Journ. Econ. Ent., vol.\n  DIESING, C. M.\n     1851. Systema helminthum. Vol. 2, 591 pp. Vindobonae.\n     1861. Revision der Nematoden. Sitzb. K. Akad. Wiss., Wien, Math.\n  DISTANT, W. L.\n     1902. _Panchlora exoleta_, Klug (Blattidae), imported into\n     Scotland. Ent. Month. Mag., vol. 38, p. 247.\n  DOBELL, C. C.\n     1911. Contributions to the cytology of the bacteria. Quart. Journ.\n     1912. Researches on the spirochaets and related organisms. Arch.\n  DOBROVOLNY, C. G.\n     1933. Studies on the nematode parasites of the American cockroach,\n     _Periplaneta americana_. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., vol. 36, p. 213.\n  DOBROVOLNY, C. G., and ACKERT, J. E.\n     1934. The life history of _Leidynema appendiculata_ (Leidy), a\n     nematode of cockroaches. Parasitology, vol. 26, pp. 468-480.\n  DODD, A. P.\n     1917. Record and descriptions of Australian Chalcidoidea. Trans.\n     and Proc. Roy. Soc. South Australia, vol. 41, pp. 344-368.\n  DODGE, B. O., and RICKETT, H. W.\n     1943. Diseases and pests of ornamental plants. 638 pp. Lancaster,\n  DODGE, C. W.\n     1935. Medical mycology. Fungous diseases of man and other mammals.\n  DONISTHORPE, H. ST. J. K.\n     1900. Myrmecophilous Orthoptera. Ent. Rec. and Journ. Var., vol.\n     1918. A fortnight in the New Forest in July. Ent. Rec. and Journ.\n     Var., vol. 30, pp. 170-173. [The same record was reported by\n     Donisthorpe in this same journal in 1919, vol. 31, p. 116, and in\n     1937, vol. 49, p. 136. It was also reported by him in Trans. Ent.\n     Soc. London in 1919, vol. for 1918, pts. 3/4, p. clvii.]\n  DONISTHORPE, H. ST. J. K., and WILKINSON, D. S.\n     1930. Notes on the genus _Paxylomma_ (Hym. Brac.), with the\n     description of a new species taken in Britain. Trans. Ent. Soc.\n  DORIER, A.\n     1930. Recherches biologiques et syst\u00e9matiques sur les Gordiac\u00e9s.\n     Trav. Lab. Hydrobiol. Piscicult. Univ. Grenoble, vol. 22, pp.\n  DOUCETTE, C. F., and SMITH, F. F.\n     1926. Control experiments on the Surinam cockroach (_Pycnoscelus\n     surinamensis_ L.). Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 19, pp. 650-656.\n  DOVER, C.\n     1928. Notes on the fauna of pitcher-plants from Singapore Island.\n     I. General. Journ. Malayan Branch Roy. Asiatic Soc., vol. 6, pp.\n  DOW, R. P.\n     1955. A note on domestic cockroaches in south Texas. Journ. Econ.\n  DOWDY, W. W.\n     1947. An ecological study of the Arthropoda of an oak-hickory\n     forest with reference to stratification. Ecology, vol. 28, pp.\n     1951. Further ecological studies on stratification of the\n     Arthropoda. Ecology, vol. 32, pp. 37-52.\n     1955. An hibernal study of Arthropoda with reference to\n     hibernation. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., vol. 48, pp. 76-83.\n  DOZIER, H. L.\n     1920. An ecological study of hammock and piney woods insects in\n     Florida. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., vol. 13, pp. 325-380.\n  DRESNER, E.\n     1949. 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Some notes on the habits and parasites of native\n     woodroaches in Ohio (Orthoptera: Blattidae). Ent. News, vol. 63,\n     1953. Some notes on the Evaniidae as household pests and as a\n     factor in the control of roaches. Ohio Journ. Sci., vol. 53, pp.\n     1953a. Collecting and culturing of native wood roaches in Ohio,\n     with some additional notes on their parasites. Ent. News, vol. 64,\n     1953b. A study of the biology and life history of _Prosevania\n     punctata_ (Brull\u00e9) with notes on additional species. (Hymenoptera:\n     Evaniidae). Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University.\n     1954. A study of the biology and life history of _Prosevania\n     punctata_ (Brull\u00e9) with notes on additional species (Hymenoptera:\n     Evaniidae). Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., vol. 47, pp. 575-592.\n     1955. Biological notes on _Tetrastichus hagenowii_ (Ratzeburg), a\n     chalcidoid parasite of cockroach eggs (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae;\n     Orthoptera: Blattidae). Ann. Ent. Soc. 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Gray's manual of botany. 8th ed., 1,632 pp. New York.\n  FERNANDO, W.\n     1957. _Sphecophila ravana_, sp. n., a new termitophilous cockroach\n     from Ceylon. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 12, vol. 10, pp. 81-84.\n  FERRI\u00c8RE, C.\n     1930. On some egg-parasites from Africa. Bull. Ent. Res., vol. 21,\n     1935. Notes on some bred exotic Eupelmidae (Hym. Chalc.). Stylops,\n  FERTON, C.\n     1894. Sur les moeurs de _Dolichurus haerorrhous_ Costa.\n     (Hym\u00e9nopt\u00e8re). Act. Soc. Linn\u00e9. Bordeaux, vol. 47, pp. 215-221.\n     1901. Notes d\u00e9tach\u00e9es sur l'instinct des Hym\u00e9nopt\u00e8res mellif\u00e8res\n     et ravisseurs avec la description de quelques esp\u00e8ces (s\u00e9r. 1).\n     Ann. Soc. Ent. France, vol. 70, pp. 83-148.\n     1914. Notes d\u00e9tach\u00e9es sur l'instinct des Hym\u00e9nopt\u00e8res mellif\u00e8res\n     et ravisseurs ([8^e] s\u00e9rie). Ann. Soc. Ent. France, vol. 83, pp.\n  FIBIGER, J. A. G.\n     1913. 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Bact., vol. 53, pp. 173-189.\n     1947a. Growth rate in the cockroach _Periplaneta americana_\n  GIORDANO, M.\n     1950. Patologia, parassitologia ed igiene dei paesi caldi. 3d ed.,\n  GIRARD, M.\n     1877. La domestication des blattes. Bull. Soc. Acclimatation, s\u00e9r.\n  GIRAULT, A. A.\n     1907. Hosts of insect egg-parasites in North and South America.\n     1914. Hosts of insect egg parasites, in Europe, Asia, Africa and\n     Australasia, with a supplementary American list. Zeitschr. Wiss.\n     1915. Australian Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea--VII. The family\n     Encyrtidae with descriptions of new genera and species. Mem.\n     Queensland Mus., vol. 4, pp. 1-184.\n     1915a. Australian Hymenoptera Chalcidoidea--IX. The family\n     Cleonymidae with descriptions of new genera and species. Mem.\n     Queensland Mus., vol. 4, pp. 203-224.\n     1915b. New fragments on some well-known insects (Col., Orth.,\n     1917. New chalcid flies from Maryland, II (Hym.). Ent. News, vol.\n     1924. L\u00e9se majest\u00e8, new Insecta and robbery. Gympie, Australia, 1\n     p. (Privately printed.)\n  GLASER, R. W.\n     1920. Biological studies on intracellular bacteria. No. 1. Biol.\n     1925. Specificity in bacterial disease with special reference to\n     silkworms and tent caterpillars. Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 18, pp.\n     1930. On the isolation, cultivation and classification of the\n     so-called intracellular \"symbiont\" or \"rickettsia\" of _Periplaneta\n     americana_. Journ. Exp. Med., vol. 51, pp. 59-82.\n     1930a. Cultivation and classification of \"bacteroides,\"\n     \"symbionts,\" or \"rickettsiae\" of _Blattella germanica_. Journ.\n     1930b. The intracellular \"symbionts\" and the \"rickettsiae.\" Arch.\n     1946. The intracellular bacteria of the cockroach in relation to\n     symbiosis. Journ. Parasitol., vol. 32, pp. 483-489.\n  GLAUERT, L.\n     1946. Scorpions. Australian Mus. 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Photographic studies of the feeding of nestling house wrens.\n  GRESHAM, W. B.\n     1952. [Occurrence of _Nauphoeta cinerea_ in Florida.] Florida Ent.,\n  GRIFFITHS, J. T., and TAUBER, O. E.\n     1942. Fecundity, longevity and parthenogenesis of the American\n     roach, _Periplaneta americana_ L. Physiol. Zool., vol. 15, pp.\n     1942a. The nymphal development for the roach, _Periplaneta\n     americana_ L. Journ. New York Ent. Soc., vol. 50, pp. 263-272.\n  GROPENGIESSER, C.\n     1925. Untersuchungen \u00fcber die Symbiose der Blattiden mit niederen\n     pflanzlichen Organismen. Centralbl. Bakt. Parasitol. Infekt., Abt.\n  GROSCHAFT, J.\n     1956. N\u00e1lezy roupovit\u00fdch (Oxyuroidea) u laboratorn\u011b chovan\u00fdch\n     \u0161v\u00e1bu (Blattodea). [Oxyuroidea in laboratory rearings of\n     Blattidae.] (In Czech.) Ceskoslovenska Parasit., vol. 3, pp. 67-74.\n  GROSS, J. R.\n     1950. Entomological ballistics. Pest Control, vol. 18, No. 2, pp.\n  GUBLER, H. U.\n     1948. Versuche zur Z\u00fcchtung intrazellul\u00e4rer Insektensymbionten.\n     Schweiz. Zeitschr. Path. Bact., vol. 11, pp. 489-493. [Translated\n     by H. L. Middleton.]\n  GULATI, A. N.\n     1930. Do cockroaches eat bed bugs? Nature, vol. 125 p. 858.\n  GUNDLACH, J.\n     1887. Apuntes para la fauna Puerto-Riquena. Anal. Soc. Espa\u00f1. Hist.\n     1890-1891. Contribuci\u00f3n a la entomolog\u00eda Cubana. Vol. 2, pt. 4,\n     Ort\u00f3pteros, pp. 289-396.\n  GUNN, D. L.\n     1934. The temperature and humidity relations of the cockroach\n     (_Blatta orientalis_). II. Temperature preference. Zeitschr. Vergl.\n     1935. The temperature and humidity relations of the cockroach.\n     III. A comparison of temperature preference, and rates of\n     desiccation and respiration of _Periplaneta americana_, _Blatta\n     orientalis_, and _Blattella germanica_. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol.\n  GUNN, D. L., and COSWAY, C. A.\n     1938. The temperature and humidity relations of the cockroach. V.\n     Humidity preference. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 15, pp. 555-563.\n  GUNN, D. L., and NOTLEY, F. B.\n     1936. The temperature and humidity relations of the cockroach. IV.\n     Thermal death-point. Journ. Exp. Biol., vol. 13, pp. 28-34.\n  GUPTA, P. O.\n     1947. On the structure and formation of spermatophore in the\n     cockroach, _Periplaneta americana_ (Linn.). Indian Journ. Ent.,\n  GURNEY, A. B.\n     1937. Studies in certain genera of American Blattidae (Orthoptera).\n     Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, vol. 39, pp. 101-112.\n     1951. Praying mantids of the United States, native and introduced.\n     Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1950, pp. 339-362.\n     1952. The correct spelling of the generic name of the German\n     cockroach. Journ. Econ. Ent., vol. 45, p. 752.\n     1953. 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Spolia mentawiensia. Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore, Straits\n     Settlements, No. 1, pp. 1-44.\n     1929. Fauna Sumatrensis. (Beitrag No. 63). Blattidae. Tijdschr.\n     1931. R\u00e9sultats scientifiques du voyage aux Indes Orientales\n     N\u00e9erlandaises de LL. AA. RR. le Prince et la Princesse L\u00e9opold de\n     Belgique. Blattidae. M\u00e9m. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique, hors\n     1932. On some cave-dwelling blattids from Celebes. Tijdschr. Ent.,\n     Amsterdam, vol. 75, suppl., pp. 264-265.\n     1933. Notes by Dr. R. Hanitsch, Ph.D., on female cockroaches\n     (Blattidae) which carry their young. Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc. London,\n  HANSENS, E. J.\n     1949. Insects associated with dumps and their control. Public\n     Health News, New Jersey State Health Dept., vol. 30, pp. 335-337.\n     1950. How to control insects in refuse dumps. Public Works, vol.\n  HARDY, E.\n     1941. Colliery insect pests. Colliery Eng., vol. 18, pp. 156-157.\n  HARRISON, A. D.\n     1955. 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Puerto Rico, vol. 37, pp. 241-247.\n  WOLF, J.\n     1924. Contribution \u00e0 la morphologie des bactero\u00efdes des blattes\n     (_Periplaneta orientalis_ L.). Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol., Paris, vol.\n     1924a. Contribution \u00e0 localisation des bact\u00e9ro\u00efdes dans les corps\n     adipeux des blattes (_Periplaneta orientalis_ L.) Compt. Rend.\n  WOLLMAN, E.\n     1926. Observations sur une lign\u00e9e aseptique de blattes (_Blattella\n     germanica_) datant de cinq ans. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol., Paris,\n     1927. Le r\u00f4le des mouches dans le transport de quelques germes\n     importants pour la pathologie tunisienne. Arch. Inst. Pasteur,\n  WOLLMAN, E.; ANDERSON, C.; and COLAS-BELCOUR, J.\n     1928. Recherches sur la conservation des virus h\u00e9mophiles chez les\n     insectes. Arch. Inst. Pasteur, Tunis, vol. 17, pp. 229-232.\n  WOLTERS, M.\n     1891. Die Conjugation und Sporenbildung bei Gregarinen. Arch.\n  WOMERSLEY, H.\n     1956. On some new Acarina--Mesostigmata from Australia, New Zealand\n     and New Guinea. Journ. Linn. Soc. London, vol. 42, pp. 505-599.\n  WOODCOCK, H. M.\n     1904. On _Cystobia irregularis_ (Minch.) and allied \"neogamous\"\n     gregarines. (Preliminary note.) Arch. Zool. Exp. et G\u00e9n., ser. 4,\n     vol. 2, Notes et Rev. No. 8, pp. cxxv-cxxviii.\n  WRAY, D. L., and BRIMLEY, C. S.\n     1943. The insect inquilines and victims of pitcher plants in North\n     Carolina. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., vol. 36, pp. 128-137.\n  YAKIMOV, V. L., and MILLER, G. A.\n     1922. Les protozoaires de l'intestin de l'homme en dehors de\n     l'organisme de l'homme. L'examen de l'intestin du _Periplaneta\n     orientalis_. Bull. Soc. Path. Exot., Paris, vol. 15, pp. 8-11.\n     [Essentially the same article appeared in Russian in Arkh. Russk.\n     Protist. Obsh., vol. 1, pp. 131-132; German summary p. 133.]\n  YAMAGUTI, S., and MIYATA, I.\n     1942. \u00dcber die Entwicklungsgeschichte von _Moniliformis dubius_\n     Meyer, 1933 (Acanthocephala) mit besonderer Ber\u00fccksichtigung seiner\n     Entwicklung im Zwischenwirt. 32 pp. Kyoto.\n  YARWOOD, E. A.\n     1937. The life cycle of _Adelina cryptocerci_ sp. nov., a coccidian\n     parasite of the roach _Cryptocercus punctulatus_. Parasitology,\n  YETWIN, I. J.\n     1932. A study of the intracellular symbionts in the fat body of\n     _Blatella germanica_ Linn. M. S. thesis, Univ. Chicago, 56 pp.\n     1953. The cytology of the fat body of the common roach, _Blatella\n     germanica_, with emphasis on intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies.\n  YOKOGAWA, S.\n     1924. On the cancroid growths caused by _Gongylonema-orientale_ n.\n     sp. in the rat. \"Gann,\" Japanese Journ. Cancer Res., vol. 18, pp.\n     1925. On a new species of nematode, _Gongylonema orientale_, found\n     in Formosa. Journ. Parasitol., vol. 11, pp. 195-200, 1 pl.\n     1925a. On the cancroid growths caused by _Gongylonema orientale_\n     n. sp. in the rat. Taiwan Igakki Zasshi, Journ. Med. Assoc.\n  YOUNG, F. N.\n     1949. Insects from burrows of _Peromyscus polionotus_. Florida\n  YOUNG, M. D.\n     1935. Description, incidence, and cultivation of _Tetratrichomastix\n     blattidarum_ n. sp. from the cockroach. Journ. Parasitol., vol. 21,\n     1937. Cockroaches as carriers of _Giardia_ cysts. Journ.\n  ZACHER, F.\n     1917. Die Geradfl\u00fcger Deutschlands und ihre Verbreitung. 287 pp.\n     Jena.\n     1920. Schaben als Sch\u00e4dlinge in Gew\u00e4chsh\u00e4usern. Gartenflora,\n     Berlin, No. 13/14, pp. 165-168. [Translated by H. L. Middleton.]\n  ZALESSKII, \u01cf\u01d3. M.\n     1939. Sur une nouvelle blatte permienne portant un oviscapte. [Par\n     Georges Zalessky.] Ann. Soc. G\u00e9ol. du Nord, vol. 64, pp. 85-94.\n     1953. New Permian cockroaches from the family Spiloblattinidae.\n     (In Russian.) Ent. Obozrenie, vol. 33, pp. 266-272. [Pertinent\n     sections translated by M. Ycas.]\n  ZAPPE, M. P.\n     1918. A cockroach pest of greenhouses, _Pycnoscelus_ (_Leucophaea_)\n     _surinamensis_ Linn. Connecticut Agr. Exp. Stat., Bull. No. 203,\n     1918a. Life history and development of the greenhouse cockroach.\n     _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_ Linn. Connecticut Agr. Exp. Stat.,\n  ZASUKHIN, D. N.\n     1928. Zur Frage \u00fcber die Parasiten der Protozoen. Parasiten von\n     _Nyctotherus ovalis_ Leidy. Arch. Protistenk., vol. 64, pp. 61-70,\n     1929. Usloviia obitaniia, stroenie i razvitie _Endamoeba blattae_\n     (B\u00fctschli) Leidy (1879.) [Lebensbedingungen, Cytologie und\n     Entwicklung von _Endamoeba blattae_ B\u00fct. (Leidy) 1879.] Russk.\n     Arkh. Protistenk., vol. 8, pp. 163-244, 4 pls. (German summary pp.\n     1930. Lebensbedingungen, Cytologie und Entwicklung von _Endamoeba\n     blattae_ B\u00fct. (Leidy) 1879. Arch. Protistenk., vol. 70, pp.\n     1934. Hyperparasitism in protozoa. Quart. Rev. Biol., vol. 9, pp.\n  ZHIVAGO, P.\n     1909. Ueber Vermehrung bei _Pleistophora periplanetae_ Lutz und\n     Splendore. Zool. Anz., vol. 34, pp. 647-654.\n  ZIMMERMAN, E. C.\n     1944. New cockroach egg parasite from Honolulu. Proc. Hawaiian Ent.\n     1948. Insects of Hawaii. Vol. 2, Apterygota to Thysanoptera,\n     inclusive. 475 pp. Honolulu.\n  ZMEEV, G. I.\n     1936. Les insectes synanthropes comme h\u00f4tes interm\u00e9diaires et h\u00f4tes\n     vecteurs des helminthes au Tadjikistan. (In Russian, French\n     summary.) Trudy Tadzhiksk. Bazy Akad. Nauk SSSR, vol. 6, pp.\n     241-248. [Russian text translated by M. Ycas.]\n     1940. Certain points in the epidemiology of dysentery and its\n     endemic foci in Central Asia connected with the cockroach\n     _Shelfordella tartara_ Sauss. (In Russian.) Second conference on\n     Parasitological problems. November 1940, Leningrad, p. 35. Izd.\n     Akad. Nauk SSSR, Moscow. [From Rev. App. Ent., 1946, ser. B., vol.\n  ZULUETA, A. DE.\n     1916. Sobre la estructura y bipartici\u00f3n de _Nyctotherus ovalis_\n     Leidy. Trab. Mus. Nac. Cienc. Nat., Madrid, ser. Zool., No. 26, pp.\nPLATES\n  [Illustration: PL. 2\n  _Blaberus craniifer_, nymph. (Photograph by Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 3\n  _Blaberus giganteus_, c. \u00d7 2.2. (Photograph by Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 4\n  _Blatta orientalis_, c. \u00d7 3.8. A, Male. B, Female. (Photographs by\n  Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 5\n  A-B, _Blattella germanica_, c. \u00d7 5.2. A, Male. B, Female.\n  C-D, _Blattella vaga_, c. \u00d7 5.2. C, Male. D, Female with o\u00f6theca.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 6\n  _Byrsotria fumigata_, c. \u00d7 2. A, Brachypterous male. B, Macropterous\n  male. C, Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 7\n  A and B, _Cariblatta lutea minima_, \u00d7 10. A, Male. B, Female with\n  partly formed o\u00f6theca. C, _Ectobius pallidus_, female with completely\n  formed o\u00f6theca, \u00d7 8. (C, From Roth and Willis [1957].)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 8\n  A, _Cryptocercus punctulatus_, c. \u00d7 4.6. (Photograph by Jack Salmon.)\n  B, _Panesthia australis_, \u00d7 2.8.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 9\n  _Cutilia_ sp. near _sedilloti_, c. \u00d7 5. A, Male. B, Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 10\n  _Diploptera punctata_, c. \u00d7 5. A, Male. B, Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 11\n  _Eurycotis floridana_, c. \u00d7 2.8. A, Male. B, Female. (Photographs by\n  Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 12\n  A-B, _Gromphadorhina portentosa_, c. \u00d7 1.5. A, Male nymph. B, Adult\n  female. C, _Coleolaelaps_ (?) sp., a mite from _G. portentosa_,\n  c. \u00d7 32. (Glycerine jelly preparation and photograph of C by Dr.\n  Barbara Stay.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 12A\n  _Ischnoptera deropeltiformis_, c. \u00d7 5.3. A, Male. B, Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 13\n  _Leucophaea maderae_, c. \u00d7 2.2. A, Male. B, Female. (Photographs by\n  Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 14\n  _Nauphoeta cinerea_, c. \u00d7 3.4. A, Male. B, Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 15\n  _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_, c. \u00d7 3.4. A, Male. B, Female with\n  partially formed o\u00f6theca.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 16\n  _Panchlora nivea_, \u00d7 4.5. A, Dead individual showing normal, pale\n  green coloration. B, Dead individual showing the bright red coloration\n  (very dark areas) characteristic of infection with _Serratia\n  marcescens_. C, Living male. D, Living female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 17\n  A, _Parcoblatta pensylvanica_, female with completely formed o\u00f6theca,\n  \u00d7 4. B, _Parcoblatta virginica_, female with partly formed o\u00f6theca, \u00d7\n  [Illustration: PL. 18\n  _Parcoblatta uhleriana_, c. \u00d7 5.5. A, Male. B, Female with o\u00f6theca.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 19\n  _Periplaneta americana_, c. \u00d7 3. A, Male. B, Female. (Photographs by\n  Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 20\n  _Periplaneta australasiae_, c. \u00d7 3.2. A, Male. B, Female. (Photographs\n  by Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 21\n  _Periplaneta brunnea_, c. \u00d7 2.9. A, Male. B, Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 22\n  _Periplaneta fuliginosa_, c. \u00d7 2.9. A. Male. B. Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 23\n  _Platyzosteria novae seelandiae_, c. \u00d7 2.9. A. Male. B, Female with\n  o\u00f6theca.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 24\n  _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_, c. \u00d7 3.7. A, Male from Hawaii. B,\n  Macropterous parthenogenetic female from Florida. C, Brachypterous\n  nonparthenogenetic female from Hawaii. D, Late instar nymph.\n  (Photograph of nymph D, by Jack Salmon.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 25\n  _Supella supellectilium_, c. \u00d7 6.3. A, Male. B, Female.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 26\n  Bacteroids from _Blattella germanica_. A, Part of abdomen showing\n  mycetocytes in fat body, \u00d7 225. B, Lobe of fat body showing 3\n  mycetocytes, \u00d7 750. C, Single mycetocyte; bacteroids appear hollow as\n  result of fixation in Carnoy's fluid, \u00d7 1725. D, Smear of fat body\n  showing bacteroids in various stages, \u00d7 1800. (All preparations and\n  photographs through the courtesy of Dr. Marion A. Brooks.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 27\n  Fungi parasitic on cockroaches. A, _Herpomyces arietinus_ growing on\n  antennae, legs, body, and cerci of a nymph of _Parcoblatta virginica_,\n  \u00d7 7. B, _Herpomyces stylopygae_ on antenna of _Blatta orientalis_,\n  \u00d7 35. (Reproduced from Richards and Smith [1955, 1956].)\n  C, _Herpomyces_ sp. [probably _H. stylopygae_] on antenna of\n  _B. orientalis_, \u00d7 132. (Photographs B and C through the courtesy of\n  Dr. A. G. Richards.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 28\n  A-B, Gregarines (_Diplocystis_ sp.?) from _Blaberus craniifer_. A,\n  Organisms removed from intestine, \u00d7 50. B, Organisms removed from\n  hemocoele, \u00d7 32. C, Gregarine cysts in feces of _Leucophaea maderae_,\n  [Illustration: PL. 29\n  A, Undetermined mermithid that parasitizes _Ectobius pallidus_. \u00d7 9.\n  The worm has partly emerged from the neck region of the cockroach.\n  (Reproduced from Roth and Willis [1957].) B, Undetermined gordian worm\n  that parasitized _Eurycotis floridana_ shown beside its host, \u00d7 1.8.\n  (Specimen courtesy of Dr. T. Eisner.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 30\n  A, _Heteropoda venatoria_, a cockroach-hunting spider, slightly less\n  than natural size, on bananas. (Reproduced from a Kodachrome\n  transparency through the courtesy of Dr. B. J. Kaston.) B to E,\n  _Lycosa_ sp. (_avida_?) capturing and feeding on a nymph of _Supella\n  supellectilium_ in the laboratory, \u00d7 1.4.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 31.\n  The centipede _Scutigera coleoptrata_ capturing and feeding on\n  cockroaches in the laboratory. A to E, Pursuit, capture, and eating\n  of a nymph of _Supella supellectilium_, c. \u00d7 1.2. F, Centipede\n  feeding on adult of _Blattella germanica_, \u00d7 1.8.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 32\n  The mantid _Hierodula tenuidentata_ (?) devouring a nymph of\n  _Periplaneta australasiae_, c. \u00d7 1.5.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 33\n  A, _Prosevania punctata_ [M] beside an o\u00f6theca of _Periplaneta\n  americana_, \u00d7 5. B, _Hyptia harpyoides_ with o\u00f6theca of _Parcoblatta\n  uhleriana_ from which it had emerged, \u00d7 5. C, Larva of a lampyrid\n  beetle feeding on _Parcoblatta virginica_ in the laboratory, \u00d7 4.]\n  [Illustration: PL. 34\n  Chalcid parasites of cockroach eggs. A, _Anastatus floridanus_\n  ovipositing into an o\u00f6theca which is still being carried by\n  _Eurycotis floridana_, c. \u00d7 4. B, _Comperia merceti_ ovipositing into\n  an o\u00f6theca of _Supella supellectilium_, c. \u00d7 13.\n  C, _Tetrastichus hagenowii_ ovipositing into an o\u00f6theca of\n  _Periplaneta americana_, c. \u00d7 10. (C from Roth and Willis [1954b].)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 35\n  _Ampulex compressa_ attacking _Periplaneta_ sp. (presumably\n  _americana_), about natural size.\n  A, The wasp finds a cockroach. B, She stings the prey in the thorax.\n  C, She then leads the disabled cockroach (antennae clipped) to her\n  nest. D, The wasp's egg was placed on the coxa of the cockroach's\n  right mesothoracic leg where it hatched. E, Portion of the host's\n  abdomen removed to show feeding larva. F, New adult wasp emerging\n  from dead host. (Reproduced from F. X. Williams [1942] from the\n  color paintings of the late W. Twigg-Smith, through the courtesy\n  of F. A. Bianchi.)]\n  [Illustration: PL. 36\n  Chemical defense of _Diploptera punctata_ against predators; the spray\n  pattern is displayed on KI-starch indicator paper. A, Spray pattern\n  after right mesothoracic leg was pinched. B, Cumulative spray pattern\n  after left mesothoracic leg of the same insect was pinched. C, The\n  defensive glands of the cockroach on the left had been excised, and it\n  is under persistent attack by ants from a laboratory colony of\n  _Pogonomyrmex badius_ (Latreille). The intact cockroach on the right\n  was also attacked by the ants, but it discharged a spray of quinones\n  and repelled the attackers. (From Eisner [1958], through the courtesy\n  of Dr. T. Eisner.)]\nPlate and page numbers in boldface type indicate illustrations. In\ngeneral, entries are placed in the index as unmodified substantives\nexcept where a modifier contributes significantly to the identification\nof the item (e.g., blue heads, prairie dog). This index should be used\nin conjunction with the indexed check list of natural associations\n(pages 290 to 310) because these are not repeated here. All experimental\nassociations are indexed below except those involving _Blatta\norientalis_, _Blattella germanica_, and _Periplaneta americana_ that are\ncited on pages that also contain references to the natural associations\nof these three species.\n  _Acacia farnesiana_, 155, 164\n    _harpophylla_, 55\n  _Acanthinevania princeps_, 235\n  Acanthocephala, 203\n  _Acanthogyna deplanata_, 7\n  Acaridae, 217\n  _Acheta domestica_, 320\n  _Achromobacter hyalinum_, 110\n  Achromobacteriaceae, 110\n  _Acridotheres tristis_, 281\n  _Acrocomia aculeata_, 142\n  _Acromyrmex lobicornis_, 312, 313\n    _octospinosus_, 312\n    _silvestrii_, 312\n  _Acropyga acutinventris_, 317\n  Actinocephalidae, 184\n  Actinomycetaceae, 124\n  Actinomycetales, 123\n  Adeleidae, 184\n  _Adelina cryptocerci_, 184-185\n  _Aechmaea porteoides_, 144\n  _Aerobacter aerogenes_, 111\n  Aeschnidae, 224\n  _Agamerion metallica_, 243\n  Agamidae, 275\n  _Agamospirura parahormeticae_, 205\n  _Agaricus_, 164\n  _Agelaius xanthomus_, 282\n  _Agis orientalis_, 7, 27\n  _Aglaopteryx absimilis_, 7, 35, 156, 317\n  Aircraft, 87-90\n  _Alcaligenes faecalis_, 111\n    _viscosus_, 111\n  _Allothereua maculata_, 223\n  _Alluaudellina cavernicola_, 7, 17\n  _Alluaudella cavernicola_, 7\n  _Alpinia_, 163\n  _Alsophila_ sp., 139\n  Alsophilas, 164\n  _Amazonina emarginata_, 7, 36, 146, 158\n  _Ameiva exsul_, 275\n  _Amitermes_, 102\n  _Amoeba blattae_, 177\n    undetermined sp., 181\n  Amoebidae, 177\n  Amoebina, 177\n  Amphibia, 269-272\n  Amphibians, 3, 353\n  _Amphibolurus barbatus_, 275\n  _Amphoromorpha blattina_, 139\n    _assimilis_, 257\n    _compressiventris_, 260\n    _fasciata_, 259\n    _ruficornis_, 259\n    _siberica_, 260\n    _sibirica_, 259\n    _sonnerati_, 260\n  Ampulicidae, 256\n  Anacardiaceae, 157\n  _Ananas comosus_, 144\n  _Anaphothrips_ sp., 317\n  _Anaplecta asema_, 7, 36\n    _decipiens_, 7, 36\n    _hemiscotia_, 7, 36\n    _lateralis_, 7, 36\n  _Anastatus blattidarum_, 246\n    _blattidifurax_, 245\n  Anatidae, 277\n  _Anax strenuus_, 224\n  _Ancylostoma caninum_, 209\n    _ceylanicum_, 209\n    _duodenale_, 209\n  Ancylostomidae, 209\n  _Androctonus australis_, 211\n  _Aneurina tahuata_, 7, 160\n  _Anguillula macrura_, 195\n  _Anisogamia_, 26\n  Annato, 159\n  _Annetta_, Steamship, 149\n  Anoetidae, 217\n  _Anolis carolinensis_, 273, 346\n    _cristatellus_, 273\n    _pulchellus_, 273\n    _stratulus_, 274\n  Anseriformes, 277\n  Antagonism, interspecies, 341-343\n  Antbird, 280\n  Antibiotics, 97-98, 346\n    big-headed, 268\n    carpenter, 267\n    hosts of cockroaches, 311-314\n    predaceous, 266\n    safari, 267\n  _Aorurus_ (_Thelastoma_) _appendiculatus_, 196\n    _diesingi_, 195\n    _philippinensis_, 193\n    _sphaerolaima_, 194\n  _Aotes zonalis_, 284\n  _Aphaenogaster picea_, 267\n  _Aphelocoma coerulesens_, 280\n  Aphids, 62\n  _Aphlebia maculata_, 10\n    _punctata_, 10\n  Apocynaceae, 161\n  _Apolyta_, 9\n  _Apotrogia angolensis_, 7, 17\n  Apple, 166\n  _Aptera cingulata_, 7\n  _Apteroblatta perplexa_, 7, 18\n  Aquifoliaceae, 158\n  Arachnida, 211\n  Arachnids, 34\n  Araceae, 143\n  _Aranea_, 214\n  Araneida, 214\n  Arbor vitae, 44\n  Archiacanthocephala, 203\n  _Archiblatta hoevenii_, 7, 329\n  _Archimandrita marmorata_, 7, 147\n    _tessellata_, 7, 147\n  _Arenivaga apacha_, 7, 23, 26, 27\n  _Aristida pennata_, 65, 141\n  _Aristiger histrio_, 7, 37, 159, 316\n  Armadillo, 287\n  Army transports, 84\n  _Arthroleptis variabilis_, 270\n  Arthromitaceae, 124\n  _Arthromitus intestinalis_, 124\n  Arthropoda, 210-268\n  Ascalaphidae, 227\n  Ascaridae, 209\n  _Ascaris lumbricoides_, 209\n  Ascaroidea, 209\n  Aschelminthes, 192, 204, 209\n  Ascomycetes, 133\n  _Asmorrhiza longistylis_, 240\n  _Asparagus officinalis_, 235\n  Aspergillaceae, 129\n  _Aspergillus flavus_, 130\n    _fumigatus_, 130\n  _Aspiduchus borinquen_, 7, 18, 37, 333-334\n  _Asplenium nidus_, 44\n  Assembling of cockroaches, 331-334\n  Associations, 6, 15, 91-96\n    among cockroaches, 324-343\n    classification of, 91, 95-96\n    facultative, 95-96\n    gregarious, 330-336\n    interspecies, 337-343\n    intraspecies, 336-337\n    mutualism, 96-102\n    number of, 3, 5\n    obligate, 95\n  _Astata_, 255\n  _Ateles dariensis_, 284\n  Athel, 39\n  _Atta cephalotes_, 313\n    _octospinosa_, 313\n  _Attacus atlas_, 320\n  _Attaphila aptera_, 8, 313\n  _Atticola mortoni_, 8, 312\n  Attraction, intraspecies, 328-334\n    to decaying material, 53, 59-63\n    to honeydew, 62\n  _Audreia bromeliadarum_, 8, 31, 37, 145\n    _jamaicana_, 8, 37\n    _marginata_, 11\n  _Avicularia avicularia_, 214\n  \"B. aerobia del pseudoedema maligno,\" 125\n  _B. alcaligenes beckeri_, 125\n    _faecalis_, 111\n  \"B. del pseudoedema maligno,\" 125\n  _B. violaceus_, 106\n  Baboon, 286\n  Bacillaceae, 120\n  Bacilli, colon, 126\n    paracolon, 113\n  \"Bacillo del barbone dei bufali,\" 126\n    \"proteisimile,\" 126\n    \"similcarbonchio,\" 126\n    \"similtifo,\" 126\n    \"tifosimile,\" 126\n  \"Bacillus,\" 126\n    \"subtilis group,\" 122\n  _Bacillus acidi lactici_, 112\n    _albolactis_, 120\n    _alcaligenes faecalis_, 111\n    _anthracis_, 120\n    _b\u00fctschlii_, 120\n    _circulans_, 120\n    _faecalis alkaligenes_, 111\n    _flacheriae_, 121\n    _lactis aerogenes_, 111\n    _megaterium_, 121\n    _monachae_, 121\n    _periplanetae_, 121\n    _prodigiosus_, 117\n    _radiciformis_, 121\n    _stellatus_, 121\n    _subtilis_, 121\n    \"spirochaetoid,\" 127\n  Bacteriaceae, 119\n  \"Bacterium,\" 126\n  _Bacterium alkaligenes_, 119\n    _delendae-muscae_, 120\n    _haemophosphoreum_, 120\n    _prodigiosum_, 117\n  _Bacteroides uncatus_, 119\n  Bacteroids, 96-100; =pl. 26=\n  Badger, 289\n  _Balantidium_, 101\n    _blattarum_, 187\n    _praenucleatum_, 187\n  _Ballota nigra_, 38\n  _Balta godeffroyi_, 8, 37\n    _quadricaudata_, 8, 37, 141\n  _Bambusicola thoracica_, 277\n  _Bantua stigmosa_, 8, 99\n  \"Barata selvagem,\" 194, 199, 200\n  \"Baratas de pau podre,\" 200\n  _Barbulanympha_, 102\n    _estaboga_, 173\n    _laurabuda_, 174\n  Bass, large-mouth black, 269\n  _Bassariscus astutus_, 288\n  Batrachians, unidentified, 272\n  _Beauveria bassiana_, 131\n    black (see _Blatta orientalis_)\n    black larder, 234\n    rhinocerus, 317\n  _Bertramia blatellae_, 185\n  _Beta maritima_, 47, 153\n    _vulgaris cicla_, 153\n  _Binema mirsaia_, 193\n    spider, 215\n  Bixaceae, 159\n  _Blabera fusca_, 8, 322\n    _boliviensis_, 8, 147\n    _clarazianus_, 8\n    =_cubensis_, 8=\n  Blackbird, 282\n    Puerto Rican, 282\n    yellow-shouldered, 282\n  _Blaptica dubia_, 8, 292\n  Blastocystidaceae, 133\n  _Blastocystis hominis_, 133\n  _Blatta aegyptiaca_, 13\n    _aethiopica_, 13\n    _americana_, 12\n    _caraibea_, 79\n    _concinna_, 10\n    _humbertiana_, 8\n    _melanocephala_, 13\n    _notulata_, 10\n  Blattaria, 3, 224\n  _Blattarum alatarum_, 83\n  _Blattelicola blattelicola_, 193\n  _Blattella bisignata_, 8\n    _brunneriana_, 11\n    _chichimeca_, 10\n    _delicatula_, 8\n    _schubotzi_, 8, 76\n  _Blatticida ashmeadi_, 243\n  _Blatticidella ashmeadi_, 243\n    _Blatticola_, 199\n    _aegyptiaca_, 195\n    _blatticola_, 193\n  \"Blattidae sylvestres,\" 200\n  _Blattilaelaps nauphoetae_, 216\n  _Blattina concinna_, 10\n  _Blattisocius tineivorus_, 216\n    _triodons_, 216\n  _Blattophila sphaerolaima_, 194\n    _sphaerolaima_ var. _javanica_, 194\n    _supellaima_, 194\n  _Blattotetrastichus hagenowii_, 249\n  Bluegills, 269\n  Blue heads, 269\n  Bobolink, 282\n  _Bodo Blattae_, 167\n  Bodonidae, 167\n  Bog, peat, 46\n  Boraginaceae, 161\n  _Brachygaster_, 350\n  Bracken, 45, 47\n  Brambles, 51, 155\n  Breadfruit, 162\n  Bream, 269\n  Bromeliaceae, 144\n  _Brucella abortus_, 119\n  _Buboblatta armata_, 8, 145\n  Bucerotidae, 279\n  _Bufo funereus_, 270\n    _ictericus_, 270\n    _valliceps_, 270\n  Bufonidae, 270\n  _Bulh\u00f5esia bulh\u00f5esi_, 200\n    _magalh\u00e3esi_, 194\n    _severianoi_, 200\n  Bullfrog, 271\n  Burrows, 27\n    relative humidity in, 26\n  _Bursera simaruba_, 157\n  Burseraceae, 157\n  _Busaria blattarum_, 188\n  Busariidae, 187\n  Buthidae, 211\n  _Buthus australis_, 211-212\n  Butterfly nests, 66, 156, 317\n  _Byrsotria cabrerae_, 8, 40\n  Cacomistle, 288\n  Cafards, 207\n  _Cahita borero_, 8, 40\n  Caladium, 66, 143\n  Callithricidae, 285\n  _Callithrix chrysoleucos_, 285\n  _chrysolevea_, 285\n  _jacchus_, 285\n  _Callitris_ sp., 55\n  _Calluna vulgaris_, 160\n  _Calodexia venteris_, 228\n  _Caloglyphus spinitarsus_, 217\n  _Calyptracordia alba_, 161\n  Camouflage, 344\n  _Camponotus femoratus_, 311, 314\n    _maccooki_, 316\n    _maculatus_, 312\n    _pennsylvanicus_, 267\n  _Candida zeylanoides_, 129\n  Canidae, 288\n  _Canis familiaris_, 288\n  Cannaceae, 151\n  Cannibalism, 322-324\n  _Cantao ocellatus_, 320\n  _Canthium barbatum_, 161\n  Cap\u00e1 blanco, 66\n  _Capillaria hepatica_, 210\n  _Capucinella delicatula_, 147\n  Carabidae, 229\n  Carboniferous, 14\n  Care, maternal, 325-330\n  _Cariblatta antiguensis_, 8, 40, 158, 161\n    _punctipennis_, 8, 147\n    _punctulata_, 8, 143\n    _reticulosa_, 8, 42\n  _Cariblattoides instigator_, 8, 43\n  _Carica papaya_, 159\n  Caricaceae, 159\n  Carnations, 163\n  Carnivora, 288\n  _Carpinus orientalis_, 38\n  Caryophanales, 124\n  Casuarinaceae, 152\n    ring-tailed, 288\n  Caterpillars, 319\n  _Catopsis fulgens_, 144\n  Caudata, 269\n  Caviidae, 288\n  Cebidae, 284\n  _Cebus apella_, 284\n    _capucinus_, 284\n  _Cecropia_ sp., 40, 153\n  Cedar, Japanese, 164\n  _Centruroides gracilis_, 212\n    _vitattus_, 212\n  _Cephalobellus brevicaudatum_, 194\n    _magalh\u00e3esi_, 194\n  _Cephalosporium_ sp., 131\n  _Ceratinoptera diaphana_, 7\n  _Ceratonia siliqua_, 156\n  Cercopithecidae, 286\n  _Cercopithecus_ sp., 286, 343\n  Cestoda, 208\n  Chactidae, 212\n  _Chaetochloa verticillata_, 142\n  _Chaetodactylus_ sp., 218\n  _Chalceus macrolepidotos_, 269\n  _Challenger_, H. M. S., 83\n  _Chamaeleon chamaeleon_, 275\n    _oustaleti_, 275\n  Chamaeleontidae, 275\n  Chameleon, 275\n  Channel cat, 269\n  Characidae, 269\n  _Cheiloneurus viridiscutum_, 244\n  Chelonia, 272\n  Chemotaxis, 331\n  Chenopodiaceae, 153\n  Chilicabra, 281\n  Chilomastigidae, 169\n  _Chilomastix mesnili_, 169\n  Chilopoda, 222\n  Chimpanzee, 286\n  Chiroptera, 283\n  _Chlamydosaurus kingii_, 275\n  _Chlorion compressum_, 258\n  _Chloris gayana_, 141\n  _Chordodes morgani_, 201\n    _puerilis_, 201\n  Chordodidae, 201\n  _\"Chordotes\" puerilis_, 201\n  _Chorisoneura barbadensis_, 8, 147\n    _flavipennis_, 8, 43\n    _plocea_, 8\n    _specilliger_, 8, 43\n    _translucida_, 8, 44\n  _Choristima_ sp., 9, 295\n  _Choristimodes_ sp., 9, 295\n  _Chromatonotus infuscatus_, 9, 44\n  _Chromobacterium violaceum_, 106\n  Chrysanthemums, 165\n  _Chrysemys picta_, 272\n  Cicadas, 257\n  Ciliata, 186\n  Ciliate, unidentified, 190\n  _Cimex lectularius_, 321\n  _Cinchona pubescens_, 162, 163\n  _Ciniflo_, 214\n  _Citharexylum villosum_, 43, 161\n  _Citrus aurantifolia_, 157\n    _sinensis_, 157\n  Cleonymidae, 243\n  _Clepsidrina blattarum_, 181\n  _Clerada apicicornis_, 226\n  _Clerodendron trichotomum_, 256-257\n  _Clevelandella constricta_, 189\n    _contorta_, 189\n    _elongata_, 189\n    _nipponensis_, 189\n    _panesthiae_, 189\n    _parapanesthiae_, 189\n  Clevelandellidae, 102, 189\n  _Clevelandia_, 189\n  Clevelandiidae, 189\n  _Clostridium feseri_, 122\n    _lentoputrescens_, 122\n    _perfringens_, 122\n    _sporogenes_, 122\n  _Clubiona_, 214\n  _Cnemidophorus_ sp., 275\n  Coati, 288\n  Coccidia, 184\n  _Coccidioides periplanetae_, 133\n  Coccinellidae, 348\n  \"Coccobacillus,\" 126\n  _Coccobacillus cajae_, 120\n  Cockroach, American (see _Periplaneta americana_)\n    amphibious, 30-33, 48\n    aposymbiotic, 97-99\n    Australian (see _Periplaneta australasiae_)\n    beetle (see _Diploptera punctata_)\n    brown (see _Periplaneta brunnea_)\n    brown-banded (see _Supella supellectilium_)\n    cavernicolous, 16-25, 37\n    cinereous (see _Nauphoeta cinerea_)\n    commensal, 310-315\n    Cuban (see _Panchlora nivea_)\n    cypress (see _Diploptera punctata_)\n    dendricolous, 51\n    disease relations, 1, 3, 74\n    field (see _Blattella vaga_)\n    Florida (see _Eurycotis floridana_)\n    German (see _Blattella germanica_)\n    harlequin (see _Neostylopyga rhombifolia_)\n    Key West (see _Blaberus craniifer_)\n    Madeira (see _Leucophaea maderae_)\n    myrmecophilous, 310, 311-314\n    oriental (see _Blatta orientalis_)\n    oviparous, 325-327\n    phytophagous, 68, 162-166\n    predaceous, 319-324\n    predators, escape from, 343\n    smoky brown (see _Periplanet fuliginosa_)\n    species, list of, 7-14\n    number of known, iii, 5\n    spotted Mediterranean (see _Ectobius pallidus_)\n    structural habitats of, 70-90\n    Surinam (see _Pycnoscelus surinamensis_)\n    undetermined, 308-310\n    \"wood\" (except here, usually _Parcoblatta_ spp.), 214, 266, 274\n  _Cocos nucifera_, 143\n  _Coelosporidium blattellae_, 185\n  _Coenosia basalis_, 229\n  _Coffea_ sp., 162\n  _Coleolaelaps_ sp., 216; =pl. 12=\n  \"Colon bacilli,\" 126\n  Colonies, cockroach, 75, 327-334\n  Colubridae, 276\n  Columbidae, 278\n  Columbiformes, 278\n  Combretaceae, 159\n  Commensalism, 92\n    cockroach, check list of, 315\n  Compatibility, interspecies, 337-341\n    _merceti_ var. _falsicornis_, 244\n  Compositae, 162\n  _Compsodes schwarzi_, 9, 27, 316\n  _Compsolampra_, 9\n  _Comptolampra liturata_, 9, 44, 140, 141\n  _Conocarpus erectus_, 159\n  Conopidae, 228\n  Control, biological, 1, 6, 348-354\n  Convolvulaceae, 161\n  _Coptotermes ceylonicus_, 310\n  Coraciformes, 279\n  _Cordaites_, 14\n  _Cordia dentata_, 161\n  _Cordyceps amazonica_, 134\n  _Cornus mas_, 38\n  Corvidae, 280\n  _Corydia nuptialis_, 14\n  Corynebacteriaceae, 110\n  _Corynebacterium diphtheriae_, 110\n  _Cosmozosteria lateralis_, 9, 345\n  _Costus_ sp., 316\n  _Coturnix coturnix japonica_, 277\n  Coxsackie viruses, 103-104\n  Coyote, 288\n  Crappies, 269\n  _Crataegus_ sp., 155\n  Crickets, 320-321\n  _Crinum_, 163\n  _Cristatithorax_, 244\n  Cucarachero, 281\n  Cucumber, 164\n  Cunoniaceae, 155\n  Cupressaceae, 141\n  _Cupressus_, 164\n  _Cutilia nitida_, 9, 345\n    sp. near _sedilloti_, 9; =pl. 9=\n  _Cyanocitta cristata_, 280, 346\n  Cyatheaceae, 139\n  Cycads, 166\n  _Cynopotamus essequibensis_, 269\n  Cyperaceae, 142\n  _Cyperus_ sp., 142\n  Cypress pine, 55\n  _Cyrilla_, 42\n  _Cyrtandra_ sp., 161\n  _Cyrtocharax magdalenae essequibensis_, 269\n  _Cyrtotria capucina_, 9, 27\n  Dasypodidae, 287\n  _Dasypus novemcinctus_, 287\n  Dates, 39\n  Defenses, cockroach, 343-348\n  Dematiaceae, 132\n  _Dendroblatta sobrina_, 9, 45, 316, 330\n  _Dendrocopus mahrattensis_, 279\n  Dermaptera, 226\n  _Dermestes ater_, 234\n  Dermestidae, 234\n  Dermestids, 320\n  _Derocalymma cruralis_, 9, 100\n    _lampyrina_, 9, 27\n    _porcellio_, 9, 28\n    _stigmosa_, 8\n  _Deropeltis autraniana_, 9, 28\n    _erythropeza_, 9, 19\n    _melanophila_, 9, 28\n  Deserts, 25-30\n  _Dicarnosis alfierii_, 245\n  _Dictamnus fraxinella_, 38\n  Didelphidae, 283\n  _Diestrammena apicalis_, 226\n    _japonica_, 226\n  Digenea, 208\n  Dinenymphidae, 170\n  \"Diphtheroid I and II,\" 127\n  \"Diplococci,\" 127\n  _Diplococcus pneumoniae_, 109\n  Diplocystidae, 181\n  _Diplocystis schneideri_, =168=, 181\n  _Diplogaster_, 192\n  Diplogasteridae, 192\n  Diplogyniidae, 217\n  Diplogyniid, undetermined, 217\n  _Diploptera dytiscoides_, 9\n  _Dipodomys spectabilis spectabilis_, =23=\n  Diptera, 227\n  Disease organisms transmitted by cockroaches, 3\n  _Dobellina_, 177\n  _Dolichonyx oryzivorus_, 282\n  _Dolichurus bicolor_, 260\n    _corniculus_, 260-261\n    _gilberti_, 261\n    _haemorrhous_, 260\n  _Dorylaea rhombifolia_, 11\n  _Dorylus (Anomma) nigricans_ subsp. _sjostedi_, 267\n    _wilverthi_, 267\n  Dove, Chinese, 278\n  Dragonfly, giant Hawaiian, 224\n  Drake (Francis), 83\n  _Drassodes_, 214\n  _Drassus_ sp., 318\n  _Dryadoblatta scotti_, 9, 31, 45, 144, 145\n  _Drymaplaneta_, 319\n  Ducks, domestic, 277, 343\n  _Duguay-Trouin_, Cruiser, =232=\n  _Dyscologamia capensis_, 9\n    _chopardi_, 10\n    _pilosa_, 9\n    _wollastoni_, 9\n  Dytiscidae, 230\n  Earthworms, 319\n  Earwigs, undetermined, 226\n  _Eberthella oedematiens_, 112\n  _Echinococcus granulosis_, 208\n  _Eciton burchelli_, 268, 280 sp., 228\n  \"_Ectobia_\" spp., 135\n  _Ectobia livida_, 232\n  _Ectobius africanus_, 9, 45\n    _albicinctus_, 9, 46\n    _ericetorum_, 9\n    _germanicus_, 8\n    _livens_, 9\n    _lividus_, 9\n    _nicaeensis_, 9, 46\n    _nigripes_, 256\n    _panzeri_ var. _nigripes_, 9\n    _perspicillaris_, 9\n    _sylvestris_, 9\n    _tadzihicus_, 9, 48\n    _vittiventris_, 9\n  Edentata, 287\n  _Eleagnus_, 48\n  _Eleutheroda dytiscoides_, 9\n  _Ellipsidion affine_, 9, 48, 297, 327\n    _aurantium_, 9\n    _pellucidum_, 9\n    _variegatum_, 9, 329\n  _Embadomonas blattae_, 167\n  Embryophyta siphonogama, 140\n  Emydidae, 272\n  Encephalomyelitis virus, mouse, 104\n    _javanica_, 178\n    _philippinensis_, 178\n    _thomsoni_, 179\n    versus _Entamoeba_, 177\n  Endamoebidae, 177\n  _Endolimax blattae_, 101, 180\n  Endomycetales, 133\n  _Entamoeba blattae_, 177\n    _blattarum_, 177\n    _histolytica_, 179\n    _thomsoni_, 179\n  _Entedon hagenowii_, 236, 249\n  Enterobacteriaceae, 111\n  _Enterobius vermicularis_, 209\n  _Enterococcus_, 109\n  Entomophthorales, 133\n  _Ephestia k\u00fchniella_, 99\n  Epilamprinae, 30, 326, 348\n    unidentified, 33\n  _Epimys norvegicus_, 287\n  Epiphytes, 34, 44 (see also Bromeliads)\n  _Epomphaloides ischnopterae_, 249\n  _Eremoblatta subdiaphana_, 9, 28, 316\n  _Ergaula capensis_, 9, 49, 77, 311\n    scarabaeoides, 9, 19\n  Ericaceae, 160\n  Erinaceidae, 283\n  _Erinaceus europaeus_, 283\n  _Erythrina glauca_, 35, 156\n  _Erythrocebus patas patas_, 180\n  _Escala circumducta_, 13\n    _longiuscula_, 13\n  _Escherichia coli_, 112\n    _coli_ var. _acidilactici_, 112\n    _coli_ var. _communior_, 113\n    _freundii_, 113\n    _intermedium_, 113\n  \"Espino rubial,\" 66, 155\n  _Estrildine_ sp., 318\n  _Euandroblatta palpalis_, 10, 28\n  Eubacteriales, 104\n  _Eublaberus posticus_, 10, 77, 89\n  Eucalyptus, 48, 231\n  _Eucalyptus_ sp., 160\n  _Eucharis_, 163\n  _Eucomonympha_, 102\n  Eucomonymphidae, 176\n  _Eudromiella bicolorata_, 10, 49\n  _Eugenia aromatica_, 160\n  _Euglena_ sp., 166\n  Euglenidae, 166\n  Euglenoidina, 166\n  Eulophidae, 94, 248\n  _Eupelmus atriflagellum_, 247\n  Euphorbiaceae, 157\n  _Euphyllodromia angustata_, 10, 147\n    _liturifera_, 10, 49\n    _decastigmata_, 10\n  _Euryconema paradisa_, 194\n  _Eurycotis bananae_, 10, 47\n    _carbonaria_, 10\n    _ferrum-equinum_, 10, 49\n    _sabalianus_, 10\n  _Euscorpius carpathicus_, 212\n    _germanus_, 212\n    _italicus italicus_, 213\n  _Euthlastoblatta abortiva_, 10, 24, 50, 143\n  _Euthyrrhapha nigra_, 10, 19\n  _Eutrichomastix_ sp., 169\n  _Eutrichosomella blattophaga_, 245\n    _abyssinica_, 239\n    _desjardinsii_, 236\n    _dimidiata_, 239\n    _impressa_, 242\n    _laevigata_, 236\n    _princeps_, 235\n    _punctata_, 240\n    _subspinosa_, 239\n  _Exothea paniculata_, 36, 158\n  Fagaceae, 152\n  Felidae, 289\n  _Felis catus_, 289\n    _pardalis mearnsi_, 290\n  Fennel, 237\n  Fighting, intraspecies, 323, 336-337\n  Filarien, 202\n  Fir, Scotch, 140\n  Flacourtiaceae, 159\n  Flagellate, unidentified, 176\n  Flies, conopid, 228\n    ichneumon, 236\n    muscid, 229\n    phorid, 227\n    sarcophagid, 229\n    tachinid, 228\n  _Foeniculum vulgare_, 237\n  _Fondia_ sp., 318\n  Food, cockroaches as human, 286-287\n    contamination of, 83\n  Forficulid, 339\n  Forficulidae, 226\n  _Formica_, 267\n    _omnivora_, 268\n    _rufibarbis_, 312\n    _subcyanea_, 312\n  Formicariidae, 280\n  Formicas, 316\n  Formicidae, 267, 311\n  Formicinae, 311\n  Fossils, 14\n  Fowl, guinea, 343\n    jungle, 277\n  _Freycinetia_ sp., 141\n  Fringillidae, 282\n    hyperparasitic in protozoa, 178, 188\n    Imperfecti, 129\n  Fungus gardens, 313\n  _Fusiformis lophomonadis_, 119, 173\n  _Galebia aegyptiaca_, 195\n  _Galerita janus_, 347\n  Galliformes, 277\n  _Gallus_ sp., 277\n  _Gamocystis tenax_, 168, 184\n  _Gekko gecko_, 272\n  Gekkonidae, 272\n  _Geomys_ sp., =24=\n  _Geoscapheus robustus_, 10, 319, 344\n  _Geotrichum candidum_, 131\n  Geraniaceae, 156\n  Geraniums, 156, 164\n  Gesneriaceae, 161\n  _Giardia intestinalis_, 171\n  Ginger, wild, 151\n  Glands, secretory, 345-347\n  _Glomeropitcairnia erectiflora_, 31, 144\n  Glyciphagidae, 218\n  Goldenrod, 162\n  _Gongylonema ingluvicola_, 205\n  Gopher, pocket, 24\n  Gordiaceo, 202\n  Gordian worms, undetermined, 202; =pl. 29=\n  Gordiidae, 201\n  Gordioidea, 201\n  _Gordius_, 192\n    _blattae orientalis_, 202\n    _orientalis_, 202\n    _raphaelis_, 202\n  _Gossypium_ spp., 158\n  \"Gram positive rods,\" 127\n  Gramineae, 141\n  Grapefruit, 66, 67\n    feather, 46\n    marram, 47\n  Grassquit, Carib, 282\n  _Gregarina blaberae_, 184\n    _blattae orientalis_, 181\n    _fastidiosa_, 182\n    _illinensis_, 183\n    _impetuosa_, 183\n    _neo-brasiliensis_, 183\n    _ohioensis_, 183\n    _panchlorae_, 183\n    _parcoblattae_, 183\n    _serpentula_, 184\n  Gregarine, 181; =pl. 28=\n  Gregarinida, 181\n    unidentified, 184\n  Gregarinidae, 181\n  Gregariousness, 328, 330-336\n    physiological effects, 334-335\n  _Grevisia_, 144\n  _Gromphadorhina laevigata_, 10, 330\n  Gru-gru, 142\n  Gryllacrididae, 226\n  Guanobies, 16-17, 19\n  Gu\u00eape ichneumon, 258\n  Guinea pigs, 288\n  _Gymnasio nudipes_, 279\n  _Gymnopithys leucaspis_, 280\n  _Gyna kazungulana_, 10, 19\n    _maculipennis_, 10, 19\n  Habitats, 15\n    cultivated areas, 38, 39, 53, 58\n    structures, 70-90\n    land-based, 73-82\n  Hackberry, 50\n  _Hadrurus arizonensis_, 213\n  Hamamelidaceae, 155\n  _Hammerschmidtiella diesingi_, 124, 190, 191, 195-196\n  Haplosporidia, 185\n  _Haplosporidium periplanetae_, 185\n  _Harpalus pennsylvanicus_, 229\n  _Hartmannella blattae_, 177\n  _Hebardina concinna_, 10, 278\n  _Hedychium_, 163\n  _Helianthus_ sp., 162\n  _Heliconia_, =40=\n    cockroaches as intermediate hosts, 203-207\n    cockroaches as primary hosts, 192-202\n    ova carried by cockroaches, 208-210\n  _Hemiblabera brunneri_, 10, 51, 156\n  _Hemidactylus frenatus_, 272\n  Hemiptera, 226, 348\n  _Hemithyrsocera histrio_, 7\n  Hemlock, 44\n  _Henicotyle antillarum_, 10, 51\n  _Herpestes javanicus auropunctatus_, 289\n  _Herpetomonas periplanetae_, 167\n    _amazonicus_, 134\n    _anaplectae_, 134\n    _appendiculatus_, 134\n    _chaetophilus_, 135\n    _chilensis_, 135\n    _diplopterae_, 135\n    _ectobiae_, 135\n    _forficularis_, 135\n    _gracilis_, 135\n    _grenadinus_, 136\n    _leurolestis_, 136\n    _lobopterae_, 136\n    _macropus_, 136\n    _nyctoborae_, 136\n    _panchlorae_, 136\n    _panesthiae_, 136\n    _paranensis_, 136\n    _periplanetae_, 137, 138\n    _phyllodromiae_, 137\n    _platyzosteriae_, 137\n    _supellae_, 138\n    _tricuspidatus_, 138\n    _zanzibarinus_, 138\n  _Heterodon contortrix_, 276\n    _platyrhinos_, 276\n  _Heterogamia aegyptiaca_, 13\n  _Heterogamodes kr\u00fcgeri_, 10, 20\n    _roseni_, 7\n  _Heterometrus longemanus_, 211, 213\n  _Heteropoda regia_, 215\n  Heteroptera, 318\n  _Hexamita_, 102\n    _cryptocerci_, 171\n    _periplanetae_, 171\n  Hexamitidae, 171\n  _Hibiscus rosa-sinensis_, 68, 158\n  _Hierodula tenuidentata_, 224-225, 355; =pl. 32=\n  _Histiostoma feroniarum_, 217\n  _Holocompsa azteca_, 10, 77\n  _Hololampra bivittata_, 10, 51\n  _Hololeptoblatta_ sp., 51, 141\n  Holomastigotidae, 172\n  _Holoquiscalus brachypterus_, 282\n  Holotricha, 186\n  _Homalodemas cruralis_, 9\n  _Homalopteryx laminata_, 10, 52, 151\n    _scotti_, 9\n  Hominidae, 286\n  _Homo sapiens_, 286\n  Honeydew, 237, 242\n  Hookworm, ova, 210\n  Hoplonymphidae, 173\n  _Hoplosphoropyga babaulti_, 10, 20\n  _Hormetica apolinari_, 10, 51\n  _Hormurus caudicula_, 213\n  Hornbill, gray, 279\n  Huckleberry, 43, 57\n  Humidity reactions, 35, 72, 129\n  _Hygrocrocis intestinalis_, 124\n  Hygroreceptors, 72\n  Hygrotaxis, 72, 331\n  _Hyla cinerea_, 270\n  Hylidae, 270\n  Hymenolepididae, 208\n  _Hymenolepis diminuta_, 203\n  Hymenoptera, 2, 234, 311\n    cockroach-hunting wasps, 255-266\n    host selection by egg parasites, 254-255\n    hosts of commensal cockroaches, 311-314\n    predators and parasites of cockroach eggs, 234-254\n  Hypermastigina, 172\n  _Hyperolius picturatus_, 271\n  _Hypoaspis_ sp., 217\n  Hypocreaceae, 134\n  Hypocreales, 134\n  _Hyporhicnoda_, 146\n  _Hyptia dorsalis_, 239\n  Icteridae, 282\n  _Icterus portoricensis_, 280\n  _Idionympha perissa_, 174\n  _Ignabolivaria bilobata_, 10, 52\n  Iguanidae, 273\n  _Ilex cassine_, 66, 158\n  Incertae sedis, fungi, 139\n    protozoa, 176\n  _Inermicapsifer madagascariensis_, 203\n  Infestations of cockroaches, 331\n  _Inga laurina_, 35, 156\n  Insectivora, 283\n  _Inuus sylvanus_, 286\n  Invertebrates in biological control, 349-352\n  _Iodamoeba_ sp., 180\n  _Iolina nana_, 219\n  Iolinidae, 219\n  _Ipomoea tiliasea_, 66, 161\n  _Iridomyrmex humilis_, 268, 319\n  Ironwood, 164\n  _Ischnomyrmex_ sp., 316\n    _borealis_, 12\n    _cavernicola_, 14\n    _couloniana_, 12\n    _insolita_, 12\n    _pennsylvanica_, 12\n    _rufa occidentalis_, 10, 78, 145\n    _rufescens_, 82\n    _schenklingi_, 10, 142\n    _uhleriana_, 12\n    _uhleriana fulvescens_, 12\n  Ischnuridae, 213\n  Isoptera, 310\n  _Isotricha caulleryi_, 187\n  Isotrichidae, 187\n  Jasmine, 45\n  _Jasminum pubescens_, 45\n  Jay, blue, 280\n    Florida, 280\n  J\u00facaro, 66\n  Juniper, 59\n  _Juniperus_ sp., 65, 141\n  _Jussiaea natans_, 160, 164\n  _Kakerlac schaefferi_, 12\n  Kakkerlac, 260\n  _Karnyia discoidalis_, 10, 298\n  Kiawe tree, 164\n  Kingbird, grey, 35, 318\n  _Klebsiella pneumoniae_, 113\n  Kojukei, 277\n  _Kuchinga hemerobina_, 10, 298\n  Laboulbeniaceae, 127, 134\n  Laboulbeniales, 134\n  _Lactobacillus fermenti_, 109\n  Lactobacteriaceae, 109\n  Laelaptidae, 216\n  _Lamproblatta albipalpus_, 10, 53, 148\n    _meridionalis_, 10, 53\n  Lampyrid, undetermined, 230; =pl. 33=\n  Lampyridae, 230\n  Laniidae, 281\n  _Lanius ludovicianus_, 281\n  Larvaevoridae, 228\n  _Lasius alienus_, 268\n  _Lastrea aristata_, 163\n  _Latiblattella chichimeca_, 10, 54, 145\n  _Latindia armata_, 8\n  _Latrodectus indistinctus_, 215-216\n  Lauraceae, 153\n  Leafhoppers, 320\n  Legumes, 165\n  Leguminosae, 155\n  _Leidynema appendiculata_, 124, 190, 191, 196-198\n    _appendiculata_ var. _americana_, 197\n    _appendiculata_ var. _hispana_, 197\n    _appendiculata_ var. _indiana_, 197\n    _cranifera_, 198\n    _delatorrei_, 198\n  _Leidynemella fusiformis_, 198\n    _panesthiae_, 198\n    _paracranifera_, 198\n  _Leiolopisma laterale_, 274\n  _Lemur coronatus_, 283\n    _tardigradus_, 284\n  Lemuridae, 283\n  _Leontocebus oedipus_, 285\n  Lepidoptera, 316-318\n  _Lepomis pallidus_, 269\n  _Leptodactylus albilabris_, 271\n    _pentadactylus_, 271\n  _Leptomonas blaberae_, 167\n  _Leptopelis calcaratus_, 271\n  _Leptospironympha_, 102\n  Lesser apple worm, 65\n    _striata_, 13\n    _surinamensis_, 13\n  _Leurolestes circumvagans_, 11, 78\n  Lice, plant, 320\n  Liliaceae, 146\n  _Lily_, Brig, 84\n  Lily, Easter, 146, 164\n  _Liopicus mahrattensis_, 279\n  _Liquidambar styraciflua_, 155\n  _Lissoblatta fulgida_, 13, 157\n  Litopeltis biolleyi, 11, 54, 145\n  _Lobogynioides_, 217\n  _Lobolampra subaptera_, 11, 55\n    _dimidiatipes_, 11\n    _extranea_, 11\n    _sakalava_, 11\n  _Lobopterella dimidiatipes_, 11, 55, 299, 338\n  _Locustacarus_ sp., 219\n  _Lophoblatta arawaka_, 11, 55, 142\n  _Lophocerus birostris_, 279\n  Lophomonadidae, 172\n  _Lophomonas_, 101\n  _Loris tardigradus_, 284\n  Lorisidae, 284\n  _Lycolaimus_, 192\n  _Lycosa avida_, 216\n  Lycosidae, 216\n  Lygaeidae, 226\n  _Lymantria monacha_, 121\n  _Macaca cyclopis_, 179\n    _sylvanus_, 286\n  Macaque, 286\n  _Macropanesthia rhinocerus_, 11, 55, 344\n  _Macrospironympha_, 102\n    _xylopletha_, 172\n  _Macrotermes barneyi_, 311\n    _bellicosus_, 311\n    _malaccensis_, 311\n    _natalensis_, 311\n  _Malleomyces mallei_, 119\n  Malpighian tubules, parasites in, 177, 185, 186\n  Malvaceae, 158\n  _Mamestra oleracea_, 120\n  Mammalia, 283, 354\n  Mammals, 3, 283\n  _Mangifera indica_, 157\n  Mantidae, 224\n  Mantis, Carolina, 225\n    Chinese, 226\n    European, 225\n  _Mantis religiosa_, 225\n  _Marava arachidis_, 339\n  _Mareta acutiventris_, 11, 317\n  _Maretina uahuka_, 11, 142, 155\n  _Margattea sp._, 317\n  Marsupialia, 283\n  Mastigophora, 166\n  _Mastigoproctus giganteus_, 211\n  Mediterranean fruitfly, 252\n  Megachilidae, 314\n  _Megalixalus fornasinii_, 271\n  _Megaloblatta blaberoides_, 11, 55\n    _rufipes_, 11\n  _Megalopyge krugii_, 35, 317\n  _Megamareta verticalis_, 11, 56, 141\n  _Megaselia_ sp., 227\n  _Melanerpes portoricensis_, 280\n  _Melanosilpha capensis_, 11, 299\n  Meleagrididae, 278\n  _Meleagris gallopavo_, 278\n  _Melipona nigra_, 314\n  _Melittobia chalybii_, 248\n  _Memnoniella echinata_, 132\n  Mermithidae, 192\n  Mermithids, undetermined, 192; =pl. 29=\n  Mermithoidea, 192\n  _Mestocharomyia oophaga_, 248\n  _Metallyticus semiaeneus_, 225\n  _Metarrhizium anisopliae_, 131\n  _Metrosideros collina_, 160\n  _Methana canae_, 11, 56, 326\n  Methionine, 101\n  Micrococcaceae, 106\n  _Micrococcus aurantiacus_, 106\n    _epidermidis_, 106\n    _nigrofaciens_, 106\n    _pyogenes_ var. _albus_, 106-107\n    _pyogenes_ var. _aureus_, 107\n  Microsporidia, 185\n  _Microtetrameres helix_, 206\n  _Midas rosalia_, 285\n  Mimosa, 57\n  _Miroblatta silphoides_, 10\n  _Mirotermes_, 102\n    cheese, 222\n    control, 222\n    mushroom, 218\n    unidentified, 220\n  Molossidae, 283\n  _Molossus_ sp., 283\n  _Moluchia (?) dahli_, 11, 56\n  Monadidae, 167\n  _Monastria biguttata_, 11, 344\n  Mongoose, 289, 354\n  Monilaceae, 130\n  Moniliales, 129\n  Moniliformidae, 203\n  _Moniliformis dubius_, 203, 270, 271, 276\n    _kalahariensis_, 203\n    _moniliformis_, 191, 204\n    Canal Zone night, 284\n    Darien black spider, 284\n    white-faced, 284\n  _Monocercomonas orthopterorum_, 169\n  _Monocercomonoides_, 102\n    _melolonthae_, 168, 169\n    _orthopterorum_, 169-170\n    _panesthiae_, 170\n  _Monodelphis_ sp., 283\n  _Mononychoblatta_, 26\n  Moraceae, 153\n  Mosquitoes, 322\n  \"Mouche bleue, La,\" 260\n    white-footed, 24, 205\n  _Mucor guilliermondii_, 132\n  Mucoraceae, 132\n  Mucorales, 132\n  Muridae, 287\n  Murorinae, 129\n  _Mus decumanus_, 287\n    _musculus_, 287\n  _Musa_ (see banana)\n  Musaceae, 146\n  Muscidae, 229\n  Mustelidae, 289\n  Mutant, white-eyed, 21\n  Mutuals, 95\n  _Muzoa madida_, 11, 56\n  Mycetozoa, 176\n  Mycobacteriaceae, 123\n  _Mycobacterium avium_, 123\n    _friedmannii_, 123\n    _lacticola_, 123\n    _lepraemurium_, 123\n    _tuberculosis_, 124\n  Myna (mynah), 281\n  _Myrica cerifera_, 43, 152\n  Myricaceae, 152\n  _Myrmeblattina longipes_, 11, 314\n  _Myrmecoblatta rehni_, 11, 312\n  Myrmecophiles, 311-314, 316\n  _Myrmicaria natalensis_, 316\n  Myrmicinae, 312\n  Myrtaceae, 160\n  _Namablatta bitaeniata_, 11, 28\n  _Nasua narica_, 288\n  _Nasutitermes costalis_, 317\n  _Nauphoeta bivittata_, 11\n    _brazzae_, 11\n    _punctipennis_, 11, 28\n  _Necator americanus_, 210\n  _Nectandra coriacea_, 43, 153\n  _Neisseria meningitidis_, 109\n  Neisseriaceae, 109\n  _Nelipophygus ramsdeni_, 11, 56\n    undetermined, 201\n  Nematomorpha, 201\n  _Neoaplectana chresima_, 192-193\n  _Neoblattella brunneriana_, 11, 145\n  _Neonephrites partiniger_, 230\n  _Neorhipidius neoxenus_, 230\n  Nepenthaceae, 154\n  _Nepenthes ampularia_, 154\n    _gracilis_, 154\n  _Nephrites australis_, 231\n    _nitidus_ Riek not Shuckard, 231\n  Nepidae, 227\n  _Nesomylacris cubensis_, 11, 57\n  Neuroptera, 227\n  _Nicotiana_ sp., 161\n  _Nocardia_ sp., 124\n  \"_Nocticola\" azteca_, 149\n  _Nocticola_, 17, 149\n    _termitophila_, 12, 311\n  _Nosema periplanetae_, 185, 186\n  Nosematidae, 185\n  _Nothoblatta wasmanni_, 12, 312\n  _Notila proteus_, 170\n  _Notolampra antillarum_, 12, 144, 159\n  _Nucleophaga_ sp., 178\n  _Nyctibora azteca_, 12, 149\n    _holosericea_, 12, 149\n    _latipennis_, 12\n    _buissoni_, 188\n    _uichanci_, 188\n  _Nymphytria_, 26\n  Ocelot, 290\n  _Ocneria dispar_, 126\n  _Ocotea catesbyana_, 43, 153\n  _Octomitus periplanetae_, 171\n  Odonata, 224\n  _Odontomachus affinis_, 314\n    _haematodes insularis_ var. _pallens_, 316\n  _Odontotermes_ sp., 311\n  Oikomonadidae, 166\n  _Oikomonas blattarum_, 166\n  Oligacanthorhynchidae, 203\n  Onagraceae, 160\n  _Oniscosoma granicollis_, 12, 300\n  O\u00f6thecae, concealment of, 47, 61, 63, 325-327\n  _Ophion luteus_, 261\n  _Opisthoplatia maculata_, 12, 30, 32-33\n  Orangutan, 70\n  Orchidaceae, 151\n  Origins of domiciliary cockroaches, 70-71\n  Oriole, Puerto Rican, 280\n  Oriolidae, 280\n  _Oulopteryx meliponarum_, 12, 314\n  Ovipositor, cockroach, 15\n    bare-legged, 279\n  _Oxyhaloa buprestoides_, 12, 70, 79, 86\n  Oxymonadidae, 170\n  _Oxymonas_, 102\n    _doroaxostylus_, 170\n  Oxyuridae, 209\n  _Oxyuris aegyptiaca_, 195\n    _australasiae_, 199\n    _blattae orientalis_, 195, 196\n    _blatticola_, 193\n    _bulh\u00f5esi_, 200\n    _diesingi_, 195\n    (?) _heterogamiae_, 199\n    _k\u00fcnckeli_, 199\n    _panesthiae_, 198\n  _Palamnaeus_, 211\n  _Palissota_, 34\n  _Paliurus aculeatus_, 38\n  _Pallasiomys meridionalis pennicilliger_, 24\n  Palmae, 141\n  _Panchlora antillarum_, 12, 58, 143, 149\n    _cubensis_, 12\n    _maderae_, 11\n  Panchlorinae, 231\n  Pandanaceae, 141\n  _Panesthia_, 102\n    \"_brevicollis_,\" 194\n    _javanica_, 12\n    _lobipennis_, 12, 301\n  _Panicum barbinode_, 141\n    _purpurascens_, 141\n  _Papio papio_, 286\n  _Parabuthus capensis_, 212\n  _Parachordodes raphaelis_, 202\n  _Paraclevelandia brevis_, 190\n  _Paracolobactrum aerogenoides_, 113\n    _coliforme_, 113\n  _Paradisea papuana_, 280\n  _Parahormetica bilobata_, 12, 301\n  Parameciidae, 186\n  _Paramecium_ sp., 186-187\n  _Paranephrites xenus_, 230\n  _Parapolyphaga erectipilis_, 9-10\n    host selection by, 254-255\n  Parasitism, 91-94\n  _Parcoblatta_, 350\n  _Parinarium_, 34\n  Parsley, 237\n  Parsnip, 240\n  Partridge, 278\n  Parvobacteriaceae, 119\n  _Passer domesticus_, 282\n  Passeriformes, 280\n  _Passiflora_ sp., 37, 159\n  Passifloraceae, 159\n  _Pasteurella multocida_, 119\n  _Pastinaca sativa_, 240\n  _Paxylomma buccata_, 255\n  _p_-benzoquinone, 216, 347\n  p-chlorophenyl, p-chlorobenzene sulfonate, 222\n  Pedipalpida, 211\n  _Peltomyces blattellae_, 176\n    _periplanetae_, 176-177\n  _Penicillium sp._, 131\n    _fortipes_, 13\n    _orientalis_, 8\n    _tartara_, 8\n  _Periplaneticola mirzaia_, 193\n  _Perisphaerus armadillo_, 12, 329\n  Periwinkle, 47\n  Permian, 14\n  _Perodicticus potto_, 284\n  _Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis_, 205\n    _polionotus rhoadsi_, 24\n  _Petitia domingensis_, 66, 317\n  _Petroselium crispum_, 237\n  _Phaetalia pallida_, 12, 81\n  Phasianidae, 277\n  _Phasianus calchicus karpowi_, 277\n  Pheasants, 277\n  _Pheidole megacephala_, 268\n  _Phidon (?) dubius_, 13, 64\n  _Phileciton longipes_, 314\n  _Philip_, Ship, 83\n  _Philodromus pernix_, 318\n  _Phlebonotus pallens_, 13, 329\n  _Phlebotomus papatasii_, 322\n  _Phoenix dactylifera_, 143\n  _Pholadoblatta inusitata_, 13, 316\n  Phoraspidinae, 329\n  _Phoraspis_ sp., 64, 142\n  Phoridae, 227\n  _Phormictopus cancerides_, 214\n  _Phorticolea boliviae_, 13, 311, 314\n  _Phryganoporus_, 317\n  Phycomycetes, 132\n  _Phyllodromia germanica_, 8\n    _hemerobina_, 10\n    _hieroglyphica_, 10\n    _humbertiana_, 8\n    _nigrocincta_, 14\n    _obtusata_, 7\n    _parenthesis_, 14\n    _supellectilium_, 13-14\n    _treitliana_, 13, 245\n  _Phyllodromica brevipennis_, 13, 64\n    _tartara nigrescens_, 13, 65, 141, 162\n  _Physaloptera hispida_, 191, 207\n    _praeputialis_, 207\n  Physalopteridae, 207\n  _Physignathus lesueurii_, 275\n  Phytoseiidae, 216\n  Picidae, 279\n  Piciformes, 279\n  _Pileocephalus blaberae_, 184\n  _Pilocrocis secernalis_, 66, 317\n  _Pimeliaphilus podapolipophagus_, 219-221, 320\n  Pimelodidae, 268\n  Pinaceae, 140\n  _Pinus australis_, 140\n    _echinata_, 140\n    _sylvestris_, 140\n  Pisces, 268\n  _Plagiotoma blattarum_, 188\n  Plants, carnivorous, 154\n    damage to, by cockroaches, 162-166\n    pitcher, 154\n  Platyhelminthes, 208\n  _Platyzosteria analis_, 13, 306\n    _novae-zealandiae_, 13\n    _sabalianus_, 10\n  _Plectoptera dominicae_, 13, 66, 157\n    _floridana_, 13\n  _Pleistophora periplanetae_, 186\n  _Plethodon glutinosus_, 269\n  Plethodontidae, 269\n  _Plistophora kudoi_, 185-186\n  Ploceinae, 318\n  _Ploceus_ sp., 318\n  _Plumiger histrio_, 7\n  Plumilla, 35\n  _Pneumococcus_, 109\n  _Podapolipodidae_, 219\n  _Podium abdominale_, 265\n    _carolina_, 265\n    _flavipenne_, 265-266\n    _haematogastrum_, 263, 266, 352\n    _luctuosum_, 266\n  _Podocarpus_, 42\n  _Pogonomyrmex badius_, 346, 347; =pl. 36=\n  _Poinsettia_ sp., 157\n  Poinsettias, 164\n  Polecat, 4\n  Poliomyelitis viruses, 3, 103\n  _Polybia pygmaea_, 314\n  _\"Polygamia\" aegyptiaca_, 13\n    _roseni_, 7\n  Polymastigidae, 169\n  Polymastigina, 169\n  _Polymastix_, 101\n    _pellucida_, 13\n  Polyphagids, 344\n  Polyphaginae, 25\n  Polypodiaceae, 140\n  _Polystichum aristatum_, 163\n  _Polyzosteria analis_, 13\n  Pomarrosa, 160\n  Pompilidae, 256\n  _Pompilus bracatus_, 256\n  Ponerinae, 314\n  Pongidae, 286\n  Ponies, pit (mine), 16, 23\n  _Populus diversifolia_, 152\n    _euphratica_, 47, 152\n  _Poroblatta nigra_, 11\n  _Potamotrygon humboldti_, 268\n  Potamotrygontidae, 268\n  Potato, 165\n  Potto, 284\n  Prairie dog, 24\n  Predation, interspecies, 92, 319-322\n    intraspecies, 92, 322-324\n  Predatism, 91-95\n    defense against, 343-348\n    of cockroach eggs, 234\n  Prey, experimental, 4\n    natural, 4\n  Primates, 283\n  _Pritchardia_, 64, 163\n  Privies (latrines), cockroaches in, 74, 80, 81, 178, 340\n  Procyonidae, 288\n  _Prodenia litula_, 320\n  _Prolabia_, 339\n  _Prolophomonas tocopola_, 173\n  _Prosoplecta_, 348\n  _Proteus mirabilis_, 114\n    _morganii_, 114\n    _rettgeri_, 114\n    _vulgaris_, 114\n  _Protomagalhaesia serpentula_, 168, 184\n  _Protomonadina_, 166\n  _Protospirura bonnei_, 206\n    _columbiana_, 206\n  _Protrelleta floridana_, 199\n  _Protrellina_, 199\n    _aurifluus_, 199\n    _australasiae_, 199\n    _k\u00fcnckeli_, 199\n    _phyllodromi_, 200\n  _Protrelloides paradoxa_, 200\n  _Protrellus aureus_, 199\n    _aurifluus_, 199\n    _australasiae_, 199\n    _k\u00fcnckeli_, 199\n    _phyllodromi_, 200\n  _Pseudoderopeltis aethiopica_, 13, 100\n  Pseudomonadaceae, 104\n  _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_, 104\n    _eisenbergii_, 105\n    _fluorescens_, 105\n  Pseudomopinae, 60, 230, 231\n  _Pseudomops cincta_, 13, 319\n    _laticornis_, 13, 145\n    _septentrionalis_, 13, 67, 162\n  _Pseudophoraspis nebulosa_, 13, 81, 328\n  Pseudosaccharomycetaceae, 129\n  _Psidium guajava_, 67, 160\n  Psocoptera, 318\n  Pteridophyta, 139\n  Pteromalidae, 247\n  _Pteromalus_ sp., 247, 248\n  _Pterygosomidae_, 219\n  _Pycnosceloides aporus_, 12, 58\n  _Pycnoscelus niger_, 13, 22\n  _Pyrus_ sp., 62\n  Quail, Japanese, 277\n  _Quercus alba_, 152\n    _pubescens_, 38\n    _virginiana_, 152\n  Quinones, 347\n  _Rana catesbeiana_, 271\n    _mascareniensis_, 271\n  _Ranatra_ sp., 227\n  Ranidae, 270\n    kangaroo, 23, 26\n    Norway, 287\n  _Rattus norvegicus_, 287\n  Reduviidae, 227\n  Reduviids, undetermined, 227\n  _Reduvius christophi_, 227\n    _fedtschenkianus_, 227\n  _Renealmia_ sp., 151\n  Repellents, 345-347\n  Reptilia, 272-276\n  _Reticulitermes_ sp., 317\n  _Retortamonas blattae_, 167, 168\n    _orthopterorum_, 169\n  Rhabditoidea, 192\n  _Rhamdia sebae_, 268\n  _Rhantus pacificus_, 230\n  _Rhicnoda natatrix_, 13, 33\n  _Rhinopsis caniculatus_, 257\n  Rhinotermitidae, 310\n  _Rhipidioides ableptus_, 230\n    _adynatus_, 230\n    _fuscatus_, 230\n    _rubricatus_, 231\n  _Rhipidius_, 230\n  Rhipiphoridae, 230\n  Rhizobiaceae, 106\n  _Rhizoglyphus tarsalus_, 218\n  _Rhizophora mangle_, 36, 159\n  Rhizophoracea, 159\n  _Rhizopus nigricans_, 133\n  _Rhombomys opimus_, 24\n  _Rhynchonympha_, 102\n  _Rhyparobia maderae_, 11\n  Rhythms, diurnal, 335\n  _Rhytidometopum dissimile_, 13, 68, 158\n  _Riatia fulgida_, 13, 157\n  Riboflavin, 101\n  _Rictularia coloradensis_, 192, 205\n  _Riekella australis_, 231\n    _nitidioides_, 231\n  Ripidiini, biology of Australian, 231\n  _Ripidius_, 230\n    _pectinicornis_, 84, 232-233\n    _scutellaris_, 233\n  Ripiphoridae, 230\n  Roach (see cockroach)\n  _Robshelfordia circumducta_, 13, 307\n    _longiuscula_, 13, 307\n  Rodentia, 287\n  Rosaceae, 155\n  Roundworms, 2 (see Helminths)\n  _Roystonea regia_, 143\n  Rubiaceae, 161\n  _Rubus_ spp., 155\n  Rushes, 46\n  Rutaceae, 157\n  _Sabal palmetto_, 50\n  _Saccharomyces cerevisiae_, 133\n  Saccharomycetaceae, 133\n  Saccharomycetes, 129\n  _Saccharum officinarum_, 141-142\n  _Saccinobaculus_, 102\n    _ambloaxostylus_, 170\n    _doroaxostylus_, 170\n    undescribed spp., 170\n  _Saimiri sciurea_, 285\n  Salamander, 269\n  _Salganea morio_, 13, 334\n  Salicaceae, 152\n  Salientia, 270\n  _Salius verticalis_, 256\n  _Salmonella anatis_, 114\n    _choleraesuis_, 114\n    _enteritidus_, 114\n    _morbificans_, 115\n    _paratyphi_, 115\n    _schottmuelleri_, 115\n    _typhimurium_, 116\n  _Salmonella_ sp.\n    (Type Adelaide), 115\n    (Type Bareilly), 115\n    (Type Bredeny), 115\n    (Type Derby), 115\n    (Type Kentucky), 115\n    (Type Kottbus), 115\n    (Type Meleagris), 116\n    (Type Montevideo), 116\n    (Type Newport), 116\n    (Type Oranienburg), 116\n    (Type Panama), 116\n    (Type Rubislaw), 116\n    (Type Tennessee), 116\n  _Salsola kali_, 65\n  _Samanea saman_, 35, 156\n  _Samui_, Steamship, 232\n  Sapindaceae, 158\n  Sapotaceae, 160\n  _Sarcina alba_, 108\n    _aurantiaca_, 108\n    _symbiotica_, 108\n    _ventriculi_, 108\n  Sarcodina, 176\n  _Sarcophaga lambens_, 2, 229\n    _sternodontis_, 229\n  Sarcophagidae, 229\n  _Sarracenia flava_, 154\n    _purpurea_, 154\n    _variolaris_, 154\n  Sarraceniaceae, 154\n  Sauria, 272\n  Scale, diaspine, 237\n  _Sceliphron caementarium_, 248\n  _Schistosoma haematobium_, 208\n  Schistosomatidae, 208\n  Schizomycetes, 104\n  Schizophyta, 104\n  _Schwenkiella icemi_, 200\n  Scincidae, 274\n  _Scolopendra_, 222\n    _cingulata_, 223\n    _morsitans_, 223\n    _subspinipes_, 224\n  Scolopendridae, 223\n  Scolopendromorpha, 223\n  Scorpionida, 211\n  Scorpionidae, 213\n  _Scorzonera acanthoclada_, 65, 162\n  _Scutigera coleoptrata_, 222-223; =pl. 31=\n    _maculata_, 223\n  Scutigeridae, 222\n  Scutigeromorpha, 222\n  Sea grape, 43, 69\n  Seaweed, 47, 55\n  Secretions, repellent, 6, 216, 225\n    sexual, 235\n  Sedge, 66\n  Serpentes, 276\n  _Serratia marcescens_, 117-118; =pl. 16=\n  _Setaria verticillata_, 142\n  _Seurocyrnea colini_, 207\n  _Severianoia magna_, 200\n    _severianoi_, 200\n  Sewers, cockroaches in, 74, 332, 338\n  _Shelfordella tartara_, 8\n  _Shigella alkalescens_, 118\n    _dysenteriae_, 118\n    _paradysenteriae_, 119\n    cockroaches on, 79, 82-87\n  Shrike, 281\n  _Sibylloblatta panesthoides_, 13, 151\n  _Sideroxylon foetidissimum_, 63, 160\n  Silkworm, bacterium from, 126\n    \"disease bacillus,\" 127\n  _Simblerastes jamaicanus_, 13, 69, 317, 334\n  _Simia jacchus_, 285\n  Sinanthropes, 71, 81\n  Snakes, 276\n  Sodium fluoride, 278\n  Solanaceae, 161\n  _Solanum tuberosum_, 161\n  _Solenopsis geminata_, 314\n  _Solindenia picticornis_, 246, 247\n  Sound, cockroach, 330\n  Sow bugs, 347\n  Sparassidae, 215\n  Sparrow, 282\n    English, 282\n  _Spartan_, Ship, 84\n  Spartina marsh, 42\n  _Spelaeoblatta caeca_, 14\n  _Spermophilopsis leptodactylus_, 24\n  _Sphaerita_, 189\n  _Sphaerodactylus_ sp., 273\n  Sphagnum, 52\n  Sphecidae, 264\n  _Sphecophila polybiarum_, 13, 314\n  _Sphodromantis bioculata_, 225\n  _Spicaria prasina_, 130\n    banana, 215\n    big, brown house, 215\n    bird-eating, 214\n    black widow, 216\n    button, 215\n    huntsman, 215\n  _Spiniger domesticus_, 227\n  _Spirillochaeta blattae_, 127\n  _Spirillum_ \u03b1, \u03b2, and \u03b3, 105\n    _periplaneticum_, 105, 127\n  _Spirocerca sanguinolenta_, 203\n  _Spirochaeta blattae_, 125\n    _blattarum_, 125\n    _periplanetae_, 125\n    _stylopygae_, 125\n  Spirochaetaceae, 125\n  Spirochaetales, 125\n  Spirochaetes, unidentified, 125\n  \"Spirochaetoid bacteria,\" 127\n  _Spirorbis pusillus_, 14\n  _Spirostomidae_, 188\n  Spirotricha, 187\n  _Spirura gastrophila_, 207\n  Spiruridae, 205\n  Spiruroidea, 204\n  _Spondias_, 67\n    _purpurea_, 158\n  Sporozoa, 181\n  Spruce, 44\n  Squirrel, ground, 23, 24, 26\n  _Stagmomantis carolina_, 225-226\n  Staphylococci, 107\n  _Staphylococcus albus_, 107\n  Staurojoeninidae, 174\n  _Stegobium paniceum_, 99\n  Steinernematidae, 192\n  _Steleopyga sinensis_, 13, 307\n  _Stenamma andrei_, 316\n  _Stenobothrus vagans_, 46\n  _Stenophora_ sp., 181\n  Stenophoridae, 181\n  Sterculiaceae, 159\n  _Stictolampra buqueti concinula_, 14, 33\n  _Stigmatomyces_ sp., 129, 138\n  _Stilpnoblatta minuta_, 316\n  _Stipa lessingiana_, 46\n  Strepsiptera, 234\n  _Streptococcus faecalis_, 109\n    _liquefaciens_, 110\n    _microapoika_, 110\n    _non-hemolyticus_, 110\n    _pyogenes_, 110\n  _Streptomyces leidynematis_, 124, 196, 197\n  Streptomycetaceae, 124\n  _Streptopelia chinensis_, 278\n  _Streptostomum gracile_, 195\n  Strigidae, 279\n  Strigiformes, 279\n  Strongyloidea, 209\n  Sturnidae, 281\n  _Stylogaster_ spp., 228\n  _Stylopyga americana_, 12\n  _Styphon bakeri_, 14, 69, 344\n  _Subulura jacchi_, 204\n  Subuluridae, 204\n  _Suifunema caudelli_, 200\n  Sulfur, flowers of, 222\n  Sunfish, 269\n  Sunflower, 67\n  _Supella hottentotta_, 14, 29\n  Swift, edible-nest, 318\n  Swiss chard, 47, 153\n  Symbiosis, 25-26, 92\n  _Symbius blattarum_, 232\n  _Symploce bicolor_, 14, 82\n    _bilabiata_, 14\n    _breviramis_, 14, 22\n    _parenthesis_, 14, 307\n  _Syncephalastrum_ sp., 133\n  Synonyms, 5\n  _Syntomosphyrum blattae_, 248\n    _glossinae_, 250\n    _ischnopterae_, =249=\n  _Systellogaster ovivora_, 248\n  _Syzygium aromaticum_, 160\n  _Szepligetella sericea_, 242\n  Tachinid, undetermined, 228\n  _Tachysphex blatticidus_, 264\n    _coriaceus_, 264\n    _fanuiensis_, 264\n    _lativalvis_, 264-265\n  _Taenia echinococcus_, 208\n    _saginata_, 208\n  Taeniidae, 208\n  Taenioidea, 208\n  Tamarind, 51\n  _Tamarindus indica_, 156\n  Tapeworm, undetermined, 208\n  _Tarachodes maurus_, 226\n  Tarantula, 214\n  _Tarantula_, 214\n  Tarsiidae, 284\n  _Tarsius_, 284\n  _Tartaroblatta karatavica_, 14, 70\n  _Tatu novemcinctum_, 287\n  Taxodiaceae, 140\n  _Tegenaria_, 214\n  Teiidae, 275\n  _Temnopteryx_, 134-135\n    _deropeltiformis_, 10\n    _obliquetruncata_, 14, 317\n    _platysoma_, 8\n  Temperature preference, 25, 71\n  _Tenadores_, Steamship\n  _Tenodera aridifolia sinensis_, 226\n  _Termes bellicosus_, 311\n    _flavipes_, 316\n    _malaccensis_, 311\n    comej\u00e9n, 317\n  Termitidae, 311\n  _Termopsis_ sp., 317\n  _Testudo horsfieldi_, 24\n  _Tetragenous_ sp., 127\n  _Tetralopha scabridella_, 35, 66, 67, 317\n  _Tetrameres americana,_ 207\n    _pattersoni_, 207\n  _Tetrastichodes asthenogmus_, 249\n  _Tetrastichus australasiae_, 249\n    _periplanetae_, 253\n  _Tetratrichomastix blattidarum_, 170\n  _Tettix kraussi_, 46\n  Thallophyta, 129\n  _Thecadactylus_ sp., 273\n  _Theganopteryx straminea_, 14, 30\n  _Thelastoma aligarhica_, 200\n    _brevicaudatum_, 194\n    _bulh\u00f5esi_, 201\n    _heterogamiae_, 199\n    _magalh\u00e3esi_, 194\n    _palmettum_, 201\n    _panesthiae_, 198\n  Thelastomatidae, 190, 193\n  Thelaziidae, 204\n  Thelyphonidae, 211\n  _Thelyphonus giganteus_, 211\n  _Theobroma cacao_, 159\n  Theraphosidae, 214\n  _Therea nuptialis_, 14, 344\n  Theridiidae, 215\n  Thistle, 60\n  _Thyrsocera cincta_, 13\n  _Tiaris bicolor omissa_, 282\n  _Tillandsia fasciculata_, 144\n    _usneoides_, 144\n    _uttriculata_, 50, 144\n  _Timulla eriphyla_, 264\n  _Tivia australica_, 14, 316\n    _macracantha_, 14, 23\n  Tobacco, 165\n  _Tockus birostris_, 279\n  Todidae, 279\n  _Todus mexicanus_, 279\n  _Torula acidophila_, 132\n    _gropengiesseri_, 132\n  _Torulopsis_, 130\n  _Toxoplasma gondii_, 190\n  Trees (see under common or scientific name)\n    in general, 35-68\n  Trematoda, 208\n  _Treponema parvum_, 125\n    _stylopygae_, 125\n  Treponemataceae, 125\n  _Triatoma arthurneivai_, 227\n  _Trichomastic orthopterum_, 169\n  _Trichomastix_, 169\n  Trichomonadidae, 171\n  _Trichomonas hominis_, 171\n    _orthopterorum_, 169\n  _Trichonympha_, 102\n  Trichonymphidae, 174\n  Trichostrongylidae, 210\n  _Trichostrongylus_ sp., 210\n  _Trichotarsus_, 218\n  Trichuridae, 210\n  _Trichuris trichiura_, 210\n  Trichuroidea, 210\n  _Trigonopsis abdominalis_, 265\n  _Trirhogma caerulea_, 262\n  Troglobies, 17, 20\n  _Troglodytes aedon_, 281\n  Troglodytidae, 281\n  Trogloxenes, 16\n  _Tropidophorus grayi_, 274\n  Trypanosomatidae, 167\n  Tulip tree, 53\n  Turkey, 278\n  Turtle, desert, 24, 26\n    painted, 272\n  _Typhloblatta caeca_, 14, 23\n  _Typhloblattodes madecassus_, 14, 23\n  _Tyrophagus lintneri_, 218\n  _Urinympha_, 102\n  _Urodacus novaehollandiae_, 213\n  _Uropoda_ sp., 217\n  Uropodidae, 217\n  _Vaccinium meridionale_, 43, 160\n  _Veillonella parvula_, 109\n  Vejovidae, 213\n  Verbenaceae, 161\n  _Veromessor andrei_, 316\n  Vertebrata, 268-290\n  Vertebrates, 3, 268\n    in biological control, 353-354\n  _Vespa maculata_, 318\n  Vespidae, 314\n  _Vespula maculata_, 61, 318\n  _Vibrio comma_, 105\n    Deneke's, 105\n    _metschnikovii_, 105\n    types I and II, 106\n    _tyrogenus_, 105\n  _Vinca minor_, 161\n  _Vireo latimeri_, 281\n  Vireonidae, 281\n    Coxsackie, 103-104\n    encephalomyelitis, mouse, 104\n    poliomyelitis, 3, 103\n      Brunhilde type, 103\n      Columbia SK, 103\n      Lansing strain, 103\n      unspecified strains, 103\n    yellow-fever, 104\n  Viverridae, 289\n  _Vulpes_ sp., 288\n    cockroach-egg parasites, 234-254, 350, 352\n    cockroach-hunting, 255-266, 352\n  Water, balance, 72\n    drinking, 72\n    need for, 71\n  Water bug, 349\n  Wattle, 49\n  Webworm, 316\n  _Weinmannia_ sp., 155\n  Whipscorpion, 211\n  _William Kieth_, Steamship, 84\n  Woodpeckers, 279-280\n  Xerophiles, 25\n  _Xestoblatta festae_, 14, 87\n    _immaculata_, 14, 23\n  _Xylosma suaveolens_, 159\n  _Xysticus_, 214\n  Yellow-fever virus, 104\n  _Yucca elata_, 54, 146\n  _Zanthoxylum caribaeum_, 66, 157\n  _Zelotes_, 314\n  _Zeuxevania splendidula_, 93, 243, 249, 350\n  Zingiberaceae, 151\n  _Zootermopsis_, 103\n  Zygophyllaceae, 156\n[Illustration: Decoration]\nFOOTNOTES:\n[1] Part of the cost of publication of this monograph was borne\nby the Office of Naval Research, Department of the Navy (through the\nAmerican Institute of Biological Sciences), and by the Quartermaster\nResearch and Engineering Center, Department of the Army.\n[2] Present address of both authors, Central Research\nLaboratories, United Fruit Co., Upland Road, Norwood, Mass.\n[3] Names of organisms preceded by an asterisk (*) are known or\nsuspected pathogens of vertebrates. These records were presented with\nannotations in our 1957a paper on the medical and veterinary importance\nof cockroaches. For that reason the annotations have not been repeated\nherein, although the records have been included to make the listing of\nthe biotic associates of cockroaches substantially complete.\n[4] The following helminths also have been stated in the\nliterature to pass their intermediate stages in cockroaches:\n_Hymenolepis diminuta_ (Rudolphi, 1819) [Blanchard (1891)];\n_Inermicapsifer madagascariensis_ (Davaine in Grenet, 1870) [Baer\n(1956)]; _Spirocerca sanguinolenta_ (Rudolphi, 1819) [Seurat (1913)].\nThese doubtful records are discussed in Roth and Willis (1957a).\n[5] Barber (1939) has shown that the correct spelling of the\nname of the type genus is _Ripidius_ and not _Rhipidius_, as it is\nfrequently written, and that, consequently, the family should be\nRipiphoridae and not Rhipiphoridae.\n[6] Page 11 of Marlatt (1902) has been cited erroneously so\nmany times in support of host records for _T. hagenowii_ and _Evania\nappendigaster_ that we are quoting the pertinent section below. In the\nsection preceding the quoted material Marlatt discusses the American,\nAustralian, oriental, and German cockroaches. There is nothing in the\npaper to connect any of these cockroaches specifically with the\nparasites mentioned below:\n                      NATURAL ENEMIES AND PARASITES\n  \"In Europe the egg capsules of the cockroach are often parasitized\n  by an ichneumon fly (_Evania appendigaster_). This insect has become\n  widely distributed over the world following its host insect, and has\n  been redescribed under a great many different names. It was found in\n  Cuba as early as 1829, and has been several times collected in the\n  United States. Unfortunately, its usefulness as a means of keeping the\n  roach in check by destroying the egg capsules is greatly impaired by\n  the occurrence of another ichneumon fly (_Entedon hagenowi_), which\n  is parasitic upon the first. This is also a European species which\n  has been brought over with its host parasite. If the true egg capsule\n  parasite of the roach could have been introduced into this country\n  without this secondary parasite, its usefulness would doubtless have\n  been very much greater. The secondary parasite, however, seems to have\n  been introduced early, and has been found in Cuba and Florida, and\n  probably occurs as widely as its host and prevents the latter from\n  multiplying very greatly.\"\n[7] Brues et al. (1954) include this family in the Encyrtidae.\n[8] archy (Marquis, 1931) was living in a dream world when he\ntyped:\n    \"there is always\n    something to be thankful\n    for you would not\n    think that a cockroach\n    had much ground\n    for optimism\n    but as the fishing season\n    opens up i grow\n    more and more\n    cheerful at the thought\n    that nobody ever got\n    the notion of using\n    cockroaches for bait\"\n[9] Classification of Amphibia and Reptilia follows Hegner (1936).\n[10] Classification of Amphibia and Reptilia follows Hegner (1936).\n[11] Classification of Mammalia follows Simpson (1945).\n[12] The West Indian \"_Blabera fusca_ Brunner\" of Saupe (1928)\nis obviously _Blaberus craniifer_ as can readily be seen from a\ncomparison of Saupe's figures of the pronotal shields of his species\nwith the descriptions by Hebard (1917) of _B. craniifer_ and _Blaberus\natropos_ (Stoll). The Chilean _B. fusca_ Brunner is a junior synonym of\n_B. atropos_ (Stoll), a South American insect (Hebard, 1917).\n[13] The species was recorded by these authors as _Blaberus\natropos_. (Hebard, 1917 p. 204, footnote 327.)\nTranscriber's Notes:\n- symbol for: female indiv. replaced by [F]\n- symbol for: male indiv. replaced by [M]\n- symbol for: 'dagger' replaced by [cross]\n- Different languages (English, French, German, Danish, Latin, etc.)\n  have different spellings for example in titles of books, etc. These\n  remain as in the original.\n- Several blank lines inserted to enhance readability of text(!)\n- Several page numbers in 'table of contents' corrected, according to\n  real page numbers.\n- caret used for superscripted characters; eg.: abc^{...}\n- underscore used for subscripted characters; eg.: abc_{...}\nEnd of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Biotic Associations of Cockroaches, by \nLouis M. Roth and Edwin R. 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{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "BUT ***\n  THE WHOLE TRUTH\n  AND NOTHING BUT\n  _The Whole Truth\n  and Nothing But_\n  [Illustration]\n  _HEDDA HOPPER\n  and\n  JAMES BROUGH_\n  DOUBLEDAY & COMPANY, INC.\n  GARDEN CITY, NEW YORK\n  COPYRIGHT \u00a9 1962, 1963 BY HEDDA HOPPER\n  ALL RIGHTS RESERVED\n  PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA\nDEDICATION\n_To my son, Bill, who never took any sass from his mother and never\ngave her any._\nI\u2019m told that when you write a book with a title like this, you must\nlet your readers know something about your life. Well, I was born into\nthe home of David and Margaret Furry, one of nine children. Seven of\nus grew up. Three of us are still here, including my sister Margaret\nand brother Edgar, who played a good game of football when he attended\nLafayette quite a while back.\nI first saw the light of day in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania, a\nbeautiful suburb of Altoona, which used to live off the Pennsylvania\nRailroad and its affiliates. Since railroads have fallen on lean and\nhungry years, I don\u2019t know what\u2019s feeding the place today.\nMy mother, an angel on earth whom I worshiped, named me Elda, from\na story she was reading at the time. Years later, after I\u2019d married\nDeWolf Hopper, a numerologist changed Elda to Hedda. My husband,\nWolfie, was much older than my father and had been married four times\nbefore. The wives\u2019 names all sounded pretty much the same: Ella, Ida,\nEdna, and Nella. His memory wasn\u2019t as sharp as it had been, and he\ncouldn\u2019t always remember that I was Elda.\nAs time went on, this started to irk me, so the numerologist came up\nwith _Hedda_ Hopper. I asked how much. \u201cTen dollars.\u201d That\u2019s exactly\nhow it happened; it changed my whole life. It was the best bargain I\never made. Wolfie never forgot it, and I\u2019ve never regretted it.\nMy sister Margaret was my father\u2019s pet. He and I didn\u2019t get on well.\nHe thought women should be the workers; I believed my brothers should\nshare the burden. Mother was ill for six years after Margaret\u2019s birth,\nand I took on her duties as well as my own, since my older sister Dora\nhad married. I had to catch a brother by the scruff of the neck to get\nany help, but they all helped themselves three times a day to the meals\nI prepared. I also did the washing, ironing, cleaning, and helped Dad\nin his butcher shop.\nWhen I couldn\u2019t take it any more, I ran away--to an uncle in New York.\nI found a stage door that was open, walked in, and got a job in a\nchorus, which started a career.\nMy family now consists of my son Bill, who plays Paul Drake on the\n\u201cPerry Mason\u201d TV show without any help from me. When he went off to\nwar, he\u2019d already attained stature as an actor. On his return--with\na medal for valor which I\u2019ve never seen--not one soul in the\nmotion-picture industry offered him a job. Hell would have frozen over\nbefore I\u2019d have asked anyone for help for a member of my family.\nSo Bill went to work selling automobiles for \u201cMadman\u201d Muntz. One day\nhe woke up to the fact that he was an actor, got himself a part with\ndirector Bill Wellman in _The High and the Mighty_--and asked Wellman\nnot to tell anybody who his mother was. Bill has a beautiful daughter,\nJoan, who\u2019ll be sixteen next birthday.\nI don\u2019t like to dwell on death, but when you reach my age (and I\u2019m\nstill not telling) you realize it\u2019s inevitable. I\u2019ve left instructions\nfor cremation--no ceremony--with my ashes sent to an undertaking\ncousin, Kenton R. Miller, of Martinsburg, Pennsylvania. I\u2019d wanted a\nfriend to scatter them over the Pacific from a plane, but California\nlaw forbids that. You have to buy a plot.\nA salesman from Forest Lawn told me they\u2019d opened a new section and I\ncould rest in peace next to Mary Pickford for a mere $42,000. \u201cWhat do\nI get for that?\u201d I asked.\n\u201cWell, a grave, picket fence, and a golden key for the gate.\u201d\n\u201cHow do you figure I could use it?\u201d\n\u201cOh, Miss Hopper, that\u2019s for the loved ones who will mourn you.\u201d\nThat\u2019s when I decided on my cousin.\n_One_\nI knew Elizabeth Taylor was about to dump Eddie Fisher in favor of\nRichard Burton soon after _Cleopatra_ started filming in Rome. Because\nin forty years in Hollywood I\u2019ve told the truth--though sometimes only\nin part for the sake of shielding someone or other--I wrote the story.\nThis was in February 1962, one week before the news burst like a bomb\non the world\u2019s front pages.\nBut Elizabeth, Burton, and I have something in common: Martin Gang,\na topnotch attorney, has us as clients. He saw my column, as usual,\nbefore it appeared, and came on the telephone in a hurry. \u201cOh, you\ncouldn\u2019t print that,\u201d he said. \u201cIt would be very embarrassing for me to\nsue you, since I represent all three.\u201d\nI was in Hollywood at the time, not in Rome, so I was wanting the\nfirsthand information, the personal testimony, which would be important\nin self-defense. I deferred to his judgment--and kicked myself for\ndoing it when the news from the Appian Way began to sizzle.\nI\u2019ve known Elizabeth since she was nine years old, innocent and lovely\nas a day in spring. I liked, and pitied, her from the start, when her\nmother, bursting with ambition, brought her to my house one day to have\nher sing for me. Mrs. Sara Taylor was an actress from Iowa who had\nappeared just twice on Broadway before she married Francis Taylor, who\nworked for his uncle, Howard Young, as a manager of art galleries on\nboth sides of the Atlantic. When World War II came along, she was in\nraptures to find herself with a beautiful young daughter, living right\nnext door to Hollywood--her husband came to manage the gallery in the\nBeverly Hills Hotel.\nSara Taylor had never gotten over Broadway. She wanted to have a\nglamorous life again through her child. She had the idea at first\nthat Elizabeth could be turned into another Deanna Durbin, who had\na glittering name in those days. \u201cNow sing for Miss Hopper,\u201d she\ncommanded her daughter as soon as our introductions were over and we\nwere sitting by the baby grand in my living room.\n\u201cDo you play the accompaniment?\u201d I asked. \u201cI can\u2019t.\u201d\n\u201cNo, but she can sing without any. Elizabeth!\u201d\nIt struck me as a terrifying thing to ask a little child to do for a\nstranger. But in a quivering voice, half swooning with fright, this\nlovely, shy creature with enormous violet eyes piped her way through\nher song. It was one of the most painful ordeals I\u2019ve ever witnessed.\nI remembered seeing the four-room cottage--simple to the point where\nwater had to be heated on the kitchen stove--in which Elizabeth was\nborn. Little Swallows was its name, and it sat in the woods of her\ngodfather, Victor Cazelet; his English estate, Great Swifts, was in\nKent. She had a pony there and grew to love animals like her chipmunk,\n\u201cNibbles,\u201d which ran up my bare arm when she brought it around on\na visit one day. I screamed like a banshee, but Elizabeth was as\npatronizing as only a schoolgirl can be.\n\u201cIt\u2019s only a chipmunk; it won\u2019t hurt you,\u201d she promised scornfully.\nYou couldn\u2019t have wished for a sweeter child. She would certainly have\nbeen happier leading that simple life close to woods and wild things to\nbe tamed, maybe through all her years. But her mother had been bitten\nby the Broadway bug, and few women recover from that.\nOnce the family was settled in Hollywood, Mrs. Taylor maneuvered the\nsupport of J. Cheaver Cowden, a big stockholder in Universal Pictures,\nto get a contract for her daughter at that studio. Elizabeth was there\nfor one year, but studio chieftains always resent anybody who\u2019s brought\nin over their heads through front-office influence. They made sure the\ngirl got nowhere fast. Her mother tried everything to find her another\njob, but it was her father who happened to land her at MGM through a\nchance remark he made to producer Sam Marx when they were patrolling\ntheir beat together as fellow air-raid wardens. She was given a bit in\n_Lassie Come Home_, then blossomed in _National Velvet_ with Mickey\nRooney.\nI remember the day she cinched in her belt, which showed her charms to\nperfection, and Mickey turned to me and said: \u201cWhy, she is a woman.\u201d\n\u201cShe is fourteen,\u201d I replied. He started toward her. I caught him by\nthe seat of the pants. \u201cLay a hand on her, and you will have to answer\nto me. She is a child.\u201d\nHe looked hard at me and said, \u201cI believe you would beat me up.\u201d\n\u201cI sure would.\u201d\nVictor Cazelet, on a wartime mission for the British Government to New\nYork, wanted desperately to get to California to see the godchild he\nadored. Though he was a millionaire in his homeland, strict currency\ncontrols meant that he hadn\u2019t any dollars to pay the fare. He was\nstaying as a house guest of Mrs. Ogden Reid, owner of the New York\n_Herald Tribune_ in those days, but he had qualms about borrowing from\nher.\nWhen he telephoned me, I had what I thought was a brain wave: \u201cWhat\nabout Victor Sassoon? He\u2019s rich as Croesus, and he\u2019s holed up through\nthe war at the Garden of Allah.\u201d I wanted to call him at that exotic\nsanctuary on the Sunset Strip, where the likes of Scott Fitzgerald,\nRobert Benchley, and Humphrey Bogart used to frolic before it was\ndemolished to make way for Bart Lytton\u2019s bank.\n\u201cHe doesn\u2019t do anything for anybody,\u201d Victor warned me, but I couldn\u2019t\nbe convinced until I spoke to Sassoon myself. Lend Cazelet dollars just\nto visit his godchild? \u201cCertainly not,\u201d growled the old tightwad. \u201cHe\u2019s\ngot plenty of money of his own.\u201d\nSo I booked Victor into the Ebell Theatre in Los Angeles to give a\nlecture to earn his passage money west. He stayed with the Taylors\nfor a week, which was the last he saw of Elizabeth. Several months\nlater the Nazis shot down the plane he was in, believing that Winston\nChurchill was aboard. They were halfway right. Victor was on a mission\nfor his friend Winston Churchill.\nI remember Elizabeth visiting my house with Jean Simmons when she was\non her way back from the South Seas and the filming there of _Blue\nLagoon_. They sat together on the long settee in the den, bright as\nbirds and chattering nineteen to the dozen. I thought I had never seen\ntwo more beautiful young girls.\nAs the years went by, I saw Elizabeth through many romances and four\nmarriages, starting with Nicky Hilton. He was a boy, and I don\u2019t\nbelieve he\u2019d had too much experience. On their European honeymoon he\nleft her too much alone, though everyone wanted to meet his beautiful\nbride. When she came home, she took a second-story apartment in\nWestwood with a back entrance on an alley. Before she had a chance to\nsort out what had happened to her, the parade of suitors began--married\nmen, stars. Did any of them love her and try to help? No. They used\nher. I\u2019m making no excuses for her, but I\u2019m trying to be objective.\nThen she was put into another picture. She was exhausted from working\ntoo hard and too fast in the rat race on the sound stages. She was\nswamped with advice from everybody. She couldn\u2019t tell true from false.\nThus it went from one man to another, one picture to another, until she\nfell in love with Michael Wilding, who was twenty years older than she.\nWas she unconsciously looking for a strong father? She loved her own,\nbut he didn\u2019t stand up to his wife.\nWhen I spoke to her about Michael, she exclaimed, \u201cI love him, I love\nhim, I love him.\u201d\n\u201cYou don\u2019t know what love is. You don\u2019t know what you\u2019re talking about.\nHe\u2019s sophisticated, he\u2019s gracious, but I beg you not to marry him.\u201d\nShe didn\u2019t listen then or later. She drove Wilding into marriage. \u201cI\n_am_ too old for you,\u201d he\u2019d argue. \u201cIt will never last, Elizabeth.\u201d\n\u201cI love you, and you\u2019re going to marry me, that\u2019s all,\u201d she would say.\nThen Mike left for England and Liz followed him. From that marriage\ncame two sons, Michael and Christopher. After each birth she had to go\nto work too soon. Before she could face the cameras, she had to take\noff pounds in a hurry, just as Judy Garland did, and it weakened her\nhealth.\nMike was given a contract at Metro, her studio, but when it ran out\nit wasn\u2019t renewed. During this time she bought two homes, the second\nbecause the first wasn\u2019t big enough for two children, a nurse, and\nMike\u2019s eighty-six-year-old father, whom she brought over from England\nto stay with them. The studio paid for both houses, deducting the money\nfrom her salary, which was standard practice.\nI knew the marriage was over when Mike started to criticize her in\npublic--before strangers, before anyone. She never stopped working. She\nwas a lady, America\u2019s queen of queens, who loved her children and was a\ngood mother to them.\nShe played in _Giant_ with Jimmy Dean, whom she respected and loved\nlike a brother. His senseless death shattered her nerves. Her director,\nGeorge Stevens, was mad about her and had been since she made _A Place\nin the Sun_ for him.\nI saw her on her good days and bad. In _Raintree County_ and _Suddenly,\nLast Summer_, she got to know Montgomery Clift and admired him. Then he\nraced his car down the hill from her home after a drinking bout with\nWilding there, ran into a telegraph pole, and nearly died. Elizabeth\nsped after him, crawled into the wrecked car, and held his head in her\nlap until the ambulance arrived. Soaked with blood, she rode to the\nhospital with him and stayed long enough to know that he\u2019d live.\nThen along came Michael Todd, who taught her an awful lot about love\nand living. He was one of the most sophisticated and ruthless men in\nshow business. He had gone through the jungle of Broadway and come out\nwith many scars.\nAfter Mike had made _Around the World in Eighty Days_, he wanted\nsomeone to help sell it. Who else but the queen of the movies? I don\u2019t\nthink he needed her more than she needed him, but they fell in love,\nand he taught her everything he knew about sex, good and bad. He\nproposed to her in the office MGM gave him at the studio when he was\nshooting _Around the World_. He said: \u201cElizabeth, I love you, and I\u2019m\ngoing to marry you, and from now on you\u2019ll know nobody but me.\u201d Only he\ndidn\u2019t say \u201cknow.\u201d\nThey were married in Mexico, and they started one of the craziest,\nfightingest, most passionate love matches recorded in modern times.\nShe appeared in the newspapers and magazines every day, every\nissue. Every facet of their lives was exploited for the benefit of\nlove-starved fans. Gold poured into the box office for her pictures and\nhis _Around the World_.\nHe bought her the world, or as much of it as he could lay hands on: a\nnew jewel or a half dozen of them every Saturday; a plane; a villa in\nFrance; dresses by the hundred. Whatever she wanted, she got. He knew\nhe was spoiling her rotten, but he loved to see her face light up when\nshe saw his presents. For the Academy Award show where he expected her\nto collect an Oscar for _Raintree County_, he bought her a diamond\ntiara. \u201cHasn\u2019t every girl got one?\u201d he asked blandly. He gave her a\nRolls-Royce and a $92,000 diamond ring.\n\u201cDon\u2019t spoil her,\u201d I told him time and again. \u201cShe\u2019s impossible enough\nalready.\u201d\nIn return she gave him a daughter. Her pregnancy was heralded like\nQueen Elizabeth\u2019s or Princess Margaret\u2019s. She had an operation that\nalmost took her life. She has two vertebrae in her back that came from\na bone bank. I didn\u2019t know about that until she told me. The baby\narrived, Liza, a dark-eyed witch who at three months could read your\nmind.\nMike used to say: \u201cIf you want to be a millionaire, live like one.\u201d\nFor the London opening of his picture, Elizabeth was draped in a\nruby-and-diamond necklace, with bracelet and earrings to match. It was\nan occasion straight out of the Arabian Nights.\nIn London for all the high jinks, I watched Eddie Fisher\u2019s maneuvers to\npay court to Elizabeth in the enormous suite at the Dorchester where\nMr. and Mrs. Michael Todd were registered. Debbie lingered in the\nFisher suite several floors below. I had missed Elizabeth and Mike like\nthe dickens when they left Hollywood in advance. They made me promise\nI\u2019d be in London with them for the _Around the World_ hullabaloo.\nWhen I checked into the hotel, there was a message from Mike inviting\nme to see them. I unpacked, changed, then went on up to the top floor,\nwhich was taken up entirely by their double suite. I happened to walk\nfirst into Liz\u2019s half. There she sat, bulgingly pregnant in a white\nlace robe, with her bare feet on a coffee table, drinking Pimm\u2019s No. 1\nfrom a pitcher at her side, with the diamond tiara hanging out of a\npasteboard box.\nI left Elizabeth and went into Mike\u2019s suite. He was talking to four of\nthe most prominent newspaper publishers in London about the opening\nof the picture, and they were laying out the seating of the theater,\nsince royalty would attend. Crawling around the floor were Elizabeth\u2019s\ntwo sons, picking caviar sandwiches off a low table and stuffing\nthemselves. I gathered the children up, took them back to Liz, and\nclosed the door firmly. Just then Eddie Fisher came in to pay his\nrespects to Liz. He was in and out all the time.\nMike was frantically busy with two spectacular shows to put on, on\nthe screen for his premiere and at Battersea Festival Gardens, where\nhe threw a champagne-and-fun-fair shindig for two thousand people to\ncelebrate his picture, scoring a triumph that gave him every front page\nin London, except _The Times_.\nHe gave us plastic raincoats, to save us from the pelting rain, but\nwe didn\u2019t use them. We slithered in mud and scooped coins by the\nfistful from ash cans he\u2019d had filled to provide fares for all the\nrides. The Duke of Marlborough stood patiently in the rain with Jock\nWhitney, waiting to climb on a carrousel. I rode around on my painted\ncharger with Ali Khan and Bettina ahead of me and, in back, a gaitered\nbishop with his wife. Liz wore a Christian Dior gown in ruby red\nchiffon. The Doug Fairbankses were there, Deborah Kerr, financier\nCharles Glore. Debbie and Eddie showed up together. And the Duchess\nof Argyll, classically understating it, observed as the fun began: \u201cI\nhear that this is going to be just an intimate little gathering for a\nfew friends.\u201d The Gilbert Millers, with Cecil Beaton, left before the\nfireworks. It was too damp for them.\nIt was one of the few times I saw Mr. and Mrs. Fisher side by side.\nEvery time Mike asked me to the top floor, Eddie would be there\nbut never Debbie; she might just as well have been sitting home in\nHollywood.\nThe pitcher of Pimm\u2019s, the white lace robe, bare feet on a coffee\ntable--and Eddie. That was the pattern. Eddie had latched onto Mike.\n\u201cYou\u2019re just like a son to me,\u201d Mike used to say, sincerely attached\nto the hero from Philadelphia, happy that Liz had company during her\npregnancy.\nThe first time I\u2019d ever seen Eddie he\u2019d come sauntering into\nRomanoff\u2019s, Beverly Hills, for luncheon surrounded by ten characters\nwho seemed more familiar with punching bags than pianos. \u201cWho in\nthe name of God is that?\u201d I asked my table mate. \u201cAnd who are those\nterrible-looking men with him?\u201d\n\u201cThat\u2019s Eddie Fisher; they\u2019re his handlers.\u201d\n\u201cHandlers?\u201d said I. \u201cIs he a prize fighter? I\u2019d heard he was a singer.\u201d\nI took him to the Fourth of July garden party at the United States\nEmbassy in London a few days after Mike\u2019s opening. Jock Whitney, our\nambassador then, sent the invitation, and I invited Mike. But he was\ntoo busy and suggested his prot\u00e9g\u00e9, who was standing by, as usual. We\nwere offered a glass of champagne before leaving, but Eddie declined.\n\u201cYou know I never drink,\u201d he told Mike blandly. \u201cNothing but Coca-Cola.\u201d\nIn my rented Rolls we drove to the embassy. Making our way through the\ncrowds, I introduced Eddie to Jock and Betsy Whitney, who was looking\nvery frail after a recent operation. She and I sat for a few minutes\nchatting, while Eddie hung around. As we walked away he asked: \u201cWho\u2019d\nyou say those people were?\u201d\n\u201cI introduced you to Mr. and Mrs. Jock Whitney.\u201d\n\u201cWho are they?\u201d\n\u201cHe just happens to be our Ambassador to the Court of St. James\u2019s.\u201d\n\u201cOh,\u201d said Eddie, \u201c_oh_.\u201d\nIn one of the marquees put up for the occasion I was offered some\nbourbon and water. \u201cI\u2019d like some champagne,\u201d Eddie told the waiter.\n\u201cSorry, sir, but we\u2019re not serving champagne.\u201d\n\u201cThen I\u2019ll take a dry martini.\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019m afraid we can\u2019t mix drinks--too many people here today, sir. We\ncan offer you whisky, gin, vodka, or bourbon.\u201d\n\u201cWell, then, I\u2019ll have a scotch and soda,\u201d said my nondrinking\ncompanion.\nAs we left he walked over to the U. S. Air Force Band, which was\nplaying there, borrowed the baton, and conducted the orchestra. What\nsome of the London newspapers said the next morning about that bit of\nham-handed showmanship would have driven a more sensitive man into a\nknothole.\nBack in Hollywood, Liz started on another picture, _Cat on a Hot Tin\nRoof_. Then came the spring day when the plane, _Lucky Liz_, dived into\nthe desert in New Mexico; the end of Mike Todd was almost the end of\nher.\nShe finished the picture like a trouper only weeks later. The following\nJuly I flew with her to New York. We sat up aboard the airliner until\n3 A.M. talking about the happiness she had known with Mike. She showed\nme his wedding ring, taken from his finger after death. \u201cI\u2019ll wear it\nalways,\u201d she said. \u201cThey\u2019ll have to cut it off my finger before they\u2019ll\nget it off my hand.\u201d\nI took her to the first party she went to after Mike\u2019s death. Though\nArthur Loew, Jr., the producer, had her children in his home, she then\nhad a suite at the Beverly Hills Hotel. When I went in, it looked as\nthough a cyclone had hit her bedroom. Every dress she owned had been\npulled out of the closets and thrown onto tables, chairs, bed or floor.\nShe was wailing, \u201cWhat shall I wear?\u201d as soon as I opened the door.\nI picked up a red dress. \u201cThis.\u201d\n\u201cBut it\u2019s the first time I\u2019ve been out. I can\u2019t wear red.\u201d\n\u201cWear it,\u201d I said. On the bathroom window sill, by an open window with\nno screen on it, I saw the big diamond ring Mike had given her, left\nthere unnoticed. I took it in to her. \u201cDid you miss this?\u201d\nShe glanced at her fingers. \u201cOh yes. My ring. Thanks.\u201d\n\u201cYou\u2019ve got to watch things like this, Elizabeth.\u201d\nThere was not much else to be said then and there to do her any good.\nWe rolled down to Romanoff\u2019s in her Rolls an hour and a half late.\nEverybody clustered around her as though she were a queen. I am sure\nshe believed she was.\nThat night she\u2019d taken me up to see Liza, who was quartered in a crib\nin a room of Arthur Loew\u2019s house no bigger than a closet, with its only\nventilation provided by a skylight that could be pulled open by a thin\nchain. The room was sizzling. \u201cGood Lord, Liz,\u201d I cried. \u201cShe can\u2019t get\nenough air in here.\u201d\n\u201cOh, she\u2019s all right,\u201d her mother said, turning on the light to wake\nher. The baby woke silently--I have never heard her cry. She opened\nher eyes wide and looked straight into mine. It was impossible to\nbelieve she didn\u2019t know what I was thinking. My own eyes lowered in\nself-protection.\nLiz spread the word that she was getting ready to go off on a long\nvacation in Europe with Mike\u2019s long-time Japanese secretary, Midori\nTsuji. Eddie talked about having business to attend to that kept him in\nNew York. Debbie Reynolds believed both of them. Through the closeness\nof Mike Todd and Eddie Fisher, Elizabeth and Debbie had become what\nHollywood called \u201cbest friends.\u201d Liz, in fact, looked down her nose at\nDebbie and usually referred to her as \u201cthat little Girl Scout.\u201d\nDebbie and I went together to an \u201call young\u201d party at Arthur Loew\u2019s\nhome in a new car Eddie had bought her. Elizabeth was away in New York,\nrestless, without the remotest idea of what she really wanted. One\nthing she was sure of--she didn\u2019t want Arthur Loew much longer, though\nshe knew he was deeply in love with her.\nThe only guests at that party who would acknowledge to being\nmiddle-aged without a battle were Milton Berle and myself. The house\nrocked to the blare of records by Sammy Davis, Jr. There was nothing\nelse to play. He had sneaked in early and hidden every other album.\nMost of the girls had squeezed themselves into Capri pants as tight as\ntheir skins and a hundred times more brilliant.\n\u201cWonder if they can sit down without splitting \u2019em back and front?\u201d\nsaid Milton.\n\u201cDoubt it,\u201d said I--whoever invented Capri pants had his mind on rape.\nI left early with Debbie. \u201cWhat\u2019s keeping Eddie so long in New York?\u201d I\nasked, suspicious nature showing.\n\u201cOh, he\u2019ll be back here tomorrow,\u201d she answered dutifully. Of course he\nwasn\u2019t. He took a detour by way of Grossinger\u2019s, that Catskill haven\nof rest and romance, where he had married and honeymooned with Debbie.\nThere, he and Liz had arranged a rendezvous.\nThen Liz arrived back in town, and every newspaperman was combing the\nthickets trying to find her. Eddie, too, was back home with his wife\nand two children, though reporters camping outside their house could\nsafely assume that the marriage was breaking up, if the shouts they\nheard through the walls were any clue. Newsmen looked in vain for Liz\nafter she whisked into the Beverly Hills Hotel, then ducked out through\nthe Polo Lounge into a waiting car. I had an idea she would be hiding\nout in the house of Kurt Frings. He is her agent, and can take credit\nfor finishing off the revolution begun by Myron Selznick, a pioneer in\nthe business of squeezing producers dry and making the stars today\u2019s\nrulers of Hollywood. I\u2019d put an earlier call in to her, which she\nreturned.\n\u201cElizabeth,\u201d I said, \u201cthis is Hedda. Level with me, because I shall\nfind out anyhow. What\u2019s this Eddie Fisher business all about? You\u2019re\nbeing blamed for taking Eddie away from Debbie. What have you got to\nsay?\u201d\nI flapped a hand furiously for Pat, one of my secretaries, who had\npicked up the extension, to start taking shorthand fast. Elizabeth\u2019s\nvoice was innocent as a schoolgirl\u2019s. \u201cIt\u2019s a lot of bull. I don\u2019t\ngo about breaking up marriages. Besides, you can\u2019t break up a happy\nmarriage. Debbie\u2019s and Eddie\u2019s never has been.\u201d\n\u201cI hear you even went to Grossinger\u2019s with him.\u201d\n\u201cSure. We had a divine time.\u201d\n\u201cWhat about Arthur Loew, Jr.? You\u2019ve known he\u2019s been in love with you\nfor the past six months, and your kids are still living in his house.\u201d\n\u201cI can\u2019t help how he feels about me.\u201d\nI sighed--I sometimes do. \u201cWell, you can\u2019t hurt Debbie like this\nwithout hurting yourself more, because she loves him.\u201d\n\u201cHe\u2019s not in love with her and never has been.\u201d\n\u201cWhat do you think Mike would say to this?\u201d\n\u201cHe and Eddie loved each other,\u201d she said.\n\u201cNo, you\u2019re wrong. Mike loved Eddie. Eddie never loved anybody but\nhimself.\u201d\n\u201cWell,\u201d she said calmly, \u201cMike\u2019s dead and I\u2019m alive.\u201d\nMy voice was rising with my temper. \u201cLet me tell you, my girl, this is\ngoing to hurt you much more than it will Debbie Reynolds. People love\nher more than they love you or Eddie Fisher.\u201d\n\u201cWhat am I supposed to do? Ask him to go back to her and try? He can\u2019t.\nNow if he did, they\u2019d destroy each other. Well, good luck to her if she\ncan get him. I\u2019m not taking away anything from her because she never\nreally had it.\u201d\nWe went at each other for a minute or two longer before we hung up.\nBy then, she had said something that sent my anger soaring like a\nrocket. I didn\u2019t include that quote in the story I snapped out in five\nminutes flat and got it out on the news wires before I could start to\nsimmer down. I had been very fond of Mike Todd, who had been dead not\nquite six months. This is what Elizabeth Taylor had to say that set me\nalight: \u201cWhat do you expect me to do? Sleep alone?\u201d\nThe story ran front page in the Los Angeles _Times_ and many more\nnewspapers that syndicate Hopper. The Hearst papers, at least in Los\nAngeles and San Francisco, paraphrased my scoop and lifted the quotes\nwithout giving me as much as a nod by way of credit.\nOne of the first people to read it was Elizabeth. She called the next\nday, naturally furious, storming over a portrait in print which she\nbelieved pictured her as being as cruel and heartless as a black-widow\nspider. I must say I had no regret. If she\u2019d been my own daughter, I\u2019d\nhave done it. Without a sense of integrity you can\u2019t sleep nights.\n\u201cOf course, I didn\u2019t think you\u2019d print it,\u201d she said. \u201cYou betrayed\nme.\u201d\n\u201cYou didn\u2019t say it was off the record,\u201d I answered. \u201cAnd it had to be\nprinted.\u201d\nThat was the last time we spoke to each other for a year. At the office\nthe mail started arriving in stacks, all in Debbie\u2019s favor.\nAnother call came that day from Debbie. She hadn\u2019t seen a newspaper,\nshe said. \u201cYou can\u2019t stick your head in the sand,\u201d said I.\nDebbie, who is as shrewd as she is pretty, knew she had been cheated.\nShe needed no prodding to be frank. \u201cObviously, the man loved me. We\nhad lots of problems the first year and a half we were married. We went\nto a marriage counselor for advice. We both wanted to make it work.\nWhen he left for New York, he kissed me good-by and we were very close.\nIt didn\u2019t mean anything that my husband had to go to New York on a\nbusiness trip. I had no reason to be suspicious.\u201d\nIt wasn\u2019t the moment to tell her once again that Eddie had never\nwanted to marry her. In my book, the little baritone from Philadelphia\nwanted a reputation as a great lover. He preened in the publicity that\nmarrying her brought him, but I believe she forced that marriage. His\nSvengali, Milton Blackstone, didn\u2019t want it--the men who steer any\nentertainer\u2019s career always scheme to keep him single because a wife is\nan interfering nuisance in their plans. After Debbie had received an\nengagement ring, plus barrel loads of publicity, Eddie answered a call\nto Grossinger\u2019s. A friend advised Debbie: \u201cPack your wedding gown and\ntrousseau. Get on a plane quietly and go after him, then he\u2019ll marry\nyou.\u201d She accepted the advice, and Eddie accepted her. At least she got\nwhat she wanted, then.\nThe storms continued to blow for months. Liz complained to one\nreporter, Joe Hyams, that I had \u201cbetrayed\u201d her, and swore for the\ndozenth time that she wanted to quit Hollywood, though work for the\ntime being was \u201ctherapeutic\u201d--and her pay was rocketing up toward a\nmillion dollars a picture. Debbie applied for a divorce, but that\nwasn\u2019t fast enough for Eddie. He got a quick end to their marriage in\nLas Vegas. Liz and he were married in that paradise of syndicates and\nslot machines on May 12, 1959, after she had embraced his religion and\ndragged her parents out of the background to lend a look of dignity to\nthe proceedings.\nElizabeth\u2019s hatred lasted for a year. But when she had packed to leave\nfor England and the first disastrous attempt to make _Cleopatra_, she\ncalled. \u201cHedda, don\u2019t you think we ought to be friends again?\u201d\n\u201cYes, I should like that.\u201d\n\u201cSo should I. Let\u2019s get together as soon as I\u2019m back.\u201d\nBefore she returned, she had nearly died in London with the lining of\nher brain inflamed by an infected tooth. The first of the millions that\nTwentieth Century-Fox was going to pour down the drain had vanished\nin _Cleopatra_. But the women of America, who\u2019d been ready to all but\nstone her, forgave everything because of her illness. She had been back\nin town forty-eight hours when the telephone rang: \u201cWill you come over,\nHedda?\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019d love to. Will Liza be there? I\u2019m anxious to see her.\u201d\nBefore I left, I wrapped a gift Mike had given me one Christmas along\nwith other things--a music box that played the theme of _Around the\nWorld_. I took a present for each of the two boys, too. Liz and her\nsons were drawing pictures for each other when I arrived. The children\naccepted their gifts graciously, then Liza wound her box, the first\nshe\u2019d ever seen.\nAfter she had played the tinkling little tune over and over, she\ngravely allowed each brother one turn apiece. Then she wound it again\nand danced with each of them around the room. At last it was my turn.\nWe held hands tight and waltzed until everyone but Liza was completely\nexhausted. But she still went on winding and winding the key to play\nthe tune again.\nLiz looked pale, quite different from the woman I\u2019d last seen. \u201cYou\nwon\u2019t know me,\u201d she said. \u201cI came so near death I\u2019m just thankful to be\nalive. I lie out in the sun, listen to the birds sing, look at the blue\nsky, and say: \u2018Thank God for letting me live.\u2019\u201d\nI believed her. She felt in that mood that day. Later, inevitably, we\ntalked about the telephone call she had made one shattering September\nmorning in 1958 and how she was \u201cbetrayed.\u201d\n\u201cI considered you my second mother,\u201d she said. \u201cAs a matter of fact, I\nloved you better than I loved my mother. You were kinder to me than she\nwas. That you could do what you did nearly killed me.\u201d\n\u201cThat one line you spoke did it, Liz. I couldn\u2019t take it. That was why\nit was done.\u201d\nWe had several visits after that before I went on a visit to New York\nand she whirled off on a trip to Moscow. When we were both back in\nHollywood again, she was another creature entirely, out most nights\ninstead of resting and restoring herself to health for her next stab at\n_Cleopatra_, in Rome this time.\nChampagne was ruled out during her convalescence, so she drank beer.\nShe\u2019d send her chauffeur down to Dave Chasen\u2019s restaurant to pick up\ntwo quarts of chile, which she\u2019d eat to accompany the beer. When she\nleft for Italy, she was too fat to fit any of her costumes. Her doctor\nhad to be flown out from Hollywood to put her on a crash diet so she\ncould be photographed as the Serpent of the Nile in the most balled-up\nmotion-picture production of all time.\nShe won her Academy Award not for _Butterfield 8_ but for nearly dying.\nAnd her studio joined in by putting on a terrific public-relations\ncampaign against Debbie--with planted stories in fan magazines and\nloaded interviews for the newspapers--to clinch sympathy for Liz.\nShe has become Cleopatra to the life now, and the world is her oyster.\nWhat she wants, she takes, come hell or high water--and this includes\nRichard Burton. In the huge Roman villa which she made her home during\n_Cleopatra\u2019s_ making, she reigned like an empress, reclining on a\nchaise, summoning Eddie to bring guests up to her for an audience. The\nhonored guest would sit on one side of her with Eddie on the other;\nLiz would delicately place a hand on her breast before she spoke a\nregal word of greeting.\nIn the old days the scandal of the past four years would have killed\nher professionally. In these changed times it seems only to help her\nreputation. The million dollars and more which her _Cleopatra_ contract\ngave her was doled out, at her insistence, in installments on every\nmorning of shooting. She consented to work only after the day\u2019s check\nfor $9000, drawn on a United States bank, lay snugly in her hand. While\nhe lasted, Eddie drew $1500 a week for getting his wife to the set\non time. Yet she spends money faster than she makes it. If Twentieth\nCentury-Fox had gotten ruined, putting more than $35,000,000 into the\npicture before there was any hope of completing it, she didn\u2019t give a\ndamn.\nAt Liz\u2019s say-so, Eddie had adopted Liza Todd, though Michael Wilding\nwouldn\u2019t let him take over the two boys. Even after he knew what\nwas going on in Rome, Eddie hung on. Allegedly, he\u2019s the one who\ntold Richard Burton\u2019s wife, Sybil, the truth and drew the Welshman\u2019s\nquestion: \u201cNow why did you have to go and spoil everything?\u201d\nEddie wasn\u2019t his smiling self when he flew to Rome to try to quash the\nnews of the romance. Liz was in the hospital again; the newspapers said\n\u201cfood poisoning,\u201d but the real diagnosis was too many sleeping pills.\nEven after he landed back in New York, he was still declaring the\nmarriage to be a happy one--until Liz spelled it out for him in three\nwords over the telephone.\nAt last she finished the picture and gave herself the asp, and I\npredict that Burton will turn his back on her, after every woman in the\nworld blamed her once again for taking somebody else\u2019s husband. But\nBurton didn\u2019t have to submit in the first place.\nCan you picture him passing up Liz and simultaneously collecting more\npublicity than ever Mark Antony and Caesar combined received in their\nprime? He started the romance with Liz just as Eddie did in his day,\nwhen he was sitting at her feet before Mike Todd was dead.\nMen are supposed to be the stronger sex. I do not condone what Liz has\ndone. I do condemn these fellows who followed her around like puppy\ndogs. They took her favors as long as she\u2019d give, then each and every\none of them wanted more.\nWhat\u2019s left for Liz but to go on repeating her mistakes? What\u2019s to\nbecome of her? I\u2019m not a prophet, but I have a terrible suspicion.\n_Two_\nRight from the beginning, when Hollywood was a sleepy, neighborly\nvillage of white frame bungalows and dusty roads cutting through the\norange groves, every top-rank woman star has been fated to regard\nherself as Queen of the Movies in person. It\u2019s as invariable and\ninevitable as the law of gravity or income taxes, so you can\u2019t blame\nthem for it. When an irresistible force, which is flattery, meets\na readily movable object, which is any pretty girl who finds she\u2019s\nclicked, then she starts to behave as though draped permanently in\nsable with a crown perched on her head.\nShe is mobbed by crowds, wooed by the world, and flattered without\nshame or mercy from the time she puts her dainty feet in the front\ngates of the studio in the morning to the time she leaves at night.\nShe\u2019s surrounded by her own special set of courtiers, all busy\nlubricating her ego--hairdresser, make-up man, script girl, wardrobe\ngirl, still photographer, press agent, drama coach, and interviewers.\nLiz Taylor is only one more deluded figure in the scintillating\nsuccession that stretches back to Pola Negri, who liked to go walking\nwith a leopard on a golden chain, and Gloria Swanson, who rode from her\ndressing room to the set in a wheelchair pushed by a Negro boy. But I\nonce discovered that while movie queens aim to live like royalty, there\nwas one young and adorable princess who enjoyed living it up, at least\nfor a day, like the movie stars.\nIn London soon after V-E day I received an invitation to go down to\nElstree to meet Queen Elizabeth, as she is now known, and Princess\nMargaret. They were going to watch the filming of Charles Dickens\u2019\n_Nicholas Nickleby_, which starred Cedric Hardwicke. I looked forward\nto seeing the princesses, but I admitted to a slight bewilderment about\nwhat I was supposed to do and how I was supposed to do it. But there\nwere daily columns I had to write, and the day before the visit I was\nhaving tea in the Savoy Hotel with Jean Simmons and her mother.\nJean, a schoolgirl of sixteen, had heard that day that she\u2019d been given\nthe role of a seductive native girl in _Black Narcissus_, with Deborah\nKerr, and her head was spinning like a top. \u201cI simply can\u2019t believe\nit,\u201d she was gasping. \u201cI simply don\u2019t believe it\u2019s true,\u201d when No\u00ebl\nCoward came in. No\u00ebl, a friend for years, was reassuring. \u201cI know the\npart,\u201d he told her, \u201cand you\u2019ll be darling in it.\u201d\n\u201cOh, I wonder,\u201d she persisted. \u201cI don\u2019t think I\u2019m old enough.\u201d\nNo\u00ebl turned blandly firm. \u201cMy dear, if they chose you, they know you\ncan do it. So do it. You\u2019re going to be absolutely wonderful, so please\ndon\u2019t say another word.\u201d\nI needed some of his confidence for my own venture next day. I told him\nabout the invitation. \u201cWhat do I do when I meet the princesses?\u201d\n\u201cYou say \u2018ma\u2019am\u2019 and you curtsy,\u201d said No\u00ebl with all the authority of a\nprince of royal blood.\n\u201c\u2018Ma\u2019am\u2019? I\u2019m old enough to be their grandmother, and I\u2019ve never\ncurtsied in my life.\u201d\n\u201cIt\u2019s time to learn then,\u201d he said. \u201cHere, I\u2019ll show you. Watch me,\nand then you try.\u201d He got up and, with Jean and her mother watching\ngoggle-eyed, proceeded to stick back his left foot, flex his knees,\nand bow his head as gracefully as a dowager duchess. The next day when\nI was introduced, I remembered the \u201cma\u2019am\u201d but decided that maybe I\nhadn\u2019t had as much practice as No\u00ebl, so I\u2019d better not risk the curtsy.\nStrict and stringent food rationing was in force in Britain, yet\neverybody on the set had contributed ration coupons for butter,\nmeat, eggs, and every conceivable delicacy so that the young\nvisitors--Elizabeth was nineteen, Margaret fifteen--could be served\nhigh tea.\nI have never seen two girls dig into food the way they did. You could\nswear they hadn\u2019t had a decent meal in years. There was cold lobster\nwith mayonnaise, white-meat sandwiches of chicken, little French\npastries, strawberries big as golf balls. The princesses tucked into\nthe lot.\nElizabeth was already very regal and dignified, but Margaret was not\nthat way at all. Through the windows, we could see a mob of people\nwaiting outside the studio\u2019s big iron entrance gates. \u201cJust look at\nthose people out there,\u201d I said. \u201cDon\u2019t you get tired of crowds?\u201d\n\u201cOh, you\u2019ve no idea,\u201d Margaret said. \u201cThis goes on every day. You know,\nbecause people have to be able to see us, we can wear only white, pink,\nor baby blue. And I\u2019m so sick of baby blue and pink. I can never put on\nanything like black, for instance.\u201d She was obviously itching to try\ndressing like a _femme fatale_.\n\u201cIt\u2019s exactly like being a movie star,\u201d I said.\n\u201cDo movie stars have to go through this in the same way?\u201d\n\u201cEvery day. They have mobs around them wherever they go.\u201d\nShe babbled on like a brook, ignoring the icy looks her sister flashed\nher across the table. \u201cWe\u2019ve never been to a motion-picture studio\nbefore, and I think it\u2019s fascinating. I do hope we\u2019ll be allowed to\ncome again.\u201d She helped herself to another strawberry. \u201cAnd this\ntea--delicious! Do they have food like this in the studio every day?\u201d\nI explained as tactfully as possible that everyone had donated ration\ncards. \u201cThey did?\u201d exclaimed the princess. \u201cWell, I don\u2019t care. It was\nwonderful, and I\u2019m glad I ate everything.\u201d\nThe day I\u2019d arrived in London for my first trip stays fixed in my\nmemory because every church bell in town was pealing. Like the ham\nactress I was then--and still am--I wondered if they were ringing for\nme. I wasn\u2019t quite correct. It happened to be the day Queen Elizabeth\nwas born. I thought about it when I went back to London again as a\nnewspaperwoman covering her coronation. Seeing the standards emblazoned\nwith \u201cE.R.,\u201d for Elizabeth Regina, that covered London, an American\nacquaintance of mine, a Democrat to the hilt, remarked appreciatively:\n\u201cI didn\u2019t realize they were so fond of Eleanor Roosevelt over here.\u201d\nAt the Savoy that coronation evening I got a telephone call from\nReuter\u2019s. The New York _Daily News_ was asking for a special story on\nmy reactions to the gilt and glamour of London town. \u201cCertainly,\u201d said\nI. \u201cGet your typewriter ready.\u201d\n\u201cDon\u2019t you want to think about it?\u201d\n\u201cNo, I don\u2019t have to think. I just want to tell it as I saw it.\u201d\nSo I talked about the crowds who had slept in the streets, about\nthe pomp and pageantry of the greatest show since P. T. Barnum. \u201cIt\nmakes President Eisenhower\u2019s inauguration,\u201d I judged--and I\u2019d been\nthere--\u201cseem like sending off your impoverished relations to the\npoorhouse.\u201d\nHollywood\u2019s own candidate for ermine, Her Serene Highness Princess\nGrace, was much more stiff and starchy than Her Royal Highness\nPrincess Margaret, at least for the first five years after marriage\nto Prince Rainier. Her husband was struck well-nigh speechless by all\nthe publicity that went with the wedding. He took a back seat while\nthe daughter of a millionaire bricklayer from Philadelphia reigned as\nregally as Queen Victoria in the comic-opera palace at Monaco, with its\ntoy-soldier guards parading solemnly outside like bit players in an old\nMack Sennet movie. Any moment I expected a fat tenor to come out on the\nbalcony and start singing.\nIn Monaco I saw Grace succeed in cooling off in one cold spell No\u00ebl\nCoward, Somerset Maugham, and an assorted press corps from England,\nEurope, and the United States. We were all there to mark the Monte\nCarlo premiere of _Kings Go Forth_ with Frank Sinatra, Tony Curtis,\nand Natalie Wood, which its producers had decided needed every line of\npublicity it could get, since it was no great shakes as a picture.\nFrank leveled the toy kingdom like a Kansas tornado. At the movie\nopening, Grace, in a simple pale pink dress, couldn\u2019t pull her eyes\noff him, while he tore up \u201cThe Road to Mandalay\u201d and laid it down\nagain. A champagne supper was served afterward with the Serenities\nin attendance. At the top table, where they sat among a gaggle of\ncelebrities, there were three empty places. No\u00ebl Coward had come from\nthe Riviera with Somerset Maugham, whom he\u2019d been visiting. But Coward\nand Maugham found themselves consigned to sit alone at a side table,\nout of Her Serenity\u2019s range.\nGrace and Rainier danced until three in the morning. While I was taking\na turn around the floor with Jim Bacon of the Associated Press, the\nprince and I felt our bumpers collide, and he promptly marched off the\nfloor. _L\u00e8se majest\u00e9_, no doubt.\nNewsmen who\u2019d been flown in for the opening fared worse than No\u00ebl.\nNot a one was asked into the palace for as much as a cup of tea or a\nhandshake. Little starlets you never heard of were nervously practicing\ncurtsies in the hotel lobby, but they didn\u2019t get close enough to Grace\nto try them out.\nA word or two about the peculiar hospitality you could expect in\nMonaco, which is a beautiful spot but with its old glamour lost\nforever, appeared in my column some days later.\nThe next time around, three years afterward, Grace made amends,\nproving that a little of the column medicine can do a lot of good. I\nwas amazed to be invited by Rainier and his princess to attend the\nopening of a new hotel, the Son Vida, nestled on a hilltop outside of\nPalma de Mallorca. This time, she couldn\u2019t have exercised more charm.\nShe arrived off Aristotle Onassis\u2019 yacht dressed in white, carrying a\nlavender parasol, looking like a billion, though I detected a bit of\nrestlessness in her, as if the gilt on the gingerbread was losing its\nluster.\nRainier was a different man, too, outgoing and chatty where he\u2019d been\nwithdrawn and shy. He had some money invested in the place, along with\nCharles (_Seventh Heaven_) Farrell, of the Palm Springs Racquet Club.\nI told the prince what I\u2019d heard from Howell Conant, the New York\nphotographer who had been taking pictures of the Serenities since they\nwere engaged: \u201cA lot of people around the palace like Rainier almost\nmore than Grace now.\u201d The prince loved it. We had a high old time\nchuckling over that.\nHe told me about their children, who were entertained aboard the train\nfrom Monaco by Winston Churchill, whom four-year-old Caroline insisted\non calling \u201cMussolini,\u201d which Britain\u2019s grand old man took as an\nenormous joke.\nIn return I passed along Bob Considine\u2019s account of how he covered\nthe wedding of Grace and Rainier in Monte Carlo. Each group of\nreporters was assigned a spot to work in; Bob\u2019s crowd drew a showroom\nfor bathroom equipment. \u201cI found it difficult,\u201d he told me, \u201cto peer\nacross a bidet at Dorothy Kilgallen and write romantically of love and\nmarriage.\u201d\nGrace badly wanted to latch onto some favorable publicity again.\nThroughout her engagement to Rainier she\u2019d had her own publicity agent\nto advise her. Rupert Allen, who had taste plus tact, had done the\nsame job for her while she was at MGM. He left the studio for the\nengagement, sailed with her when she went to Monaco, and stayed on at\nthe palace. Last spring her purpose, which may have stuck in the back\nof her mind all along, showed itself: She signed to work for Alfred\nHitchcock, then canceled out because the people of Monaco didn\u2019t like\nthe idea. I guess when you\u2019ve been a queen, if only in Hollywood, you\nfind it hard to believe it\u2019s promotion to play a princess, even in\nMonaco.\nThanks to her own shrewd sense, or to sound advice from outside,\nGrace\u2019s timing was good. The people who go to movies still wanted to\nsee her. So on top of satisfying her own ego, she could command so much\nmoney from Hitchcock that she finally couldn\u2019t turn him down. She has\ninherited some of her father\u2019s respect for a dollar.\nI believe Grace caught the movie-making bug again after Jacqueline\nKennedy went off without John F. on her triumphant trip to India and\nPakistan. After all, if a great lady who can\u2019t match Grace for beauty\ncan score a hit, why shouldn\u2019t Grace get back into the limelight? I\u2019d\nbet that if Jackie had the chance to star in a picture, she\u2019d take it.\nWouldn\u2019t you if you were in her shoes?\nWith one possible exception, there\u2019s been a streak of exhibitionism a\nmile wide in every actress I\u2019ve known, starting with Ethel Barrymore,\nwho set my soul and ambition on fire when I saw her play in _Captain\nJinks of the Horse Marines_. The possible exception is Garbo, who laid\ndown an iron rule that she would work only on a closely screened set,\nand she\u2019d freeze in her tracks the moment her privacy was invaded,\nespecially if her boss at MGM, Louis B. Mayer, dared intrude with\nbankers or visitors from New York.\nA movie queen has to be a born show-off before she wants to act, and\nwhen she finds she can get paid for it too, her joy is unconfined.\nMost of the breed don\u2019t hesitate for a second if today\u2019s producers of\nsoiled sex on celluloid call on them to do a Bardot, without benefit of\nbath towel. I\u2019m sure Liz enjoyed doing her bathe-in-the-nude sequence\nfor _Cleopatra_. Jean Simmons didn\u2019t object to playing stripped to the\nwaist in one _Spartacus_ scene that Kirk Douglas ordered to be shot in\na spiced-up version for European distribution. And those calendar poses\ndidn\u2019t bother Marilyn Monroe. \u201cI was hungry,\u201d she explained, wide-eyed,\nwhen I asked her once why she\u2019d sat for them.\nEven Garbo had some odd quirks when the cameras stopped rolling. She\nused to go regularly to the house of some friends who had a big,\nsecluded pool. Before she arrived, all the servants would be dismissed,\nand her host and hostess would take themselves off for an hour or so,\ntoo. Then Garbo undressed and, naked as a jay bird except for a floppy\nhat, swam gravely round and round in the water. Katharine Hepburn is\nanother home nudist, presumably finding it better than air conditioning\nfor keeping cool in summer. After all, it\u2019s nature\u2019s way. Didn\u2019t we all\ncome into the world stripped to the pelt?\nUnder stress, the deep-down desire to show themselves to an audience\ncan take strange turns. Once in front of the crowded long bar of the\nKnickerbocker Hotel, an actress whose career had run into trouble--she\nwas happily remarried in 1958--began to strip. This was Hollywood,\nremember, so hot-eyed stares were the only help she got from anybody\nin the room. When she was down to her shoes and stockings, and the\nrest of her clothes lay discarded on the barroom floor, she gave a\nshriek and ran down the front steps out onto Ivar Avenue. Then at last\nsomebody remembered to telephone the police.\nMore recently an agent from one of the big television studios called\nat the hotel apartment of a much-married woman whose name still spells\nglamour to any serviceman of World War II. His mission was to sound her\nout about doing a TV show. She greeted him in a bathrobe and asked him\nto run the hot water for her before they talked business. She locked\nthe outside door behind him. The following morning his conscience began\nto stir. \u201cI\u2019d better leave now,\u201d he said. \u201cThe office will think I\ndied.\u201d\n\u201cYou can\u2019t go,\u201d she cried. \u201cI\u2019m so lonely.\u201d She kept him there three\ndays.\nThe town has always been full of lonely, frustrated women who have let\ntheir few years of basking in the sun as movie queens blind them to\nreality forever. You can start with Mary Pickford, who used to talk a\nblue streak about a wonderful girl prot\u00e9g\u00e9 whom she said she was going\nto make over into a movie sensation. I had to try to disillusion her.\n\u201cYou\u2019re fooling yourself, Mary. What you should do is hire a press\nagent. All you really want is to keep your name alive.\u201d\nGloria Swanson is another who can\u2019t see straight today where her career\nas an actress is concerned. As a businesswoman in the dress industry\nshe\u2019s not nearly as sharp as Joseph P. Kennedy was when he was a movie\ntycoon and she was his reigning queen. She\u2019d made a hit in _Sunset\nBoulevard_ and her reputation was on the rise again when I suggested\nshe might do a movie version, written by Frances Marion, of Francis\nParkinson Keyes\u2019 _Dinner at Antoine\u2019s_. Not a chance. \u201cI couldn\u2019t\npossibly play the mother of an eighteen-year-old daughter,\u201d she\nsnapped. \u201cThe part\u2019s too old for me.\u201d At the time, she was the mother\nof two daughters and a son, and she had two grandchildren.\nMost of the unhappy ones have no husbands. One unfailing cause of that\nbrand of misery is lack of female charity. They turn their backs on\nthe facts of life and refuse to forgive their husbands a single act of\ninfidelity--I believe every man married to a movie queen deserves one\nbreak in that department.\nBarbara Stanwyck lives in a two-story mansion with her only company\nan elderly maid, the books she reads by the score, and the television\nset which hypnotizes her into watching old movies into all hours of\nthe night. You don\u2019t see her around town much any more because people\nforget to ask her down from the ivory tower in which she\u2019s locked\nherself. When you do invite her out, there are roses from her the next\nday and thank-you notes so pathetically grateful they\u2019d melt a stone.\nUp to the day in 1951 that she divorced Robert Taylor, she was one of\nthe happiest women alive. He was such a handsome slice of man, highly\ndesirable, a full-size star. When he went to Rome for eleven months to\nmake _Quo Vadis_ with Deborah Kerr, women everywhere mobbed him. But\nBarbara loved to act. The Taylors didn\u2019t need the money, but she worked\nall the time, going straight from one picture into another, instead of\ntaking time out to join her husband in Italy.\nWhen he arrived home after nearly a year, Barbara disposed of him,\nwhile he found a much younger bride, Ursula Thiess. She has now had two\nchildren by him, although now they\u2019re having difficulty with an older\nchild by a former husband.\nAt fifty-five, Barbara remains a talented actress and a mighty\nattractive woman, though she gets thinner all the time. She\u2019s kept her\nappetite for work, but suitable parts aren\u2019t easy to find--I don\u2019t rate\nher last role as a Lesbian madam of a New Orleans brothel in _A Walk on\nthe Wild Side_ as worthy of her. I have begged her to kiss Hollywood\ngood-by and go to Europe. \u201cThere\u2019s nothing for you here. I guarantee\nyou wouldn\u2019t be over there twenty-four hours without having at least\ntwo offers for pictures.\u201d\nBut Barbara stays on; with her maid, her books, and Helen Ferguson, her\npress agent and one of her closest friends.\nDinah Shore used to say, in one of those standard quotes that queens\ncome up with when life is sunny, \u201cMy family means more to me than\nanything in the world--nothing will ever interfere with that.\u201d Then\nGeorge Montgomery, her husband went off to work on his own, and\nseventeen years and 362 days of a good marriage went out the window.\nHer place of purgatory now is an oversized mansion, built on a $75,000\nlot, near that of Richard Nixon. There she sits in melancholy, alone\nmuch of the time, by the pool, which is equipped with a waterfall; or\nperhaps in the living room, which is proportioned somewhat like Grand\nCentral Station. It\u2019s a great spot for brooding, but nevertheless she\nkept on singing on her shows \u201cIt\u2019s Great to Have a Man Around the\nHouse.\u201d\nOn the face of it, this used to be a couple that could never be\ndivided. Certainly her reputation overshadowed George\u2019s, a situation\nwhich usually creates continual problems. It\u2019s hard on a husband when\nhis house is invaded most nights by writers and directors who\u2019ve come\nto discuss the new picture or new TV show with his wife. He has to sit\nand listen to them fuss over her with: \u201cNow, darling, you\u2019re looking a\nlittle tired and you have to work tomorrow, so you\u2019d better take a pill\nand go to bed early to catch up on your beauty sleep.\u201d\nGeorge, however, didn\u2019t resent Dinah\u2019s success. Though he never quite\nmade film stardom and his own Western series died young on TV, he had\nhis furniture factory, where he worked alongside his employees, and he\nwent on making low-budget pictures. He steered clear of the parasitic\nlife so many husbands enjoy when the woman is combination breadwinner,\nwife, mother, and working head of the family.\nWhen the husband carries the title of \u201cagent\u201d in Hollywood, it\u2019s a safe\nbet that he knows next to nothing about the business and is living off\nhis wife. It\u2019s also odds that he has a mistress to while away those\nlong afternoons when he isn\u2019t at the race track or propping up a bar.\nWhat can the wife do about it? If she wants to keep her home and family\ntogether in some semblance of order, she\u2019s powerless. Daddy must be\nallowed to continue as \u201cagent,\u201d even if it ruins her.\nWhen you\u2019re a wife as well as an actress, you have to think of your\nhusband, too, not only about your career. Maybe Dinah didn\u2019t think hard\nenough. George, who in the past had given up several jobs to travel\nwith her, went to the Philippines alone to make a picture and was gone\nthree months. While he was away, she heard rumors that he was seeing a\ngreat deal of his leading woman. He hadn\u2019t been back in Hollywood long\nbefore she released the announcement that she was filing for divorce.\nOnly minutes after she\u2019d finally decided on that step, she went on the\nair with no detectable strain showing as she sang and clowned in her TV\nshow.\nShe is a forty-five-year-old woman with two children still in school.\nShe is up to her ears in work most of the time. The fact that good\nmen don\u2019t grow on trees is something most women don\u2019t realize until\nit\u2019s too late. Chances are that a new husband would be second-rate by\ncomparison with George. Could be that thought has struck home with\nDinah, too.\nInside the blonde head of tragedy\u2019s child, Marilyn Monroe, fame and\nmisery were mixed up like tangled skeins of knitting wool. She was\nan unsophisticated, overly trusting creature whose career was always\nprofessionally and emotionally complicated beyond her power to control\nit. She was used by so many people.\nShe let herself be surrounded by such a clutch of nudgers, prodders,\ncounselors, and advisers that the poor child developed an inferiority\ncomplex so ruinous that she was terrified to walk onto any movie set\nfor stark fear she\u2019d fluff a line or miss a cue. She never did have\nconfidence in herself. Toward the end of her life, she couldn\u2019t sit and\ntalk to you without her fingers twisting together like live bait in a\njar.\nThat wasn\u2019t surprising in light of the words of wisdom her confidantes\npoured into her ears: \u201cYou cannot worry about unhappiness. There is no\nsuch thing as a happy artist. They develop understanding of things that\nother people don\u2019t understand.\u201d\nMarilyn wasn\u2019t visibly suffering from anything the night she stopped\noff at my house for a last-minute talk on her way to Los Angeles\nAirport and New York for _The Seven Year Itch_. Her husband of that\nera, and one of the real men in her life, Joe DiMaggio, drove her over,\nbut he wouldn\u2019t come in. \u201cI\u2019ll knock on the door when it\u2019s time to go,\u201d\nsaid Joe, whom I\u2019d known long before Marilyn.\nShe was wearing beige--beige fur collar on her beige coat, beige dress,\nbeige hair. \u201cYou look absolutely divine,\u201d said I. \u201cAre you beige all\nover?\u201d\nShe had started to lift her dress before she murmured: \u201cOh, Hedda,\nthat\u2019s _vulgar_.\u201d\n\u201cJust thought I\u2019d ask.\u201d\nI was a booster of Marilyn\u2019s as far back as _All About Eve_, when\nshe came on for a few minutes with George Sanders and glowed like\nthe harvest moon. She had an extraordinary power of lighting up the\nwhole screen. No one in my memory hypnotized the camera as she did.\nIn her brain and body, the distinctions between woman and actress\nhad edges sharp as razor blades. Off camera, she was a nervous,\namazingly fair-skinned creature almost beside herself with concern\nabout her roles, driven to seek relief in vodka, champagne, sleeping\npills--anything to blunt the pain of her existence. When the camera\nrolled, everything was as different as night from day. Then she became\nan actress using her eyes, her hands, every muscle in her body to\ncourt and conquer the camera as though it were her lover, whom she\nsimultaneously dominated and was dominated by, adored and feared.\nShe was the original Cinderella of our times, the slavey who\u2019d washed\ndishes, swept floors, minded babies, been pushed around from one foster\nhome to another without anybody caring for or loving her. But she was\nalways as honest about her whole ugly past as an ambitious actress can\nbe who smells good copy in her reminiscences. She was simultaneously\nlovely and pathetic most of the time, but she kept a sense of humor. I\nasked her once about a man alleged to be looming large in her life. \u201cIs\nthis a serious romance?\u201d was the question.\n\u201cSay we\u2019re friendly,\u201d she said, \u201cand put that \u2018friendly\u2019 in quotes.\u201d\nThe girl who was rated as the sex goddess supreme used to fight tooth\nand nail to hang onto the career which she was afraid might slip away\nfrom her at any moment. But there was an air of impregnable innocence\nabout her in those calendar pictures. The innocence showed, too, in\nshots very much like them that her first husband used to carry around\nwhen he worked in an aircraft plant in World War II, to flash them in\nfront of his workmates. One of the workmates was Robert Mitchum.\nIn the first great picture she made, _The Seven Year Itch_, the same\ncharm of ignorance let her spout double-meaning lines as though she\ndidn\u2019t know what they implied. She had that superb director Billy\nWilder telling her what to do. \u201cYou had the innocence of a baby,\u201d I\ntold her. \u201cWe knew the words were naughty, but we didn\u2019t think you did.\u201d\n\u201cI didn\u2019t know?\u201d she said, bewildered. \u201cBut I have always known.\u201d\nSoon after that picture, she lost the little-girl quality. She was\nsurrounded by people all telling her how to act. They worked up her\ndissatisfaction with her studio, Twentieth Century-Fox. It\u2019s an old\npitch that sycophants make to a star: \u201cYou don\u2019t need your studio.\nYou\u2019re bigger than they are. You can have your own production company.\u201d\nShe believed it. Basically simple women like Marilyn, who rise as fast\nas she did, are pushovers for this kind of mad propaganda.\nA leading figure in her new circle was Milton Greene, the New York\nphotographer who set up Marilyn as a one-woman corporation to do battle\nwith her studio, meantime driving himself close to bankruptcy. Milton\ncould take credit for getting her on Ed Murrow\u2019s \u201cPerson To Person\u201d\ntelevision program. After that painful evening I asked her: \u201cHow could\nyou possibly go on TV looking like that?\u201d\n\u201cEverybody said I looked good.\u201d\n\u201cEverybody lied then. You were a mess. You don\u2019t look well in skirts\nand heavy sweaters because you\u2019re too big in the bust. On that show you\nshould have been the glamour girl you always are. But the glamorous one\nwas Mrs. Milton Greene. This kind of thing will destroy you.\u201d\nShe spent part of the time during those rebellious days living in\nConnecticut with the Greenes, the rest in a three-room suite at the\nWaldorf Towers. She told me about the joys of adventuring around New\nYork in dark glasses and turban with built-in black curls, going off on\na cops-and-robbers round of cafes, theaters, the Metropolitan Museum.\nMeantime stupid rumors circulated that she was being kept in fantastic\nluxury by one millionaire or another, but nobody bothered to deny them.\n\u201cDidn\u2019t it occur to you,\u201d I wrote, \u201cthat great stars pursue their\ncareers in conventional fashion, accepting the experienced judgment of\ngood producers?... How did you rationalize the idea that a photographer\nwho\u2019d had no experience in making theatrical pictures could do better\nby you than the men who had made you famous?\u201d\nThen along came Arthur Miller, a writer held in awe by most of\nHollywood, who ended a fifteen-year-old marriage to marry her. They\nwere deeply in love and happy at first. When that ended, she came\nand sipped a martini in my home. He was, she said, \u201ca charming and\nwonderful man--a great writer.\u201d And Joe DiMaggio? \u201cA good friend.\u201d I\nbelieve Miller loved her, though it was Joe who turned up trumps in the\nend when she lay dead and deserted in Westwood Village Mortuary. One\nother man loved her, too--Miller\u2019s father, Isadore.\nShe said: \u201cI have only married for love and happiness. Except perhaps\nmy first one, but let\u2019s don\u2019t discuss that ever.... I still love\neverybody a little that I ever loved.\u201d And about being the ex-Mrs.\nMiller? \u201cWhen you put so much into a marriage and have it end, you feel\nsomething has died--and it has. But it didn\u2019t die abruptly. \u2018Died\u2019\nisn\u2019t the right word for me,\u201d she said when we talked. But I think she\nwas already dying inside her heart.\nShe went into _Let\u2019s Make Love_,--it was a terrible script, in her\nopinion--out of shape physically and mentally. As her leading man, she\nhad Yves Montand, who was Lucky Pierre himself in getting the role,\nbeing choice number seven after Yul Brynner, Gregory Peck, Cary Grant,\nCharlton Heston, Rock Hudson, and Jimmy Stewart had all turned down\nthe part. Montand had performed beautifully in his own one-man theater\nshow, though three quarters of his American audiences obviously hadn\u2019t\nthe least idea what he was talking about, since it was all in French.\nOpposite Marilyn, he thought he had only a small part after Arthur\nMiller had been asked to write additional dialogue for the heroine.\nDuring shooting I detected that something strange was happening to\nMrs. Arthur Miller, who hadn\u2019t announced yet that she was going to get\na divorce. She was falling hard for this Frenchman with the carefully\npolished charm. Between the end of that picture and the start of her\nnext, _The Misfits_, the stories spread that he would divorce his wife,\nSimone Signoret. M. Montand scored high in the publicity sweepstakes.\nThe gossip spread all over town, with some help from the Twentieth\nCentury-Fox promotion department and no hindrance from himself.\nBefore the prophetically titled _Misfits_ was finished, she became so\nill she was flown in from Reno and put into the Good Samaritan Hospital\nfor a week\u2019s rest. She couldn\u2019t even reach Montand on the telephone,\nand she called him repeatedly, day after day.\nThe night before he left to rejoin his wife in Paris, I received a tip\nthat he could be found in a certain bungalow in the grounds of Beverly\nHills Hotel. \u201cJust knock on the door; he\u2019ll let you in.\u201d\nI did precisely that. He was astonished to see who had rapped on\nhis door, but I was invited in. The telephone started to ring almost\nimmediately. He wouldn\u2019t accept the call. \u201cI won\u2019t talk to her,\u201d he\ntold the switchboard operator.\n\u201cWhy not?\u201d said I. \u201cYou\u2019ll probably never see her again. Go on. Speak\nto her.\u201d But he couldn\u2019t be persuaded. He suggested a drink, and I\noffered to mix them. I stirred up one hell of a martini to get him\ntalking.\n\u201cYou deliberately made love to this girl. You knew she wasn\u2019t\nsophisticated. Was that right?\u201d\n\u201cHad Marilyn been sophisticated, none of this ever would have happened.\nI did everything I could for her when I realized that mine was a very\nsmall part. The only thing that could stand out in my performance were\nmy love scenes. So, naturally, I did everything I could to make them\ngood.\u201d\nI\u2019m sure that he knew what he was saying no more than half the time.\nShe was \u201can enchanting child\u201d and \u201ca simple girl without any guile.\u201d He\nsaid: \u201cPerhaps she had a schoolgirl crush. If she did, I\u2019m sorry. But\nnothing will break up my marriage.\u201d\nThe last time I talked with Marilyn, there was no new man in sight. She\nowed Twentieth Century-Fox another picture, _Something\u2019s Got to Give_,\nunder her old contract, but even if she\u2019d finished it it would have\npaid her only $100,000, where she could have made at least $500,000\nelsewhere. Her courtiers made her feel sore over that, though the only\nthing on her mind should have been the need to make a movie that was\ngood for her after _Let\u2019s Make Love_ and _The Misfits_. Three flops\nin a row, and anybody\u2019s out. Marie Dressler said it best years ago:\n\u201cYou\u2019re only as good as your last picture.\u201d\nI believe Marilyn realized that the end of her acting career was\nwaiting for her just around the corner. The last scenes she did in\n_Something\u2019s Got to Give_ looked as though she was acting under water.\nShe was sweet as ever, but vague, as if she were slightly off center.\nShe did little more than the near-nude bathing shots, and she gave a\nstill photographer who was on the set exclusive rights to pictures\nof the scene because \u201cI want the world to see my body.\u201d Newspaper\nand magazine readers around the world were promptly granted that\nopportunity, needless to say.\nArthur Miller once called her \u201cthe greatest actress in the world.\u201d She\nwas far from that, in my book. In spite of all her talk about playing\nDostoevski heroines or some of Duse\u2019s roles, the sex-appealing blonde\nremained her stock in trade. And there was something else missing among\nher ambitions. She ached to have children, though she was physically\nincapable of it. Twice she lost babies through miscarriages when she\nwas Mrs. Miller. She told friends that she longed for a baby on whom\nshe could shower the attention she never had.\nOn June 1, 1962, she reached her thirty-sixth birthday, married three\ntimes, with still no baby and no husband. Two months later the end\ncame, and all the sob sisters of the world fell to work explaining why.\nOf course, we shall never know. She took that secret with her. When\nyou\u2019re alone and unhappy, the past, present, and future get mixed up\nin your brain. You say to yourself: \u201cWhat\u2019s the use of it all? Nobody\nloves me. Perhaps I shall never find happiness again.\u201d\nShe seemed to be touched by forces that few human beings can bear, and\nher life turned into a nightmare of broken dreams, broken promises, and\npain. In a way, we were all guilty. We loved her, yet left her lonely\nand afraid when she needed us most. Now she is gone forever, leaving\nus with bitter memories of what might have been. Dear Marilyn, may she\nrest in peace!\nOne of the men I loved most above all others was Gene Fowler. He once\nwrote me a letter from London. \u201cWhat is success?\u201d he asked. \u201cI shall\ntell you out of the wisdom of my years. It is a toy balloon among\nchildren armed with sharp pins.\u201d\nHow can anyone say it better than that?\n_Three_\nMuch as I regret it afterward, I all too often speak before I think.\nAnd too many years have gone by for much to be done about it now. For\nbetter or worse, I\u2019m doomed to shoot from the hip, to be a chatterbox\nwho\u2019ll fire off a quip if one comes to mind, without much thought about\nthe consequences.\nI love to laugh and to make other people laugh. That\u2019s what we\u2019re put\nin the world for. But I sometimes don\u2019t realize how thin some skins can\nbe. I talked my merry way out of a t\u00eate-\u00e0-t\u00eate with Frank Sinatra, whom\nI\u2019ve always liked, and I\u2019ll be sorry to my dying day for what was said\non the spur of that moment.\nThe place was Romanoff\u2019s penthouse; the occasion, the crushingly dull\nfarewell party that Sol Siegel, then head of MGM, and his wife gave\nGrace Kelly before she sailed off to be a princess.\nTo start with, the arrangement for welcoming guests was peculiar, to\nsay the least. Instead of standing beside Mr. and Mrs. Siegel to say\nhello, Grace stood in solitary state in the middle of the floor. She\nwas dressed up, rightly, for the fray--white gloves, a beautiful coat\nand dress. But she stood with her handbag hanging over her arm as\nthough poised for take-off at the flash of a tiara.\nLike all the rest of us, I went up alone to wish her well for her\nfuture in Monaco. She was regal already, smiling as benignly as Queen\nMother Elizabeth opening a charity bazaar.\n\u201cIf you\u2019ll excuse me,\u201d said I, after three minutes of nothing much, \u201cI\nthink I\u2019ll go and have a glass of champagne.\u201d\nThat party never did pick up. As the hours dragged by, it grew stiffer\nand duller and colder, though the champagne flowed and the orchestra\nplayed its head off.\nCome eleven o\u2019clock I was dancing with Frank. _Confidential_, the\nscandal sheet which was the scourge of Hollywood in those days, had\nvery recently printed the doleful reminiscences of one young woman\nwhose expectations, she confided, had been aroused when Frank whisked\nher off to his Palm Springs hideaway. But hope had crumbled when he\nspent the night constantly getting up to eat Wheaties.\nAs the Siegels\u2019 guest, he was as bored as I was. \u201cLet\u2019s blow this\ncreepy party,\u201d he said, \u201cand go down to my Palm Springs place.\u201d\n\u201cWhy, Frank, I couldn\u2019t do that; I didn\u2019t bring my Wheaties.\u201d The\nwisecrack popped out without a second\u2019s consideration, and he nearly\nfell down on the floor. So ended the chances of getting the name of\nHopper on the roll call of Sinatra dates, which has included Marilyn\nMaxwell, Anita Ekberg, Gloria Vanderbilt, Kim Novak, Lady Beatty (who\nbecame Mrs. Stanley Donen), and, according to witnesses, a master list\nof conquests among the female stars at MGM that he used to keep behind\nhis dressing-room door.\nHe continues to send me gorgeous flowers for Christmas and Mother\u2019s\nDay, so I guess I\u2019ll be content with that. I got asked up to his\nhandsome new house on top of a Beverly Hills mountain, equipped with\nlights that fade at the touch of a switch and a telescope through\nwhich he studies the stars (celestial variety) in their courses. But I\nhaven\u2019t been invited to Palm Springs again.\nMaybe it\u2019s for the best. I consider Frank the most superb entertainer\nof this age. When he\u2019s in good voice and a good mood, he\u2019s ahead of\nthe field, and nobody can equal his charm. Like almost everybody, his\nnature has many sides to it--more than most people, because he has\nmore talent than most. But on a host of subjects, we\u2019re far apart, not\nomitting politics. If I\u2019d gone to his desert house and written about\nit, we might have seen a beautiful friendship dented.\nWhen Charles Morrison, owner of our best night club, the Mocambo,\ndied, he left a mourning wife, Mary, with a mountain of debt. Like\nSinatra, he\u2019d spent it when he had it and also when he hadn\u2019t. Frank\ntelephoned Mary and said he\u2019d like to bring in an orchestra and sing\nfor her, free for a couple of weeks. On opening night he caught fire,\nand his quips were as good as his singing.\nHe never worked harder than he did for two months arranging President\nKennedy\u2019s inaugural ball. He wanted Ethel Merman and Sir Laurence\nOlivier for the show, but they were playing on Broadway in _Gypsy_\nand _Becket_, respectively. So Frank closed the two theaters for a\nnight and refunded the price of the tickets to every disappointed\ntheater-goer. After the inauguration Frank and most of his\nco-workers--including Janet Leigh, Tony Curtis, Roger Edens, and Jimmy\nVan Heusen--went to Joe Kennedy\u2019s Palm Beach home for a weekend\u2019s rest.\nI don\u2019t think the President has fully repaid Frank for that memorable\nevening.\nSinatra swears his private life is his own. Until the recent era of\npeace with the press dawned, he\u2019d let fly with his fists to prove his\npoint with some reporters. He once told me: \u201cIf a movie-goer spends\n$2.00 to see me in a motion picture, or $10 to watch me perform in a\nnight club, then he has the right to see me at my best. I do not feel,\nhowever, that I have any responsibility to that movie-goer or that\nnight-club-goer to tell him anything about my private life.\u201d\nHe likes to quote something said by Humphrey Bogart, one of his good\nfriends: \u201cThe only thing you owe the public is a good performance.\u201d He\nmust have remembered that when Bogey\u2019s widow, Betty Bacall, announced\nthat she was going to marry Frank. A pal with him at the time--he was\nstaying in Miami Beach--told me: \u201cHe was so angry he blew the roof off\nthe hotel.\u201d That marked the end of that romance.\nFrank has let his temper and temperament explode too often for his\nrelations with many newspapermen and women to be anything but spotty.\nBelieve it or not, that has him chewing his fingernails sometimes.\n\u201cThere are a handful of people who won\u2019t let go of me and won\u2019t try to\nbe fair,\u201d he said, defending himself one day. \u201cAnd after a thing is\nover and I fly off the handle, I feel twice as bad as when I was angry.\nYou get to think, \u2018Jeez, I\u2019m sorry that had to happen!\u2019\u201d\nHe isn\u2019t the man he\u2019s usually painted to be. The brandy drinker who\nshrugs off advice? He was a guest of mine at a small dinner party for\nNo\u00ebl Coward, along with the Bill Holdens, Clifton Webb, and one or two\nothers. Over the liqueurs No\u00ebl, who\u2019d spent the previous weekend with\nSinatra at Palm Springs, said: \u201cI\u2019m very worried about you, Frank.\nYou\u2019re the finest singer since Al Jolson. But unless you cut down on\ndrinking, your career won\u2019t keep going up--it\u2019s going to start running\ndownhill.\u201d\nFrank listened as attentively as a new boy getting the business from\nhis headmaster. \u201cI think you\u2019re right, No\u00ebl,\u201d he said quietly. And for\na long time his drinking tapered off.\nIs he the headstrong egomaniac who thinks he owes nothing to anybody?\n\u201cYou know, there\u2019s one thing I wanted to say when I accepted the\nOscar for _From Here to Eternity_,\u201d he said on another day. \u201cI wanted\nto thank Monty Clift personally. I learned more about acting from\nClift--well, it was equal to what I learned about musicals from Gene\nKelly.\u201d\nHe sits up to take notice of his children, too, if they criticize him.\nThere are three of them, Nancy, Jr., Frankie, Jr., and Tina. He drove\nup to see me once in a new fish-tail Cadillac that, he said, his son\ndespised. \u201cFrankie wondered what I wanted with all that tin on the\nback.\u201d Father Frank dragged me out to take a look. I knew he couldn\u2019t\nlive with the car after his boy\u2019s jeers. He sold it one month later.\nCan he be at heart the willful, adult version of Peck\u2019s Bad Boy that\nmillions of women have adored since those days when he had them\nswooning by their radios? Bet your boots he can. As for example ...\nEarl Warren was still governor of California when Frank was working\nat Metro on _Take Me Out to the Ball Game_. The studio boss was Louis\nB. Mayer, a big Republican with ambitions to be bigger. Louis was\nthrilled to bits when a spokesman for Warren asked if Frank could go to\nSacramento to attend a convention of governors of all the states which\nwas meeting there. They were eager to have him sing for them as the\nsole representative of the motion-picture industry. Warren would have\nhis own private plane fly Frank there and back if he\u2019d agree to the\ntrip.\nLouis went to work on everybody who was close to Frank, pressuring\nthem to persuade him that the honor of Metro--and the ambitions of\nLouis--demanded his presence at Sacramento. Frank, for once, seemed\nreasonable about it. Be glad to go, he said.\nLouis was delighted. He gave orders that the picture was to be closed\ndown at two o\u2019clock on the auspicious afternoon. That would give Frank\nplenty of time to clean up and change out of his baseball suit to\ncatch the governor\u2019s plane, which would be waiting for a three o\u2019clock\ntake-off. \u201cGet a picnic basket made up,\u201d Frank told Jack Keller, his\npress agent, \u201cwith cold chicken and wine, silver and napkins and\neverything, so we can eat on the plane.\u201d\nKeller and Dick Jones, Frank\u2019s accompanist, were ready early, waiting\nwith the basket in his dressing room. Two-thirty came, but no Frank.\nThree o\u2019clock; not a sign of him. A worried call to Dick Hanley,\nMayer\u2019s secretary, established that work on the picture had stopped\npunctually at 2 P.M. A check of all the gates showed that Frank hadn\u2019t\nleft; his car was parked outside the dressing room.\n\u201cHe\u2019s probably up in some dame\u2019s dressing room having a little party,\u201d\nsomebody suggested. So a squad of security guards, standing on no\nceremony, went bursting in on the stars and starlets, searching for\nhim. Not a trace. By four-thirty Louis was having apoplexy. By five\no\u2019clock all hope of delivering Frank to Sacramento had vanished.\nAn hour later Louis was swallowing his rage and his pride, to call\nGovernor Warren and explain that Frank had suddenly and inexplicably\ntaken sick.\nThe following morning the mystery was solved. Sinatra, in make-up and\nuniform, had decided at two o\u2019clock that Sacramento wasn\u2019t for him. So\nhe hid in the back of a workman\u2019s truck and rode unseen through the\nstudio gates, hopped off at a stop light, and flagged down a cab to\ntake him home.\nAfter _The Miracle of the Bells_, which he made for RKO on loan from\nMetro, he was ordered to San Francisco for a charity opening of that\nhunk of religious baloney. Frank, who harbors an almost fanatical\nresentment against being told what to do, went to Jesse Lasky, the\nproducer, whom he admired, and asked: \u201cYou won\u2019t be paying the bills?\u201d\n\u201cNot I. RKO.\u201d\n\u201cThat\u2019s all I want to know. I\u2019ll go for you.\u201d\nFrank hadn\u2019t taken off his hat and coat after checking into his\nfour-bedroom suite at the Fairmont Hotel before he called room service.\n\u201cBring up eighty-eight manhattans right away.\u201d Jack Keller, manager\nGeorge Evans, and composer Jimmy Van Heusen, who\u2019d all gone along\non the trip, were determined not to ask Frank why he\u2019d ordered the\ncocktails, and he never explained. Four days later, when they checked\nout, the eighty-eight manhattans stood untouched on the waiter\u2019s wagon.\nMeantime, he\u2019d taken the three of them on a shopping spree in the most\nexpensive men\u2019s shop in San Francisco, to buy them alpaca sweaters,\n$15 neckties, and socks by the box, while the cash register clicked up\na score of $2800 for one member of the party alone within forty-five\nminutes. \u201cSend the lot up to the Fairmont and have \u2019em put it on my\nbill,\u201d Frank said.\nFog covered the city the morning they were due to leave, and every air\nliner was grounded. Mad as a caged bear, Frank tried to argue Jimmy,\nwho is a trained pilot, into chartering a private plane. \u201cYou think I\u2019m\nnuts? Take a look outside,\u201d Jimmy said.\n\u201cForget it then,\u201d Frank snarled. \u201cI know what to do.\u201d\nHe had one of his favorite picnic baskets assembled by the Blue Fox\nrestaurant, then hired a car and chauffeur to drive Jimmy and himself\nto Palm Springs, five hundred miles away. But the limousine got stuck\nin the mountain snows and Frank and party were marooned in a farmhouse\nfor three days. Jack Keller and George Evans caught a noontime plane\nwhen the fog lifted and were home in Los Angeles by mid-afternoon.\nThe car-hire bill by itself ran to $795. Like everything else in the\ntrip, it was charged to RKO.\nWhen Frank originally moved out to California, he picked up his own\nbills. They ran high. He had a weakness for showering his friends and\nhangers-on with such trinkets as gold cigarette lighters lovingly\ninscribed. He imagined that every thousand dollars of salary was worth\nthat much money in the bank, never realizing that in his tax bracket,\nand with his agents\u2019 cuts, a thousand dollars probably gave him no\nmore than ninety to spend. The more he made, the more he owed the\ngovernment, until the total tab ran to nearly $110,000. It took his\nswitch from Columbia to Capitol Records to settle the tax score. That\nwas part of the price Capitol paid out for him.\nHis first full-length picture, _Higher and Higher_ for RKO, brought him\nout to live in the Sunset Towers apartments as a grass widower, leading\na life as respectable as a church warden\u2019s. No girls, no drinking\nexcept an occasional beer. When his wife, Nancy, arrived and they\nbought the house at Toluca Lake that Mary Astor once owned, they kept\nup the same, small-town ways. Their wildest parties were devoted to gin\nrummy at half a cent a point. Frank was as happy with Nancy as he could\nbe with anybody for long.\nFireworks usually start to sizzle in a marriage when the husband pulls\nhimself ahead and the wife lags behind. But Nancy, the plasterer\u2019s\ndaughter from Jersey City, kept pace with Frank\u2019s growth as an\nentertainer. She\u2019s maintained her patience and her dignity over the\nyears, saying not a malicious word about any of the women who\u2019ve\ncluttered up Frank\u2019s life.\nThe first feet of film in which he appeared were actually shot for\nColumbia Pictures in a little low-budget item entitled _Reveille for\nBeverly_. Harry Cohn, boss of Columbia, thought so poorly of him that\nhe let him escape without optioning him. Frank couldn\u2019t let him forget\nthat.\nAt the Toluca Lake house, Frank, Nancy, and their friends used to stage\nlittle Christmas Eve revues, running for an hour and more, complete\nwith scenery, costumes, props, original score by Sammy Cahn and Julie\nStein, sketches and performances by anybody with a mind to pitch in and\nwork. The jokes were all \u201cinside\u201d humor, drawing a bead on the members\nof the group.\nOne sketch set its sights on Peter Lawford, a celebrated party-goer\nfrom the day he arrived in Hollywood and an actor whose performances in\nsome pictures would scarcely show up under a microscope. On the stage\nbuilt in the Sinatra living room, he sat at a table entertaining a girl\nwhile Frank, dressed as a waiter, served drinks to the pair. \u201cGive me\nthe check,\u201d said Peter as the skit ended. \u201cI\u2019ll take care of it.\u201d\nFrank\u2019s eyeballs revolved. \u201cYou mean you\u2019ll _pay_?\u201d he gasped as he\ndropped his tray on Peter\u2019s head and staggered offstage.\nWhen the bigwigs at Columbia heard about the shows, they asked Frank\nto put on a similar affair at Harry Cohn\u2019s house to celebrate his\nbirthday. It turned out to be quite a party. The guest list included\nRita Hayworth, Jos\u00e9 Iturbi, Al Jolson, and the Sinatra regulars. On the\ntemporary stage, Phil Silvers acted the part of Cohn. Al Levy, Frank\u2019s\nmanager who went on to found Talent Associates, took the role of agent\nand Frank played himself. \u201cMr. Cohn,\u201d said Al, introducing Frank, \u201cI\nhave a boy here I think has great talent.\u201d\n\u201cCan\u2019t use him,\u201d growled Phil Silvers.\n\u201cBut at least listen to him. Give him a chance.\u201d\n\u201cNo. Too Jewish.\u201d\nAl (bewildered): \u201cHe\u2019s too _Jewish_?\u201d\n\u201cNo, you are. Get out of here.\u201d Everybody had a wonderful time ...\nexcept Harry Cohn, who didn\u2019t crack a smile.\nThe woman who came within an ace of wrecking Frank Sinatra sat on my\npatio fresh from Smithfield, North Carolina. \u201cWhat do you do down\nthere?\u201d I asked Ava Gardner, as beautiful then as she was frank about\nhow dirt-poor she\u2019d been until Hollywood whistled at her.\n\u201cOh, I just went around picking bugs off tobacco plants,\u201d she said.\nThe earliest matrimonial picking she made was Mickey Rooney. She was\ntwenty and he was a year older when they married. He had what she\nwanted, which included his limousine, the first she ever rode in.\nThough they were separated some frantic years later, they remained\nfriends and he couldn\u2019t break old habits. They were sitting side by\nside and directly behind me at a premiere after their divorce. I heard\nher whispering: \u201cDon\u2019t do that. Stop it. People will see.\u201d\nTurning around, I spotted that he had his hand down the low-cut neck of\nher dress. \u201cAw, let him play,\u201d I said. \u201cIt\u2019ll keep him quiet.\u201d He gave\na grin as broad as a barn door and left his hand where it was.\nFrank\u2019s passion for Ava dragged him halfway around the world: to\nMexico, Spain, Africa, England, France. It broke up his marriage to\nNancy in 1951; it plunged his spirits and his bank balance so low that\nin December 1953 he had to borrow money to buy Ava a Christmas present.\nTheir jealousy of each other passed the raw edge of violence. At one\npoint in their teeth-and-claw romance Frank was hired to sing at the\nCopacabana in New York, while the two of them stayed in Hampshire\nHouse. While he worked nights, Ava got bored and started running around\ntown with her friends. She strayed one evening into Bop City, where\nArtie Shaw, ex-husband number two, was starred with a jazz band.\nThe following afternoon, when Frank discovered where she\u2019d been, the\nfur began to fly in his hotel bedroom. When she screamed that she was\nsick of his jealousy and was going to leave him, he pulled out the .38\nhe carried and threatened to blow his brains out. She stalked toward\nthe door. He fired twice--into the mattress of the bed. Ava didn\u2019t turn\nher head; she kept right on walking.\nDavid Selznick, in the suite next door, heard the shots and called\nthe front desk. The clerk there telephoned the police. Mannie Sachs,\nthe king of talent scouts for RCA, who had a permanent suite down the\nhall, had also been startled by the explosions, and came running. He\nand Selznick hurried into Frank\u2019s room, listened to what had happened.\nThen they grabbed the mattress with the two holes in it and toted it\ndown the hall, to exchange it for one on Mannie\u2019s bed. When the police\narrived to search Frank\u2019s suite without finding a trace of bullets,\nFrank was as cool as a cat. \u201cYou\u2019re dreaming,\u201d he told them. \u201cYou\u2019re\ncrazy.\u201d\nHe had already applied to Harry Cohn for the featured role of Maggio\nin _From Here to Eternity_ when he flew to Africa in 1952 to be with\nAva while she made _Mogambo_ with Clark Gable and Grace Kelly. Cohn had\noriginally doused cold water on his ambition. \u201cYou\u2019re nuts. You\u2019re a\nsong-and-dance man. Maggio\u2019s stage-actor kind of stuff.\u201d\nFrank had been in Africa five days--days of sitting around with nothing\nto do but watch his wife work. He killed time by building an outside\nshower in the woods for her. He rounded up fifty native singers and\ndancers for a party for cast and crew. He worked harder than on any\nsound stage to keep from going crazy. Then his agent, Bert Allenberg of\nMCA, called him back to test for _Eternity_. Frank told me the whole\nstory later:\n\u201cI left Africa one Friday night. I had a copy of the scene and I sat up\nall night on the plane. Didn\u2019t sleep the whole trip. Monday morning I\nmade the test. I finished at 3 P.M. and that night flew back to Africa.\nMy adrenalin was bubbling. I waited five days, ten, then got a letter\nthey were testing five or six other guys, among them Eli Wallach.\n\u201cI\u2019d seen him in _Rose Tattoo_ on Broadway, and I know he\u2019s a fine\nactor. So I thought: \u2018I\u2019m dead.\u2019 Then I got a wire from Allenberg:\n\u2018Looks bad.\u2019 My chin was kicking my knees. But Ava was wonderful. She\nsaid: \u2018They haven\u2019t cast the picture yet. All you get is a stinking\ntelegram, and you let it get you down.\u2019\n\u201cClark would say: \u2018Skipper, relax. Drink a little booze. Everything\nwill be all right.\u2019 I left Africa and went to Boston for a night-club\ndate. I got a call another Monday morning that they\u2019d made the deal. I\ntold Allenberg: \u2018If you have to pay Harry Cohn, sign the contract; I\u2019ll\npay _him_.\u2019\u201d\nFor Maggio, Frank\u2019s fee was $8000 instead of the usual $150,000. He\nflew off to join Ava for a few days of fun and fury in Paris. \u201cThen I\ngot a cable from Harry Cohn: \u2018Clift already proficient in army drill.\nSeeing as how you have same routine, suggest you get back a few days\nearly.\u2019 I wired back: \u2018Dear Harry--will comply with request. Drilling\nwith French Army over weekend. Everything all right. Maggio.\u2019 I talked\nto his secretary later, and she said when she opened the wire she\nscreamed. But Cohn didn\u2019t crack a smile. He had a sense of humor like\nan open grave.\u201d\nUnpredictable as always, Frank went with his family to the Academy\nAwards show when he collected an Oscar for Maggio. \u201cThe minute my name\nwas read, I turned around and looked at the kids. Little Nancy had\ntears in her eyes. For a second I didn\u2019t know whether to go up on stage\nand get it or stay there and comfort her. But I gave her a peck on the\ncheek and reached for young Frankie\u2019s hand.\n\u201cWhen I came back, it was late, so I got them home and sat with them\nfor a while. Then I took the Oscar back to my place, where a few\npeople dropped in. I got Nancy a little miniature thing for her charm\nbracelet, a small Oscar medallion. The kids gave me a St. Genesius\nmedal before the Awards, engraved with, \u2018Dad, we will love you from\nhere to eternity.\u2019 Little Nancy gave me a medal and said, \u2018This is from\nme and St. Anthony.\u2019 That\u2019s her dear friend. She seems to get a lot\ndone with St. Anthony. I guess she has a direct wire to him.\u201d\nThere\u2019s a show-business legend that, abracadabra, Frank\u2019s career\nstarted going up like a skyrocket from that moment on. It\u2019s a legend,\nnothing more. Turning the corner was slow going for him. He still had\nto play in such flops as _Suddenly_ and find he was turned down for\n_Mr. Roberts_ because Leland Hayward thought he was too old. He still\nhad night-club tours to make under old agreements. And he still had to\nwork out the switch to Capitol which eventually made him a best seller\non records.\nIt took him a long time, too, to recover from Ava. She hasn\u2019t yet\nrecovered from him. Holed up in Spain, she has been outcast to most\nSpaniards, who don\u2019t tolerate her flouting of their social rules.\nRecently she went back to work again, talking a comeback, as so many\nlike her do. The proof, as always, lies in the performance they can\ndeliver before the cameras.\nFrank came near the end of the road he\u2019d traveled with her when he\nreturned unexpectedly early one day to his Palm Springs house and\noverheard her talking with another woman star whom she\u2019d invited\ndown there while he was away. The subject they were discussing, I\nunderstand, was Frank\u2019s love-making, which they were downgrading. Those\ntwo would do just that. \u201cPack up your clothes and get out,\u201d Frank\nyelled. \u201cI don\u2019t want to see either of you again.\u201d\nI sat in his dressing room at Paramount in December 1956 when the Ava\nera finally ended for him. A Hollywood reporter had taken her out\ndriving one night in the desert around Palm Springs, gotten her drunk,\nand recorded what she told him over a microphone hidden in his car. The\nmagazine story that resulted had appeared that day. Frank sat with a\ncopy of it in his hand, cringing silently in his chair. Ava was quoted\nas complaining: \u201cFrank double-crossed me ... made me the heavy ... I\npaid many of the bills.\u201d Even the ashes were cold after that.\nThat was the year he waged a busy-beaver campaign for Adlai Stevenson,\njust as he had worked for Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman, and,\nfour years later, would slave for John F. Kennedy. He was in Spain,\nfilming _The Pride and the Passion_, when he was asked to assist the\nDemocratic convention in Chicago by singing \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner\u201d\non opening night. Eager to oblige, he flew for thirty-three hours\nthrough appalling transatlantic weather and reached the convention\nplatform at 8 P.M., a bare thirty minutes before Sam Rayburn, late\nSpeaker of the House of Representatives, was scheduled to gavel the\nsession to order.\nNo more than four hundred people had filtered into their places in\nthe 25,000-seat auditorium when Mr. Rayburn, fortified by bourbon,\nstarted banging away with his gavel. Frank had no choice but sing to a\nvirtually empty hall, while his fine old Sicilian temper flamed.\nDuring the anthem somebody alerted Sam Rayburn to his error. He went\nover to Frank as soon as he\u2019d finished singing and put his hand on\nSinatra\u2019s sleeve to apologize. Frank brushed him aside. \u201cKeep your arm\noff my suit,\u201d he snapped, and stormed away.\nWhen Bill Davidson wrote the story, Frank had his attorney, Martin\nGang, file suit for $2,300,000. He was armed with a telegram from\nRayburn asserting that the incident was undiluted imagination. All\nDavidson had was the word of Mitch Miller, who\u2019d been close enough on\nthe platform to overhear what had gone on there. There didn\u2019t seem to\nbe any other witnesses.\nBut on a visit to New York soon after, a Hollywood press agent who was\nclose to Davidson bumped into a Madison Avenue advertising man whom\nhe hadn\u2019t seen for years. The old friend happened to tell the press\nagent about a funny thing he\u2019d seen on the platform at the Democratic\nconvention, which he\u2019d attended on agency business: He\u2019d watched\nSinatra giving Rayburn the brush-off. Needless to say, the suit was\ndropped.\nPolitics are serious business to Frank--they used to be to me until I\ngot tired of the game and decided to give the young ones a chance. I\nwas doing a bit in a picture at Las Vegas while he was there making\n_Oceans 11_, and I wanted to talk to him. But he was always too busy.\nAfter the 1960 conventions came and went, he was off on the island of\nMaui doing _Devil at 4 O\u2019Clock_ before he could keep a promise to come\nover to my house.\nFrom Maui he sent me a letter \u201cgiving you all the answers to the\nquestions you would have asked me if we actually did an interview.\u201d\nHe\u2019s a John F. Kennedy man and I was a Robert Taft woman; what better\nsubject for a letter than politics, Sinatra version?\n\u201cEvery four years,\u201d he wrote, \u201cthe same question arises: Should\nshow-business personalities become involved in politics? Should they\nuse their popularity with the public to try to influence votes?\n\u201cMy answer has always been \u2018yes.\u2019 If the head of a big corporation can\ntry to use his influence with his employees, if a union head can try\nto use his influence with his members, if a newspaper editor can try\nto use his influence with his readers, if a columnist can try to use\nhis influence, then an actor has a perfect right to try to use his\ninfluence.\n\u201cMy own feeling is that those actors who do not agree with my point\nof view are those who are afraid to stand up and be counted. They\nwant everybody to love them and want everybody to agree with them on\neverything.\n\u201cI am not sure whether they are right or whether I am right. I only\nknow what is right for me....\u201d\nI almost tore up the letter as soon as I\u2019d read it because of its last\nparagraph: \u201cMaybe it will make a good Sunday piece for you. If you\nthink so, then please don\u2019t start to edit it. These are my thoughts,\nand if you want to pass them on to your readers, let them stand as is.\u201d\nI haven\u2019t edited; I\u2019ve quoted, but not all five pages. Life\u2019s too short\nfor that, and you probably wouldn\u2019t read them, anyway.\nThough he\u2019s proud to be a Democrat, he\u2019s uneasy about being called a\n\u201cClansman.\u201d The Clan consists of the men with which this mixed-up,\nlonely talent has surrounded himself--Dean Martin, Sammy Davis, Jr.,\nJoey Bishop, Peter Pentagon Lawford.\n\u201cI hate the name of Clan,\u201d Frank once said.\n\u201cDid you ever look the word up in a dictionary?\u201d I said. \u201cIt means a\nfamily group that sticks together, like the Kennedys you\u2019re so fond of.\nThey\u2019re the most clannish family in America. I don\u2019t like Rat Pack, but\nthere\u2019s nothing wrong with the name of Clan.\u201d\nWhat is wrong with the Clan and the Leader, as his gang have christened\nFrank, is the pull they both have over young actors who would give\ntheir back teeth to be IN. Membership dues include generally behaving\nlike Mongols from the court of Genghis Khan.\nThe Clan was riding high the night Eddie Fisher opened his night-club\nact at the Ambassador Hotel here, before the _Cleopatra_ debacle got\nunder way. I was in New York at the time. Frank and his henchmen took\nover and mashed Eddie\u2019s performance. \u201cThis was a disgusting display\nof ego,\u201d snorted Milton Berle, sitting in an audience that included\ncomedians like Jerry Lewis, Danny Thomas, and Red Buttons, any one of\nwhom, if he\u2019d tried, could have joined in and made the Clan look silly.\nElizabeth Taylor, on Eddie\u2019s side that night, raged: \u201cHe may have to\ntake it from them, but I don\u2019t. One day they\u2019ll have to answer to me\nfor this.\u201d\nSteve McQueen was one young actor I managed to extricate from the\nClan. I took him under my wing when he was driving racing cars around\nlike an astronaut ready for orbit. \u201cYou could kill yourself when you\nwere single, and it was only your concern. But you\u2019ve got a family and\nresponsibilities now. Think of them.\u201d Between his wife and myself, we\ngot him away from overpowered automobiles.\nI took to Steve as soon as I saw him in \u201cWanted Dead or Alive.\u201d I liked\nhis arrogant walk, the don\u2019t-give-a-damn air about him. So did Frank.\nWhen he sent Sammy Davis, Jr., into temporary exile for indiscreet talk\nto a newspaper about other Clansmen, Frank had Sammy\u2019s part in _Never\nSo Few_ rewritten for Steve. When Frank is in a movie, he becomes\ncasting director, too.\nHe took Steve on a junket to New York when the picture ended, and Steve\ntook along a big bundle of Mexican firecrackers, which he cherishes.\nHe hadn\u2019t previously been any kind of drinker, but in Frank\u2019s crowd\nyou drink. From the tenth floor of his hotel Steve had a ball tossing\nlighted firecrackers into Central Park. When the police ran him to\nearth, it took all of Frank\u2019s influence to keep him out of jail.\nAs a peace offering, Steve had a live monkey delivered to my office in\nadvance of his return. He wasted his time. I don\u2019t like monkeys, so\nI gave it away and summoned Steve for some Dutch-aunt lecturing when\nhe got back. \u201cI know all about your trip. You were loud, boorish, and\nprobably drunk. You have to make up your mind whether you\u2019ll have a\nbig career as Steve McQueen or be one of Frank Sinatra\u2019s set. Think it\nover.\u201d\nTwenty-four hours later he gave me his answer. \u201cI was out of line. I\nwas flattered that Mr. Sinatra wanted me, but I\u2019d rather stand on my\nown feet.\u201d\nI sometimes wonder about the Leader. His face lit up like a neon sign\nwhen he broke the news to me that he was going to marry Juliet Prowse,\nthe South African dancer to whom he was engaged for an hour or so. \u201cI\nhaven\u2019t seen that light in your eye for ten years,\u201d I told him.\nBut I suspect the men around Frank went to work against Juliet. It\u2019s\neasy enough to work the trick if you\u2019re determined and unscrupulous.\nA word dropped into the conversation here and there will plant the\ndoubts. \u201cDo you think she really goes for you, Frank?\u201d \u201cShe\u2019ll probably\nfigure on keeping her career.\u201d \u201cYou should have met that family of\nhers--strictly nothing.\u201d Frank was convinced eventually that Juliet\nwasn\u2019t for him.\nWith all his talents and power, I sometimes wonder who\u2019s the Leader and\nwho\u2019s being led.\n_Four_\nWhen Louella Parsons heard that I\u2019d started work on this book, she\ntelephoned to ask what its title was going to be. \u201cCome, Louella,\u201d I\nsaid, \u201cyou don\u2019t expect me to reveal that to you, do you?\u201d\n\u201cI hoped you would. And I hope you\u2019ll be kind to me in your book\nbecause I was very nice to you in mine.\u201d\n\u201cYou certainly were--you got the facts about me so mixed up that I\nhaven\u2019t finished reading it.\u201d\n\u201cWell, anyway, what are you going to write about?\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019m just going to tell the truth.\u201d\n\u201cOh, dear,\u201d she wailed, \u201cthat\u2019s what I was afraid of.\u201d\nIn the days when I earned my living as a motion-picture actress, I was\none of Louella\u2019s regular news contacts. I had an insatiable curiosity\nabout the town I\u2019d known for years. I got around a lot, and lots of\npeople talked to me. I salted down stories by the barrel load.\nLouella would call up and say: \u201cI understand you went to so-and-so\u2019s\nparty last night. Tell me something about it.\u201d I was glad to oblige.\nPayment came in kind, not cash, when she inserted my name in her\ncolumn, which helped a working actress.\nShe really was the First Lady of Hollywood then, for one good reason\nwhich nobody was allowed to forget. She was William Randolph Hearst\u2019s\nmovie columnist, and he was lavishing millions of dollars and acres\nof publicity space on his motion-picture properties, bent on making\nhimself the greatest of all impresarios and Marion Davies the greatest\nstar.\nWith the Hearst newspaper empire behind her, Louella could wield power\nlike Catherine of Russia. Hollywood read every word she wrote as though\nit was a revelation from San Simeon, if not from Mount Sinai. Stars\nwere terrified of her. If they crossed her, they were given the silent\ntreatment: no mention of their names in her column.\nWhen Hearst let himself be lured by Louis B. Mayer into putting his own\nproduction company, Cosmopolitan Pictures, under MGM\u2019s wing, Louella\u2019s\npower was apparently complete. She could get any story she wanted\nfront-paged in the Los Angeles _Examiner_ and all other Hearst papers,\nnone of them accustomed to making much distinction between real news\nand flagrant publicity.\nAt San Simeon, Hearst\u2019s $40,000,000 Shangri-La in San Luis Obispo\nCounty, Louella mingled with the stream of visiting celebrities, stars,\nand producers that poured every weekend into the fabulous, twin-towered\ncastle or the surrounding marble \u201cbungalows\u201d at the summons of W.R.\nor Marion. So did I. At the fifty-four-foot table in the Renaissance\ndining hall, you\u2019d see Garbo, John Gilbert, Errol Flynn, Norma Shearer,\nNick Schenck, Beatrice Lillie, Cissy Patterson, Frank Knox, Bernard\nBaruch. Name the biggest and they\u2019d be there, including, on one\noccasion, Mr. and Mrs. Cal Coolidge and Bernard Shaw.\nNobody would deny that Louella has talent. She showed at her best with\nGBS, who was writing some articles for Hearst. All of us invited to\nSan Simeon that weekend had been warned against asking Shaw for an\ninterview. That didn\u2019t stop Louella. He yielded to her persuasions\nonly on condition that he have the right to approve every word of her\narticle after he\u2019d talked to her.\nWhen she went back with the typescript he had her read it to him. After\nthe first few words, he interrupted sharply: \u201cBut I didn\u2019t say that.\u201d\n\u201cOh, Mr. Shaw,\u201d she said, batting her big brown eyes, \u201cI\u2019m so nervous\njust being in your presence. What was it you said before?\u201d He repeated\nthe sentence, which she carefully inserted, and then read another line\nor two before the irate Irishman pulled her up short again.\nThis performance went on for some minutes longer before GBS took the\nmanuscript from her hand. \u201cGive it to me--I\u2019ll write it myself,\u201d he\nsaid firmly, proceeding to do just that. But Louella wasn\u2019t through\nyet. When he handed back the completed article to her, she asked: \u201cOh,\nMr. Shaw, won\u2019t you please autograph it for me? It will be such a\nwonderful keepsake for my daughter, Harriet.\u201d\nHe couldn\u2019t refuse; he was writing for Hearst, too. So Miss Parsons\nscored in a triple-header. She collected the only interview Bernard\nShaw gave in the United States. She subsequently sold the article to a\nHearst magazine. And she has the autographed interview, which someday\nwill sell for another tidy sum.\nSome of us San Simeon regulars discovered that Louella isn\u2019t slow\nto take credit. When W.R. and Marion went abroad on one of the many\nvoyages they made together, we decided to throw a party for them on\ntheir return. We intended it as a gesture of thanks for all the parties\nof theirs that we\u2019d enjoyed. We put on a terrific evening at the\nAmbassador Hotel, with its rooms crammed with flowers and cockatoos,\nand split the bill between us: $175 apiece. Louella was one of the\nparty, and I\u2019ll be damned if she didn\u2019t write an article for a national\nmagazine taking credit for it.\nShe owed a lot to Marion Davies. It was an article praising Marion in\n_When Knighthood Was in Flower_ that got Louella started with Hearst.\nIt caught W.R.\u2019s eye and prompted him to hire her away from her $110 a\nweek as movie reporter on the New York _Telegraph_ into working for him\nat more than twice the salary. Over the years Marion shielded Louella\nfrom boss trouble more than once. After W.R. died in 1951, she was\namong those who didn\u2019t exactly hurry to give Marion sympathy.\nShe did ring the doorbell, however, immediately after Marion had\nappeared on my television show. She arrived at her house bearing as a\ngift a photograph of herself in a heavy silver frame. She proceeded\nto place it in full view on a table in the front hall, taking star\nposition ahead of an autographed portrait of General Douglas MacArthur.\nMarion asked me to take a look when I arrived soon after Louella had\nleft. I carried it back to the library, where Marion was sitting. \u201cDo\nyou want this?\u201d\n\u201cNo,\u201d she said quizzically. I took the frame home to substitute a\nphotograph of Marion standing beside me on the TV show, returning the\nold frame and new picture to her the following day.\nLouella didn\u2019t regard me as a serious rival when I got started as a\ncolumnist in 1938. Andy Harvey, in MGM\u2019s publicity department, had\nrecommended me to Howard Denby of the _Esquire_ syndicate: \u201cWhen we\nwant the low-down on our stars, we get it from Hedda Hopper.\u201d I was\nsigned by Mr. Denby and sold to thirteen papers straightaway, the first\nto buy being the Los Angeles _Times_.\nThe betting in town after column number one appeared was that I\nwouldn\u2019t last a week. My mistake was being too kind to everybody. I\ndidn\u2019t tell the whole truth--only the good. I set out to write about my\nfellows in terms of sweetness and light, not reality. I began:\n    Just twenty-three years ago my son was born. Since then I\u2019ve\n    acted in Broadway plays. Sold Liberty Bonds in Grand Central\n    Station. Knitted socks for soldiers--which they wore as\n    sweaters. Made very bad speeches on the steps of the New York\n    Library. Helped build a snowman on Forty-second Street ... when\n    the streetcars were frozen solidly in their tracks. Earned\n    money for one year as a prima donna in _The Quaker Girl_ with\n    only two tones in my voice, high and low--very low. Played in\n    _Virtuous Wives_, Louis B. Mayer\u2019s first motion picture.\n    I\u2019ve worked with practically every star in Hollywood. Sold\n    real estate here--made it pay, too, but not lately. Was a\n    contributor to one of the monthly magazines. Did special\n    articles for the Washington _Herald_. With a friend, wrote a\n    one-act play. Through pull had it produced at the Writers\u2019 Club\n    and was it panned! Ran for a political job here; thank goodness\n    the citizens had a better idea! Coached Jan Kiepura in diction.\n    Learned about the beauty business from Elizabeth Arden in her\n    Fifth Avenue salon. Made three trips abroad, one to England on\n    business. Put on fashion shows. Have a radio program.\n    And today I begin laboring in a new field and am hoping it\n    will bring me as much happiness as that major event which\n    took place twenty-three years ago. I can only write about\n    the Hollywood I know. About my neighbors and fellow workers.\n    Amazing stories have been written--many true. Hollywood is mad,\n    gay, heartbreakingly silly, but you can\u2019t satirize a satire.\n    And that\u2019s Hollywood....\nI was green as grass, and the town jeered at me. Luckily, I had a\ngood friend at my side. Wonderful Ida Koverman carried the title of\nexecutive assistant to Louis B. Mayer, but she was the real power\nbehind his throne. To all intent and purpose, she ran MGM. Two\nmonths after my launching, when I was sinking slowly in an ocean of\nkind words for everybody, she gave a hen party for me. On the guest\nlist were Norma Shearer, Jeanette MacDonald, singer Rosa Ponselle,\nClaudette Colbert, Joan Crawford, Sophie Tucker, press people,\npublic-relations people--every woman you could think of. There was only\none holdout--Louella.\nIt was a night to remember. A forest fire was blazing in the hills,\nand the sky was lit with flame. I was burning, too. Ida had just set\nme straight about column writing. \u201cThey\u2019ve laughed at you long enough.\nYou\u2019ve been too nice to people. Now start telling the truth.\u201d\nThat was the best advice she ever gave me. It marked a turning point.\nMy telephone started ringing like a fire alarm every day soon after.\n\u201cHedda,\u201d the callers would moan, \u201chow can you print such things about\nme?\u201d\n\u201cIt\u2019s true, isn\u2019t it?\u201d\n\u201cYes, but you\u2019re my friend. I didn\u2019t think you\u2019d tell.\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019m earning my living with my column. I\u2019ve got to tell the truth. You\ndidn\u2019t call when I wrote sweet nothings about you, did you? If you\ncan\u2019t face facts, then I\u2019m sorry.\u201d\nThe column began to grow almost instantly, on the way up to its present\nreadership of 35,000,000 people, which came about after I switched\nfrom _Esquire_ to the Des Moines _Register & Tribune_, then in 1942 to\nChicago _Tribune_-New York _News_ syndication. (If I stop to think of\nthat audience figure, I get so scared I can\u2019t write a line until I\u2019ve\npushed the arithmetic out of my mind.)\nLouella prepared for a fight. She had an intelligence service\nthat included telegraph operators, telephone switchboard girls,\nbeauty-parlor assistants, hotel bus boys, doctors\u2019 and dentists\u2019\nreceptionists. Her medical-intelligence chief was her husband, Dr.\nHarry Watson Martin. She called him Docky or Docky-Wocky. He was often\nknown as Lolly\u2019s Pop. His special field earlier had been venereal\ndisease and urology, his hobby was show business, and he retired as\nhead of the Twentieth Century-Fox medical department.\nDocky had the friendship of everybody, along with a certain\nnonchalance. He once took a dive into the Bimini Bath pool when it\nlacked a single drop of water, broke his neck, and lived to marry\nLouella in 1929. He displayed a similar unconcern about water one\nmorning when Louella, dressed up to go ashore for Mass, made her\ncautious way down the gangplank of a yacht in Catalina Harbor straight\ninto the sea. Docky was waiting in the dinghy, engrossed in the Sunday\npapers. \u201cReady to go, dear?\u201d he asked, not raising his head until her\nsplashing drew him to her rescue.\nLeaving a party, Docky once fell flat on the floor and lay there,\ncomfortable enough. When a friend came forward to hoist him up, Louella\nput out a restraining hand. \u201cOh, don\u2019t touch him, please. He has to\noperate at eight o\u2019clock this morning.\u201d\nThrough Docky\u2019s good offices, Louella had a tie-in with testing\nlaboratories, notably those making rabbit tests for pregnancy. This\nprivate line into the womb could give her news that a star was pregnant\nbefore the girl knew it herself.\nBut I had sleuths on my side, too. As an actress, I knew directors,\nproducers, stars, and the men and women who worked on the other side\nof the cameras. One special ally was Mark Hellinger, a hard-boiled\ncolumnist for the New York _Daily News_ before he became a gentle,\nkind, and great producer for Warner Brothers and Universal.\nHe called me over to his house for an off-the-record conference and\noffered to help \u201cbecause you\u2019re going to need it.\u201d He said: \u201cI don\u2019t\nsomehow care for what Miss Parsons stands for. Whenever I hear a story\nat the studio, I\u2019ll pass it on to you. I shan\u2019t be able to call you\nthrough the switchboard, so I\u2019ll give it to you from a private booth.\nThere won\u2019t be time for questions, but you\u2019ll get the truth.\u201d\nThe scoops I had on the affairs of Warner Brothers nearly drove Jack\nWarner out of his cotton-picking mind. He could never make out how it\nhappened. When he reads this, he\u2019ll know.\nLouella watched her monopoly start to crack. If she was asked to a\nparty, she\u2019d want to know whether I was going to be invited. If I was,\nshe\u2019d demand that I be excluded \u201cor else I certainly shan\u2019t come.\u201d\nSome timid hostesses fell for that. I laughed in their faces for their\ncowardice.\nAnxious to break her hold, producers were steering my way more and\nmore of the items that had previously been hers alone--the news of\nengagements, weddings, pregnancies, and divorces that made up a fat\nshare of her daily diet. An engagement announced first to Louella had\nbeen good for six months of smiles for the happy couple. An exclusive\non a pregnancy was even better--the mother-to-be could count on nine\nmonths\u2019 favorable notice, which could be extended if she gave Lolly a\nbeat on the birth announcement, too.\nThe competition she was getting didn\u2019t make her any fonder of me. When\nJean Parker was about to marry for the second time, she telephoned me:\n\u201cI want you to have this exclusively.\u201d\n\u201cNo,\u201d I warned her, \u201cyou must tell Louella.\u201d\n\u201cBut I don\u2019t want her to have it.\u201d\n\u201cYou can\u2019t afford to give it to me alone. Call her and tell her I have\nthe news, too. For your career\u2019s sake, you must.\u201d\nTen minutes later she called back, weeping. \u201cI did what you said and\ntold her I\u2019d given it to you. She said: \u2018Get it back from her, or I\nwon\u2019t print it.\u2019\u201d\n\u201cTell her she\u2019s got it exclusively, if it means so much to her,\u201d I\nsaid. \u201cWhat\u2019s one story among friends--and you\u2019ll need friends.\u201d\nIf a studio passed along a story to me that Louella thought she should\nhave, she raised the roof, if necessary going over everybody involved\nto the studio head himself: \u201cHopper was given that. I should have had\nit. Don\u2019t let it happen again.\u201d\nEven a producer as peppery as Darryl Zanuck had reservations about\ndoing anything that might antagonize her. Zanuck, at that time\nTwentieth Century-Fox production chief, thought nothing of squaring\noff and mixing it in a fist fight with a director who argued with him.\nBut when Bill Wellman, after three days of shooting on _Public Enemy_,\nurged that Eddie Wood, who was the star, should be replaced in that\ngangster epic by a newcomer who had the second lead, Jimmy Cagney, the\nfiery Zanuck flinched.\n\u201cMy God, we can\u2019t do it, Bill. Eddie\u2019s engaged to Harriet Parsons,\nLouella\u2019s daughter. Parsons will raise hell.\u201d\n\u201cYou son of a bitch,\u201d answered Bill, who\u2019s a flinty character. \u201cYou\nmean you\u2019re going to let that decide it?\u201d\n\u201cDamn it, no,\u201d said Zanuck, put on his metal. \u201cYou go and put Cagney\nin.\u201d And that\u2019s how two men with guts turned an ex-chorus boy into a\nstar.\nHarriet married not Eddie Wood but King Kennedy. There were more\nstars in attendance than there are in the Milky Way when the two of\nthem became man and wife at Marsden Farms in the San Fernando Valley\nin September 1939. Some of the guests were old-timers like Rudy\nVallee, Billy Haines, Aileen Pringle, Frances Marion, and myself. The\nphotographers ignored us completely, to the point where Billy got\nspitting mad.\nHe went up to Hymie Fink, who had been the town\u2019s best still\nphotographer since Valentino\u2019s day. \u201cWe\u2019ll each give you five bucks if\nyou\u2019ll take a picture of us,\u201d Billy offered. But Hymie couldn\u2019t do it.\nHe had his orders, he said. After Mr. and Mrs. Kennedy were divorced in\n1944, King came to work for me as leg man, covering the studios for a\nwhile, but I insisted that he get Louella\u2019s consent before I hired him.\nNot many men had the courage of Bill Wellman and Darryl Zanuck. I was\nin a roomful of faint hearts at a party the Gary Coopers gave when\nGene Tierney made a beeline for me: \u201cI\u2019ve been trying to get you all\nafternoon to tell you I\u2019m going to have another baby.\u201d\nThat was wonderful news. Louella and I both knew that Gene\u2019s first\nchild, a beautiful little girl, had been born with a sleeping mind--it\nwas one of the many blows that life dealt Gene, who finally cracked\nunder the torment and needed psychiatric care. I hustled to the\ntelephone, but it was tied up with a call to Henry Hathaway, who was\na patient at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. By the time I\ngot through to the _Times_ night desk, Gene was nowhere to be found to\nverify her news for the paper. But Louella had barged over to me and\nwas hanging on like a limpet.\nNext morning I heard what had happened. Gene\u2019s studio had given the\nstory of the forthcoming baby exclusively to Louella the previous\nafternoon. When she heard Gene had told me, she had flounced over to\nthe poor girl and delivered a tongue lashing so violent that Gene had\ncollapsed into tears. Gary Cooper had been in another room and didn\u2019t\nhear it, but of the whole mob of Hollywood heroes who listened to\nLouella, not one lifted a voice or a finger to help Gene. Fear of their\nown precious skins kept them as dumb as mutes at a funeral.\nEven Frank Sinatra had to come to terms with Louella in her heyday. He\nstood high in her disfavor for months. It seemed there was nothing he\ncould do to stop the attacks she made on him. I thought I might be able\nto help, so I suggested through Perry Charles, his agent, that Frank\nshould call Marion and arrange to meet Hearst. The meeting came about,\nand Frank made a good impression. The order was passed down from San\nSimeon, and Miss Parsons suddenly discovered that Sinatra was nowhere\nnear as black as she\u2019d imagined him.\nClark Gable and Carole Lombard flouted the \u201cfirst to know\u201d rule\nLouella had laid down when they set their wedding day to coincide\nwith Louella\u2019s absence from town--she\u2019d gone off on a trip to San\nFrancisco. She was on the train coming home when she got the news that\nthey were married. \u201cIt can\u2019t be true,\u201d she gasped. \u201cThey would have\ntold me first.\u201d\nBut Clark had given the story to all newspapers simultaneously to avoid\nany bickering over who should have first whack. She took such a dim\nview of that, though, that the Gables felt they had to make up to her\nby means of a distinctly unusual present: They had her bathroom done\nover with mirrored walls and brand-new plumbing.\nOrson Welles is one of the few who never gave a damn for her. When he\nwas making _Citizen Kane_, a picture with a striking resemblance to the\nlife of William Randolph Hearst, he persuaded Louella that the story\nwas something entirely unconnected with her chief. I wasn\u2019t convinced\nso easily, and Orson finally agreed to let me see the first screening\nof the finished product in a private projection room of RKO. What I saw\nappalled me.\nW.R. had been a friend to me for years. So had Orson, ever since I\u2019d\nbeen a struggling actress and he\u2019d gone out of his way to be kind to my\nson Bill, who was a struggling young actor. When Hearst learned that\nI\u2019d been hired as a columnist, he said: \u201cWhy didn\u2019t you come to me? I\ndidn\u2019t know you wanted to write a column. I\u2019d have given you one.\u201d\n\u201cHave I ever asked you for anything?\u201d \u201cNo,\u201d he said. \u201cWhat makes you\nthink I\u2019d ask for anything as important as this is to me?\u201d\n\u201cEverybody else asks for things. Why not you?\u201d\n\u201cI don\u2019t ask,\u201d I said. Then he wrote me this, to which I didn\u2019t reply:\n    My dear Hedda:\n    I am glad you are going to do some work for the _Esquire_\n    Syndicate. The _Esquire_ people are very clever. They produce a\n    fine publication and they know good stuff.\n    I always thought that the stuff you did for the Washington\n    paper was extremely good.\n    It was accurate, interesting, and high-grade. It appealed to\n    intelligent people, who like the movies--and there are lots\n    of them. So many moving-picture commentators write down to the\n    level of the movies, as they call it.\n    I always figure, however, that these commentators write down\n    because they cannot write up.\n    Best wishes. I will look for your column.\nAfter the screening Orson asked how I liked it. \u201cYou won\u2019t get away\nwith it,\u201d I said. But he arrogantly insisted that he would. It was his\narrogance that decided which of two friendships had to come out ahead.\nI put in a call to Oscar Lawler, a great friend of mine and one of\nW.R.\u2019s attorneys, to tell him about _Citizen Kane_ and what Orson was\nup to.\nAs soon as word was passed along to W.R., he telephoned Louella. When\nshe heard I\u2019d seen the picture already and that, contrary to the\nassurances she\u2019d given him, it had a great deal to do with the chief\u2019s\naffairs, the sky fell in on her. He commanded her to have it screened\nfor Oscar Lawler and herself. After the showing she begged the attorney\nto go home with her to help describe to Hearst what they had seen, but\nhe declined. She had to get on the telephone herself to San Simeon,\njust as later she made many calls, including one to Nelson Rockefeller,\nin a battle royal to keep _Citizen Kane_ out of Radio City Music Hall,\nwhich is part of Rockefeller Center, and every other movie theater.\nIf W.R. had taken Oscar Lawler\u2019s advice to ignore _Kane_, it might\nnever have received the attention it won when, breaking the boycott\nten months later, it was shown around the world, won a Best Picture of\nthe Year award, and, as late as 1958, was named as one of the greatest\nmovies ever made. But on W.R.\u2019s orders Orson Welles\u2019 name went on the\nHearst Silent List of people about whom Louella could never say a kind\nword.\nThe black list constantly makes its presence felt. When Nunnally\nJohnson aided and abetted in a blistering article about her that\nappeared in the _Saturday Evening Post_, she hit back at his wife.\n\u201cI ran into Dorris Bowdon last night,\u201d she wrote. \u201cShe used to be such\na pretty girl before she married.\u201d Joan Crawford, Nelson Eddy, Jimmy\nCagney, and Ava Gardner have all had the treatment.\nBette Davis and I were administered a slap on the wrist after I\ntracked her down to Laguna, where she holed up, refusing to talk to\nnewspapers, following the birth of her May Day baby in 1947. The door\nof the cottage was open, so I walked in, and we talked for hours. The\nnext week Louella wrote: \u201cSince Bette Davis has had so many unwelcome\nvisitors, she has had to have her gate padlocked.\u201d\nAs a present for the baby, Jack Warner sent Bette an add-a-pearl\nnecklace with five pearls on it and space for the donor to add another\neach birthday. Recently I asked Bette if her daughter\u2019s necklace was\nstill growing. She gave that raucous laugh of hers and replied: \u201cIt\u2019s\njust the size it was the day you came to visit me.\u201d\nPersonally, like Louella, I\u2019ve found that silence is the greatest blow\nyou can deliver to a Hollywood ego when it needs whacking down to size.\nNot to mention the name of a star drives him half out of his mind;\nthey live and die by publicity. Not even producers are immune, as Sam\nGoldwyn demonstrated. He cabled me once from Hawaii, where my day\u2019s\neight hundred words apparently were read so faithfully that even when\nwartime restrictions limited the paper there to four pages, I had to\nbe squeezed in somehow. Sam complained: NAME NOT IN COLUMN FOR WEEK\nSTOP THEY DO NOT THINK I\u2019M IMPORTANT OVER HERE STOP PLEASE DO SOMETHING\nABOUT IT.\nGinger Rogers and Ronald Colman were both excommunicated by Louella for\nyears for their effrontery in refusing to appear on her former radio\nshow, \u201cHollywood Hotel.\u201d As mistress of ceremonies, she collected $2500\na week and the stars appeared free. If any star balked, the producers\nhastened to Louella\u2019s aid by putting the pressure on until that star\nwas convinced of the error of his ways. Total value of the free talent\nhas been estimated by better mathematicians than I at $2,000,000. For a\nwhile, her sponsor, a soup company, was delighted to pay a weekly tab\nof about $12,000 for a show which, without her, would have cost well\nBut after the soup maker had been replaced by a soap maker and the show\nhad been restyled as \u201cHollywood Premieres,\u201d the Screen Actors Guild\nplucked up its corporate courage to do what only Ginger and Colman had\ndared. The Guild ruled that Louella had to pay her guests, and thirteen\nweeks later the program was off the air.\nShe showed her power when Mary Pickford organized a radio spectacular,\nto be sponsored by a milk company, to benefit the Motion Picture Home,\nwhere poverty drives so many veterans of the movie business. Gable and\ndozens of other stars wanted to appear, but Louella got busy on her\ntelephones. Mary had to back down and cancel the program with the stars\nin her living room waiting to go on.\nFor one of my radio series I wanted to hit up the competitive theme,\nwhich press agents had originally invented. They rubbed their hands\nwhen I got started because, by having us fight, they thought they could\nget double space and play off one columnist against the other.\nLouella didn\u2019t seem to sense what they were up to. I said: \u201cLet\u2019s take\na tip from Jack Benny and Fred Allen and whip up a feud. We could have\na mountain of fun. It would increase our audience ratings, and we might\nget a salary increase out of it. Supposing on the first show we staged\na battle royal and both got carried out on stretchers....\u201d But Louella\nwouldn\u2019t play.\nHabit dies hard with her if she is invited to appear with me for a\nphotograph, still shot, or movie. When Charles Brackett and Billy\nWilder wanted us to appear together in _Sunset Boulevard_ as reporters\nbreaking the news of the murder, they extended the first bid to me. I\nbegan scheming a scene in which she and I would rush for a telephone\nsimultaneously. Then I would trip and say sweetly: \u201cAfter you,\nLouella.\u201d\nWhen she got her invitation and was told I had already been signed, she\nstormed: \u201cGet her off. I won\u2019t be in it if she is.\u201d They would have\nnone of that, so Miss Parsons did not appear in _Sunset Boulevard_. And\nshe didn\u2019t mention the picture in her column for months.\nShe didn\u2019t know what to do when _Time_ ran a cover story and a cover\nportrait along with ten columns of some highly flattering prose\nabout yours sincerely. (Hopper \u201cis a self-appointed judge and censor\nof all that goes on in Hollywood,\u201d said _Time_, \u201cand she carries\nout her assignment with a hey nonny-nonny and the old one-two.\u201d) In\nfrustration, Louella took to her bed.\nThe studios were in a panic. They couldn\u2019t afford to have Louella out\nof action. She\u2019s too useful to them. They know how to handle her, where\nI\u2019m a tougher nut to crack. If she lays hold of a scandal, she does\nnot print it unless the studio involved is willing. When scandal comes\nin range of my telescope, I\u2019ll print it so long as it\u2019s news and true.\nPress agents can\u2019t stand it; the business they\u2019re in should be called\nsuppress agentry. They\u2019ve suppressed far more than they\u2019ve ever passed\nout as news. In the olden days, when Louella reigned alone, there was a\nmighty load to suppress, too.\nAs she slid into a decline through sheer aggravation over _Time_, her\nspirits were rapidly restored by a suggestion put up by Adela Rogers\nSt. John, the magazine writer: \u201cGive Louella the most wonderful dinner\nparty Hollywood has seen, then maybe she\u2019ll forget about the cover\nstory.\u201d\nNow Louella has accepted every conceivable and inconceivable degree,\ndoctorate, scroll, and plaque held out by college or corporation.\nTestimonial dinners to her are routine, though Eddie Cantor may have\nsaid a little more than he meant at a Masquers Club event celebrating\nher thirtieth anniversary as a columnist when he conceded: \u201cI am here\nfor the same reason everybody else is--we were afraid not to come.\u201d\nThe idea of putting on a super-size testimonial caught on with every\nproducer who heard about it. The Ambassador Hotel\u2019s Cocoanut Grove was\nhired and treated to a face lift for the big event. It was originally\nplanned to collect $25 from each of the hundreds of guests who sat\namong the papier-m\u00e2ch\u00e9 monkeys and imitation palm trees, but when\nHearst heard about it, he footed the whole bill.\n_Daily Variety_ did the evening up proud: \u201cThe guest list was the\nWho\u2019s Who of motion pictures, and even the oldest old-timer could not\nrecall when so many reigning stars of the past, present, and future, in\ntoto, as well as agents, press agents, producers, directors, authors,\ndistributors, studio chiefs, ma\u00eetres d\u2019h\u00f4tel, the mayor, and governor\nall got together in one room. Flanked by industry leaders, Miss Parsons\nsat on a garland-strewn dais and listened to oratory in which no\nadjectives were spared.\u201d\nAs a climax, Louella collected a gold plaque with an engraved\ninscription to her \u201ccourage, accuracy, fairness and curiosity.\u201d\n_Time\u2019s_ account noted: \u201cSuch well-established stars as Clark Gable and\nCary Grant allowed themselves the liberty of not attending.\u201d\nAll I know about it, I read in the papers. I wasn\u2019t invited. Neither\nwas Adela Rogers St. John.\nMy modest contribution to the welfare of Louella and her family took\nthe form of some column paragraphs that appeared soon after the\nCocoanut Grove whingding: \u201c_I Remember Mama_, and you will, too, when\nyou have seen the film. With all the elements of good theater and good\ncinema, humor, humanity and hominess, it will be hard to forget ... to\nHarriet Parsons, who found the story and produced the picture, must go\na lot of credit....\u201d\nThat was the final chapter in a story that had started four years\nearlier. Harriet is an only child; her father was John Parsons, who\ndied following the breakup of Louella\u2019s first marriage, before Docky\ncame on the scene. RKO had signed Harriet as a producer, and she set to\nwork delving into the studio\u2019s files, looking for likely properties.\nShe dug out _The Enchanted Cottage_, had it prepared for the screen,\narranged a deal with Sam Goldwyn to borrow Teresa Wright as the\nheroine. Then suddenly it was snatched away from her and given to\nanother writer-producer.\nUndeterred, she went back to the files and excavated a story called\n_Mama\u2019s Bank Account_, which was retitled _I Remember Mama_, and lined\nup Katina Paxinou to play in it. That, too, was grabbed from her by\nRKO. At that point, I stepped in with a column item relating Harriet\u2019s\nmisfortunes and asking: \u201cWhat goes on? Harriet\u2019s clever, and I think\nthis is shabby treatment, even for Hollywood.\u201d\nThe day after the item appeared _The Enchanted Cottage_ was returned to\nher--it was a big success when she produced it--and she got _I Remember\nMama_ back, too. Louella had been restored in health and spirit in time\nto attend the preview, though in a seat removed from mine. \u201cI expect\nHarriet\u2019s picture will be very good,\u201d she confided to a friend, \u201cbut I\nknow one person here who won\u2019t give it a good review.\u201d\nHarriet was in New York, where she read my notice in the News. She\ntelephoned her mother. \u201cHave you read Hedda\u2019s column?\u201d\n\u201cNo, I never read that column,\u201d Louella sniffed.\n\u201cShe\u2019s done what nobody else would do for me. I want you to call her\nand thank her for me.\u201d Louella did, and we arranged a peace parley over\na luncheon table at Romanoff\u2019s for one o\u2019clock the following day. When\nshe walked in, a bit late as usual, every chin in the place dropped.\nHasty telephone calls brought in a mob of patrons who stood six deep at\nthe bar to witness our version of the signing of the Versailles Peace\nTreaty. Nobody moved until we left arm in arm two hours later.\nHarriet, whom I\u2019ll always like, wired: YOU AND MA WOULD MANAGE TO TOP\nME STOP YOUR HISTORIC LUNCH HAS NOW CROWDED I REMEMBER MAMA OFF THE\nFRONT PAGE STOP YOU GALS MIGHT HAVE WAITED FOR BABY. After that, she\nwon a ten-year contract at RKO. But peace between Louella and me wasn\u2019t\nwonderful enough to last very long.\nThe flames of our relationship blazed merrily one Christmas when a\nstudio head unwittingly poured fuel oil on. Louella and I are on the\nsame list for good-will offerings from studios, which fill my living\nroom from floor to ceiling every season.\nOne Christmas just before Ernie Pyle went off on his last visit to the\nSouth Pacific, he came to call on me with some friends. After a few\ndrinks in the den, I said: \u201cErnie, do you want to see what fear can\nbring a female in this town?\u201d\nWe went into my living room. He looked in wonder at the loot and said\nsoftly: \u201cI don\u2019t believe it. I just don\u2019t believe it.\u201d\nNot every female star gets carried away with generosity. Doris Day\nonce sent me boxes of gift-wrapped chocolate-covered pretzels, and\nRosalind Russell a fist-sized hunk of coral such as you\u2019d find in a\nfish bowl. Louella\u2019s loot exceeds mine. Once, I\u2019m told, she collected\nan automobile.\nOne unlucky studio chief had bought expensive handbags for each of us,\nbut they got switched in delivery. When I telephoned to thank him and\nincluded a glowing description of the bag, I could hear his face fall.\n\u201cBut that\u2019s Louella\u2019s,\u201d he moaned. \u201cWill you be a doll and send it on\nto her and explain?\u201d\n\u201cLike the devil I will,\u201d I countered crisply. Louella is certain to\nthis day that I got a better present than she did. Another store\u2019s\nmistake brought me two handsome cut-crystal decanters for another\nYuletide, one engraved HH, the other LOP. \u201cWould you return hers to\nme?\u201d said their donor.\n\u201cNot for the world. It makes such a gay conversation piece when I\ncan ask a guest: \u2018Would you like some Jack Daniels out of Louella\u2019s\nbottle?\u2019\u201d\nI regard her ungrudgingly as a good reporter, though she doesn\u2019t always\nget her facts straight where I\u2019m concerned. (Nor do I sometimes.)\nShe invariably pretends that I am published only in the Los Angeles\n_Times_, so her followers won\u2019t know about the syndicate, which gives\nHopper a considerable edge in readership.\nShe has sometimes been tripped by her own prose. When Warners years\nago chose Alan Mowbray to play George Washington in _Alexander\nHamilton_, she took aim and fired: \u201cIt seems strange to me that an\nEnglishman would be cast as the father of our country.\u201d During the\ndays when Mussolini invaded Albania and lives were snuffed out by the\nthousands, she decided: \u201cThe deadly dullness of the past week was\nlifted today when Darryl Zanuck announced he had bought all rights to\n_The Blue Bird_ for Shirley Temple.\u201d\nIn a reminiscent mood she noted: \u201cI don\u2019t know how many of my readers\nremember John Barrymore and Dolores Costello in _Trilby_, the George\nDu Maunier story, but my mind goes back to John just loving the part\nof Svengali, wearing a black beard and hypnotizing the artist\u2019s model\nwho could only sing when he cast his baleful eye on her.\u201d As Irving\nHoffman recalled: \u201cThere wasn\u2019t a thing wrong in the story except that\nthe name of the picture was _Svengali_, not _Trilby_, the leading lady\nwas Marian Marsh, not Dolores Costello ... du Maurier wrote it, not Du\nMaunier.\u201d\nLouella left me with egg on my face with her exclusive story that\nIngrid Bergman was going to have a baby by Roberto Rossellini while she\nwas still the wife of Dr. Peter Lindstrom. This, a few months after I\u2019d\ninterviewed Bergman at the scene of the crime and left Rome convinced\nby her that Italian newspapers had lied in their linotypes when they\ncalled her pregnant.\nI will always believe that Joe Steele (the press agent employed both by\nher and her studio boss, Howard Hughes) subsequently told the truth to\nLouella. When her scoop appeared and the newspapers were hunting for\nJoe, they couldn\u2019t find him. Seems she had persuaded him he was in bad\nshape, made sure he didn\u2019t suffer thirst or hunger, then kept him safe\nand sound for three days away from her competitors.\nAfter her story had been spread to the world, it seemed like a good\nidea to do something to help Ingrid, who wanted a quick divorce so\nthat her baby could be spared at least a part of the stigma. I thought\nthat perhaps she could be smuggled by plane out of Italy to some other\ncountry, where only friends would know exactly when or if the child\nwas born.\nPlans were going beautifully when the plan was broached to Ingrid.\nShe refused to have anything to do with it. She would have her child\nproudly, she said, and if anyone didn\u2019t like the idea he could lump it.\nIn 1951, Docky Martin died of cancer in Cedars of Lebanon Hospital. It\nwas a crushing blow for Louella. Not long ago, she found herself there,\ntoo, for an operation. The feebleness in her voice alarmed me. \u201cI\u2019m so\ntired of this place,\u201d she said, \u201cand I\u2019m so sick.\u201d\nI had a word with Harry Brand, publicity director of Twentieth\nCentury-Fox and a good friend to Louella and Docky: \u201cIf you want her to\nlive, you\u2019d better get her out of that hospital. Either she\u2019s in the\nsame room that Docky had or one exactly like it. She\u2019ll never recover\nuntil she\u2019s moved.\u201d\nNobody apparently had thought of that. She was out of there and into\nthe Beverly Hills Hotel the next day. Her column power is still potent,\nbut the times and temper of Hollywood have changed. Though she doesn\u2019t\nchange, you can\u2019t help but feel sorry for her. She still belabors her\nenemies and coos over her intimates: Mervyn LeRoy, Jimmy McHugh, Cobina\nWright, all the Catholic \u201cA\u201d group that includes Loretta Young, Irene\nDunne, Dolores Hope. She still pretends not to read Hopper, but when I\nbroke the news of Kay Gable\u2019s pregnancy, on the strength of a tip from\na crew member on _The Misfits_, Louella must have read the item and put\nin a call instantly to Kay, begging to be the child\u2019s godmother. At the\nbaptism her hands were so shaky we were scared stiff she\u2019d let young\nJohn Clark Gable fall on the floor by the font.\nLouella claims that the people she writes about are all her dear, dear\nfriends, a total she once estimated at 312. My taste runs closer to\nthat of Dema Harshbarger, my manager, whom I have known since she first\nput me on radio. \u201cI have three friends in the world,\u201d says Dema, \u201cand\nI don\u2019t want any more. The average Hollywood friendship today wouldn\u2019t\nbuy you a ham sandwich.\u201d\n_Five_\nOne of the legends that haunts the typewriters of most of Hollywood\u2019s\nfive hundred resident reporters and columnists insists that our town\nis just like Podunk, a typical American community with a heart as big\nas Cinerama. (Are you there, Louella?) This is true, of course--give\nor take a few billion dollars a year. Provided Podunk can muster three\ndozen and more Rolls-Royces outside a movie house for a new picture\nopening. And pay a good cook $500 a week to steal her away from the\nbest friend. And produce half a dozen houses with built-in pipe organs\nand one with wood-burning fireplaces in both the master and children\u2019s\nbathrooms--it used to belong to Maggie Sullavan and Leland Hayward but\nFred MacMurray owns it now.\nIf the majority of people in Podunk worship money like a god, then\nthere isn\u2019t much to choose between us. Take a man like Dean Martin. If\nPodunkians judge their fellows by how many dollars they earn, then Dean\nwould be right at home. There was the day he got to arguing with his\npress agent about Albert Einstein.\n\u201cI made $20,000 last week,\u201d Dean said. \u201cWhat do you think he made?\u201d\n\u201cYou\u2019re right,\u201d said the press agent, a thoughtful soul. \u201cThat\nEinstein\u2019s a dummy. I bet he never earned more than $12,000 a year in\nhis whole life. He\u2019s got to be an idiot.\u201d Dean had the grace to grin.\nIn Hollywood, where the love of money can change people\u2019s nature every\nbit as fast as in Podunk, he has a reputation for cool blood behind his\nbeaming Italian charm.\nHe isn\u2019t alone in his class. It\u2019s an obvious weakness among singers.\nPerry Como, for instance, sets few records for making appearances for\ncharity. Bing Crosby, who enjoys almost nothing about his profession\nexcept the income it brings him, can\u2019t be dragged to a benefit. It took\nhis fiery little Irish mother, Kate, to push him out of his house to\none Academy Awards show when he was at the top of his career. \u201cYou\u2019ll\ngo,\u201d she threatened, \u201cor you\u2019ll never hear the last of it from me.\u201d\nKate was a woman to be reckoned with and still is. That was the night\nBing got his Oscar for _Going My Way_.\nJerry Lewis on one occasion begged one big star to join him in New York\non an all-night telethon to raise funds in a muscular-dystrophy drive.\n\u201cYou know what you can do with those crippled kids,\u201d was the response\nhe received from this father of a big family, who has a reputation for\ncharming birds off trees.\nSome of our inhabitants cherish the quaint idea that the number of\ncharity performances he gives is an accurate yardstick for measuring\nan entertainer\u2019s heart. More accurate, anyway, than the size of his\nbank account. It\u2019s easy to sing a song or two, harder to stand up and\nbe funny for half an hour. Yet the comics measure up well; Jack Benny,\nRed Skelton, Jerry Lewis, George Burns--all knock themselves out in the\nsweet cause of charity.\nOur number-one citizen on that score is Bob Hope, and we\u2019re proud as\npeacocks of him. There isn\u2019t a place in the world he wouldn\u2019t fly to\nfor charity and work without drawing a nickel. He\u2019s ham enough to love\nthe publicity it brings him, but he does a monumental amount of good.\nBob has literally made the millions that everybody believes Bing has\nstashed away in the vaults.\nMoney is talked about in our town more than elsewhere, perhaps, because\nthere\u2019s more of it around. Bob, who could safely be called thrifty,\nhas splurged on a private three-hole golf course valued at more than\n$100,000. Elvis Presley owns fifteen automobiles, including an all-pink\nCadillac with a television and hi-fi set. Beverly Hills High School has\nan oil well on its campus which brings in $18,000 a year.\nBeverly Hills is an oasis of thirty thousand inhabitants and thirty\nthousand trees set in the steppes of Los Angeles. Many of its people\nearn their living in the entertainment industry or as doctors, lawyers,\nagents, soothsayers and headshrinkers, living on the backs of the\nothers. Most of the trees that line the sidewalks are palms, though\nmagnolias, eucalyptus, and acacias thrive in the gardens, and the\nevening scent of pittosporum drifts over the streets as sweet as the\nsong of nightingales.\nIt\u2019s a separate community with its own schools, police, firemen, and\nlocal government. As a contented resident, I\u2019m happy to say that it\nenjoys the lowest tax rate for miles around. I am not so happy to\nreport that in our town, where there\u2019s at least one Olympic-size pool\nto the block, and sometimes five, Esther Williams found nobody she\nasked would give her the regular use of one for classes in teaching\nblind children to swim. She finally found a pool in Santa Monica,\nthirty minutes\u2019 drive away, two days a week.\nActing as a kind of buffer between Beverly Hills and Los Angeles proper\nis Hollywood, with a population of some quarter of a million, which is\nthe workplace of most of the stars who live in Beverly Hills. The rest\nof our population seems to be Texans, who are flocking in and who can\nusually leave the movie colony standing with dust on their faces when\nit comes to worshiping the golden calf.\nUp until the early days of this century, Beverly Hills saw more\ncoyotes than dollar bills. It was a Spanish-owned wilderness of remote\ncanyons and tumbleweed. Then in 1906 it was bought for $670,000 by its\nAmerican founders, who sold off lots at $1000 apiece on the installment\nplan, $800 if you paid cash; those lots sell now for $50,000. The big\nspending didn\u2019t start until soon after World War I ended, but long\nbefore that Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks had bought a whole\nhilltop on Summit Drive together with the hunting lodge that stood\nthere. They spent hundreds of thousands on the place that we called\n\u201cThe White House\u201d--Pickfair.\nDoug itched to put a wall all the way around Beverly Hills, but he\ncompromised by simply encircling their estate. He and Mary literally\nmade their home a palace. They were America\u2019s royalty and were treated\nas such in their own country and overseas. Kings and queens entertained\nthem; they rode in Mussolini\u2019s private train. At Pickfair they\nentertained visiting bluebloods.\nThe Duke and Duchess of Alba stayed there, but they left a week early\nbecause the duke discovered, to his chagrin, that the armfuls of cuddly\nHollywood blondes he\u2019d been expecting were not permitted through\nPickfair\u2019s portals.\nPickfair had some rich neighbors. Carl Laemmle, the half-pint immigrant\nfrom Bavaria who founded Universal-International, built an estate.\nSo did Will Rogers, Gloria Swanson, Charles Chaplin. Chaplin is\nnotoriously tight-fisted. After he\u2019d furnished most of his home on\nSummit Drive, including his own bedroom, four or five other bedrooms\nremained empty. He had the head decorator of our biggest furniture\nstore come to see the rooms and suggest their decor. Charlie had\nall the recommended furniture delivered and kept it for six months,\nignoring the bills. Finally, the store repossessed everything it had\n\u201clent\u201d him. He applied the same treatment to another store, with the\nsame final result.\nDuring this period, a titled Englishman with wife and entourage wired\nthe Douglas Fairbankses that they\u2019d be arriving at Pickfair with ten in\nparty; could they be accommodated? Pickfair hadn\u2019t room for everybody,\nso Mary telephoned Charlie, who said he\u2019d take in six of the visitors.\nBut he\u2019d forgotten that the furniture in his guest bedrooms had been\ncarted off, leaving only an old chest of drawers and mattresses and\nbedsprings on the floor of each otherwise empty room. When the guests\nsaw the accommodations he\u2019d provided for them, they were astounded;\nimagined he must be some kind of crazy health faddist, and departed\nafter one night for a hotel.\nHarold Lloyd bought his acreage direct from Mr. Benedict\nhimself--that\u2019s the old-timer who put his name on Benedict Canyon.\nThen Harold bought more adjoining land from Thomas Ince until he had\ntwenty acres of lawns and woodlands. After he married Mildred Davis,\nhis leading woman in _Grandma\u2019s Boy_, in 1923, he built a forty-room,\nSpanish-style mansion on the place, with ten bedrooms, two elevators,\na theater seating one hundred guests, and a four-room dolls\u2019 house\ncomplete with electric light, plumbing, and grand piano. Around\nthe house he had kennels for his great Danes, a swimming pool with\nfountain, two reflecting pools, and a Greek temple.\nMildred loved it all, then took a second look at the front door and\nburst into tears. What was the matter? \u201cNo keyhole!\u201d she sobbed.\nThe Lloyds still live there. When he opened the grounds for a local\ncharity a few years ago, today\u2019s generation of stars gasped at this\nglimpse of how thick the luxury could grow before income taxes gobbled\nup your pay checks. \u201cHow can he possibly afford to keep up this place?\u201d\nFrank Sinatra asked me.\n\u201cBecause he\u2019s worth millions,\u201d I said, \u201cand he holds on to them.\u201d That\nafternoon, though, $69,000 was raised for the Nursery for Visually\nHandicapped Children. At the suggestion of Walter Annenberg\u2019s mother,\nwhen things got dull, I sold endowments for thirteen scholarships to\nthe school at $1000 apiece.\nHarold, who is in his late sixties, believes that you can take it with\nyou. There is one servant, a helper and nurse for their grandchild, on\nthe place which used to employ twenty gardeners. Mildred Lloyd does\nmost of the cooking.\nStores and services soon crowded into and around Beverly Hills, to\ntap the golden stream that poured into the motion-picture industry.\nYou could buy any kind of merchandise or service at a price. Saks\nFifth Avenue, J. W. Robinson\u2019s, W. & J. Sloane eventually opened up on\nWilshire Boulevard. One lady got in ahead of them with a different kind\nof establishment on Sunset Strip, just beyond the town line; her girls,\ndressed to the teeth, were once taken on a conducted tour of the MGM\nlot. A Metro executive was appalled when, in a moment of confidence,\nshe showed him a wad of rubber checks she\u2019d been given by various male\ncustomers. They would have been a prize package for any autograph\nhound. He offered to collect the debts and split the proceeds with her.\n\u201cOh no, I couldn\u2019t allow that,\u201d she said, shocked to the marrow. \u201cIt\nwouldn\u2019t be ethical.\u201d\nShe had a competitor in the same line of business who one evening\ntelephoned a visiting English knight in the middle of a dinner party to\nsay she\u2019d seen his name in the papers and could she provide him with a\nsteady companion for his lonely hours.\nIn Beverly Hills you can call on furriers who\u2019ll be glad to sell a mink\ncoat at $20,000, a chinchilla wrap for $15,000, or an ermine-covered\ntoilet seat. You can have your hair dressed by George Masters, who\u2019ll\nbill you up to you-name-it for a home appointment, or a make-up by Gene\nHibbs, who invented an ingenious, invisible bit of nylon mesh with\na rubber band suspended from tiny hooks pulled up through your hair\nwhich, for special occasions, takes more years off your looks than\nplastic surgery.\nIf you\u2019re a celebrity anywhere, your cost of living takes a leap, but\nin our town it jumps sky high. Any star looking to buy a house tries\nto keep his identity secret until closing day or else the price will\nbe doubled. A star of the opposite sex will be charged $5000 by her\nobstetrician for delivering a baby.\nWhen Norma Shearer was first pregnant, she was aghast to hear what the\nbill would be. \u201cVery well,\u201d the doctor compromised, \u201cI\u2019ll gamble with\nyou. I\u2019ll charge $5000 for a boy, $1000 for a girl. Okay?\u201d Norma lost\nthe bet when Irving Thalberg, Jr., was born.\nSome of our citizens fall into the habits of European royalty and carry\nno money whatever in their pockets. Shirley MacLaine was working on\n_The Children\u2019s Hour_ when Sam Goldwyn invited her to dine t\u00eate-\u00e0-t\u00eate\nwith him and see a private showing of his old-time movie, _Stella\nDallas_. It provided an evening out as unsophisticated as a flour sack.\nShe told me: \u201cWhile we were looking at the picture, I started to\nscratch. I was wearing a wool dress I hadn\u2019t had on for months and\napparently it had gotten moths or something. I was afraid he\u2019d think I\nwasn\u2019t enjoying _Stella_. When we got out, he said, \u2018How about a soda?\u2019\u201d\nIn his Thunderbird they drove to Will Wright\u2019s on Sunset Boulevard. At\nthe next table some youngsters were having a ball burning holes in soda\nstraws to make improvised flutes, then blowing tunes on them. Sam asked\nfor a lesson and soon sat in to play his own straw flute.\n\u201cThe girl came with our orders,\u201d Shirley reported, \u201cand we ate them.\nThen he went through all his pockets before he finally said, \u2018You got\nany money on you?\u2019 But I\u2019d left my bag at the studio.\u201d\nHe called over the waitress, who wore her name on a lapel pin:\n\u201cNancy, have you ever been out with a male friend and been so\nembarrassed because he didn\u2019t have any money with him?\u201d Nancy smiled\nsympathetically. \u201cHow about if I sign an I.O.U. and have my wife,\nFrances, come down tomorrow to pay you?\u201d\nThat was agreed. Sam leaned over confidentially toward Shirley. \u201cSince\nwe\u2019re getting \u2019em free, let\u2019s have a couple more.\u201d They had three each\nbefore they went outside and flagged down his chauffeur, who\u2019d followed\nthem in another car.\n\u201cYou go up and tell Mrs. Goldwyn what happened here tonight,\u201d Sam\ninstructed. \u201cSay Nancy had to trust us for six sodas at thirty-five\ncents apiece. You come back with the money and see if you can\u2019t\nscrounge seventy-five cents for a tip--but don\u2019t tell Frances about the\ntip.\u201d\nEvenings were known to be gaudier in the old days. The Basil Rathbones\ngave a Louis XIV masquerade, and I was set to go as a shepherdess\ncomplete with live lamb, who had his hoofs gilded and fleece shampooed.\nI didn\u2019t get there, but that\u2019s a later story. Mrs. George Temple,\nShirley\u2019s mother, went to her first and only big Hollywood party and\nleft a new ermine coat on a bed on top of a pile of others. When the\ntime came to leave, she discovered that one distinguished guest had\nbeen taken violently ill in the bedroom with disastrous results to the\nfurs, her ermine suffering most of all.\nFor one revel at his Mulholland Drive home, Errol Flynn imported a\ntransvestite fairy dressed so skillfully as a girl that nobody guessed\nthe secret. Errol had his swimming pool lit from below and brought on\na team of high divers to brighten the evening. When his guests went\non chattering, taking not a blind bit of notice of the performance,\nhe dived headlong into the water in protest and refused to speak to\nanybody except the divers for the duration of the party.\n\u201cYou\u2019re so generous in many ways and so stingy in others,\u201d I told him,\nyears later. \u201cYou spent thousands on those parties, yet you wouldn\u2019t\nbuy a girl a box of candy or send her flowers when you could have saved\nyourself at least five lawsuits with a single rose each time.\u201d\nHe worshiped John Barrymore and deliberately started the rumor that he\nwas John\u2019s illegitimate offspring. They came to a parting of the ways,\nhowever, when he invited \u201cFather\u201d up to Mulholland Drive. John, who was\nincontinent toward the end, forgot himself as he sat on a beautiful\nsettee in the lavishly furnished living room that was Errol\u2019s pride.\nThat was the last time John was invited.\nWater, as well as drugs and alcohol, attracted Errol. He was\nsun-bathing mother-naked one day on a sailboat in the Mediterranean\nwhen a sight-seeing craft loaded with American schoolteachers came by.\nHe chose that moment to stand up and stretch. One gasping teacher fell\noverboard, covered in blushes, and he promptly plunged in to retrieve\nher.\nErrol used to live directly across the street from me during his\nmarriage to Lili Damita. All I had to do to pick up an item or two for\nthe column was sit by my bedroom window and listen to them shrieking at\neach other. I got the low-down on their separation by just lying in bed\nand listening. It was a screaming, juicy bout.\nI was all set to put it on the wire the next morning, when Errol came\nover in dressing gown and slippers at 7 A.M., got me out of bed, and\nbegged me not to print it, saying they hadn\u2019t even talked about a\nproperty settlement. Like a fool, I promised to keep silent until he\ngave me the cue. But he couldn\u2019t keep his own secret and told Louella,\nwho scooped me with my own story. I could have throttled him--but\nthat\u2019s Hollywood.\nThe last time I saw Errol was in Paris, when he was making _The Roots\nof Heaven_. He wanted his teen-age popsie to stay in the room while I\ninterviewed him. She wouldn\u2019t go, so I did, interview or no interview.\nBut I kept a soft spot for him in my heart in spite of the several\nkinds of ruin he brought on himself.\nAfter ten o\u2019clock on a weekday night, Podunk would probably look\nlike Broadway compared with Beverly Hills, which is strictly a\nroll-up-the-sidewalk community. After that witching hour, police in\nprowl cars stop anyone they see out walking to ask if they\u2019re residents\nand, if they\u2019re not and have no good reason for being around, escort\nthem to the nearest bus stop.\nBy ten-thirty virtually every household has gone to bed. Working actors\nand actresses have to be up by six or six-thirty. Then it\u2019s a cold\nshower to get the eyes open, a shampoo and a finger wave in the case\nof actresses. Most women have a shampoo every morning; blondes from\nnecessity because they use gold dust in their hair, brunettes to make\ntheir hair shiny. Half a dozen eggs makes the basis of many a brunet\nshampoo.\nUnder the dryer, the Beverly Hills workingwoman takes the juice of a\nlemon and a cup of hot water. Then a look over the script for the day\u2019s\nshooting while she downs orange juice and black coffee. After leaving\ninstructions for the cook and servants--and nurse, if there are young\nchildren--she drives to the studio, where curls are combed out and\nmake-up applied. If she\u2019s wearing an evening gown, she\u2019s whitened to\nthe waist; it\u2019s cold and sticky.\nShe\u2019s squeezed into her costume, and a stand-by car takes her to the\nsound stage. Director, crew, and rest of the cast say their good\nmornings. Because their moods will be affected by hers, she has to\nset the emotional climate for the day--no headaches, heartaches, or\nbellyaches for her.\nIf she knows her lines, some other cast members may not. So the company\nrehearses until everybody\u2019s letter perfect. Lights are set, sound\nadjusted, cameras roll. Then somebody fluffs a cue or a move, and\nthat\u2019s contagious. \u201cDear God, don\u2019t let it happen to me,\u201d she mutters.\nThe same scene may be done over forty times before the director is\nsatisfied. Some of them are sadists, who\u2019ll keep their players sweating\njust to prove who\u2019s boss.\nAt noon, lunch is called. Her dress is usually so tight that a cup of\nhot soup, green salad with cottage cheese, and more black coffee is as\nmuch as she can stand. It\u2019s hard to relax after that bit of bunny food.\nMaybe there\u2019s a long-distance call waiting from some relative who never\ndid a lick of work, complaining that the allowance will have to be\nupped because baby Peggy needs braces or the car has to have new tires\nor Auntie May has set her heart on a Florida vacation.\nThen she hurries back to work. If she happens to have a crying scene\nto do, it will be easy. When she comes out of it, she catches the eye\nof an extra whose thoughts are as plain as if shouted aloud: \u201cWere you\never rotten in that! I could show them how to handle it.\u201d When our\ngirl\u2019s nose, eyes, and mascara are all running simultaneously, the head\nof the studio walks on with a banker from New York.\nSo it goes until six o\u2019clock, when she goes to the projection room\nto see the previous day\u2019s rushes, then back to the dressing room to\nremove make-up. If she\u2019s a blonde, the gold dust is brushed out, hot\noil applied, and her head\u2019s wrapped up in a bandanna like a Christmas\npudding.\nHome at last, where the servants are eating high on the hog, but she\nhas a tray with hot broth, one lamb chop, spinach or string beans, and\nperhaps a dab of apple sauce. There\u2019s time to play with the children\nfor half an hour, look over tomorrow\u2019s script, sign dozens of checks a\nsecretary has laid out in a folder for her. Then a body massage, and\nwhat\u2019s left of her crawls to bed.\nIs it any wonder that there hasn\u2019t been a real, big-star hostess in our\ntown since Doug Fairbanks deserted Mary Pickford? Hundreds have tried,\nbut nobody\u2019s succeeded, not even Mary. As Mrs. Buddy Rogers, she lost\nthe glory.\nMrs. Kirk Douglas and her friend, the present Mrs. Gregory Peck, have\ntheir dreams along those lines. Veronique pretended to be a writer so\nshe could get a private interview with Gregory when he visited Paris\nwith his first wife, Greta, and openly told a companion, Brenda Helser\nof _Diplomat_ magazine: \u201cI\u2019m going to be the next Mrs. Peck.\u201d Her plan\nworked like a charm.\nThe current Mrs. Edward G. Robinson would like to be a hostess with\nthe mostest, but she has not attained the status of Gladys, his former\nwife, who entertained in great style and set him going on his way to\nbeing a great art collector. It was Gladys who had the knowledge and\nchose most of the paintings. Collecting pictures is a neat trick for\ncutting down on income tax, highly recommended by financial consultants\nif you can afford it. You donate the paintings to a museum as an act\nof charity, but have the pleasure of them hanging on your walls for a\nlifetime.\nThe William Goetzes mix social ambitions with art collecting and what\nmay be lightheartedly called \u201ccultural leadership.\u201d The walls of their\nhome--it takes seven servants to run it--are adorned like a museum with\nworks by Monet, Matisse, Roualt, Dufy, Lautrec, and a reputed Van Gogh,\nwhich Bill bought for $50,000 in 1948 from a New York gallery. When the\npainter\u2019s nephew had doubts about its authenticity, the Metropolitan\nMuseum assembled a jury of three experts. After they\u2019d pored over the\ncanvas, they declared that they, too, were unwilling to accept it as\nan original. A European art critic, Dr. Jacob Bart de la Faille, who\nhad vouched for the picture\u2019s genuineness in the first place, insisted\nthat he\u2019d made no mistake and the buyer hadn\u2019t been taken. Then five\nEuropean experts took a look and said it was a Van Gogh, sure enough.\nWhere that leaves Bill Goetz, I don\u2019t know, because he hasn\u2019t told me.\nWe aren\u2019t in each other\u2019s confidence and never have been.\nHe married Edith, Louis B. Mayer\u2019s older daughter--Irene, the other,\nbecame David Selznick\u2019s wife. When Edie\u2019s engagement was announced,\nLouis put Ida Koverman in charge of wedding arrangements, with orders\nto invite all the old-line Los Angeles socialites. As Herbert Hoover\u2019s\nformer aide, Ida knew them; Louis did not. Edie was always drawn by\npictures of one sort or another. She paid almost daily visits to Ida\u2019s\noffice, whose walls were hung with autographed pictures from the\nbiggest people in America, to bombard her with fresh instructions.\nShe stopped in front of the then President\u2019s photograph (\u201cTo my dear\nIda ... Herbert Hoover\u201d) and asked: \u201cHave you invited him?\u201d\n\u201cYou don\u2019t know him,\u201d Ida said.\n\u201cYou do and father does. Send him an invitation. I\u2019d like to see what\nhe sends me.\u201d\n\u201cBut he\u2019s the President of the United States.\u201d\n\u201cInvite him, anyway.\u201d\nHoover didn\u2019t attend the wedding, but Edie got a present from him. She\ngot presents from everybody. There must have been twenty showers given\nfor her. If you were on the MGM payroll, as I was as an actress then,\nthere was somebody to tell you what to take or send for all occasions.\nCame the night of the wedding and sit-down supper in the Biltmore\nballroom. I was seated at a side table when Ben Meyer, a local banker,\ncame over and asked me to join his group at a more elevated spot. \u201cWe\ndon\u2019t know any of these people,\u201d he said. \u201cWill you point out the stars\nfor us?\u201d\nPartly as a result of making my first visit to the place as DeWolf\nHopper\u2019s wife when he was an idol in the theater, partly as a result\nof having Harry Lombard, the Boston banker, and his wife as friends, I\nknew my way around Los Angeles society. But I had to tell Ben Meyer:\n\u201cI\u2019ll have to get Mr. Mayer\u2019s permission first.\u201d\n\u201cYou\u2019ll have to what?\u201d he exploded.\n\u201cHe employs me, remember? Social or anything else, I\u2019ll have to ask\nhim.\u201d\nLouis couldn\u2019t understand how I could have a banker asking after me.\n\u201cThese are my friends, Louis: lawyers, doctors, professional people.\nThey\u2019ve no idea who your stars are because they never see your\npictures.\u201d Permission granted, grudgingly. With the Meyers, I sat at\nthe gayest, most gossipy table in the room. At the end of the evening\nthey knew the names of all the stars and most of their histories.\nLouis and his son-in-law were thick as thieves for years. Mayer bought\nrace horses, Goetz bought race horses. At one Academy Award banquet\nLouis put his arm around Bill: \u201cIf you just go on the way you\u2019re going,\nyou\u2019ll be a greater man than I ever was.\u201d\nWilliam wanted to head his own film company just like his\nbrother-in-law, David. With Louis behind him anything was possible. It\nlooked like a wide-open opportunity when Darryl Zanuck left Twentieth\nCentury-Fox to join the Army in World War II. Louis began maneuvers\nwith his partner at Metro, Nick Schenck, of Loew\u2019s Inc., whose brother\nJoe was board chairman at Fox. Goetz would replace Zanuck while Darryl\nwas in Washington, D.C. in uniform.\nI got wind of it and flashed a \u201churry home\u201d message to Darryl, who was\non duty in Washington. He raced back three days before the intended\nchange-over. Shortly thereafter it was announced that Mr. Goetz had\nresigned from Twentieth Century-Fox, to become production chief at\nUniversal-International.\nTen years later, in 1953, he quit that job, too. A controlling interest\nin the studio had been bought by Milton Rackmil, who found in the\ncourse of negotiating a new contract for his head of production that\nGoetz set his price at $5000 a week while fellow executives got less\nthan $2000. Later he had a spell at Columbia, and now Bill Goetz sits\non a bank\u2019s board, has real-estate interests. The movies lost their\nattraction when he underestimated Louis, a fierce Republican, and\nbacked Adlai Stevenson in 1948 despite his father-in-law\u2019s pleas. Louis\ndid not speak to him after that. When he died in 1957, his will left\n$500,000 to his daughter Irene and similar bequests to her sons by\nSelznick. He cut out Edie and Bill Goetz and their children entirely.\nLos Angeles society is much like the frog that wanted to inflate\nhimself bigger than a bull. New York, San Francisco, Chicago, Detroit\nall have social leaders with recognizable names that stand for\nsomething in America and, in some cases, around the world. Los Angeles\nis different, for all its size. Outside our city limits, its \u201csociety\u201d\nwith few exceptions doesn\u2019t mean much, primarily because our standard\nisn\u2019t \u201cWho are you?\u201d but \u201cHow much have you got?\u201d\nIn the early days Los Angeles socialites lent their gardens and\nexteriors of their houses to movie making on a business basis, donating\nproceeds to charity. But they didn\u2019t invite picture people in to dine\nwith them. The dividing line still exists, though it\u2019s narrower than it\nused to be. For one thing, international leaders and celebrities don\u2019t\ngive a damn about Los Angeles society when they visit here. They want\nto meet and be entertained by the stars, because they give the best\nparties and are more fun to be with.\nNow Sam Goldwyn mingles with Mrs. Norman Chandler and the music crowd\nsince they\u2019re both deeply involved in fund raising for the music center\nhousing the Los Angeles Philharmonic and the San Francisco Opera\nCompany. Danny Kaye and Jack Benny conduct concerts for the symphony.\nOne that Danny did brought in $185,000. But movie people can no more\nget into the Los Angeles Country Club for either love or money than\nthey could when Cecil De Mille battered in vain on its doors.\nHarpo Marx, whom I adore, once told me he couldn\u2019t understand why he\ncouldn\u2019t join a local country dub. \u201cThat\u2019s easy,\u201d was my reply. \u201cYou\nbelong to a different club, where they don\u2019t take in Christians. So in\na way they\u2019re sort of even.\u201d\n\u201cI never thought of that,\u201d said he. The following day, Eddie Mannix, a\nfeisty Irishman, joined Harpo\u2019s country club.\nGenerally speaking, Los Angeles society in the beginning would have\nnothing to do with the movie crowd; now the movie industry has little\nto do with Los Angeles society. In some cases the bar went up because\nthey worked in movies, sometimes because they were Jews. Our town and\nevery suburban Podunk across the nation have something in common with\nthat prejudice.\nHollywood treats the subject simultaneously as a joke, a jinx, and a\nbusiness risk. Sinatra and the Clan allow themselves the privilege of\nkidding each other as \u201cwops\u201d and \u201ckikes\u201d but protest publicly against\nracial discrimination. One comedy star doesn\u2019t wince when men on his\npayroll refer to him as \u201cSuper-Jew.\u201d\nWhen Louis B. Mayer first saw Danny Thomas, who is a professional\nLebanese, on a night-club stage, he liked everything about him except\nhis looks. \u201cI would put you under contract immediately,\u201d he told\nDanny, \u201cexcept you look too Jewish. I want you to have some surgery to\nstraighten out your nose.\u201d\nHe imagined it was doubt about the possible result that made Danny\ndecline with thanks. \u201cWell, then, I understand you have a brother.\nHere\u2019s what we\u2019ll do for you. We\u2019ll have his nose done _first_ as a\nsample.\u201d He was amazed when that offer was turned down, too.\nBecause of his \u201clady complex,\u201d I was approached by Louis, who begged\nme to get his daughters into our most private private school, whose\nprincipal was a friend of mine. There was no point in mincing words.\n\u201cMr. Mayer,\u201d I said, \u201cthey don\u2019t accept them.\u201d\n\u201cBut they\u2019ll take my daughters,\u201d he snapped. \u201cCan\u2019t you tell the head\nmistress how important I am?\u201d\n\u201cIt won\u2019t do any good. You can\u2019t win that one. They will not take\nJews.\u201d He had no choice but to accept the truth, no matter how\ndisagreeable.\nWhen Samuel Goldwyn was preparing _Guys and Dolls_, I heard he was\ntalking about having Frank Sinatra play Nathan Detroit, the gambling\nman, brilliantly played by Sam Levene on Broadway. I bearded Samuel\nin his den. \u201cSinatra\u2019s no more fitted for that part than I am. He\u2019s a\ngreat entertainer, but not in that role. Nobody but nobody can play it\nlike Sam Levene. Why don\u2019t you get him?\u201d\n\u201cYou can\u2019t have a Jew playing a Jew,\u201d Sam said calmly. \u201cIt wouldn\u2019t\nwork on the screen.\u201d\nI couldn\u2019t believe my ears. \u201cWhat was that you said?\u201d He repeated his\nwords. \u201cI could slay you for that remark,\u201d I exploded.\n\u201cBut you won\u2019t.\u201d\n\u201cBut someday I might,\u201d I warned.\nSo in Hollywood only Christians are allowed to portray Jews. Gertrude\nBerg was thrown out of _A Majority of One_ to make room for Rosalind\nRussell--Gertrude read about the switch in the New York _Times_ after\nshe\u2019d been promised the part by Dore Schary. Otto Preminger\u2019s casting\ntransformed _Exodus_ into a Protestant epic. _Anne Frank_ emerged\nas milk-and-watery Millie Perkins. _A Catered Affair_ served Kellys\ninstead of Cohens.\nSam stayed on speaking terms with me until _Porgy and Bess_ came along,\nand he hired as director Rouben Mamoulian, who had performed the same\ntask for DuBose Heyward\u2019s _Porgy_ as a straight play, before it was\nconverted into a musical. During the following eight months Mamoulian\nhad fresh arrangements orchestrated, persuaded a distinguished list of\nNegro players to forget their fears that the movie would be an \u201cUncle\nTom\u201d show.\nSidney Poitier, Dorothy Dandridge, Pearl Bailey, and others had\nturned down Goldwyn\u2019s approaches. Only Sammy Davis, Jr., had agreed\nto perform. Mamoulian explained individually to each holdout how he\nwould direct, with full recognition of the fact that humanity has come\na long way since Porgy first saw the light of Catfish Row. Satisfied\nthat there\u2019d be no reflection on their race, they signed contracts\nwith Sam--who decided to fire Mamoulian and hire in his place Otto\nPreminger, whose style is distinctly Prussian. He engaged Preminger\nbefore he told Mamoulian he was through.\nOutraged, I let fly at Sam in a column. I admired this talented, foxy\nman from the days when he was Sam Goldfish, an immigrant from Poland.\nI knew him as Jesse Lasky\u2019s partner when Geraldine Farrar came out\nfrom New York to make _Joan of Arc_ in 1915. In fact, I made a couple\nof silent pictures for him. I helped get an honorary Oscar for Harold\nRussell, the miraculous, handless ex-GI in Sam\u2019s _Best Years of Our\nLives_. Harold also collected one as best supporting actor, thus\nsqueezing out Clifton Webb, who was the favorite that year in that\ncategory.\nSamuel was Mr. Charm himself then; we were friends, especially if he\u2019d\nhad a tiff with Louella. But a few lines in print ended our life-term\nfriendship. He hasn\u2019t spoken to me since. It\u2019s gall to him that _Porgy\nand Bess_ was one of his few failures, a dull, photographed opera with\nno heart, soul, or finesse, where Mamoulian could have made it a thing\nof beauty, like the original _Porgy_, which had me weeping tears of\ncompassion as I first saw it in a New York theater.\nBeverly Hills is my home. I\u2019ve lived in the same house there for\ntwenty-two years. When I walk my gray French poodle, Beau Beau, a gift\nfrom Ann Sheridan, I pass the house of Ned Washington, who wrote such\nscintillating songs as \u201cMy Foolish Heart,\u201d \u201cI\u2019ll Walk Alone,\u201d \u201cWhen You\nWish Upon a Star.\u201d Across from him resides Pete Smith, retired now,\nwhose movie short subjects had audiences in gales of laughter for more\nthan a generation.\nThen there\u2019s the home of Ann and Jack Warner, with its private golf\ncourse and tennis court. In the drawing room hangs her portrait by\nSalvador Dali, the finest he\u2019s painted.... There\u2019s the house of Mr. and\nMrs. Bruno Pagliai. We knew her first as Merle Oberon, then as Lady\nAlexander Korda. After their divorce she married Lucien Ballard, one of\nour finest cinematographers. She longed for children but could have\nnone, even after several operations. So after her marriage to Bruno,\nshe adopted a boy and a girl.\nNext to the Pagliais live Ketti and Kurt Frings. Ketti adapted for the\nstage _Look Homeward, Angel_, which boosted Tony Perkins to stardom.\nKurt is the agent who got Elizabeth Taylor the first million-dollar\npicture salary in our history.\nTurning into Roxbury Drive, I pass the home of Lucille Ball, who knew\njoy and sorrow there with Desi Arnaz and now is happy as a lark with\nher new husband, Gary Morton. Tallulah Bankhead and I were among\nthe dinner guests in that house once, when Tallu was appearing the\nfollowing day on \u201cI Love Lucy.\u201d Desi seated me on his right, a place\nwhich Tallu insisted should be hers. But Hopper can be stubborn as an\nAmish mule, and the brickbats started to fly. We couldn\u2019t get her out\nof the house until 1:30 A.M. At the \u201cLucy\u201d filming Lucille was nervous\nas a cat over the events of the previous night. She forgot her lines\nfor the first time in her life. Tallulah, who\u2019d been appalling during\nrehearsals, sailed through her performance like Eleanora Duse.\nLucy\u2019s neighbors are Mary and Jack Benny, who\u2019ve never changed marriage\npartners or their way of life. Jack doesn\u2019t stop working; Mary, like\nGracie Allen, refuses to set foot on a TV sound stage again.\nUp the street, you find Jeanne Crain and Paul Brinkman and their six\nchildren, all happy as hooligans. Better look sharp as you pass or\nyou\u2019ll trip over roller skates, a tricycle, or a baseball bat on the\nsidewalk.\nNext door is a house of sorrow--Rosemary Clooney and her five children\nlive there with no husband or father to guide them. Jos\u00e9 Ferrer moved\nout. Also on this street are the Ira Gershwins; the Thomas Mitchells;\nAggie Moorehead in the house where Sigmund Romberg used to make music\nand feed us every Sunday night. In this block, too, stands the Spanish\nhouse where Liz Taylor lived with her parents when she was making\n_National Velvet_, too young to be interested in men or even boys.\nThen I pass what was once the home of Sir Charles and Lady Mendl, a\nmonstrous Spanish affair that Elsie Mendl made over into a thing of\nbeauty. Never was an off-color joke allowed to be told when she was\npresent. Ludwig Bemelmans, who had a Rabelaisian sense of humor, repaid\nher hospitality by adorning the powder-room walls with some outrageous\npictures. She took one horrified look and ordered the walls repainted\nimmediately. Elsie, ninety-five pounds of energy, fun, and good taste,\nreceived Sir Charles in her bedroom only after she had granted him\npermission via his valet.\nCharles and I used to walk by the mile together, apparently the only\nresidents of Beverly who applied their legs to such purpose. Though\nhe\u2019d known seventeen European monarchs in his day--including the Duke\nof Windsor, whom Charles didn\u2019t much care for--he steadfastly turned\ndown my pleas for him to write the Mendl memoirs.\nCharles earned his knighthood as press attach\u00e9 to the British Embassy\nin Paris when Ramsay MacDonald was Prime Minister. MacDonald,\nunsophisticated as a newborn baby, fell into the clutches of a wise and\nbeautiful woman. He was indiscreet enough to write her letters that a\nschoolboy would have blushed over. The problem was how to recover them\nwithout scandal or the outlay of a mint of money.\nSomeone thought of Charles Mendl, who had a way with the ladies and\nadored them one and all. He was delighted to accept the assignment. The\nlady was so pleased with him that she produced the letters for them to\nread together, roaring with laughter. She presented them to him as a\nsouvenir of many happy hours, and she collected a few thousand pounds\nfor her trouble. The Empire was saved; Charles was knighted.\nNo wonder psychiatrists flourish in our town. There are nearly\ntwo hundred of them. Bedford Drive and Roxbury Drive, where their\nconsulting rooms are concentrated, are known as Libido Lane and Couch\nCanyon. Louis Mayer once had his whole family analyzed by the same\nwoman. I went to her once to see how she\u2019d react to my being a patient.\n\u201cYou\u2019d have me on the couch in nothing flat,\u201d she said. \u201cOut you go.\u201d I\nwent.\n_Six_\nThe one and only exclusive interview I had with Marlon Brando lasted\nhalf an hour. As the minutes ticked by he sat posed like Rodin\u2019s\n\u201cThinker\u201d contemplating a bust of Stanislavski. He paid no more heed\nto me than if I\u2019d been a ladybug squatting on the back of his canvas\nchair. With a snap of the fingers, I brought him out of his trance.\n\u201cHave you been listening, Mr. Brando?\u201d\n\u201cSure.\u201d\n\u201cDo you care to answer my questions?\u201d\n\u201cI don\u2019t believe so.\u201d\n\u201cThen may I tell you that I didn\u2019t want this interview? Your producer,\nStanley Kramer, insisted that I do it. You needn\u2019t submit yourself to\nfurther agony. Thanks for nothing, and good day.\u201d\nI walked off the set of _The Men_, and I haven\u2019t set foot on any Brando\nset from that day on. Every studio he has worked for has tried to coax\nme back. But I can\u2019t be insulted twice, not if I know what\u2019s going to\nhappen.\nI regard him as a supreme egotist, for want of a better term, whose\ngood performances, like those in _On the Waterfront_ and _A Streetcar\nNamed Desire_, I recognize. I understand that he refers to me as \u201cThe\nOne with the Hat.\u201d He has been known variously as \u201cthe male Garbo\u201d\nand \u201cDostoevski\u2019s Tom Sawyer.\u201d He\u2019s doing extremely well without my\nsupport in piling up millions. He\u2019s a dedicated ringleader in a current\nmelodrama which can be called \u201cViva Brando; or, The Actor\u2019s Revenge.\u201d\nWhen he originally landed here in 1950, he carried his entire wardrobe\nin a canvas satchel: two pairs of blue jeans, four T shirts, two pairs\nof socks, and the works of the philosopher Spinoza, who teaches that\neverything is decreed by God and is therefore necessarily good. Marlon\nimmediately labeled Hollywood a \u201ccultural boneyard.\u201d\nHe said then: \u201cMy objective is to submit myself to what I think and\nfeel until I\u2019m in a position to think and feel as I please.\u201d It took\nten years to do it, but he made it in spades in _Mutiny on the Bounty_.\nHe also said: \u201cThe only reason I\u2019m here is because I don\u2019t yet have the\nmoral strength to turn down the money.\u201d\nWhen Stanley Kramer telephoned him in Paris about doing _The Men_,\nMarlon had two questions: \u201cDo you want me for more than one film? How\nmuch will you pay?\u201d From a $50,000 fee for _The Men_, he went, via\n_Streetcar_, to $150,000 in _Viva Zapata_. More recently, he held out\nfor every cent of net profits, leaving the studio to collect nothing\nmore than a percentage of the gross as distributor. His asking price\nnow is a million dollars a performance.\nThe town should have known what to expect on the strength of reports\nfrom Broadway and his nerve-racking portrayal in the theater of Stanley\nKowalski, the cave-man lover of _Streetcar_. Irene Selznick, who\nproduced the play, gave an opening-night party at \u201c21\u201d which Marlon\nreluctantly attended. Jerome Zerbe, the society photographer and\ncolumnist, was there, and Irene asked if he\u2019d invite Marlon over to be\nphotographed with her, not for publicity but for her personal album.\nCrossing the room, Zerbe passed on the request to Marlon, who turned\nhim down flat. \u201cWhy should I be photographed with her?\u201d\n\u201cWell, she\u2019s your producer, after all.\u201d\n\u201cMeans nothing to me,\u201d said the newest sensation of Broadway, aged\ntwenty-three. Zerbe broke the news to Irene and exchanged no more words\nwith Marlon until Gertrude Lawrence and Beatrice Lillie, arriving late,\npicked their way through the crowd to Zerbe and made a fuss over him.\nNow Marlon could see that Jerome was socially \u201cin\u201d; he made a beeline\nfor him. \u201cI\u2019ll pose for that picture now,\u201d he offered.\nZerbe, a proud man, was halfway toward the door on his way out. \u201cYou\nwon\u2019t pose for me,\u201d he said flatly. \u201cI wouldn\u2019t photograph you if you\nwere the last man on this earth.\u201d\nI once put a question to Marlon asking his opinion of acting as a\nprofession. \u201cIf you\u2019re successful,\u201d he replied, \u201cit\u2019s about as soft a\njob as anybody could ever wish for. But if you\u2019re unsuccessful, it\u2019s\nworse than having a skin disease.\u201d\nSocial ailments of various kinds hold a strange attraction for him.\nWhen reporters used to ask him about some chapters of his younger days,\nhe would tell them he couldn\u2019t give an adequate answer because at the\ntime he wasn\u2019t feeling too well. The favorite theme cropped up again\nwhen he was making _Mutiny on the Bounty_ in Tahiti. By then, the\njoke was on him, but he was drawing $5000 a day overtime and spouting\nanother favorite thought in slightly altered words: \u201cAfter you\u2019ve got\nenough money, money doesn\u2019t matter.\u201d\nHe arrived in Hollywood with a hole in the knee of his only pair of\npants, and a large-sized chip on his shoulder. Though there were\nstories of such generosity as tipping a New York shoeshine boy with a\nfive-dollar bill \u201cbecause I felt sorry for him,\u201d he appeared to resent\nspending money, even a dime. If he could get an agent or reporter\nto buy him a dinner, a drink, or even a cup of coffee, he was in a\ngood mood for hours. He refused to load himself down with a house,\nswimming pool, convertible, fancy wardrobe, or any such items which the\n\u201ccultural boneyard\u201d usually regards as the accompaniments to a soaring\ncareer.\nProducers, if they can, cultivate extravagance on the part of the\nstars. They see to it that their puppets stagger under piles of\npossessions and towering stacks of bills. Studios will lend money so\nit seems easy to buy the house with the swimming pool at $200,000.\nThe debt becomes a sword to dangle over the star\u2019s head if he shows\nsigns of resentment about making a particular picture. Arguments about\n\u201cartistic integrity\u201d are as effective as paper darts against a studio\nthat holds the mortgage.\nTo his credit, in more ways than one, Marlon was in no danger on\nthat score. \u201cJust because the big shots were nice to me,\u201d he told a\nreporter, \u201cI saw no reason to overlook what they did to others and to\nignore the fact that they morally behave with the hostility of ants at\npicnics.\u201d\nHe is turning the picnic tables with a vengeance on the \u201cants.\u201d Their\none-sided admiration of Brando (they used to call him \u201cthe best actor\nin the world\u201d on weekdays and a \u201cgenius\u201d on Sundays) got chipped when\nTwentieth Century-Fox cast him in a stinker called _The Egyptian_.\nHe objected, but they imagined they had soothed him and went ahead\nbuilding sets, making costumes, signing other players. When the\nfirst day of shooting arrived, Brando did not. Instead, his New York\npsychoanalyst sent a telegram: BRANDO VERY SICK.\nBreaking a contract is a refined art, which skillful performers conduct\nwith the finesse of brain surgeons. A classic case is provided by Jerry\nLewis after he broke with Dean Martin when they were under contract to\nmake three more pictures for Hal Wallis.\nWallis had the legal right to have them complete the contract, no\nmatter what carnage would have resulted. Martin and Lewis\u2019 agents,\nthe Music Corporation of America, talked to him but they got nowhere.\nAttorneys tried to argue with him, but Wallis is, among other things, a\nstubborn man. It took a press agent to recall the time-tested formula.\n\u201cYou call Mr. Wallis,\u201d the agent told Jerry, \u201cand invite him to lunch\nat the Hillcrest Country Club. Sit him down and say: \u2018Have you ever\nhad a picture that began, Scene one, take eighty-five?\u2019 Tell him that\nyou\u2019re ready to devote six months of your life to his next Martin and\nLewis picture; that you understand his problem, so you\u2019ve reserved a\nsuite at Mount Sinai Hospital for him as your guest. Because you know\nhe\u2019s going to get a coronary from the aggravation that\u2019s coming to him.\u201d\nThe press agent continued: \u201cAlso tell Wallis: \u2018You know my own medical\nhistory. I only pray to God we don\u2019t get in the middle of this thing\nbefore I have to take to my bed again.\u2019\u201d\nJerry took Hal Wallis to lunch at Hillcrest and said his piece. Wallis\nheard him out, then conceded: \u201cI get your point. I\u2019ll start with you\nalone in a new picture next month.\u201d No further movie with Dean Martin\nwas discussed.\nMarlon didn\u2019t get off so lightly when he tangled with Fox. The studio\npushed Edmond Purdom into _The Egyptian_, which was a great mistake,\nand sued Brando for two million dollars. He settled by agreeing to play\nNapoleon in a turgid flop called _Desir\u00e9e_.\nThe studio bosses are proof positive that you can fool yourself most of\nthe time over stars who, when the fancy strikes them, delight in doing\nin the people who put up the money. The producers ignore any flop these\nhighly prized players make and hypnotize themselves by repeating over\nand over: \u201cWe can\u2019t go wrong this time; it\u2019s our turn to be lucky.\u201d\nThey blind themselves to the fact that these stars jeer at the money\nmen, make fools of them, regard them deep down as their sworn enemies\nwith the I.Q. of idiots.\nMarlon got into stride when he made _One-Eyed Jacks_, a simple Western\nthat was going to cost no more than $1,800,000 and a few months to\ncomplete. First casualty was the director, Stanley Kubrick, who\nretreated in the early stages of production and abandoned the field to\nBrando. On his first day as director, Marlon threw away the script and\nannounced: \u201cWe\u2019re going to improvise.\u201d For the next half year, he and\nhis crew ran up production bills of $42,000 a day.\nHe had them spending hours on the shores of the Pacific waiting for the\nwater to \u201clook more dramatic.\u201d He\u2019d start the cameras, then sit with\nhis head between his knees for twenty minutes or more until he got in\nthe mood. As a good democrat, he let his actors vote for the last reel\nthey liked best, and that was the ending he used, though he didn\u2019t\ncare for it himself.\nWhen the front office at Paramount got uneasy and costs passed the\n$6,000,000 mark, Marlon turned surly: \u201cI\u2019m shooting a movie, not\na schedule.\u201d There were days, I\u2019m sure, when Y. Frank Freeman,\nhead of Paramount, would have liked to clobber him, while Marlon\nwent on playing his favorite mumbling, lurching, behind-scratching\ncharacter--himself. Paramount has long since given up hope of getting\nits money back, much less of making a profit.\nBut when _Mutiny_ came around, Metro recited the old mumbo jumbo:\n\u201cWe can\u2019t go wrong on this.\u201d Sol Siegel, who ran the studio, would\nsettle for nobody but Marlon as top star. That little decision, along\nwith several other lulus along the way, cost well over $20,000,000\nbefore the picture was wound up. Marlon enjoyed $1,250,000 for his\ncontributions, along with ten per cent of the gross and an incredible\ncontract giving him the final word on scenes taken on Tahiti.\nScreen rights to the original novel by Charles Nordhoff and James\nNorman Hall were bought by the late Frank Lloyd, a fine, free-lance\ndirector, for only $12,000. In order to make the picture and gather the\ncast he\u2019d set his heart on, he was compelled to sell those rights back\nto Irving Thalberg at Metro for precisely what they had cost.\nMetro\u2019s first flash of creative genius called for Wallace Beery to\nplay Captain Bligh in the breath-catching tale of eighteenth-century\nmutiny on the high seas aboard the British merchantman _Bounty_. They\nenvisaged the sadistic captain as a comical old coot pursued by his\nwife and twelve children. Talked out of that, Thalberg signed Charles\nLaughton, who for weeks had to be rowed slowly around Catalina Island,\nflat on his back on the floorboards, to teach his protesting digestion\nthat seasickness was not permissible during working hours.\nLouis B. Mayer didn\u2019t think much of the script: \u201cWhere\u2019s the romance?\u201d\nhe demanded. Gable didn\u2019t like the idea of playing Fletcher Christian,\nleader of the mutineers and his finest role up to that date. Eddie\nMannix talked him around: \u201cYou\u2019re the only guy in the picture who gets\nanything to do with a dame.\u201d I\u2019ll never know why they didn\u2019t reissue\nthe old _Mutiny_ after Clark\u2019s death--it would have made $5,000,000 and\nsaved Metro a truckload of ulcers.\nFrank Lloyd\u2019s picture was ten months in the making, from his first\nbackground shooting on Tahiti to its presentation in November 1935.\nThe bills amounted to $1,700,000, the most expensive MGM production\nof those days. Front-office opposition grew stronger month by month.\nTo satisfy Nick Schenck, a rough cut was sent to New York with the\nstrict understanding that it would be run only for him to see. He had\nit screened before an audience of four hundred people and afterward\ndelivered himself of this undying judgment: \u201cTell Thalberg it\u2019s the\nworst picture MGM ever made.\u201d\nThe second version of _Mutiny_ got under way when an MGM expedition\narrived on Tahiti at the height of the rainy season. It had to run\nbefore the weather and go back later for another try. The first of the\nthirty scripts to be completed by five writers, including Eric Ambler\nand Charles Lederer, was meantime coming hot off the typewriters.\nLife on French Tahiti, where society is very proper and the caste\nsystem very strong, livened up considerably when Marlon debarked. He\nunearthed a series of hide-outs to which he would retire when the mood\ncame upon him. On bad days hours would roll by while messengers tracked\nhim down so that filming could resume.\nHis taste in girls has always been off-beat, from the Hindu\nimpersonator, Anna Kashfi, whom he married and divorced; through the\nfisherman\u2019s daughter, Josanne Mariana-Berenger, to a barefoot waitress\nwhom he found on Tahiti.\nThe first major casualty among the company was Oscar-winning Hugh\nGriffith, who was eased off the island by the French authorities after\nsome spectacular high jinks. Another Briton, Sir Carol Reed, hired to\ndirect, was replaced when it developed that he saw Captain Bligh as the\nhero, not Fletcher Christian. At the speed at which he was shooting,\nit would have taken years to finish the picture.\nSir Carol had also made the basic error of believing that when he told\nMarlon to do something in front of the camera, Marlon would obey. Reed\nwas succeeded by Lewis Milestone, director and diplomat, who grew\naccustomed to handling difficult situations with kid gloves.\nThere were plenty to handle. The movie makers hit the South Seas\nlike a typhoon. Liquor poured over the island like the Johnstown\nflood. A French naval lieutenant ran off with the second native lead\nhalfway through filming, so that in one version two girls mysteriously\nalternated in playing the romantic scenes without a word of explanation\nbeing offered.\nMarlon at one point was bowled over in a double feature by a popular\nlocal infection and a virus, forcing him to take to his bed for three\nweeks.\nAaron Rosenberg, the producer, couldn\u2019t make a move without being\nbalked and countermanded by cable and telephone from Metro\u2019s front\noffice, where Siegel found his reputation at stake. On Tahiti there was\npanic at the lack of a script. A succession of writers, concluding with\nLederer, worked against the clock to get out scenes, often only one day\nin advance of shooting, sometimes rewriting lines at lunch time for the\nafternoon shift.\n\u201cIn one two-week period we shot only two small scenes,\u201d Richard Harris\ntold me during filming--he came close to stealing the picture as one\nof the mutineers. \u201cThat wasn\u2019t surprising since Brando was constantly\ndemanding that scenes be rewritten. You never knew where the hell you\nwere.\u201d Marlon added his own seasoning to the stew by toying with the\nidea at one point of abandoning the part of Christian and taking on a\ndifferent role in the picture.\nTrevor Howard, playing Captain Bligh, left for home swearing: \u201cNever\nagain will I take part in an epic,\u201d and to prove his point he turned\ndown _Cleopatra_. He thought it was \u201cthe greatest travesty in the\nworld to allow Brando to snap and snarl at me.\u201d\nIn their steamy tents the sweating writers invented a game to preserve\ntheir sanity. They made up imaginary labels to hang on the cast. Trevor\nHoward: \u201ca deafening answer to no question.\u201d Aaron Rosenberg: \u201cthe\npersistent marshmallow.\u201d For Brando, they had a tag so obscene that he\nbrooded for days, trying in vain to think of some way to strike back at\nthem.\nAt work, on a typical morning, he\u2019d stand on the Bounty deck, draw\nhis cutlass, and yell at the ship\u2019s company: \u201cI now take command of\nthis....\u201d At that second, his memory would falter. The crew and other\ncast members filled in for him. \u201cTrain?\u201d somebody suggested. Marlon\nnodded his thanks and take eighteen began. This time he got it right\n... \u201ccommand of this ship.\u201d\nCharles Lederer insisted: \u201cBrando is responsible for a great deal of\nwhatever brilliance the picture has. But neither he nor anybody else\nI know can improvise and be better in five minutes on the set than a\nwriter with three weeks at a typewriter.\u201d\nMarlon\u2019s enthusiasm touched rock bottom when it came to playing scenes\nsupposedly on Pitcairn Island, where the _Bounty_ mutineers landed.\nRosenberg ordered him to perform. Richard Harris related the rest of\nthe story: \u201cBrando fouled it up good. He came to work for a few days,\nbut I thought he was acting as though he wanted to scuttle it. So I\nfinally told him: \u2018When you\u2019re willing to perform like a pro, I\u2019ll be\nin my dressing room.\u2019 The picture was suspended for three days, while\nthey tried to get him to resume, but not a word about it got into\nprint--it was all suppressed.\u201d\nThe cast didn\u2019t know what they were doing most of the time because the\nnext scene usually contradicted whatever they were trying to play.\nHarris had another clash with Brando. He told me: \u201cBrando said: \u2018This\nis the final script. I want nothing changed, not a line, not a comma.\u2019\nOn the strength of that, I memorized eight pages. We rehearsed it in\nthe morning, went to lunch, and prepared to shoot in the afternoon.\u201d\nThe company returned after the break, and the cameras rolled. Then\n\u201cCut!\u201d Harris related: \u201cThey told me I was wrong. When I asked why, I\nfound out they\u2019d changed the script during lunch. I demanded that the\nproducer be brought to the set.\u201d\nAaron Rosenberg didn\u2019t know that changes had been made. \u201cActors,\u201d said\nBrando to Harris, \u201care paid to do their jobs without opinion.\u201d\nHarris exploded. \u201cYou like to pull the strings as though others are\npuppets. This scene was changed because you demanded it.\u201d At that point\nLewis Milestone walked off the set. So did Harris, who\u2019s an outspoken\nIrishman. \u201cWhen Mr. Brando is ready to perform, I\u2019m available,\u201d he said\nonce more.\n\u201cIt was a long way to my dressing room. You\u2019d have thought I was\nradioactive the way everybody backed away from me. I lay down on my\ncouch and closed my eyes. Presently the director stuck his head in the\ndoor to say sotto voce: \u2018Everybody in the company wants to applaud. You\nwere great.\u2019 But still no one came in until Rosenberg shook my hand,\nsaid he was sorry this had happened, and added: \u2018Thank you.\u2019\u201d\nEighteen months after the start, when MGM had poured more than\n$20,000,000 into this bounty on the _Mutiny_, Marlon was still acting\nup. The final scenes, months behind schedule, were being shot in\nHollywood, costing still another two million. With the financial\nfuture of Metro itself at stake, with millions tied up in a picture\nwhich still had no ending, Marlon played Fletcher Christian in such a\nmanner that, although the cameras turned, the film was unusable. He\noverplayed; he underplayed; he mumbled; he minced. It was a unique\nmoment in our town\u2019s history. Nobody before him had dared take hold of\na mammoth studio, swing it by the tail, and make the bosses like it.\nThe actors\u2019 revenge was complete.\nIt takes avaricious agents with calculating machines for hearts to\nencourage stars like Brando to behave as they do. Now that no studio\nany longer has its own roster of stars tied by contracts, the agents\nand actors run Hollywood, as they always threatened to. The studio has\nto go cap in hand to the agent to sign up the big star for a single\npicture. No more than a half dozen actors and actresses alive today can\nattract an audience big enough to give a picture a hope of success at\nthe box office.\nThe first giant among ten per centers hated producers and made no\nsecret of it. Myron Selznick held it a point of honor to wring every\ndollar he could get out of the studios to settle the score for the\nwrong that had been done his father, Lewis J. The louder the bosses\nyelled \u201cMurder!\u201d the harder Myron squeezed.\nLewis J. was nicknamed \u201cC.O.D.\u201d for \u201ccash on delivery\u201d by starlets he\nlured to that notorious item of studio furniture, the casting couch.\nHe lured plenty when he owned a $60,000,000 film corporation in the\nsilent twenties. But as a financier he overreached himself. His sons,\nMyron and David, blamed rival movie makers for plotting the ruin that\novertook old \u201cC.O.D.\u201d\nMyron\u2019s first client was Lewis Milestone, who must have smiled\nphilosophically to himself when he saw what Brando was doing to MGM.\nActing for Milestone, Myron left his mark on the Howard Hughes studio\nwhen, in 1927, he squeezed out of them exactly twice the salary the\nthen young director had anticipated receiving. Alva Johnston recalled\nthe time when Myron went home rejoicing: \u201cRemember what those bastards\ndid to my father? They paid more than a million dollars for it today.\u201d\nBill Wellman was Selznick\u2019s second client. After him, everybody who was\nanybody--Carole Lombard, William Powell, Pat O\u2019Brien, to name just a\nsample--rushed to get Myron to do battle for them.\nBut neither he nor the mob of imitators who followed him in business\nmanaged to hold the entire industry up to ransom as it is being\ndone today. One reason was that under the star system of that era,\ncontracts came up only once a year for negotiation, not before every\npicture. Another reason: producers and directors, to a great extent,\ncould make or break a star.\nAs a tribe, actors and actresses seldom know what\u2019s good for them. They\nusually judge any script solely by the number of lines of dialogue they\nget. Greer Garson announced to one and all that she wouldn\u2019t be playing\nin _Goodbye, Mr. Chips_, one of the finest pictures that came her way,\nbecause \u201cI\u2019m only in a few scenes.\u201d\nThe day before she left town for England to make the picture, she\npoured out her woe to me. \u201cI\u2019ve sat here for months doing nothing,\u201d\nshe said, \u201cand now I\u2019m going back to my native land in a picture that\ngives me a very small part. When I left England, I was a star there; my\nfriends will think I\u2019m coming home a failure.\u201d\nI wrote the story, but before she stepped on the train the next day,\nshe begged me to kill it: \u201cWhat if the picture\u2019s a hit? I\u2019d look like a\nfool.\u201d So I kept a friend by sitting on the interview. _Mr. Chips_ made\nher an international name.\nVanity takes all kinds of shapes. In one of his earliest pictures Gary\nCooper played a location scene so well that it was shot in a single\ntake. That night Coop went diffidently to the director\u2019s tent. \u201cIf\nyou don\u2019t mind, I\u2019d like to do that scene over again in the morning,\u201d\nhe said. \u201cI seem to remember at one point I picked my nose I was so\nnervous.\u201d\nThe director knew better. \u201cListen,\u201d he said. \u201cYou were so damn nervous\nyou were great. You keep acting that way and you can pick your nose\ninto a fortune.\u201d That bit of advice registered with Coop. After he\u2019d\nbelly-flopped trying to dive into the deep end of acting with pictures\nlike _Saratoga Trunk_, he saw his old director again. \u201cGuess I\u2019ll have\nto go back to my nose,\u201d he said.\nIt took an eye doctor from South Bend, Indiana, to set up in the agency\nbusiness and put the hammer lock on Hollywood; by comparison Myron only\ntwisted arms. Dr. Jules Caesar Stein is the founder and board chairman\nof MCA, a flesh-peddling octopus with approximately one thousand\nclients ranging from actors to zither players, before it got rid of\nthem all in a hurry under pressure from Washington\u2019s trust busters. He\nand his wife, Doris, are also devout collectors of antiques; European\nfurniture dealers used to rub their hands when they saw them coming,\nbut they were soon crying in their porcelain teacups, because Jules had\nset up his own antique shops.\nDr. and Mrs. Stein have climbed so high since his college days--he\nworked his way through by playing the violin in little jazz bands--that\nthey are now helping to refurnish the White House. Mrs. John F.\nKennedy was pleased to announce last year that the Steins, as a gift\nto the nation, \u201cwill contribute pieces from their collection of\neighteenth-century antiques as well as new acquisitions.\u201d\nSoon after the Steins moved to California--they now live in a beautiful\nBeverly Hills hilltop mansion--the good doctor told me at a party: \u201cI\u2019m\ngoing to be king of Hollywood one day.\u201d\n\u201cYou and who else?\u201d I laughed. But I underestimated him. He succeeded,\nthanks to the shortsightedness of the producers when big stars are in\nshort supply and desperate demand.\nBesides Brando, MCA spoke for Marilyn Monroe, Ingrid Bergman, Burt\nLancaster, Montgomery Clift, Dean Martin, Jack Benny. That\u2019s just a\nsample. Agents used to hustle for salary and billing. Jules Stein\u2019s\npoker-faced assistants demanded lots more than that. They often weren\u2019t\nsatisfied until they got a fat slice of the picture\u2019s profits for their\nclients.\nThe first deal like that was made for Jimmy Stewart, whom I originally\nrecommended to MGM after he and I played on Broadway together with\nJudith Anderson in _Divided by Three_. The slice that MCA carved for\nhim out of Universal-International\u2019s _Winchester \u201973_ brought him more\nthan $600,000. Now he\u2019s a millionaire on the investments he made on the\nadvice of a keen-brained business friend from Texas and he\u2019s become a\nsober-sided industrialist as well as a fine actor.\nWith Kirk Douglas as a client Jules Stein did even better at Universal.\nAfter running up costs of $12,000,000 on _Spartacus_ in which Douglas\nstarred and also produced with Universal\u2019s money, the huge, 400-acre\nstudio fell into a situation where it had to sell out, lock, stock, and\nacreage. MCA bought the place for $11,250,000 and set to work churning\nout television series. Now it\u2019s called Revue Productions and it\u2019s the\nbest-run studio in Hollywood. If MCA plans work out now it has beaten\nthe anti-trust suit--it is concentrating on production and stripping\nitself of the agency business--millions more dollars will be invested\nin an effort to make Hollywood the movie capital of the world once more.\nOnce an actor has seen his agent put the pressure on and turn a geyser\nof cash into Old Faithful itself, the sky\u2019s the limit where his greed\nfor money is concerned. Everything else is forgotten, including, of\ncourse, gratitude. William Holden, an MCA prize winner, did mighty well\nwith _The Key_, though Trevor Howard stole the notices; and much, much\nbetter before that from _Bridge on the River Kwai_, which brought him\nmillions. The producer of _The Key_ was Carl Foreman.\nWhen Foreman had another picture in the works, _The Guns of Navarone_,\nhe wanted Holden for his hero. \u201cMy price,\u201d Holden declared, \u201cis now\n$750,000, plus ten per cent of the gross.\u201d\n\u201cBut not with me, not after _The Key_,\u201d Foreman said.\n\u201cWith you or anybody else, that\u2019s my price,\u201d Holden replied.\nForeman had a few forceful words to say on the subject of gratitude,\nthen hired Gregory Peck, David Niven, and Anthony Quinn together for\nless than Holden demanded. To keep his bulging bank account safe from\nthe hands of tax collectors, Holden moved his family to Switzerland,\nthat temporary haven of fugitive American fortunes--temporary because I\nunderstand that President Kennedy has some fancy plans for correcting\nthat state of inequity.\nWilliam doesn\u2019t spend much time in his Swiss home, though his wife,\nformerly Brenda Marshall, does, together with their two sons. Her\ndaughter by a previous marriage preferred staying behind in Hollywood\nas an interior decorator. When Brenda Marshall married, she was a\nhappy, fun-loving woman. The last time I saw her, at a party Norman\nKrasna gave for me at Lausanne, Switzerland, her old contentment had\ngone bye-bye.\nWhen Tony Curtis was fourteen, he wrote me a six-page letter from his\nfamily\u2019s one-and-a-half-room flat in the Bronx, where his father worked\nas a tailor. The boy was then Bernie Schwartz, and he wanted to know\nhow to become a movie actor. He\u2019d beaten a path to Hollywood, but he\nwasn\u2019t rated as much more than a curly haired pretty boy by most people\nwhen MCA started to steer him. No matter how hard he was asked to work\nto promote his career, he gave the same answer: \u201cI\u2019d love to.\u201d He was\neager and fun to be with, and I invited him to all my parties. There\nhe got to know, among others, suave, immaculate Clifton Webb, whom he\nlooked up to as the epitome of social form.\n\u201cYou\u2019re getting up there,\u201d Clifton cautioned him as the months rolled\nby, \u201cso you must dress better. That suit isn\u2019t good enough for you, and\nyour tie is awful.\u201d\nAs soon as Tony could afford it, he bought himself a custom-tailored\nsuit, which he christened at another party of mine where Webb was a\nguest. \u201cLook, Hedda,\u201d Tony said with pride, \u201cisn\u2019t it wonderful? All\nhand-sewn.\u201d\n\u201cLovely,\u201d I agreed, \u201cand that\u2019s a good-looking pair of shoes, too.\u201d\n\u201cA producer I know couldn\u2019t wear them, so he gave them to me. They\npinch a little, but aren\u2019t they beautiful? They cost him $75.\u201d\nClifton wandered over to add a word of praise for the suit. \u201cBut you\ncan\u2019t wear that tie with it.\u201d\n\u201cWhat kind should I wear, Mr. Webb?\u201d\n\u201cCome over to my house tomorrow and I\u2019ll give you some.\u201d\nTony found a wife who was used to being kept on a tight financial rein\nwhen he married Janet Leigh in 1951. Her father, Fred Morrison, who\nten years later took an overdose of pills that ended his life, held the\npurse strings after her career got going. I remember coming across her\nat Rex, the mad hatter, where she was aching to buy a sweater for $75,\nbut her dad said no. When he died, she was on the French Riviera with\nMrs. Dean Martin, guests of Joe Kennedy.\nTony and Janet bought an eighteen-room house in 1958. (\u201cDid you ever\nbelieve I\u2019d end up a country gentleman?\u201d he asked me.) They had enough\nmoney left to furnish the dining room, but not enough to buy much else.\nHe was around at my house when I mentioned that I had a handsome,\ncarved oak chair down in the basement, which I couldn\u2019t use. \u201cIf you\nwant it, take it. Go down and see.\u201d\nHe came back conveying the heavy chair in his arms. \u201cIt\u2019s wonderful,\u201d\nhe said. \u201cI\u2019ll put it in my car.\u201d He\u2019d started the motor to drive\nstraight home before I caught him. \u201cCome back here. We\u2019ve got a party\ngoing. Janet can see it when you get home.\u201d It still sits in their\nfront hall, bleached and upholstered in white brocade.\nMCA maneuvered Tony\u2019s affairs so astutely that he now owns his own\npicture company, makes millions, drives a Rolls-Royce. \u201cI hope that\nin a few years I\u2019ll have enough security so I can drive around in\nan old battered station wagon if I want to,\u201d he says. He lost Janet\nLeigh after he made a picture in South America with Yul Brynner, which\nfeatured a girl named Christine Kaufman, to whose apartment in the\nCh\u00e2teau Marmont, in the company of her mother, Tony would go to have\ncoffee on his way home.\nHe sent me another letter after I\u2019d criticized him in the column last\nyear over the postponement of _Lady L._ \u201cI wonder,\u201d I\u2019d asked, \u201cif\nactors realize they\u2019re killing the goose that laid the golden eggs and\nare ruining their careers.\u201d\n\u201cYou might well have asked whether the studios realize what they are\ndoing to actors,\u201d Tony wrote back. \u201cBecause of the delays and stalling\non this project, I have not made a film for eight months. True, I was\npaid a salary for part of that time but money alone can never make up\nfor the fact that I might have two films during that period, that\nI could have been working in my chosen profession, could have been\nimproving in the only way an actor can improve--by working.\n\u201cAs a star, I have the right to pick my own parts, to decide whether or\nnot a script is right for me. That is clearly understood by everyone\nwho seeks to employ me.\n\u201cIf the final script does not meet my requirements, the burden must\nremain with the company and not with me. The studio did submit a script\nI liked, which is why I signed to do the picture in the first place.\nBefore we could get into production, they began making changes and the\nscript they were finally ready to shoot bore little resemblance to the\none I had approved.\u201d He was right, the picture has never been made.\nWhen press agents nudge an actor hard enough, he imagines he can write,\nproduce, direct, and act simultaneously, as busy as a one-armed paper\nhanger. That was a delusion Clark Gable avoided.\n\u201cWhy don\u2019t you want to direct, like everybody else?\u201d I asked him not\nlong before he died.\n\u201cIt\u2019s hard enough to act without going into all those monkeyshines,\u201d he\nsaid. \u201cI just want to act and get the money. Let them take the grief.\u201d\nClark loved money all his working life. I don\u2019t remember that he ever\ngave a party. He nursed a grievance against Metro from the time Mayer\nloaned him to David Selznick to make _Gone With the Wind_. Clark\nthought he should have received an extra bonus for that, not simply\ncontinue on his salary of $7000 a week, fifty-two weeks a year.\nWhen he cast off from Metro in 1954 and entrusted his business affairs\nto MCA, he boasted that he had \u201cnever really made any big money\u201d until\nthen. Like the rest of the monarchs of the movies, he wanted what they\ncall \u201cthe most\u201d--highest salary, biggest percentage.\n\u201cWhy do you fight so hard for those enormous salaries?\u201d I asked him, as\nI\u2019ve asked them all. \u201cWhy can\u2019t you put back some investment in the\nindustry when it\u2019s done so much for you?\u201d\n\u201cI want the most because you\u2019re only important if you get it.\u201d\nMoney helped kill Clark Gable. That and his refusal to acknowledge that\nhe was growing old. He couldn\u2019t resist earning the most he\u2019d ever get,\nwhen the offer came along for _The Misfits_; $750,000 plus $58,000 for\nevery week the picture ran overtime.\nOn location in the Nevada desert, where the heat jumps to 130 degrees,\nhe roped and wrestled with wild horses to prove to everybody who\nwatched, including me, that he still had his old virility. \u201cThis\npicture will prove he is America\u2019s answer to Sir Laurence Olivier,\u201d\nsaid the ever-present Mrs. Paula Strasberg. He was encouraged by John\nHuston, a director with no qualms about making actors sweat. And he was\noutraged by the behavior of Marilyn Monroe.\nHe was habitually early on the set, ready to work at 9 A.M. Some days\nshe wouldn\u2019t show up until lunch time, sometimes not at all. Though\nhe seethed inside, Kay Gable told me, he curbed his feelings by iron\nself-control. Clark was not a pretty sight when he blew his top, as he\ndid when _The Misfits_ was completed, but Huston wanted one more retake.\nThe retake was never shot. Huston was still working the final cut of\nthe picture when Clark died, nearly a million dollars richer, leaving a\nbeautiful widow in Kay Gable and a handsome son he never saw.\n_Seven_\nHollywood was always heartbreak town, though most of the world fancied\nit to be Shangri-La, King Solomon\u2019s mines, and Fort Knox rolled into\none big ball of 24-karat gold. We used to see the hopefuls stream in\nfrom every state of the Union, tens of thousands of them, expecting\nthat a cute smile or a head of curls was all it took to pick up a\nmillion dollars. Many were old enough to know better, but not the\nchildren.\nThey came like a flock of hungry locusts driven by the gale winds of\ntheir pushing, prompting, ruthless mothers. One look into the eyes of\nthose women told you what was on their minds: \u201cIf I can get this kid\nof mine on the screen, we might just hit it big.\u201d I used to wonder\nif there wasn\u2019t a special, subhuman species of womankind that bred\nchildren for the sole purpose of dragging them to Hollywood.\nMost of the women showed no mercy. They took little creatures scarcely\nold enough to stand or speak and, like buck sergeants, drilled them\nto shuffle through a dance step or mumble a song. They robbed them of\nevery phase of childhood to keep the waves in the hair, the pleats in\nthe dress, the pink polish on the nails. I\u2019ve had hundreds of them\npassing through my office asking for help.\nStage mothers are nothing new. I remember as far back as the Tartar we\nlovingly called \u201cMa\u201d Janis, who took care of all the cash her daughter\nElsie earned. When \u201cMa\u201d died, Elsie got so lost in the tangle of her\nfinancial standing that she wondered whether she had $100,000 or a\nmillion in the bank. She found she had little left except a note signed\nby \u201cMa\u201d certifying that she owed Irving Berlin $10,000. Elsie had\nnever made out a check in her whole life, never had more than $5.00 in\nher pocketbook.\nWhat motion pictures did was to encourage the breed and give them\nbetter opportunities to ruin their children while they were beneath\nthe age of consent. Peg Talmadge, mother of Norma and Constance, was a\nsweetheart. Anita Loos wrote her book _Gentlemen Prefer Blondes_ from\nchoice bits that fell from the lips of Peg, but even she ruled with\na whim of iron. We all laughed at Peg when she said these things but\ndidn\u2019t have the wit to write them down. Anita did.\nJackie Coogan\u2019s boyhood earnings were so scandalously dissipated by his\nfamily that the law was changed to protect child actors--but Jackie was\nleft penniless.\nWhen I worked for Metro, stage mothers lingered outside the gates at\nthe Culver City studios, waiting to catch some dignitary\u2019s eye or for\na chance, which seldom came, to slip past the guards into the maze of\nnarrow streets that wound between the big barns plastered with stucco\nwhich were called sound stages.\nSome children made it, though not by waiting like beggars at the\ngates of paradise. Louis B. Mayer needed appealing youngsters for the\nall-American family pictures which this Russian-born Jew from New\nBrunswick delighted in making because they earned fortunes for him.\nThere were two children in particular, a boy and a girl, who captured\nthe imaginations of all.\nThe boy had once had his hair dyed black by his mother so he could\nget a job in two-reel silent comedies. She wanted to change his name\nto Mickey Looney, but the \u201cL\u201d became an \u201cR\u201d when he was signed on at\nCulver City.\nThe girl\u2019s mother had seen her child walk out onto a vaudeville\nstage when she was two years old to join her two older sisters in a\nsong-and-dance act. Mrs. Ethel Gumm took her three children slogging\nthrough West Coast theaters for years. Frances, the youngest, developed\nthe hungriest drive of them all, battling to show her big sisters that\nshe could sing louder and longer than either of them.\nIt was a cheap act, and it made very little money for anybody. One\nChristmas saw the traveling Gumms chewing on tortillas at a corner\ndrugstore near the theater they were playing. Frances Gumm had been\nrechristened Judy Garland when Lew Brown spotted the trio playing The\nLodge at Lake Tahoe and decided she might have something.\nIn the typical Tinker-to-Evers-to-Chance switching that usually makes\nit possible for half a dozen people to claim they \u201cdiscovered\u201d a star,\nBrown put Judy and her mother in touch with an agent named Rosen, who\nknew Jack Robbins, a music publisher with offices in Culver City.\nWith Rosen, Judy was in Robbins\u2019 office when he telephoned down to\nIda Koverman, who made a point of hunting for fresh talent to keep\nthe wheels turning at MGM. Judy was twelve; round as a rain barrel;\nstringy hair; dressed in an old blouse, blue slacks, dirty white shoes.\nIda heard her sing with a zing in her heart, and she flipped. She\ncalled Mayer, who grudgingly came up to see what was causing all the\nexcitement. Ida had got hold of the words to the Jewish lament \u201c_Eli,\nEli_\u201d and coached Judy in the pronunciation. That\u2019s what she sang for\nMayer, but he wasn\u2019t impressed. He tossed the ball right back at Ida.\n\u201cIf you want her, sign her up.\u201d\nBut Ida was too knowing about the foxy ways of Mayer to fall for that.\nShe needed a second opinion, or else if Judy failed, Mayer would\nnever let Ida forget it. She had Judy sing again, this time for Jack\nCummings, a producer who just happened to be Mayer\u2019s nephew.\nJack was called one of the \u201cSons of the Pioneers,\u201d a walking\ntestimonial to the fact that it never hurt to be somebody\u2019s relative\nat Metro. \u201cA producer produces relations\u201d was a stock gag. Later on,\nhowever, in pictures like _Seven Brides for Seven Brothers_, Jack\nproved that he could fly when they gave him wings.\nLong before that, he made a picture with a young girl named Liz\nTaylor and a collie dog: _Lassie Come Home_. The picture was sweet,\nsentimental, and I went all out in praise of it. A loyal friend in\nMetro\u2019s New York office wired me after reading the review: YOU SURE\nSTUCK YOUR NECK OUT THIS TIME HOPPER STOP IT\u2019S NOTHING BUT A POTBOILER.\nBut the picture made a fortune, got Lassie a lifetime contract, helped\nget Liz _National Velvet_.\nCummings could see the potential appeal of Judy, a roly-poly girl with\neyes like saucers and a voice as clear as a gold trumpet \u201cThis kid\u2019s\ngot it,\u201d he told Ida. \u201cLet\u2019s sign her up.\u201d While he went off to set the\nlegal wheels in motion, Ida took Judy to the commissary for some ice\ncream.\nShe tried to introduce her there to Rufus Le Maire, head of casting,\nbut she got the brush-off. Mr. Mayer hadn\u2019t given the little new girl\nthe nod, so she wouldn\u2019t receive any favors. He was starry-eyed over\nanother schoolgirl MGM had signed. Deanna Durbin was the real talent,\nin his book. The two children made a musical short together, _Every\nSunday Afternoon_, but Deanna was the one given the big build-up. After\nthat, Judy had nothing to do but hang around the lot--and get some\neducation at the school Ida had established with academically qualified\nteachers to meet the requirements of California law.\nMayer had decided to let Judy go and keep Deanna, but the plan turned\nsour. Universal, looking for a youngster to play in _Three Smart\nGirls_, wanted Deanna. By a fluke, Metro had let her contract lapse.\nMayer was away on one of his many trips to Europe. He knew nothing of\nthis until he returned and found his prize pigeon had been allowed to\nfly the coop. He went berserk.\nFor days he ranted and raged at everybody in sight until some anonymous\nprankster won revenge. In Mayer\u2019s exclusive, private bathroom one\nmorning, Louis found that on every sheet of toilet paper the face of\nDeanna had been printed overnight.\nDeanna got stardom and the royal treatment from Universal with _One\nHundred Men and a Girl_, which followed _Three Smart Girls_. There was\na fancy premiere, and she planted her footprints in wet cement in the\nforecourt of Grauman\u2019s Chinese Theatre, a pastime which was one of the\nglorious bits of nonsense in those days. Deanna is now quite plump and\nleading a happy married life with husband and children in Paris. Once a\nyear newspapermen descend upon her home, but she won\u2019t receive them or\nallow photographs to be taken. She\u2019s had her fill of Hollywood and you\ncouldn\u2019t lure her back for a million dollars. The only singing she does\nis with her children.\nJudy was living in a little rented house with her mother. Her father,\nFrank Gumm, was not in Hollywood. Judy\u2019s mother telephoned Ida the\nmorning after Deanna\u2019s big show: \u201cI can\u2019t do a thing with Judy. She\u2019s\nbeen crying all night. What shall I do?\u201d\n\u201cBring her right over,\u201d said Ida. With no children of her own, she was\na mother hen to everyone who needed her. Judy was as close to her as a\ndaughter. She fell into Ida\u2019s lap and buried her head on her shoulder,\nsobbing: \u201cI\u2019ve been in show business ten years, and Deanna\u2019s starred in\na picture and I\u2019m nothing.\u201d\nFrustrated ambition has to be treated gently. \u201cYou\u2019ll get your feet in\ncement, too,\u201d Ida soothed her. \u201cYou\u2019ll be starred, you\u2019ll see. Don\u2019t\nforget, I\u2019ve told you so.\u201d\nMayer schemed to turn the tables on Universal. Nobody was going to\nlaugh at him for keeping the wrong girl. \u201cI\u2019ll take this fat one,\nGarland, and make her a bigger star than Durbin,\u201d he boasted to his\nassociates. How to start was the puzzle. He began by insisting that\nshe be coached in acting and dancing, though she\u2019s never had a formal\nsinging lesson in her life. She still doesn\u2019t know what key she sings\nin. She\u2019ll say, \u201cPlay some chords and I\u2019ll pick one.\u201d He had orders\nsent down to the commissary: \u201cNo matter what she orders, give her\nnothing but chicken soup and cottage cheese.\u201d\nHer one dear friend in approximately her own age group was Mickey\nRooney. They were nuts about each other. They went to school together,\nalong with Metro\u2019s Jackie Cooper, Freddie Bartholomew, and other child\nstars whom Mickey rapidly eclipsed. Mickey, who remains today one of\nthe greatest underrated talents in entertainment, was brash, cocksure,\nand growing up fast. He was doing calisthenics in the schoolyard\none day under an instructor\u2019s eye when Frank Whitbeck, the studio\nadvertising director, passed by.\n\u201cHi, Uncle Frank,\u201d yelled Mickey. \u201cAin\u2019t this the damndest thing for a\ngrown man to be doing?\u201d\nThe crush Judy had on Mickey would have burned up a girl twice her age.\nAn explosive mixture of emotion and ambition churns inside her. \u201cI have\nto have a crush on somebody,\u201d she once cried to Ida, \u201cbut they don\u2019t\nlast.\u201d Mickey had a shield of toughness, which she lacked, and a heart\nas big as Ireland, but he mostly regarded her as a kid, too young for\nhim.\nShe\u2019d played minor roles, two of them with Mickey as star, when _The\nWizard of Oz_ came along. Producer Mervyn LeRoy, typically, was all set\nto have Shirley Temple as Dorothy, but Twentieth Century-Fox wouldn\u2019t\nrelease her. So he reluctantly settled for Judy--and she had it made.\nThe top executive offices at Culver City are located in the Thalberg\nBuilding, otherwise known as the \u201cIron Lung\u201d by reason of its\nmuch-envied air-conditioning system. Before it was built, Metro\ntried to buy a little piece of corner property, on which stands a\nlong-established undertaker\u2019s parlor. He refused to sell, so today his\nestablishment stands like a sore thumb next to the handsome structure\nnamed for Irving Thalberg. The undertaker occasionally peers into the\n\u201cIron Lung\u201d and says: \u201cWell, I\u2019ll get you all, sooner or later.\u201d He\u2019s\nhad most of the old-timers already.\nFrom the executive offices you could look across the street at four\nbig twenty-four-sheet billboards standing side by side. On them were\ndisplayed posters that shouted the claims of the studio\u2019s newest hits,\nlisting names of the stars, featured players, producer, director and,\nif they were lucky, the writers.\nSince actors are vain, Mayer and his aides, like soft-spoken Benny Thau\nand burly Eddie Mannix, could sweet-talk them into accepting bigger\nbilling in lieu of more money in many a contract. With _Oz_, Judy\u2019s\nbilling grew like a mushroom. It jumped above the picture\u2019s title,\nmaking her technically a star. The size of the lettering that was used\nto spell out her name expanded year by year. Now she\u2019s reached the\npeak, where one name, _Judy_--like _Garbo_ and _Gable_--does all the\nselling needed to pull in an audience.\nThen Metro smelled gold in billing Mickey and Judy together for _Babes\non Broadway_, and some of her cruelest years opened up for her.\nCompared with Mickey\u2019s greased-lightning ability to do everything and\nanything and get it right instantly, Judy was a slow study. Dance\nrehearsals were a torture. She was driven frantic, dancing, singing,\nimprovising, putting a picture together. The director, Busby Berkeley,\nwas a taskmaster who extracted the last ounce of her energy.\n\u201cI used to feel,\u201d she told me later, \u201cas if he had a big black bull\nwhip, and he was lashing me with it. Sometimes I used to think I\ncouldn\u2019t live through the day. Other times I\u2019d have my driver take me\nround and round the block because I hated to go through the gates.\u201d\nI saw him work her over in one picture, where she stood on a truck and\nsang. He watched from the floor, with a wild gleam in his eye, while\nin take after take he drove her toward the perfection he demanded. She\nwas close to hysteria; I was ready to scream myself. But the order was\nrepeated time and time again: \u201cCut. Let\u2019s try it again, Judy.\u201d\n\u201cCome on, Judy! Move! Get the lead out.\u201d By now, she was determined to\nkeep her name in the billing, but I doubt if she would have pretended\nto anyone that she enjoyed being an actress. She was jealous of Mickey,\nforever running to Ida to complain: \u201cHe got the break, I didn\u2019t.\u201d For\nall the friendship of the two young people, she wanted to best him in\neverything they did together.\nThe two of them sat together in the darkened theater. On one side of\nthem was Irene Dunne; on the other, Sonja Henie; behind them, Cary\nGrant. When the house lights came on, Judy was crying through the\napplause. \u201cI know what you\u2019re thinking,\u201d Mickey said. \u201cWe\u2019re two kids\nfrom vaudeville, and we didn\u2019t mean a damn thing for so long, and now\nit\u2019s happened to both of us.\u201d\nYears later, after Judy had fallen into a bottomless pit and climbed\nout again, the Friars Club gave a banquet at the Biltmore Bowl and\nproclaimed her \u201cMiss Show Business.\u201d She had just had the British\neating out of her hand at the London Palladium, played the Palace in\nNew York for nineteen sensational weeks; toured the United States and\nfinished her triumph at the Philharmonic Auditorium in Los Angeles.\nMickey\u2019s career was running downhill. Somebody remembered to send him\nan invitation to the Biltmore Bowl, but it was to sit way over in a\ncorner.\n\u201cEverybody was slapping each other on the back,\u201d he reported without\nbitterness, \u201cand I said to myself: \u2018Poor Judy, how many of these people\nreally care about you?\u2019\u201d\nI said: \u201cYou two were like ham and eggs. You helped her more than\nanybody.\u201d\n\u201cYeah, but the people who gave the party forgot that. That was the\nonly thing that hurt. Because I felt so close. I haven\u2019t seen her much\nlately. It\u2019s all a kind of whirl.\u201d\nAdolescence can give a rough ride to any girl--and her mother, if\nshe\u2019s around to share her daughter\u2019s fears and confidences and dry her\ntears. Judy\u2019s thinned-out body was not given time to readjust. The\npublic idolized her. The exhibitors couldn\u2019t get enough Garland-Rooney\nmusicals. She had to go on churning them out one after another. They\u2019d\nbeen sent to New York for the Capitol Theatre opening of _Babes on\nBroadway_. They went back again and broke every house record.\n\u201cWe\u2019d been doing six, seven shows a day and having about forty minutes\nbetween shows,\u201d Mickey recalled. \u201cThis one afternoon we\u2019d just gone\noff stage to come back and take a bow together, and she collapsed in\nthe wings. I didn\u2019t know what to do. I filled up with tears. I felt as\nthough something serious had happened. I came out on stage and just\nfelt lost without her. She wasn\u2019t dieting at this time. She was just\ngoing too fast.\u201d And with the wrong companions.\nThat was Louis B. Mayer\u2019s doing. His suspicious brain came up with the\nidea that Ida had too much influence over Judy. She might be tempted to\nthink of what was good for the girl before she thought of the studio,\nso he flatly told Ida: \u201cYou\u2019ve got too much work to do to look after\nthe Garland.\u201d By order, the old intimacy was ended.\nThe studio brushed off somebody else in Judy\u2019s life, too--her first\nhusband, David Rose, the serious-minded, preoccupied composer to whom\nshe was married at nineteen. She made two mistakes in that. She married\nhim without consulting Mr. Mayer beforehand, which was a fracture of\nMGM protocol. Even worse was the fact that she married at all.\nA star\u2019s life was supposedly controlled twenty-four hours a day by the\nstudio. She was told what to do, both at work and after working hours;\nwhere to go; what to say; whom to mix with. Mayer didn\u2019t want any star\nto marry because that introduced a foreign influence in the control\nsystem. A husband could often influence a star against the studio for\nher own good and sometimes for his own power.\nThey turned on Judy like rattlesnakes. On Academy Awards night, she had\nsat for years at the number-one table along with the rest of the MGM\nstars. As Mrs. David Rose she was deliberately humiliated and seated at\na much less desirable spot on the side and out of the spotlight. That\nyear she called to ask if I\u2019d like to sit with her.\n\u201cLove to,\u201d I said, then proceeded to give the tsar hell by telephone:\n\u201cLouis, you are treating her outrageously. Even if you personally don\u2019t\nlike her, think of what she has done for your company. You should be\nashamed of yourself.\u201d But he was immune to shame or compassion. I\nwasted my breath.\nThey actually believed that she belonged to them, body and soul. They\u2019d\ncreated her; why couldn\u2019t she show more gratitude? The marriage hadn\u2019t\na chance. The studio told her so. David Rose was the wrong man for her,\nsaid the sycophants who clung to her like leeches. \u201cHe\u2019s trading on\nyour popularity. You\u2019re a star; he\u2019s a struggling composer.\u201d If they\npassed the two of them in the Culver City streets, they\u2019d greet her but\nignore him.\nAfter Judy left him, as she inevitably did, her private life changed\nin many ways. Her father had died and her mother remarried to become\nEthel Gilmore. Both sisters were married, too. Metro assigned a\npublicity writer, Betty Asher, to stay with Judy, and they lived high,\nwide, and not particularly handsome.\nShe turned from her mother and her old friends. When they warned her\nabout the new set she was going with, the rainbow girl screamed: \u201cI\u2019m\nold enough to know what I want. When I want your advice I\u2019ll ask for\nit.\u201d\nThe dismal cycle of benzedrine and sleeping pills began again. The\nstudio kept up the illusion of Judy\u2019s perfect health. She plunged on,\nbeating her thin chest and saying: \u201cI feel fine.\u201d Of course, she knew\nshe wasn\u2019t, but she was too riddled with ambition to let someone else\ntake over a picture scheduled for her.\nShe listened to anybody who flattered her ego. Joe Mankiewicz, the\ndirector who suffered the tortures of the damned on _Cleopatra_, was\na great ego booster. \u201cYou could be the greatest dramatic star in the\nworld,\u201d he told her. \u201cAnything Bernhardt did, you can do better. I\u2019ll\nwrite material for you, make you another Bernhardt.\u201d That was something\nhe never did.\nMetro smiled on marriage number two--to Vincent Minnelli, who had\ndirected her in _Meet Me in St. Louis_ and _The Clock_. They felt this\ngentle man would bring her under control. Judy was married in her\nmother\u2019s home. Louis Mayer gave the bride away; Betty Asher was matron\nof honor; Ira Gershwin the best man. Ida Koverman was not invited, nor\nwas I. Judy was then twenty-three.\nMinnelli, ten years her senior, had never married before. Though he\ncontrolled hundreds on a sound stage, he wasn\u2019t successful in seizing\nthe reins as husband. He was too gentle. She continued to mingle with\nher old crowd; sought and found her sensations; quarreled with her\nmother.\nBy this time, we knew many of Judy\u2019s problems and were delighted to\nhear that she was pregnant. Maybe motherhood would bring her back to\nher senses. Before Liza was born, I wanted to give her a different\nkind of baby shower, with only men invited. Judy was in a depressed\nmood. She bowed out with a note: \u201cI\u2019d have been a dull guest of honor,\nbut it was a wonderful idea. Thanks for thinking of me. Forgive me, and\nafter March I\u2019ll be rarin\u2019 to go. I\u2019ll be my old self again.\u201d\nUnfortunately motherhood rarely produces miracles. Though the birth\nleft Judy weakened, she scurried back to work again. Metro issued\nglowing reports about her health, but her previously ravenous appetite\nhad strangely deserted her, and she stayed pathetically thin. She got\nthrough her pictures only on nervous energy and doctors\u2019 help. She was\nso near the borderline that when I visited her in her dressing room on\nthe set of _The Pirate_, in which she was co-starring with Gene Kelly,\nshe was shaking like an aspen leaf. She went into a frenzy of hysteria.\nEverybody who had once loved her had turned against her, she said. She\nhad no friends.\nEven her mother, Judy said, tapped her telephone calls. \u201cShe is doing\neverything in her power to destroy me.\u201d\nI said: \u201cYou know that isn\u2019t true. Nobody in the world loves you as\nyour mother does--and has all your life through all your troubles.\u201d\nBut she cried out against her mother; against Ida Koverman; against\nall those who had helped her out of so much potential trouble. She was\ncarried out of the dressing room, put in a limousine, still wearing\nmake-up and costume, and put to bed. But she rallied and finished the\npicture.\nThe gulf between her and Minnelli widened. He tried to force her to\neat, but she couldn\u2019t. In fits of temperament, the couple parted many\ntimes. But he was always on hand to help.\nThe road got rougher. Something desperate was happening to her. The\nsad chronicle of studio suspensions began. Then Metro bought _Annie\nGet Your Gun_ for her and assigned as director the \u201cman with the bull\nwhip,\u201d Buzz Berkeley. She went into a weeping rage when she was told\nshe\u2019d have to work for him again and refused point-blank to do it. So\nthe studio gave her Charles Walters in his place. But then nothing\ncould have improved the situation for her.\nShe recorded the songs which are collectors\u2019 items--I often sit and\nplay them in my den at night. Then day after day, with a million\ndollars of Metro\u2019s money already invested, she didn\u2019t show up for work.\nHer bosses took her off the picture. Betty Hutton was brought in to\nreplace her, which was one of their biggest mistakes. They should have\nwaited until Judy got well.\nWhen Judy walked into my den after hearing the news from Mayer himself,\nshe looked middle-aged. She stared into space, blamed herself for her\ntroubles. \u201cI understand the studio\u2019s problems at last. I\u2019d been there\nso long I\u2019d forgotten you have to conform to their plans. Mr. Mayer\npromised to take care of me. He said he\u2019d give me so much to live on\nwhile I\u2019m out of work.\u201d\nShe was in the throes of another separation from Minnelli. \u201cI\u2019m broke.\nHow can anyone save money in this business? When Vincent and I were\ntogether, I spent $70,000 decorating our house. Since our separation\nI\u2019m paying $1000 a month rent on another. It\u2019s tiny; no nursery for my\nbaby. But I have to keep working.\u201d\nI begged her to go to the Menninger Clinic. Treatments there had done\nmuch good for Robert Walker, her co-star in _The Clock_. \u201cThere\u2019s\nnothing the matter with my head,\u201d she replied. \u201cIt\u2019s my body that\u2019s\ntired.\u201d\nA few days later she entered the Peter Brigham Hospital in Boston, with\nLouis Mayer personally paying the bills, and stayed there for several\nmonths. Back in Hollywood, fighting to lose weight again, she finished\n_Summer Stock_ with Gene Kelly. Then, during rehearsals for _Royal\nWedding_ with Fred Astaire, the headlines screamed that Judy Garland,\nsuspended for refusing to work, had cut her throat in the house she\u2019d\nspent $70,000 decorating. Stories told of her racing into the bathroom,\nbreaking a glass, slashing her throat. In fact, the scratch could have\nbeen as easily made with a pin. The cut wasn\u2019t serious. It was more a\ncase of nerves than anything else.\nHer mother had long since given up the hopeless task of staying close.\nShe was working as a theater manager in Dallas. When she heard the\nnews, she got in her little jalopy and drove thirty-six hours nonstop\nto go to her daughter. \u201cJudy,\u201d she said enigmatically, \u201cwill never kill\nherself.\u201d She stayed on in California, working in a job in an aircraft\nplant that Ida Koverman helped obtain for her. She died of a heart\nattack in the parking lot there. Previously, she used to plead with her\nfriends: \u201cPlease don\u2019t introduce me as Judy\u2019s mother.\u201d\nJudy has walked the rocky road back to the top of the mountain with\nSid Luft by her side for most of the miles. Sid is her husband,\n\u201cmanager,\u201d and a gambling man who can kill $10,000 in an afternoon. He\nloves horses and fast motor cars. It was Sid, with whom she has led an\non-again off-again life as Mrs. Luft, who arranged her first tour that\nopened at the London Palladium, where she was an absolute sensation.\nShe has two more children by him: Lorna and Joe.\n\u201cI don\u2019t think there\u2019s any actress in the world that can produce\nlike she can when she\u2019s going,\u201d said one member of the group that\naccompanied her to London. \u201cWhen she\u2019s going, she\u2019s the greatest thing\non wheels. When you\u2019re with a dame that\u2019s fantastic like that, and you\ndon\u2019t know if she\u2019s going to get on or off or anything, you\u2019re bound to\ncrack under the strain.\u201d\nMany people wondered how Judy Garland got her amazing contract from\nJack Warner to make the musical version of _A Star Is Born_. There was\na clause in it she didn\u2019t have to work before 11 A.M. If she was ill\nthey wouldn\u2019t expect her to work. It was a fantastic deal. Here\u2019s the\nstory.\nWhen it came time for Jack\u2019s beautiful daughter Barbara to have her\ncoming-out party, he promised to get her anything she wanted. What she\nwanted was to have Judy Garland sing at the party. Her father told her\nthat was impossible. \u201cBut, Daddy, you promised to give me anything I\nwanted, and I thought you could do anything.\u201d Then she burst into tears\nand hung up the telephone.\nFather went to work. He called Judy. Her answer was: \u201cWhy would I\ndo that? No.\u201d He called her again: \u201cWhat would I have to give you to\nchange your mind?\u201d\nThen it was that Sid Luft came on the phone and said: \u201cWe want _A Star\nIs Born_,\u201d naming an astronomical price for Judy and special clauses in\nthe contract. Warner had to buy the story from David O. Selznick at a\ncost, I believe, of a quarter of a million.\nBut Judy survived the flop that _A Star Is Born_ proved to be, as\nshe has survived all the incredible excesses of her life. In every\nperformance--at concerts, on television, in her new pictures--she has\nthe power to stir an audience to the depths of their hearts, like an\nold-fashioned revival meeting. \u201cWe have all come through the fire\ntogether,\u201d she seems to say, \u201cand none of us is getting any younger,\nbut we\u2019re here together, and I\u2019ll love you if you love me.\u201d\nThis feeling she gives out to and gets back from an audience may be\nthe one crush of her life that will last. She used to be her own worst\ncritic. Before she went into a number for the screen, her co-workers\nhad to keep telling her: \u201cYou\u2019re wonderful, wonderful!\u201d But she never\nthought she was good. \u201cI was awful\u201d was her own self-judgment whenever\nshe\u2019d finished. But now, as she literally tears her way through her\nsongs, her audiences go crazy listening to her. They crowd around to\ntouch her, and she believes in what she can achieve.\nEthel Barrymore, one of her greatest boosters, told me: \u201cI think she\nhas a tremendous frustration. She\u2019s always felt she wasn\u2019t wanted. She\nhas a complex common among women--she wants to be beautiful. I told\nher: \u2018God is funny that way. He divides these things. When you open\nyour mouth to sing, you can be as beautiful as anyone I\u2019ve ever known.\u2019\nBut you\u2019ve got to keep telling her.\u201d\nJudy suffers from nightmares concerning her mother. She has lost\nsomething of herself somewhere along the road. But so long as she has\nmillions of people loving her and fighting for her, she\u2019ll keep the\nghosts in the background.\nHer performance in Carnegie Hall was one of the most amazing things I\never witnessed. Her fans screamed and applauded after every number.\nShe gave encore after encore, promised: \u201cI\u2019ll stay all night if you\nwant me.\u201d She threw her head back and used the mike like a trumpet.\nShe repeated the same frenzied performance in the Hollywood Bowl, this\ntime in the rain, and nobody moved. You sat enthralled because she\u2019d\ncast her magic spell as she did first when she sang \u201cOver the Rainbow.\u201d\nThis was our little Judy, who came home and persuaded the natives that\nskies really were blue and that dreams really do come true.\n_Eight_\nOne bright morning last spring, a fat young woman with a baby carriage\nambled along Hollywood Boulevard. First to catch my eye were the pink\nCapri pants and her wabbling _derri\u00e8re_ that was threatening to burst\nright out of them. Next item I spotted was the cigarette dangling out\nof her mouth, sprinkling ashes on the baby. I put on speed to catch up\nwith her, though I didn\u2019t know her from Little Orphan Annie.\n\u201cI wonder if you know how you look from the rear. You should be ashamed\nof yourself, and you a mother, too.\u201d\nThat stopped her dead in her tracks. \u201cAnd who might you be?\u201d\n\u201cDoesn\u2019t matter, but you\u2019re disgusting.\u201d With that, I walked on,\nfeeling I\u2019d done my bit for the cause. I wasn\u2019t exactly running any\nrisk. Though she outweighed me by thirty pounds, I knew she couldn\u2019t\nleave the baby to come after me.\nThe cause is glamour, for which I\u2019ve been fighting a losing battle for\nyears. Our town was built on it, but there\u2019s scarcely a trace left now.\nMorning, noon, and night the girls parade in babushkas; dirty, sloppy\nsweaters; and skin-tight pants. They may be an incitement to rape, but\ncertainly not to marriage. Unless the era of the tough tomboy ends\nsoon, the institution of matrimony is doomed to disappear forever.\nThe geniuses who conduct the motion-picture business killed glamour\nwhen they decided that what the public wanted was not dream stuff, from\nwhich movies used to be made, but realism. They took the girls out of\nsatin, chiffon, velvet, and mink, put them first into gingham and then\nblue jeans. So what happened? They converted the heroine into the girl\nnext door, and I\u2019ve always advocated that if they want to see the girl\nnext door, go next door. Now they\u2019ve thrown the poor kid out to earn\nher living on the streets.\nThe milliners, especially the males, have helped stitch glamour\u2019s\nshroud. Deep inside whatever they call their souls, they hate women.\nThey made the most ridiculous concoctions for women to wear on their\nheads. Hats like table doilies, little pot holders, coal scuttles,\ndishpans, crash helmets, bedpans. Husbands were ignored when they\ncomplained: \u201cWhere in God\u2019s name did you get that thing? Whoever made\nit must hate your sex.\u201d\nNot until other women laughed at them did the glamour pusses discard\ntheir psychotic chapeaux and go bareheaded. By then the designers had\nruined their own racket; they\u2019d killed the sale of hats. I can walk\nsix blocks today in any city and see nothing more than hair or a scarf\ncovering anybody else\u2019s hair but mine.\nStudio wardrobe departments that employed cutters, seamstresses, and\nembroidery hands by the dozens are empty, staffed by skeleton crews.\nThe stock rooms were crammed with bolts of magnificent brocades,\nsatins, laces; now most of the shelves are bare. One odd sight you\u2019ll\nsee, though--rows and rows of realistic breasts cunningly contoured\nfrom flesh-colored plastic, complete with pink nipples, hanging in\npairs, labeled with the name of the underprivileged star they were\ncreated for. Some deceivers are made of rubber and inflate to size.\nEverything else in Wardrobe was real--furs, fabrics, and feathers.\nThe cost of sheer labor that went into making the clothes drove the\naccountants cross-eyed. One costume Garbo wore in _Mata Hari_ took\neight Guadalajaran needlewomen nine weeks to complete. In my wardrobe I\nhave the most beautiful coat I have seen anywhere, which Travis Banton\nof Paramount designed. The embroidery alone cost $4000.\nThe studio designers were brilliant men and would have succeeded as\nartists, painters, decorators. One or two were addicted to the bottle,\nbut they all blazed with talent. Travis at Paramount, Adrian at Metro,\nOmar Kiam at Goldwyn, Orry-Kelly, now free-lancing and making more\nmoney than ever. He designed the clothes for Marilyn Monroe in _Some\nLike It Hot_, but she recut them to suit herself, and he refused to do\nher next picture.\nThere are only two women associated with the movies now who make sure\nthey look like stars, and they both live in New York. Joan Crawford\nwon\u2019t venture out of her Fifth Avenue apartment to buy an egg unless\nshe is dressed to the teeth. Marlene Dietrich does more--she\u2019s made\nherself a living legend of spectacular glamour around the world.\nFor her opening night the first year at the Sahara in Las Vegas I had a\nfront-row seat. She came on in a white dress that was poured over her.\nShe wore layers of sheer souffl\u00e9, infinitely finer than chiffon, but\nonly one layer to protect her chest from the evening air. The audience\nlet out a gasp that threatened to blow away the tablecloths. The next\nnight she wore the same gown, but she\u2019d had two little circles of seed\npearls sewed strategically on the bodice and forever after swore she\nhad never appeared any more naked than that. But I\u2019d seen both of them.\nEvery year she outdoes herself. One season she succeeded with a\nfull-length coat of rippling swan\u2019s-down that for sheer beauty\nsurpassed anything in fabulous fashion. Jean Louis designed it, but it\nwas made by my furrier, Mrs. Fuhrman. In her shop one day, where the\ncoat was kept in cold storage, she asked me to try it on. I felt like a\nmaharaja\u2019s mother.\n\u201cWe had a terrible time getting the swan\u2019s-down,\u201d said Mrs. Fuhrman,\nas I preened my borrowed feathers. \u201cYou know, you have to pull the\nfeathers off the living swans--\u201d\n\u201cYou what?\u201d I gulped. \u201cI don\u2019t want to see it again.\u201d\nMarlene was invented as a fashion plate just as Pygmalion created\nGalatea. The first time Travis Banton saw her, I thought he\u2019d pass\nright out at her feet. Soon after she landed here, as Josef von\nSternberg\u2019s prot\u00e9g\u00e9e, she turned up at an afternoon tea party wearing\na black satin evening gown complete with train, trimmed with ostrich\nfeathers. Her hips were decidedly lumpy. Except for her beautiful face\nand perfect legs, which we\u2019d seen in _The Blue Angel_, she could have\npassed for a German housewife.\nTravis, a Yale man, took her in hand, taught her everything he knew\nabout art, clothes, and good taste. She slimmed down, was made over\ninto the most strikingly dressed clothes horse on the screen. She had\nsome keen competition to contend with at Paramount. Carole Lombard,\nClaudette Colbert, Kay Francis, Evelyn Brent, and, later, Mae West\nfought for Travis\u2019 most stunning designs.\nFor one picture Mae insisted upon having only French clothes. She had\nposed for a nude statue and sent it to Paris to have the clothes fitted\non it. They were beautiful clothes that arrived back, but when they\nwere tried on Mae, they didn\u2019t meet by ten inches. Everything had to be\nremade at the studio.\nThere aren\u2019t any Marquis of Queensberry rules when an actress wants to\nwin, but Marlene walked off with the honors. She was Travis\u2019 favorite.\nNothing was too good for her. As top star at Paramount, she allowed\nherself the luxury of a raging temper unless she got her own way, but\nshe took care not to rage at Travis.\nAt Christmas time she showered him with presents by way of thanks. He\ninvited my son Bill and me to help trim his tree one Christmas. I saw\nhim unwrap twenty-two separate packages from Marlene, covering the\nwhole gamut of giving, from sapphire-and-diamond cuff links with studs\nto match, to Chinese jade figures and a kitchenload of copper pots and\npans.\nShe is a complex woman. A different side showed when she wanted a hat,\nmade almost entirely of black bird-of-paradise feathers, which she\nwas going to wear at the race track. Trouble was that federal agents\nhad just swooped down on the Wardrobe Department and confiscated its\nentire stock of egret and paradise feathers--$3500 worth. The law said\nthat importing, buying, or possessing them was forbidden, though these\nparticular items had been carried on the inventory for years.\nSo Marlene\u2019s precious hat had to be made of substitute plumage by a\nstaff of expert milliners--one of them even came out from New York\nfor the occasion. Marlene took one look at the result, tried the fine\nfeathers disdainfully on for size, then in silence ripped them to\nshreds. The milliners worked for days before they came up with a hat\nshe\u2019d wear.\nThe same perfectionism blazed again when Ouida and Basil Rathbone\nannounced a costume ball they were giving at the old Victor Hugo\nRestaurant in Beverly Hills. This was going to be the diamond-studded\nsocial event of the season. Our hosts counted the invitations they\u2019d\nsent out, then thoughtfully had the restaurant install extra plumbing\nand built two complete extra powder rooms, ladies\u2019 and gents\u2019.\nMarlene, as ever, was intent on outdoing everybody. She decided to come\nas Leda and the Swan. Paramount\u2019s sewing ladies labored for weeks on\nthe costume. The studios in those days took care that wherever a star\nappeared, she lived up to the glittering image of a star that they--and\nthe public--carried in their minds. If she showed up at a private\ngathering looking less than immaculate, she\u2019d be hauled on the carpet\nnext morning by a head executive and advised to mend her manners.\nOn the evening of the Rathbones\u2019 party Marlene made up at home and went\nto the studio at 8 P.M. to be poured into her Leda gown. She regarded\nherself in the mirrors, then cried: \u201cIt won\u2019t do. I can\u2019t possibly\nwear a swan whose eyes match mine.\u201d So the sewing girls fell to, and\nthe embroidered blue eyes were picked out and green ones substituted.\nMarlene sent out for champagne and sandwiches for them all to have\nan impromptu celebration in Wardrobe. She arrived at the Rathbones\u2019\nshivaree five hours late and was the sensation of the evening.\nI\u2019d intended to go in a borrowed brocade that had a coronation look,\nwith a jeweled crown to match, toting a baby lamb with gilded hoofs\non a leash. But the lamb submitted to his pedicure for nothing. I was\nworking on a picture with Louise Fazenda until midnight. When I got\nhome, I was too tired to look at the lamb or do anything but flop into\nbed.\nUnder the swan\u2019s-down and sequins, Marlene remains at heart what she\nwas in the beginning: a _Hausfrau_ with a mothering instinct a mile\nwide. She has mothered every man in her life. They\u2019ve loved her for\nthat, and much more. Mike Todd enjoyed a special place under her warm,\nprotective wing. A great friendship started when he went to see her\nin Las Vegas to ask her to appear as a \u201ccameo\u201d star along with Frank\nSinatra, Red Skelton, and George Raft in the San Francisco honky-tonk\nsequence in _Around the World in Eighty Days_.\nShe agreed and instantly took on the full-time job of mothering Mike.\nShe saw to it that he ate regularly, and the proper food. She helped\nhim with advice. She bought him his first matched set of expensive\nluggage when she saw the ratty collection of cheap suitcases in which\nhe\u2019d been living. \u201cYou are a very great man, Mike,\u201d she told him; \u201cyou\nmust look and act like one.\u201d He bought her nothing in return. Every\ndollar he could scrape up had to go into completing his picture. He\nhadn\u2019t then met Elizabeth Taylor.\nI watched Marlene play the honky-tonk scene, which wasn\u2019t suited to\nher--she could have written a much better script herself. Then Mike\ndrove me over to Metro, the only place where Todd-AO equipment had\nbeen installed, to see Jos\u00e9 Greco, David Niven, Cantinflas, and Cesar\nRomero in the flamenco and bullfight sequences. I sat stunned. \u201cIf the\nrest is as good as this,\u201d I told Mike, \u201cyou\u2019ve got one of the greatest\nspectacles ever made.\u201d Joe Schenck, who\u2019d sat with us, agreed. \u201cIf you\nneed money to finish it,\u201d he promised, \u201call you have to do is come to\nme.\u201d\nMike gave Marlene and me his word that we could see the first rough\ncut of the complete picture. He kept his promises with most people,\ncertainly with us. We had a six o\u2019clock date to attend the screening\nwith him before the three of us ate a quick dinner at Chasen\u2019s and he\nflew to New York. He was late, as usual, but at six-thirty he was there\nto call: \u201cRoll \u2019em.\u201d\nWhen the screening ended, Marlene and I sat in total silence. Mike\ncouldn\u2019t stand it. \u201cWhy don\u2019t you say something? What\u2019s the matter?\nI\u2019ve never known you two broads at a loss for words.\u201d\n\u201cShall I tell him?\u201d I asked Marlene.\n\u201cGo ahead.\u201d\nI gave it to him on the chin. \u201cWho cut this picture? A butcher? Where\nare those wonderful scenes I saw in the gypsy tavern and the bull ring?\nWhy have they been cut to bits?\u201d\n\u201cShe\u2019s right,\u201d murmured Marlene. \u201cIt doesn\u2019t make sense.\u201d\n\u201cThe cutter said they ran too long,\u201d Mike explained.\n\u201cWell, fire him. Get the negative put back together and start all over\nagain. Pay him off and find yourself an artist, not the man who did\nthis.\u201d\n\u201cI don\u2019t know if I can do it. I gave him a year\u2019s contract. It\u2019d cost a\nfortune.\u201d\n\u201cIf you don\u2019t, it will cost you a great picture.\u201d\n\u201cWho could I get?\u201d he begged.\n\u201cYou\u2019ve got one friend in this town who wants to see you succeed, not\nfail,\u201d I said, \u201cand that\u2019s Sam Goldwyn. He has saved his own pictures\nin the cutting room many a time. Go to Sam and let him find you the\nfinest cutter in the business. It\u2019s the only way you can save it. You\nhaven\u2019t got a picture unless you do.\u201d\nMike sat there churning with anger. This was his first picture. We made\na sad threesome in the restaurant, with Mike complaining about how hard\nhe\u2019d worked already and us not listening to him. \u201cYou\u2019re going on a\nplane and you\u2019ll get no food there,\u201d Marlene interrupted. \u201cI\u2019ll order\ndinner for you. Hedda and I will eat later.\u201d\nHe accepted that idea, then grumbled that he didn\u2019t feel like going to\nNew York anyway and he\u2019d cancel his reservation. \u201cYou must go. You\u2019ve\ngot money questions to settle there,\u201d said Marlene, the mother again.\nAfter he\u2019d left, she telephoned the airport: \u201cMr. Michael Todd will be\na few minutes late for his flight, number ten, TWA, for New York. Would\nyou please hold the plane for him? It\u2019s very important.\u201d Then she\nasked me: \u201cAre you hungry?\u201d We hadn\u2019t eaten a mouthful with him.\nHe went to New York. On his return he saw Sam Goldwyn, who came through\nwith the right cutter. The first real preview, loaded down with\nHollywood and New York big shots, was a sensation. But by then Mike had\nmet and been dazzled by Liz, who arrived late at that screening nursing\na highball, and sipped her way through the performance. Marlene saw\nvery little of him after that, and Liz got all the glory.\nOn the afternoon of March 22, 1958, I was in Havana, Cuba, bowing\nbefore Madame Fulgencio Batista, wife of the reigning dictator, who was\nguest of honor at a fashion show being staged to celebrate the opening\nof a new Conrad Hilton hotel. In my outstretched hand I held a hat for\npresentation to her. A newspaperman in the crowd couldn\u2019t wait until\nI\u2019d finished. He hurried forward and whispered in my ear: \u201cMike Todd\u2019s\ndead--his plane crashed.\u201d\nI quickly dipped my head to Madame. \u201cWill you excuse me? I\u2019ve had some\nvery sad news.\u201d\nWhen I flew back to New York next day, Marlene telephoned me at the\nWaldorf Towers, broken up by the news of Mike. We talked for ninety\nminutes. She wept for him, and so did I.\nOver cocktails in Havana I\u2019d met an ex-subject of my movie-making\ndays. Ernest Hemingway had cursed like a troop of cavalry in 1942 when\nmy cameraman trailed him around Sun Valley and ruined a day\u2019s quail\nhunting for him. I wanted to bag him and the Gary Coopers on film for\nmy series of two-reelers called _Hedda Hopper\u2019s Hollywood_. In Cuba I\ngot very chummy with Ernest and his lovely wife, Mary. \u201cWe should have\nmet twenty-five years ago,\u201d he said gallantly.\n\u201cYes, I think we might have made some sweet music then.\u201d\n\u201cIt\u2019s not too late now,\u201d the old flirt replied.\n\u201cIt is for me,\u201d I said.\nHe sighed. \u201cI was boasting a bit. I guess for me, too.\u201d\nThe following winter in New York I saw Mary at a Broadway opening.\n\u201cWhere\u2019s your ever-loving?\u201d I asked.\n\u201cOut with Marlene Dietrich. He preferred dining with her to coming to\nsee this play.\u201d\n\u201cCan\u2019t blame him. But how come I never get that much attention from\nyour husband?\u201d\n\u201cBecause you don\u2019t do as much for him as Marlene,\u201d said Mary.\nWhere Marlene was a challenge and an inspiration to Travis Banton,\nGarbo was a challenge, exclamation point, to Gilbert Adrian at Metro.\nMarlene loves seductive glamour in clothes, and she finished up knowing\nas much as her master. The Swede hated dressing up, enjoyed wearing\nonly her drab woolen skirt, turtle-neck sweater, flat-heeled shoes, and\nmen\u2019s socks on her big feet.\nTravis delighted in high fashion. Adrian came up with more fantastic\ndesigns, though when femininity was in order, his clothes dripped\nwith it for Greer Garson, Norma Shearer, Jeanette MacDonald. He sized\nup Garbo like a bone surgeon, with his keen, kind, hazel eyes. She\nmoved like a man, and she had a man\u2019s square shoulders. Her arms were\nmuscular; her bosom--let\u2019s just say meager. Yet on the screen there was\na commanding presence and luminous beauty.\nShe had an acting secret that only a few of us who watched her closely\ncaught on to. In every clinch, a split second before the leading man\nput his arms around her, she would reach out and embrace him. It was\none of the subconscious things that marked the difference between a\nEuropean and an American woman--and Americans were always awed by\nGarbo. Her pictures are still earning lots more praise and money\noverseas than at home.\nHer face hinted at sadness. She suffered her first bitter taste of\nthat not long after she was brought over from Stockholm by Metro, to\nland in the middle of a New York heat wave, when she spent most of her\ndays sitting in a hotel bathtub full of cold water. It wasn\u2019t Garbo\nthat the studio wanted but Maurice Stiller, the Swedish director who\nhad discovered her and refused to travel without her. But Stiller was\nsubsequently fired by Irving Thalberg, and it was Garbo who was given\nthe build-up. Stiller returned to Stockholm, a defeated, ailing giant\nof a man, and she was heartbroken.\nShe stored up bitterness against MGM. In her early days Pete Smith,\nhead of publicity, had her pose for cheesecake shots wearing track\nshorts, to be photographed with another Scandinavian, Paavo Nurmi, the\nrecord-breaking runner, on the athletic fields of the University of\nSouthern California. When she had made her name a household word and\ninsisted on working in complete privacy on the set behind tall screens,\nLouis B. Mayer brought six important New York stockholders to see her.\nShe sent them packing. \u201cWhen Lillian Gish was queen of the lot, all I\nwas allowed to do was show my knees. Now let these visitors bend their\nrusty knees to me, but they shall not watch,\u201d she said.\nOnce Arthur Brisbane, Hearst\u2019s top editor, came on the set to watch.\nWhen she saw him she walked out of the scene. \u201cIf he wants to see\nme, he can see me in the theater.\u201d She went to her dressing room and\nwouldn\u2019t come back until he\u2019d gone.\nAdrian accentuated Garbo\u2019s assets and concealed her liabilities. For\nher he devised the high-necked, long-sleeved evening gown that swept\nthe world of fashion in the thirties. For _As You Desire Me_, in which\nI played her sister, he invented the pillbox hat with strings tied\nunder her chin, which became part of every smart woman\u2019s wardrobe. He\nhad her dripping in lace and melting costume lines for _Anna Karenina_,\nsent the dress industry off on an oriental kick with her exotic outfits\nfor _The Painted Veil_. Her costumes in _Grand Hotel_ could be worn\ntoday and still be high fashion.\nHe achieved much the same kind of fashion influence for Crawford. Her\npadded halfback\u2019s shoulders in _Chained_ and a dozen other movies\nconvinced half the women of America that this was exactly how they\nwanted to appear. His _Letty Lynton_ dress, with wide sleeves and\nsweetheart neck, was a garment-center classic. \u201cIf Crawford has an\napron,\u201d we used to say, \u201cit has to be by Adrian.\u201d\nHis new clothes for any top star were guarded like the gold of Fort\nKnox. Until the premiere costumes were kept under lock and key so\nmanufacturers\u2019 spies couldn\u2019t run off with his designs and pirate them.\nA new Garbo or Crawford or Norma Shearer picture carried the fashion\nwallop of a Paris opening today.\nNo more. The tradition that the designers fostered has vanished. Women\nused to follow Hollywood fashion as avidly as they copied Veronica\nLake\u2019s peekaboo hairdo or dreamed that some miracle might endow them\nwith legs like Betty Grable or Esther Williams\u2019 classy chassis. Now\nthey haven\u2019t got much to build their diet of dreams on except Ben\nCasey\u2019s surgical smock--television doesn\u2019t go in strong for women, much\nless gals in glamorous gowns.\nWhen I look at Jackie Kennedy these days I think: \u201cIf those fellows\nwere around today, what they couldn\u2019t have done for her!\u201d She\u2019d be\nqueen of fashion the world over. Oleg Cassini can\u2019t hold a candle to\nany of them, and he never had it so good, not even when he was married\nto Gene Tierney.\nWho\u2019s left in motion-picture fashions? Nobody much outside the industry\nhas heard of Irene Sharaff, or Helen Rose. Edith Head started as Travis\nBanton\u2019s sketch girl, and her designs continue to follow his lead. Jean\nLouis is the one designer that picture stars ask for today, just as\nstage stars beg for Mainbocher.\nSometimes Jean overdresses Doris Day, but the clothes he makes for her,\nat producer Ross Hunter\u2019s insistence, have transformed Doris from a\nplain Jane into a fashion plate. One difference between Jean Louis and\nAdrian: Doris Day and Lana Turner got all the clothes to keep, as a\nwonderful bonus from Ross Hunter. At Metro, the dresses belonged to the\nstudio, and Adrian had to ignore the pleas from a New York socialite\nwho, after every Garbo picture, used to send him a blank check, willing\nto pay anything for just one of the costumes Garbo wore.\nMetro\u2019s meanness and lack of judgment was one reason he quit and opened\nhis own salon. A New York wholesale house wanted him to design a total\nof thirty-five dresses a year and offered to pay $150,000 for the job,\nsplit between him and Metro. \u201cWhat\u2019s that to us?\u201d his bosses said.\n\u201cThat\u2019s peanuts. No, you can\u2019t take it, and that\u2019s final.\u201d\nReason number two was the reaction Adrian got from director George\nCukor to the twenty-four beautiful costumes designed for Garbo in\n_Two-Faced Woman_. I saw them hanging in the Wardrobe Department and\ndrooled over them. But Cukor made up his mind that for this picture she\nwas going to look as she does in reality. No glamour; two fake diamond\nclips in her frizzed-up hair. No clothes to make an audience\u2019s eyes pop,\nbut wool sweaters and sack frocks.\n\u201cAfter making her a fashion legend, you want to do this to her?\u201d cried\nAdrian. \u201cWon\u2019t you at least come and see the clothes I\u2019ve made?\u201d\nCukor refused even that. _Two-Faced Woman_ was the last picture Garbo\nmade. She respected Adrian, to the point where she\u2019d sometimes eat\nher vegetarian lunch in his office. The picture was one of her few\nfailures. He handed in his notice. Metro was burned to a cinder when\nit had to hire six people to replace him. He\u2019d been in the habit of\ndesigning clothes not only for the stars but for the whole company in\nmovies he worked on.\nWhen Garbo retired from the screen, she gave only one autograph as a\nsouvenir. It went neither to Adrian nor Louis Mayer. To her colored\nmaid, the only living soul allowed in her dressing room, whom the\nstudio paid for, she presented a framed photograph of herself on which\nshe had written: \u201cTo Ursula, from your friend, Greta Garbo.\u201d I\u2019ve heard\nof only one similar gesture of hers. Dr. Henry Bieler, of California,\nput her on a diet to which she\u2019s clung over the years. When he wrote a\nbook, he asked her for an endorsement, which she promptly sent him.\nNowadays she\u2019s lost the passion for self-effacement that had her\nmasquerading as \u201cHarriet Brown,\u201d hidden in a floppy hat and dark\nglasses. Neighbors in the New York apartment where she lives are\ndevoted to her. Their children exchange greetings with her on the\nstreet. Among those neighbors are Mary Martin and Richard Halliday.\nTheir daughter Heller lived with them until she eloped last year.\nOne day Mary\u2019s front-door bell rang. Garbo was standing outside.\n\u201cForgive my intrusion,\u201d she said shyly, \u201cbut I have often watched from\nmy window and seen you and your family. Sometimes going shopping.\nSometimes getting into your car. You look so happy, and I feel so\nalone.\u201d\nOver the tea that Mary insisted on serving for them both, Garbo found\none more friend, to add to the precious few she\u2019s made in her lifetime.\nTwo others, who are devotion itself, are the designer Valentina and her\nhusband, George Schlee.\nThere was a Christmas Eve before Adrian resigned when I was the stooge\nin a plot to turn him green around the edges. Omar Kiam, who designed\nfor Sam Goldwyn, was the one to arrange it. Adrian had just announced\nhis engagement to Janet Gaynor. He was giving a party, and Omar was\nto be my escort. On December 22, Omar informed me that I had to have\na new gown. But I hadn\u2019t time to get anything, I told him. \u201cThen I\u2019ll\nmake one. You won\u2019t even need fittings; I\u2019ve got your dress form at the\nstudio. You\u2019ve got to be dressed to the teeth.\u201d\nAt six o\u2019clock on Christmas Eve, ninety minutes before he was due to\ncollect me to go to Adrian\u2019s, Omar arrived on my doorstep with the\ndress over his arm. I have never seen anything lovelier: American\nBeauty red velvet, tightly fitted, with a full, flounced skirt and\ntrain. \u201cIf this doesn\u2019t knock their eyes out, nothing will,\u201d he grinned.\n\u201cIt sure will,\u201d I said. \u201cI\u2019ll be ready sharp on time.\u201d But I was still\nwaiting at eight-thirty. Wondering what went wrong, I telephoned Omar\u2019s\nhouse. His butler answered: \u201cI\u2019m terribly sorry, and I should have let\nyou know. Mr. Kiam won\u2019t be able to come for you. He has retired for\nthe night.\u201d\nIt dawned on me then what had happened. After delivering the gown he\nwent home to celebrate, not wisely but too well, and had to be put to\nbed. I swept into Adrian\u2019s living room an hour late. My red gown dimmed\neverything else in the room. Ina Clair, who was there, said: \u201cYou did\nit on purpose.\u201d\nI still have that red velvet--as the upholstery on two French chairs\nonce owned by Elinor Glyn. Every morning when I open my eyes I see a\nmemento of Omar Kiam. He did the clothes for both the pictures I made\nfor Sam Goldwyn. In one of them, _Vogues_ of 1938, which Walter Wanger\nproduced, I played Joan Bennett\u2019s mother. She and I had a certain\nexchange of words some years later.\nTwo lines in my column brought me the gift of a skunk from her. Here\u2019s\nthe story. Mothers usually had a tough time in pictures, especially\nwith close-ups. They came almost always at the end of the day when you\nwere tired and your make-up was messy. So it was on this picture.\nIt was not only the end of the day but the last scene in the picture\nand I was feeling desperately weary. I went to Walter Wanger and said:\n\u201cI don\u2019t think I can do that close-up. If you\u2019ll let me come tomorrow\nmorning, it won\u2019t cost you anything.\u201d\nHe said: \u201cYou\u2019ll have to do it--I\u2019d have to bring the whole crew in; it\nwould cost a day\u2019s salary for everyone.\u201d\nSo I finished the scene and went to my dressing room and for the first\ntime in my life fainted. How long I lay there I don\u2019t know. When I woke\nI called for help. There wasn\u2019t a soul around; everybody had gone home.\nI finally found a telephone and got the gateman to order me a cab,\nwhich took me home. Then I sent for a doctor.\nYears later, when Joan was playing mother to Elizabeth Taylor in\n_Father of the Bride_, I went on the set to interview Liz. There was\nJoan doing her close-up. I looked at my watch: it was 6:30 P.M. I\nremembered the misery I\u2019d once endured, and in my column the following\nday, I wrote: \u201cAt last Miss Bennett knows how it feels to get her\nclose-up at the end of the day and not at the beginning.\u201d\nFor that she sent me a deodorized, live skunk. I christened it Joan\nand gave it to the James Masons, who had been looking for one as a\ncompanion for their nine cats.\nIn its rosier days, Hollywood Boulevard saw glamour by the carload on\nOscar nights. Movie fans drove in, goggle-eyed, from every state in the\nUnion to see the stars; a hundred searchlights would crisscross the\nsky. Bleachers set up on the sidewalk overflowed. Flashbulbs flared\nby the thousands as the queens slid out of their limousines, owned\nor rented, in minks and sables, which the studio would lend to dress\nup the show if your wardrobe didn\u2019t run to such luxury. They\u2019d glide\nacross the sidewalk like some special, splendid race of the beautiful\nand the blessed; gowns swishing, hairdos immaculate; teeth, eyes, and\ndiamonds gleaming together.\nJust watching them walk in was as good as a ticket to a world\u2019s fair.\nThey all had gowns made for those evenings, each trying to outdo the\nother. They\u2019d pester the studio designers to find out what the other\ngirls were getting. \u201cYou\u2019ve got to top them for me,\u201d they\u2019d all plead,\nand the boys would smile the promise to do their best with sketch pads\nand shears.\nDuring World War II the women of Hollywood let the producers talk them\ninto surrendering every shred of glamour even on Oscar nights. \u201cIf you\ngo out, you mustn\u2019t be well dressed,\u201d the front-office men argued, \u201cor\nelse the public will be offended. What you\u2019ve got to do is to look\n_austere_.\u201d\nI knew this was malarkey. So did they. From the mail that poured in, it\nwas as plain as a pikestaff that servicemen were starving for glamour.\nThey wanted pin-up pictures of glamorous girls. I sent out ten thousand\nof them, until the studios rebelled and pretended they couldn\u2019t afford\nany more. But they didn\u2019t get away with that.\nI waged a little guerrilla war of my own, too, to doll up the Academy\nAwards when the studio chieftains still wanted the presentation to look\nno dressier than a missionary\u2019s sewing bee. Telephone calls by the\ndozen worked the trick. \u201cWhat are you going to do,\u201d I demanded, \u201clet\nthose clothes rot in your closets? You\u2019re not going to wear anything\nbut your most beautiful gown.\u201d\n\u201cBut nobody\u2019s going to be dressed,\u201d the girl at the other end would\nwail.\n\u201cThen set the style. Last year you looked like spooks: sackcloth and\nashes.\u201d\nAt least, we managed to re-establish the tradition that year that women\nshould dress for the night they hand out the gold-plated little men who\nfirst saw life in 1927, when Cedric Gibbon roughed in the design for\nthem on a tablecloth at the Ambassador Hotel.\nBut the Academy Awards I\u2019ve cared about most over the years had\nnothing to do with glamour. They had to do with life, exclusively, in\nfull measure. The first were the two Oscars that went to the crippled\nveteran, Harold Russell, who proved in _The Best Years of Our Lives_\nthat a man can lose his hands but not his courage.\nThe second was willed to Howard University by Hattie McDaniel, who won\nhers for the best supporting role in 1939 for _Gone With the Wind_ and\ndied penniless in 1952 in the Motion Picture Relief Home.\nThe third was won by James Baskette for _Song of the South_, after a\ncampaign in which Jean Hersholt, then president of the Academy, and\nFreeman Gosden gave their immediate support. Some members disdained my\nidea that a special Oscar should go to a man for playing Uncle Remus,\na slave, and they fought at a meeting on the eve of presentation until\n4 A.M. Jean finally sent them home with this warning: \u201cIf he doesn\u2019t\nreceive an Oscar, I shall stand up tomorrow night and tell the world\nthe whole disgraceful story.\u201d\nAfter he received it from the hands of Ingrid Bergman, James Baskette\ncarried his statuette everywhere he went, in a black velvet bag that\nhis wife made. At night he stood it on his bedroom mantelpiece with a\ntiny spotlight shining on it.\nHe was slated to play \u201cDe Lawd\u201d in a Broadway revival of _Green\nPastures_ when he was taken critically ill. As he lay dying, his eyes\nreturned time and again to Oscar. \u201cNo colored man ever got one before,\u201d\nhe said, \u201cand I\u2019m grateful, Lord.\u201d\n_Nine_\nOur town worships success, the bitch goddess whose smile hides a\ntaste for blood. She has a habit, before she destroys her worshipers,\nof turning them into spitting images of herself. She has an army of\nbeauties in attendance at her shrine.\nNot many survive the encounter with success. Wreathed in smiles, she\nkills them in cars, like Jimmy Dean; or with torment, like Marilyn\nMonroe; or with illness, like Jean Harlow. She turns them into\ndrunkards, liars, or cheats who are as dishonest in business as in\nlove. This is the story of four women and what success did to them.\nOne of them who escaped in a single piece is Lucille Ball. She grabbed\nthe prizes of talent, fame, and money, and Lucy is only slightly\nbattered as a consequence. She even survived after she gave Desi Arnaz,\nwith whom she was madly in love, the shock of his life by divorcing him.\nLucille had the sense to quit as TV\u2019s \u201cLucy\u201d when she sat on top of\nthe world. That show had an audience rating so high that America took\ntime out for half an hour every Tuesday evening to look at that little\nblack box. I remember that the 1952 inauguration party that Colonel\nRobert McCormick of the Chicago _Tribune_ gave in Washington came to a\ntemporary halt while everybody had to watch in silence. Lucy\u2019s baby was\nbeing born on the program that night and Bertie wanted to see.\nBut the time came when Lucy told Desi: \u201cI won\u2019t do any more. The\nwriters have run out of ideas, and I\u2019m dead tired.\u201d They sold out the\nseries to CBS for reruns and on the proceeds bought the two RKO studios\nfor $6,150,000. These studios had a certain sentimental appeal on top\nof their commercial value. Lucy and Desi first met at RKO in 1940 when\nthey were filming _Too Many Girls_, a prophetic title. The former Earl\nCarroll chorus girl and the ex-bongo drummer from Cuba proceeded to\nspread themselves over a whole pile of enterprises that included a Palm\nSprings hotel, a golf course, and a $12,000,000 production contract for\nWestinghouse.\nDesi took to putting a few drinks under his belt as a diet, and the\nfireworks started. They split up two or three times, but Lucy always\nforgave him and took him back. To save the marriage, as she hoped, she\nset up a trip to Europe for them both. \u201cWe\u2019ll take the children along,\ntoo,\u201d she said.\nI begged her not to. \u201cIf you\u2019d just try it alone, the two of you,\u201d I\nsaid. \u201cLittle Desi and Lucie are too young to enjoy a trip like that.\u201d\nBut Lucy can be stubborn. \u201cI won\u2019t go without them,\u201d she said. So she\ntook a maid along to look after them. For the voyage, which she hoped\nwould be a second honeymoon, she bought clothes by the trunkload; big\npicture hats that she never put on her head; a magnificent full-length\nsable coat. \u201cBut it\u2019s May now, and you\u2019ll be running into summer over\nthere,\u201d I said.\n\u201cI\u2019ve bought it and I\u2019m going to take it,\u201d she said. \u201cBesides, Desi\nhasn\u2019t seen it.\u201d\nThey sailed aboard the _Libert\u00e9_. \u201cWe are having a wonderful\ncrossing--so far--weather perfect,\u201d she wrote me. \u201cFood divine--too\ndivine. Eating ourselves out of shape. Everyone loves our kids--that\nmakes us happy. They have even forgiven us our forty pieces of baggage\nand two trunks.\u201d\nJust how wonderful the trip was I heard when she got back, scarcely\nspeaking to Desi. He had been weary, resenting the presence of their\nchildren, though he\u2019s a loving father. He and Lucy collided head on in\none quarrel after another. \u201cWhat did he think about the sable coat?\u201d I\nasked.\n\u201cNever saw it,\u201d she said. \u201cI used it on the ship as a blanket for the\nkids.\u201d\nThe following Christmas, when the Westinghouse contract had three more\nmonths to run, she asked me to appear on a TV show on which she was\nmaking her bow as director; it included a dozen or more players she had\nbeen training in her school. Desi was just back from a solo trip to\nEurope, shooting a picture there.\nOn the set, Vivian Vance and Bill Frawley, veterans of happier \u201cI Love\nLucy\u201d days, wanted to take cover along with me to shelter from the\nstorms between Lucy and Desi. It was dreadful. \u201cYou can\u2019t insult him\nbefore the entire company,\u201d I warned her in her dressing room. \u201cYou\u2019re\npartly responsible for this show, too, you know.\u201d\nIt seemed we were doomed to have a flop on our hands. As director, Lucy\nwas lost without a compass, too mad to see straight, and the show was\ngoing to pieces. In dress rehearsal Desi said mildly: \u201cLucy, dear, will\nyou let me see if I can pull this thing together for you?\u201d\n\u201cOkay, try it!\u201d she snapped.\nDesi was winning no medals as husband, but he shines as a director\nand producer. In ten minutes he had that Christmas program ticking\nlike a clock. The New Year hadn\u2019t yet come around the corner before\nLucy wanted to sue him for divorce, which was something Desi had been\nconvinced she would never do.\n\u201cYou can\u2019t,\u201d I told her. \u201cYou and Desi both signed the Westinghouse\ncontract as partners. If you walk out, they could cancel and sue you.\u201d\nShe had to listen to the same tune from me every week. She was itching\nto dump Desi and so desperate to leave Hollywood that she\u2019d have played\n_Uncle Tom\u2019s Cabin_ if it would take her to Broadway. Instead she took\non the next best thing--a musical called _Wildcat_, on which she staked\nmoney and her reputation.\nLucy hasn\u2019t many illusions about herself. \u201cI\u2019m not beautiful, not sexy,\nand I don\u2019t have a good figure,\u201d she says. She knows she can\u2019t sing and\nshe admits that too many years have flowed under the bridge for her to\ndance like Cyd Charisse. But for _Wildcat_ she had to sing, dance, and\nhold the show together. She tried to inject some sparkle by ad-libbing\nwisecracks \u00e0 la Lucy. The author, instead of being grateful, was fit to\nbe tied.\nAfter a lot of her cash had vanished and she\u2019d collapsed two or three\ntimes on stage, she returned to Hollywood. She licked her wounds and,\nwith Desi down on his ranch breeding horses, earned fresh medals as a\nbusinesswoman by helping to put Desilu back on its feet.\nIn November 1961, I went to the wedding of Lucy and Gary Morton, a\nyoung man she met on a blind date while she was playing in _Wildcat_\nand he was telling jokes at the Copacabana. He makes her happy, and she\ntold me that he\u2019d be able to spend the summer at home while she started\na new television series. No, Gary would not co-star.\nJoan Crawford has been a priestess at the shrine of success since she\nwas a hoofer named Lucille Le Sueur. She\u2019s been put to the sacrificial\nflames more than once, but has always risen like Lazarus and lived to\nburn another day.\nShe\u2019s cool, courageous, and thinks like a man. She labors twenty-four\nhours a day to keep her name in the pupil of the public eye. She\u2019ll\ntime her arrival at a theater seconds before the curtain goes up and\nmake such an entrance that the audience sees only her through act one,\nscene one. The actors on stage may hate it, but she\u2019s having a ball.\nIf she has a surviving fan club in any city she\u2019s visiting, she\u2019ll\ncarefully supply its president in advance with a complete schedule\nfor the day, detailed to the minute, and collect such crowds that by\nevening there\u2019ll be a mob hundreds strong escorting her.\nShe was called box-office poison and couldn\u2019t get a job for years\nafter her Metro contract ended. Out of money, she continued to play\nthe star and hold her head high, and she had the town\u2019s sympathy.\n_Mildred Pierce_ put her back in pictures and won her an Oscar, as\nmuch for bravery under fire as for her acting. The same gutsy quality\nshowed when her husband, Al Steele, died and she took on a job as\ntraveling ambassador for his company, Pepsi-Cola. Just before that,\nhe\u2019d arranged for her to visit the Strategic Air Command base at Omaha,\nNebraska. Typically, she went through with the visit alone. Going on\nfrom there to Hollywood, she told me about it over dinner at the home\nof Billy Haines, once a picture star, now a top decorator with Joan\namong his customers.\nNothing would suit but I had to see SAC, too. She fixed it with General\nThomas Power, the commander in chief. The Air Force flew me out from\nLos Angeles. Joan, who\u2019d meantime returned to New York, came on from\nthere on a commercial flight that got in an hour ahead of me. I found\nher waiting at the airport, with the mayor of the city in tow. She\nhadn\u2019t yet checked into the hotel suite we were sharing, so we went\nstraight to SAC, where General Power took us through the most amazing\nsetup you could dream of. Joan and I rode to town together in the\nchauffeured limousine Mr. Mayor had put at her disposal.\nShe had enough luggage and hatboxes with her to fill a department\nstore. She carried a jewel case two feet long. \u201cI always travel with\nit,\u201d she told us. \u201cBy the way [this to the mayor] would you be kind\nenough to provide someone to guard my jewels? I\u2019ll need two men--one\nfor day and one for night.\u201d\n\u201cCertainly, Miss Crawford,\u201d he said, hypnotized. \u201cWhatever you need,\njust ask for it.\u201d\nOur suite consisted of a living room and two separate bedrooms, one for\nJoan, and one for me. As soon as we\u2019d checked in, she unpacked. For\nour two-day visit she brought twenty-two dresses, which she spread out\nall over her room, and fourteen hats. \u201cI don\u2019t know what I\u2019ll want to\nwear,\u201d she explained seriously when my eyebrows hit my hairline, \u201cso I\nbrought them along in case.\u201d\nWe were no sooner unpacked than she rang for an iron and ironing board.\nThe iron the bellboy brought wasn\u2019t the kind she liked, so she sent him\nout to buy a new one. With it, she proceeded to press every one of the\ndresses and hang each in its cellophane wrapper in her closet.\n\u201cWould you like to see my jewels?\u201d she asked. I nodded, speechless. She\nunlocked the case and--abracadabra!--it was like peering at Aladdin\u2019s\ntreasure, half a million dollars\u2019 worth; trays and trays loaded with\ndiamonds and emeralds and pearls, bracelets and necklaces and earrings.\n\u201cThis is the most dangerous thing you\u2019ve ever done,\u201d I said. \u201cSomeday\nyou\u2019ll wake up with your throat cut.\u201d\n\u201cBut I always have it guarded,\u201d she said, \u201cand I keep it beside me on\nthe plane.\u201d\n\u201cWhy isn\u2019t it in a safety-deposit box?\u201d\n\u201cI like to look at them,\u201d she said, as though she were talking to an\nidiot.\nI went into my room for a minute. When I came back into the living room\nshe had disappeared. \u201cWhere are you?\u201d Her voice came from the bathroom:\n\u201cIn here.\u201d She was on her hands and knees scrubbing the floor. \u201cIt\nwasn\u2019t very clean,\u201d she said.\nNext to the goddess in their prayers, many of the worshipers place\na compulsive kind of cleanliness. Sinatra, Jerry Lewis, Doris\nDay--they\u2019ll shower three times a day like pilgrims in the Ganges\ntrying to wash away their sins. But only Joan and Garbo will personally\nscrub the bathroom or kitchen floor to make sure there are no germs\nlingering there.\nThe mayor returned to make us his guests at a small dinner party. We\nboth wore simple dresses because Omaha doesn\u2019t run much to evening\nclothes. We were back in the hotel by eleven-thirty and had Mr. Mayor\nand two or three others up for a drink.\nAs soon as they had said their good nights, Joan, who doesn\u2019t smoke,\nflung every window wide open and carried the ash trays out into the\nhall, where her night guard had dutifully stationed himself outside the\ndoor. She gathered up the glasses and washed them in the kitchenette\noff the living room. She then unlocked another item of her luggage that\nthe bellboy had staggered under when we moved in.\nIt was a massive chest perhaps a yard long, packed with ice. It\ncontained four bottles of hundred-proof vodka, bottles of her favorite\nbrand of champagne, and a silver chalice, which she took out for her\nbedtime ceremony. Into the chalice she poured a split of champagne and\nraised it in a simple toast, \u201cTo Al,\u201d before she put it to her lips.\n\u201cWhat do you want for breakfast?\u201d she asked when the chalice was empty.\n\u201cCan\u2019t we order in the morning?\u201d\n\u201cNo, I like breakfast when I get up. I\u2019ll put our order in tonight.\u201d\nI settled for juice, coffee, and a boiled egg. That taken care of, we\nagreed that eight-thirty in the morning would suit us both as time to\narise. Come the morrow, I\u2019d bathed when at eight-thirty sharp there was\na rapping at my bedroom door. In the living room stood a waiter ready\nto serve us. Outside the front door stood a new guard, keeping the\ndaytime watch.\nThen we spent a full, fascinating, reassuring, awe-inspiring day at\nSAC; saw the H-bombers take off in a practice scramble; again met\nGeneral Power, who gave us dinner. I started sleeping more easily from\nthat night on as a result of what I\u2019d witnessed. It seemed to me to\nbe an up-to-date necessity in a fearful world where the best rule for\nAmerica\u2019s conduct was advocated by Teddy Roosevelt: Speak softly and\ncarry a big stick. The next morning, every inch a star and clean as a\nhound\u2019s tooth, Joan flew on to Chicago, with her twenty-two dresses,\nfourteen hats, jewel case, ice chest, and silver chalice, to scrub\nanother bathroom if she had to.\nSome of our women can walk through the temple\u2019s sacrificial flames and\nnot get as much as singed. They\u2019re so deep-down innocent they wouldn\u2019t\nrecognize the goddess if they saw her. Ann Blyth, a devout Catholic and\na darling, doesn\u2019t know that she\u2019s used as regularly as tap water by\npeople seeking favors, charity, or a conducted tour around the studios.\nKathryn Grayson is another, so guileless that a fat, bow-legged\nproducer with lust in his eyes used to arrive on her doorstep many a\nmorning before she\u2019d had breakfast and literally chase her through the\nhouse.\nThe most gullible of all is Mary Martin, who sees, hears, and speaks\nno evil and, by a miracle, lives by it and through it. Judge Preston\nMartin\u2019s daughter was friendly as a kitten when she drove her bright,\nnew, yellow convertible to Hollywood in 1936 from Weatherford, Texas,\nwhich boasted a population of 5000 people at the time. She\u2019d always\nbeen the girl who sang sweetest in church, stood out in school plays,\nworked the most enthusiastically in civic causes.\nHer father gave her $500 as stake money on the strict understanding\nthat as soon as that was gone, she\u2019d come back home. He also saddled\nher with her five-year-old son, Larry, who resulted when Mary eloped\nfrom finishing school in Nashville, Tennessee, with a boy from Fort\nWorth. That marriage lasted in fact two years, was dissolved in five.\n\u201cLarry\u2019s your responsibility and you\u2019ve got to take him along,\u201d\nher father insisted, figuring this was a fair means of keeping his\nwide-eyed darling out of new romances and would bring her back quicker.\nAround the studios they got to calling her \u201cAudition Mary.\u201d She sang\nfor everybody, and everybody turned thumbs down. \u201cNice voice, fair\nfigure, but impossible to photograph that face,\u201d was the verdict. She\nsang for Oscar Hammerstein II--remember _South Pacific_?--at his house\non Benedict Canyon at the end of my dead-end street. He knew she wasn\u2019t\nready. Years later Mary told me he taught her how to phrase a song,\nhow to read lines, how to move. \u201cIn fact,\u201d said she, \u201cI learned show\nbusiness from Oscar Hammerstein.\u201d\nWhen he thought she was ready, he and Richard Rodgers adapted a play\ncalled _Green Grow the Lilacs_, and she was offered the leading role.\nAt the same time, she had also been offered a lead in a play produced\nby Vinton Freedley, who\u2019d given Mary her first Broadway chance in\n_Leave It to Me_.\n\u201cI was torn between the two offers. Talking to Hammerstein over the\nphone, I said: \u2018Will you give me a minute?\u2019 I tossed a coin and\nFreedley won. The play was a success in Boston, but I felt certain it\u2019d\nnever reach Broadway--it didn\u2019t.\u201d\n_Green Grow the Lilacs_ also failed and later was rewritten for a man\ninstead of a woman in a new version called _Oklahoma!_\nWhen her $500 had melted away, she picked up what jobs she could find.\nShe sang for $60 at a little night spot. She taught slew-footed stars\nhow to get through dancing scenes. Her voice was dubbed on sound tracks\nfor tin-eared girls who couldn\u2019t sing. Then she managed to get signed\nby a producer named Lawrence Schwab for a Broadway musical he had in\nmind.\nWhen she got to New York, she found that plans for the show had come\nto nothing, but Schwab lent her to another producer, Vinton Freedley,\nfor _Leave It to Me_. It had a song called \u201cMy Heart Belongs to Daddy,\u201d\nby Cole Porter, which Sophie Tucker encouraged Mary to sing with the\ninnocence of a lamb. That was the making of Mary. Soon she was singing\non radio, then back in Hollywood with a contract at Paramount. Judge\nMartin went to his grave believing that \u201cMy Heart Belongs to Daddy\u201d was\nwritten especially for him.\nBut making movies is a cold-blooded, impersonal, highly technical\nbusiness. Some performers slowly freeze inside when they work for\nstaring cameras instead of for human beings sitting in a theater\nwaiting to burst into applause. Mary was like that. \u201cI beat my brains\nout,\u201d she says, \u201cand I like to hear the echo.\u201d She didn\u2019t cotton to\nHollywood.\nGlamour and Mary were strangers in those days. The studio put her in\ncurls and ruffles. She arrived at one dress-up affair in a sports suit.\nAnd make-up men hadn\u2019t yet acquired their present techniques, which can\ntransform literally any girl into a beauty queen.\nMary didn\u2019t start to glow until Mainbocher took her over and made her\none of America\u2019s best-dressed women. Any woman wearing a beautiful gown\ncan peek at herself in a mirror and think: \u201cMy, how pretty you look in\nthat!\u201d The thought itself puts a sparkle in her eye and a smile on her\nlips, making her just what she fancies herself to be.\nI only once saw Mainbocher cringe at the sight of his pride and joy.\nThat was in New Orleans, when we sat together watching Mary\u2019s opening\nin _Kind Sir_, produced by her long-time friend and Connecticut\nneighbor, Josh Logan. I smelled a fiasco during her rehearsals, but\nI did whatever was possible to boost her morale. She poured out her\ngratitude in a telegram: ONCE BEFORE ANOTHER GREAT WOMAN SOPHIE TUCKER\nHELPED ME IN MY VERY FIRST SHOW STOP NOW YOU BY SOME MIRACLE WERE SENT\nTO ME GOD BLESS YOU AND THANK YOU MY LOVE ALWAYS--MARY.\nBut nothing helped _Kind Sir_. On opening night, when the last-act\ncurtain fell, even the flowers that were pushed into her arms were\ntired. In the seat next to me, Mainbocher, who\u2019d done her costumes,\nslid down almost out of sight so he wouldn\u2019t be asked to take a bow.\nBut he took it with a smile like all the rest.\nI almost made an enemy of Josh Logan by nagging him to use Mary in the\nmovie of _South Pacific_ instead of Mitzi Gaynor. \u201cThere are make-up\nmen today who\u2019ll make Mary look like a young girl,\u201d I told him.\n\u201cMitzi\u2019s a fine entertainer, but she\u2019ll be only a carbon copy of Mary\nas Nellie Forbush.\u201d Josh wrote me a twelve-page letter explaining why I\nwas wrong. _South Pacific_ turned out to be only a modest success as a\nmovie, earned around $5,000,000, but it would have done better if Mary\nhad starred in it.\nShe played Nellie in London, of course, and reported rapturously, in\nred ink yet: \u201cDear Hedda: Look where we are! Exactly where you said\nwe\u2019d be! And--oh!--it has been just as wonderful as I had hoped and\n_dreamed_ it would be. All of it has been unbelievably perfect.\u201d\nWhen she came home she was bone-weary. She and her husband, Richard\nHalliday, had booked passage on a slow boat to South America. Then\nLeland Hayward told her: \u201cI\u2019m going to do a big TV spectacular, and I\ncan\u2019t do it without you.\u201d She begged off and started on the cruise.\nWhen they reached Brazil, Adrian talked her into buying land near the\nhouse he and Janet Gaynor built in the middle of the jungle that he\nloved.\nMary had as much need for a Brazilian hideaway as for two heads, but\nshe can\u2019t go on saying no to anybody. She and Richard, who was the\nonly big reward she won in Hollywood, discovered that the first jungle\nreal estate they bought was sold to them by a woman who didn\u2019t own it.\nThe local authorities hushed that up since they couldn\u2019t afford to\nhave the news leak back to the United States. So Mary, $40,000 poorer,\nsank another $50,000 into some other property, which the surrounding,\ngiant-sized greenery constantly threatens to steal back from her.\nWhen Leland Hayward heard about her proposed rest cure in Brazil, he\nflew down ahead of the Hallidays and was waiting for them as they\nlanded. Brushing aside her pleas of fatigue, he told her: \u201cEthel Merman\nsays she\u2019ll do my TV show if you will.\u201d Mary, as ever, couldn\u2019t say no.\nAfter the two of them made television history that season, she asked\nEthel casually one day: \u201cHow did Leland get you to do it?\u201d\n\u201cAt first I told him to go to hell,\u201d said Ethel, \u201cbut then he said\nyou\u2019d do it if I would, and I couldn\u2019t refuse.\u201d\nWhere Joan can\u2019t stop washing, Mary can\u2019t stop working. She hasn\u2019t a\nclue as to the size of her bank account, and I\u2019ll guarantee she never\nlooks inside a checkbook. She waded trustingly into ventures, often\nbacked with her own money, where she found herself up to her ears in\nproblems.\n\u201cBut that\u2019s all ended,\u201d she declares. \u201cNever again would I do a play\nthat I\u2019m not suited to and take another two and a half years out of my\nlife.\u201d\nBut so long as she can go on flying, she\u2019ll be happy in the theater. As\nPeter Pan, which was a lifetime dream come true, she\u2019s the world\u2019s most\ncelebrated flying grandmother. Her son, Larry, and his Swedish wife are\nthe parents of two children.\nThe other member of the Halliday family, daughter Heller, \u201celoped\u201d with\nher fianc\u00e9, Tony Weir, along with her parents, his parents and family,\nand the twenty-six guests. They\u2019d planned a reception at New York\u2019s\nRiver Club. Her bridal gown by Mainbocher was made but never worn.\nHeller decided that instead of a big wedding, she\u2019d rather have cash to\nget her household started, so Mary\u2019s big production plans went up in\nsmoke.\nThis was an elopement with a difference. In two cars, one Friday\nmorning, the wedding party made for Elkton, Maryland, without anyone\nremembering that the state law there requires forty-eight hours\u2019\nresidence before the knot is tied. That made it impossible for them\nto get a marriage license before Monday. Heller, Tony, and his sister\nKaren took one of the cars and headed south for Alexandria, Virginia,\nwhile the rest of the faltering band drove up to stay in Baltimore.\nThe bride and groom went through their blood tests in Alexandria.\nHeller had to be jabbed half a dozen times before blood could be\ndrawn, and she finished the day with three pieces of adhesive plaster\non each arm. But they still couldn\u2019t get a license; Heller, short\nof twenty-one, needed her parents\u2019 consent. On the following day,\nSaturday, the nearest license bureau open in the state of Virginia was\nin Leesburg. The doors there closed at noon. So the party took off\nbright and early, covered 150 miles in waltz time, and got to Leesburg\njust before the deadline.\n\u201cOur darling elopers,\u201d Mary related, \u201cwere married there in the first\nMethodist Church to be built in America. Both mothers cried. I sat on\nthe wrong side of the church, the groom\u2019s. The happy pair were, oh\nso happy, and we are, oh so tired.\u201d Heller went to work showing off\nwedding gowns as a model, instead of wearing one.\nSometimes the first breath of success converts an otherwise nice,\nwell-adjusted girl into a priestess of the cult. Sometimes it takes\nlonger. It took eleven years, her third husband, and a turnabout in\nher faith to convert Doris Day, who was born to Wilhelm and Alma\nvon Kappelhoff, a German-Catholic couple in Cincinnati, on April 3,\n1924, and christened Doris because her mother rated Doris Kenyon the\ngreatest actress that ever breathed.\nThe von Kappelhoff became \u201cDay\u201d because band leader Barney Rapp wanted\na name that would fit on the marquee of the Cincinnati night club where\nDoris, a puppy-fat sixteen-year-old girl, earned $25 a week singing\nwith his orchestra. She graduated from there to sing with Les Brown and\nHis Band of Renown, and the goddess started to breathe harder on her\nwhen Doris recorded her first hit, \u201cSentimental Journey\u201d with them. She\nwas making $500 a week when she left the band.\nShe was a girl who fell in love without pausing for breath. In April\n1941 she up and married Al Jorden, a trombonist from Cincinnati who\nplayed for Jimmy Dorsey. On February 4, 1942, Doris gave birth to her\nson, Terry. A year later, she went through her first divorce, left her\nbaby in her mother\u2019s care, and joined up again with Les Brown, the girl\nsinger who sat primly in front of the band until her turn came to go up\nto the microphone.\nThey were playing at the old Pennsylvania Hotel, which became the\nStatler, on Manhattan\u2019s Seventh Avenue, when agent Al Levy first heard\nher. Struck by a funny feeling that this girl might go someplace, he\nsent her a note inviting her to join him at the table where he sat with\nMannie Sachs, who was then head of Columbia Records. \u201cHave you ever\nthought of going on your own?\u201d he asked.\n\u201cNot really,\u201d she said. \u201cI\u2019m going to get married soon.\u201d\nEighteen months after, Les Brown was appearing at the Palladium in Los\nAngeles, and Doris and her new husband, George Weidler, a saxophonist\nin the orchestra, were living in a trailer camp on Sepulveda Boulevard\nout toward Long Beach. They quit Les Brown and went on living in\nthe camp, Doris out of work, George picking up occasional weekend\nengagements. Terry was still with his grandmother.\nAl Levy had trouble contacting Doris. The trailer was a block away\nfrom the only telephone and, if anybody called Doris, the proprietress\nof the camp found it easier to say \u201cShe\u2019s not here\u201d than go get her.\nBut Al managed to exchange a few words: \u201cCall me sometime if you get\nambitious, and we\u2019ll talk some more.\u201d\nMannie Sachs got her one brief job--as singer on a sustaining radio\nshow that starred Bob Sweeney, now a TV director, and Hal March, who\nmade a Broadway hit in _Come Blow Your Horn_. She worked for thirteen\nweeks at $89 a week, after deductions, but then she was dropped; the\nnetwork figured she had no future. So, with no money coming in, it was\ntime to call Al Levy. \u201cAll right, let\u2019s see what can happen now,\u201d she\nsaid.\nHe had put $25,000 into a management agency called Century Artists,\nwhich gave him forty per cent ownership. Dick Dorso had started the\nbusiness with a small stake from Lew Levy, no relation of Al\u2019s, who\nwas manager of the Andrews Sisters and the husband of one of them,\nMaxine. Lew wasn\u2019t acting out of undiluted generosity--he wanted to\nget his brother-in-law, Marty Melcher, out from under his feet. Marty,\nPatti\u2019s husband, used to handle such chores as fixing the lights for\nthe sisters\u2019 act. Marty became the second partner in Century Artists as\npart of Lew\u2019s deal with Dorso. The agency, which took on the sisters\nas clients, had its offices next to mine in the Guaranty Building on\nHollywood Boulevard. Al also assisted my manager, Dema Harshbarger, in\nbooking talent for my weekly radio show.\nAl brought Doris to say hello as soon as he\u2019d signed her. She was a\nscared little creature, smothered in freckles, wearing scuffed-up\nshoes, skirt and sweater, but not a lick of make-up. For months she\nwore skirts and sweaters. When I asked why she never wore a dress,\nshe said: \u201cI can only afford skirts and sweaters.\u201d Her first need was\nclothes. He found a little dressmaker in Los Angeles to make her four\nevening dresses on Century Artists\u2019 money.\nIn New York, Billy Reed was opening his Little Club on East Fifty-fifth\nStreet, uncertain whether or not to have any entertainer work in the\nsqueezed-in room he\u2019d rented, which he was doing up with striped-silk\nwalls. A friend of Billy\u2019s, Monte Proser, thought Doris might fit\nthere. He passed the word to Al, who persuaded Billy by telephone to\ntry her for two weeks at $150 a week.\nAl bought train tickets to New York for Doris and himself. Still\ndeeply in love with George Weidler, she telephoned him every night.\nFor the opening of the Little Club, Billy and Al had packed their\nfriends in, making sure Doris got a good hand. This was going to be her\nspringboard. If she succeeded here, it would be easier to make it in\nHollywood.\nThe notices she received were encouraging. Billy engaged her for an\nextra four weeks, and Al returned to California to see what he could\nline up for her there. Ten days later she telephoned him in tears: \u201cI\ncan\u2019t handle the rest of my time at the club alone. I want to get back\nto George. I\u2019ve had it.\u201d Al took it philosophically. \u201cCome on back\nthen,\u201d he said. On the way, she stopped off in Cincinnati to see her\nson.\nMeantime, Mike Curtiz, a sentimental Lothario from Hungary at Warner\nBrothers moved in to succeed Hal Wallis, who started in business for\nhimself. Mike had Jack Warner breathing down his neck to start making\na musical to be called _Romance on the High Seas_. Betty Hutton was\nsupposed to play the girl lead, but at the last minute Curtiz wouldn\u2019t\nhire her. He decided to look around for a lesser, cheaper name, though\nhe was growing more panicky by the day with Warner starting to twist\nhis arms.\nSong writers Sammy Cahn and Jule Styne, who were writing the score\nfor _Romance_, had an idea that Doris might do for the picture and\nsuggested to Al that he ought to arrange an audition for her. He called\nDoris to come home. The day of her promised return to Los Angeles\nbrought no news of her, though her audition had been fixed for the\nfollowing morning. In the evening, on a hunch, Al drove out to the\nSepulveda camp. In the darkness he thumped on the trailer\u2019s door until\nDoris put her head out the window and promised again to turn up in the\nmorning.\nWhen he collected her in his car, she was weeping hysterically. Her\nmarriage was on the rocks, she said. George Weidler wanted out. \u201cI\ncan\u2019t do the audition. You\u2019ll have to cancel.\u201d\n\u201cLook, if your marriage is breaking up, you\u2019ll sure need a job,\u201d said\nAl. \u201cIt\u2019ll get your mind off your trouble, and you\u2019ll have to make a\nliving.\u201d\nShe accepted the logic of that and dried her tears. He sent out to buy\nher new stockings, since those she was wearing were laddered, then\ntook her to meet Curtiz. In the middle of singing for him, fresh tears\ntrickled down her cheeks at the thought that her husband was leaving.\nCurtiz thought this was one of the great acting performances of all\ntime and invited Al to talk contract. They settled on $500 a week for\nher, and because Jack Warner regarded television as nothing more than\nfurniture that stares back at you, Al got her TV rights. Doris wasn\u2019t\nin a mood to care much about anything. She was still pining for George,\nhoping she could bring them back together.\nMoving out of the trailer, she was so lonely that her agent wanted\nsome place for her to live where she could look out the window and see\npeople; she had no more company than that. He put her in the Plaza\nHotel across the street from the Brown Derby and stopped by every\nmorning to take her to the studio. When the picture was finished, he\ncame up with another idea. Why not see Sinatra, for whom Al had worked,\nand check whether Frank could use her on his radio \u201cHit Parade\u201d?\nFrank, who knows talent, liked that fine. She went with him to New\nYork for the weekly shows, and life was starting to look rosy when the\nblight attacked again. The sponsors, the American Tobacco Company,\ndecided that her singing style was too close to Frank\u2019s and they dumped\nher. Doris was knocked off her feet again. This time she felt sure she\nwas finished. \u201cI guess I can always go home to Cincinnati,\u201d she said.\nAl was running into complaints from his partners. \u201cWhy do you waste\nyour time on this dame?\u201d they demanded. \u201cShe\u2019s not the most beautiful\ngirl in the world; she\u2019s loaded with freckles; she\u2019s got no clothes\nsense; she\u2019s going nowhere.\u201d But Al\u2019s mind revolved around the memory\nof Alice Faye, another girl with a voice. \u201cPeople could identify\nthemselves with Alice, and they can with Doris,\u201d he argued. \u201cBecause\nany girl in the audience could be Doris Day, and she could be any girl.\u201d\nSo when Curtiz wanted her to work for him again but was stuck for a\nstory to do, Al promised rashly to think up a plot, which he dictated\nto a writer as _My Dream Is Yours_. She went into that with Jack Carson\nand Lee Bowman. Bob Hope was also persuaded to put her on his radio\nshow at $1250 a week.\nDoris, who nowadays shies away from appearing for charity no matter\nwhat, was more co-operative then. Hearing her sing at a benefit in\nthe Beverly Hills Hotel, Curtiz decided she needed a vocal coach, and\nshe went along with him for a while. By now her career was beginning\nto move. She was waiting for her divorce, and was going out on dates\nagain. She also went to her lawyer and had him draft a new contract\nto be signed between Al and herself. It contained an escalator clause\ngiving him up to twenty-five per cent of her earnings as they increased.\n\u201cI don\u2019t want anybody but you to take care of me,\u201d she told him.\n\u201cYou\u2019re already under contract,\u201d said Al. \u201cThis new one isn\u2019t\nnecessary, but if you really want it, then fine. I\u2019ll be happy to sign\nit.\u201d\nHis partners were still telling him: \u201cYou\u2019re spending too much time on\nher. You\u2019d better get on to something new.\u201d Al disagreed. \u201cIf this girl\nhits like I think she will, we can make a whole business around her\nalone.\u201d\nShe decided she was secure enough now to buy a small house in San\nFernando Valley, to bring out her son and mother. This was a taste of\nheaven for her, bringing her family under one roof. Her parents had\nbeen separated when she was twelve. In 1961, her father at the age of\nsixty-two married Luvenia Williams Bennett, the forty-five-year-old\nNegress who managed the bar he owned in Cincinnati. The telegram he\nsent Doris to break this bit of news went unanswered.\nThe last benefit Al Levy asked her to do was to be held at the\nHollywood Bowl for a local disk jockey. She agreed, as usual then, but\ndidn\u2019t show up for rehearsal with the band. Her agent telephoned to ask\nwhy.\n\u201cMarty says I don\u2019t have to do the benefit,\u201d she answered.\n\u201cWhat\u2019s he got to do with it? He hasn\u2019t been in the picture much so\nfar.\u201d\n\u201cHe told me you\u2019ll be traveling around a lot and getting other things.\nHe said it will be best if he starts taking care of part of my business\nin case things come up when you\u2019re away.\u201d\n\u201cThat makes sense,\u201d said Al. \u201cOkay.\u201d That was the last time he had\nanything to do for Doris Day.\nHe left for Century Artists\u2019 New York office with his wife, Ruth,\nshortly after, to take a look at a bouncing baby called television,\nswitching places with Dick Dorso. When the Andrews Sisters went to\nLondon for a big season at the Palladium, Marty Melcher stayed home and\ngot to know Doris well. Later, his marriage to Patti Andrews ended in a\nheartbreaking divorce for her. Marty and Doris were married on April 3,\n1951, her twenty-seventh birthday.\nIn New York on the Christmas Eve after he and Dorso had exchanged\nassignments, Al received a call from Melcher: \u201cI just want to tell you\nthat as of now you\u2019re out of Century Artists. Doris and I have decided\nwe don\u2019t need you, and that\u2019s it.\u201d\nAfter Christmas, Al Levy walked down the hall to his Hollywood office\nand found a locksmith changing the lock on the front door. Inside,\nMarty had his brother and sister occupying the place to prevent Al\u2019s\nmoving back in. In his absence in New York, he had been voted out of\nCentury Artists. He paid off the locksmith on the spot to keep the lock\nunchanged. He settled with Melcher and Dorso that he would retain the\noffices but not immediately take any big lump sum out of the agency;\nthey would pay him off on the installment plan, sending money each\nmonth to his parents in Arizona.\nShortly before her third marriage, Doris, born a Catholic, became a\nChristian Scientist. Soon after the marriage Marty, born a Jew, also\nbecame a Christian Scientist.\nMarty set out to do over Doris, making her an entirely different\nkind of woman. A long list of subjects was barred in interviews\nnow. Questions were welcome that let the two of them concentrate on\npicturing her as the girl next door who never smokes, drinks, or\ncusses, and always minds her manners. Any queries that probed into\nthe real past were rejected. \u201cDoris is not a movie star,\u201d Marty told\nme blandly. \u201cShe\u2019s a talented girl who through circumstances has been\npushed into the limelight.\u201d\nThat was quite an interview, telling as much in its silences as in its\nwords. They came in to see me together, and that\u2019s how they answered,\nthough they didn\u2019t exactly overflow with information. So they won\u2019t be\nmisjudged, I\u2019ll quote them verbatim:\n\u201cHow does being married to you affect him?\u201d I asked.\n\u201cHe couldn\u2019t live without me,\u201d she said.\n\u201cSeriously, how has this marriage affected you?\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019ve learned an awful lot.\u201d\nMarty broke in: \u201cThat\u2019s pretty ambiguous.\u201d\n\u201cLet me put it this way. We\u2019re both striving to be real good people.\nMarriage has made a terrific change in Marty.\u201d\n\u201cIn what way?\u201d I said.\n\u201cWe\u2019re very serious about our religion, but we can\u2019t discuss that.\u201d\n\u201cWhy not? I think it should be discussed. Do you go to church every\nSunday?\u201d\n\u201cNo, we\u2019re not churchgoers. But we\u2019re trying to be good people, and\nwe\u2019ve come a long way. It\u2019s helped me to be less impatient. I used to\nbe so impatient. Now I\u2019m not.\u201d\n\u201cOur religion,\u201d Marty explained in words of one syllable, \u201cis being\ngood. Take out one \u2018o\u2019 and you\u2019ve got God. To do good is to prove God.\u201d\nDoris hastened to explain: \u201cFor instance, we don\u2019t gossip. We don\u2019t\ntalk about people. We don\u2019t stand in judgment of others. We have only\nenough time to mind our own business.\u201d\nMinding their own business has made Mr. and Mrs. Melcher into a\nten-million-dollar corporation. They hold interests in a motion-picture\nproduction company, recording companies, music companies, real estate,\nand a merchandising firm with plans to cash in on Doris\u2019 new-found\nreputation as a clothes horse by peddling \u201cDoris Day\u201d dresses and\nmake-up.\nIn spite of, or maybe because of, the dollars that come arolling in,\nDoris is neurotic about her health, which can cause mighty big problems\nfor a Christian Scientist. When she was sure she had cancer--she was\nwrong--she put off going to a doctor in case she would be betraying\nher faith. Her brother Paul, who was going to be her manager on the\nrecording side of her career, was a convert to the same faith; he died\nof a heart condition in his early thirties.\nBoth the Melchers keep a tight hold on their money. Their social life\nscarcely exists beyond having an occasional couple in for an early\ndinner--carrot juice in place of cocktails and desserts from Doris\u2019\ncelebrated home soda fountain. She also holds on tight to the clothes\nshe gets from her movie roles. When Irene Sharaff, who designed her\n_Midnight Lace_ outfits, wanted to borrow one coat to be modeled on the\nAcademy Award night where Irene won an Oscar nomination, she had the\ndevil of a time borrowing it--and it had to go back to Doris the next\nmorning.\nAs for Al Levy, he had one more bit of business to sort out with\nMarty Melcher. Century Artists\u2019 client list was shrinking as Marty\nconcentrated on Doris, and the decision was made to sell the agency\nto MCA, who would latch onto anything in those days that promised to\nincrease their holdings in the industry. There was just one cloud on\nthe legal title when the time came to close the deal--the contract\nDoris had once insisted that Al sign with her.\n\u201cIt doesn\u2019t mean anything now,\u201d the lawyers told Al Levy. \u201cSo just let\nus have a release before the first of the year.\u201d\n\u201cIf it doesn\u2019t mean anything, let\u2019s forget it,\u201d he said, by this\ntime deep with David Susskind in Talent Associates, the television\nproduction company that Al founded the day after he sent the locksmith\nand Marty\u2019s relations on their way.\nBut the lawyers insisted that something had to be done to satisfy Lew\nWasserman, president of MCA, that Century Artists was in the clear.\n\u201cAll right,\u201d Levy told the attorneys, \u201cI\u2019ve never asked Doris Day for\nanything in my life. Fact of the matter is, I put more money into her\nthan I ever took out in commissions. So you give me a check for $3000\nsigned by Doris--it\u2019ll buy a mink coat for my wife.\u201d\nHe got the check and gave it to his wife. But Ruth Levy didn\u2019t buy a\ncoat. She put the money in their bank account.\n[Illustration: 1. At sixteen, in my first evening gown, made by loving\nhands--my own.]\n[Illustration: 2. My son, Bill, at age of five, relaxing against me\nat our home in Great Neck, Long Island. Even at that age he loved the\nNavy, or I did, because I selected a Navy suit for him.]\n[Illustration: 3. Ken Murray burping. My beloved mother, Mrs. David\nFurry, and her daughter Hedda. At a picture premiere. Later at Ciro\u2019s\nwe were joined by Edgar Bergen. I introduced them. She was a bit hard\nof hearing and said, \u201cWho?\u201d I whispered in her ear, \u201cCharlie McCarthy.\u201d\nShe said, \u201cIs he now?\u201d (_Photograph copyright Vitagraph, Inc._)]\n[Illustration: 4. Clark Gable, who won the title of King and deserved\nit; he was the first I was photographed with when I started my column\nin 1938. And he was one of my greatest friends until the day of his\ndeath. (_MGM photo by Ed. Cronenweth_)]\n[Illustration: 5. Charles Laughton, Carole Lombard, and I in the good\nold days when pictures were fun for everyone except the producers.\n(_Photo by Fred Hendrickson, Copyright 1940, RKO Radio Pictures, Inc._)]\n[Illustration: 6. The beautiful Merle Oberon, after telling me she was\ndivorcing Sir Alexander Korda.]\n[Illustration: 7. Jane Powell and I were supposed to look alike. I was\nonce engaged to play her mother at $5000 a week. But Louis Mayer was\nfeuding with me at that time. Someone else got the part, but I got the\nmoney. The boy is Vic Damone.]\n[Illustration: 8. Ida Koverman, everybody\u2019s pet, between two of her\ngreatest discoveries, Bob Montgomery and Clark Gable. She fought like a\ntigress to see they got the top roles at Metro.]\n[Illustration: 9. Cary Grant and Randy Scott were once young bachelors,\nsharing life together. (_Copyright 1935, Paramount Productions, Inc._)]\n[Illustration: 10. No wonder I look sad. Errol Flynn, Marion Davies,\nand Cissie Patterson have all passed away. But we were a gay quartet\nwhen this picture was taken at San Simeon during one of William\nRandolph Hearst\u2019s birthday celebrations.]\n[Illustration: 11. At the San Simeon wedding of Mary Grace (daughter of\nMrs. Grace, one of Marion\u2019s cooks) Doris Duke and Marion Davies were\nbridesmaids. James Cromwell, who was married at the time to Doris Duke,\nwas a guest of honor and William Randolph Hearst was the host.]\n[Illustration: 12. Charlie McCarthy\u2019s Edgar Bergen and I at a\nfancy-dress do. Our mothers would never have known us.]\n[Illustration: 13. I aimed for Duke Wayne, but Charles Luckman got in\nthe way.]\n[Illustration: 14. Hedda and the great Hemingway in Havana. We met too\nlate. (_Jerome Zerbe photo_)]\n[Illustration: 15. Mario Lanza, the great. His voice is silent but\nyou\u2019ll never forget him. He didn\u2019t sing as well as Caruso, but his\nvoice was much sexier. When he\u2019d sold a million copies of his first\nrecord, he received one made of gold and insisted that I present it to\nhim. (_Photo by Earl Leaf_)]\n[Illustration: 16. With Moss Hart and Lady Elsie Mendl at the premiere\nof his _Lady in the Dark_. When Moss and I got inside, there were no\nseats for us.]\n[Illustration: 17. Tony Perkins, Sophia Loren, Hedda, and George Raft.\nThis was Sophia\u2019s first introduction to Hollywood, a party given\nfor her by Twentieth Century-Fox. Jayne Mansfield almost stole the\nspotlight from her in a low-cut gown with a break-away strap--it broke.]\n[Illustration: 18. Designer Omar Kiam, Hedda, and Bill Hopper at the\n_Marie Antoinette_ premiere, where Norma Shearer, the great Antoinette,\nwore two evening gowns--one gold, one black spangles.]\n[Illustration: 19. Ingrid Bergman and Hedda Hopper signing autographs\nat Hollywood Canteen during World War II, with a member of the shore\npatrol looking on. This almost broke up my friendship with David\nSelznick. I didn\u2019t ask his permission for Ingrid\u2019s appearance at\nthe Canteen. He called up and said: \u201cNow you\u2019ve got me into trouble\nwith Louella.\u201d My reply: \u201cThat\u2019s your hard luck.\u201d (_Photo by Joseph\nJasgur_)]\n[Illustration: 20. James Shigeta, Robert Merrill, Charles Durand, Luise\nRainer, and Ethel Barrymore on my Hollywood radio show. I can still\nclose my eyes and remember that lovely voice of Ethel. No one like her;\nno one will ever forget her. (_NBC Photo by Gerald K. Smith_)]\n[Illustration: 21. Stephen Boyd and Hopper when she was handed the\nForeign Correspondents\u2019 Golden Globe Award by Vincent Price. (_Los\nAngeles Times Photo_)]\n[Illustration: 22. Hedda, Mrs. Eisenhower, Mrs. Raymond Massey, Mrs.\nCharles Brackett lunching at Romanoff\u2019s during Mamie\u2019s visit to\nHollywood. You may notice how young Mamie and I look. The best brush\nman in Hollywood worked on our faces and eliminated the lines. When I\nthanked him, he said, \u201cI\u2019m now retiring and presenting that brush to\nthe Hollywood Museum.\u201d (_Photo by Twentieth Century-Fox_)]\n[Illustration: 23. Hedda Hopper receiving a new bonnet from Jackie\nGleason, who was playing _Gigot_ in Paris. (_Photo by Jean Schmidt,\nParis_)]\n[Illustration: 24. Elizabeth Taylor and Arthur Loew, Jr., her devoted\nadmirer, with yours truly, whose hair needed the attention of both Mr.\nKenneth and George Masters for this party. (_Nate Cutler Photo_)]\n[Illustration: 25. Bob Hope and me on Christmas, 1958, with Southern\nEuropean Task Force in Vicenza, first U. S. Army Missile Command Base\nin Italy.]\n[Illustration: 26. I\u2019ve got Bob and Lucy just where I want them--at my\nfeet--during a visit on their set. But don\u2019t worry, they didn\u2019t stay\nthere long.]\n[Illustration: 27. The conversation must have been dull, or was Darryl\nZanuck just pretending to be asleep? I almost didn\u2019t get on the set.\nThe picture was _Roots of Heaven_, directed by John Huston, who never\ncared for me after my review of _Moby Dick_. I felt sorry for the\nwhale, and it was made of cement.]\n[Illustration: 28. I like to think it was a draw between Betty Furness\nand me where hats are concerned. But in all honesty she had an edge on\nme. Both of them came from Sally Victor.]\n[Illustration: 29. Henry Luce and I trying to impress each other.\nJerome Zerbe, in the background, was the winner. He remembered\neverything we said, but I\u2019ve forgotten. (_Photo by Walter Daran_)]\n[Illustration: 30. Mrs. Bob Considine, Gary Cooper, Hedda in Madrid,\nwhere the se\u00f1oritas and se\u00f1oras followed him as if he were the Pied\nPiper.]\n[Illustration: 31. Perry Como never did take me seriously, and here\u2019s a\npicture to prove it. (_NBC Photo by Frank Carroll_)]\n[Illustration: 32. Two of my best friends: Louella Parsons and Debbie\nReynolds at a shower given for Debbie before the birth of her first\nchild when she was Mrs. Eddie Fisher. I bribed the photographer to hold\nthis print. I like it.]\n[Illustration: 33. Rudy Vallee, now one of the great hits in New York\nin _How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying_, listening in on\na radio rehearsal of Jack Barrymore and me.]\n[Illustration: 34. What a nerve I had showing my legs beside those of\nMarlene Dietrich.]\n[Illustration: 35. Hedda and Elvis sharing a koala.]\n[Illustration: 36. Hedda and Robert Preston in Mason City, Iowa, June\n19, 1962, when 121 high school bands paraded through the city.]\n[Illustration: 37. Whenever I see a picture of George Washington, I\nalways try to get under it and this time I did with Dean Martin. (_MGM\nPhoto_)]\n[Illustration: 38. Well, now, look how Senator Javits and Joseph Binns\nhave sliced off my hips, at a party at the Waldorf for Orphans of\nItaly. (_Photo by Helen Grant_)]\n[Illustration: 39. Adolph Zukor, Hedda, Mel Ferrer, and Audrey Hepburn\nat Friars dinner honoring Gary Cooper, which was his last public\nappearance. Coop became a star at Paramount Studios, whose founder\nwas Adolph Zukor. But those who arranged the dinner--and they didn\u2019t\nconsult Cooper--didn\u2019t have sense enough to place Mr. Zukor as an\nhonored guest on the dais. (_Photo by Jules Davis_)]\n[Illustration: 40. Jimmy Cagney and Hedda Hopper--all passion spent.\n(_Earl Theisen/Look photo_)]\n[Illustration: 41. Barry Goldwater and Hedda Hopper at a luncheon for\ncrippled children in Scottsdale, Arizona.]\n_Ten_\nIn my business I get \u201cgenius\u201d dished out to me as regularly as the\nmorning mail. To believe the press agents, every dirty-shirttail boy in\nblue jeans who comes over the hill from Lee Strasberg\u2019s classes is the\nbiggest thing to hit the industry since Jack Barrymore played Don Juan.\nNinety-nine times out of a hundred, the gangling lad is like a dream\nbrought on by eating Port-Salut cheese too late at night: if you wait\nlong enough, it goes away. There\u2019s that once in a hundred, though, when\nthe press agent is right....\nThe chief public-relations man at Warners\u2019 was as persuasive as ever:\n\u201cThis one is something special. We think he\u2019s a genius, more or less.\nI want you to meet him.\u201d So I agreed to go over for luncheon in the\ncommissary, and he introduced me to Jimmy Dean, brought to Hollywood\nto do _East of Eden_ by Elia Kazan, who had been bowled over by his\nBroadway performance as the Arab boy in Billy Rose\u2019s production of\nAndr\u00e9 Gide\u2019s _The Immoralist_.\nThe latest genius sauntered in, dressed like a bum, and slouched\ndown in silence at a table away from mine. He hooked another chair\nwith his toe, dragged it close enough to put his feet up, while he\nwatched me from the corner of his eye. Then he stood up to inspect the\nframed photographs of Warner stars that covered the wall by his head.\nHe chose one of them, spat in its eye, wiped off his spittle with a\nhandkerchief, then like a ravenous hyena, started to gulp the food that\nhad been served him.\n\u201cWould you like to meet him?\u201d said the studio press agent who was my\nescort.\n\u201cNo thank you, I\u2019ve seen enough. If that\u2019s your prize package, you can\ntake him. I don\u2019t want him.\u201d\n\u201cHe doesn\u2019t always behave like this,\u201d said my companion apologetically.\n\u201cWhy now?\u201d\n\u201cI don\u2019t know. To be frank, he never acted this way before.\u201d\nI went back to my office and wrote a story describing every\nheart-warming detail of James Dean\u2019s behavior. \u201cThey\u2019ve brought out\nfrom New York another dirty-shirttail actor. If this is the kind of\ntalent they\u2019re importing, they can send it right back so far as I\u2019m\nconcerned.\u201d\nWhen an invitation came to see the preview of _East of Eden_, nobody\ncould have dragged me there. But I heard next day from Clifton\nWebb, whose judgment I respect: \u201cLast night I saw one of the most\nextraordinary performances of my life. Get the studio to run that movie\nover for you. You\u2019ll be crazy about this boy Jimmy Dean.\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019ve seen him,\u201d I said coldly.\n\u201cForget it--I read your piece. Just watch him in this picture.\u201d\nWarners\u2019 cagey answer to my call was to pretend _East of Eden_ had been\ndismantled and was already in the cutting room for further editing. I\ntelephoned Elia Kazan: \u201cI\u2019m sorry I missed the preview. I hear Jimmy\nDean is electrifying as Cal Trask--\u201d\n\u201cWhen would you like to see it?\u201d Kazan said instantly.\n\u201cToday.\u201d\n\u201cName the time, and I\u2019ll have it run for you.\u201d\nIn the projection room I sat spellbound. I couldn\u2019t remember ever\nhaving seen a young man with such power, so many facets of expression,\nso much sheer invention as this actor. I telephoned Jack Warner. \u201cI\u2019d\nlike to talk with your Mr. Dean. He may not want to do an interview\nwith me. If he doesn\u2019t, I shan\u2019t hold it against him. But I\u2019d love to\nhave him come over to my house.\u201d\nWithin minutes his reaction was passed back to me: \u201cHe\u2019ll be\ndelighted.\u201d A day or so later he rang my doorbell, spic and span in\nblack pants and black leather jacket, though his hair was tousled and\nhe wore a pair of heavy boots that a deep-sea diver wouldn\u2019t have\nsneezed at. He carried a silver St. Genesius medal that Liz Taylor had\ngiven him, holding it while we talked.\n\u201cYou misbehaved terribly,\u201d I told him after he\u2019d chosen the most\nuncomfortable chair in the living room.\n\u201cI know. I wanted to see if anybody in this town had guts enough to\ntell the truth.\u201d He stayed for two hours, sipping scotch and water,\nlistening to symphonic music played on the hi-fi, pacing the floor.\nWe talked about everything from cabbages to kings. About George\nStevens, who ultimately directed him in _Giant_ and who was sizing\nhim up at this time as a candidate to play Charles Lindbergh. \u201cI had\nlunch today with him,\u201d said Jimmy, \u201cand we were discussing Antoine\nSt.-Exup\u00e9ry\u2019s _Le Petit Prince_--the writer\u2019s escapist attitude, his\nrefusal to adjust to anything earthbound. Reading Exup\u00e9ry, I\u2019ve got\nan insight into flying and into Lindbergh\u2019s feeling. I like the looks\nof Lindbergh. I know nothing of what he stands for politically or\notherwise, but I like the way he looks.\u201d\n\u201cDo you fly?\u201d\n\u201cI want an airplane next--don\u2019t write that. When things like that\nappear in print, the things you love, it makes you look like a whore.\u201d\nWe talked about Dietrich. Would he like to be introduced? \u201cI don\u2019t\nknow. She\u2019s such a figment of my imagination. I go whoop in the stomach\nwhen you just ask if I\u2019d like to meet her. Too much woman. You look at\nher and think, \u2018I\u2019d like to have that.\u2019\u201d\nGrace Kelly? \u201cTo me she\u2019s the complete mother image, typifying perfect.\nMaybe she\u2019s the kind of person you\u2019d like to have had for a mother.\u201d\nGable, who took up motorcycling in his middle-age? \u201cHe\u2019s a real hot\nshoe. When you ride, you wear a steel sole that fits over the bottom\nof your boot. When you round a corner, you put that foot out on the\nground. When you can really ride, you\u2019re called a hot shoe. Gable rides\nlike crazy. I\u2019ve been riding since I was sixteen. I have a motorcycle\nnow. I don\u2019t tear around on it, but intelligently motivate myself\nthrough the quagmire and entanglement of streets. I used to ride to\nschool. I lived with my aunt and uncle in Fairmount, Indiana. I used\nto go out for the cows on the motorcycle. Scared the hell out of them.\nThey\u2019d get to running, and their udders would start swinging, and\nthey\u2019d lose a quart of milk.\u201d\nWe discussed the thin-cheeked actress who calls herself Vampira on\ntelevision (and cashed in, after Jimmy died, on the publicity she got\nfrom knowing him and claimed she could talk to him \u201cthrough the veil\u201d).\nHe said: \u201cI had studied _The Golden Bough_ and the Marquis de Sade, and\nI was interested in finding out if this girl was obsessed by a satanic\nforce. She knew absolutely nothing. I found her void of any true\ninterest except her Vampira make-up. She has no absolute.\u201d\nI turned on some symphony music while he fished his official studio\nbiography out of his pocket, glanced at it, rolled his eyes up toward\nheaven, and threw it away. While the record played softly, he went into\nHamlet\u2019s \u201cTo be or not to be.\u201d\nWhen it was over: \u201cI want to do _Hamlet_ soon. Only a young man can\nplay him as he was--with the na\u00efvet\u00e9. Laurence Olivier played it safe.\nSomething is lost when the older men play him. They anticipate his\nanswers. You don\u2019t feel that Hamlet is thinking--just declaiming.\n\u201cSonority of voice and technique the older men have. But this kind\nof Hamlet isn\u2019t the stumbling, feeling, reaching, searching boy that\nhe really was. They compensate for the lack of youth by declamation.\nBetween their body responses and reaction on one hand and the beauty of\nthe words on the other, there is a void.\u201d\nAt that point he casually dropped his cigarette onto a rug and said:\n\u201cCall the cops.\u201d He went over to the mantelpiece, raised the lid of one\nof my green Bristol glass boxes that stand there, and, as if speaking\ninto a microphone, said hollowly: \u201cSend up Mr. Dean\u2019s car.\u201d\nAs he left I told him: \u201cIf you get into any kind of trouble, I\u2019d like\nto be your friend.\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019d like you to be,\u201d he said.\n\u201cI\u2019ll give you my telephone number, and if you want to talk at any\ntime, day or night, you call me.\u201d\n\u201cYou mean that?\u201d\n\u201cI don\u2019t say things I don\u2019t mean.\u201d\nI learned a lot about James Byron Dean, some from him, some from his\nfriends. He acquired his middle name in honor of the poet, Lord Byron,\nwhom his mother idolized. She was a little slip of a thing, a farmer\u2019s\ndaughter, who spoiled Jimmy from the day he was born in Marion,\nIndiana. Five years later, in 1936, Winton Dean, a dental technician,\ntook his wife, Mildred, and their only child to live in a furnished\nflat in Los Angeles.\n\u201cWhen I was four or five or six, my mother had me playing the violin;\nI was a goddam child prodigy,\u201d Jimmy reported. \u201cMy mother also had me\ntap dancing--not at the same time I played the violin, though. She died\nof cancer when I was eight, and the violin was buried, too. I left\nCalifornia--hell, this story needs violin music.\u201d\nJimmy rode aboard the same train that carried his mother\u2019s body back\nto Indiana, to be buried in the family plot. He was on his way to live\nwith his aunt and uncle, Ortense and Marcus Winslow. \u201cI was anemic. I\ndon\u2019t know whether I went back to the farm looking for a greater source\nof life and expression or for blood. Anyway, I got healthy, and this\ncan be hazardous.\n\u201cYou have to assume more responsibilities when you\u2019re healthy. This was\na real farm, and I worked like crazy as long as someone was watching\nme. Forty acres of oats made a huge stage. When the audience left,\nI took a nap, and nothing got plowed or harrowed. When I was in the\nseventh or eighth grade, they couldn\u2019t figure me out. My grades were\nhigh. I was doing like high school senior work. Then I met a friend who\nlived over in Marion. He taught me how to wrestle and kill cats and\nother things boys do behind barns. And I began to live.\u201d\n\u201cHow old were you then?\u201d\n\u201cAbout twelve or thirteen. Betwixt and between. I found what I was\nreally useful for--to live. My grades fell off--\u201d\n\u201cLiving without learning,\u201d I said.\n\u201cI was confused. Why did God put all these things here for us to be\ninterested in?\u201d\nHis Aunt Ortense was active in the Women\u2019s Christian Temperance Union.\nWhen he was ten, she took him along to do dramatic readings for her\nladies. \u201cI was that tall,\u201d he said, indicating half his adult height,\n\u201cand instead of doing little poems about mice, I did things like \u2018The\nTerror of Death\u2019--the goriest! This made me strange; a little harpy in\nshort pants.\u201d\n\u201cYou must have been a worse brat than I was.\u201d\nHe gave me a sharp look. \u201cI don\u2019t know about that. I had to prove\nmyself, and I had the facility to do so. I became very proficient\nat wielding a paintbrush and sketching. I won the state pole-vault\nchampionship. I was the bright star in basketball, baseball. My uncle\nwas a tremendous athlete--he won the Indiana state track meet all by\nhimself. I won the state dramatic-declamation contest doing Charles\nDickens\u2019 \u2018The Madman.\u2019 When I got through, there were broken bones\nlying all over the stage. If \u2018Medic\u2019 had been running then, I\u2019d have\nbeen a cinch for it. But let me say this: no one helps you. You do it\nyourself.\u201d\n\u201cWho would you say has helped you the most?\u201d\nHe gestured toward himself in answer. \u201cWhen I graduated from high\nschool, I came out to Los Angeles and went to UCLA to take pre-law. I\ncouldn\u2019t take the [long pause] tea-sipping, moss-walled academicians,\nthat academic bull.\u201d\n\u201cYou sure as hell cleaned that phrase up,\u201d I said.\nHe had two years at UCLA, keeping in touch with his father, who had\nmarried again, and establishing good terms with his stepmother, Ethel.\nJimmy discovered that James Whitmore, movie and stage actor, ran a\ntheater group that met once a week. \u201cThere\u2019s always somebody in your\nlife who opens your eyes, makes you see your mistakes and stimulates\nyou to the point of trying to find your way. That was James Whitmore.\nI met him around 1949, and he encouraged me to go to New York to join\nStrasberg\u2019s Actors\u2019 Studio. I did different things on television there\nand a couple of plays.\n\u201cWhen I came back to Warners, _Battle Cry_ was being made, and Whitmore\nwas on the lot. I wanted to thank him for his kindness and patience. He\nsaid: \u2018It\u2019s not necessary. Someone did something for me--Elia Kazan.\nYou will do something for someone else.\u2019 I\u2019ve tried to pass it on. I\nfeel I\u2019ve been of some benefit to young actors. It\u2019s the only way to\nrepay Jimmy Whitmore. But you do it yourself.\u201d\nI steered him on to another subject--New York. He had a contract with\nWarners calling for a total of nine pictures in six years. He would\nhave had 1956 completely free to go back to Broadway. I had a feeling\nhe\u2019d be one of the few actors who would, in fact, return to the theater\nand, what\u2019s more, play _Hamlet_. He had the urge and push to do it.\n\u201cNew York\u2019s a fertile, generous city if you can accept the violence and\ndecadence,\u201d he said. \u201cActing is wonderful and immediately satisfying,\nbut my talents lie in directing and beyond that my great fear is\nwriting. That\u2019s the god. I can\u2019t apply the seat of my pants right now.\nI\u2019m too youthful and silly. I must have much age. I\u2019m in great awe of\nwriting and fearful of it. But someday....\u201d\n\u201cHow old are you now?\u201d I asked.\n\u201cTwenty-three.\u201d\n\u201cYou\u2019ve got a long and beautiful life ahead of you.\u201d\n\u201cI hope the second adjective is the more abundant,\u201d he said. He then\nhad almost exactly nine more months to live.\nHe made _Rebel Without a Cause_--and made a friend of its director,\nNick Ray.\nHollywood started to simmer with excitement over this new, young talent\nwhen _East of Eden_ was released and Jimmy went into _Rebel_, causing\nno problems for anybody because Nick Ray could communicate with him;\nthey got along like a house on fire. Then came _Giant_, which he\nshould never have gone into. The part of Jett Rink, Texas wildcatter\nturned millionaire, was not right for him.\nGeorge Stevens is a martinet, a slow-moving hulk of a man who tried\nto force Jimmy to conform to George\u2019s interpretation of the role. Now\nJimmy could be led but not driven; he\u2019d bend like a young tree but\nnot break. How poorly Stevens understood him showed in his remarks\nafter Jimmy died: \u201cHe was just a regular kid trying to make good in\nHollywood. He was determined to reach his goal of being a topnotch\nmovie star at any price.\u201d\nTremendous trouble was brewing on the set. It reached boiling point\nwhen Jimmy went on strike and boycotted _Giant_ for three days. The\nnewspaper and town gossips started picking on him, pinning all the\nblame on his shoulders. It was high time we had another talk.\n\u201cI\u2019ve been reading some bad things about you,\u201d I said. \u201cI understand\nyou haven\u2019t been showing up for work.\u201d\n\u201cRight, I haven\u2019t. Stevens has been horrible. I sat there for three\ndays, made up and ready to work at nine o\u2019clock every morning. By six\no\u2019clock I hadn\u2019t had a scene or a rehearsal. I sat there like a bump on\na log watching that big, lumpy Rock Hudson making love to Liz Taylor. I\nknew what Stevens was trying to do to me. I\u2019m not going to take it any\nmore.\u201d\n\u201cI hold no brief for Stevens,\u201d I said, \u201cbut what you don\u2019t know is\nthat there\u2019s a man on that set who put the whole deal together. Henry\nGinsberg, Stevens, and Edna Ferber are partners. It took Henry two\nyears to do it. This is the first time in Ferber\u2019s life she took no\nmoney, only an equal share of the profits as they come in. If this\npicture goes wrong, Stevens can walk out, and those two years of\nGinsberg\u2019s life go down the drain.\u201d\n\u201cI didn\u2019t know,\u201d Jimmy said.\n\u201cSomething else. Henry has a great deal of affection for you, but he\ncan\u2019t show it or else Stevens might walk off the set.\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019d no idea of that. I\u2019m sorry. It won\u2019t happen again. Thanks for\nletting me know.\u201d\nHe could do anything he set his hand to. In Texas for _Giant_, he\nhad so little to occupy him that he learned to ride and rope, until\nhe could twirl a lariat as well as Will Rogers. He had overpowering\nambition. Like John Barrymore, whom he might have equaled had he lived,\nJimmy never thought of consequences. There was no risk he would not\ntake. He was too young to know restraint, and he was marked for death.\nHe got even with George Stevens. I watched him play the climactic\nbanquet scene where Jett Rink, middle-aged and defeated, is left alone\nto get drunk at the top table. He had some marvelous lines, but he\nmumbled them so you couldn\u2019t understand them. When Stevens realized\nwhat had happened, he wanted to retake the scene. Jimmy refused.\nThere was no time for Stevens to try again to talk him into it. On the\nevening of Friday, September 30, 1955, Jimmy was racing down Highway\n41 in his new, 150-miles-an-hour Porsche, which he had christened \u201cThe\nLittle Bastard.\u201d He ran into another car, and Jimmy Dean was dead.\nLiz Taylor had two more days\u2019 work left on _Giant_, including a call\nfor the next morning. She was extremely fond of Jimmy, had presented\nhim with a Siamese cat, which he treasured. That Friday night she\ntelephoned George Stevens: \u201cI can\u2019t work tomorrow. I\u2019ve been crying for\nhours. You can\u2019t photograph me.\u201d\n\u201cWhat\u2019s the matter with you?\u201d said Stevens, who had heard the news just\nas she had.\n\u201cI loved that boy, don\u2019t you understand?\u201d\n\u201cThat\u2019s no reason. You be on that set at nine o\u2019clock in the morning,\nready to shoot.\u201d\nShe was there. When she started to rehearse, she went into hysterics,\nand an ambulance had to carry her to the hospital. She was in the\nhospital five days before she could finish _Giant_.\nThe body of Jimmy Dean was claimed by his father, who rode on the same\ntrain that took the casket back for burial in Fairmount. The only man\nfrom the _Giant_ set who went back to Indiana for the funeral was Henry\nGinsberg.\nOnly once before had anything equaled the mail that deluged my office,\nand that came after Rudolph Valentino died. Letters mourning Jimmy came\nby the thousands week after week. They came from young and old alike,\nsome crisply typewritten, some pencil scrawls, and they kept coming\nthree years after. He was an extraordinary boy, and people sensed\nthe magnetism. He stood on the threshold of manhood, the adolescent\nyearning to grow, trying to find himself, and millions knew that\nfeeling.\nI begged the Academy to award him a special Oscar, to stand on a plain\ngranite shaft as a headstone to his grave. The Academy declined.\nAnother young actor often came to talk with me. The electricity of\nJames Dean was missing in Robert Walker, but this gangling, shy man\ncarried a gentle sweetness with him that touched your heart. He sat\nout on the patio one day and said: \u201cEverybody expects miracles to come\nalong and get him out of drudgery and misery. Not many people can face\nthemselves, and the miracle, of course, rarely happens.\u201d\nHe had come over alone from a new house in Pacific Palisades into which\nhe\u2019d moved with his nurse and his two sons by Jennifer Jones, Robert,\nJr., and Michael. \u201cAll we have is three beds,\u201d he said, \u201ca dining-room\ntable and a refrigerator. We\u2019re going to furnish it like we want it.\u201d\nHe was just out of the Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas, from which\nhe had been discharged after four and a half months of treatment for\ncompulsive drinking and the sickness that drove him to it--the searing\nmelancholy that was as much a part of him as the marrow in his bones.\nHe wanted to tell me about the experience.\nThe background is important, reaching back as far as Bob at the age of\nsix, when he was expelled from his first school. Undersized then and\nunattractive, he was ignored by his schoolmates, and he couldn\u2019t stand\nit. One day he ran amok, not knowing why, and raced screaming through\nthe playground, yanking pigtails and kicking shins.\n\u201cFrom childhood,\u201d he said, \u201cI found myself up against mental walls. The\nmaladjustments of that age grew and branched out all over the place. I\nwas always trying to make an escape from life.\u201d\nHe began running away from school when he was ten. Finally, his Aunt\nHortense, who raised him, sent him to San Diego Military Academy. It\nwas much the same old story. The young cadets didn\u2019t care for him, so\nhe fought them. He trailed his class in everything, but he landed the\njob of playing the big bass drum in the school band, and he beat the\ndaylights out of it.\nIt was just as a matter of course that he tried out for a part in a\nschool play. There were several contestants, and the teacher made a\nlittle speech before she announced the winner. Ability and hard work\nalways succeed, she said, and \u201cthat\u2019s why Bob Walker has won the role.\u201d\nOn the strength of that, Aunt Hortense staked him to a course at the\nAmerican Academy of Dramatic Arts, where he met a fellow student, a\nbeautiful girl christened Phyllis Isley who later changed her name to\nJennifer Jones.\nWhen they began looking for jobs, nobody wanted either one of them.\nThen she had an offer to work on radio in Tulsa, and they persuaded\nthe station to hire them both for a total of $25 a week. He was twenty\nyears old when they were married.\nThey put together a dollar or two and tried to crash Hollywood. They\nfailed, went back to New York, found a cheap little Greenwich Village\nflat, and sold their car so they could eat. A baby was on the way.\nBob and Jennifer, whom he called \u201cPhyl\u201d all his life, took turns in\ntending Bob, Jr., while the other scoured the town job hunting. They\nwere poor as church mice, happy as larks. These struggling days were\nbound to leave their mark on both of them.\nHe broke into New York radio in time to pay the obstetrician\u2019s bills.\nHe made a fair living in soap operas, so they had another baby. They\noutdid each other in looking after their two infant sons, born only a\nyear apart.\nOne day Jennifer went out looking for a job, bearded David Selznick in\nhis den, and landed herself a contract. Letting her go to Hollywood was\nalmost a sacrificial blow to Bob, but he stayed in New York with his\nsoap operas to hold up his end.\nBut lightning struck twice in the Walker household--the only miracle\nhe ever knew. He was offered a part in _Bataan_ that let him join\nJennifer in California. They were wrapped up in each other\u2019s happiness\nuntil Selznick fell madly in love with her; then the Walkers separated.\nShe divorced Bob in June 1945, after six years of marriage. David\u2019s\nwife, Irene--Louis B. Mayer\u2019s younger daughter--was separated from her\nhusband two months later. She divorced David in January 1949, and David\nand Jennifer were married six months later.\n\u201cThe breakup with Jennifer,\u201d said Bob on my patio, \u201cgave me an excuse\nfor amplifying my troubles. When I had a few drinks, I got to thinking\nabout Poor Me and the broken home and all the et ceteras. Only now I\ncan talk about it freely. I used to refuse to discuss my breakup with\nPhyl because I felt it was nobody\u2019s business. I talk about it now\nbecause it\u2019s part of the story that I want to get over. So far as I\u2019m\nconcerned, she is first and foremost the mother of my two children.\u201d\nHe went on working, detesting himself. \u201cLaying oneself open to be\nhurt,\u201d he said, \u201cis an agonizing way to be living.\u201d He tried another\nmarriage--with John Ford\u2019s daughter, Barbara, after he\u2019d known her\neight weeks. That was two weeks longer than they lasted together as man\nand wife.\nHe relied chiefly on liquor for survival. It was a news picture of\nBob Walker drunk in a police lockup, with fists clenched and mouth\ndistorted, that convinced him he needed psychiatry. \u201cI would rather\nhave had a knife stuck in my side,\u201d he told me, \u201cbecause then I should\nhave known what was wrong. There was terrific remorse the day after.\nI decided that sometime soon I was going to end up dead. I tried an\nanalyst in town, but I wasn\u2019t ready for him. My back wasn\u2019t yet up\nagainst the wall.\u201d\nWhen Dore Schary took over Mayer\u2019s job at Metro, he had Bob in for\na talk. \u201cI think you need help,\u201d he said. \u201cI want you to go to the\nMenninger Clinic.\u201d\n\u201cAfter I left Schary\u2019s office,\u201d Bob said, \u201cfear hit me. I thought about\na mental clinic like an insane asylum. I kept asking myself: \u2018Is there\nsomething about me that others can see and I can\u2019t?\u2019\u201d\nBut he promised Schary that he\u2019d try Menninger\u2019s. With a studio\npublicity man as companion, he rode the plane to Kansas wearing a pair\nof dark glasses, with his hat pulled down over his face, hoping nobody\nwould recognize him. \u201cWhen I first hit Topeka, I couldn\u2019t bear the\nthought of people looking at me. It was as if the whole world had its\neyes focused on me. Actually, nobody gave a damn.\u201d\nLiving in a hotel, he drove each day to the clinic for a week of tests.\n\u201cI hated myself and blamed myself all my life for things I shouldn\u2019t\nhave blamed myself for. I felt that everybody was against me, hated me,\ncouldn\u2019t understand me. I couldn\u2019t even understand myself. I was only\nmoments away from alcoholism, which is a slow form of self-destruction.\u201d\nOn the basis of the tests, the clinic recommended that he be admitted,\nwarning his father and Dore Schary that Bob would require at least one\nyear of treatment, possibly two. He returned to Hollywood and went to\nthe desert to hide, afraid to see people, until it was time to sign\nhimself into Menninger\u2019s.\n\u201cI got the idea that the clinic was something like a country club, so\nI asked for a single room and bath. First thing I noticed was that all\nthe doors were locked. Then everything sharp, including my razor, was\ntaken away from me--you could only shave with an attendant watching.\nThe room I was taken to had bars on its window. When I was told:\n\u2018You\u2019re rooming with so-and-so,\u2019 I said I was leaving. That first night\na patient who understood how a newcomer felt gave up his room and bath\nwithout my knowing it, so it would be easier on me.\u201d\nFor the first four weeks he was under observation only; no analysis.\n\u201cYou have to have a recreational therapist with you even on walks over\nthe grounds.\u201d\nHe lived in one of several \u201clodges,\u201d with fifteen patients to each\nfloor, ages varying from eighteen to sixty-five. \u201cWe didn\u2019t discuss our\nillness with each other. Most of the men were wonderful, because it\u2019s\noften the self-sacrificing, overly kind people who take all the blame\non themselves and land up in such conditions.\u201d His one thought was to\nleave the place.\nAt the end of that quiet first month he was still a good enough actor\nto persuade a doctor that he was perfectly capable of going into Topeka\nalone one night. \u201cOr perhaps the clinic was trying to convince me how\nsick I was. Anyway, when I went to town I got drunk, landed up taking\na swing at another cop, and smashed my fist through a window. I was\nmore determined than ever to get away because I was sure the clinic had\ndriven me to it.\u201d\nHe contacted his father, begged him to come and take him away, signing\nto assume responsibility. It was suggested Bob should see one of\nMenninger\u2019s analysts. \u201cI told them I didn\u2019t want to. Why spend more\nmoney on an analyst when he couldn\u2019t do me any good? Even then, I was\nmaking excuses to keep from facing facts.\u201d\nSoon afterward, a psychoanalyst who had been assigned to him anyway,\ncame to his room, said he knew Bob was leaving, but had just stopped by\nto say hello. \u201cHe stretched himself out on the bed and let me do the\narguing. At the end of about an hour I thanked him for coming, but told\nhim I was still going to leave. The next day I found some excuse to ask\nhim to visit me again. I still argued that I was leaving. It was some\ntime before I realized I was doing all the talking--not him. I made up\nmy mind to stay.\u201d\nHe had one hour of analysis a day, six days a week. \u201cFor three weeks\nI spoke to nobody but this doctor, keeping myself shut up in my room,\neating scarcely anything, sleeping very little, drinking cup after cup\nof coffee. When I started to get some inside on the cure, I began\nto work constantly at it. Pouring out your thoughts and mind is an\nemotionally exhausting experience. But you could never know the thrill\nit was when I realized that hate was leaving my heart.\u201d\nIn September 1949 an announcement from the clinic said that he had\ncompletely recovered from a \u201cnervous breakdown.\u201d \u201cI came back here\nscared as hell,\u201d Bob said, \u201cand I don\u2019t think I\u2019ve got the world by the\ntail. I haven\u2019t worked for over a year, and I\u2019d like to do two or three\npictures in a hurry now and go back to the clinic for two months next\nspring.\u201d\nHe was in a proselytizing mood when he talked to me. \u201cThe $64 question\nis where the average man can go for mental help. They can\u2019t afford\nhigh-priced clinics, and they can\u2019t afford to take the time off for\nwhat I did. People are waiting to get into clinics, but there\u2019s not\nenough public demand for real work in this field because so many are\nunaware of its importance. If you have a decayed tooth, you can go to a\ndentist and have it removed. But if you have a mental stumbling block,\nyou\u2019re provided with no such opportunity.\u201d\nHe spoke of trying to shield his sons from the truth about himself.\nThey wanted to read the first newspaper interview he\u2019d given. \u201cSince\nit mentioned several unpleasant subjects like drinking, I hesitated.\nThen I decided to keep nothing back from them. The boys read it, and I\nexplained the things they couldn\u2019t understand. At night I read to them.\nRight now, we\u2019re going through _Swiss Family Robinson_. About once a\nweek we take in a show, usually a drive-in. They work two hours a day,\nscraping paint off a fence and a shed, and get fifty cents a day for\nit.\u201d\nI had written up his interview with me when, two days later, he\ntelephoned. \u201cI\u2019d appreciate it if you didn\u2019t run that story. I poured\nmy heart out, but I wasn\u2019t thinking enough of my sons. I\u2019d rather not\nhave them read it all yet. When they\u2019re older they\u2019ll understand.\u201d\nAt six o\u2019clock on the evening of August 29, 1951, Mrs. Emily Buck,\nwho was Bob\u2019s housekeeper and nurse, called a psychiatrist who had\nbeen treating Bob for the previous eighteen months. Mr. Walker, she\nsaid, needed help in a hurry. He had been drinking, and he was losing\ncontrol of himself. The doctor answered the call, and two hours later\ntelephoned his associate to join him at the Walker house because he\nthought an injection would be necessary.\nTwo men among the group of friends who had gathered at the house held\nBob down while the doctor prepared the needle. Bob was pleading: \u201cDon\u2019t\ngive it to me. I\u2019ve been drinking. It will kill me. Please don\u2019t give\nme that shot.\u201d\nThe following day the doctors reported that as many as thirty times\nbefore they had injected sodium amytal to calm him. Seven and a half\ngrains \u201cis not an abnormal dose if the patient is extremely emotional,\u201d\nsaid the coroner\u2019s autopsy surgeon. Bob\u2019s breathing had begun to fail a\nmatter of minutes after the shot entered his veins. The fire department\nrescue squad was called at eight-thirty. Not until ninety minutes later\ndid they give up hope. Bob was thirty-two years old.\nJennifer Jones is still a very beautiful woman, her face unlined by\nage. She is an excellent actress on her own account--not since _A\nFarewell to Arms_, in which she starred with Rock Hudson, has David\nSelznick made a picture with or without her. She is very nervous\nwhile acting, hating to be watched at work by anybody but the minimum\nnecessary crew, flinching at even routine questions when she\u2019s\ninterviewed.\nThe David Selznicks live beautifully. His income comes largely from\nselling or leasing his backlog of pictures, made in the days when\nDavid had walked out of MGM to open up as an independent producer. The\nbacklog does not include _Gone With the Wind_, which makes a sure five\nor six millions every time it\u2019s sent on the rounds again. Under the\nterms of the ruthless bargain Metro drove with him before he could have\nGable play Rhett Butler, every cent of income goes now to that studio,\nnot to David.\nAt the second gala premiere held not long ago in Atlanta, where _GWTW_\nfirst opened in December 1939, he was asked: \u201cDon\u2019t you feel dreadful\nthat you don\u2019t receive a thin dime from all this?\u201d\n\u201cNo, I did it with my own little hatchet,\u201d he said. \u201cI never regretted\nit.\u201d He has his own grandiose plans to stage a musical version of his\ngreatest movie on Broadway, using two separate casts, producing it in\ntwo halves on successive evenings. Alfred Hitchcock once asked the\nunanswerable question about David\u2019s checkered career: \u201cWhen you\u2019ve\nproduced a picture like _Gone With the Wind_, what can you do to top\nit?\u201d\nDavid still loves parties as he always did, but most always goes alone.\nInstead of going with him, Jennifer stays home and reads or applies\nherself to yoga, which she took up long ago. Sometimes she takes a trip\nto India to meditate. She went twice to Switzerland to see Carl Jung\nbut was too late the second time. He was ill and receiving nobody. \u201cIf\nI had pressed it, I might have seen him,\u201d she said. \u201cI shall always\nregret that I didn\u2019t try harder.\u201d\nIf David ever thinks about it, he must notice the contrast between\nJennifer, who is very gracious and feminine, and Irene Mayer, who had\na brain like a man, plus sound business sense and an instinct for the\ntheater. She was also bossy like her father, and David rebelled against\nit. He would come home tired from slaving at a studio, which he did as\na habit then, but she\u2019d say: \u201cTake those old clothes off, get into a\ntub and dress. We have guests arriving in fifteen minutes.\u201d\nHe\u2019d grow so mad he\u2019d toss his clothes on to the floor and stomp on\nthem. Then: \u201cDavid, pick those things up and put them away properly.\u201d\nLouis B. Mayer used to tell me about those scenes. \u201cIf I were married\nto Irene, I\u2019d hit her,\u201d he said. \u201cI love her, but I see all her faults.\u201d\nDavid and Jennifer have one daughter, whom they adore. They also have\nthe two sons she had by Robert Walker. Bob, Jr., is twenty-five now. He\nlooks exactly like his father. He lives with his wife and their baby\nin a cottage on the Selznicks\u2019 estate. George Seaton, the director,\ntells me Bob will be as fine an actor as his father. The younger son is\nalso following in his father\u2019s footsteps, cutting quite a swath with\nteen-age beauties in our town. It must be easy for Jennifer to remember\nand mighty hard to forget.\n_Eleven_\nSorting out fact from fiction can be harder on the constitution than\nseparating milk from whipped potatoes in a cupful of vichyssoise. And\nwhen you succeed, the results may taste sharper than vinegar on the\ntongue. Let\u2019s take the case of Marion Davies and William Randolph\nHearst.\nThe newspaper tycoon, with a wife and five sons, and the golden-haired\ncharmer from the Bronx shared many things in life--laughter, riches,\ntears, disaster; everything except his name. Mrs. William Randolph\nHearst denied him the divorce he begged for, spurned his offers of\nmillions and anything else she wanted. The legend is that W.R. found\nhis golden-hearted girl when she was a mere sixteen, skipping around\nin Flo Ziegfeld\u2019s _Follies of 1917_. Truth is, it happened some years\nearlier.\nHe was fifty years old, with a long, pale face and piercing blue eyes\nwhen he sat in the Globe Theatre and saw her dancing in the chorus\nof _Queen of the Movies_, directed by Julian Mitchell. She was then\nfourteen years old. It was January 1914.\nA sister of hers was another of the six chorus girls. Marion Cecilia\nDouras--she changed the name to Davies later--wanted to be with her\nsister and work beside her. Neither her father, Bernard, nor her\nmother, Rose, objected. Her one obstacle was the Gary Society, whose\ninspectors supposedly saved young girls from a fate worse than death,\nmeaning sin and exploitation in the theater, by seeing they didn\u2019t\ndance in any chorus until they were at least sixteen years old.\nShe took her problem to a family friend, Pat Casey, who arranged it so\nthat Marion would land the job, and he fibbed about her age. To all\nintent and purpose, she had reached the essential sixteenth birthday\nwhen she went into the show. On opening night Hearst was there with\na companion, a judge. The next morning, from the Louis Cohen Ticket\nAgency, he ordered two seats in Row C for every performance of the\nshow\u2019s run, one for himself, the other for any friend who wanted to see\nthe show. Or if no friend was available, the vacant seat was a handy\nplace to park his hat.\nMost of the cast had a hunch he had his eyes on Marion\u2019s sister. But\nafter a week or two he tipped his hand by sending a note to Marion\ninviting her to have supper with him in Delmonico\u2019s. She took the note\nto Casey to ask: \u201cWhat should I do? What could I possibly talk about to\na man like him?\u201d\n\u201cAccept the invitation,\u201d answered Pat, \u201cbut be sure you always take a\ngirl friend with you.\u201d\nPat had some sound advice for another cute beginner in the same chorus\nline. This other sixteen-year-old was Al Jolson\u2019s light of love. He had\nreached the point of promising to marry her when another beauty caught\nhis eye and he married her, instead. The young dancer went to Pat with\nher troubles. \u201cKeep quiet and let me handle it,\u201d he said.\nHe and Al had some serious talking to do. \u201cI feel like a dog,\u201d said\nJolson. \u201cWhat can I do?\u201d\nPat had the answer: \u201cYou can give her $100 a month as long as she\nlives, plus a home in Westchester County.\u201d Al was happy to escape so\nlightly. She outlived him and collected an additional keepsake of the\nglorious days that used to be. In Jolson\u2019s will he left her $100,000,\nand nobody knew who she was, except the lawyer who drew up the document.\nMeasured either in love or money, Marion did much better than that. To\nHearst she was a golden, blue-eyed princess, and he showered her with\ntreasure until ultimately she was worth more than $8,000,000 in her own\nright. When she died she owned three skyscrapers in New York City, the\nDesert Inn in Palm Springs, plus an estate in Beverly Hills.\nFrom the moment he saw her, he fell under her spell. She didn\u2019t\nwaver in the affection she gave him. Toward the end, though, she had\ndifferent feelings about his family. She had a special reason for\nbeing pleased with her Manhattan skyscrapers. \u201cWherever the Hearsts\nwalk on the East Side, if they ever do,\u201d she said, \u201cthey have to pass\none of my buildings--on Fifth Avenue, Park, or down Madison.\u201d\nNo princess in a picture book enjoyed such gifts as were heaped on her\nby W.R., history\u2019s most extravagant spender. In their early days he\ndecreed that she was to be the greatest star in motion pictures. In\nNew York she lived with her family, was surrounded with instructors in\nevery subject under the sun that might further her career. She was cast\nin an inconsequential drama, _Cecilia of the Pink Roses_, for a start,\nand his newspapers and magazines started promoting her.\nHe insisted that she play only ing\u00e9nue roles, though her talent was as\na comedienne. If he\u2019d let her play comedy, she could have been the real\nsuccess he\u2019d set his heart on. But she worked only to please him. \u201cI\nwas never crazy about making pictures,\u201d she told me. \u201cIt was all right\nonce we got started. But to me it was wasting time. You live only once;\nyou\u2019ve got to have fun, and you can\u2019t work all the time.\u201d\nAnother typical bit of Hearst\u2019s fancy didn\u2019t do Marion any good. One\ncocktail was the rule for her at San Simeon. If she wanted an extra\ndrink, she had to sneak it. In each of the castle\u2019s countless powder\nrooms she kept a bottle of champagne hidden in the tank of the toilet.\nFriends like Carole Lombard and Frances Marion knew the secret and\nshared the bubbles. I\u2019ve seen Marion Davies drink a pint of champagne\nin half a dozen gulps and walk out singing. If W.R. had been less\nstrict on the subject of liquor, she wouldn\u2019t have drunk so much.\nAfter _Cecilia_, Marion had her own movie studio to reign over. Hearst\nbought the River Park Casino up on 127th Street in Harlem and converted\nit as the production center for his Cosmopolitan Pictures. There all\nthe stops were pulled out for a hang-the-expense Tudor epic, _When\nKnighthood Was in Flower_, designed to put her in the front rank of the\nmovies in a single leap. She cared no more for this sword-and-cloak\nstuff than for anything else about the business she\u2019d been pushed\ninto. \u201cThe only thing I liked about making pictures was the fun we had\non the side,\u201d she said. \u201cBut there was always somebody pulling your\nhair, powdering your nose, and those hot lights!\u201d\nHearst wasn\u2019t a man to listen to argument, much less admit defeat.\nShe went on making pictures, some of them winning enough praise from\ncritics other than his own men to justify his relentless ambitions for\nher. _Little Old New York_ was \u201cexquisite,\u201d according to the New York\n_Times_. _Janice Meredith_, another costume cutup, also came in for\n_Times_ approval. \u201cNo more brilliant achievement in ambitious motion\npictures ... has ever been exhibited.\u201d\nHe failed in his movie plans for Marion and himself as he failed\nin many other things he attempted, except making money. He didn\u2019t\nbecome the greatest producer in the world; he missed laying hands on\nthe governorship of New York; he never got into the White House. The\nbiggest irony of his life was the deal he made by telephone from San\nSimeon to the Democratic convention in Chicago in 1932 to swing most of\nthe California delegates behind a candidate he didn\u2019t like, Franklin\nDelano Roosevelt. More than any other man, the deeds of Roosevelt\nruined Hearst. Then World War II made Hearst another fortune.\nThe Shepherd of San Simeon had a long way to go before he let Marion\nease her way out of the career he had chosen for her. The arrangement\nhe came to with Louis Mayer and the Cosmopolitan company brought\nMarion from New York to Culver City in such style you\u2019d imagine it was\nLouis XVI transferring Marie-Antoinette from Paris to Versailles. Near\nthe front of the lot a fourteen-room bungalow was built for her as a\ncombined dressing room and summer home.\nLater, when Marion left for Warners, it was transported lock, stock,\nand barrel there. When she departed from Warners, an addition was made\nand the whole thing moved to Benedict Canyon in Beverly Hills. Louis\nMayer bought it and lived in it. Then it became the home of Kay and\nArthur Cameron. But they were divorced, and Cameron lived on there\nalone.\nSan Simeon, two hundred miles from Culver City, was too far for daily\ntravels to Metro. Hearst built a new castle for his princess on the\ngold coast of Santa Monica. This new ninety-room Georgian mansion,\nwith two swimming pools, three drawing rooms, two dining rooms, and a\nprivate movie theater, was called the \u201cbeach house.\u201d It cost $7,000,000.\nW.R., in his sixties now, and the gorgeous young girl, whose stutter\nonly added to her charm, had dreamed that someday, somehow they would\nbe man and wife. Mrs. Hearst--who was Millicent Willson, a chorine in\na group called \u201cThe Merry Maidens\u201d when she first met W.R.--thought\notherwise. Her husband\u2019s hopes of marriage to Marion seemed about ready\nto bloom when Millicent was being escorted by Alexander Moore, once\nmarried to Lillian Russell and once United States Ambassador to Spain.\nAs an inducement to divorce, W.R. was offering Millicent $10,000,000\ntogether with the huge apartment house in which they used to live.\nMillicent sought advice from one of the biggest men in the country, who\nwas a good friend of Marion\u2019s, too. His reasoning prevailed with her:\n\u201cMrs. William Randolph Hearst is a very important name in America and\nthe world. What would you gain if you gave it up?\u201d\nMarion made friends with Moore in later years when he was in California\nvery ill. She sat by his bedside during his last days. \u201cBefore the end\ncomes,\u201d he murmured, \u201cwill you put your arms around me and kiss me?\u201d\nShe didn\u2019t hesitate a moment.\nShe performed that same, final act of compassion for another man, her\nfather, long after it was clear that, in spite of all Hearst did for\nher, he could never give her his name. Bernard Douras, like the rest of\nMarion\u2019s family, had shared in W.R.\u2019s generosity. As a result of ties\nwith \u201cRed Mike\u201d Hylan, mayor of New York, Douras had been appointed a\ncity magistrate and was invariably referred to in Hearst papers as\n\u201cJudge\u201d Douras. He had been a stanch Catholic all his life. He, too,\ndied in Marion\u2019s arms.\nShe had a heart big as the Ritz Tower, which was one of the hunks of\nNew York real estate W.R. owned in those days, after taking it over\nfrom Arthur Brisbane when he couldn\u2019t meet the payments. Socially, in\nHollywood she was the queen bee for more than thirty years. Friends\nfallen on hard times could rely on a check from Marion to see them\nthrough. A girl who wanted to impress a producer or land a job could\nborrow Marion\u2019s best dresses, furs, and fabulous jewels--whatever the\noccasion called for.\nWhen talking pictures arrived, Marion had problems like everybody\nelse; she got going with _Marianne_ and went on to _The Floradora\nGirl_. \u201cSomebody told me I should put a pebble in my mouth to cure\nthe stuttering. That goes back to the days of the Greeks, the pebble\ntreatment. During a scene the first day, I swallowed the pebble, and\nthat was the end of the cure.\u201d\nShe had no cause to worry that speech trouble would put an end to her\ncareer. The birth of the talkies ruined many another reputation. Two of\nthe cruelest, most primitive punishments our town deals out to those\nwho fall from favor are the empty mailbox and the silent telephone.\nBut Marion was a hostess who took no notice of who was in and who out\nof the social swim. Her friends, rich or poor, were invited up to\nSan Simeon. Her parties and picnics mixed the important guests with\npeople you saw no other place. Mighty executives rubbed shoulders with\nhas-beens still living under her protective wing. Quite a few careers\nwere started all over again as a result.\nIn her bungalow she had a complete household staff, including a fine\ncook, Mrs. Grace, with a young daughter, Mary. When Mrs. Grace fell\nfatally ill, as a last favor she asked Marion to look after her Mary.\nThe little orphan was raised like a daughter. When she reached school\nage, she went away to be educated, then returned to live with her\nfoster mother.\nMary begged for a photograph of Marion autographed \u201cTo my darling\ndaughter.\u201d And on that deceptive bit of pseudo-evidence was built the\njuicy rumor that W.R. had children by Marion. Only after some years did\nshe retrieve the picture from Mary Grace, but the damage had been done,\nprompting Hearst in his will to testify: \u201cI hereby declare that the\nonly children I have ever had are my sons....\u201d\nMarion did some matchmaking on Mary\u2019s behalf by introducing her to one\nof Hearst\u2019s band of trouble shooters, William Curley, publisher of the\nNew York _Journal American_, who had five children of his own by a\nformer marriage, plus grandchildren, and was old enough to be Mary\u2019s\ngrandfather. Mary was married to William Curley at San Simeon.\nDoris Duke, the tobacco heiress, was one of the bridesmaids, and her\nhusband of the moment, Jimmy Cromwell, one of the guests. Before the\nceremony Curley changed his will in Mary\u2019s favor; which later left her\na rich widow. Marion was a bridesmaid on that occasion, as on many\nothers. I knew how much she envied any bride.\nI stayed in Hollywood largely because of her. When picture parts grew\nscarce as hen\u2019s teeth, I holed up in a three-room basement flat with my\nson. I was ready to quit and return to New York when Marion heard about\nit from Frances Marion and put me into a picture of hers, _Zander the\nGreat_, for which Frances wrote the script. That also opened the door\nto San Simeon for me. It was the springboard to more jobs, and that\nkept me, for better or worse, in the movies.\nWealth came to mean nothing to Marion except in terms of the good it\ncould do. \u201cYou\u2019re rich not because of money but only through what you\ngive,\u201d she used to say. She built a children\u2019s wing on UCLA\u2019s Medical\nCenter, with a trust fund added to maintain it. With her wry humor that\nremained intact to the end, she shrugged off any fancy talk about the\nbuilding being her memorial: \u201cIt won\u2019t do me any good; I\u2019ll be down\nbelow where I can\u2019t see so high.\u201d\nThis Lady Bountiful extended her warmth to Hearst\u2019s close family and\nemployees. She mothered John R., Jr., the Chief\u2019s twelve-year-old\ngrandson, nicknamed \u201cBunkie,\u201d when he came to live at San Simeon after\nhis parents were divorced. She interceded with the iron-willed man to\nsave his sons--William, Jr., John, David, Randolph, and George--from\ntheir father\u2019s wrath. She supported one of the five for years after he\nhad spent his inherited money as if it would last forever.\nFor thirty years she protected the boys from W.R.\u2019s anger and\ndisapproval; covering up their sins in his eyes; lending them money\nwhen they needed it; taking them and their friends in under San\nSimeon\u2019s roof and into her Santa Monica home. In return, the sons\nbehaved as if she was one of their nearest and dearest friends. No\nhostility was ever shown until after W.R.\u2019s death.\nShe bestowed the same kind of favors on Hearst\u2019s staff. Thanks to\nMarion, Louella\u2019s job was enlarged for her, with steady increases in\nsalary. Through Marion, she got to know all the stars and greats of\nthe world. Cobina Wright picked up her stint as society columnist by\nMarion\u2019s pleading on her behalf with W.R.\nHearst\u2019s staff treated Marion fondly during her protector\u2019s lifetime.\nRichard Berlin, the organization\u2019s strong man who emerged as president\nof Hearst Corporation, was one of the many who scrupulously saw to it\nthat every birthday and similar anniversary in her life was marked by\nflowers and the cordial words of congratulations.\nWhen W.R.\u2019s fortunes crumbled and his empire faced sudden ruination,\nMarion came to the rescue. She lent him one million dollars. \u201cYou\u2019ll be\nleft without a penny,\u201d said I, always the practical one, to her.\n\u201cWhat would you do?\u201d she asked. \u201cIt came from him. Would you deny him\nwhen he needs it?\u201d\nIn 1947 the two of them took refuge from the storms that blew\nincreasingly around him--old age and an America entirely changed from\nthe land he\u2019d left his stamp on. They closed down San Simeon and moved\ninto a Spanish stucco house on North Beverly Drive in Beverly Hills.\nW.R. was reluctantly facing the fact that he was no more immortal than\nany other man.\nFor Marion herself, W.R. had a special warning--against the wife\nof one of his sons. \u201cBe careful of her,\u201d he said in his quavering,\nhigh-pitched voice. \u201cShe will be far more hostile than Mrs. Hearst.\u201d\nThe final act in Hearst\u2019s eighty-eight years began on the night of\nAugust 13, 1951, as he lay dying. Marion could sense it, though she\nwould not put it into words. She summoned her nephew, the writer\nCharles Lederer, to the house. She had been drinking and was on the\nverge of hysteria. W.R.\u2019s two physicians, Dr. Prinzmetal and Dr.\nCorday, were already in attendance. Presumably summoned by one or the\nother of them, Bill and David Hearst and Richard Berlin also arrived at\nthe house.\nWhen things got too hot to handle, Lederer persuaded Dr. Corday that\nMarion should be taken to her bedroom and given sedation. The wrangling\ncontinued after she had left, and in the course of the evening Lederer\nreturned to his house, close by on North Beverly Drive.\nEarly next morning Lederer received a telephone call that Hearst was\ndead. He had died in the arms of his Catholic valet, Henry Monahan, now\nwith Conrad Hilton, who said prayers for him. Two hours later the body\nwas flown to San Francisco.\nWhen Marion\u2019s nephew arrived back at the Hearst house, he was greeted\nby Berlin: \u201cWhere do you think you\u2019re going?\u201d\n\u201cTo see Marion.\u201d\n\u201cMake sure you go to her room and nowhere else.\u201d\n\u201cThis house belongs to Marion Davies,\u201d Lederer said, \u201cand I\u2019ll go where\nI please.\u201d\nMarion couldn\u2019t be roused from her drugged sleep until after the body\nwas being flown to San Francisco, escorted by Bill, David, George,\nand Randolph Hearst. Mrs. Hearst, Bill\u2019s wife, \u201cBootsie,\u201d and other\nmembers of the family flew from New York for the service. Louella was\none of the hundreds of mourners who gathered in San Francisco. Marion\nread about the funeral arrangements in the paper. What W.R. had planned\nbefore his death was a quiet service in his home with only Marion and\nan Episcopal minister reading from the Bible.\nThe day he was buried, I sat with Marion in her dining room. We prayed\nsilently together. \u201cI had him while he lived,\u201d she said. \u201cThey can have\nhim now.\u201d Though she disguised it, she was still in a state of shock at\nthe loss of the man she had loved for nearly forty years.\nWhen the announcement came, a few months later, that she had eloped\nto Las Vegas with Horace Brown, a hell-for-leather Merchant Marine\ncaptain who looked somewhat like a younger version of William Randolph,\nthe Hearst paper in Los Angeles, the _Examiner_, reported with\nsatisfaction: \u201cIt was Miss Davies\u2019 first marriage.\u201d\nI decided one day to write a piece about what happens to a retired\nmovie star and went to Marion to talk about it. With Horace and Dennis\nthe Menace, a small brown dachshund, she lived in the house where\nW.R. died. Its long front hall retained a touch of the beach-palace\ndays, with life-sized portraits of her in her leading roles hanging on\nthe walls. In the library there were three more pictures. On a table\nstood a \u201cLucky Lindy\u201d photograph of Charles Lindbergh autographed \u201cTo\nMarion Davies, best wishes and many thanks.\u201d On the mantel were two\nphotographs of Bernard Shaw, one of them inscribed, \u201cThis is what is\nleft of me--1948.\u201d Shaw, said Marion, was the only man that Gandhi,\nW.R.\u2019s favorite dog, didn\u2019t try to bite. \u201cHe wanted to listen to what\nGBS had to say, but Gandhi took it out on me later.\u201d\nShe was wearing dark brown slacks, cinnamon-colored silk blouse, and\nflat-heeled leather shoes. The blond hair looked as though it had just\nbeen washed and set. On the coffee table in front of her she kept a\ncompact and two lipsticks which, while we talked, she applied almost\nunconsciously, with perfect aim.\nShe said: \u201cI don\u2019t look at motion pictures any more, most of all my\nown. I used to see one every night. I have prints of most of mine, but\nthey\u2019re slowly molding in a vault downstairs. I have _Little Old New\nYork_, but my projector goes too fast to run it off.\u201d\n\u201cWasn\u2019t Bill Powell in that one?\u201d\n\u201cNo, he was in _When Knighthood Was in Flower_. Remember those\nsymmetricals he wore to make his legs look pretty? When we ran that\nat San Simeon, Carole Lombard was with him. She never got over his\nsymmetricals. He was a real villain in that picture.\u201d\n\u201cI saw him in Palm Springs. He said it wasn\u2019t exciting, but it\u2019s adding\nyears to his life. Would you like to make another picture?\u201d\n\u201cNot if they offered me Mars on a silver plate. I have other ideas\nalong the theatrical line. Something big, like washing elephants.\u201d\n\u201cWhat was your favorite picture?\u201d\n\u201c_The Big Parade_. Long time ago, but I liked it.\u201d\n\u201cHow about _Gone With the Wind_?\u201d\n\u201cI liked that, but I didn\u2019t see much of it. I went with Carole and\nClark to the opening here. Raoul Walsh was with us, too. A man who\npretended he was Burgess Meredith picked a fight with us. Clark was\nnervous and didn\u2019t want to sit through the picture, anyway. So we all\nwent into the manager\u2019s office. The manager was off somewhere, and the\nphone kept ringing. We\u2019d pick it up and say: \u2018Sorry, no reservations;\nall sold out for a year.\u2019 We thought that was funny. Carole was a lot\nof fun. She liked to have a good time.\u201d\n\u201cSo did you.\u201d\n\u201cIt\u2019s taken its toll.\u201d\n\u201cDid you ever have any prot\u00e9g\u00e9s?\u201d\n\u201cI kept it all for myself. I couldn\u2019t act.\u201d\n\u201cWell, I know you helped Ray Milland, for instance.\u201d\n\u201cHe played my brother in _Bachelor Father_. The director got impatient\nwith him. It was his first picture and he was nervous. Who isn\u2019t, even\non the twenty-fifth picture? So I told him to pretend that the director\nwasn\u2019t there.\u201d\nI asked her about the plush party she gave for Johnnie Ray not\nlong after W.R.\u2019s death, which caught a bit of the glamour of our\nyesterdays, with six hundred invited and a thousand showing up.\n\u201cI was having my hair done when Charlie Morrison brought him in. He\ndidn\u2019t know me at all. He must have been awful young. I never saw so\nmany people I didn\u2019t know--I didn\u2019t know ninety per cent of the guests.\nWe were in a turmoil for weeks. They put gardenias in the bushes and\nmoved all the furniture.\u201d\nWhat was her average day? \u201cI have business things. Then I watch TV and\nread. I sleep late.\u201d\nWe talked again about the old days. \u201cGloria Swanson always liked to\nplay games. So she cooked this one up at San Simeon one night. I played\nthe minister, off in another room. All the men were to pick the girls\nthey wanted to marry, then couple by couple they came into the room\nwhere I would perform the ceremony. Then I\u2019d say, \u2018All right, seal it\nwith a kiss,\u2019 and when they started to do that, Gloria would pick up a\ntowel that she\u2019d filled with ice and conk the guy on the head.\n\u201cEverybody laughed until it was Joe Hergesheimer\u2019s turn. The girl he\npicked was Aileen Pringle. He was so serious about it and so mad that\nwhen Gloria let him have it, he stormed out of the house and said,\n\u2018I\u2019ll write about this. I\u2019m through with Hollywood.\u2019\u201d\nChanging the subject: \u201cWhy did you keep making pictures if you didn\u2019t\nlike it?\u201d\n\u201cMr. Hearst wanted me to,\u201d she said, \u201cand contracts had something to do\nwith it.\u201d\n\u201cDid he have any eccentricities?\u201d\n\u201cYes, he placed his faith in the wrong people.\u201d\nMarion put on two more performances during her life. One was for the\nsole benefit of the Hearsts, when she sat in Joe Kennedy\u2019s box at his\nson\u2019s 1961 inaugural ball and rode with Joe in the parade, so that\nMillicent and her sons could see Marion undefeated and unconquerable.\nBut she was a very sick girl and never recovered from that trip.\nShe\u2019d earned Joe\u2019s hospitality by handing over her house to the\nKennedy clan for the Los Angeles convention of the Democrats that\nnominated John F., while she paid $3500 a month for a rented house in\nSanta Monica. Joe had extra phones put in her house, installed his own\nservants, and wouldn\u2019t permit Tom Kensington, who had been with Marion\nfor fifteen years, to remain after he learned Tom was a former FBI man.\nShe also ousted her sister out of her own house, to make room for the\nRobert Kennedys, and rented another temporary home for the sister. When\nJoe heard how sick Marion really was, he sent off three specialists to\nsee her. But Marion paid all the bills.\nEarlier, she put on a fine performance, too, to appear on one of my\ntelevision shows. By this time she was in the middle of her three-year\nfight with cancer. When word got out that I\u2019d asked her, Kay Gable\nwaxed indignant. \u201cShe can\u2019t possibly do it,\u201d said Kay. \u201cShe\u2019s not well\nenough.\u201d\n\u201cWhy do you think I asked her?\u201d I said. \u201cFor one reason only--to lift\nher morale.\u201d\n\u201cBut she looks so ill.\u201d\n\u201cTake it from me, she\u2019ll look beautiful.\u201d\nOn the day the show was due to be filmed, I went to Marion\u2019s house\nwearing the make-up Gene Hibbs had already given me at my home. I\nbrushed aside her compliments: \u201cWait until you see what he does for\nyou. And George Masters is coming, too, to do your hair.\u201d\nShe was so weak that her nurse, Mrs. Mauser, had to help her downstairs\nto the dressing room where the two wizards were waiting to ply their\narts. I went off to the bottom of her garden to shoot some scenes\nthere. When I came back, the transformation had been worked. It was as\nif a magic wand had waved lovingly over her. She looked thirty years\nyounger than when I\u2019d left not more than an hour before.\nShe literally danced out of that dressing room and hurried upstairs to\nput on a blue satin gown. Her body was so thin I had to pin the dress\nin with safety pins all up the back to keep it from falling off. Her\narms were as thin as wrists. \u201cYou need a mink stole,\u201d I said, \u201cto wear\naround your shoulders.\u201d When that last touch had been added, she took\na long look at herself in a mirror. \u201cYou look beautiful,\u201d I said. She\nnodded agreement, smiling like a girl on her way to her first prom.\nI got Charlie Lederer on the telephone. \u201cCome over to Marion\u2019s right\naway. I want you to see something.\u201d\n\u201cWhat is it?\u201d he said instantly, afraid as we all were that her illness\nwas taking a bad turn. I refused to tell him, let him see for himself.\nAt the first sight of Marion with her age and sickness erased, he burst\ninto tears and left the room.\nFor fear of her stutter and of fatiguing her, we\u2019d arranged to give her\nonly one line to say: \u201cWelcome to my house.\u201d She carried it off on the\nfirst take. \u201cIs this all I get to do?\u201d she demanded. \u201cI want more.\u201d\n\u201cDon\u2019t be a greedy little girl.\u201d At five o\u2019clock she insisted on going\nvisiting. She went to Pickfair to show Mary how young she looked and\nthen all over town, until it was time for bed. At midnight I received a\ncall from her: \u201cHow do I get this stuff off my face?\u201d\nWhen the show was screened, she was a sensation. Thanks to Hibbs and\nMasters, she enjoyed a last flurry of fame and fun, including her trip\nto the inauguration, while I went off for a month to Europe. She had\ntwo more offers for TV.\nWhen I came home, Marion had been taken into Cedars of Lebanon\nHospital. She never came out alive. She was in a coma for five weeks.\n\u201cI don\u2019t think she\u2019ll recognize you,\u201d Mrs. Mauser said. But I went\nanyway. I\u2019ll never forget my last picture of her. Weeks of daily cobalt\ntreatments had colored her neck and part of her face a deep purple. It\nwas heartbreaking, yet she was feeling no pain.\nOn September 23, 1961, the Los Angeles _Examiner_ reported the death\nof Marion Davies the previous day. \u201cThe list of Miss Davies\u2019 close\nfriends,\u201d the obituary said, \u201cwas long, impressive and diverse,\nreflecting her wide range of interests. They included George Bernard\nShaw, William Randolph Hearst, Sir Thomas Lipton, Winston Churchill,\nLloyd George, Bernard M. Baruch.... Miss Davies\u2019 only venture into\nmatrimony lasted until her death. She was married to former Merchant\nMarine Captain Horace Brown....\u201d\nA letter Frances Marion wrote her earlier struck some different notes:\n\u201cRemember how we laughed even when we were crying?... How we danced the\nshimmy and the Charleston ... tossed our petticoats over the windmill\n... went to the Follies to applaud _A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody_ and\ncheer the beautiful Miss Davies, who was Miss-Miss-Miss America!\n\u201cThen the thirties ... those fabulous excursions to San Simeon ... the\nlong table in the dining room with W.R. shepherding his flock (and\nnot all of us lambs) ... nipping champagne in the little girls\u2019 room\n... those overnight picnics ... Miss-Miss-Miss America on a gentle\nold nag but looking more scared than if a mouse had run up her riding\nhabit ... sleeping under the stars ... W.R. pacing up and down as he\nwaited for his forgotten Seidlitz powders ... the ride back in the\nmorning, the fields dappled with wild flowers ... a lot of us wilder\nthan the flowers but just as pretty ... Bill Haines dressed as though\nfor the North Pole wearing a hood over his head and face, and mittens\non his hands ... Errol Flynn smacked in the heart by the limbs of Lili\nDamita....\n\u201cAll of this was ours to enjoy and be grateful for the rest of our\nlives. And none of these memories could have graced our past if it\nhadn\u2019t been for you and your loving kindness.\u201d\nIf anybody can sum up a life in nine words, Frances can. Of Marion\nDavies she says: \u201cShe was a butterfly with glue on her wings.\u201d\n_Twelve_\nThe lure of the almighty dollar brings two categories of people to our\ncommunity--those who work and those who prey. Like Hamlin before the\nPied Piper, we are infested with rodents, from bookies to con men, from\nmobsters to panderers anxious to supply anything a paying customer\ncalls for. Difference between us and Hamlin is that we\u2019ve given up\nhoping for the Piper.\nExtortioners have flocked to our town since the notorious reign of\nGeorge Browne and Willie Bioff, the union racketeers, who, in the\nthirties and early forties, didn\u2019t even condescend to visit the\nstudios--top producers had to stop by their hotel room and toss on to\nthe bed wads of greenbacks for \u201cprotection.\u201d\nNow there are only lean pickings left at most studios, and the leeches\ncling to individual stars. They sucker them into accepting loans\nto buy the new house, the new mink, the new car, in return for a\npermanent slice of income. They let them run up bookmakers\u2019 bills at\nstrangulation rates of interest, collectable every payday. By offering\nfat fees for night-club performances, they entice them to Las Vegas,\nthe sanctuary for birds of prey, and make sure they get back every cent\nof salary and more at the gambling tables.\nSyndicate men have the run of Hollywood society. I don\u2019t know who\ncharms whom more, the actor or the mobster. I understand that \u201cLucky\u201d\nLuciano could charm a bird off a bough. Frank Sinatra, who has a\nweakness for such fragrant characters as Joe Rocco and Charlie\nFascetti, of Chicago fame, is fond of boasting: \u201cIf I hadn\u2019t made it in\nshow business, I\u2019d have been a mobster myself.\u201d\nBookies used to have priority at studio switchboards when they made\ntheir calls to Culver City. Nowadays, Las Vegas soaks up much more\nfloating cash and credit. It\u2019s fashionable in some circles to brag\nabout how much you lost down the drain. Phil Silvers has shed a fortune\nat the tables. Gordon MacRae has unloaded thousands at one go, so that\never-popular pair of night-club entertainers, Gordon and Sheila MacRae,\nparents of four fine children, have to smile with every evidence\nof delight when they find they\u2019ve been booked around the country\nforty-three weeks out of fifty-two to make ends meet. When Ernie Kovacs\ndeparted this vale of tears, he left $600,000 of gambling debts.\nThe police departments, often reported to be openly cozy with mobsters,\nhave a long record of blinking at other kinds of lawbreakers, provided\na nimble press agent can get on to the case in time. Clark Gable,\nreturning home from a party at Paulette Goddard\u2019s after downing too\nmuch of the bubbly, banged up his car in a traffic circle, but it was\nhappily announced that a passing motorist was really to blame.\nEddie Mannix has related how it cost a total of $90,000 to keep the\nreputation of a celebrated MGM star intact when he was caught in the\nsame desperate situation that sent Big Bill Tilden, the tennis ace, to\nprison as a homosexual.\nStudio cops worked hand in glove with custodians of the law outside\nthe studio gates. Some days the telephones of top public-relations men\nlike Howard Strickling at Metro and Harry Brand at Fox rang like a\nfour-alarm call in the firehouse, as police dutifully reported they had\nthis or that star safely locked up for speeding, drinking, or mixing it\nup in a public brawl.\nThere\u2019s something heady about driving in Hollywood that got even\nGarbo tagged twice for speeding. One of the wildcat drivers was Luise\nRainer. She had won her _Great Ziegfeld_ Oscar and was going into _The\nGood Earth_ as the sensation of the industry. For the picture\u2019s sake,\nthe studio conspired with minions of the law to frame her. She\u2019d be\narrested, plead guilty, and the judge, primed in advance, would lift\nher license until _The Good Earth_ was completed. So ran the plot.\nBut a snag developed after the police trapped her; she clung to her\ninnocence and vowed to fight the case in court. So the ticket had to be\nquashed, and the suppress agents had to \u2019fess up to Luise. She refused\nto speak to them for weeks.\nSince we live in an age of corruption, almost like the declining days\nof ancient Rome, with the \u201cinterests\u201d digging in deeper all the time,\nI ought not have been surprised at a campaign to build another Las\nVegas right in the heart of our community. The plan was to incorporate\na separate little city made up of the Sunset Strip, with its night\nclubs like Dino\u2019s and Jerry Lewis\u2019 new place, and stretching from Santa\nMonica Boulevard up into the hills. Like Beverly Hills, which is a town\nunto itself and an extremely well-conducted one, this new Sunset City,\nor whatever it was to be christened, would have written its own rules\nand controlled its own life.\nThe idea was perfectly feasible, however unattractive. The area\ninvolves a bit of no man\u2019s land, bounded by the city limits of Beverly\nHills and Los Angeles, yet attached to neither of them. This is county\nterritory. The promoters\u2019 objective, among other things, was to bring\nin gambling, making it as legal as Nevada. It was a choice location and\ncould be a perfect haven for mobsters.\nAmong the unsuspecting citizens of the Strip, petitions were circulated\nto gather signatures as the first step to take the proposed \u201ccity\u201d\naway from county control. Whether or not he realized the implications,\none of the sponsors was Bart Lytton, whose modernistic new savings\nbank stands on the site of the old Garden of Allah at the hub of\nthe territory. It was he who threw one of the biggest parties in\nWashington, D.C., on the night of President Kennedy\u2019s inauguration,\nwhich drew JFK and other members of the family. Even I received one of\nthe gold-engraved invitations, though I\u2019d never met the host.\nOur local _Citizen-News_, which has since changed management, broke\nthe story of what lay behind the apparently innocent moves to make\nthe Strip independent. I got busy in my column and with some letter\nwriting to throw a monkey wrench into the wheels.\nI was amazed at the time that my words were allowed to appear, because\nsome exceedingly powerful individuals stood to gain from \u201cSunset City.\u201d\nBut it worked. Our community had seen too much of Murder, Inc. muscling\nin, of gangsters receiving the lead-poisoning treatment on the streets.\nThe petitions died from anemia--but I am sure the backers haven\u2019t given\nup hope or forgiven me.\nThere was another time when the businessmen of the Strip weren\u2019t so\nslow to take up arms. In this other affray they succeeded in putting\nthe object of their attention behind bars, but then she was a woman, or\neven a lady, and a local celebrity. She was a tall, dignified creature\nwith a back straight as a ramrod, who introduced herself to me one day\nas we sat under neighboring dryers in a beauty parlor. I was happy to\nmake her acquaintance, having heard a great deal about her.\nShe was a pioneer in her profession by allowing her patrons, including\nsome super-sized stars, to run up bills for their pleasure, whereas\ncash in advance is, I gather, the almost invariable procedure\nelsewhere. She accumulated a load of bad bets as a reward for\nestablishing her informal credit plan, though her establishment gained\na certain distinction from the array of several Oscars which stood on\nher mantelpiece, gifts from satisfied customers.\nShe conceived the ambition of retiring from her former calling and\nopening an extremely proper and swank restaurant on the Strip. She had\nthe plans drawn up, which envisaged upstairs dining accommodations for\nprivate parties, which are not unusual among caterers. She ordered some\nsomber but becoming gowns to wear as hostess. The restaurateurs along\nthe Strip were outraged. They shuddered at the thought that _chez elle_\ncould well become the most popular, though innocent, port of call for\nnatives and tourists alike. She was denied a liquor license and later\narrested.\nShe had one stanch supporter to turn to--that friend to all womankind,\nLouise Fazenda, the zany, pigtailed comedienne of the Mack Sennett\nera. Mack enjoyed working late at his studio so he could chase pretty\ngirls between takes. Louise found the only means of quieting an empty\nstomach and finding some fleeting peace was to take a sandwich and hide\nit, ready for supper, in the women\u2019s lavatory.\nLouise married Hal Wallis in 1927 and began a new career as an angel\nof mercy who covered her philanthropies in secrecy. A law student\nconcluded that he\u2019d have to quit school because his girl-wife was\npregnant; Louise took up all the bills. She would go out to UCLA\nMedical Center to feed young children, rock and sing them to sleep.\nNot all of her charges recovered; she made a special point of seeking\nout the hopeless, terminal cases because her heart was big and strong\nenough to pour out its love even when a child was doomed.\nAnd she never lost her sense of fun. There used to be a vacant corner\nlot next to her small house. At night she\u2019d wander over the ground\nscattering wild-flower seeds, just for the sake of hearing her\nneighbors exclaim in wonder that only a blooming miracle could have\nproduced the flowers that sprang up. It was Louise\u2019s sense of humor,\nmatched with the need to teach Hal and his friends a lesson, that\nbrought the stately brothel keeper to the Wallis\u2019 home in the San\nFernando Valley.\nHal was in the habit of asking his men friends and associates around\nfor Sunday luncheon to sample his wife\u2019s delicious cooking. Most of his\nbuddies seemed to think this was something too tasty to waste on their\nwives, so they brought along their girl friends. Finally, Louise\u2019s\npatience ran out. One Sunday, when the usual crowd had gathered for\nsome home cooking, Louise entered with her own special guest. Almost\nall the men knew her instantly; some of their companions needed no\nintroductions either. Not a single harsh word was spoken between Mr.\nand Mrs. Wallis; but from that Sunday on, the husbands started bringing\ntheir wives.\nFaced with the certainty of a prison term, the madam asked for Louise\u2019s\nhelp. \u201cI\u2019ve no place to hide my jewels, my car, and my clothes,\u201d she\nsaid, \u201cand they\u2019re all the savings I\u2019ve got left. If the police get\ntheir hands on them, I may never get them back. Is there anything you\ncan do?\u201d\n\u201cCertainly,\u201d Louise said. \u201cThere\u2019s a special stall in my garage to\nwhich this is the only key. Drive in there tomorrow, lock the door,\nand keep the key until you\u2019re free.\u201d That is why, when search was made\nof the lady\u2019s place of business, there were some mighty mystified\ninvestigators around, for they could find nothing. All her valuables\nwere safe in the Wallises\u2019 garage, and when Hal reads this it will be\nnews to him.\nCrooks as well as shady ladies like to mingle with celebrities. Bugsie\nSiegel\u2019s gaudy days and nights as a man-about-Hollywood ended on a\ndavenport in the house at 810 Linden Drive, Beverly Hills, that his\ndear friend, red-haired Virginia Hill, rented at $500 a month. \u201cDeath\nat the hands of a person or persons unknown,\u201d said the coroner\u2019s jury\nafter the machine-gun bullet holes in his back had been counted, fired\n(while the watchdogs remained peculiarly silent) through a window.\nBugsie loved to socialize. He\u2019d turn up, dressed to the nines, to take\na drink or play poker as the guest of all kinds of people. Every two\nweeks he came into Beverly Hills to get his hair cut by his favorite\nbarber. Marie MacDonald used to dine in his company at Las Vegas.\nGeorge Raft appeared as a witness for Bugsie when the mobster went on\ntrial in Los Angeles. Leo Durocher was one of many who knew Bugsie\nwell. The day before he was rubbed out he sent a check for $2500 to the\nLou Costello Youth Foundation, a sports center Lou and his partner, Bud\nAbbott, built on East Olympic Boulevard. The day after Bugsie departed\nthis life, the sun-blackened peddlers who sell maps of movie stars\u2019\nhomes to tourists along Sunset Boulevard latched onto a new sales dodge\nwith hastily scrawled signs that said: \u201cSee Where Bugsie Met His End.\u201d\nOne old friend of his, Countess Dorothy Taylor di Frasso, was in Europe\nwhen she heard the news. \u201cBugsie, Bugsie?\u201d she said, and eyebrows could\nbe heard arching over the telephone. \u201cWhy, I don\u2019t know any Bugsie.\nCould you mean Mr. Benjamin Siegel?\u201d An amateur gentleman to the final\ncurtain, he would have appreciated the formality.\n\u201cI was very fond of Mr. Siegel,\u201d the countess allowed, \u201cbut it is\nutterly ridiculous to say I was in love with him.\u201d A man in her life\nthat she really cottoned to was Gary Cooper. She snaffled him up when\nhe was worn out from too many pictures and too much Lupe Velez. She\nwhisked him off aboard a slow boat to a safari in Africa.\nShe found our town an unplowed pasture for her type of worldliness,\nmixing titles with prize fighters and topnotch actors with show girls.\nAt one of her parties she hid a recording machine under a sofa in\nthe hope of picking up some spice from her unsuspecting guests. Jack\nBarrymore ruined it. He sat there, unknowing, and delivered a monologue\nof tangy reminiscences about every celebrity who entered, including\nhis delightful hostess. Unaware of all this, the countess grabbed an\nopportunity to remove the record and summon her closest pals up to her\nbedroom to hear a playback. After it made a few revolutions on the\nturntable, she snatched the record off and smashed it on the floor.\nBugsie\u2019s darling, Virginia Hill, who\u2019d given him a gold key to the\nhouse on North Linden Drive, was in Paris when she got word that he had\nturned his back to a window for the last time. \u201cIt looks so bad to have\na thing like that happen in your house,\u201d she said when she\u2019d dried her\ntears.\nSome months after this I was dining at a left-bank restaurant in Paris\nwith Lilly Dach\u00e9, her husband, and Jean Daspras, a struggling young\nFrench designer who was about to open his own dress salon. After coffee\nhe took us up to his roof-top garret to show us some of his sketches.\nThere he told us about an American, a friend of his, who had recently\narrived at the place with a tightly wrapped shoe box.\n\u201cPlease don\u2019t open this,\u201d said the visitor. \u201cJust hide it somewhere and\nforget it.\u201d\nSix months later the same American returned for the box, which the\nyoung Frenchman had kept hidden under his bed. As a favor, he was\nallowed to take one look inside before the caller departed. It was\nfilled not with shoes but with jewels--hundreds of thousands of\ndollars\u2019 worth belonging, so the American said, to a woman named\nVirginia Hill; but who she was, Jean Daspras had no idea.\nBugsie had his finger in a lot of pies. He was trying to corner the\nbookmaking business as far east as St. Louis. In Los Angeles, Reno,\nand Las Vegas he was cramming his race wire, known delicately as\n\u201cTrans-American News Service,\u201d down the throats of bookies. He had his\nown bookie joint at Guy McAfee\u2019s Golden Nugget in Las Vegas.\nSiegel also had set up a milk route, as he called it, for running\nraw opium, which is a popular crop in Mexican fields just south of\nthe United States, to cookers in Tijuana. There it was prepared for\na further trip across the California border, for distribution and\nsale in Los Angeles. Rumors flew around that Luciano was sore at the\ncompetition Bugsie was giving him and had warned him to stay out of\nopium smuggling. Forty-eight hours after the gang had lost its boss,\nborder patrolmen were battling smugglers near Calexico and confiscating\nthousands of dollars\u2019 worth of opium destined for Los Angeles.\nBugsie was a big man in Vegas. He was president of Nevada Projects\nCorporation which operated the Flamingo, a sprawling, hectic-hued\nhotel and gambling joint built spang in the middle of a scrubby desert\nat a cost of $5,600,000. He started in as vice president when Billy\nWilkerson was president.\nBilly was a dapper operator who used to run two plush Los Angeles\nrestaurants, the Vend\u00f4me and the Trocadero, later the Mocambo and\nCiro\u2019s, then opened a fancy haberdashery and barbershop. When they\nfailed, he started as publisher and editor of the _Hollywood Reporter_.\nHis greatest claim to fame is that he discovered Lana Turner sitting on\na drugstore stool, playing hookey from Hollywood High School. He sold\nout his interest in the Flamingo to Bugsie and was on vacation in Paris\nwhen the machine gun opened fire outside 810 Linden Drive.\nBugsie had lost a fortune running the Flamingo and was struggling\nto save it from foreclosure. One police report had it that he owed\n$150,000 to an eastern gangster. The police also had a shrewd idea that\nhe was behind some mighty big jewel robberies in our town. Earl Warren,\nour governor at the time, made the expected statement of the obvious:\n\u201cOne lone gangster coming to California from another state where he\nwas a power doesn\u2019t mean much, but when he becomes connected with\nnarcotics, gambling, bookmaking, and jewel and fur thefts, he becomes a\ndangerous article.\u201d\nWhoever knocked off Bugsie got away with it; his murder has never been\nsolved.\nOne inevitable suspect was questioned but set free. \u201cI don\u2019t think\nanybody\u2019s gunning for me,\u201d said slippery Mickey Cohen, who has\nmore friends among the movie makers than Bugsie ever dreamed of. I\naccidentally found myself sitting at the table next to Mickey in the\nMocambo one night. He had a party of ten that night, including Florabel\nMuir and her husband, Denny Morrison, plus a guard sitting at each\ncorner with the usual bulge under his coat that denotes the presence of\nconcealed artillery.\nI called over the captain. \u201cI refuse to sit next to gangsters.\u201d\nFlorabel turned around. \u201cBut they\u2019re _not_ gangsters,\u201d she said.\n\u201cThey certainly look like gangsters to me,\u201d said I, and was given\nanother table in double time.\nMickey, who was finally sentenced to San Quentin for income-tax\nevasion, wheedled his way into a friendship with Red Skelton, a\nsentimental, unpredictable man whom I admire very much. Red was a soft\ntouch for Mickey; lent him money; took him into his home, together with\nJanet Schneider, a Cohen prot\u00e9g\u00e9e whom Mickey eventually succeeded in\ngetting onto a Jerry Lewis television show. He tried to sell Red the\nidea that he should play himself in a movie version of his incredible\nlife story.\nRed survived the depression of the thirties as a marathon dancer around\nBayonne, New Jersey. He managed to stay on his feet sixty days at\none time to win enough money to keep body and soul together, though\nnot very tightly. He worked as a circus clown--his father was one,\ntoo--and he\u2019s never lost that quality in his nature, a sympathy for the\nunderdog, an ability to picture all human frailties.\nNot that he\u2019s slow with a wisecrack when the magic moment comes.\nLike the day I went to see him in the hospital soon after the last\ninauguration. We talked about how much Frank Sinatra had given of\nhimself to stage the inauguration party for the President. \u201cWhat can\nKennedy do to repay Frank, the man who has everything?\u201d I asked.\nRed paused to consider that for a moment, then grinned: \u201cHe can repeal\nthe Mann Act.\u201d\nRed\u2019s an Abraham Lincoln Republican. In fact, he\u2019s one of our country\u2019s\nforemost experts on our greatest president, and he\u2019s got a Lincoln\nlibrary that stirs your soul. During a lull in rehearsal at one of his\ntelevision shows on which I was appearing, we decided to try to convert\nsome of his crew to our brand of politics. We both made stump speeches\nand got a good round of applause. \u201cI don\u2019t think we changed anybody\u2019s\nmind,\u201d I said.\n\u201cMaybe not,\u201d he answered, \u201cbut we gave \u2019em something to chew on,\nanyway.\u201d\nHe begged Gene Fowler to cross the Atlantic as his guest when he\nopened at the Palladium in the summer of 1951, following Danny Kaye,\nwho was cutting it up all over London town as a buddy of Princess\nMargaret. Gene, an old Hearst reporter and once editor of the New York\n_American_, went along, principally to fend off some of the bites of\nthe sharp-fanged British press. He wrote to me:\n    Dear Sweetie:\n    This is the old man\u2019s last long journey anywhere except perhaps\n    to the cemetery. Every citizen should be compelled by law to\n    take a trip abroad--all expenses paid--so as to know how to\n    vote.\n    Skelton is a big hit at the Palladium notwithstanding all\n    manner of handicaps. It is a hot June with all kinds of sports\n    events going, _and_ Danny Kaye failed to introduce him (as is\n    the hitherto unbroken tradition) on Sir Danny\u2019s last night at\n    the Palladium. Tell me, honey, is it possible for any man to be\n    bigger than himself? And is momentary glory too precious to be\n    shared with a fellow American and a fellow trouper? It is quite\n    true that we cannot share personal grief, but we can and should\n    share happiness or success.\n    P.S. It is not true that I have been knighted.\nWhen they got back, Red bought Gene a car to say his thanks, but Gene\nwould have none of it. He clung like a limpet to his ramshackle jalopy,\ngrowling: \u201cI didn\u2019t go to London with you for a present, but because\nI\u2019m a friend.\u201d\nGene wasn\u2019t around to help when Red and his wife, Georgia, took their\nson, Richard, on his last, long journey to see the world after doctors\nat UCLA Medical Center told them the boy was doomed with leukemia. The\nBritish press venomously accused Red of publicity seeking in taking\nRichard to see the Pope. The boy read the papers and realized for the\nfirst time that his illness was fatal. Wounded to the heart by the\nstories, Red brought his family home to Brentwood, to wait for the\ninevitable. Gene was one of the pallbearers at Richard\u2019s funeral.\nMickey Cohen was among those at the ceremony.\nI was working in a television studio next to Red\u2019s soon after that day.\nIn the corridor he said shyly: \u201cDo you suppose you could do something\nfor me, Hedda?\u201d\n\u201cAnything, Red.\u201d\n\u201cMy wife is mourning, just as I am. I get home tired from working and\nburst into tears, and so does she. She says everybody knows how I feel\nbut nobody thinks of her. Could you write something about her, how\nshe\u2019s having a bad time, too?\u201d\nFour years later Red has been unable to shake off his melancholy. He\nsits by the hour in his garden rather than go into the house, which\nholds too many memories. Though he\u2019s earned enough to make him a\nmillionaire, he has gone through so much money--diamonds for Georgia,\ngifts to friends--that he has been compelled to sell the $3,500,000 TV\nstudio he bought in hopes of becoming a big producer like Desi Arnaz.\nHis health isn\u2019t good, he sleeps poorly. Yet before the cameras or on\na night-club stage, he\u2019ll work hard enough to break his heart--and put\na chip or two in yours.\nMickey Cohen had another friend among the comics in Jerry Lewis, whom\nhe tried to set up as producer of Red\u2019s movie life story. Jerry was\nanother who lent Mickey money: $5000 with no security \u201cbecause he\nneeded help.\u201d In his Martin and Lewis incarnation, Jerry came from\nplaying night clubs in Philadelphia, where the majority of clubs are\ncontrolled by Frank Palumbo, no stranger to the racketeers.\nWhen Dean and Jerry first appeared at Slapsie Maxie\u2019s in Hollywood,\nevery studio in town tried to sign them. It was Hal Wallis who\nsucceeded. Incidentally, in their days together, Dean and Jerry\nhad an admirer and occasional companion in the junior senator from\nMassachusetts. In show business language, they found John F. Kennedy\nwas a square John who seldom caught on when they were kidding him.\nJacqueline hadn\u2019t yet come into his life. The girl he was most gone on\nwas Helen O\u2019Connell, who delivers warm jazz with a genteel air.\nBefore Dean and Jerry could start work for Hal Wallis in movies, they\nhad some more night-club dates to fill, including one in Philadelphia.\nThey were joined in that City of Brotherly Love by the actress wives of\ntwo of our better-known Hollywood personalities, one of them a woman\nwho had dragged her patient husband to Slapsie Maxie\u2019s night after\nnight to ogle Dean. If you can prevent catastrophe, you\u2019re bound to\ngive it a try. So when I found out what was going on in Philadelphia, I\nwent to see Hal Wallis.\n\u201cUnless you nip this in the bud,\u201d I said, \u201cyou\u2019re going to start your\nfirst Martin and Lewis picture with a couple of divorces to contend\nwith.\u201d\nHal was petrified. \u201cWhat can I do?\u201d he pleaded.\n\u201cStop it before the news gets out.\u201d\nHe called his partner, Joe Hazen, in for consultation. \u201cHow would you\nhandle the situation?\u201d they both asked.\n\u201cTelephone the boys right now. Tell them that unless those women get\nout of Philadelphia immediately, you\u2019ll cancel the contract. And tell\nthem why.\u201d\nHal liked the idea. I sat by his desk while he made the call, and two\nfoot-loose actresses caught the next available plane from Philadelphia\nto New York.\nThere is a New York night club with a deserved reputation for\nhigh-class entertainment called the Copacabana, formerly conducted by\nJack Entratter, who became the impresario of the Las Vegas Sands, and\nMonte Proser, who went on to operate Broadway\u2019s Lanai. For some years\nthe Copa has enjoyed the services of Jules Podell, who has a gravel\nvoice and a sharp temper.\nNot long after the Martin and Lewis breakup Jerry was visiting New\nYork to do a television show, while Sinatra was appearing at the Copa,\ndrawing such crowds that they waited outside in the winter cold for\nhours in lines that stretched halfway around the block.\nJerry had played the Copa with Dean some three years earlier and\nquarreled briefly with Podell in the course of the engagement. One day\nFrank came down with an occupational sore throat, and Jerry agreed to\nsubstitute at the Copa for him, though he had no formal act and hadn\u2019t\nplayed a night-club date alone since his parting from Dean. He appeared\nthat night ad-libbing like crazy, but that was the last time the Copa\never saw him.\nJerry had a press agent who knew the Copa and Podell well. In a\nprevious job, when he\u2019d had his own public-relations business, the\nagent represented the place as one of his clients. The agent was in\nthe bar one night watching Podell, in his overcoat, ushering in the\ncustomers to the restaurant and floor show downstairs. \u201cYou\u2019re doing\nfantastic business with Sinatra,\u201d the agent said admiringly.\n\u201cI need you to tell me?\u201d snapped Podell. \u201cGet the hell out of here.\u201d\nThe agent snapped right back. The two fell into a shouting match, which\nended with the agent spitting at Podell and walking out the front door,\nback to the Hampshire House suite where Jerry was staying. There was\nno satisfying Jerry until he\u2019d heard the full account of the set-to.\nBy now it was after midnight, but Jerry picked up the telephone to get\ntwo vice presidents of MCA out of bed, with a summons to meet him at\nten o\u2019clock the following morning at the Brooklyn studios where he was\nrehearsing his television show.\nThe pair of them showed up on the dot. They knew Jerry had a contract\nfor a future appearance at the Copa. \u201cI want you,\u201d he ordered, \u201cto\nwrite Mr. Podell a letter saying I will never appear, never set foot\nthere from now on. You can say I don\u2019t give a damn what pressure they\ntry to put on me. I told Podell years ago if he ever talked nasty to\nany one of my people or laid a hand on one of them, he\u2019d see the last\nof me.\u201d\nOver the next few days Jerry had some interesting telephone calls from\nall kinds of people promising to straighten things out with Podell.\nJerry had a stock answer: \u201cNot if I live to be a thousand will I talk\nto Podell. Nobody should look to get lucky with me. I\u2019m not going into\nthat place--ever.\u201d\nHe made that decision stick. One side of Jerry knocks himself out to\nhave people like him. The other side includes a mind like a steel\ntrap; when he says no, he means not bloody likely. He won\u2019t run\naway from a fight, but he shies away from people who frighten him\nintellectually because they\u2019re better educated than he is. He\u2019s the\nson of show-business parents who left school in the tenth grade after\nswatting a teacher for saying: \u201cAll Jews are stupid.\u201d\nHe makes $3,000,000 a year, and he can\u2019t stand it. Money is something\nhe disdains. He is probably the one entertainer in our business who has\nnever struck out in a movie, and he\u2019s been twenty-six times to bat.\nDoes he have any ideas why? You bet your life he knows exactly:\n\u201cI appeal to the kids and ordinary people who spend all their lives\nunder the thumbs of authority and dignity. And I appeal to children,\nwho know I get paid for doing what they get slapped for. I flout\ndignity and authority, and there\u2019s nobody alive who doesn\u2019t want to do\nthe same thing.\n\u201cNo matter how high you go, there\u2019s some schnook up over you. Any\nGeneral Motors vice president, for example, thinks he can do a better\njob than the guy above him, except he\u2019s down here and his boss is up\nthere. I\u2019m getting even for every little guy in the world. I\u2019m the kid\nwho throws snowballs at dignity in a top hat.\u201d\nJerry, who\u2019ll do anything for anybody he likes, once agreed to fill in\nfor Sammy Davis, Jr., in Las Vegas, because Sammy wanted a few days off\nover Christmas in Aurora, Illinois. When I got the tip, I realized the\nfat was in the fire. It happened that Kim Novak was also spending the\nholidays at her sister\u2019s house in Aurora.\nNow Harry Cohn of Columbia, who made Kim everything she is today, had\nbeen getting trouble from her. Her favorite weapon was to date men that\nCohn detested, either for personal reasons or because they clashed\nviolently with the carefully fostered image of her as a sweet, friendly\ngirl from Chicago. Sammy was a heavy date. I\u2019m sure he occupied quite\na few pages in the oversized diary which she keeps in code and carries\naround with her all the time.\nKim was a girl tied hand and foot by her Columbia contract: \u201cI haven\u2019t\ngot enough money to invest,\u201d she told me one day. \u201cI\u2019ve been under\ncontract on a straight salary for six years. When I\u2019m loaned out, I\ndon\u2019t get anything extra--the salary goes to the studio. On _Man with\na Golden Arm_, I was promised a percentage of the picture, but I guess\nthey forgot somehow.\u201d\n\u201cYou never got a bonus?\u201d I asked.\n\u201cOne time before _Vertigo_ my agents got me a sort of bonus. They got\nme a special loan at seven per cent interest for a year so I could buy\nmy house. But I was on my old salary schedule.\u201d\n\u201cDon\u2019t you collect for TV?\u201d\n\u201cI can\u2019t do TV.\u201d\nThe house she bought on Tortuosa Drive in Bel Air cost her $95,000. It\ncontains an all-blue bedroom, an all-purple study, an all-gray living\nroom, an all-gray sleeping porch, and a pool where she swims wearing\na straw hat. She gets along without a housekeeper, cooks a big pot\nof chile on Sundays, and dips into it for dinner three or four times\na week. \u201cI sometimes get stomach trouble,\u201d she admits, to nobody\u2019s\nsurprise.\nSammy had been a frequent visitor at her house, but not after he\nreturned to Las Vegas from Aurora. Harry Cohn, who collapsed with a\nfatal heart attack some months later, was not a man who enjoyed being\nthwarted. His passion for keeping his fingers on everybody\u2019s business\nled him once to install an intercom system at Columbia so that, by\nflicking a switch, he could eavesdrop on conversations all over the lot.\nThe rumor was that it cost him $200,000 to break things up between Kim\nand Sammy. Truth is that it cost him no more than a single telephone\ncall from his office to Las Vegas, where Harry knew one of the mob with\na certain reputation in the business. Cohn was a man you had to stand\nin line to dislike. A bitter, final jest about him alleged that two\nthousand people attended his funeral, wanting to make sure it was true.\nOver the telephone to Vegas, he said to the man on the other end: \u201cYou\ntake care of this for me, will you?\u201d\n\u201cSure,\u201d said the voice on the telephone. \u201cI\u2019ll just say: \u2018You\u2019ve only\ngot one eye; want to try for none?\u2019\u201d\nVery soon after that Sammy announced his marriage to Lorena White, a\nNegro show girl in Las Vegas. A few more weeks elapsed before Sammy and\nLorena started proceedings for divorce. On November 13, 1960, Sammy\nmarried May Britt, who gave him a daughter the following summer, and\nlet me tell you they\u2019re very happy, or were when I wrote this.\nTwo years after the Sammy incident, Kim told me: \u201cI guess I never\nreally adjusted to being in Hollywood.\u201d She found, she said, that\nher telephone hadn\u2019t been ringing for quite a while. \u201cI\u2019m not really\nanti-social. It\u2019s just that I prefer smaller parties to big ones,\u201d she\nsaid.\nWith the help of a house guest, a girl who went to high school with\nher, she was fixing up her patio, to make it all turquoise. She was\nalso building a fallout shelter in her back yard for herself, her\nfriend, and her dog.\n_Thirteen_\nThe magic word now is \u201ctelevision.\u201d It used to be \u201cHollywood,\u201d and\nthere was no end to the miracles it could work. It transformed plowboys\ninto princes, peasant girls into goddesses. The stars were American\nroyalty and revered as such by their subjects. The magic word would\nbring whole villages out on the street to watch a star go by. It opened\npalace doors, stopped trains, brought you the keys of a city or an\naudience with the Pope.\nHollywood set the social style for thirty years of our history, until\nTV came along. Clara Bow wore a cupid\u2019s-bow lipstick job; fifty million\nwomen copied her. Clark Gable shucked off his undershirt; so did fifty\nmillion men. The studios stuck to a simple rule and coined fortunes\nwith it: \u201cShow the stars like kings and queens in a glamorous setting,\nand the crowds will flock to see them.\u201d Today it\u2019s a calculated risk to\nput a man on the screen in evening dress in case the popcorn-munching\ncustomers decide that he\u2019s a square.\nThey follow television stars just as they used to emulate the\nmotion-picture variety. My reader mail proves that. \u201cIs Dorothy Provine\na natural blonde?\u201d \u201cWhatever happened to Edd Byrnes?\u201d \u201cWhen did Richard\nBoone get married?\u201d Ben Casey\u2019s surgical gown turns out to be a Seventh\nAvenue fashion hit. The children switch from coonskin hats to space\nhelmets to Soupy Sales. Some of the biggest names in our town--Sinatra,\nBurt Lancaster, Tony Curtis, and all--go on to let Soupy toss a custard\npie in their faces. The children love it and the networks want the\nchild audience.\nThe impact on the audience--and I don\u2019t mean from the custard pies--is\nastounding to anybody like me who\u2019s been making pictures since World\nWar I. One of the early ones was a thing called _Virtuous Wives_, in\nwhich I sank my entire salary of $5000 on my clothes and got $25,000\nworth of the loveliest outfits you ever saw from Lady Duff-Gordon,\nknown professionally as Lucile and one of the greatest dressmakers of\nthem all. The biggest impact I made was on a pudgy little fellow who\nused to lurk around the set.\nWhen the picture was finished, he sidled up to me. I mistook his\nintentions. \u201cI don\u2019t want to buy any fur coats,\u201d said I.\n\u201cYou don\u2019t understand,\u201d said he. \u201cMy name\u2019s Louis Mayer. I\u2019m the\nproducer and this is my first picture.\u201d\nMaking a reputation then was slow going. Producers used to say: \u201cGet\nwhat\u2019s-her-name who played the rich bitch in _Virtuous Wives_--she\nmight be good for this one.\u201d But when you go on television the impact\nis felt overnight. The following morning a cab driver won\u2019t let you pay\nyour fare, a workman on a construction job offers you his hard hat.\nOutside Saks Fifth Avenue, after an Easter Sunday appearance on \u201cWhat\u2019s\nMy Line?\u201d, I found myself surrounded by a crowd of autograph hunters\nso big that a disgruntled policeman threatened to turn me in unless we\nall went around the corner into a side street. \u201cYou\u2019ll have to call the\npaddy wagon,\u201d I warned him, \u201cand a picture of Hopper behind bars is all\nI need for my collection.\u201d\nFor another \u201cWhat\u2019s My Line?\u201d appearance I had some fun with Dorothy\nKilgallen, who likes to queen it on the panel. I knew I\u2019d have to do\nsomething exciting to knock her in the eye, so I asked Marion Davies to\nlend me a diamond necklace. \u201cWhich one?\u201d asked Marion. \u201cOr would you\nlike them all?\u201d\n\u201cJust one,\u201d I said. \u201cThe small one with the pear-shaped pearl. That\nwill be showy.\u201d\nI didn\u2019t allow Miss Kilgallen to see me until just before we were\nintroduced on camera. She gulped, turning slightly enviously green:\n\u201cIsn\u2019t it wonderful to see real jewels again? It\u2019s so _beautiful_!\u201d\nI didn\u2019t let on that I\u2019d borrowed it. \u201cIt _is_ rather nice,\u201d I purred.\nThe following week she had to top me. She arrived with her hair dyed\nbright red.... We females do that to each other.\nI\u2019ve made a lot of friends through television and a few enemies. On the\nwhole, I imagine that enemies are better for me. I love them, because\nthey keep me on my toes. That\u2019s one small debt I owe \u201cStoneface\u201d Ed\nSullivan, the Irish Sunday supplement to the American home.\nAfter \u201cToast of the Town\u201d was launched, Billy Wilkerson made Ed an\noffer to come out and work for him on the _Hollywood Reporter_. Ed gave\nin his resignation to Captain Joseph Patterson, who ran the New York\n_Daily News_ until he died. \u201cI wonder if you know what you\u2019re doing,\u201d\nsaid Joe. \u201cYou\u2019ll be in a trade paper with maybe 7500 readers instead\nof a two-million-plus circulation.\u201d\n\u201cI think I\u2019ll make a lot of money,\u201d answered Ed. \u201cI\u2019ll know everybody\nout there and be able to get them for my TV show.\u201d\n\u201cIf that\u2019s what you want, go ahead; but don\u2019t ask to come back.\u201d\nBilly Wilkerson, who could run a dollar to ground as fast as any man,\ncanvassed Hollywood, collecting advertisements for a special issue of\nthe _Reporter_ welcoming Ed Sullivan to his new roost. When that issue\nappeared, it was thick with page after page of greetings, all proceeds\ngoing to Billy as publisher. Somewhere along the line, Ed must have\nrealized who was going to find himself on the better end of his new\ndeal. He went back to Joe and announced that he\u2019d changed his mind.\n\u201cDon\u2019t do that again,\u201d Joe chided him. \u201cAnother time, if you make up\nyour mind to go, you go.\u201d\nWhen his \u201cToast\u201d was in its salad days, Ed pursued the practice of\ninviting Hollywood stars to appear for free. Jack Benny was nudged into\nappearing for him, Bob Hope went on for the same nonexistent fee five\ntimes, until he got his own show, which was programmed opposite Ed\u2019s on\na different network. Ed repaid Bob\u2019s earlier courtesies by opening fire\non him in his \u201cBroadway\u201d column.\nHe invited Frank Sinatra to appear for nothing except the sheer joy of\nit to plug _Guys and Dolls_. When Frank refused, Ed roasted him in a\npress statement. Sinatra promptly took a full-page in the _Reporter_ to\nholler:\n    Dear Ed: You\u2019re sick. Sincerely, Frank. P.S. Sick, sick, sick!\nAs a newsprint neighbor, his \u201cBroadway\u201d often runs cheek by jowl with\nmy \u201cHollywood\u201d in the _News_, though the Chicago _Tribune_ won\u2019t print\nhim. I\u2019d been asked several times to go on his show and be introduced\nfrom the audience. He received the standard reply: \u201cMr. Sullivan,\nwhen I appear on TV, I go as a guest and get paid for it.\u201d The Screen\nActors\u2019 Guild ruled long ago that an interview doesn\u2019t constitute\na performance, since it tends to promote the career of the player\ninvolved. The union set a minimum pay scale of $210 for interviews.\nThat was what I paid each of a long list of stars who agreed to appear\nin interview format on \u201cHedda Hopper\u2019s Hollywood,\u201d a Sunday television\nhour that Talent Associates arranged for me to do for NBC, 8 to 9 P.M.,\nwhile Ed was on CBS at the same time. I took on the show to see how TV\nand I got along together, on the understanding that there\u2019d be five\nmore similar shows if I liked it. But Ed was told that I was going to\ndo the half dozen for certain. That\u2019s what got his bowels in an uproar.\nThe rumble gave us a singularly un-merry Christmas. The only time we\ncould hire the big MCA studio we needed for one hour was on Friday,\nDecember 25. Use of the sound stage there for sixty minutes cost $1000,\nplus double pay for the crew. I had another taping session set up for\nthree days later, with _Ben-Hur\u2019s_ Charlton Heston, who had given his\npromise five weeks earlier and cabled from London that he would land in\nHollywood on Sunday, December 27, ready to work with me the following\nday.\nI didn\u2019t know a blessed thing about it until I read it in the _News_,\nbut Ed was scared I was going to steal his TV audience. He\u2019d been busy\ntrying to engage extra stars for his show, including Heston, who turned\nup that Sunday evening, the twenty-seventh, on Sullivan\u2019s soiree,\nreading from the Bible for a $10,000 fee.\nOn the Monday, three other actors from _Ben-Hur_--Stephen Boyd, Francis\nX. Bushman, and Ramon Novarro--sat waiting with me for Heston, all\nof us made up and rarin\u2019 to go. At the appointed hour of 2 P.M. a\ntelephone call reached the studio from his agent, Johnny Dugan of MCA.\n\u201cI have advised Mr. Heston,\u201d he told me, \u201cnot to come on your show.\u201d\n\u201cThat is very kind of you. Might I ask why?\u201d\nHe had assumed the program would be local, not network, said Johnny.\n\u201cHe\u2019s negotiating for two more shows with Ed Sullivan, and he\u2019s afraid\nthis might jeopardize those two engagements.\u201d\n\u201cWhat about his promise, as a man, that he would appear with me? When\ndid he arrange with Mr. Ed Sullivan to go on last Sunday?\u201d\n\u201cI don\u2019t rightly remember,\u201d said Johnny Dugan.\n\u201cIs Mr. Heston there?\u201d\nA moment\u2019s hush fell between us. \u201cYes.\u201d\n\u201cPut him on,\u201d I said. There was some murmured conversation in the\nbackground, then the agent came back: \u201cHe\u2019s busy.\u201d\n\u201cThen please tell Mr. Heston to go to hell. I never would have asked if\nI\u2019d known he had a conflicting job at $10,000. I\u2019d have said \u2018God bless\nyou\u2019 and certainly not have asked him to give it up.\u201d\nThe Hearst papers went to town with front-page headlines as Ed\ncontinued shooting. TV columnists all over the country started playing\nup the feud between Sullivan and Hopper. He needed a gimmick to help\nhim. \u201cHeston played Moses in _The Ten Commandments_,\u201d he said. \u201cThis\nweek he was the Moses who led all these people out of the wilderness.\u201d\n\u201cAll these people\u201d were the alleged walkouts from my program. The\ncomplete list over which he raised hosannas consisted of:\nBette Davis, who was ill;\nSteve McQueen, who was in Alaska;\nRobert Horton, who left for an engagement at the London Palladium\nbefore we ever got started;\nJoan Crawford, who was not notified in time by Talent Associates that\nthey could not tape her segment in New York;\nTuesday Weld, with whom negotiations had not reached any conclusion;\nMickey Rooney, who could not match his schedule to ours for taping.\nAfter the show Jack Benny asked me why I hadn\u2019t invited him on. \u201cI\ndon\u2019t know you as well as I do the others,\u201d I replied. \u201cI wasn\u2019t sure\nyou\u2019d respond.\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019d have loved to,\u201d said Jack. \u201cYou\u2019ve no idea the pressure Ed put on\nme to appear with him when he started his shows.\u201d\nJust for the record, these are the people, in alphabetical order, who\ndid make their appearances on \u201cHedda Hopper\u2019s Hollywood\u201d: Lucille Ball,\nAnne Bauchens, Stephen Boyd, Francis X. Bushman, John Cassavetes,\nGary Cooper, Ricardo Cortez, Robert Cummings, William Daniels, Marion\nDavies, Walt Disney, Janet Gaynor, Bob Hope, Hope Lange, Harold Lloyd,\nJody McCrea, Liza Minnelli, Don Murray, Ramon Novarro, Anthony Perkins,\nDebbie Reynolds, Teddy Rooney, Venetia Stevenson, James Stewart, Gloria\nSwanson, King Vidor, and the four Westmore brothers.\nEd blasted me twice before I tried to fire back. He was still banging\naway like thirty-nine weeks of \u201cWagon Train.\u201d He tried another tactic.\nHe complained to two show-business unions, the Screen Actors\u2019 Guild and\nthe American Federation of Television and Radio Artists, that he found\nme guilty of \u201cthe most grievous form of payola.\u201d \u201cHere,\u201d he said, \u201cis a\ncolumnist using plugs in a column to get performers free.\u201d\nFor this, I called him a liar. I have never pressured anybody to do\nanything for me in my life. On the air on January 10, the Hopper show\ndid fine. Our rating matched Ed\u2019s exactly--and we were brand-new. He\ndidn\u2019t appear that evening on his own show. His ulcer wouldn\u2019t let him.\nThere was an epilogue. The United Services Organization gave a benefit\nluncheon at $25 a plate for Mary Martin at the Hotel Pierre in New\nYork. I sat on the dais, due to make a speech, near Ed Sullivan, who\nwas billed to introduce me. At least two hundred people at the other\ntables knew what had gone on between us, including Mary Patterson of\nthe _News_, Joe\u2019s widow.\nEd mumbled his few opening words without looking at me. I know the\nwhole room was hoping I\u2019d let fly. I said: \u201cThank you very much, Mr.\nSullivan. That is the most beautiful introduction you have ever given\nme.\u201d Then I went on with my speech.\n\u201cI expected fireworks,\u201d Mary Patterson told me afterward.\n\u201cI wouldn\u2019t do that to Mary Martin,\u201d said I.\nIf this was television, they could keep it. Never in my life had\nanything like the brawl with \u201cStoneface\u201d happened to me. Maybe a TV\ncamera brings out the worst in people, though some of them do all right\nwithout much prompting.\nI\u2019ve known Elsa Maxwell for years. I met her long before she came out\nto Hollywood under contract to Darryl Zanuck to stage a party for him\nin a picture he was producing with Linda Darnell as its star. Elsa\u2019s\ninspiration was to dress every male as Abraham Lincoln and have two\npoodles dancing on a piano. Then she booked herself a lecture at the\nLos Angeles Philharmonic Auditorium on her perennial theme: \u201cHow to\nGive a Party.\u201d For a solid hour, while the audience fidgeted, she\neulogized Zanuck. After the performance she found she\u2019d run into a\nroadblock. The backers of her lecture refused to pay her fee. \u201cGo ahead\nand sue,\u201d they said cheerfully. \u201cYou never got around to your subject.\nLet Zanuck pay you.\u201d\nI dutifully reported this in the column and added: \u201cIf she thinks she\u2019s\ngoing to collect any money from Zanuck, she\u2019s out of her ever-loving\nmind.\u201d By way of reply, she sent me a large, fragrant bunch of catnip.\nAnother feud was on.\nWhile she was visiting Hollywood as Evelyn Walsh McLean\u2019s guest, Elsa\norganized a victory party to celebrate the liberation of Paris toward\nthe end of World War II. It was set up in the garden of the Countess\ndi Frasso, complete with special outdoor stage, footlights, spotlights,\nand special effects all supplied by Mr. F. B. Nightingale, a minor\ncelebrity of Beverly Hills, sometimes known as \u201cthe wizard of light,\u201d\nwho was recommended to Elsa by Lady Mendl.\n\u201cWhy not make it complete by inviting some GI\u2019s? You\u2019ll have a lot of\nvacant seats at the back,\u201d I suggested to Elsa.\n\u201cI wouldn\u2019t think of it,\u201d she said. \u201cIt isn\u2019t a party for them, it\u2019s\nfor my friends.\u201d\nNevertheless, it was a beauty, with top stars singing and dancing in\nMr. Nightingale\u2019s extravaganza. He was so proud of his job that he\ndonated his and his assistants\u2019 labor to the cause, and charged only\n$200 for materials. He sent a succession of bills to Elsa. They went\nunanswered.\nFinally, Lady Mendl called me. \u201cThis is dreadful. Mr. Nightingale needs\nthat money.\u201d\n\u201cOh, come on, Elsie,\u201d said I. \u201cLet\u2019s each send him a check for $100 and\nforget it.\u201d She was willing, but not Mr. Nightingale. He sent Elsa a\nreceipted bill to which he added a postscript: \u201cYour friends Lady Mendl\nand Hedda Hopper took care of it.\u201d\nWithin forty-eight hours I had a telephone call from Elsa, and I got\na $100 check from her one day after that. Elsie Mendl had to wait two\nweeks. But she didn\u2019t have a daily column.\nElsa has boasted: \u201cI\u2019m full of beans. You can\u2019t embarrass an old woman\nlike me.\u201d Four of her friends once sat together at luncheon in the\nBeverly Hills Hotel. Each came from a different city, and each was\nwell up in society. One woman steered the conversation to the subject\nof their common friend: \u201cI felt desperately sorry for her when Elsa\u2019s\nmother died in Los Angeles. She sent me a cable from Paris, saying she\nhadn\u2019t a bean and would I cable $3000 so she could bury her mother. Of\ncourse, I was happy to.\u201d\nThe woman across the table broke in. \u201cBut I had the same kind of cable,\nand I sent the money. It was I who buried Elsa\u2019s mother.\u201d\nThe third woman could scarcely believe her ears. \u201cBut I mailed Elsa a\ncheck for the same purpose.\u201d\nThe fourth of them, who lived in San Francisco, said quietly: \u201cYou are\nall mistaken. My husband knew Elsa and her mother well. He had several\ncables from Elsa like that over the years. Finally, she convinced him\nshe was telling the truth one day, but he went down to Los Angeles to\nmake certain. Sure enough, her mother had died. My husband took care of\nher funeral.\u201d\nElsa and I met again in San Francisco, during the birth there of the\nUnited Nations in 1945. Ina Claire was giving a party for Averell\nHarriman, who was then our ambassador to Moscow. As a joke, she\nconfided to six other guests, including Elsa and myself, that each of\nus was the guest of honor. Harriman told us off-the-record tales of the\nhorrors committed by Stalin and his gang. \u201cHow can you talk like that\nto us,\u201d I demanded, \u201cwhen you say just the opposite to the newspapers?\u201d\n\u201cIt couldn\u2019t be printed,\u201d was his only reply.\nElsa sailed away with that party, if you could believe what she wrote\nabout it. She was Ina Claire\u2019s real guest of honor--so Elsa said. Her\nspecial brand of self-promotion demands that she has a celebrated name\nto play on. She built her own reputation by using other people\u2019s names,\nsuch as the Duke and Duchess of Windsor, as the drawing card. She took\nup Maria Callas, and with the burning-eyed prima donna beside her, Elsa\ncould attract virtually anybody into the Maxwell circle.\nI was introduced to Callas and her then husband, Giovanni Battista\nMeneghini, by Henry Sell, who runs _Town and Country_ magazine. He gave\na luncheon for the three of us at Pavillon. I did my bit, in turn, by\nintroducing Maria to some people sitting directly across from us who\nwere members of the board of the San Francisco Opera. \u201cWhy don\u2019t you\nget her to open your season?\u201d I prompted. Later, it was arranged that\nshe would do just that, in _Lucia di Lammermoor_, the coming September\nand, in October, also launch the Los Angeles season.\nBut before either event could take place, Callas went to Europe and\nmet Elsa, who fell hook, line, and sinker for her. The verbal bouquets\nblossomed in every Maxwell column. Overnight, Maria became \u201cmy favorite\nfriend ... La Prima Donna del Mondo ... a goddess ... a joy forever.\u201d\nShe was out until all hours, caught up in a hectic round of parties.\nPreparations for _Lucia_ got lost by the wayside. Only a matter of days\nbefore she was due to arrive in San Francisco, she canceled out.\nElsa couldn\u2019t forgive what I promptly wrote about her loved one,\nMaria: \u201cThe day of the temperamental opera star is over; has been for\nsome time. Her rich husband, a businessman, should know you can\u2019t do\nbusiness that way.\u201d San Francisco opera lovers couldn\u2019t forgive Maria.\nShe wrote me from Milan: \u201cIf I wouldn\u2019t always be in this nervous\ntension caused by these constant attacks by the papers and dishonest\npeople and dishonest, jealous colleagues and so many other stupid\nthings of artistic life, I would have nothing wrong with me. My nerves\ncan stand just so much and not more. I\u2019m sorry that I\u2019m troubling you\nwith these ridiculous things, but I feel you must know exactly how\nthings are.... If you drop me a line, I\u2019d be grateful, and please\nconsider me your sincere friend.\u201d She proved that in 1961 in Mallorca,\nwhen we had a jolly old time together.\nElsa couldn\u2019t let it go at that. Thanks to Jack Paar, she landed\nherself a new job on his \u201cTonight\u201d show on NBC and announced: \u201cI have\ninvaded TV. The great American public loves me.\u201d Not every member of\nit, let it be said. Walter Winchell threatened to sue all twelve of\nPaar\u2019s sponsors for $2,000,000 apiece after Jack and his companion had\nraised questions about Walter\u2019s role as a good citizen.\nMiss Maxwell decided to take it out on me, though I didn\u2019t see her\ncrowning performance. John Royal, NBC vice president, telephoned me the\nfollowing morning about it. \u201cShe went on and tried to distort you,\u201d he\nsaid. \u201cI suggest you call your lawyer and get a transcript of what she\nsaid. More than that, make them show you a tape of the show. We tried\nto get her off the air once before when she talked about somebody on\nBroadway and made a gesture indicating the woman was crazy.\u201d\n\u201cWhy don\u2019t you get her off now?\u201d\n\u201cWe can\u2019t. Paar loves her. But if she slanders you, you can get her\noff. Put your lawyer on to it.\u201d My New York lawyers are also the\n_News\u2019_ lawyers. They insisted on a transcription from NBC. Their\nconsidered opinion was that Elsa stopped just short of libel. \u201cWhat she\nwants,\u201d they said, \u201cis the publicity you and your circulation could\ngive her. Our advice is \u2018Don\u2019t let her have it.\u2019\u201d\nNot long ago Dave Chasen came across to the table at which I was\nsitting in his restaurant. In tow he had a dapper young man in a blue\nblazer with brass buttons. \u201cHedda,\u201d he said, \u201cI\u2019d like you to meet Jack\nPaar.\u201d\nAfter we\u2019d exchanged our how-do-you-do\u2019s, I asked: \u201cMr. Paar, why do\nyou hate newspaper people? They\u2019ve been very good to you. You wouldn\u2019t\nbe where you are today but for them.\u201d I thought he was going into his\ntears-in-the-eye routine, but I pressed on. \u201cI certainly should hate\nyou for what Elsa Maxwell did to me.\u201d\n\u201cWhat did she say?\u201d he asked, all innocence.\n\u201cI have a transcription in my office, though I don\u2019t carry it around in\nmy purse. But tell me, why do you hate newspaper people?\u201d He excused\nhimself and went off. I thought he was going to burst out crying.\nBy this time Jack Paar and Elsa Maxwell, who belong to the same cradle\nbut a generation apart, had gone their separate ways. The Paar staff\ntold me several times: \u201cHe\u2019s very anxious to have you on his show.\u201d But\nI refused. The inscrutable workings of television may have made Jack a\nbigger name than Bob Hope or Jack Benny, but insults leave a bad taste\nin the mouth.\nMy fellow target on the Paar show, Walter Winchell, did not always see\neye to eye with me. We used to suffer from a chronic case of mutual\nastigmatism as far as the other was concerned. The symptoms developed\nrapidly during the war, when he was shunted off by the United States\nNavy on a mission to South America. Walter raised no objections except:\nwho was going to look after his Sunday night radio show for the Andrew\nJergens Company?\nThe chosen candidate to replace him was Hopper. But W.W. screamed in\npain at the thought. What happened next is best told in its distinctive\npress style by _Daily Variety_ dated December 7, 1942, one year\nprecisely after Pearl Harbor:\n    Hedda Hopper got caught among numerous complications last week\n    that ended up in John Gunther, Robert St. John and Baukage\n    taking over the Walter Winchell Jergens spot on the NBC chain\n    last night instead of she.\n    Last Monday morning, Lennen-Mitchell agency handling the\n    account made a deal with Dema Harshbarger, manager for\n    Miss Hopper, to have the latter replace Winchell on the\n    fifteen-minute period during his absence abroad. On Tuesday,\n    confirmation came through from New York on the Hopper deal, and\n    Jack Andrews, of the agency, was en route to Hollywood to start\n    the ball rolling.\n    Miss Hopper in the meantime was preparing to take over the task\n    when Thursday night she received a wire from New York informing\n    her that due to complications the deal for her to fill the spot\n    was off....\n    In radio circles it is understood that the Jergens outfit had\n    changed its mind about having Miss Hopper replace Winchell\n    after Andrews had been authorized to engage her for the\n    December 6 broadcast. Also that the client had reversed its\n    plan to engage her for the spot following Winchell, now\n    occupied by the Parker family, starting January 3.\nAnd that\u2019s how Louella Parsons got the job following Winchell and\nstayed on the air four years.\nIt was clearly the moment for me to do a little yelling of my own,\nwith some assistance from my attorneys, Gang, Kopp and Tyre. Our\ndisagreement with Jergens and that company\u2019s advertising agency was\nsettled out of court. I received a check for $16,670. Walter took sly\ndigs at me in his column as part of his own personal war effort clear\nthrough V-J day.\nThen when the United Nations Charter was being framed in San\nFrancisco, Hubbell Robinson of CBS asked me to fly up there to do two\nfifteen-minute broadcasts a week. I was to give the woman\u2019s angle on\nthe birth pangs of the world\u2019s new peace baby. \u201cI\u2019d like to try,\u201d I\nsaid, \u201ceven if it\u2019s a long way from doing a Hollywood column. If I fall\non my face, at least I shall have learned something.\u201d I already had a\nonce-a-week show for Armour and Company.\nI flew my crew and myself up, expecting that a big network like CBS\nwould have laid on all the necessary arrangements for us, since I was\nworking for nothing and paying all my own expenses there. Not a bit of\nit. For my first show, interviewing some women delegates and wives of\ndelegates from the founding nations, I learned two minutes before we\nwent on the air that no announcer had been provided.\nI scurried into the corridor outside the studio and grabbed the first\nman in sight. \u201cCan you read?\u201d He nodded, startled. \u201cThen come on in.\nHere\u2019s the script. I\u2019ll give you a nod when it\u2019s time, and you start\nreading where it says \u2018Announcer.\u2019\u201d\nWe got on and we got off without casualties. Years later, when I was\ninterviewing that calm, cool, and collected young man, Jack Webb, he\nsaid to me: \u201cYou know, you put me on radio, where I got started in show\nbusiness. I was the guy you kidnaped one day in a CBS corridor in San\nFrancisco. I was just out of uniform and needed a job.\u201d\nThe first hesitant and somehow inspired sessions of the General\nAssembly were held in the San Francisco Opera House. Only the year\nbefore, I\u2019d sat in a box there admiring the ladies and the glitter of\na fashionable crowd listening to Puccini. Strictly as an observer of\nhow the world was waging the peace, so I thought, I sat squeezed into\none of the boxes of the Diamond Horseshoe with H. V. Kaltenborn on one\nside, Bill Henry on the other, and Walter Winchell to the rear with his\nknees digging into my back.\nWalter was delivering some staccato comments into a microphone when a\nsound engineer tapped me on the shoulder: \u201cYou\u2019re on next,\u201d said he,\n\u201cand you\u2019ll have five minutes.\u201d This was Friday.\n\u201cBut I don\u2019t start until Monday,\u201d I whispered. Too late. I was on. I\nclosed my eyes and prayed. I had no more idea than the man in the moon\nwhat I was going to say.\nWith my eyes closed, I thought how different it was now from the last\ntime I\u2019d been there. I said into the microphone: \u201cThe entire Diamond\nHorseshoe is now taken over by the press, cameras, radio equipment. Not\none of the people who sat here a year ago is with us. They\u2019re up in the\ngallery, and happy to be there because we\u2019re all here for one reason,\nto help bring peace to a troubled world.\u201d\nI went on like that for five minutes. When I\u2019d finished, Winchell\nthrust out his hand and said: \u201cI\u2019d like to congratulate you. I couldn\u2019t\nhave done that for the life of me.\u201d And so we made up, and we\u2019ve been\ngood friends ever since.\n_Fourteen_\nEvery time I go out on the town twisting, I murmur a silent apology to\nElvis Presley. I realize that I\u2019m indulging in the same gyrations that\npushed Sir Swivel Hips along the road to fame. I told him in a note not\nlong ago: \u201cYou\u2019ll be surprised to know that I\u2019m now doing the twist.\nNot as well as you, but I\u2019m doing it. I have taken one inch off my\nwaist and two off my _derri\u00e8re_. Now I know how you keep so thin.\u201d\nWhen I originally saw the act, I was horrified. I said so, loud and\nclear. He was rolling around on the stage floor of the Pan Pacific\nAuditorium in Hollywood with his arms and legs wrapped around the\nmicrophone as though they were bride and groom. Nine thousand teens\nshrieked with excitement as he wiggled, jiggled, and bumped, and six\nhusky policemen looked the other way. At the crucial point, from my\nfront-row seat for opening night, I saw him give his bandsmen a broad\nwink that spoke volumes.\nThe policemen\u2019s job was to keep the hands of the audience off the\nboy. He\u2019s been manhandled so often by his frantic fans that he\u2019s\nscared he\u2019ll be torn to shreds someday, suffering the same fate as his\nshirts and suits. \u201cIf anyone comes down the aisle,\u201d the loud-speakers\nannounced, \u201cElvis will go off stage and not come back.\u201d In his gold\njacket with white lapels, he twisted and writhed for an hour, belting\nout the whole skull-cracking repertoire, from \u201cHeartbreak Hotel\u201d to\n\u201cJailhouse Rock.\u201d\nIt was like a neighbor of ours in Altoona, who had fits, fell down, and\nsquirmed on the sidewalk. Mother told me it was an illness and not to\nbe upset. I hadn\u2019t heard then about epilepsy.\nThe next day the Los Angeles police told Elvis to clean it up and\ntone it down. That night the six cops had their backs to the audience\nto make sure he did. I\u2019d said my piece in the column: \u201cEvery muscle\njerks as though he were a marionette. I\u2019ve seen performers dragged off\nto jail for less. But Elvis\u2019 audience got the emotional impact of the\nlines and screamed their undying love for the greatest phenomenon I\u2019ve\nseen in this century.\u201d\nTime passed, but it doesn\u2019t necessarily heal all wounds. When Norman\nTaurog, who directed Elvis in _G.I. Blues_, came up with the idea that\nhis star and I should get together for luncheon, I fancied Presley\nmight be tempted to swat me. \u201cHe isn\u2019t what you expect,\u201d Norman\npromised, so I went along, ready to keep my guard up.\nI\u2019ve seldom been more mistaken about anybody. I hadn\u2019t been with Elvis\nfive minutes when we were cozy as old pals who\u2019ve been dragged apart\nand have a lot of talking to make up. His manners would have put\nLord Chesterfield to shame. His face was firm, lean and unlined as a\nfour-year-old\u2019s. \u201cWhat did you do with sideburns and the pompadour?\u201d I\nasked.\n\u201cThe army barber got the sideburns, and I gave the pompadour to the\nSealy company to stuff mattresses with.\u201d\n\u201cI\u2019m one of those who felt you were a menace to young people who\nimitate you without realizing what they--or you--are doing.\u201d\nI must have sounded defensive. He smiled. \u201cI gathered that. You can\u2019t\nmake everyone like you, but I try.\u201d He toyed with a container of\nyoghurt, a bottle of Pepsi, and a cup of black coffee--nothing more. I\nremember how he used to lunch on a huge mound of mashed potatoes and\na bowl of gravy, meat, tomatoes, a quart of milk, with half a dozen\nslices of thickly buttered bread to top it off.\nTwo years in the Army had brought many changes. I found that out\nwhen I talked with his commanding officer in Berlin. \u201cI\u2019d be happy\nif I had ten thousand more like him,\u201d said the C.O. Sergeant Elvis,\nthe highest-paid entertainer that ever lived, realized only $12 a\nmonth of his $145 pay because it was subject to ninety-one per cent\nsurtax. But the trade in Presley souvenirs--a fantastic assortment\nof shirts, slacks, ties, statues, masks, dog tags, records, and sheet\nmusic--brought in $3,000,000 while he was out of civilian circulation.\nHe\u2019s one of the few new faces in our industry who has been promoted\ninto a living legend, and we need dream stuff like Elvis to survive. He\nowes his reputation to the labors of \u201cColonel\u201d Tom Parker, the old-time\ncarny and circus hand who isn\u2019t above peddling photographs and programs\nat his prot\u00e9g\u00e9\u2019s personal appearances to boost the take. He and his\nwife are childless; he\u2019s quick to say he loves Elvis like a son. The\n\u201ccolonel,\u201d with eyes like ball bearings and a mind like a bear trap,\nacts the part of the hick from the sticks in business dealings. \u201cI only\nwent to fifth grade\u201d is his line, \u201cso I have to go slow.\u201d Elvis\u2019 role\nis to create the impression of the country boy whose head is still\nawhirling from the bedazzling luck that\u2019s befallen him.\n\u201cSometimes a silly tale starts a lot of repercussions,\u201d he told me.\n\u201cOne time I was out at the beach with some fellows throwing baseballs\nat milk bottles lined up in a booth. I kept on winning Teddy bears, and\nI gave them to the kids that gathered round. Then somebody printed a\nstory that I owned a collection of Teddy bears. Ever since then they\u2019ve\nbeen coming in from all over the world. I\u2019ve got an attic full of them\nat my home in Graceland, Memphis. All kinds of bears, some in tuxedos,\nsome dressed like me with guitars strapped to them. It\u2019s fantastic.\u201d\nElvis is an identical twin whose brother died at birth. His mother, who\ncould bear no more children after that, is dead, too. That combination\nof circumstances may go toward explaining his built-in fear of being\nleft alone, which keeps a hand-picked group of wiry young men, roughly\nhis own age, constantly with him as companions, bodyguards, chauffeurs,\nand partners in judo and karate, two pastimes he picked up in the Army.\nThe group includes his cousin, Gene Smith, an army buddy from Chicago,\nand boyhood pals from Memphis. If they\u2019re temporarily unwanted in his\ncompany, they melt away in the flick of an eye.\nThe \u201ccolonel,\u201d drawing on his circus experience, has seen to it that\nnobody has ever been hurt in any of the public melees that have a habit\nof building up around Elvis. But it makes for a secluded private life.\nWhen he\u2019s in the mood to roller-skate, another hobby, he escapes the\ncrowds by hiring an entire rink for the evening. He drops in at night\nclubs with his little gang and their dates only after the lights have\ndimmed for the floor show, and he leaves in a hurry if he\u2019s recognized.\nThe same routine applies to his movie going--he sits in the last row\nand high-tails out if anybody stops by to stare. Every time he leaves\nhis rented Bel Air home for the studio, he and his companions travel\nin two Cadillacs, one driven hard on the tail of the other. The same\ncompulsion for protection from who knows what sometimes results in\nhis being delivered to an auditorium or arena where he\u2019s singing in a\nmoving van, lying on a couch.\nHe works conscientiously at a long list of charities in semi-secrecy.\nIn twelve months he will raise as much as $118,000 for benefits; prides\nhimself that every cent of it goes to the chosen cause with nothing\nsubtracted off the top for expenses. \u201cWe buy our own tickets, and no\nfree tickets are handed out to anybody. We pay every entertainer on the\nprogram. When the benefit\u2019s over, we give local newspapers a story in\nwhich every item of money is accounted for.\u201d\nSooner or later, he says, he aims at becoming a good actor. It looks as\nthough he\u2019ll have to pick up his training in front of the cameras as\nGary Cooper and many others did. He isn\u2019t depending on the gyrations\nany longer. \u201cThey call it the twist, but it\u2019s the same thing I\u2019ve done\nfor six years. The old wiggle is on the way out now.\u201d\nApart from sensations like Elvis, the only place a young entertainer\ncan get training is in television. The studio schools, where promising\nbeginners were compelled to go to classes in speech, drama, dancing,\nor what have you, were disbanded years ago. The studios claimed they\ncouldn\u2019t afford them any longer. There\u2019s very little point in a raw\nrecruit trying to crash Hollywood today. My advice, if anybody asks\nfor it, is: \u201cStart in New York; get on TV; do bits on Broadway; then\ntake a stab at movies. Otherwise, you\u2019re going to find California can\nbe a great spot to starve in.\u201d\nElvis is lucky, too, in having an agent like the \u201ccolonel,\u201d whose itch\nfor money hasn\u2019t outpaced his prot\u00e9g\u00e9\u2019s talents. A good agent doesn\u2019t\nallow his client to take on more than he can handle. Too many ten\nper centers slaver for the quick buck. They\u2019re not content to wait a\nweek longer than necessary. So the youngsters are booked into night\nclubs, TV, personal appearances, fairgrounds, and every imaginable\nkind of fee-paying frolic. In that rat race, a greedy agent can kill\na promising newcomer\u2019s career in two years flat. I\u2019ve seen it happen\ntoo often. The agents don\u2019t care. Ten per cent of a boy\u2019s murdered\nfuture is zero, but there are always plenty more lambs to lead to the\nslaughter.\nBefore I met him, I had an earful of Elvis one day from Natalie Wood.\nShe was tough, very young, starry-eyed and burningly ambitious. All the\nbeaux were after her like a pack of hound dogs--Nicky Hilton, Lance\nReventlow, Jimmy Dean, Nicky Adams, Johnny Grant, Dennis Hopper, Bob\nNeal, and as many more. But she was crazy for Elvis. She has every\nrecord he ever made.\nShe wasn\u2019t only crazy for him. She was mad for stuffed toy tigers,\nincluding one that played \u201c_Ach du Lieber Augustine_.\u201d She wouldn\u2019t\nride on a plane without taking aboard, to read during the flight, a wad\nof unopened \u201cgood luck\u201d notes written by her friends saying how glad\nthey were that she\u2019d arrived safely. She also took some tigers along as\ntalismans. She went through a phase of wearing nothing but black, clear\ndown to all her underwear. She drove a decorator way out of his mind by\nordering black drapes and black furniture for her bedroom, where rugs\nand walls were chalk white. At that time, she was going on eighteen\nyears old, all but four of them spent making movies.\n\u201cMy father said he didn\u2019t want his child to be an actress,\u201d she once\ntold me, \u201cbut my mother took me on a train to Hollywood to see Irving\nPichel, who gave me a bit in _Happy Land_, on location in Santa Rosa.\nIn my scene I had to drop an ice-cream cone and cry.\u201d\nThere was no turning back after that. She used to pose in the darkness\nof movie theaters because her mother, youthful-looking Mrs. Maria\nGurdin, an ex-ballet dancer, used to pretend the cameras that ground\naway in the last fade-out of the newsreel were focused on Natalie. By\nthe time she was eight she had appeared in court, calm and collected,\nto squeeze a pay increase, up to $1000 a week, from her studio.\nThe build-up toward an earful of Elvis began at breakfast in the new\nHilton hotel in Mexico City. A crowd of us had gone down for its\nopening, including Nicky Hilton and Bob Neal, who qualified in trumps\nfor the phrase beloved of society gossip columnists, \u201ca millionaire\nplayboy.\u201d Over coffee, he came in and whispered that he\u2019d just slashed\nevery tire on young Hilton\u2019s automobile, \u201cso Natalie will have to ride\nwith me.\u201d\nLimousines were to take us to catch a plane home to Los Angeles. But\nNicky foxed Bob. He took another car, and Natalie, to the airport. If\neither of the two swains thought he\u2019d furthered his cause, he was dead\nwrong. En route, we landed for twenty-five minutes to refuel, and I\nwent with Natalie to the waiting room, where a mammoth jukebox stood\nwaiting to be fed. Like a thirsty traveler who\u2019s reached the oasis,\nshe pumped nickels and dimes into the maw of the thing to make it play\nPresley nonstop from the moment we arrived until we left.\nShe got as far as riding on the back of Elvis\u2019 motorcycle and staying\nwith Elvis at his home \u201cbecause I wanted a vacation and a rest--his\nparents were there all the time.\u201d But the passion soon faded. \u201cSince\nhe\u2019s in town, why don\u2019t you see him?\u201d I asked her soon after her return.\nShe shrugged. \u201cHe\u2019s busy and I\u2019m working.\u201d Did she think the vogue\nfor him would last? She shrugged again. \u201cThat depends on how he does\nin his next picture.\u201d Within a matter of weeks she had married Robert\nWagner.\nThis pair of newlyweds made lovebirds look like scorpions. This was\nthe couple that invented \u201ctogetherness.\u201d In private or in public made\nno difference; they held hands, kissed, clutched each other in an\naltogether nauseating display of coltish affection. The fan magazines\ndrooled over Bob and Natalie as the symbol of all young lovers. They\nbought a boat and painted it together. They bought a $175,000 house\nwith marble floors and went into debt together.\nWhen Warners suspended her for eighteen months, she sat out her time on\nthe sets of Bob\u2019s pictures, nuzzling him between takes. The marriage\nlasted three years. In that time, the career of Bob Wagner, who started\nout as a caddie carrying clubs for Bing Crosby and Spencer Tracy at\na Beverly Hills country club, slowed down considerably, while his\nwife\u2019s took wings. Togetherness turned into that delight of the divorce\nattorneys, \u201cmutual incompatibility,\u201d and Natalie cut fan-magazine\ninterviews out of her life completely.\nAs an actress, she\u2019s always been a child wonder. Orson Welles remembers\nher vividly in her first major part, with him in _Tomorrow Is\nForever_: \u201cShe was so good she was terrifying. I guess she was born a\nprofessional.\u201d In her teens, when there was nothing better to do, she\u2019d\ncollect a bunch of young actors together to improvise scenes with her,\nwhich she immortalized on her tape recorder. On top of the world at\ntwenty-three, she drew $250,000 for _West Side Story_, with more money\npromised from Warners.\nShe yearns to do more live TV, which her contract allows, as a\nprelude to Broadway. \u201cThe last five minutes before you start, while\nyou\u2019re waiting for the first cue, is like being poised on a roller\ncoaster, before it swoops down. When it\u2019s over, you feel you\u2019ve really\naccomplished something.\u201d\nOff camera, she is a ninety-eight-pound kitten who gazes adoringly\nupward from her 5 feet 2 inches at the current man who takes her fancy.\nWarren Beatty jumped into that category when they worked together in\n_Splendor in the Grass_, and he dumped Joan Collins after two years of\ngoing steady. Joan turned down four pictures so she could stay with her\nambling heartthrob. They\u2019d talked about a wedding.\nThis very sexy member of the new male generation came to me to ask: \u201cDo\nyou think I should marry Joan?\u201d He received a quizzical look. \u201cIf you\ncan put that question, you know the answer.\u201d\nWarren isn\u2019t alone among young actors of any generation in having an\neye for the publicity mileage to be obtained from a newsy romance. As\nfor Natalie, she wasn\u2019t talking about marrying anybody, by her account.\nLike most young actresses, she can\u2019t be taken seriously on the subject.\nTwo months before she married Bob Wagner, she was saying much the same\nthing.\nWhen she was seventeen, she had one concealed admirer who lost fifty\npounds in weight while the torch burned him. Raymond Burr specialized\nin menace roles when they worked together in _Cry in the Night_. She\nwas the screaming heroine, he was the kidnaper who had the audience\nchewing its fingernails down to the knuckle wondering whether he would\nkill her or rape her before the final fade-out.\nI had Ray literally at my feet when I met him for the first time. I\nused to lunch most every day with Dema Harshbarger in the garden of\nIvar House, a restaurant now demolished which used to stand around the\ncorner from my office. One day a husky fellow was laying bricks in the\npatio where we were sitting, and we had to keep moving our chairs to\nmake way for him.\nI finally looked down and saw a handsome face and a very large body.\n\u201cYou don\u2019t look to me like a bricklayer,\u201d said I.\n\u201cI\u2019m not; I\u2019m an actor.\u201d\n\u201cThen what are you doing this for?\u201d If looks could kill, I wouldn\u2019t be\nhere, he was so mad. He quit his job that night and never laid another\nbrick.\nRay Burr enjoys food, to put it mildly. When he fell for Natalie, he\nmade up his mind to reduce. As the pounds melted off, he progressed\nfrom heavy to hero, though he made no headway with her. And that\u2019s how\nlean, hawk-eyed Perry Mason was born. This I learned after he\u2019d been on\nthe show for a year.\nMost of the action in Hollywood today centers on television. In the\nspring of 1962, only a half dozen motion pictures were in production\nthere, while TV studios churned out hour shows and half-hour shows\nliterally by the hundred. MCA alone owned 403 hour and 2115 half-hour\nnegatives. The majority of the new faces in town are television\nfaces--like Raymond Burr; like Chuck Connors, who went from baseball\nbats to Winchesters; like Vincent Edwards, who describes himself as \u201can\neleven-year overnight sensation\u201d after serving that long a stretch in\nthe wilderness of odd jobs.\nTen years ago, the movies treated television the way a maiden aunt\ntreats sex--if she doesn\u2019t think about it, maybe it will disappear.\nBut TV grew into a giant, and now it\u2019s the odds-on favorite in\nentertainment. It\u2019s the turn of television factories like MCA to\ndeclare, in Lew Wasserman\u2019s words: \u201cWe think the movie industry has\nmade many mistakes in judgment. It has refused to face up to the need\nfor progress in the entertainment industry.\u201d\nDavid Susskind, of Talent Associates, another TV production company,\ncan arrive in Hollywood to make a movie, remarking pleasantly: \u201cThis\ntown is dedicated to pap. Show business here is founded on quicksand.\nThe people are quick to take offense at criticism because they have\na guilt complex. They know they\u2019re turning out commercialized junk.\nBasically, they are ashamed of it, and they\u2019re defensive.\u201d\nNeither the television industry nor Mr. Susskind used to be quite so\ncocksure, and working in TV was a lot more fun before the craze to\nput every show on film. David got his start in our town as a junior\npublicity man at Universal-International. He sat for three days in an\nagent\u2019s waiting room, trying for an interview with the boss before he\nclicked and was invited to join the staff there.\n\u201cWe don\u2019t pay much--we\u2019re a new business,\u201d Al Levy told his new boy\nin those days before Marty Melcher and Dick Dorso squeezed him out of\nCentury Artists.\n\u201cI must have $100 a week,\u201d said David. \u201cI\u2019ve got two children to\nsupport.\u201d That was what the little fellow was paid, $100 and no more,\nwhen he wet his feet as an agent\u2019s assistant. After the breakup of\nCentury Artists over Doris Day, David aligned himself on Al Levy\u2019s side\nand went to New York with him in a shaky new business called Talent\nAssociates.\nAfter a few months of getting nowhere, the company\u2019s bank balance had\nsunk to ten dollars. Al felt the fair thing to do was see whether he\ncould help David land another, more secure job elsewhere. He introduced\nhim to Sonny Werblen of MCA, and David enlisted in the regiment of\ncold-eyed young men in charcoal-gray suits who are MCA\u2019s shock troops.\nOver the next three and a half years Al Levy pounded a lot of\nsidewalks. Television was still the runt of the entertainment industry.\nHollywood jeered at the little black box, with its nightly parade of\nwomen roller skaters, bicycle riders, and grunt-and-groan artists in\nthe wrestling ring. In advertising agencies the money was in the big\nradio shows--Jack Benny, Fred Allen, Edgar Bergen and Charlie McCarthy.\nThe head of the agency TV department was usually tucked away in a\nwindowless cubicle next to the mail room. Radio had networks stretching\nfrom coast to coast, television was in the chrysalis stage, centered in\na few cities such as New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.\nTalent Associates began to get lucky when it signed Janet Blair, who\u2019d\nbeen dropped by Columbia after seven years making pictures. Levy had\nseen June Allyson do a movie song-and-dance number with the Blackburn\nTwins. He put Janet in with the twins to make up a similar act, which\nultimately was booked into the Wedgwood Room of the Waldorf-Astoria.\nRichard Rodgers saw Janet there, signed her for the road company of\n_South Pacific_, which kept her going for three years.\nAl\u2019s hustling meantime was paying off, though nobody was making any\nfortune on the prices television paid. His agency put Wally Cox,\nTony Randall, Marion Lorne, and Jack Warden into the first of the\nsituation-comedy series, \u201cMr. Peepers\u201d--with a price tag of $14,500,\nwhich had to be stretched to pay for everything from script to hire of\na studio. The Associates also had the \u201cPhilco Playhouse,\u201d an hour-long\ndramatic series for which they were paid $27,000 to cover everything\nbut actual air time. \u201cPlayhouse\u201d had stars like Eli Wallach, Eva Marie\nSaint, Grace Kelly in Scott Fitzgerald\u2019s \u201cRich Boy\u201d--the finest talents\nin the theater. I even did a couple of shows myself.\nAfter three and a half years soldiering for MCA, David Susskind\nreceived his marching orders. He hadn\u2019t won any medals as a salesman\nor contact man. He wanted to be a bigger noise than that. I suspect\nthat David\u2019s ambitions spouted the day he was born. He talked over his\nproblems over breakfast in a Schrafft\u2019s restaurant on Madison Avenue.\nAs a result, he was taken back into Talent Associates on a six-month\ntrial.\nThey had their offices in a six-room apartment on East Fifty-second\nStreet, rented for $210 a month. A secretary and switchboard operator\noccupied the living room. The master bedroom was the main office. In\nbedroom number two sat the script writers, pounding out \u201cMr. Peepers.\u201d\nThe back bedroom comprised the quarters of Ernie Martin and Cy Feuer,\nwho had the space on a work-now-pay-later arrangement while they\nlabored to produce a show that developed into the Broadway hit of the\nseason, _Guys and Dolls_.\nErnie said to me not long ago, after he and his partner had five hits\nin a row, including _How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying_:\n\u201cHedda, you made me $3,000,000.\u201d\n\u201cI don\u2019t know what you\u2019re talking about. I never did any such thing.\u201d\n\u201cYou drove me out of Hollywood,\u201d he said. \u201cI had to quit radio or get\nan ulcer.\u201d Then I remembered. Ernie, a CBS vice president at the age\nof twenty-nine, was responsible for censoring my radio scripts for my\nweekly show. I always popped in three or four items which I knew hadn\u2019t\na hope in hell of getting on the air. I\u2019d fight over those paragraphs\nuntil the red light glowed and I was on. That kept Ernie and his legal\neagles so busy they didn\u2019t have time to argue over the items I really\nwanted to get off my chest.\nThe secretary in the living room doubled as cook in the kitchen for\nluncheon. Meat balls and spaghetti were ladled out to the hungry mob of\nwriters, actors, and directors who haunted the place at mealtimes. \u201cDo\nyou have to smell up the place with all that cooking?\u201d Martin and Feuer\nwould steadily complain. But since they were on the free list until\nlater in the matter of paying rent, spaghetti and meat balls stayed on\nthe menu.\nThe business was loaded with talents, a bunch of enthusiastic young men\nwho had tremendous fun in the brand-new medium that was just beginning\nto grow. There were directors who went on to earn international\nreputations--Delbert Mann, Arthur Penn, Robert Mulligan, Vincent\nDonehue. There were the writers who set the future pattern for drama on\nTV--Paddy Chayevsky, David Swift, Horton Foote, James Miller. There was\nFred Coe as producer. And David, who developed an itch to produce.\nWhen his six-month trial was over, he was kept on for a further six.\nThen Levy went into the hospital for a series of operations and stayed\nout of the business for a year. Al Levy, who has since died, was a good\nand dear man; he left a glow in every life he touched.\nDavid, meantime, had turned from selling to producing, and he proved\nhimself to be good at it. He helped carry the business right to the\ntop in reputation and influence. But he wanted to make a louder noise.\nHe took on \u201cOpen End,\u201d the TV gab fest, and fell flat on his face more\nthan once as a would-be Socrates, most notably when Nikita Khrushchev\ndecided to pay him a visit.\nThe most flabbergasted man in television when that happened was David.\nOn a previous show he\u2019d had a panel of United Nations diplomats,\nincluding a Russian. \u201cI\u2019d like to have Mr. Khrushchev himself if he\never cares to come,\u201d David said casually, as much as to say: \u201cIf your\nwife\u2019s coming to town, stop by for a drink sometime.\u201d\nOne day his telephone rang. The Russians were happy to announce\nthat Khrushchev would be David\u2019s guest. Within a matter of hours\nanti-Communist pickets were parading outside Talent Associates, David\u2019s\nfamily needed police protection, and his own life had been threatened.\nFor the program, he armed himself with a few carefully prepared words\nwith which to prod Mr. K. and prove that David was no red flag waver.\nBut it was like a gadfly fighting back at the swatter. David did no\ngood for himself or America.\nHe would have been wiser to stick to easier targets like Hollywood,\nmost of whose inhabitants are personally too scared to hit back. He\nhas taken a swing at Dick Powell, Jerry Lewis, Rock Hudson, Gina\nLollobrigida, and Tony Curtis, and only Tony has ever come back\nfighting. \u201cI\u2019ve never met Mr. Susskind,\u201d said Tony, after David had\nblasted him for having \u201cno talent and no taste.\u201d \u201cAnd when I do I\u2019m\ngoing to punch him right in the nose.\u201d\nDavid, who is unfortunately seldom at a loss for words, had his\nanswer ready: \u201cIf I\u2019m not the biggest admirer of Tony Curtis\u2019 talent,\nI\u2019ve never questioned his virility or strength. He is, in my book, a\npassionate amoeba.\u201d\nPlaying in television, which used to be more fun than a picnic, is more\nlike a salt mine now. The latest generation of TV actors, if they click\nin a hit program, slave six and seven days a week to keep the series\ngoing. The new faces soon show signs of bags under the eyes and crows\u2019\nfeet.\n\u201cBen Casey\u201d is a case in point. Vincent Edwards, who plays the surly,\nsexy young surgeon in that hour-long, weekly series, enjoyed one day\noff in the first eight months of production. \u201cWe\u2019re in such a bind,\u201d he\ntold me, \u201cwe take seven days to shoot a show to keep up the quality.\nAnd we\u2019re only four shows ahead of screening time.\u201d\nHe has the physique of a young bull, and he needs it. He started\nbuilding muscle as a young swimmer; won scholarships to Ohio State\nand the University of Hawaii on the strength of his backstroke.\nProving again the old axiom that actors are healthiest when they\u2019re\nout of jobs, his idle years on Hollywood gave him time to go out to\nthe Santa Monica beaches to pick up a permanent sun tan and hoist\nseventy-five-pound bar bells over his head.\nHe came in to see me wearing a dark suit, red T shirt, and red socks.\nHis lunch came with him--a mixture of carrot, papaya, pineapple,\nand cocoanut juice, helped down with yoghurt and a sandwich. \u201cTV\u2019s\na marathon,\u201d he said. \u201cI think the grind probably contributed to\nthe death of Ward Bond on \u2018Wagon Train.\u2019 I arrive at the studio at\nseven-fifteen in the morning, and I\u2019m there until seven-fifteen at\nnight. By the time I\u2019m cleaned up, it\u2019s later than that when I get\naway. On Friday nights it\u2019s usually ten or eleven.\u201d\nHe has an agent, Abby Greschler, who developed Martin and Lewis in\nhis earlier days and who was responsible for snagging the \u201cBen Casey\u201d\nassignment for the thirty-five-year-old giant born Vincent Edward Zoine\nof Brooklyn. Abby is celebrated in our town for turning away wrath\nwhenever it arises. He interrupts any harsh words from his clients by\nsmiling ingratiatingly and asking: \u201cNow how\u2019re the wife and kids?\u201d\nHe can\u2019t use this trick with Vince because somehow he\u2019s escaped\nmarriage. \u201cI\u2019ve been at the starting gate a few times, but I rear\nup and throw my head back. My most serious romances have been with\ndancers.\u201d\n\u201cWhy dancers?\u201d\n\u201cThey\u2019ve always been so healthy, most that I\u2019ve known. Julie Newmar and\nI used to date off and on for years. She\u2019s a health-food addict, too;\nmakes the most exotic salads.\u201d Diet is a fetish with him. \u201cFoods in a\nnatural state\u201d are the mainstay. He recently showed signs of interest\nin a girl, Sherry Nelson, who is a jockey\u2019s widow but addicted only to\nlive horseflesh--they play the ponies at the track together.\nBesides an agent, he also had a pile of debts when \u201cBen Casey\u201d came his\nway. So Greschler booked him, for extra money, into things like the\nDinah Shore TV show, which demanded rehearsing at night after the day\u2019s\nstint on \u201cCasey.\u201d For those appearances he sings in a surprisingly good\nbaritone voice. He once did some ballads and rock \u2019n\u2019 roll for Capitol\nRecords. \u201cFive years ago one called \u2018Lollipop\u2019 got up to number three\non the hit list, but we\u2019ll forget that,\u201d Vince said in my office. \u201cI\u2019m\nafraid the image wouldn\u2019t hold up under it.\u201d\nThe \u201cimage\u201d is an invention of himself and Abby Greschler. It\u2019s\nstraight Madison Avenue talk, but it\u2019s the immemorial style among\nHollywood agents to convince the public that every star is superhuman.\nCasey is supposed to be what Vince has described as a \u201cgodlike kind of\nman,\u201d a mixture of Gable, Brando, and Albert Schweitzer. Just to liven\nthe picture up, Vince has got to be a maverick in his clothes, like the\nred T shirt, the black shirt and slacks he sported for Dinah Shore.\nGreschler has a three-year plan for his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 which calls for the two\nof them to form one or more corporations to produce movies with Vince\nas their star. At the end of the period Dr. Ben will supposedly finish\nup a millionaire. \u201cIf you have to make pictures, what would you like to\ndo?\u201d I asked him.\n\u201cAnything but a doctor. I doubt if I\u2019ll ever play one again. I\u2019m so\nidentified with it. I\u2019m only going to do it for three seasons.\u201d\n\u201cYou\u2019ll do it for five, they\u2019ll offer you so much money.\u201d\n\u201cAs I sit in this office, I will make a vow. I will say: \u2018I\u2019m sorry, I\npass. My health is more important.\u2019\u201d\n\u201cBen Casey\u201d has one bit of pleasure he can count on. \u201cI stay up and\nwatch my own TV show. I have to have some reward for all this work.\u201d\nThere is one face in entertainment that\u2019s new and old simultaneously.\nOld because it\u2019s been around ever since Mickey Mouse starred in\n_Steamboat Willie_. New because the old master has been conjuring up a\nproject--it tells American history with life-sized, animated figures of\nour presidents--that\u2019s as revolutionary as sound was when Jolson sang\n\u201cSonny Boy.\u201d\nWalt Disney has held on tight to the common touch and contact with\neveryday people. He maintains an apartment, furnished in grandmother\u2019s\nstyle, in one of the buildings overlooking Main Street at Disneyland.\nOn many a Saturday night Walt and his wife will sit up there, tweaking\nback the lace curtains that cover the windows, gazing at the crowds\nbelow like children watching a Memorial Day parade. It\u2019s a real bit of\nAmericana up to date.\nHe doesn\u2019t acknowledge that anything but clean, good-humored pictures\nexist. He has never, to the best of my knowledge, sat through a single\nreel of the off-color, highly seasoned imports from France, Japan, and\nItaly that flood our screens today. By sticking to purity and fun he\nmakes more money than ever before--and spends it as fast as it pours in.\nHe once almost lost Disneyland to the bankers who had extended\nnecessary construction loans. But he was saved by the gong. He made a\nnew picture, which earned more money than anyone had anticipated, and\nthe big bad wolves were foiled again. The only living soul that Walt\nfights with is his brother Roy, who is the professional hard guy in\nDisney Productions, doomed to keep on wailing: \u201cWalt, you\u2019re spending\ntoo much money.\u201d\nMy own modest contribution to the bank balance consisted of badgering\nWalt for five years to reissue _Snow White_, since I was convinced\nthat a new audience grew up every season for his picturing of this\ntimeless classic. In the end, he was persuaded and showed his thanks in\nthe heaped-up basket of presents he sent my granddaughter Joan every\nChristmas.\nHe insisted on throwing a birthday party at his studio for her, with\nher whole school class, their mothers and teachers invited. We all\nwatched a special showing of some Disney cartoons, then made our way to\nthe party, which was held in Walt\u2019s private penthouse atop the studio\nbuilding. As the presents were handed out to every guest, ice cream and\ncookies devoured, cake cut with its miniature merry-go-round playing\n\u201cHappy Birthday,\u201d I noticed a detail that Walt had overlooked: the\nwalls of the room had been adorned by Disney cartoonists with murals of\nrather handsomely equipped females without benefit of clothing.\nOne little fellow on the guest list wasn\u2019t paying much attention to the\ngifts or the goodies. His eyes were riveted on the naked girls. \u201cI\u2019ve\nnever seen ladies like that before,\u201d he said when I went over to him.\n\u201cI like _them_. I think I\u2019ll be an artist when I grow up.\u201d\nI relayed the incident, with a chuckle, to Walt. His permanently raised\neyebrows arched up an inch or so higher. \u201cOh, sure,\u201d he grinned, \u201cI\nforgot all about those pictures. There was only one youngster staring\nat them? Well, that\u2019s all right. They won\u2019t kill him.\u201d\n_Fifteen_\nWhenever I stand up to make a speech about Hollywood, there is one\nquestion that\u2019s ninety-nine per cent certain to pop up from the\naudience before we\u2019re through: \u201cIs _anybody_ in the movies happily\nmarried?\u201d The only answer I can give, of course, is another question:\n\u201cWho can possibly say, except the husbands and wives?\u201d I\u2019ve been lied\nto many times when a marriage was crashing on the rocks and nobody\nwould admit it. Can\u2019t say I blame them. A man and his mate have the\nprivilege of pretending that all is well up to the bitter end, the way\npeople do everywhere.\nThree days before she filed suit to divorce Cary Grant, Barbara Hutton\nsaid to me: \u201cIf only Cary and I could have a baby someday. We both love\nchildren. We\u2019d like to have at least three. We\u2019re praying, both of us.\nMaybe our dreams will come true.\u201d\nBarbara, Frank Woolworth\u2019s granddaughter, was a shy, self-effacing\nwoman who allowed Cary to play lord of the manor in their Pacific\nPalisades house, which had a staff of eleven servants. They moved into\nit with her son of a former marriage, Lance Reventlow. Cary had by far\nthe biggest bedroom, complete with wood-burning fireplace, beautiful\nantiques, private entrance, and a private bathroom approximately the\nsize of Marineland. Cary always liked his creature comforts. And if she\nhad dinner guests he didn\u2019t care for, he didn\u2019t come down to dinner.\nHe asked me to kill the interview when Barbara called quits to their\nmarriage seventy-two hours after she talked to me. I did him that\nfavor. Then he married wife number three, Betsy Drake. Number one,\nVirginia Cherrill, who later found a titled husband, was the blonde\nin Charles Chaplin\u2019s _City Lights_, and she lasted less than twelve\nmonths with Cary. Barbara lasted five years.\nWith Betsy, he took up hobbies, from yoga to hypnosis. The former\nArchie Leach, of Bristol, England, ex-stilts walker and chorus boy,\nhad Betsy hypnotize him into giving up liquor and cigarettes. He\nsubsequently gave up Betsy, who finally sued to divorce him.\nWhen Joe Hyams wrote a series of articles quoting Cary as saying he\u2019d\nbeen seeing a psychiatrist, Cary denied that he\u2019d said a word to Joe.\nThat outraged reporter promptly retaliated with a $500,000 suit for\nslander. It came to an unusual but amiable settlement: Cary agreed\nto have Hyams collaborate with him in writing his memoirs and other\narticles, with Joe collecting the full proceeds. Joe didn\u2019t know how\nlucky he was going to be. Once he got at a typewriter, Cary couldn\u2019t be\npried loose, asked for no help whatever from his fellow author. So the\nactor did the writing, and the writer drew the pay. I should be that\nlucky.\nIf yoga can\u2019t hold a marriage together, confession sometimes can. One\ncowboy star talked himself out of a jam for which a less forgiving\nwoman than his wife would have thrown him out on his ear. Talking\ndidn\u2019t come hard to him. He was laconic on the screen, loquacious off.\nHe had some tall explaining to do when the scandal-sniffing hound dogs\non the staff of _Confidential_ tracked him down on a weekend at Malibu,\nspent in the company of one of our bustiest blondes, and I don\u2019t mean\nJayne Mansfield.\nThe sensation hunters had compiled a timetable, at fifteen-minute\nintervals; the precise time he and the girl arrived in his car; the\ntrip to do some shopping; the swim they took in the sea--every detail\nof the three days, supported by the affidavits of witnesses. There\ncould be no disputing it. He couldn\u2019t sue. Certain of that, publisher\nRobert Harrison already had the story on the presses.\nHoward Rushmore, the lanky, sad-eyed former Communist who quit the New\nYork _Journal-American_ to edit _Confidential_, gave me the tip two\nweeks before the issue of the magazine was due to hit the newsstands.\n\u201cI thought you\u2019d like to know ahead of time,\u201d he said. \u201cI know you\u2019re\nfond of the guy, and you might like to warn him.\u201d\n\u201cIt\u2019s a horrible thing to have happen,\u201d I said, \u201cbut I appreciate your\ntelling me.\u201d\nAs soon as Rushmore left, I called the delinquent husband and got\nhim over to my house. \u201cHow could you do this, and just after you\u2019re\nreconciled with your wife?\u201d I said. \u201cIf you wanted something like that\nweekend, why did you go in a car that anybody can recognize? Why didn\u2019t\nyou go further afield--to Santa Barbara, Laguna, La Jolla?\u201d\n\u201cI guess I was out of my mind.\u201d\n\u201cYou must have been. You and your wife are so happy now.\u201d\n\u201cHow can I tell her?\u201d\n\u201cTell her the truth. Ask her to say, when her dear friends come to\ngossip, that she knows all about it, and it happened a long time ago.\nIf you\u2019re lucky, she\u2019ll forgive you.\u201d\nI heard from him within an hour. \u201cI told her,\u201d he said, \u201cand she was\nwonderful. Now things are better than ever.\u201d And they remained that way\nuntil his death.\nThere\u2019s probably more temptation to the square mile in our town than\nanywhere else on earth. A male movie star is bait to all seven ages\nof women, including female movie stars. A good-looking, virile male\ncan take his choice among literally thousands of girls when it comes\nto romance. Some of them go into it for thrills, some in the hope\nof advancing their careers. Some of them get hurt, and some do the\nhurting. Many sell themselves too cheaply, a few value their favors too\nhighly.\nGable could have had his pick of half the women in Hollywood after the\nplane carrying Carole Lombard home from a defense-bond drive crashed on\nTable Rock Mountain, Nevada. He couldn\u2019t appear in public or private\nwithout starting a near riot. They flocked around him like moths around\na candle--duchesses, show girls, movie stars, socialites--name them,\nhe could have had them. He had the knack of taking just one look at a\ngirl and flattering her to swooning point. He looked like hundred-proof\nromance, and was, unless you knew about his dental plates, a full upper\nand lower set. He hadn\u2019t a tooth of his own in his head.\nAs a newcomer to Hollywood, he\u2019d faced the usual months of torment\nhaving his teeth, which were in poor shape, fixed and capped to repair\nthe cavities and fill the gaps. There was one difference between Clark\nand other recruits of his age group like Jimmy Cagney, Spencer Tracy,\nand Pat O\u2019Brien. Clark had a rich wife at the time in Ria Langham. On\nher money, he had all his teeth yanked and a false set installed so\nnatural-looking they deceived almost everybody but a dentist.\nThe script of _Command Decision_, filmed long after Ria had made her\nexit and he\u2019d paid her a quarter of a million dollars for the divorce,\ncalled for a slam-bang screen battle between Clark and Walter Pidgeon,\nto be staged near a fire that was blazing outdoors. The two of them\nmixed it up like heavyweights. In the middle of a wild, openmouthed\nswing, Clark\u2019s uppers and lowers went sailing out of his jaw straight\ninto the flames. He collapsed on the ground, helpless with laughter.\n\u201cThey ought to see the King of Hollywood now,\u201d he gasped.\nClark\u2019s dentures supplied me with the news beat that he was about to\njoin up as a private in the Air Corps; a friend of his dentist tipped\nme off that he was making Clark an extra set of teeth, which had to be\nfinished before he left to enlist.\nBefore Clark was nabbed by Lady Sylvia Ashley, he took his fill in\nhigh society. Millicent Rogers, married three times before, considered\nhim the one real man she\u2019d ever known. The Standard Oil heiress\u2019 first\nhusband was a fortune hunter, an Austrian count who revealed himself\na hidden hero when he died at the Gestapo\u2019s hands in Budapest in\n1944. Her second was \u201cLucky Arturo\u201d Peralta-Ramos, who won two French\nlotteries in a row then lost her. Number three was a New York broker,\nwho turned the tables by divorcing her.\nMillicent enjoyed twelve unforgettable months with Clark before she\nsaid good-by. In his affairs he always had to do the pursuing, as any\nman should, but she made the mistake of pursuing him. If she hadn\u2019t\nrevealed how much she loved him, she might have captured him. Then\nhe might have been spared the miserable year and a half he had with\nSylvia. Millicent sent him a farewell letter that put into words the\nfeelings of every woman for a man like this:\n    My darling Clark:\n    I want to thank you, my dear, for taking care of me last year,\n    for the happiness and pleasure of the days and hours spent with\n    you; for the kind, sweet things you have said to me and done\n    for me in so many ways, none of which I shall forget.\n    You are a perfectionist, as am I; therefore I hope you will\n    not altogether forget me, that some part and moments of me\n    will remain in you and come back to you now and then, bringing\n    pleasure with them and a feeling of warmth. For myself, you\n    will always be a measure by which I shall judge what a true man\n    should be. As I never found such a one before you, so I believe\n    I shall never find such a man again. Suffice that I have known\n    him and that he lives....\n    You gave me happiness when I was with you, a happiness because\n    of you that I only thought might exist, but which until then\n    I never felt. Be certain that I shall remember it. The love I\n    have for you is like a rock. It was great last year. Now it is\n    a foundation upon which a life is being built.\n    I followed you last night as you took your young friend home.\n    I am glad you kissed and that I saw you do it, because now I\n    know that you have someone close to you and that you will have\n    enough warmth beside you. Above all things on this earth, I\n    want happiness for you.\n    I am sorry that I failed you. I hope that I have made you laugh\n    a little now and then; that even my long skinniness has at\n    times given you pleasure; that when you held me, I gave you\n    all that a man can want. That was my desire, that I should be\n    always as you wished me to be.... Love is like birth; an agony\n    of bringing forth. Had you so wished it, my pleasure would have\n    been to give you my life to shape and mold to yours, not as a\n    common gift of words but as a choice to follow you. As I shall\n    do now, alone.\n    You told me once that you would never hurt me. That has been\n    true ... not even last night. I have failed because of my\n    inadequacy of complete faith, engendered by my own desires, by\n    my own selfishness, my own inability to be patient and wait\n    like a lady. I have always found life so short, so terrifyingly\n    uncertain.\n    God bless you, most darling Darling. Be gentle with yourself.\n    Allow yourself happiness. There is no paying life in advance\n    for what it will do to you. It asks of one\u2019s unarmored heart,\n    and one must give it. There is no other way.... When you find\n    happiness, take it. Don\u2019t question it too much.\n    Goodbye, my Clark. I love you as I always shall.\nYou may wonder why I am using this. Millicent gave me a copy of this\nletter to read and asked if I thought she should send it to Clark. I\nsaid: \u201cBy all means.\u201d She never heard from him again, but I think it is\none of the most beautiful love letters I have ever read.\nMillicent Rogers found nobody else, never married again. Clark, on the\nother hand, got as far as proposing to another woman, Dolly O\u2019Brien,\nwhich was rare with him. Julius Fleischmann, with his yeast fortune,\nstayed in love with his wife Dolly after she fell into the deep end\nfor handsome, polo-playing Jay O\u2019Brien. When he agreed to a divorce,\nhe settled $6,000,000 on her. \u201cI want you to be comfortable,\u201d he said.\nOne year later Julius fell from his pony and died on the polo field,\nleaving an estate of $66,000,000, which could have been the former Mrs.\nFleischmann\u2019s if she hadn\u2019t been in such a hurry.\nDolly, blond, blue-eyed, and full of fun, lived in style. She wouldn\u2019t\ngo on a train without taking along her own bottled water, silk sheets,\nand bedding. She was a lot like Carole Lombard, and Clark was searching\nfor another Carole. When Dolly met him a few years after Jay\u2019s death,\nhe thought he\u2019d found the woman he wanted as his wife. But Dolly turned\nhim down. \u201cWe live in two different worlds,\u201d she told him. \u201cYou\u2019re\na rich actor, I\u2019m a rich woman. You like the outdoors, hunting and\nfishing, but I\u2019m a luxury-loving baby. Your life, frankly, would bore\nme to death.\u201d\nThe aging male enjoys a far better time than the average aging female.\nIf he\u2019s a big enough star, the producers throw him into picture after\npicture playing opposite girls young enough to be his daughters. Coop,\nGable, Jimmy Stewart, John Wayne--they all were pitched into these\nJune-and-December screen romances, and the public finally rebelled. But\nDuke Wayne was the first with sense enough to cry halt and insist on\nacting his age.\nToo often the wives of both stars and producers haven\u2019t enough to do\nto keep them content and out of mischief. Their husbands go to the\nstudio and spend their day working with beautiful girls. The girls,\nwanting better parts in pictures, will do virtually anything they can\nto please them. Reality and normal values got lost. The men live with\nboth feet off the ground. They can have any girl they try for, as easy\nas plucking a peach off a tree.\nWhen they arrive home, they often find waiting a wife who can\u2019t compare\nwith the studio girls in looks. She may be complaining--I\u2019ve heard it\na thousand times--that she\u2019s been stuck at home with only the children\nand servants for company. \u201cWhy don\u2019t you take me out more? Why didn\u2019t\nyou tell me there was a party last night? Why do you have to work so\nlate so often?\u201d\nIt can get irksome. I am certain one reason for the flight of movie\nmaking from Hollywood to Europe has been the pressing desire for\nproducers, writers, directors, and top-money stars to escape from\nnagging wives. The wives, if they\u2019re lucky, may be given a week or so\nin Paris or Rome or London in the course of production. Then back they\ngo to the house and the children while the husbands live it up for\nmonths on end. It\u2019s a pattern that has set Hollywood on its ear. And\nit\u2019s crowded our divorce courts.\nLouis B. Mayer married his first wife, Margaret Shenberg, daughter of\na Boston synagogue cantor, when he was nineteen and earning a meager\nliving as a scrap-metal dealer. He worked like a stevedore, breaking\ninto the entertainment business with a nickelodeon in Haverhill,\nMassachusetts, where Margaret served behind the wicket selling tickets.\nThen he got into the production end of movies. He dealt now not in old\niron but glamour. He was the boss of gorgeous girls, the kind he could\nonly have dreamed about before. Margaret stayed home, the _Hausfrau_,\nunable to keep pace with him. This was a Jewish family with strong ties\nof faith and custom, and Louis waited a long time before he flew the\ncoop. But the outcome was inevitable.\nOnce in New York, before the final break came, he asked me, since I\nwore smart clothes and was on his payroll, to take Margaret out and\nmake sure she bought some decent clothes. We shopped all day, while she\ntried on dress after dress, always finding some fault, usually the size\nof the price tag. When we\u2019d finished, she had just one package to show\nfor our pains: a new girdle, which I insisted upon.\nShe tried her best to hold him, but it was a million miles from being\ngood enough. She fell ill, and he put her into a sanitarium, but she\nrefused to stay. \u201cThis has come on me because I dieted,\u201d she told me.\n\u201cLouis likes slim girls, and it\u2019s left me like this.\u201d She took a suite\nin a New York hotel, with a sitting room overlooking Central Park. Her\nbehavior there grew more and more erratic. Her memory wandered. She\u2019d\nstart a sentence, then break off and go on to something else.\nAfter a year she moved back to Hollywood, into an apartment daughter\nEdie found for her. Louis wasn\u2019t living with her by this time. He had\nother social interests. One was a singer. Another was a woman with a\nchild for whom he bought a house in Westwood. Yet another was a lovely\nchorus girl who hitchhiked from Texas and joined the Ziegfeld Follies.\nLouis fell hard for her. His courtship coincided with her romance\nwith a big agent, though Mayer didn\u2019t know about that at first. His\nsuspicions were aroused shortly before he was due to leave on a trip\nto Europe, where she was to join him in Paris. Before he left he put\na detective on her trail. The private eye\u2019s sealed report crossed the\nAtlantic ahead of the girl, but Louis restrained himself from opening\nthe envelope until the next morning after she had joined him. The\nbattle royal that broke out then exploded Louis\u2019 plans to marry her, so\nshe married the agent.\nMayer\u2019s revenge was to bar the bridegroom from MGM and persuade some\nof his pals at other studios to follow suit. The bridegroom had a hard\ntime of it for quite a few years. Then Louis met Lorena Danker, an\nex-dancer thirty years younger than he was and the widow of an account\nexecutive at the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency. He had already\ndivorced Margaret, which cleared the way for Mrs. Danker to become the\nsecond Mrs. Louis B. Mayer. Now she\u2019s Mrs. Michael Nidorf. After she\nmarried Mayer, he adopted the daughter she\u2019d borne Danny Danker; Louis\nleft her half a million dollars in his will.\nOther producers and big shots habitually took their cue from Louis, who\ncarried a lot of weight in our town. He was the emperor who set the\nsocial pattern. So long as he stuck by Margaret Mayer, they stuck by\ntheir wives, too. But Louis\u2019 divorce, after forty years of marriage,\nlet them loose. In the next few months there were more top-level\ndivorces than there\u2019d been for years before.\nDivorce has made sensational headlines and spicy dinner-table gossip\nfrom the days when a former Denver bellhop catapulted into fame with\na sword in his hand and dagger in his teeth as Douglas Fairbanks. His\nfirst wife, Beth, was the daughter of Daniel Sully, otherwise known as\nthe Cotton King of Wall Street. As a wedding present, her father gave\nher a beautiful string of pearls, which kept the Fairbankses going year\nafter year, when Doug was a struggling Broadway actor.\nWhen the larder was bare, she\u2019d pawn the pearls and redeem them again\nas soon as Doug got into another play. Those pearls also paid for many\na trip to Europe. The Fairbankses lived at the Algonquin Hotel in New\nYork, which bulged with actors, from Jade Barrymore to John Drew.\nIncluded among the residents was Hedda Hopper with the only husband she\never had. In the lobby I used to stop to chat with a little boy with\na frightened manner, kept forever under the wing of his mother or his\nnurse--Douglas, Jr., whom his father had determined should never get\ninto show business.\nBeth found the Hoppers their first Hollywood house when we followed\nthe Fairbankses out to that never-never-land where it seemed that the\nrainbow had finally come to earth and deposited a crock of gold for\neverybody. Some years after that a brisk little blonde named Mary\nPickford got herself a bungalow in a Beverly Hills canyon. Doug, Sr.,\nwas a gentleman caller. Beth and I used to walk past the place, but she\ndidn\u2019t know who was inside. I did. One day my heart turned somersaults\nwhen she peered through a window. She saw nothing amiss. But after\nthat I steered our walks in a different direction. Beth was ever\nunsuspecting about sex. Her own blood ran cool. She claimed Doug spent\ntoo much time practicing handsprings and jumping over barns to be an\neffective lover.\nThey argued for months over the divorce he wanted. He was willing to\npay her a quarter of his earnings for life as alimony. She demanded\nevery nickel he earned. The sad climax came in a suite in New York\u2019s\nSherry-Netherland Hotel. In my presence she turned on him in a fury.\n\u201cGet out, you Jew!\u201d she said.\nDoug\u2019s face was a mask. \u201cYou don\u2019t know what you\u2019re saying,\u201d I\nexclaimed. \u201cYou\u2019re out of your mind.\u201d\n\u201cI do, and he knows it. He\u2019s a Jew.\u201d\nHe said not a word and dragged himself from the room. He couldn\u2019t argue\nabout his background. His father\u2019s name was Ulman. Doug\u2019s mother was\nmarried five times, and had children by other husbands, one of whom\nwas named Fairbanks. Beth knew all about it. It had been a secret, wry\njoke to her that, through her father\u2019s contacts, she had been able\nto make her husband a member of New York\u2019s best men\u2019s clubs, where\nanti-Semitism was an article of faith. She collected her money from\nDoug--$650,000 in cash and securities that his brother and business\nmanager, John Fairbanks, carried in a suitcase from Los Angeles to New\nYork.\nYoung Doug adored his father, but stayed with his mother after the\nbreakup. He didn\u2019t emerge as a man until he married Joan Crawford. An\nexperienced woman can teach a lot to a youngster like Douglas, Jr. He\nlearned much about women and the world from Joan, though she wasn\u2019t\naccepted by her in-laws until Lord and Lady Mountbatten, honeymooning\nat Pickfair, asked if they could meet her. The first time she set foot\ninside the front door was the night she was invited to a ball to meet\nDickie Mountbatten and his bride.\nThe senior Fairbankses drifted apart after Mary Pickford made _My Best\nGirl_ with Buddy Rogers. In London, Doug got to know Lady Sylvia Ashley\nvery well, but he had little thought of marrying her. He made a special\ntrip home to try to patch things up with Mary. But she insisted that\nhe beg for a reconciliation, and he was too proud to beg for anything.\nHe decided to sail back to England. For seven hours on the eve of his\nsailing Mary tried to reach him by telephone to tell him she was ready\nto save their marriage. But she missed him. She was too late. Sylvia\nwas married on the rebound to Doug, who by the merest coincidence\nchanced to be a millionaire.\nThere was nobody quite like Doug. He loved everyone, and that\nsun-tanned charm of his made everyone love him. He would rather leap\nover the moon than go to the greatest party in the world, though he\nstarted drinking his way through the nonstop round of parties and\nnight clubbing to which Sylvia introduced him. Vanity was one weakness\nof his. When the two daughters of his brother, John, who was born\nFairbanks, wanted to go into pictures, Doug warned them: \u201cYou\u2019ll have\nto change your names, you know; there can only be one Fairbanks.\u201d\nHe had a handsome head on his shoulders, but it was no head for\nfigures. I\u2019m reminded of that every time I look out of my office window\nat a towering gas storage tank a dozen blocks away that looms over the\nold United Artists studio which Doug, Mary, and Charles Chaplin built\nin 1918. Doug or any of them could have bought it then for $50,000 and\ndemolished it. But they saved their money--and it cost their company at\nleast $3,000,000 over the years to shoot around it to avoid having the\ntank show up in every movie United Artists made. After many lawsuits\nthe studio is now owned by Sam Goldwyn. It nets Frances and Sam a\nmighty juicy yearly income. The three stars who created it receive\nnothing.\nSylvia\u2019s best friend and next-door neighbor in Santa Monica was Norma\nShearer, who decided one day to give the Fairbankses a party, inviting\nDoug\u2019s closest friends. At 7 P.M. that evening Sylvia telephoned Norma:\n\u201cI\u2019m terribly sorry but we can\u2019t come. Douglas was taken ill this\nafternoon, and he\u2019s much worse now.\u201d\nTheir two place cards had been removed from the table when the other\nguests sat down to dine at nine o\u2019clock. During the first course her\nbutler whispered a message to Norma. She turned pale for a moment, but\nthe dinner went on into dancing, some party games, and all kinds of fun\nuntil things broke up at 3 A.M. By that time Douglas Fairbanks had been\ndead five and a half hours. Later I asked Norma: \u201cHow could you do it?\nYour guests were Doug\u2019s best friends.\u201d\nShe answered: \u201cWhat could I do? I couldn\u2019t say anything. It would have\nspoiled the party.\u201d\nNot all Doug\u2019s money was left to Sylvia. Douglas, Jr., was more than\ncomfortably off when he married Mary Lee Epling, divorced wife of\nfinancier Huntington Hartford. They live in old-world style in a small\nLondon town house with their three daughters. Douglas, Jr., does not\nstray from the hearthstone. They are extremely social, with British and\nEuropean royalty and ambassadors of all nations, including one of our\nown, Winthrop Aldrich, who had a penchant at parties for pinching old\nladies in the Latin fashion. They absolutely adored it--no one had paid\nthem such attention for years.\nHollywood has all the excuses you find anywhere for divorce--boredom,\negotism, emotional immaturity, and the rest. It also has some special\nreasons of its own--press agents who can get bigger headlines with a\nscandal than with a happy home life; producers who resent a husband or\nwife \u201cinterfering\u201d in a star\u2019s business; managers who stop at nothing\nto hold onto their percentages. Elsewhere in the world, children are\nusually a bond that holds parents through many a squabble. But that\u2019s\nnot always the case in the Empire of Guff, which was one of Gene\nFowler\u2019s labels for us.\nThis is a hard, rocky place for a child to grow up in. Some of them\ndon\u2019t know who their fathers really are because they\u2019ve had so many in\nthe family. They\u2019re brought up by nurses, cooks, and chauffeurs instead\nof parents because mother and father are too busy to give them any\ntime. All the children can be spared is money, which is a stone to suck\non when a child needs love.\nEddie Robinson, Jr., was spoiled. His mother, Gladys--the first Mrs.\nRobinson, Sr.--was never allowed by her husband to lay a hand on the\nboy. At thirteen he \u201cborrowed\u201d other people\u2019s cars without asking. He\nhas been in one automobile accident after another. Now he has a wife\nand child, whom Gladys helps support. Edward G. Robinson couldn\u2019t be\naccused of being stingy toward his son, however, since he continued to\nmake Junior an allowance of $1000 a month.\nDixie Lee Crosby brought up her four sons strictly but well. Bing\nsomehow found other things he had to do, so the children didn\u2019t see a\nlot of their father. Dixie had problems in her pregnancies, when she\nvirtually was forced on to brandy to survive. She had to stay home,\nsick, when Bing sailed off to Paris at the time Queen Elizabeth was\ncrowned, taking Lindsay with him and having a gay old time. The boy\nwent to London to see the coronation and stayed with the Alan Ladd\nfamily at the Dorchester. Bing was having too much fun in Paris to\nleave. Lindsay was the youngest and sweetest of the four sons. Like\nGary, Philip, and Dennis, he started whooping it up the minute Dixie\u2019s\nrestraint was lifted.\nHenry Ginsberg for a while attempted to be a kind of foster father to\nthe Crosby boys, inviting them to use his apartment as a second home\nwhile Bing was courting Kathy Grant. Finally Henry got tired of their\ndrinking and other night-owl habits which brought them to his door at\ntwo and three o\u2019clock in the morning. \u201cI like you, but I can\u2019t put up\nwith it any longer,\u201d he said, and the door was closed to them.\nI have seen the frightening looks given to her mother, Lana Turner, by\nCheryl Crane, who was found guilty of stabbing Lana\u2019s good friend, the\nhoodlum muscle man, Johnny Stompanato. I\u2019ve argued with Joan Crawford\nafter she told the oldest girl of her four adopted children that she\nhad to leave home. \u201cThis at a time when she needs love and protection\nmost?\u201d\n\u201cShe\u2019s a wild girl with no respect for anything,\u201d snapped Joan.\nI know one young girl, the daughter of one of our most married stars,\nwho fell madly in love with her mother\u2019s fourth husband and made up her\nmind to steal him away by hook or crook. She went to her mother and\nsaid: \u201cHe tried to make love to me.\u201d\nThis was a lie, but the woman believed her daughter. \u201cGet out of my\nhouse!\u201d she raged at her husband. \u201cHow dare you do such a vile thing?\u201d\n\u201cDid she tell you that?\u201d he said, appalled. \u201cAre you willing to take\nher word against mine? You remember how old she is, don\u2019t you? She\u2019s\nfourteen.\u201d\n\u201cI believe her.\u201d\n\u201cThen I\u2019ll go. But I\u2019ll tell you this--you\u2019re going to have more sorrow\nthrough that girl than you\u2019ve believed possible in this world. You\u2019ll\nsee.\u201d He proved to be an accurate prophet.\nDivorce is often an inherited affliction, passed on from mother to\ndaughter, father to son, like hemophilia among the Hapsburgs. Marilyn\nMonroe, Judy Garland, Doris Day, and a dozen more came from broken\nhomes. Their own chances of success as wives may well have been\nblighted. The children of Hollywood\u2019s broken marriages inherit a\ntradition of trouble. As an example, take a look at the Fonda family\ntree.\nI used to wonder how Henry Fonda could so much as cut his meat when he\nsat at the table next to mine when we were fellow passengers aboard\nthe boat sailing from Southampton to New York. His table mate was Mrs.\nFrances Seymour Brokaw, whom he\u2019d met in London, and she was so stuck\non him that I doubt she let go of his hands for more than five minutes\nat a time all the way across the Atlantic.\nHank had already tried marriage once, and so had she. Mr. Brokaw had\nbeen the husband of Clare Boothe before she married Henry Luce, the\nfounder of _Time_ and _Life_. Hank had been the husband for two years\nof Margaret Sullavan.\nFrances Brokaw was the second Mrs. Fonda--the knot was tied in\n1936--and the mother of two children: Jane, born in 1937; and Peter,\nwho arrived in 1940.\nThere is a darker inheritance than divorce. As man and wife, the\nFondas were seemingly happy for years. But Frances was increasingly\npossessive, and though no divorce suit ever was filed, Hank wanted his\nfreedom to marry Susan Blanchard. In April 1950, Frances took her life\nin a Beacon, New York, sanitarium, after cutting Hank completely out of\nThe first Mrs. Fonda, Margaret Sullavan, went on to three other\nmarriages; to director William Wyler in 1934; to producer Leland\nHayward in 1936, to whom she bore three children, Brooke, Bridget,\nand Bill; to financier Kenneth Wagg, who had four children already.\nMargaret\u2019s life ended in tragedy, too. She was depressed by an\never-increasing deafness, which had crept up on her unnoticed at first.\nWe discussed it together. I spoke about possible treatments, but she\ndismissed them. \u201cI\u2019ve discovered it too late,\u201d she said.\nThen she was set for a New Haven opening of a play which she was\ntackling after a long absence from the stage and which she didn\u2019t much\ncare for. Her death from sleeping pills was called suicide and blamed\non the fact that she didn\u2019t want to open, while Equity rules insisted\nthat she should. Cathleen Nesbitt, who had helped her in the part,\ncould not accept that verdict. \u201cI am as sure as I sit here,\u201d she told\nme later, \u201cthat it was an accident for Maggie.\u201d\nBut there was no doubt that the second daughter, Bridget, whom Margaret\nbore Leland Hayward, died of her own choice.\nIn December 1950, Henry Fonda took his third wife, Susan Blanchard,\nstepdaughter of Oscar Hammerstein II and mother of Hank\u2019s third child,\nAmy. The divorce came five years later. In 1957 he married for the\nfourth time. We see very little of his wife, the former Baroness Afdera\nFranchetti. She doesn\u2019t particularly care for Hollywood.\nOne more bit of tragedy hovers over Hank. His best part in years was in\n_Mr. Roberts_, whose author, Thomas Heggen, he knew and liked. Thomas\nHeggen decided life was not worth living, too, after the play was a\ngreat success.\nWhat her family means to Jane Fonda, only she could tell. She saw\nvery little of her mother, was brought up by her grandmother, whom\nshe adored. Jane went to the Actors\u2019 Studio to study, tackled her own\nmovie career like a she-wolf. She claimed, understandably perhaps, that\nmarriage had no part in her plans. She could manage very well, she told\nme, without love in her life. When I wrote a column about her, her\nfather telephoned. \u201cI have no control over my daughter,\u201d he said. \u201cBut\nwhen the right fellow comes along, she\u2019ll marry him. She\u2019s a very smart\ngirl and likes to make headlines.\u201d\nOne smart girl used to bring documents to me from the J. Walter\nThompson agency in Los Angeles not long ago. I hadn\u2019t heard her name\nuntil she said: \u201cI don\u2019t think you know it, but I\u2019m John Gilbert\u2019s\ndaughter. I didn\u2019t know my father--he died before I could remember him.\u201d\nI thought to myself that I would never forget the screen\u2019s great lover,\ndestroyed as an actor on the sound stage when the talkies came in.\nJack\u2019s first talking picture, _His Glorious Night_, was directed by\nLionel Barrymore. I was in it. Jack\u2019s first words were: \u201cI love you,\nI love you, I love you.\u201d In forming these words, his mouth and nose\ncame together almost like a parrot\u2019s beak. I used to see the glee on\nLionel\u2019s face as he watched Gilbert. Lionel was suffering painfully\nfrom arthritis, and by four o\u2019clock any afternoon he could scarcely get\nout of his chair. If anybody tried to help him he\u2019d knock their hands\naway and yell: \u201cWhat\u2019s the matter with you? Do you think I\u2019m sick?\u201d\nThat picture destroyed Jack Gilbert. He was honeymooning abroad with\nIna Claire when he lost all his money in the crash of \u201929. The day they\nlanded in New York, the picture opened. He went to see it. With the\nopening sentence the audience started to laugh, and he crept out of the\ntheater like a man condemned to the electric chair.\nWhile he was abroad, the studio had built him a beautiful bungalow and\nraised his salary to $5000 a week. After his return, when executives\nsaw him coming, they crossed to the other side of the street. They gave\nhim miserable, inconsequential pictures which he did. But he never\nsurvived the hurt.\nI said to his daughter: \u201cHave you seen your father in any movies?\u201d\nwondering if she knew that Jack had been desperately in love with\nGarbo, who was fond of him but would never marry him, for the love of\nher life was Maurice Stiller.\nHis daughter replied: \u201cNot until the other day, when I went to see him\nin _Queen Christina_ with Garbo.\u201d I asked what she thought of him. Her\nhead lifted and her eyes glowed: \u201cI thought he was wonderful.\u201d\nHe was, but we treated him badly.\n_Sixteen_\nI live in a town that sells dreams but is ruled by nightmares. Its\nstock in trade is illusion, which it manufactures in fear; not mere\napprehension about fading profits or a decline in reputation, but stark\nterror of God\u2019s honest truth.\nPower in the movie business fell into the clutches of men who stopped\nat nothing to lay their hands on it. In the process they picked up a\nchronic infection of guilty conscience. They couldn\u2019t afford to let the\npublic glimpse the facts behind the fiction; they\u2019d rather shell out a\nmillion dollars. They were always terrified of being found out.\nThere were--and are--so many closets bulging with skeletons. I\u2019ve\nrattled a few of them in my time when I\u2019ve been convinced the cause was\ngood. But never was there such a rattling as I gave our one and only\nself-appointed monarch, Louis B. Mayer, and his temporary crown prince,\nDore Schary. I\u2019m glad to say it scared the living daylights out of them.\nThe cause was a worthy one: one of the few unsung heroines of our town\nhad been pushed off the payroll in outrageous ingratitude for all she\u2019d\ncontributed to MGM. She badly needed her job back after a long illness,\nand I was determined that she should have it. One of the rattling sets\nof bones was labeled \u201cPolitics,\u201d another was \u201cGreed,\u201d and a third was\n\u201cMessages.\u201d I don\u2019t think Dore Schary has ever forgiven me.\nIda Koverman was the tall, stately, gray-haired queen mother who stood\nbehind King Louis\u2019 throne. She taught the little gormandizer about\ntable manners, how to handle a party without throwing Emily Post into\nstrictures. Ida transformed the once inarticulate ex-peddler of scrap\niron into an after-dinner orator in love with the sound of his own\nvoice, and she rehearsed him in the speeches that rolled off his tongue.\nShe was the behind-the-scenes arbiter of good taste in the greatest\nmotion-picture studio of them all. There was a day when she burst into\nhis office when he was deep in conference with the New York investment\nbankers who had control of Loew\u2019s Incorporated--Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer is\nLoew\u2019s trade name, Loew\u2019s is the parent corporation.\nLouis, who had issued strict orders that he was not to be disturbed,\nwas furious. She brushed aside his protests in her best, no-nonsense\nmanner. \u201cI want you to come right now and see yesterday\u2019s rushes on\n_The Pirate_,\u201d she said. \u201cYou must see a dance scene Gene Kelly and\nGarland did together.\u201d She kept at him until he angrily excused himself\nand stumped out on his bandy legs with her.\nIn the projection room she gave the order for the film to be rerun. The\nscene was a hair curler. Gene and Judy had flung themselves too eagerly\ninto the spirit of things. It looked like a torrid romance. \u201cBurn the\nnegative!\u201d screamed Louis. \u201cIf that exhibition got on any screen, we\u2019d\nbe raided by the police.\u201d He summoned Kelly to his office next morning\nfor an ear-blistering lecture on how to behave while dancing.\nMayer, who was his own best talent scout, met Mrs. Koverman when\nshe first came to California to rally Republican women in support\nof Herbert Hoover. When he hired her away from the future President\nto join Metro as Louis\u2019 executive secretary and assistant, she was\nthought to be Jewish. But Ida Raynus--her maiden name--was a widow with\nScottish blood. And her Scottish pride kept her from asking Louis for\na raise. For twenty-five years, she was held at her starting salary of\n$250 a week.\nOn that comparative pittance she had more power than anybody in our\ntown over stars earning forty times more than she did; over the whole\nproduct of Loew\u2019s, a quarter-billion-dollar empire; over Mayer himself,\nwho pulled down a total of $15,000,000 over the years and preened his\nfeathers every time the newspapers tagged him the world\u2019s highest-paid\nexecutive. Until they came to a parting of the ways, she was the only\nliving soul in Hollywood he would listen to when she told him what was\nwhat and why.\nIn next to no time Ida was all but running the studio from her office\nnext to his. Louis never personally made a picture in his life; didn\u2019t\nknow how. That was left to Irving Thalberg, the slim, neurotic wonder\nboy who could carry the plot and production details of half a dozen\npictures simultaneously in his head. The sheer strain made him a\nnervous wreck, with a trick of sitting in conference with a box of\nkitchen matches, carefully breaking every stick into tiny pieces and\npiling the bits in a mixing bowl on his desk.\nLouis, however, was the impresario, who prided himself on knowing\nintimately what made the human heart tick. Nobody on the lot could\noutdo him at chewing scenery when the mood came on him. This thwarted\nthespian was a hypochondriac who could faint to order, fake a heart\nattack to win an argument or stave off somebody\u2019s salary increase. He\nwould project anger, indignation, piteous pleading, or tears like a\nhome movie show.\nOne of his favorite songs was \u201cThe Rosary.\u201d He would weep buckets just\ntalking about it. He thought there was a fine picture idea in the\nlyrics and assigned two of his favorite writers to create a script.\nAfter nine months\u2019 hard labor they turned in their typescript. He\ndiscovered their story was set in a New Orleans whorehouse. That was\nthe last assignment they ever got from the outraged Mr. Mayer.\nAs Louis concentrated increasingly on playing god, more and more\nresponsibility fell on Ida\u2019s shoulders. She set up the talent\nschool that trained a skyful of future stars who made millions for\nLoew\u2019s--Jackie Cooper, Freddie Bartholomew, Judy Garland, Mickey\nRooney, Liz Taylor, Kathryn Grayson, Donna Reed. It was Ida,\ncalled \u201cKay\u201d by her friends, who suggested having the elaborate\nsound-recording system installed which opened a whole new horizon in\nmusicals. Stars like Nelson Eddy, Jeanette MacDonald, Grace Moore,\nand Lawrence Tibbett were freed from the double burden of acting and\nsinging at the same time, because their voices could now be recorded\nseparately to the filmed movement of their lips.\nIda had the feel in her bones for talent that Mayer imagined he had.\nShe discovered a young Adonis named Spangler Arlington Brugh fresh out\nof Pomona College and saw to it that he was rechristened Robert Taylor.\nShe heard an overgrown Boy Scout sing at a Los Angeles concert, which\nis how Nelson Eddy arrived on the scene.\nIda and a handful of others, including Lionel Barrymore, were impressed\nby the movie test of a husky, beetle-browed actor from a downtown stage\nshow--he played his scene in a cut-down sarong with a flower behind\none flapping ear. \u201cA woman knows what appeals to women,\u201d was a rule\nshe worked by, so she had the test rerun for an audience of Metro\u2019s\nmessenger girls and secretaries. On the strength of the raves they\nscribbled on their comment cards, Clark Gable was signed.\nIda devised what she called \u201cthe rule of illusion\u201d that captured\ndaydreams on celluloid and convinced the public that Hollywood was\nparadise on earth. \u201cA star,\u201d she considered, \u201cmust have an unattainable\nquality.\u201d Another specification of hers: \u201cA star may drink champagne or\nnectar, but not beer.\u201d\nIda was a Christian Scientist who, incredibly in the motion-picture\nbusiness, clung to her job because, as she saw it, her special position\nof power gave her a phenomenal chance to do good. \u201cIf you can\u2019t help\nsomebody,\u201d she used to say, \u201cwhat are you put here on earth for?\u201d\nThat philosophy contrasted violently with her boss\u2019s point of view.\nHe behaved as if the earth had been invented exclusively for Louis\nB. Mayer. He gave and withheld his favors like Ivan the Terrible. If\nyou crossed him, he sought vengeance. During the filming of the first\nversion of _Ben-Hur_, its star, Francis X. Bushman, offended Mayer,\nwho saw to it that the actor was kept off the screen for the next\ntwenty-three years.\nHe tried to force his attentions on practically every actress on his\npayroll. Jeanette MacDonald had to invent an engagement and buy herself\nthe ring as a desperate sort of defense against the tubby, bespectacled\nlittle tyrant. He chased me around his desk for twelve years until\nmy contract came up for renewal. \u201cWhy don\u2019t you say yes to him for\nonce and see what happens?\u201d said Ida, before I was ushered into his\nall-white sanctum to talk a new contract.\nI found Louis in good form. \u201cWhy do you always resist me?\u201d he demanded.\n\u201cIf only you\u2019d been nice to me, we could have made beautiful music\ntogether. I could have made you the greatest star in Hollywood.\u201d\n\u201cI was wrong, Mr. Mayer. There are only two questions--when and where?\u201d\nHis blown-up ego exploded with a bang like a toy balloon. With a\nstricken look he turned on his heels and ran out the private exit of\nhis office as fast as his legs would carry him. He just liked to talk\nabout it. (I might add that my contract was not renewed.)\nLouis owned a stableful of race horses; Ida lived simply. She once\ninscribed a photograph to our friend, Virginia Kellogg, who was a\nscript writer until she married director Frank Lloyd. \u201cI would rather\nhave the small worries of too little,\u201d Ida wrote, \u201cthan the empty\nsatisfaction of too much.\u201d\nShe lived in a rented apartment, drove a Dodge that Mayer gave her in\na rare burst of generosity. In the evenings she listened to music or\nplayed her grand piano, which was one of the great joys of her life. Or\nshe embroidered petit point bags as gifts for friends. What money she\ncould save, she used as down payments on little houses, which she\u2019d do\nover and resell at a small profit.\nHoward Hughes wanted her with him at RKO, offered her three times the\nsalary she was making. She refused. She had too high a regard for\nHoward. She knew that if she walked out on Mayer, it would set him\noff on a vendetta to destroy Howard Hughes, and Louis, with Hearst\u2019s\nfriendship, had the power to do him a lot of harm.\nShe was more than Mayer\u2019s conscience; she was his entree to Republican\npolitics. Through Ida, he snuggled up close to Herbert Hoover, begged\nHearst to jump on the Hoover bandwagon, got himself chosen as a\ndelegate to the Republican National Convention in Kansas City that\nresulted in the Great Engineer succeeding silent Cal Coolidge in the\nWhite House.\nGrateful for Mayer\u2019s support, the new President invited Louis and his\nfaithful wife Margaret to Washington as his first informal guests after\nthe inaugural. Hearst, who saw a lot of Louis now that Cosmopolitan\nPictures was under Metro\u2019s wing, gave the visit the full treatment in\nhis newspapers, which was oil to Louis\u2019 ego.\nHe thought he was really going places then, with the President in his\npocket. A place in the Cabinet? An ambassadorship? When years passed\nand none of his pipe dreams came true, he pinned the blame on Ida.\nSuddenly she could do nothing right for him.\nHe fumed because he had to pass her next-door office and see her\nwhenever he went out his own door. She was running the show instead of\nhim, he raged. She was usurping the power that was his. He turned on\nher like a tiger. That was Mayer\u2019s way. But she had too many friends\nfor him to reach her at that time.\nAnother woman and, indirectly, another President saved Ida from Mayer\u2019s\nfury. The woman was Mabel Walker Willebrand, a brilliant attorney. The\nPresident was Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who was now in the White House\nwith a Congress behind him that was out for Mayer\u2019s hide. I met FDR\nonly once, and that in his White House office. \u201cYou\u2019d have been a great\nactor if you hadn\u2019t been President,\u201d I said, \u201cbut I\u2019m never going to\ncome and see you again.\u201d\n\u201cWhy not?\u201d\n\u201cBecause I\u2019m a Republican, and if I saw you again, you might turn me\ninto a Democrat.\u201d He laughed so hard and tipped back in his chair so\nfar I was scared he\u2019d topple clean out of it.\nBut the Democrats weren\u2019t laughing at Louis. They were gunning for him\nwith a reform bill that included a provision stating that breeders of\nrace horses could claim no depreciation and write off no losses unless\nthe stables were their stock in trade or principal business. That\npinpointed Louis. His prodigal style of living demanded some income\nbenefit from his stables. The staggering take he enjoyed from Metro put\nhim up in solitary splendor in the ninety per cent tax bracket when a\nbite that size was virtually unheard of. If the bill were voted into\nlaw, he was going to bleed.\nHe had two key allies when he took on Congress: an accountant, Mr.\nStern, who was paid the princely sum of $100 a week for taking care of\nLouis\u2019 personal bookkeeping, and Mabel Willebrand, who earned as much\nas $75,000 a year as his attorney. Out of her Washington office she\nbattled to stave off the new bill. In the middle of the fight she came\nto Culver City to confer with Louis. She found he wanted to devote the\ntime to denouncing Ida Koverman, whose value to the studio was well\nknown by Mabel.\nHe paced his thick white carpet, pausing only to stand in front of the\nmirror in the room to admire the effect he hoped he was making. \u201cKay\nKoverman talks too much,\u201d he raved. \u201cI\u2019ve got to get rid of her. People\ndon\u2019t want me to, but I will.\u201d\n\u201cMr. Mayer,\u201d cut in Mabel, \u201cwe have to work day and night to keep this\ntax measure from passing. I need your cooperation and Kay\u2019s too. I\nwill tell you right now that unless I can have her help with yours and\nunless you keep her on the payroll, we can\u2019t possibly win.\u201d\nThat stopped him in his tracks, and not in front of the mirror. He\nwriggled like a struck fish trying to get off the hook, but Mabel\nwouldn\u2019t let him free. Finally, he swallowed her line of argument. \u201cAnd\nyou can have unlimited money to hire anybody else you think we need,\u201d\nhe said, in a typical complete turnabout.\nBut Mabel needed nothing extra except Ida\u2019s experience and wisdom in\ndeveloping her strategy. Ida had been in the habit of making half a\ndozen trips a year to Washington to lobby for MGM interests. In joint\nSenate-House committee the tax bill was beaten by just one vote. Mr.\nMayer said his thank-you to Mabel, but made it clear that he couldn\u2019t\nreally give her any credit. After all, wasn\u2019t it the magic name of\nMayer that had worked the trick in Washington? She didn\u2019t enlighten\nhim, but she made a bargain. To make sure Ida was kept in her job,\nMabel Walker Willebrand waived her fee for a period of one year for\nwhat she\u2019d achieved.\nIda went on working way into her seventies, her back still straight as\na ramrod, her hair iron-gray. \u201cI wouldn\u2019t have to do it,\u201d she used to\nconfide, \u201cif I\u2019d provided for myself when I was younger.\u201d Mayer refused\nto put her on the studio\u2019s old-age pension scheme. It was discovered\nlater that her entire estate, including furniture, pictures, and\ninsurance policies, amounted to less than $20,000. After twenty-two\nyears of it she suffered a stroke and had to go into the hospital,\nwhere it was feared she would never walk again. She was forced to sell\nher car to pay her medical bills. Mayer didn\u2019t lift a finger to help.\nVisiting her in the hospital, I remembered a call I\u2019d made on Louis\nwhen he didn\u2019t know a horse\u2019s head from its tail and consequently got\nhimself pitched out of the saddle in the middle of a riding lesson. He\nlanded with such a thump that he broke his coccyx. I found him lying in\na hammock strung over the hospital bed, and roared with laughter.\n\u201cWhat\u2019s so funny?\u201d he said.\n\u201cYou. Everybody in town has longed to see your ass in a sling, and you\nfinally made it.\u201d\nThe room looked like a gangster\u2019s funeral. There were trees of orchids\nand roses, forests of gardenias and camellias. Ginny Simms, whom he was\nsquiring at the time, had contributed a full-sized cradle overflowing\nwith roses that played \u201cBye, Bye, Baby Bunting\u201d when you rocked it.\nLouis proudly handed me for admiration a sheaf of get-well telegrams\nand letters, among them a missive from the then Archbishop Francis\nSpellman returning a check for $10,000--Louis didn\u2019t miss a trick in\ntrying to win friends and influence people. The archbishop sent his\nthanks, \u201cbut I am sure you must have many charities of your own.\u201d I had\nto read that letter first, aloud.\n\u201cIsn\u2019t that beautiful?\u201d said Mayer, his eyes ready to pour tears down\nhis cheeks.\n\u201cNot in the least,\u201d I said. \u201cI\u2019m certain he expected at least $50,000\nfrom a man of your wealth and standing.\u201d\n\u201cHaven\u2019t you any sentiment?\u201d wailed Louis.\n\u201cNone. I\u2019m a realist and believe in calling a spade a spade.\u201d\nAs Ida\u2019s bills piled up and weeks stretched into months of illness, he\ncame up with the noble thought that she ought to go into the Motion\nPicture Relief Home, where she could live and receive treatment free.\nHe had Howard Strickling telephone to sound me out about the idea. \u201cLet\nhim do that and he\u2019ll be sorry he was ever born,\u201d I said as I slammed\ndown the receiver.\nThe only alternative open to her seemed to be to sell her grand piano.\nTwo moving men were actually inside her apartment carting off her pride\nand joy before her heart began to harden and she decided to fight.\nWe need to flash-back here to Dore Schary, necktie salesman turned\npress agent, screen writer turned producer, who had gone the\nrounds of most of the studios--Columbia, Universal, Warners, Fox,\nParamount--before he went to Metro. Starting in 1941, he had a\nphenomenally successful year and a half, making low-budget hits like\n_Journey for Margaret_ and _Lost Angel_. Schary considered himself\nan intellectual and was happy to be known as a liberal. He thought\npictures should carry a social message, not exist exclusively on their\nmerits as entertainment. \u201cMovies,\u201d he said, \u201cmust reflect what is going\non in the world.\u201d Quite a few other people working in Hollywood felt\nthe same way.\nFor twenty-five years a running fight was waged in our industry over\n\u201cmessages\u201d in movies. Among those who fought to keep them out, you\ncould number John Wayne; Walt Disney; Ward Bond; Clark Gable; John\nFord; Pat O\u2019Brien; Sam Wood, who directed _For Whom the Bell Tolls_;\nGary Cooper; James McGuinness, an executive producer at Metro who\nliterally worked himself to death in the cause; and myself. On the\nother side stood some equally dedicated people who were convinced they\nwere battling fascism in the days when Hitler, Mussolini, and the\nJapanese war lords threatened the world. Many of these politically\nunsophisticated innocents were used mercilessly by another group who\nset out in the thirties to infiltrate Hollywood--the Communists.\nThey were all in favor of propaganda messages; tried to squeeze them\ninto every possible picture. A hard core of professional conspirators\nbaited the hook to land the big stars, to use them to glamorize,\nendorse, and spread the party line. The strategy paid off. So did many\nstars who fell for it. They were soaked for millions of dollars in\ncontributions to the party itself and its \u201cfront\u201d organizations, like\nthe Hollywood Anti-Nazi League, which had four thousand dues-paying\nmembers at its peak. Leader of the Communist faction was John Howard\nLawson, who organized the Screen Writers Guild. He had forty or fifty\ncard-carrying colleagues to help him manipulate the strings that\nstretched throughout our town and controlled the dupes.\nLawson and his gang flourished in the thirties and during the war\nyears. They got what they wanted by convincing the stooge writers,\ndirectors, and stars who fell for what was called the \u201cprogressive\u201d\nline that they were serving humanity by turning out pictures dealing\nwith \u201creal life.\u201d That meant throwing patriotic themes to the winds\nand focusing instead on bigotry, injustice, miscegenation, hunger,\nand corruption. What did it matter if audiences still hankered\nfor entertainment and stayed away from most \u201cmessage\u201d pictures in\ndroves? The Communist answer was: \u201cBetter to make a flop with social\nsignificance than a hit for the decadent bourgeoisie.\u201d\nAfter World War II was over, however, the decline at the box office\nof \u201cmessage\u201d movies finally persuaded the industry as a whole that it\nwas poor business to persist in foisting off \u201cmessages\u201d on to the\npublic. It was a decision that combined one per cent of patriotism\nwith ninety-nine per cent of public relations and avidity for profits.\nBattling communism has never been easy in a town where Sam Goldwyn once\nconfessed: \u201cI\u2019d hire the devil himself as a writer if he gave me a good\nstory.\u201d\nDore Schary and Metro came to a parting of the ways over a \u201cmessage\u201d\npicture in 1943. He wanted to film a script called _Storm in the West_,\nwhich was to be a sort of Western, only the villains would be easily\nidentifiable as Hitler and Mussolini. Metro\u2019s executive committee\nwouldn\u2019t swallow that, but Schary refused to yield, and Mayer released\nhim pronto from his $2000 a week contract.\nDavid Selznick immediately picked up Schary as a producer for David\u2019s\nnew Vanguard company. Then when Vanguard was put on ice, he farmed Dore\nout to RKO, later let him join that studio as its head of production.\nThat job lasted until Howard Hughes, who had meantime bought RKO,\ncriticized another movie, _Battleground_, that Schary badly wanted to\ndo. So contract number three was torn up, and Schary was at liberty\nagain.\nThis was now 1948, and the anti-Communist campaign in Hollywood\nwas out in the wide, open newspaper spaces. The town had endured a\nstrike sparked by Communists, which saw John Howard Lawson and his\n\u201cprogressives\u201d marching in picket lines around Warner Brothers studio\nin Burbank. After one of these \u201cpeaceful demonstrations,\u201d seven tons\nof broken bottles, rocks, chains, brickbats, and similar tokens of\naffection were cleaned up from streets in the area. Congressman J.\nParnell Thomas steered his House of Representatives Un-American\nActivities Committee to investigate our labor troubles, check into\npropaganda in our pictures, and make a name for himself in the\nheadlines.\nForty-one people from the movie industry were called to Washington to\ntestify before the House investigators. Nineteen of them announced in\nadvance that they weren\u2019t going to answer any questions as a matter\nof principle. So the Committee for the First Amendment blossomed\novernight. That amendment to the Constitution, remember, guarantees\nfreedom of religion, speech, of the press, and right of petition. The\ncommittee which was christened for it covered John Huston, Humphrey\nBogart, Lauren Bacall, Evelyn Keyes, and a whole lot more.\nThey sashayed off to Washington the day Eric Johnston, president of\nthe Motion Picture Association of America, was due to testify. The\nproducers had been shouting \u201cwitch hunt.\u201d They took full-page ads\nalleging that the industry was being persecuted. Bogey and Betty Bacall\nand the rest thought they\u2019d lend their lustrous presence in the hearing\nroom to support Johnston.\nBut Parnell Thomas pulled a fast one on them. The first witness put on\nthe stand wasn\u2019t Johnston but John Howard Lawson, who screamed abuse\nand yelled \u201cSmear!\u201d until the guards had to be called. In evidence\nagainst him there was a copy of his membership card in the Communist\nparty. There were nine more cards on view, too, to identify the full\ncomplement of the group that came to be known as the \u201cHollywood Ten\u201d:\nLawson, Albert Maltz, Samuel Ornitz, Herbert Biberman, Adrian Scott,\nLester Cole, Ring Lardner, Jr., Dalton Trumbo, Edward Dmytryk, and\nAlvah Bessie.\nOn their sorrowful way home from Washington, Bogey, Betty, John Huston,\nand Evelyn Keyes limped into my living room. I poured a drink or two,\nand we got to talking. They\u2019d been had, and they knew it. I wanted to\nknow from Bogey how they could have let themselves be suckered in. When\nBogey started to answer, John Huston interrupted him.\nIt hadn\u2019t been a good day for Bogey. He turned on John to get some of\nthe steam out of his system. \u201cListen,\u201d he snarled, \u201cthe First Amendment\nguarantees free speech. That\u2019s how we got dragged into this thing. Now\nwhen I try to talk, you\u2019re trying to deprive me of my rights. Well, the\nhell with you. I\u2019ll have another drink.\u201d And he talked. In fact, they\nall did.\nOne of the witnesses before the House committee was Dore Schary. He\nwas called to Washington along with producer Adrian Scott and director\nEdward Dmytryk, who had worked for him on _Crossfire_. He made no\nbones about his admiration for their work. As for the \u201cHollywood Ten,\u201d\nhe believed--in the words of one reporter--that they \u201chad a right to\nwhatever they believed and did not necessarily deserve to be thrown to\nthe dogs if it served the best interests of the producers.\u201d\nThe committee\u2019s chief investigator, Robert Stripling, asked: \u201cNow, Mr.\nSchary, as an executive of RKO, what is the policy of your company in\nregard to the employment of ... Communists?\u201d\nSchary replied: \u201cThat policy, I imagine, will have to be determined\nby the president, the board, and myself. I can tell you personally\nwhat I feel. Up until the time it is proved that a Communist is a man\ndedicated to the overthrow of the government by force or violence, I\ncannot make any determination of his employment on any basis other than\nwhether he is qualified best to do the job I want him to do.\u201d\nThat made him a controversial figure in some people\u2019s judgment. When\nNick Schenck wanted to see Schary, he flew out in secret from New York\nto avoid getting involved in the probing of communism, which was still\ndrawing blood in our town.\nNick, the soft-spoken boss of Loew\u2019s who directed the world-wide empire\nand its 14,000 employees from his New York office, had a monumental\nmission to perform. He had come to take a look at Dore Schary, whom\nLouis B. Mayer now wanted back at Metro as vice president in charge\nof all productions, as Irving Thalberg\u2019s successor, as Mayer\u2019s crown\nprince. And Schary was insisting that if he took the job, Louis would\nhave to keep his hands off Dore\u2019s key decisions.\nNick Schenck approved of the plan. Schary received contract number\nfour--seven years \u201cin charge of production\u201d at $6000 a week. He\nstarted in on July 1, 1948. In my July 19 column, I wrote: \u201cIt will be\nironically amusing to watch some of the scenes behind the scenes now\nthat Dore Schary is the Big Noise at Metro-Goldwyn-Moscow. He testified\non the opposite side of the fence in Washington from Robert Taylor,\nJames K. McGuinness, Louis B. Mayer, Sam Wood, and other men with whom\nhe will work....\u201d\nAs soon as he read that, Mayer shut the studio gate in my face. But I\ndidn\u2019t have to go there to get news; my friends inside telephoned me\nevery day. Two weeks later Louis telephoned: \u201cI\u2019ve got to see you.\u201d\n\u201cImpossible. How can you? You barred me from the studio.\u201d\n\u201cI mean at your house.\u201d\n\u201cLouis,\u201d I said, \u201cfun\u2019s fun. What makes you think you can come into my\nhome when I can\u2019t go into your studio? Turnabout is fair play.\u201d\nBut he badgered and bullied and begged until I agreed to see him at\nfive o\u2019clock that afternoon. He was standing on the doorstep as the\nclock struck. He came in, and we shouted at each other for an hour.\n\u201cHow could you do this to me, write such a column?\u201d he kept bellowing.\n\u201cHow could you do it to yourself and the studio? You fired him for\nputting messages in your pictures. Now you take him back as head man.\nYou don\u2019t agree with anything he stands for. But you\u2019ve given him the\npower to do as he likes, and he\u2019ll get you out.\u201d\n\u201cYou don\u2019t know what you\u2019re talking about. Besides, who else was there?\u201d\nI\u2019d never seen fear in his face before. I saw it then. Before he left,\nhe invited me to breakfast the next morning at his house on Benedict\nCanyon. I guessed what would happen there.\nWe were having a second cup of coffee when the doorbell rang. Somebody\ncame in. I didn\u2019t turn around. \u201cDore just arrived,\u201d Mayer said. \u201cWill\nyou speak to him?\u201d Of course. Moving into the library where Schary was\nwaiting, Louis muttered a brief hello, then left us.\n\u201cYou were mighty hard on me, weren\u2019t you?\u201d asked Schary.\n\u201cI intended to be,\u201d I said. \u201cI think messages should be sent by Western\nUnion. I don\u2019t believe they have any place in motion pictures. Your\npolitics should be a thing apart from your business.\u201d\n\u201cIf I promise to put no more messages in my pictures, will you be my\nfriend?\u201d\n\u201cYes. But I doubt whether you can. You\u2019re too full of your own ideas.\u201d\n\u201cYou have my promise. Will you shake hands on that?\u201d We shook hands,\nbut I gave him fair warning: \u201cThe moment you start putting messages in,\nI\u2019ll be on your back again.\u201d But, sure enough, the \u201cmessage\u201d pictures\ngot into production again.\nThis was the time that Ida Koverman faced stark poverty through her\nprolonged illness. She had to have a job. I went to Schary and asked\nhim to take her back on the payroll. He was only too willing to have\nher. He needed her.\nIda went back on salary for the last five years left to her. She had\nto walk with a cane for those years. The cane appeared the day she\nreturned to Culver City in a black limousine, which carried her from\nset to set. Clutching the cane, she made her entrances to cheers,\ncrowds, and an outpouring of affection from everyone who saw her. On\nher last Christmas on earth I dropped by on my way home from the office\nto give her a check. I asked: \u201cWhat did Louis send you?\u201d\n\u201cGo into the living room. You\u2019ll find a shoe box. Take off the lid and\nyou\u2019ll see.\u201d It was filled with homemade cookies.\nWhile I was at her home, a huge silver bowl containing five dozen\nAmerican Beauty roses arrived from K. T. Keller, president of Chrysler\nMotors Corporation. When I got back to my house, I called Louis Lurie,\na friend of Louis B. Mayer, told him what had happened, and asked him\nto mail a check to Ida immediately, so she\u2019d have it Christmas Day. He\nwrote a check on the spot for $250.\nShe lived to see King Louis deposed from his throne. It couldn\u2019t\nhave given her any joy, because she wasn\u2019t that kind of woman. The\nmammoth studio, in spite of all its stars and resources, was being\ndriven to the wall by this thing called television, which Hollywood\ndespised. Metro lost millions when Mayer was in charge of production\nin the late forties. When Schary took over the job, there were some\nearly money-makers, but not enough to offset the other kind, which he\ncouldn\u2019t resist making.\nTime and again he crossed swords with Louis. If the dueling threatened\nto go against him, he was quick to appeal to Nick Schenck for support.\nIn the end Schenck had to choose between Mayer and Schary. He chose\nSchary, who in turn was ousted years later and, when he left, collected\na million dollars. Louis spent the rest of his life burning with\nhatred, trying in vain to take over MGM in legal battle he could never\nwin. At his funeral Jeanette MacDonald appeared to sing \u201cAh, Sweet\nMystery of Life.\u201d\nThe fight against communism waxed and waned; so did the newspaper\nheadlines. It took me off on a two-year lecture tour of twenty-four\ncities. I found myself the second vice president--the first was Charles\nCoburn--of an organization called the Motion Picture Alliance for the\nPreservation of American Ideals. John Wayne was president. As the\nCongressional probing continued, the studio bosses, true to form,\nshoved their heads into the sands like ostriches and, to protect the\nmillions invested in unshown movies, hoped that trouble would simply\ngo away. People like me, who dared to mention that trouble was still\nhanging around, discovered that strange things happened to them. Like\nthe subpoena from Washington that didn\u2019t exist.\n_Variety_ weighed in to report news of trouble ahead for Hopper:\n            HEDDA\u2019S RED RAP\n            STIRS STUDIO TALK\n            OF FILM REPRISAL\n    Hedda Hopper\u2019s columnizing that she \u201cknows\u201d the names\n    of many Reds in Hollywood--with a resulting subpoena by\n    the House Un-American Activities Committee--has some\n    publicity-advertising toppers of major companies doing a quiet\n    canvass among themselves of what their studios\u2019 attitude should\n    be toward the syndicated writer.\n    Their thought is that Miss Hopper has a perfect right to say\n    whatever she pleases. However, she is largely dependent on\n    studio press aid for news, and there\u2019s some question as to\n    whether such cooperation should be continued....\n    Although the pub-ad chieftains--and presumably company heads\n    and other execs--are sizzling at Miss Hopper for further\n    needling the Washington probe, probability is that there will\n    be no concerted action to cut off her news sources or otherwise\n    penalize her. Similar thoughts have arisen in the past\n    concerning other columnists and have never worked out.\n    Industry execs feel that not only Miss Hopper, but all writers\n    whose living depends on Hollywood should take a cooperative\n    attitude.\nThe truth was that no subpoena had been issued, and none ever was.\nSomeone had planted the story on that unsuspecting publication. Of all\nthe items about me that were printed in its columns over the months\nahead, only one hurt. That was a front-page, banner-lined interview\nwith George Sokolsky, the Hearst political commentator and an old\nfriend. He\u2019d wept openly on my shoulder--I top him by an inch or two\nin high heels--at the 1952 Republican convention in Chicago when Ike\nEisenhower walked off with the nomination instead of Bob Taft.\nWhen George arrived in Los Angeles on a lecture tour, he was nabbed by\na _Variety_ reporter and quoted as saying that Hopper was a political\nbabe in arms. That stung. A year went by before I got a chance to set\nhim straight--in an elevator descending to the lobby of the Waldorf\nTowers in New York. I felt better when he wrote me afterward:\n    I was asked a question which did not include your name and\n    which I answered without knowing it referred to you. When the\n    question and answer appeared in print, I was chagrined to find\n    that it was made to apply to you personally.... We differ\n    slightly on methods, but that is not as important as that we\n    agree in principle. I regard myself as a missionary trying to\n    win back the lost souls.... Perhaps your sterner creed is more\n    correct than mine, and I do not want ever to quarrel with you\n    over this particular difference. You must do it your way, and I\n    shall have to do it mine. Please forgive me.\nThe pot shots loosed off in my direction from some quarters of our\ntown didn\u2019t cost me any sleep. I was raised to believe in the stern\ntradition of \u201cSticks and stones may break your bones, but words can\nnever hurt you.\u201d Abraham Lincoln put it a touch more graciously: \u201cIf\nI were to read, much less to answer, all the attacks on me, this shop\nmight as well be closed for any other business.\u201d I believe in that,\ntoo; the quote is printed on a sign that stands on my desk.\nHollywood\u2019s top brass is used to buying things, but they couldn\u2019t buy\nme or my silence. Dore Schary once offered to put the Hopper name up on\na big Broadway sign, but it wasn\u2019t hard to refuse that bit of coaxing.\nAll the major producers threatened to pull their advertising out of the\nLos Angeles _Times_ unless I sweetened up my printed opinions of their\npictures. That suited Publisher Norman Chandler just fine. Advertising\nspace was very tight, Norman told them. \u201cI like the way Miss Hopper\nexpresses herself, and you\u2019ll be doing me a service if you cut back on\nads.\u201d They didn\u2019t cancel a line. I didn\u2019t hear about this until three\nyears later. Everybody should have a friend like Norman Chandler.\nI was flattered in a different way to learn that _Confidential_ had its\nWest Coast gumshoe toiling for six months to find something to pin on\nme, past or present. Howard Rushmore reported that they finally quit\nempty-handed. \u201cWe wasted our time,\u201d he said dolefully.\n\u201cI could have told you that before you started. I\u2019ve never knuckled\ndown to anyone in Hollywood. I\u2019m not beholden to anybody, and I\u2019ve\nnever had romances with any one of them from the day I came out here.\u201d\nIt\u2019s impossible to talk about movie politics without finding John Wayne\non camera hammering away with both fists. He\u2019s a rock-ribbed Republican\nwho wears his creed like a medal. It\u2019s affected his popularity no more\nthan Frank Sinatra\u2019s been hurt by his sympathies for the other side of\nthe street.\nDuke Wayne had no hand in politics until he smelled that Communists\nwere infiltrating the movie business. Then he sat down in James\nMcGuinness\u2019 house one night with Sam Wood, Adolphe Menjou, writer\nMorris Ryskind, Ward Bond, Leo McCarey, and Roy Brewer of the A.F. of\nL. That\u2019s how the Motion Picture Alliance was born.\nDuke likes to tell about a producer who warned him the next morning:\n\u201cYou\u2019ve got to get out of that MPA. You\u2019re becoming a controversial\nfigure. It will kill you at the box office. You will hit the skids.\u201d He\nsays: \u201cI hit the skids all right. When I became president of the MPA in\n1948, I was thirty-third in the ratings of box-office leaders. A year\nlater I skidded right up to first place.\u201d\nHe occasionally hankers after the days, thirty-four years and more than\n150 movies ago, when he was the easygoing ex-prop man making his first\nMonogram picture on a total budget of $11,000. \u201cWe couldn\u2019t afford more\nthan one horse. So in the first scene I had to knock out the heavy and\nsteal the horse.\u201d His political faith is simple enough. For America:\n\u201cI\u2019m for the liberty of the individual.\u201d Overseas: \u201cWe\u2019ve permitted the\nworld to think of us as big soft jerks who\u2019re trying to buy our way\nwith money.\u201d\nFor all the burning of midnight oil he\u2019s done as a hard-hitting\nbusinessman producing movies like _The Alamo_, he hasn\u2019t managed to\nreap great profits. \u201cI have a pretty tough partner in Uncle Sam. I\u2019m\nnot squawking, but he\u2019s taken a little of it.\u201d _The Alamo_, on which he\ngambled his entire bankroll of $1,500,000, has done well in the United\nStates and cleaned up overseas.\nDuke\u2019s a kind of patriarch, with four children born to his first wife,\nJosephine Saenz, whom he married when he was toiling in the slave\nmarket of cowboy serials. Those children have now supplied him with\nfour grandchildren, and by his third wife, Pilar Palette, he has a\ndelightful daughter, Aissa, and a son, John Ethan. When Aissa was in\nher cradle, he set the beatniks around Schwab\u2019s drugstore on their ears\nby striding in straight from work in full Western regalia one evening\ndemanding: \u201cGive me an enema nipple, small size, for a sick baby.\u201d\nHis middle wife was a Mexican tamale named Esperanza Baur. As a warm-up\nto grabbing headlines with vitriolic accusations against him, \u201cChata\u201d\nWayne dispatched two detectives to spy on him in her native land, where\nDuke was filming _Hondo_. The two not-very-private eyes unfortunately\ngot themselves arrested and thrown into jail. It took Duke to get them\nout.\n\u201cOne had acute appendicitis. The doctor wanted to operate. You know\nthe reputation of Mexican doctors. If anything had happened, I\u2019d have\nbeen blamed. So I got a plane and got them out of there, over to the\nAmerican side of the border. Then there could be no reflection on me if\nanything happened.\u201d\nToday, at fifty-five, he still stands six feet six in his Western\nboots (\u201cMost comfortable things in the world if you have them made to\norder\u201d) and behaves like a twenty-five-year-old when the script calls\nfor action and he\u2019s \u201con.\u201d For _Hatari_, shot in Africa in 1962, he was\npulling stunts like lassoing rhinos, missing disaster by inches when\none of them charged his open truck.\nHe isn\u2019t a man who goes out much, though he always comes to my parties\nearly and stays late, talking a blue streak. \u201cI don\u2019t think the\nindustry is going on the rocks,\u201d he decided not long ago. \u201cWe\u2019ve hit as\nlow a point as we can go, and we can\u2019t get anything but better.\u201d\nHow does he explain his own popularity? \u201cIt\u2019s very simple. I never do\nanything that makes any guy sitting out there in the audience feel\nuncomfortable. So when the little woman says, \u2018Let\u2019s go to the show,\u2019\nthe guy says, \u2018Let\u2019s see the John Wayne picture,\u2019 because he knows I\nwon\u2019t humiliate him. I think the guys pull the girls in.\u201d\nHe wanted to get into Russia to make _The Conqueror_, the first United\nStates picture shot there, but the deal fell through. When a certain TV\ncelebrity received the Kremlin\u2019s permission to film a television show\nbehind the Iron Curtain, Duke asked: \u201cIf they let you in, why not me?\u201d\n\u201cWe\u2019ve never said anything about the Russians.\u201d\nDuke Wayne grinned. \u201cThat\u2019s the difference. I have.\u201d\n_Seventeen_\nMaybe I look like Mother or Grandma Moses to Americans in uniform if\nthey\u2019ve been away from home long enough in far-flung places. That\u2019s the\nonly reason I could ever find for Bob Hope\u2019s wanting to take me along\non his Christmas shows overseas. The first time he invited me, I was\ntoo delirious to ask why. I haven\u2019t asked him since, and he hasn\u2019t told\nme. But whenever he calls: \u201cPack your things, Hedda, we\u2019re off,\u201d I\u2019m\nalways rarin\u2019 to go.\nYou think you know what Bob\u2019s like, but you don\u2019t until you\u2019ve seen him\non one of these safaris. We once had to wait six hours while the fuel\nwas drained out of our plane and replaced. When the pilot had stepped\naboard, he\u2019d sniffed and said: \u201cMy God, they\u2019ve filled it with jet\nfuel.\u201d Which would have blown us to hell and gone at a few thousand\nfeet. Have you ever had black coffee and Tootsie Rolls for breakfast\nat 6 A.M. five days running? No complaints from Hope. When I got home,\nI\u2019d drunk so much of the stuff I developed coffee poisoning and didn\u2019t\nrecover for a month.\nI\u2019ve watched him put on a performance in a base hospital for patients\nwho looked better than he did after he\u2019d been driven half blind with\nfatigue by army wives who wouldn\u2019t let him rest because he helped their\nhusbands\u2019 chances for another promotion. Bob can\u2019t say no to anybody.\nHe would rather entertain five hundred GI\u2019s than be handed $50,000.\nHe\u2019s looked after the money he\u2019s earned, too, though he pays as high\nas $2000 a week apiece to his team of writers. They deserve it. This\nunpredictable character, high over the Pacific, hours out on our way\nto the Far East, asked two of the team, John Rapp and Onnie Whizzen:\n\u201cHave you got that script about a sergeant and a private you wrote six\nyears back but we didn\u2019t use?\u201d So help me, they fished it out of one\nof their bags and passed it to him.\nHe can joke about his money, along with religion, politics, and the\nKennedys. \u201cSince it was reported that I\u2019m worth around $30,000,000,\u201d he\ntold me recently, \u201cbusloads of relatives have arrived at the house. We\nhave \u2019em standing in corners instead of floor lamps.\u201d\nHe\u2019s irreverent, but never a dirty word does he utter, nor does he\ntake the Lord\u2019s name in vain. I\u2019ve been with him days on end, and I\u2019ve\nyet to hear a cuss word out of him. Came the night that Hollywood and\nAmerica honored him at a banquet as the number-one citizen of our\nindustry, and Jack Benny stood up to make a speech. \u201cI hadn\u2019t seen Bob\nfor ten months until I ran into him on the golf course,\u201d said Jack,\nwho\u2019d arrived an hour late for the celebration after dining at home.\n\u201cHe stood there and said: \u2018I\u2019ve had the god-damndest time with this\nball today....\u2019\u201d We sat there in silence, not believing it.\nBob can\u2019t stay home, can\u2019t sit still any more than Jack can. And at\nparties Jack\u2019s the champion floor pacer, stanchly refusing to dance. \u201cI\ndon\u2019t have to,\u201d he says. \u201cI don\u2019t have to prove myself. I did that in\nmy youth.\u201d\nDolores Hope--they were married twenty-eight years ago--and their\nfour adopted children haven\u2019t seen Bob at home for the past eight\nChristmases. If there\u2019s any loneliness in her life, which I doubt,\nreligion fills it--she\u2019s a devout Catholic, who used to preach to me.\nWe spent an hour and a half together driving from Beverly Hills to\nSanta Ana during the war. My mind was on my son, Bill, who was away\nin the Pacific, so when she started on religion, Dolores did all the\ntalking by default.\nAt the end of the ride, she apologized: \u201cI guess I talked too long\nabout the faith.\u201d\n\u201cOnly about ninety minutes too long,\u201d said I. Now she leaves the\nattempts at conversion to another good friend of mine, Father Edward\nMurphy, but we\u2019ll come to him farther along.\nI spent wonderful Christmases with Bob and his troupe. There was Thule\nAir Base, where our servicemen hadn\u2019t seen a woman in two years except\nfive homely nurses. Anita Ekberg was one of our party. For stark\nhorror, you couldn\u2019t beat the looks on those GI faces when she was\ntold to cover up in a fur coat because her gown had a low-and-behold\nneckline.\nNot a dry eye in the house when we sang \u201cAuld Lang Syne.\u201d A colonel got\ncarried away and said to me: \u201cDo you mind if I kiss you? You remind me\nof my mother.\u201d He couldn\u2019t have been a day over fifty-five.\nThe following year it was Alaska, with Hopper wrapped up against the\ncold like an Eskimo. \u201cIf you want anything, just ask,\u201d they told Ginger\nRogers and me, so we had breakfast in bed in rooms as hot as hell\u2019s\nboilerhouse. Outdoors, even cameras froze if you lingered longer than\nfifteen minutes.\nOne year we discovered that the rain in Spain fell mainly on us; that\nday Gina Lollobrigida and the John Lodges joined us. Another Christmas\nDay we spent at a missile base in Vicenze, Italy; put on a show on the\ndeck of the aircraft carrier, _U.S.S. Forrestal_. There was a bronze\nbust of James Forrestal aboard. I stood and wept for our country\u2019s\ninjustice to this fine man. One of our group asked: \u201cWho was he?\u201d\nThere was the year we covered the South Pacific. Jayne Mansfield\nwas along, a girl it\u2019s impossible to dislike, who\u2019s kind, anxious\nto please, and willing to do anything but cover herself up. Mickey\nHargitay came, too. In the plane I peered over at the two of them in\nthe seat behind me. He was painting her toenails firehouse red. \u201cShe\u2019d\ndo the same for me,\u201d he said.\nHer fan letters followed her all through the Pacific. She\u2019d read\na fresh batch before she\u2019d eat, then gulp down a stone-cold meal\nperfectly happy--her fans had fed her. On Guam seven thousand GI\u2019s\nstood up, cheered, and took pictures of her when she walked on stage,\nparading her monumental shape. Then, at my suggestion, Bob introduced\nMickey. I should have kept my mouth shut. All seven thousand GI\u2019s\nbooed him to the echo.\nTwelve thousand marines on Okinawa marched downhill in formation to sit\non the ground in a great natural bowl and watch the show. Jayne kicked\noff her shoes and stood barefoot for an hour and a half because she\nlooked cuter that way, posing with everyone who wanted a picture taken\nwith her. She signed every autograph book, too, drawing a little heart\ninstead of a dot over the \u201ci\u201d in \u201cMansfield.\u201d\n\u201cWho\u2019s going to pay to see it,\u201d I asked Bob, \u201cwhen she gives it away?\u201d\nYears later Jayne came up with a yarn about being stranded off Nassau\nin allegedly shark-infested waters, which I can testify are so shallow\nshe could have walked to the mainland. I examined her later for\nmosquito bites; nary a dent on her back or legs. \u201cThey\u2019re higher up,\nHedda,\u201d she whispered.\nI had a special reason for feeling mighty privileged to join Bob on the\nSouth Pacific tour, and I used to explain it in talking to our fellows.\nIt made me the only woman in the world able to follow the route her son\ntook journeying from island to island to fight the Japanese.\nBill Hopper, not a bit like his father, is a shy one. The fact that he\nreached his full growth and height of six feet four when he was fifteen\nmay have something to do with it. He won\u2019t talk about the war, won\u2019t\nlet me write in my column about playing Paul Drake on the \u201cPerry Mason\u201d\nshow or the movies he makes. \u201cIf I can\u2019t make it on my own, I don\u2019t\nwant to make it\u201d is his theme song.\nIn the war he made it strictly on his own as a skin-diving member of\nthe Navy\u2019s Team Ten, Underwater Demolition. Their job was first to\nsneak in under water and survey the best spots for our landing craft\nto put ashore on islands held by the enemy. Then their mission was to\nblast clear paths through the coral, swimming through the reefs with\neighty pounds of dynamite apiece on their backs.\nOne Christmas my family and friends sent off to Bill and his buddies\npackages with such silly, homey things as miniature bottles of scotch\nand bourbon, a sniff of his wife\u2019s favorite perfume. Also included was\na little bag of earth, a publicity gimmick from one of the studios,\nlabeled \u201cThe latest dirt from Hollywood.\u201d\nBill, who doesn\u2019t lack a sense of humor, took the last item along when\nhe and his nine teammates crept ashore on one island. He left behind\nthe tiny sack as a kind of calling card. Team Ten chuckled for weeks\nimagining the face of the first invading U. S. marine who found it on\nthe beach, asking himself: \u201cHow in the name of all that\u2019s holy did this\nget here among these Japs?\u201d\nThe team discovered there was nothing to beat one particular latex\nitem, government issue, for keeping sticks of dynamite good and\nwaterproof. It was pure joy for them to figure what the Pentagon must\nhave thought about the statistics piling up in the quartermaster\ngeneral\u2019s office concerning the kind of war Team Ten was apparently\nfighting. Bill, as the tallest and huskiest, was the last aboard the\nwaiting pickup boats after the charges had been set--you had to swim\nfast because the boat couldn\u2019t hang around waiting for you. On one\nexcursion he happened to turn his head. He saw some loose dynamite\nprotectors bobbing up and down in the water after him and nearly\ndrowned laughing.\nTheir captain was a grandson of Joseph H. Choate, once ambassador to\nBritain and the godfather of DeWolf Hopper, Bill\u2019s father. Team Ten\nreceived some leave to say good-by to their families. I found out later\nthey\u2019d been chosen for the invasion of Japan. Thank heaven, they were\nin America when the war ended.\nA sense of humor is one of the essentials of this life. You can be\nrich, powerful, famous, but without a bit of fun in your nature, you\u2019re\nsomething less than human. I\u2019m not fond of psalm-singing, solemn piety\nin anybody. But match devotion with kindness and laughter, and you\u2019ve\ncompany after my own heart. It\u2019s time to talk about Father Murphy.\nHe was born in 1892 in Salem, Massachusetts, one of an Irish laborer\u2019s\neight children, and he followed an older brother into the priesthood.\nAt one time he was a student together with Fulton Sheen, but one went\non to convert the rich, the other the poor. They\u2019ve both exercised\ntheir persuasions on me, their faith, I guess, bolstering their hopes\nfor the impossible.\nAny danger of conversion by the then Monsignor Sheen was limited to\nan elevator ride I took with him from the thirty-fifth floor of the\nWaldorf Towers down to the entrance level. We\u2019d just been introduced\nby Clare Boothe Luce, who was a fellow passenger. The monsignor,\nnow bishop, has hypnotic black eyes and a magnetic presence that\u2019s\ninescapable. I was fascinated by him and his words. Then the elevator\nreached our destination. \u201cSaved by the basement!\u201d I exclaimed. \u201cTen\nmore floors and you\u2019d have had me a Catholic.\u201d He roared with laughter.\nFather Murphy, bless his heart, has tried longer. I hadn\u2019t known many\nCatholic priests until I met him at a party in Hollywood, when he was\nin our town lecturing. I fell under the spell of the soft voice and\ngentle spirit of this giant-spirited little man. In the Josephite Order\nof Missionary Priests to the Negro, he served as pastor of the St. Joan\nof Arc Church in New Orleans, was dean of the department of philosophy\nand religion at Xavier University there. He did as much for the Negro\nin that city as anyone alive today.\nThere was a young man in his parish who had gone as far as he could\nstudying sculpture in New Orleans, though it was plain to Father Murphy\nthat he could become an important sculptor, so funds were raised to\nsend him to New York. Some time later the priest found himself in that\ncity on his way to Rome by way of Paris, and he invited the young\nsculptor to luncheon. The student had a request to make--would the\npriest please serve as his eyes and report back to him every possible\ndetail, from the chisel marks to the play of light, of how the statues\nlooked in the Louvre and St. Peter\u2019s?\nFather Murphy went straight from the luncheon to the steamship office,\nwhere he exchanged his first-class ticket for two tourist berths, with\na little spending money left over. He telephoned the young Negro to\njoin him and spent two inspiring weeks in Europe seeing the greatest\nart treasures of the world through his young companion\u2019s starry eyes.\nOn the voyage home they also shared a cabin.\n\u201cFather,\u201d said the young man, \u201cmay I ask you a very personal question?\nI understand that to white people we Negroes have a distinctive odor.\nWhat do I smell like exactly?\u201d\nFather Murphy\u2019s eyes must have twinkled, as they do constantly. \u201cIt\u2019s\na little bit like burnt chestnuts.\u201d They both laughed at that. \u201cNow,\u201d\nsaid the priest, \u201cwe must have a special odor to you. What do I smell\nlike?\u201d\n\u201cWell, Father, I\u2019d say it\u2019s--it\u2019s a little bit like an old goat.\u201d\nBefore he had left Hollywood, it had been arranged that a party of us\nwould meet at the next spring\u2019s Mardi Gras and I\u2019d bought him a suit to\nreplace the one he was wearing, which was turning green with age. He\nwrote me about both items soon after he got home:\n    Brace yourself. This is probably your first \u201cmash\u201d note from\n    a dignified, almost funereal representative of the cloth, on\n    which you made a positively ripping impression. (Me for the\n    ecclesiastical tailors!) Your casual conversational reference,\n    for instance, to someone as an equine posterior (remember? even\n    though those two words are not exactly the ones you used) left\n    me limp with inner mirth.\n    Girl, I\u2019m envious for the first time in my life. With your gift\n    of gusto, what a ministry I\u2019d have had! I\u2019d have blown Negro\n    prejudice in N\u2019Orleans to smithereens and been an electrified\n    Abe Lincoln to the lowly. Henceforth mouse Murphy shall assume\n    stature and verve. In sheer defiance of incipient arthritis, he\n    shall frisk.\n    Don\u2019t forget our date for Mardi Gras. It is said on the Delta\n    that all good Americans go to N\u2019Orleans when they die, and that\n    all wise ones come while they are living. You are very wise,\nHe signed off \u201cMississipiously, Edward F. Murphy, SSJ.\u201d Letters\nover the years carried fifty-nine varieties of sign-off greetings:\n\u201cEmphaticallergically\u201d ... \u201cCon amore-and-more\u201d ... \u201cYour sancrosanctly\ndevoted friend\u201d ... \u201cDeltavowedly\u201d ... \u201cTurkishbathetically.\u201d\nHis first letter deserved a prompt reply:\n    Now you can brace yourself after that beginning. You\u2019ve won me,\n    hands down. Don\u2019t confuse that with the Church, however, as I\u2019m\n    still a Quaker. You go ahead and make your contacts for our\n    voodoo meeting down there, even if you have to hold it in the\n    church, because Frances Marion and I are-a-comin\u2019 ... God bless\n    the Irish!\nHe promised to \u201cput the curse of the seven wet-nosed orphans on the\nweatherman if he doesn\u2019t behave himself while you\u2019re here.\u201d Somebody\nmust have had influence, because the February weather was fabulous,\nand Mardi Gras turned out to be a long, nonstop ball. I didn\u2019t miss\nanything. We lunched with Mayor \u201cChep\u201d Morrison, teaed with Frances\nParkinson Keyes, nibbled chicken legs alfresco with total strangers\nsquatting on the asphalt in the middle of Canal Street.\nWe had a magnificent four-hour luncheon at Brennan\u2019s restaurant where\nevery dish had been prepared in wine, champagne, or brandy sauces.\nFather Murphy religiously abstained from anything that came by the\nbottle but ate heartily and conscientiously spooned up every last drop\nof the sauces. \u201cI\u2019m not drinking,\u201d he observed blandly, \u201cbut there\u2019s no\nrule against my not _eating_ these things.\u201d\nAt six-thirty one morning I was up and off to see King Coal, the\ncolored monarch of Mardi Gras, land at the docks with his court off a\nbarge and parade their way through the streets on trucks. Their first\nstop for a drink was at a celebrated local undertaker\u2019s parlor, which\nwas always jammed with guests for the ceremony. One year a visiting New\nYork newspaperman discovered to his terror how they made room for all\nthe celebrants. In the middle of festivities he opened the door of the\nmen\u2019s room. Three corpses, which had been stood inside upright behind\nthe door, tottered out at him, and he fled, screaming his head off.\nMy faithful new N\u2019Orleans correspondent was writing more than some of\nthe liveliest letters I\u2019d set eyes on. He has a long string of book\ncredits to his name, from _Yankee Priest_ to _Mary Magdalene_, which\nwas bought years ago by David Selznick, who retitled it _The Scarlet\nLily_ as a vehicle for Jennifer Jones. But by the time he gets around\nto making it, I suspect we may all be ringing St. Peter\u2019s doorbell.\nThe good father, too, is a fast gun with a news item.\n    And how about this front-page violent calm into which you and\n    Louella-la have flown? [he wrote during one Hollywood armistice\n    between us.] By what female magic has yesterday\u2019s equine\n    _derri\u00e8re_ become a bosom pal of today? Are you quite sure\n    that the embrace is not an _osculation de mors_ or a mutual\n    search for the most vulnerable places in each other\u2019s anatomy?\n    Well, whatever the mystery, the moral shines clear: _Anything\n    can happen_. After this, I shall not flicker an eyelash if\n    Peace descends on the human race as a certified dove--not an\n    unmistakable bucket of bricks.\nIn his early days he used to serve as weekend assistant at St.\nMichael\u2019s in New York, where he met Eddie Dowling, and a bit of grease\npaint rubbed off on Father Murphy\u2019s Irish heart. He\u2019s been an avid\nfollower of stage and screen ever since.\nNew Orleans was set on its ear when Elia Kazan went down for Fox to\nmake _Outbreak_, with Paul Douglas, Barbara Bel Geddes and Richard\nWidmark, on location there. As supporting players, Gadge rounded up\nsix hundred local characters, from B-girls to skid-row derelicts, from\ndetectives to three extras whom police spotted in the crowd and dragged\noff to prison.\nMy faithful correspondent kept his eyes peeled.\n    Well, [Elia Kazan] went the aesthetic limit the other day,\n    [he wrote,] using some genuine Orleanian streetwalkers. Of\n    course, the ladies were paid for their posing and the wear and\n    tear on their delicate constitutions. A bit later, when a\n    policeman was about to pull them in for loitering (what a name\n    for the world\u2019s oldest profession!) they haughtily gave him the\n    brush-off. \u201cWe\u2019re working for Twentieth Century-Fox now,\u201d they\n    said, swishing their skirts.\nHe had a new sign-off for that note: \u201cKazanimatedly.\u201d\nWhen a member of the actor\u2019s union led a cavalcade of stars to New\nOrleans and they were tendered a banquet at Arnaud\u2019s, Father Murphy\noutdid himself. He gave an invocation to end all invocations. It went\nsomething like this:\n    O Lord God, Creator of the Cohens, the Kellys, and the Murphys;\n    Author of the scenario of reality, from which we all play our\n    parts, some of us so badly that we get hell for our performance\n    and others brilliantly enough to achieve stardom;\n    Director of the drama of the ages, which begins with the\n    sublime curtain-raiser called Genesis, unfolds with the dreams,\n    sighs, and sins of mankind, culminates with the Atonement on\n    Calvary and ends endlessly with the unspeakable visions of the\n    Apocalypse;\n    Source of the silver screen of existence, which Hollywood\n    ingeniously reflects with a silver screen of its own on which\n    appear the animated shadows of thespians, whose fine art\n    makes fiction seem truth, so differently from many of us poor\n    preachers who succeed only in making truth seem fiction;\n    We thank you, O Lord, for this occasion that brings some of\n    the best representatives of Cinemaland into our midst. Help us\n    to honor them fittingly. Bless them for shedding the gleams of\n    their gifts into our darkening times. Save them--tonight--from\n    Bourbon Street. Inspire the mighty industry that sponsors\n    them. And, in fine, smile beneficently on the box offices of\n    the land, breathe into them a second spring and let there be\n    the financial flow that is so vital to the maintenance of an\n    enterprise without which our daily lives would be so definitely\n    drabber. Amen.\nThe one man who could hold a candle as a letter writer to Father Murphy\nwas Gene Fowler, another friend of many years. I loved him as much as I\nloved Agnes, his wife of nearly half a century. Gene and I knew each\nother well when the urge remained, but the ability in both cases had\ndeparted. I doubt whether he put a dull word on paper, whether it was a\nbook, a three-thousand-word letter, or a post card.\nAfter a dinner party for Gene and Agnes, for instance, he wrote:\n    My dear Handsome:\n    It doesn\u2019t require the prompting of Emily Post or that other\n    authority on etiquette, Polly Adler, to cause me to write a\n    note of appreciation.... As I dined and sat beside two of\n    my beloved women, I forgot my white hair and certain other\n    elements of my physical decline. For the moment I was once\n    again in the saddle (figuratively of course) and Life seemed\n    new. Upon shaving this morning, I _had_ to see the realities\n    once again, and I must confess that I abhor all mirrors.\nHe gave the years a run for their money, slowed down sometimes by\nillness but stopped only once, by a final massive heart attack.\n    I am in fine shape, [he concluded,] except for a faulty motor.\n    I have led such a clean life that I can\u2019t understand it (I mean\n    I can\u2019t understand the clean life).... But I still carry the\n    torch for you. The torch, alas! is becoming an ember, but it is\n    all I have.\nDid anybody ever write such letters?\nHe spent an evening with Gene Buck, a true friend of ours, dating back\nto the days when I commuted from Long Island to play on Broadway in\n_Six-Cylinder Love_ in the evenings and make a movie in New York with\nJack Barrymore by day. A letter from the Fowlers\u2019 home in Los Angeles\ntold about the two Genes\u2019 meeting:\n    He tried to get hold of me for four days, a thing that Sheriff\n    Biscalis always does within an hour, and if it hadn\u2019t been for\n    you, the mighty squire of Great Neck would have gone without\n    paying his disrespects to me.\n    I suppose there are just as many great people now as there ever\n    were, but it does not seem so to me. Possibly I am thinking\n    of my own youth when I recall the wonderful troupe who were\n    knocking down bottles during the early part of this century.\n    Jesus Christ, Hedda! What a wonderful tribe it was!\n    Gene and I enumerated them all and drank a toast in milk (not\n    toast and milk) to the many memories. I do not want to classify\n    you as an aged alumna, for you were just a baby ... I wish to\n    God you had been there. We would have called you, busy as you\n    are, but you were at some damned glamorous but uninteresting\n    party to a movie magnate....\n    If this sounds like a love letter, make the most of it; but,\n    note well, you will have to hurry, for Forest Lawn is sending\n    me literature.\nGene used to say: \u201cThe important thing is to see that friends, big or\nlittle, famous or otherwise, have a sincere send-off.\u201d He wrote the\nsend-off for Red Skelton\u2019s son Richard, for Jack Barrymore, for Fred\nMacMurray\u2019s first wife, Lillian, and a dozen other people. \u201cMaybe you\nwill do this kind of thing for me when my own time comes--and may I not\nkeep you waiting too long at that,\u201d he told me.\nAfter his last heart attack two years ago, I did my best, such as it\nwas, in my column: \u201cHe was as near heaven as any mortal can get. I feel\nthe loss more every day and will for the rest of my life.\u201d\nIf, nostalgically, I learned something about how to love from Gene\nFowler, I got some advice on how to live from Bernard M. Baruch. I was\nvisiting Hobcaw Barony, his South Carolina plantation, hundreds of\nacres of pines and live oaks, draped in Spanish moss with the King\u2019s\nHighway running through the middle of it. The soil\u2019s so rich you can\nthrow a seed down one day and have a plant two inches tall the next.\nOnly a handful of servants were left when I was there; the rest went\nnorth years ago. I urged Bernie to hand over the estate to the Negro\npeople as a memorial, to see what they could make of it by building\nschools, churches, a community center. But he says no: \u201cThey\u2019d think\nI was showing off.\u201d He\u2019s left it to his daughter Belle and built a\nsmall house some fifty miles away, where he spends his winters with his\ndevoted hostess-companion and nurse, Elizabeth Navarro.\nI was running up Hobcaw\u2019s great sweep of stairway when Bernie stopped\nme. \u201cLet me show you how to do it,\u201d he said. \u201cI know you\u2019re not sixteen\nany longer. Do what I do. Go up to the first landing, take five deep\nbreaths. Then go up to the next landing and take five more, and so on\nuntil you\u2019re at the top.\u201d\nI\u2019d arrived bone-weary from a lecture tour. Jimmy Byrnes, former\nSecretary of State to Harry Truman, was there with his wife to dinner.\nI\u2019m a sort of middle-class Republican, while Bernie\u2019s an intellectual\nDemocrat. He\u2019s fond of conducting his own private polls of politics,\nand I\u2019m counted on to give him an opposition point of view. So while\nBaruch, Byrnes, and other guests stood in a group in front of the\nfireplace debating the affairs of the nation, Hopper sat on a sofa,\nears tuned in until my head began to nod. The next thing I knew was\nBernie\u2019s tap on my shoulder. \u201cCome now, it\u2019s time for you to retire.\u201d\n\u201cBut you haven\u2019t finished your discussion,\u201d I protested.\n\u201cNo, but you have.\u201d\nI fell asleep hours later in a huge bedroom with four picture windows\nin two of its walls. Through each of them I could see and hear the\nbreeze ruffling through the moss on the live oak in the moonlight so\nthat it danced like a _corps de ballet_. Bernie believes in plenty of\nrest, including a nap between the sheets every afternoon. The next\nmorning I had breakfast in bed, served by Bernie. He\u2019d been up long\nenough to have read all the newspapers, so I got bulletins along with\nmy coffee.\nWith a chauffeur and one other servant, the three of us went off on\na fishing expedition in a station wagon loaded to the hubcaps with\nequipment. At the selected spot at the mouth of a narrow river lined\nwith oyster beds, the two helpers set out folding chairs and steamer\nrugs for Bernie and me and wrapped us up like mummies. Then they\nbaited our hooks and left us to it, while the chauffeur took himself\nwith his line off to his own favorite fishing spot.\nBernie and I waited and waited for a nibble. At last he snagged a\nhard-shell crab. I followed suit. \u201cDo you want to go on?\u201d he asked.\n\u201cSure, I love it,\u201d said I. Only crabs were biting that day. I went on\nhauling them out like sixty, but Bernie turned his back on the whole\nundertaking, got up, shook himself, and sat in the sun. \u201cFDR came out\nto this same spot,\u201d he noted dryly, \u201cbut he managed to catch fish.\u201d So\ndid the chauffeur perched out on the pier.\nIf he\u2019s in town, Bernie is the first man I call when I visit New\nYork. I took myself one day to his house on East Sixty-sixth Street,\nand there hanging over the mantelpiece in his drawing room was a new\nportrait of him. I gave it one good, hard look, then asked: \u201cHave you a\nstepladder, please? I want to take that down.\u201d\n\u201cAh, it\u2019s not that bad,\u201d he protested.\n\u201cHave you really looked at it? Whoever painted it has made your head\ntoo small, your shoulders too narrow, and stuck you on a park bench\noutside the White House. Whose idea was that?\u201d\n\u201cWell,\u201d he explained, \u201cClare was having her portrait done....\u201d He has\nthe greatest regard for Clare Luce; years before he arranged with a\nsingle telephone call to have her play _The Women_ staged on Broadway\nafter the script had been lying around producer Max Gordon\u2019s office for\nmonths. And this for a play that Bernie told her was \u201cthe most cynical\nsatire on your sex ever written.\u201d\nI said no more against the picture, but on my next visit a year\nlater, the portrait had been replaced by another, by Chandor, a\nwonderful likeness, complete to Bernie\u2019s hearing aid. He autographed a\nreproduction of it for me. With pen in hand, he looked up: \u201cHow do you\nspell gallant--one \u2018l\u2019 or two?\u201d\n\u201cNever could spell,\u201d I said. \u201cUse a different word.\u201d\n\u201cNo. Gallant is the word for you,\u201d he said, and waited until the butler\nfound a dictionary. Bernie is a loyal friend. If our top governmental\nofficials had listened to him, we shouldn\u2019t be in the mess we\u2019re in\ntoday.\nI once worked for another Democrat, not in politics, to be sure, but\nmaking two silent pictures at the studios of the old Film Booking\nOffices of America, called FBO for short, before it was acquired by\nHoward Hughes and renamed Radio-Keith Orpheum, or RKO. Joseph P.\nKennedy, father of our President, had just arrived from Boston as a\nsharp, up-and-coming businessman to see if he could make a fortune in\nHollywood.\nHe signed up a scad of stars--Joel McCrea; Constance Bennett; Fred\nThompson, the cowboy Adonis who\u2019d been a Presbyterian pastor in the\nValley until Frances Marion married him on a bet with Mary Pickford.\nHeading Joe Kennedy\u2019s contract list was Gloria Swanson, who was always\nquite a gal.\nShe\u2019d been married to Wally Beery and Herbert Somborn, who started the\nBrown Derby restaurant chain, when producer Mickey Nielan entered her\nlife. He rapidly hired Somborn to go off on a nationwide promotion\ntour plugging a movie Nielan had made. To make sure that his wooing of\nGloria would not be interrupted, he had Somborn telephone him every\nevening at eight California time from whatever city he was in that day.\nWhen Somborn hung up, Nielan would have the operator check back to\nverify where the call had originated.\nI met Joe\u2019s wife, Rose, at a luncheon Frances Marion gave, where Polly\nMoran stared at Colleen Moore\u2019s straight boyish bangs and said: \u201cLook\nat her--makes $10,000 a week and has a lousy haircut.\u201d Rose adored her\nhusband.\nGloria was Joe\u2019s number-one star. He hired Laura Hope Crews as her\ncoach, and she practically lived day and night with Gloria, including\nsessions at Laura\u2019s home overlooking the beach at Santa Monica. He made\nsome good pictures before he started _Queen Kelly_, with Gloria as\nstar, which began as a silent, then ran into the monster called Sound.\nHe never forgot he was a businessman. He had notes for $750,000 signed\nby Gloria to help finance the picture. The question was: What to do?\nFinish _Kelly_ as a silent, scrap it, or take time off to see if Sound\nbecame important?\nHe suggested a trip to Europe for Gloria, accompanied by Joe and Mrs.\nKennedy. It must have been a mighty trying trip for all three of them.\nThe picture was never completed, but on their return Joe sold his FBO\nholdings for a $5,000,000 profit, to make the first big financial\nkilling of a career that later sent him to London as a wartime\nambassador. Mrs. Kennedy\u2019s father, the legendary \u201cHoney Fitz,\u201d onetime\nmayor of Boston, had a hand in getting Joe out of Hollywood.\nJoe and I saw each other occasionally over the years. If I\u2019d taken all\nthe advice he gave me, I\u2019d be rich today. He was one of the first on\nFDR\u2019s bandwagon when Herbert Hoover was the man to beat. In the lobby\nof a New York theater Joe told me: \u201cBeg, borrow, or steal all the money\nyou can and put it on FDR, because he\u2019s going to be the next President\nof the United States. You don\u2019t have to vote for him, but make sure you\nbet on him.\u201d Did I? Not on your life.\nI saw him last not long before he had his stroke. I was sitting at a\ntable in Van Cleef & Arpels, New York, waiting for a package. He came\nbustling in, as spry as ever then. \u201cHi, Joe! Buying _me_ a present?\u201d\nHe paused in mid-stride. \u201cWhat--Oh, it\u2019s you. I might have known.\u201d\nHe threw me a hard look and went on into the back room. The senior\nassistant in the place came up, shook my hand, and said: \u201cI didn\u2019t\nthink anybody in the world could do that.\u201d\n\u201cWhy not? I knew him when he was a Hollywood producer and had a\nstableful of stars,\u201d I said. \u201cBesides, I have a mighty retentive\nmemory.\u201d\n_Eighteen_\nHis voice was the making and the breaking of him, a blessing and a\ncurse. He could melt your soul or shatter mirrors when he set it free.\nOne night, all over the hearthrug in my den, there lay the chunks of\nbroken glass to prove his point. In his fevered love affairs he was a\nstallion, with a body as strong as an animal\u2019s, and he called himself\n\u201cThe Tiger.\u201d\nMario Lanza roared upward to fortune and fantastic fame like a\nFourth of July rocket, then fell back to earth, a burnt stick, lost\nin darkness. For a moment, while he lit the sky, he brought back to\nincredible life the archaic days of madness, romance, depravity, and\nglory. But there had never been anybody quite like Mario, and I doubt\nwhether we shall see his like again.\nIt was easy to be captivated, though often hard to tell exactly why.\nHis smile, which was as big as his voice, was matched with the habits\nof a tiger cub, impossible to housebreak. He was the last of the great\nromantic performers, born in the wrong century--maybe there could never\nbe a right one for him. \u201cReality,\u201d he believed, \u201cstinks most of the\ntime. It\u2019s a star\u2019s duty to take people out of the world of reality\ninto the world of illusion, and a motion picture is the ideal way to do\nthat.\u201d\nHe ate too much, fought too much, drank too much, spent too much. He\ncould no more handle success than a child can be trusted with dynamite.\nSo many of the themes of this story met and merged in Alfred Arnold\nCocozza, from Philadelphia\u2019s Little Italy, who borrowed his mother\u2019s\nmaiden name, Maria Lanza, as a ticket to destruction.\nHe developed a god complex a mile wide. \u201cI\u2019m the humble keeper of\na voice,\u201d he used to tell me in all seriousness, \u201cwhich God has\nentrusted to me. This is not easy. There are sacrifices you must make.\nI love champagne--I can\u2019t drink it. Red wine I love--I must refuse\nit. I must not smoke--it is bad for the voice. I am the fortunate and\nunfortunate guy it passes through.\u201d\nHe couldn\u2019t be called a liar, because he found it increasingly hard to\ndistinguish between the facts and the fables he wove around himself. He\ncould boast of his abstemiousness and, a few hours later, wander into\na bar on Sunset Strip like The Players, a favorite haunt of his, which\nPreston Sturges used to run. They could hear Mario coming by the slap\nof laces in the handmade, elevator shoes he imported from New York to\nadd a couple of inches to his own natural-grown five feet seven. The\nfancy footwear must have been uncomfortable; the laces were seldom tied.\nHe turned up at The Players one morning fifteen minutes before the\n2 A.M. curfew which California law demands, awash from the red wine\nhe guzzled after dinner. Closing time arrived, but Mario and Sturges\nlingered at a table with two girls, killing more wine. Two state liquor\ninspectors stopped by for a friendly, after-hours drink. They were off\nduty and well acquainted with Sturges, but Mario hadn\u2019t been told that.\nOne of them walked up behind him, grabbed the bottle, and, as a joke,\ngrunted: \u201cOkay, you\u2019re all under arrest.\u201d That was the last thing he\nknew until long after dawn broke. Mario snatched the bottle from the\ninspector. With a fist hard as a rock, with a seventeen-inch biceps\nbehind it he sent him flying against a far wall, cold as a mackerel,\nwith seven teeth knocked out of his head.\nThe other officer tried to tackle Mario. For his trouble, he was picked\nup bodily and hurled against the same wall, dead to the world, slumped\non the floor beside his companion like a second sack of broken bones.\nSturges was aghast. Before he called an ambulance he shoved Mario\nout the front door. \u201cStart running and get lost,\u201d he grunted. The\nnow-terrified tenor put on so much speed he shed one of his shoes\nin his flight to the apartment of a friend, who lived close to the\nCh\u00e2teau Marmont on Sunset Boulevard. At 4 A.M. Sturges telephoned\nMario\u2019s press agent to report the massacre. \u201cKeep that maniac away from\nme,\u201d he said. \u201cHe\u2019s likely to kill us all in our sleep.\u201d\nThe press agent made a beeline for the nearest sheriff\u2019s sub-station,\non Fairfax Avenue at Santa Monica Boulevard. Standing in full view on\nthe desk was Mario\u2019s shoe, as distinctively his as a fingerprint, but\nnobody had any idea who owned it. \u201cHave there been any charges filed?\u201d\nthe agent asked. There had not. \u201cWell, my client would like to have his\nshoe back.\u201d\n\u201cWho\u2019s your client?\u201d asked the desk sergeant.\n\u201cThat\u2019s neither here nor there. No need to identify him until charges\nhave been filed.\u201d After some persuasion the law accepted that viewpoint\nand handed over the shoe. Mario got it back the following morning,\nalong with a lecture from his agent.\nLanza was contrite and, as always, willing to pay. The inspector with\nthe missing teeth received a $4000 job of expert dentistry. Both he and\nhis colleague were given $200 cashmere suits by the agent as balm to\ntheir wounds. To this day they don\u2019t know what hit them--or who.\nMario may have been on to something with his claim that his voice was\na gift of God; he certainly didn\u2019t owe a thing to formal training. He\nsimply taught himself by listening to his father\u2019s collection of opera\nrecords, including one Caruso disk that he once played twenty-seven\ntimes in succession, matching his voice to the great Enrico\u2019s. He\nwas a blubbery fat boy, an only child, spoiled rotten by his mother,\nwho was the only working member of the Cocozza family. She was up at\nfive-thirty every morning, to sew uniforms in an army quartermaster\ndepot as the sole support of Mario and his father, a pensioned veteran\nof World War I.\nThe studios later had a hard time inventing jobs that Mario was\nsupposed to have held down as a young man. The handouts pretended he\u2019d\nbeen a piano mover or a truck driver. But he used to sprawl in bed\nuntil lunch time, hadn\u2019t done a lick of real work until he was drafted\nin the Army.\nHe had one other hobby in his Philadelphia era besides singing, and\nthat was girls. \u201cI can\u2019t help it if I was born in heat,\u201d was the way he\nput it. \u201cI am always the lover--I never stopped. I spend ninety-nine\nand ninety-nine one hundredths of my time in a romantic mood. That\naccounts for my high notes.\u201d\nWomen mobbed him every step of his career. Wherever he showed his\nface in public, they ripped at his clothes, grabbed him, hugged him,\nsmothered him in lipstick from the top of his curly head down. It was\nimpossible for him to escape them. They followed him to his home, rang\nhis doorbell in the middle of the night, and some of them were the\nbiggest stars in our business.\nAs an army private, Mario got to Los Angeles on furlough. A lot\nhappened to him there. A fellow soldier in the same outfit, Bert Hicks\nfrom Chicago, introduced him to his sister Betty, who became the one\nand only Mrs. Lanza after Mario was discharged. They were married in\nBeverly Hills Municipal Court, with neither of their families knowing\nanything about it. At a Frances Marion party loaded to the doors with\nstars, with Father Murphy up from New Orleans, and myself, Mario sang\nclear through from eleven o\u2019clock one night until the birds started\ngiving him competition at seven the next morning. At another party,\nFrank Sinatra heard him and invited him to stay at his home.\nAfter I\u2019d heard Mario sing, I asked him over to my house. There was a\nbig, gilt-framed mirror over the fireplace in the den. \u201cI could break\nthat with the power of a single high note,\u201d he boasted. Like a fool, I\ntold him: \u201cI\u2019d like to see you try.\u201d Like a little boy, he had to prove\nit. When he had gone, the house seemed oddly quiet. I was sweeping up\nbits of glass for days.\nWalter Pidgeon and I both became Lanza boosters, but it was Ida\nKoverman, true to form, who took him to Louis B. Mayer. Mario had been\ncutting some tests for RCA-Victor to see whether his voice would be\nright for commercial recording. Ida, who was a board member of the\nHollywood Bowl, laid hold of some of those disks to play for her boss.\nTo Louis, that tenor sounded like a symphony orchestrated for cash\nregisters. Mario was presented with a seven-year contract, starting at\n$750 a week, with a bonus of $10,000 payable on signature. I begged him\nnot to sign, because his voice wasn\u2019t ready to be exploited the way\nMetro was sure to exploit it. But he was beating his chest so loudly he\ncouldn\u2019t hear me. He was twenty-six years old. He had twelve more years\nleft to him.\nMetro had a sad history with its tenors and baritones. There\u2019d been\nLawrence Tibbett, a baritone of large frame and a big voice, who was\nhauled out of the Metropolitan Opera to do _The Rogue Song_, music by\nFranz Lehar, screen play by Frances Marion. He did _New Moon_ with\nGrace Moore, then faded like the morning dew.\nIgor Gorin was hustled out to Culver City, too, under Mayer\u2019s strategy\nof always keeping an understudy in the wings to prevent any star from\ngetting too big-headed. Gorin was kept hanging around doing nothing in\nparticular for two years, though Louis admitted he had a better voice\nthan Nelson Eddy, who was piling up the profits for the studio as a\nteam with Jeanette MacDonald.\nBut Louis grew tired of Nelson, so he was handed the Impossible Script\ntreatment--given stories so remote from his abilities that he was bound\nto turn them down. This continued until he cracked and announced: \u201cI\u2019m\nthrough.\u201d That was the day his bosses had been banking on and waiting\nfor.\nFood was always a delight to Mario right from the teen-age days when\nhis invalid father used to serve him breakfast in bed. He swore by\n\u201cPuccini and pizza--greatest combination since Samson and Delilah.\u201d\nAlso by spaghetti, ravioli, meat balls, a steak and six eggs for\nbreakfast; thirty and forty pieces of fried chicken at a sitting,\nrounded off with a whole apple pie and a quart of eggnog.\nHis studio bosses watched his weight go up and down like the stock\nmarket. There were times when they put him in a drug-induced coma for\ndays on end; he would have to lose twenty pounds before he was allowed\nout of bed. They peeled him down to 169 pounds for his first picture,\n_That Midnight Kiss_, and kept scales on the set to weigh him every\nmorning like a prize bull readied for market.\nHe hadn\u2019t started picture number two, _The Toast of New Orleans_,\nbefore he took to the bottle as enthusiastically as to the knife and\nfork. He recognized no authority, no discipline, no frontiers except\nhis own gigantic appetites for food and drink and women. One afternoon\non the set he fell into a brief, blazing argument with Joe Pasternak,\nthe producer. But he resumed work in the scene, a lavishly decorated\nNew Orleans restaurant, replete with crystal chandeliers, velvet\ndraperies, snow-white tablecloths adorned with glass and silver.\nIn the middle of one take, he spotted a friend who had come onto the\nset, so he stopped cold, still raging from his quarrel with Pasternak,\nto take the visitor to his portable dressing room. Inside, Mario\nlaunched into a tirade against the producer, the studio, and the lousy\npicture he was making. From the little clothes closet he pulled out a\nfifth of Old Granddad and yanked out the cork. In two gargantuan gulps\nhe emptied the bottle.\nSuddenly he was calm as a lake. \u201cI think I\u2019m making too much of\nlittle things,\u201d he said, and, steady as a rock walked back before the\ncameras. There were two steps leading down to the restaurant floor. He\nnegotiated the first without difficulty, but on the second the bourbon\nhit him. He gave a thundering roar, then burst on the set like a bomb.\nTables collapsed as he crashed into them, chandeliers shattered into\nfragments, curtains were torn to rags, while above the chaos sounded\nthe screams of his co-star, Ann Blyth. He made his way across the set\nleaving havoc in his wake, then subsided to the floor, unconscious.\n_The Toast of New Orleans_ presented a special problem to Mario, who\nhad been introduced to the pleasures of coffee and brandy by J. Carroll\nNaish. Starting before breakfast, Mario was taking thirty cups of\ncoffee a day, with disastrous effect on his kidneys. The picture was\nbeing shot on the old lot back of Culver City, a long block away from\nthe nearest washrooms. He spent the better part of his working day in\ntransit, until production had slowed to a crawl. He made poor time\nwalking, anyway--he had broken his foot, which was in a cast, and he\nwas forced to limp along with a cane.\nHis director, Norman Taurog, and Joe Pasternak appealed for help to\nDore Schary, who, with Mayer on his way out, was now in charge of\nproduction. Schary luxuriated in an impeccable office furnished in\nold-English fashion, with a mahogany desk that reeked of class and the\nantique showroom. The first time Mario was summoned, he sat nursing his\ncane in patient silence. \u201cWe can\u2019t have the picture held up by your\nbladder trouble,\u201d said Schary. \u201cWe must find a solution.\u201d\n\u201cOkay,\u201d said Mario. \u201cLeave it to me.\u201d\nHis solution was simplicity itself. By now, shooting was concentrated\non a New Orleans quay, bright with fishing nets and boats at anchor.\nMario didn\u2019t bother hobbling to the washroom. The water in the\nquay was more convenient. So was a bucket half filled with a still\nphotographer\u2019s used flash bulbs.\nThe whole company was in an uproar, most notably David Niven, whose\nvoice was raised in indignation on behalf of Ann Blyth and other women\nin the cast. Mario was called again to Schary\u2019s office. But now his\ntemper had changed. He shouted down every word that Schary tried to\nutter, until the producer cowered in fright behind his beautiful desk,\nwatching Mario pound it to a battered wreck with his cane. But Schary\nwasn\u2019t one to nurse grudges. After the first preview of _The Great\nCaruso_ he showered Mario with hampers of fruit, bouquets of flowers,\nand cases of champagne.\nWhen I first heard his mighty voice, I wrote: \u201cIf Lanza can act, he\u2019s\nthe man to play Caruso.\u201d I still have Caruso records, along with a\nframed caricature he drew of DeWolf Hopper to celebrate the birth of\nour son. Caruso\u2019s eloquent title for his sketch of Wolfie, scribbled\non the back of a Lambs Club banquet menu, was _The Bachelor_!!!!!!!\nNick Schenck was opposed to _The Great Caruso_, whose chances of\nbox-office success he rated at zero. Mayer, prompted by Ida, pushed\nit along toward production. It was completed in thirty-one days of\nshooting; it ran for ten weeks and earned $1,500,000 at New York\u2019s\nRadio City Music Hall alone; around the world it piled up $19,000,000\nthe first twelve months after release. Mario\u2019s pay check was $100,000.\nHis finances were already tangled like knitting wool tossed into a\ncage full of tigers. On the face of it, he was earning from movies and\nrecords about $1,000,000 a year. But there were complications. The\ngreatest singing attraction in the world was a monumental spendthrift.\nAfter _Caruso_ he bought two dozen gold watches, had them engraved\n\u201cWith love from Mario,\u201d and handed them out like lollipops. He insisted\non having 14-karat gold fittings on his brand-new Cadillac, which was\nupholstered in tiger skin. He ran up delicatessen bills so huge he was\nleery about showing his face in the shop.\nAnd there was Sam Weiler, who collected a cut of everything Mario made.\nWeiler was a nondescript little man who owned a boys\u2019 summer camp in\nPennsylvania and yearned to be a singer. Soon after the Lanzas went to\nNew York to spend their honeymoon in the Park Central Hotel, he heard\nMario singing at the studio of a voice teacher, Polly Robertson, and\ndecided on the spot that managing this talent was a much better bet\nthan trying to make it to glory on his own larynx.\nWhen he offered to pay off Mario\u2019s debts--$11,000 or so, by Weiler\u2019s\naccount--and subsidize his career, Betty and her new husband calculated\nthey could get along on $70 a week living expenses. In return, Weiler\nwas to collect five per cent of all Lanza\u2019s earnings for the next\nfifteen years. Eighteen months later the manager\u2019s share was increased\nto ten per cent. A third contract pushed up his cut to twenty per cent,\nand when Mario signed for a radio show later, Weiler was in on the\nground floor at $500 a week. According to his prot\u00e9g\u00e9\u2019s reckoning,\nWeiler advanced $70 a week for seven months and drew a subsequent total\nof more than $350,000 in commissions.\nCash money and Mario were almost strangers. He never saw the tens of\nthousands of dollars he made every week. Nobody actually put cash into\nhis hands until he was in the middle of a man-killing concert tour that\ntook him and two or three followers clear across the nation, singing\nhis heart out at every performance.\nHis life had come down to a deadly dull routine: sing every night, come\noff stage and drink a case of beer, sleep, drive on to the next town.\nEven his thick-skinned followers felt sorry for him. \u201cWhy not give him\nsomething for himself?\u201d they asked each other. \u201cLet him have the money\nfrom the programs.\u201d Those souvenirs of the concert sold at one dollar\napiece, cost no more than twelve or so cents to produce. So while the\ntour was bringing in $30,000 a week in Oregon, which is silver-dollar\nterritory, Mario was permitted to store up five hundred of those\ndollars, which he squirreled away in a canvas bag.\nOnly this bull of a man would have the muscle to tote around that sack\nof silver like a change purse, but he took it everywhere with him, day\nand night. In the car, he set it down on the floor between his legs and\noccasionally, subconsciously, gave it a reassuring chink. At night, he\nslept with the bag under his bed.\nThe biggest money came in, unseen by him, from his records. He sold\nmore than 110,000 albums from _Caruso_ before the picture was shown to\nany public audience. Then he topped this by selling a million copies in\nless than a year of a single record, \u201cBe My Love.\u201d No classical artist\nin RCA history had ever equaled that mark. The record was cut in one\nflawless attempt while he was muzzy with wine and soaking wet from\nhead to foot. When he was awarded his first golden record for selling\na million copies of it, he would have nobody but Hedda Hopper present\nit to him. The studio was furious. They wanted one of their stars to\nperform that service so all the glory could be kept in the family.\nHe had gone through a normal rambunctious day at Culver City,\ndrinking steadily but staying out of trouble. At seven-thirty\nthat evening he had an appointment at Republic Studios, where one\nparticular sound stage came so close to acoustic perfection that RCA\nconsistently hired it for cutting its classical-label records, Red\nSeal. A sixty-five-piece orchestra had been engaged to work with him\nthrough the night in a four-hour session, to make an armful of master\nrecordings.\nOn his way home from the studio Mario thought he\u2019d stop by for another\ndrink or two at the home of a good friend of his, a free-lance\nwriter. The tempestuous tenor was distinctly the worse for wear when\nhe arrived, and his condition did not improve. Phyllis Kirk, a young\nactress who lived in an upstairs apartment, was invited down to have a\ndrink with Mario. Before he collapsed into alcoholic slumber, he had\ntried to rip the dress off her shoulders.\nLanza\u2019s long-suffering press agent was eating dinner when he had a call\nfrom an RCA representative waiting at Republic: where was Mario? Within\nminutes another telephone call provided the answer, from the free-lance\ncorrespondent: \u201cWill you kindly come over and get your degenerate,\nunprincipled client out of my apartment?\u201d\nThe agent had a favor to ask first: \u201cCan the three of you drag him\ninto a cold shower, prop him up, and keep him there? If he drowns, he\ndrowns, but will you please try it for me?\u201d Be happy to, the writer\nsaid. When the agent got to the apartment, Mario was fully clad,\nthree-quarters conscious, and half drowned. The idea that he had work\nto do had somehow penetrated his curly head. But he had a bargain to\nmake first.\n\u201cI\u2019ll go out to Republic if you come with me,\u201d he told the agent. \u201cI\u2019ll\ndo one number, then we go and have a bottle of wine together.\u201d Agreed.\nThe orchestra, impeccably dressed, had been waiting nearly two hours\nwhen Mario staggered in, splashing water wherever he stood. He frowned\nat the conductor, then turned on the musicians. \u201c---- all of you,\u201d he\nsaid to introduce himself. \u201cI don\u2019t want any bull. We\u2019re going through\nthis thing once, and it had better be right.\u201d\nAnd that\u2019s how it was done. Half an hour later Mario was sitting with\nhis press agent in a bar in Coldwater Canyon quaffing Ruffino by the\nquart. A year and a half later the same agent was handed a check\nfor Mario representing his take from nine months\u2019 sale of \u201cBe My\nLove\u201d--$405,000. The one record earned over $2,000,000. In 1961, Mario\nLanza records were still collecting royalties of $275,000. Mario wasn\u2019t\naround to share in as much as a nickel, but the percentage merchants\nstill had contracts which continued to give them their cut.\n\u201cBe My Love\u201d was selling like hot cakes, especially in Philadelphia,\nwhen a fan magazine appeared on the newsstands quoting Mario\u2019s\nreminiscences of his old neighborhood. These memoirs had been concocted\nbetween the singer and a writer in the course of another battle of\nthe bottles that began at five-thirty one afternoon in Mama Weiss\u2019s\nHungarian restaurant and ended at seven-thirty the next morning when\nMario got home to Betty. His imagination had run wild through the night\nwith lurid tales of gang wars in Little Italy and bullets whistling\npast his ears when he lived on \u201cMurderers\u2019 Row.\u201d\nPublication of these highly colored tales so enraged some of his former\nneighbors that they invaded local stores and smashed every Lanza\nrecord they could seize. Rocks were hurled through the windows of his\nrelatives. The mayor was forced to telephone Hollywood: \u201cPlease bring\nMr. Lanza to Philadelphia for a personal appearance, or I\u2019m afraid we\nmay have a major riot here.\u201d\nMario was always officially on a diet. \u201cI\u2019ve never been fat,\u201d he\nbragged, \u201conly seductively buxom.\u201d But he was a compulsive eater\nwho ballooned up to three hundred pounds between pictures. Schary\nwas forever plagued with the problem of paring down Mario, who was\npure gold at the box office; his four pictures for Metro brought in\n$40,000,000, a phenomenal figure. He had so many temptations to eat and\ndrink in Hollywood that Schary decided his prize tenor would have to be\nhidden away somewhere for the poundage to be lost.\nGinger Rogers had a secluded ranch on the Rogue River in Oregon. She\nwould be happy to let Mario use the place for reducing. He couldn\u2019t\nride in planes because of a punctured eardrum, so he was driven up\nthere with Betty, his press agent and wife, and a colored butler. Mario\nwasn\u2019t short of will power when the occasion demanded it. For six weeks\nhe held himself down to eating three tomatoes and six eggs a day. Every\nmorning he puffed half a mile each way up and down the road, sweltering\nin a specially made latex suit. He had to work out alone. The agent sat\non the porch of the ranch house with a .22 rifle. Whenever Mario slowed\ndown, a shot would come singing into the roadway by his feet to speed\nhim up again.\nHe had one more great record, \u201cThe Loveliest Night of the Year,\u201d and\none more miserable movie, _Because You\u2019re Mine_, to make before his\nfeud with Metro took on the proportions of nightmare. Much of the blame\nhas to be loaded onto his wife\u2019s shoulders. She loved her husband in\nher own shrill fashion, but she no more knew the greatness in him than\nshe could sing _A\u00efda_.\nShe loved the money he made, the house it bought with butler, cook,\nmaids, gardener, chauffeur. She loved the $20,000 mink he bought her,\nbut she couldn\u2019t spare the time to listen to his new recordings when he\nburst into the house with them like an excited schoolboy.\nHe was wonderful with his own children and every other child. I\u2019ve seen\nhim romp around his living-room floor by the hour with his family--who\nare a family of orphans now. He tried to keep one little child alive\nand failed through no fault of his. Raphaela Fasona of New Jersey was a\nten-year-old fan, one of the army of them throughout the Western world\nwhose letters kept Mario\u2019s mother, father, and a staff of three others\nbusy answering them. Ray was in the hospital, a victim of Hodgkin\u2019s\ndisease. Mario had great compassion for the sick, sent out hundreds of\nhis albums to them. He talked to Ray in person or by telephone every\nweek, sang to her, told her fairy tales.\nHe brought her with her mother to Beverly Hills one Christmas, gave\nher a party with stars and their children as guests--Kathryn Grayson,\nthe Ricardo Montalbans, Joe Pasternak, David May, Mrs. Norman Taurog\namong them. The children chuckled over a puppet show and a magician,\nand I watched Ray\u2019s great luminous brown eyes fill with wonder. When\nher illness came to its inevitable end, Mario planned a concert in her\nmemory, donating the proceeds for cancer research.\nBetty Lanza was a cheerleader in the bleachers that were filled with\nthe stooges who lived off Mario. \u201cYou don\u2019t have to go to the studio,\u201d\nshe used to tell him. \u201cYou\u2019re too big a name for that now. Make them\ncome to you.\u201d\nThe studio did come to him once more, to make _The Student Prince_,\nthough the bosses were panicky about his weight, which had puffed\nhim out to look more hippopotamus than tiger. I went to his house\nto get his side of the donnybrook that broke out and kept his name\nin headlines for months. \u201cI was treated cheap while I was Tiffany.\nBox-office Tiffany. They gave me the little-boy routine, and I\u2019m not a\nlittle boy. They took my advice before. Then when I became a big star,\nthey said: \u2018We\u2019ll take the reins in on this sonofabitch.\u2019\u201d\nI could hear all kinds of people talking through his lips as he spoke:\nhis wife, his sycophants, whole generations of stars and the relatives\nof stars dating back to the days when Hollywood first made dreams of\nfame and greed come true.\nEddie Mannix, MGM vice president, was a target for Mario\u2019s fury. \u201cI\ntold him I\u2019d kill him. He said: \u2018You wouldn\u2019t hit an old man.\u2019 I said:\n\u2018I\u2019ll tie my hands behind my back and fight you with my head.\u2019\u201d\nIn the middle of the battle Mario took a look into the books of Marsam\nEnterprises which agent Sam Weiler had set up with his wife, Selma, as\npartner to handle Lanza\u2019s business affairs. The ledgers showed he had\nlittle left. Weiler promptly quit, and Mario subsequently filed suit\nagainst him. His memory was kept green in Mario\u2019s private gymnasium, a\nboxing ring under a tent in his garden. Painted on the punching bag was\na portrait of Weiler. \u201cI can keep in trim the rest of my life,\u201d Mario\nboasted, \u201cbecause every time I work out I can beat the daylights out of\nthe sonofagun.\u201d\nThe studio had allotted twelve weeks to cut the recordings for _The\nStudent Prince_. Mario finished the job in two. When he played them\nover for me, he sat a million miles away, saturated in the music, until\nthe last notes had died. \u201cA critic wrote about me once: \u2018He sings every\nnote as though it\u2019s his last on earth.\u2019\u201d Mario said softly: \u201cIt\u2019s true.\nI do. I can\u2019t help myself.\u201d\nThe sound track was all he made of _The Student Prince_. He refused to\nwork on the picture after that. He was suspended, then sued for the\npotential profit on that and future pictures. The figures mentioned\nin the legal documents were a gargantuan jest to him. \u201cThey asked\n$13,500,000 plus $855,066.73. Now what I want to know is, what\u2019s\nthe seventy-three cents for? I guess Eddie Mannix had his drawers\nlaundered.\u201d\nHe could joke about it in daylight, but darkness brought about a Jekyll\nand Hyde change. He kept to his house during the day; at night, with\nhis chauffeur-trainer for company, he roved through the streets of\nBeverly Hills seeking out his enemies. He drove to Joe Pasternak\u2019s\nhouse to smash the entrance gates off their hinges. Another night he\nused the Cadillac to batter down Joe\u2019s mailbox. And some mornings the\nmen on Mario\u2019s black list found he had ridden up to their doorsteps and\ndefecated there.\nThe rocket had exploded, and the charred stick was tumbling down. A\nletter from Eddie Mannix, on behalf of Loew\u2019s Incorporated, came to\nMario: \u201cFor good and sufficient reasons your employment under the\ncontract between us is hereby terminated. We shall hold you fully\naccountable for all damage and loss suffered by us as a result of your\nactions and conduct; and we expressly reserve all rights of every kind\nand character acquired by us under said contract.\u201d Mario promptly had\na banner made to hang in his house: \u201cThe Lion is Dead,\u201d it proclaimed,\n\u201cLong Live The Tiger.\u201d\nI was one of the friends who begged Mario to commit himself to the\nMenninger Clinic. Once again he tried to strike a bargain with Jack\nKeller, another friend: if Jack would go with him, Mario would take\ntreatment. But he made the mistake of letting Betty know too soon.\n\u201cHe\u2019s no crazier than you are,\u201d she raged at Jack.\n\u201cBut it\u2019s for your happiness as much as his.\u201d It was known by now that\nthe Lanzas were on drink and drugs together. Their domestic battles\noften stopped short of murder only by a hair\u2019s breadth. But Betty set\nher foot down; no trip to Topeka for her husband.\nIn theory he could still make records, but he was in no shape for\nsinging. He tried and failed repeatedly, his throat shut tight\nby tension. The Lanzas owed money to everybody, from Goldblatt\u2019s\ndelicatessen to Uncle Sam. A psychiatrist familiar with his case had an\nexplanation: \u201cLanza has lost all touch with reality. He no longer knows\nwho he really is or the personality he wants to be.\u201d\nHis first job after two years of seclusion was a television show,\n\u201cShower of Stars,\u201d for the Chrysler Corporation. It ended in a furor\nwhen he simply mouthed the words to old recordings as they were played\noff camera. The sponsors had invited reporters from all over the\ncountry to come out for the occasion, with supper afterward at the\nBeverly Hills Hotel.\nMario went straight home after his performance. I went to the party\nto hear what the reporters had to say. Most of them thought Mario was\nthrough. He hadn\u2019t even been able to synchronize his lip movements to\nhis recorded voice.\nAt 12:30 A.M. I drove to his house. He sat in the drawing room with his\nwife and the Hubbell Robinsons, drinking pink champagne. I\u2019d always\nbeen rough with him because I loved him. \u201cWhat do you think you\u2019re\ndoing?\u201d I asked. \u201cCelebrating a wake?\u201d\nHe leaped to his feet in a white heat of anger. \u201cWhat do you mean?\u201d\n\u201cThat\u2019s what it was--a wake. I stayed at the party long enough to hear\nwhat the reporters had to say.\u201d\nSuddenly he became a little boy. \u201cWhat can I do to redeem myself?\u201d\n\u201cThere\u2019s only one answer. Nobody thinks you can sing. Can you?\u201d\n\u201cOf course, I can.\u201d\n\u201cThen tomorrow afternoon you\u2019ll invite the reporters here to your house\nand sing for them. You\u2019ve got to if you want to save your reputation.\u201d\n\u201cWill you come? Will you sit where I can sing to you?\u201d I reluctantly\nsaid I would. They came, and he sang as only he could when he knew it\nwas a question of success or failure. He saved what was left of his\ncareer.\nHe was booked by his agents, MCA, to appear at the opening of the New\nFrontier Hotel, Las Vegas, at $50,000 a week. In preparation he forced\nhimself once more on to a heroic diet, worked out religiously with bar\nbells and exercise machines, submitted to hours of pounding on the\nmassage table, then took off for Vegas with Betty, their children, and\nhis trainer, Terry Robinson, in a total entourage of twelve. The staff\nat the New Frontier had strict instructions not to let Mario start\ndrinking, come what may. The town\u2019s gamblers anticipated trouble; the\nwise money was eight to five against.\nOn the afternoon of the opening Louella Parsons went looking for him.\nBen Hecht, who was writing a new picture for him, also sought him out.\nHe found Mario in his suite, pale with nerves but dry as a bone. Ben\nfelt like a drink, and a waiter arrived with champagne.\nI tried to reach Mario that afternoon but couldn\u2019t get near him. I\nwent to his suite and knocked and knocked. I could hear voices inside,\nbut nobody let me in. \u201cI did all the drinking,\u201d Ben said later. \u201cWhen\nhe left me at six o\u2019clock he was O.K. to walk out on any stage and do\nhandsprings. Whether he had desert dust or goofy dust in his throat, I\ndon\u2019t know.\u201d\nHe added: \u201cI\u2019ve never seen a guy suffer so because of what he was\ndoing, whatever that was. Does he always have those soul agonies, or\ndoesn\u2019t he give a damn?\u201d And then: \u201cI\u2019ve listened to his story--some of\nit funny, most sad. I\u2019ve heard this same story in this town for thirty\nyears. The minute a guy gets big, people start sitting on his head. I\nstill have complete confidence in the guy.\u201d\nAfter he left Ben Hecht in the hotel, Mario disappeared. Half an hour\nbefore the show, he staggered back to the New Frontier. There were\npanicky efforts to revive him. But he passed out cold. A star-flecked\naudience, including Sonja Henie, Ann Miller, Jack Benny, George Burns,\nRobert Young, and 150 newsmen, waited for him in vain. The management\ncanceled his contract and sued him for $125,000.\nThe rest was all exclusively downhill. Beatrice, the Lanzas\u2019 colored\nhousekeeper, paid some of the bills out of her salary to hold things\ntogether. He desperately tried for work at other studios, but nobody\nwould take a chance on him. So he took up a deal to make a picture in\nRome, to give concerts there and elsewhere in Europe, taking his family\nalong. In Rome he rented the fabulous Villa Badaglio, where crystal\nchandeliers gleamed on statuary and marble floors and old masters\ndecorated the walls.\nIn London he failed to appear at the Albert Hall concert that had been\narranged for him; same thing in Hamburg, where crowds jeered his name.\nHe died in Rome, aged thirty-eight, suffering from phlebitis and a\nblood clot in a coronary artery. His enormous bulk created some macabre\nproblems for the undertakers. Not long after, when Betty Lanza had\nbrought her children back to Beverly Hills, her mother tried to get\nher committed for psychiatric care. Betty would listen to no one, any\nmore than she\u2019d listened when Mario\u2019s sanity was at stake. There were\nfive more months left before drugs took Betty\u2019s life. Love for the man\nshe\u2019d lost? Desperation? The verdict simply said: cause unknown.\nAll of us, within ourselves, carry the seed of our own destruction.\nBut in some there is an inner core beyond our powers to destroy. Jack\nBarrymore was one of these. I watched him try to pull himself down. He\nwas a man embittered, disillusioned, broken in health and finances,\nburlesquing his own genius with a devil\u2019s grin. He saw the same public\nthat idolized him in _The Jest_, _Richard III_, _Hamlet_ shriek with\nsadistic laughter over his antics on and off the camera.\nDuring a lull on the set one afternoon, some jokester said to him:\n\u201cCome on, Jack, give us one of your old tear jerkers.\u201d He agreed, with\na shrug; started hamming Mark Antony\u2019s lines from _Julius Caesar_.\n\u201cFriends, Romans, countrymen.... My heart is in the coffin there with\nCaesar, and I must pause till it comes back to me.\u201d\nAfter the first few lines something had happened. As the voice steadied\nand deepened the set grew quiet. Grips, carpenters, electricians,\nextras approached, soft-footed. When Mark Antony finished, Hamlet took\nhis place. The years fell away and there, on the cluttered sound stage,\nstood the young Hamlet, the greatest any theater ever knew.\nIn complete silence Barrymore walked to his dressing room. Then such\na storm of applause broke out that the whole stage shook with it.\nMore faces than one were streaked with tears. We knew we had seen an\nindestructible human spirit fighting its way clear of the dross of a\nreckless and ill-spent life.\n_Nineteen_\nWe used to go riding in the moonlight, raising the dust down roads\nshadowed by palm trees, walking the horses through citrus groves and\nfields of barley, up into the trackless red hills, where we\u2019d turn to\ncatch a glimpse of the Pacific gleaming like pewter under the night\nsky. Now cowboys have to learn how to climb into a saddle before they\ncan gallop away into the sunset for another TV horse opera. There are\nnone of the genuine, Bill Hart variety left.\nWhen I first saw Hollywood, Sam Goldwyn was still Goldfish, and a\ngrain store stood on Sunset Boulevard at the corner of Cahuenga. Cecil\nB. De Mille, looking for some place to produce _The Squaw Man_, had\nrented a livery stable at Selma and Vine, founding the motion-picture\ncapital, the wonderland that clothed dreams in flesh for millions of\nthe world\u2019s inhabitants. Bill Farnum reigned in splendor in a suite at\nthe Hollywood Hotel; I made my movie debut with him, played his leading\nlady for $100 a week, which was a fortune to me then.\nLife was simple, exciting, and, most of all, fun. We worked hard and\nloved it. People were neighborly, kind, and didn\u2019t know the meaning of\nclass distinction--that came later when the big money rolled in and\nchanged everything. We used to borrow sugar, bake cakes for the folks\nnext door, stop by each other\u2019s houses to gossip about the wonders of\nthis bouncing new baby, the movie business, and the climate, and the\neverlasting sunshine. Where is it now? Hidden by fog and smog.\nNow the dirty-post-card boys have moved in, churning out pictures\nreeking of violence, prostitution, perversion, and decay. Anybody can\nproduce a movie--it takes no great talent. Everybody can try to make\na quick killing in hard times and the devil with the consequences. Of\ncourse, we always knew there were such things as sewers, but never\nbefore have audiences had their noses pushed over so many gratings.\nA different odor used to hang over our town--the smell of fresh money.\nIt poured from the four corners of the earth like the tide coming in.\nThat\u2019s the scent that drew the founders of our industry, a bunch of\nshrewd dishwashers, nickelodeon proprietors, glove salesmen, dress\nmanufacturers, junk dealers. They knew a good thing when they saw it,\nand who should worry about tomorrow?\nThey were freebooters at heart, most of them, set on carving out\nempires and ruling them like despots. They started by despoiling the\nland when they lopped down the trees to make room for the shabby\nwarehouses and barns we call studios. My office desk is placed nowadays\nso that I can turn my back on Hollywood. If I faced the window, the sun\nwould be in my eyes, and I like the sun on my back.\nThey despoiled the actors and actresses, too, whose names became better\nknown than those of presidents and kings. Money ruined many of the\nstars, washed over them in a deluge, then left them high and dry when\ntheir few working years were over. Lionel Barrymore, for instance,\nearned a gigantic reputation as director and star, with enough talent\nleft over to make him more than competent in other arts--a water color\nand two etchings hang in my den, and he was a fine composer, too. But\nhe left very little property behind, and that was seized by federal\nagents a few hours after his funeral, to be auctioned to pay his income\ntax.\nHe lies beside his wife, Irene Fenwick; Jack Barrymore was buried on\nher other side by Lionel\u2019s order. Years before, Jack had been in love\nwith her, but his big brother broke up the romance and later tried to\ncommit suicide. Then Lionel fell in love with her, and to marry her, he\nleft his wife and two sons, both of whom died in their early teens. Few\npeople knew he had children.\nStudio heads dangled the carrots at contract-signing time and cracked\nthe whip once the ink on the paper was dry. Not so long ago David\nSelznick was reminiscing about those tightly disciplined days with me:\n\u201cI\u2019ve called Jack Barrymore into my office for not knowing his lines;\nhe was contrite and apologetic. I had to speak to Leslie Howard, who\nwas embarrassing Vivien Leigh by not being prepared for the scene. But\nyou never had to speak a second time. They recognized their fault and\ncorrected it.\u201d\nGarbo was never late. She appeared on the set at 9 A.M. sharp, made\nup and ready to work and no nonsense. But she was patience itself if\nan older member of the company had trouble remembering lines. She was\nconsidered demanding when she wanted to know who would produce, who\nco-star, who direct. Once she turned down a story Metro wanted her to\nmake, David remembered, \u201cand they cast her opposite Tim McCoy in a\nWestern as punishment. When Lionel Barrymore heard it he said: \u2018That\u2019s\nlike cutting Tolstoy\u2019s beard so he wouldn\u2019t write any revolutionary\nnovels.\u2019\u201d\nNow we have Elizabeth Taylor picking up more than $2,000,000 for\n_Cleopatra_, jeopardizing the whole future of Twentieth Century-Fox by\nher behavior, and getting herself proposed for a seat on the board of\ndirectors by a disgruntled stockholder. We have Mr. Brando collecting\nmore than a million from _Mutiny on the Bounty_, plus overtime for\nevery day\u2019s delay his antics caused. Selznick calls such ventures\n\u201cmovies of desperation.\u201d\n\u201cThe men who make movies have been digging their own graves,\u201d he says.\n\u201cThey\u2019ll put up with anything for a transient advantage. They have\nno long-term concern because they\u2019re busy getting dollars for the\nnext statement, watching the effect that statement will have on the\ncompany\u2019s stock.\u201d I second that.\nWhat went wrong with Hollywood? Well, something like this....\nThe founding fathers didn\u2019t know what competition was. They had it\nall their own, undisputed way so long. They hit on something, motion\npictures, that the world took to like babies take to candy. The handful\nof families that ran the big studios made a cozy little clique by\nintermarriage, bringing in their relatives, sticking together like\nmustard plasters.\nThe same men owned the studios, the distributing companies, and many of\nthe biggest movie theaters. Right down the line, they controlled what\naudiences saw and how much they paid to see it. An independent theater\nowner in any town at home or abroad either was deprived of the pictures\nhe wanted or else had to accept block booking. To lay hold of, say, a\nsure-fire Humphrey Bogart picture from Warners, he had to take three\nothers that he\u2019d have to take a chance on.\nBut a picture had to be a real turkey not to pay its way, at least.\nIf people wanted an evening out, in most cases, they had no place\nto go except the movies. There\u2019s never been a monopoly that brought\nsuch sweet rewards to the men who ran it. Radio proved to be no kind\nof competition. If I paid them enough--and some big stars demanded\n$5000 to stand up and read a script--I could get virtually anybody I\nwanted, including Dore Schary, on my weekly show when I crashed into\nbroadcasting. A loud-speaker was no substitute for the screen, where\na kind of earthy paradise was on view. Illusion had to be put into\npictures, not just into words.\nThe film factories were organized like an automobile assembly line.\nThey had to be. The demand for movies was insatiable. Our town turned\nout four, five hundred pictures a year, with close to a thousand actors\nand actresses under contract. Every year the bosses prepared lavish\npromotion programs to light a gleam in the exhibitors\u2019 eyes, listing\nthe four colossal musicals, the half dozen scintillating comedies,\nthe seven searing dramas, and so forth which the particular studio\nwould deliver in the months ahead. Many times these promises were pure\nblue sky. They\u2019d invent a title, pencil in the stars, then a team of\ncontract writers would knock out a story. Today no production head\ncan promise what next year will bring because the system\u2019s out of his\ncontrol and he just doesn\u2019t know about tomorrow.\nOn top of the heap sat the Mayers, Schencks, Warners, Goldwyn, most\nof them ruling like pharaohs, unapproachable by underlings except by\ninvitation. At the next level down, among the producers and directors,\ncame the real pros who kept the wheels aturning. A man like Byrnie\nFoy, the \u201cKeeper of the B\u2019s\u201d at Warners, could look at a script for a\nWestern, rip out a page after a single glance, and order: \u201cDon\u2019t have\nthem cross a bridge, or you\u2019ll have to build it. Have them cross a\ngulch and save $20,000.\u201d\nThat\u2019s a far cry from _Something\u2019s Got to Give_, where Fox watched\n$2,000,000 disappear down the gutter and all they got for it was some\nfootage of Marilyn Monroe slipping into a swimming pool naked. Most of\nthe old-time professional producers are dead. Our town needs the likes\nof them the way a burning house needs firemen.\nWe had directors whom actors and actresses gave their eyeteeth to\nwork for; it was the cracker-jack directors who made the stars.\nBeginners in grease paint slogged their way up through bit parts in \u201cB\u201d\npictures until they\u2019d picked up enough experience for bigger things\nand better contracts. Sometimes the lightning would strike an actor\nlike Bob Mitchum, glimpsed by Bill Wellman as he strode down Hollywood\nBoulevard. Bill had _G.I. Joe_ to make, didn\u2019t fancy Gary Cooper for it\nbecause he needed a man with a look of sweat on his skin and the devil\ninside him. Bill tapped Bob Mitchum for stardom on the spot. Bob, after\nmore than his share of headlines, ranks now as one of our more solid\ncitizens.\nLike a ride on a roller coaster, Hollywood reached peak prosperity\njust before the final dive began. World War II brought in profits that\noverflowed the tills and burst the bank vaults. It also brought on the\nfirst of the catastrophic decisions that wrecked the industry.\nA soldier with a precious pass or an off-duty hour to spare, a war\nworker on the swing shift--the whole world flocked to the movies to\nescape reality for a few moments. You couldn\u2019t produce a picture, any\npicture, without it turning a handsome profit. So we promptly made the\nworst claptrap and flung it on the screens.\nBy way of gratitude toward the men who fought the war, our town let\nthem wander by the thousands around the streets when they drifted in\non leave, craning their necks to see a famous face or ready to settle\nfor a pretty one. Aside from limited efforts like the much-publicized\nHollywood Canteen, our hospitality was mostly private. Many towns put\ncots down for GI\u2019s to sleep on in town halls and firehouses if they\nwere caught without accommodations for the night. Not us. I campaigned\nfor vacant sound stages to be converted into temporary quarters for our\nvisitors in uniform. For all I achieved, I was talking to myself.\nThe catastrophe that the studios invited was the death of glamour,\nwhich had filled the air we breathed. The stars were asked to stop\nwearing the golden glow of gods and goddesses and look like plain\nfolks, as homey as apple pie and lawn mowers. You couldn\u2019t pick up a\nmagazine without coming across publicity shots of Betty Grable out\nmarketing, Bette Davis washing dishes, or Alice Faye changing diapers.\nNobody had ever seen a picture of Dietrich hanging out wet wash or Jack\nBarrymore in a life-with-father layout. We were busy bringing stars\ndown out of the sky, lousing up the act, cutting our own throats.\nRealism strangled the dream stuff, and it\u2019s slowly slaughtering\nHollywood. I see very little hope unless glamour is given its rightful\nplace again. I believe that audiences wanted it then and want it now.\nMore and more people share that point of view. Jerry Lewis is one of\nthem.\n\u201cIt wasn\u2019t good to take the soft lights off the tinsel,\u201d said Jerry.\n\u201cThe days of the stars must return. There\u2019s been too much haphazard\nmingling with the public by the stars. It killed a beautiful illusion,\nthe illusion that helped make Hollywood and picture stars important to\nthe public.\u201d\nWhen the GI\u2019s came back from the war, the lean years set in for our\nindustry. They\u2019d seen strange sights and found new dreams. They were\na restless generation, looking for fresh excitements. They turned to\nbowling alleys, night baseball, the race tracks. Suddenly there were a\nwhole lot of other things to do besides going to the movies. The money\nthat went for new pastimes used to go into movie-house tills.\nThey reacted by bumping up admission prices. It didn\u2019t help. Instead of\na couple being able to see a double feature, cartoons, and a newsreel\nat thirty-five cents a head, for a first-run picture the tab leaped\nup to $1.50 and more apiece. Coincidentally, another great American\ninvention had come along in the postwar years, the baby sitter.\nOnly a handful of households could afford living-in servants after\nthe maids and cooks and butlers had enjoyed a taste of wartime wages\non factory assembly lines. It was no longer the thing to do to ask a\nneighbor to mind the baby while Dad took Mother to the movies. They had\nto hire a baby sitter at accelerating hourly rates. If Dad stood Mother\ndinner out somewhere first, a couple of hours watching Luise Rainer\nknocked the family budget for ten or fifteen dollars. It just wasn\u2019t\nworth that much. The tide on the sea of gold was ebbing fast.\nThen the government started huffing and puffing, and the big empires\nwere gone with the wind. What happened was that the independent theater\nowners, who\u2019d been pushed around for years, finally nudged the Justice\nDepartment into declaring that it was illegal under the anti-trust laws\nfor the same organization to make movies, distribute them, and screen\nthem in its own picture palaces.\nThis was like the Ford Motor Company waking up one morning to find it\nhad lost all its showrooms. Or Fanny Farmer discovering she could cook\nup her candy but not run the stores she sold it in. The movie makers,\nwho had never smelled real competition up to date, suddenly realized\nthey were in a tougher grind than the cloak-and-suit business ever was.\nThere was a moment when they could have had another gilt-edged\nguarantee of money by the billions if they\u2019d had the sense to see it.\nThe early runners of the television industry came on their knees\nto Hollywood and begged the movie men to help them. \u201cYou\u2019ve got the\nfactories to make the product, we\u2019ll get the outlets to show it,\u201d they\nsaid. \u201cLet\u2019s co-operate, and we\u2019ll all grow rich.\u201d\nOh, but the studio heads were too smart for that! They could have held\ntelevision in the palms of their hands. Instead they jeered: \u201cWho\u2019s\ngoing to stay home and watch a little box?\u201d They sneered: \u201cWhat have\nyou got--women wrestlers and bike races? It\u2019s a fad like Yo-yo. It\ncan\u2019t last. Movies are better than ever.\u201d\nOnly Paramount sensed the potential in the little boxes when there were\nno more than half a million of them, with post-card-sized screens,\nin the country. That studio joined hands with Dr. Allen Du Mont, the\npioneer TV scientist, hoping to build a network of Channel Fives.\nBut he was an inventor, not an executive who could put together the\nnecessary hours of daily programming. The idea failed, the network\namounted to nothing, and all that Y. Frank Freeman, head of Paramount,\ncould do was watch NBC and CBS forge ahead, while he speculated on what\nmight have been.\nThe bankers moved deeper and deeper into the faltering movie industry.\nThey had to. They were the people with money to keep it going. They\ndidn\u2019t know a thing about it, but they knew a star when they saw one.\nTo a banker, a star looked like the safest bet in a business beset\nwith more hazards than a steeplechase. The studios found out you could\nalways raise the financing if you showed Mr. Moneybags a big enough\nstar and a script the star liked. Independent producers learned the\nsame lesson and flocked around, waving contracts. Directors, cameramen,\nevery other key employee necessary to make good movies--the banks\ndidn\u2019t want to hear about them.\nThe ever-loving agents grabbed hold hard. If the industry lived or\ndied on names like Gable, Brando, Hepburn, and Taylor, then, by\ncrikey, their clients were going to grab the steering wheel from the\nprofessional producers and studio heads. The only way the stars could\nbe guaranteed enough money to tempt them to work was to give them a\nslice of the picture\u2019s potential profits on top of salary. The slice\ngrew bigger and bigger and bigger.\nIn the old days we used to wait impatiently for the studio gates to\nopen at 9 A.M. I couldn\u2019t get there soon enough. Nowhere else did\nyou have such fun. You had companions of your own kind to work with,\nmany of them the finest talents in the worlds of the theater, concert\nplatform, fashion salon. On Saturdays and Sundays we\u2019d hurry back to\nthe studios to hear the orchestras record sound tracks with stars of\nthe musicals, or maybe listen to four hundred Negroes sing spirituals\nfor a Lawrence Tibbett picture.\nWhen George Cukor was preparing _The Women_, I was so eager to play\nin it that I called him on the quiet after Dema Harshbarger had set\na price on my head of $1000 minimum, whether for a day\u2019s work or a\nweek\u2019s. \u201cConfidentially, I\u2019d work for nothing,\u201d I told him. A contract\nwas drawn at a cut-down figure and sent to Dema.\nShe asked me into her office, next to mine. \u201cI\u2019d like to give you\na farewell luncheon at some smart place,\u201d she said, her dark eyes\ngleaming bright. \u201cWe won\u2019t have any unpleasantness, and we\u2019ll stay\nfriends, but I don\u2019t want any business dealings with you unless you let\nme set a value on you.\u201d I got the point--and a revised contract.\nAt least two once-powerful studios, Fox and MGM, were driven into\na corner from which they may never emerge, thanks to the present,\noverpriced star system. Rome and Madrid today are the temporary movie\ncapitals of the world. Tokyo, London, Paris--all compete for the title.\nSoaring costs at home push more and more production overseas. The\npeccadilloes of foot-loose stars and producers who hanker for far-off\nplaces favor foreign production. Some countries freeze profits from the\nscreening of American movies, so the money must be used to stake new\npictures inside those countries\u2019 frontiers. Then, too, the big screen\ndemands the real locations; you can no longer paint a mountain on a\npiece of glass and make it look like the Rockies.\nSo pictures like _Lawrence of Arabia_ and _Ben-Hur_ are made anywhere\nexcept in Hollywood. William Holden won\u2019t come home from Switzerland\nfor reasons of taxes--and his pictures get picketed by our town\u2019s\nmovie unions. Even Tom and Jerry are refugees now. They were made at\nCulver City before the animation studios were shut five years ago.\nNow Tom and Jerry are drawn in Italy, Popeye is a Yugoslav sometimes,\nand Bullwinkle comes to life on drawing boards in Mexico. Walt Disney\nremains one of the all-Americans.\nMGM prayed it would be helped out of its _Mutiny_ hole by the oil well\nthat started to flow on the back lot at Culver City at about the time\nthat Brando was stumbling through the final scenes of the picture in\nHollywood.\nTwentieth Century-Fox went in for sterner stuff, very late in the day.\nThey tried to hurry _Cleopatra_ production to a conclusion by cutting\noff the salary in Rome of Walter Wanger. They fired Marilyn Monroe and\nsued her for $500,000 for absenteeism from the set of _Something\u2019s Got\nto Give_ after she had given five days of performance in seven weeks of\nshooting.\nThe Fox counterrevolution against stars found her colleague, Dean\nMartin, in the line of fire next. He\u2019d promptly announced after Marilyn\nwas dismissed that so far as he was concerned it was Monroe or nobody.\nHe walked out; the picture was shut down. Equally promptly the studio\nthrew a record-breaking suit for $5,678,000 at his head, claiming breach\nof contract, and Dean\u2019s attorneys filed countercharges.\nHe was no hero to the unions, though they sat back and did nothing.\nAn official said to me: \u201cHe\u2019s putting people out of work at a time\nwhen we\u2019re all faced with unemployment due to runaway production. He\u2019s\ncertainly demonstrating his unconcern for his co-workers.\u201d\nWhen a star got out of line, the crew used to have a peculiar way of\nhandling the situation. Jack Barrymore would be performing his heart\nout when out of the blue a crystal chandelier came crashing down,\nmissing his head by inches. If his behavior didn\u2019t improve, the next\none fell even closer.\nIf the handful of stars still left to us disappears, who will replace\nthem? Who\u2019s in sight to give Hollywood the color and excitement that\nit needs to live? Where are the newcomers to be discovered and how can\nthey be trained? The answers, so far as the eye can see, are Nobody and\nNowhere. Opera has been stirred by new names in the past decade--Joan\nSutherland, Birgit Nilsson, Maria Callas. The concert stage has its\nVan Cliburns. Politics has its Kennedys and Nixons. The movies have\nvirtually nothing at the top except the same names that were shining in\nlights ten years ago--Bob Hope, Burt Lancaster, Cary Grant, John Wayne,\nJimmy Stewart and the rest politely called \u201cmiddle-aged.\u201d\nTelevision\u2019s no better off. The surge of talent there was mostly in\nwriters and directors--Rod Serling, Delbert Mann, and others--who\nsubsequently migrated to Hollywood. But the surge is about over. The TV\nnetworks pretend to foster young talents. But do they?\nThey got going on their own account when Hollywood turned them down as\npartners, then was compelled to sell its old movies to them to raise\ncash to keep the studios open. The young, untried talents who came\nout of the war swarmed like flies into TV. They couldn\u2019t find a place\nin the movie industry or in the Broadway theater. Early television\nwas like early movie making all over again, a great adventure filled\nwith fun but not much money; a wonderful place for experiment and\nexperience, because everybody could afford to make mistakes.\nThe networks needed that mysterious thing called programming, meaning\na dependable timetable of big hits and steady features, spectaculars\nblended with _Lassie_. Without programming, they couldn\u2019t get TV sets\nsold, and a network like NBC, owned by RCA, was primarily in business\nnot to entertain its audiences but to sell sets.\nNBC programming was in the hands of Pat Weaver, a farsighted pioneer\nat his business with a special, rare ability to spend other people\u2019s\nmoney without being frightened by the cost. Before he departed network\nheadquarters in Rockefeller Center, he had brought in \u201cWide, Wide\nWorld,\u201d Groucho Marx, Milton Berle, Sid Caesar.\nCBS had an executive, too, in Hubbell Robinson, who also ran a good\nstore. ABC had its problems as the little brother fighting to break\ninto a situation where its rivals divided most of the country between\nthemselves. But along came men like Bob Kintner, Oliver Treyze, Tom\nMoore, and Dan Melnick. They took a backward look at what Warner\nBrothers had done when they had to crack open a similar situation in\nthe movies and the big studios closed ranks against them.\nJack and Harry Warner, with stars like Bogart and Cagney on the\npayroll, broke in with action pictures, with gang bullets flying and\nfists swinging in every reel. ABC copied a leaf from that book. Never\nhad such a volley of blank bullets resounded over the land before.\nCritics threw up their hands in horror, but ABC arrived with a bang and\nstayed there.\nIt\u2019s a tragedy of the entertainment industry that the networks were\nas blind to the future needs of their business as the movie makers\nhad been to theirs. Like Pharaoh, the television tycoons let the\npeople go; the big talents left when the money wasn\u2019t put up to keep\nthem together. The tycoons thought they made television, not the\nwriters, directors, and producers. They wouldn\u2019t dream of setting up\na studio system, a great pool of brains that could have made NBC or\nCBS or ABC the biggest creator there ever was of entertainment and the\nlively arts. They put no funds aside for research, as General Motors,\nWestinghouse, Du Pont and the others do.\nNow TV by and large has become a dime-store business so far as\ncreativity and talent are concerned. The half-hour and sixty-minute\nseries rattle off the production lines like cans of beans, with an\noccasional dab of ham inside. If the finished film doesn\u2019t make sense,\nno matter. If the kid with the six-shooter can\u2019t act to save his\nmother\u2019s life, who cares?\nThe idea is that if enough people are watching, some of the\nadvertisers\u2019 message will rub off on them to make the series worth\nwhile. But if enough people stop watching the stuff that\u2019s put on\ntheir screens, then commercial television faces a similar fate to the\nmovies, in spite of color sets or tomorrow\u2019s gimmicks such as giant\nscreens to hang on your living-room wall.\nI believe the only possible solution for television and movies alike\nis a recognition of the eternal values of real talent, excitement, and\nglamour. Audiences are starved for all three. Entertainment must be a\nsatisfying emotional experience, a stirring of the heart. We need all\nkinds of young men and women. Those people with an artist\u2019s eye and an\nexecutive\u2019s brain that we term directors. Those wrestlers with their\nsouls and typewriters known as authors. The beggars on horseback called\nactors and actresses.\nHollywood is my home, and most of my friends live there. I like to\ntravel sometimes, but I find scenery as a diet doesn\u2019t nourish me. So I\nintend to stick around and watch what happens, remembering a few more\nwords from the plaque that stands on my desk:\n    I do the very best I know how--the very best I can; and I mean\n    to keep doing so until the end. If the end brings me out all\n    right, what is said against me won\u2019t amount to anything. If the\n    end brings me out wrong, ten angels swearing I was right would\n    make no difference.\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes\nPunctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a\npredominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they\nwere not changed.\nObvious typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation\nmarks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left\nunbalanced.\nAll of the photographs are in one section, as they were in the original\nbook. Originally, the section followed the first page of Chapter Ten,\nbut to avoid disrupting the flow of reading, in this eBook, that\nsection has been moved to precede Chapter Ten.\nIn the original book, there usually were 2-4 photographs per page,\nwith descriptions for all of them in the middle of the page. Here,\nthe photographs are separate and contiguous with their descriptions.\nReferences such as left/right/above/below have been removed from those\ndescriptions, as they are not needed here.\nThe original book has no Table of Contents. The Transcriber added one\nto the HTML version of this eBook.", "source_dataset": "gutenberg", "source_dataset_detailed": "gutenberg -  The Whole Truth and Nothing But\n"},
{"source_document": "", "creation_year": 1948, "culture": " English\n", "content": "Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan and the Online\n                       BUREAU OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY\n                        The University of Texas\n                        TEXAS ROCKS AND MINERALS\n                      _Sketches by Bill M. Harris_\n  Page\n  Preface vii\n  Introduction 1\n      Earth\u2019s outer crust 2\n      Geologists 2\n      Time and rock units 2\n      Geologic map 6\n  What are rocks and minerals? 7\n      Chemical elements 7\n      Minerals 7\n      Igneous rocks 9\n      Extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks 9\n      Intrusive igneous rocks 9\n      Sedimentary rocks 10\n      Sedimentary rock materials in broken fragments 11\n      Sedimentary rock materials in solution 12\n      Cementing materials and chemical sediments 12\n      Sedimentary rocks formed by plants and animals 12\n      Metamorphic rocks 12\n      Static metamorphism 13\n      Contact metamorphism 13\n      Dynamic metamorphism 14\n      Occurrence and properties of minerals 14\n      How minerals occur 14\n      Crystalline minerals 14\n      Crystals 14\n      Imperfect crystals 14\n      Amorphous minerals 15\n      Some distinguishing properties of minerals 15\n      Luster 16\n      Transmission of light 16\n      Hardness 16\n      Streak or powder 17\n      Cleavage 17\n      Parting 17\n      Fracture 17\n      Specific gravity 18\n      Effervescence in acid 18\n      Some special occurrences of minerals 18\n      Cave deposits 18\n      Concretions 19\n      Geodes 19\n      Petrified wood 20\n  Collecting rocks and minerals 22\n  Rock and mineral identification charts 24\n      How to use the mineral identification charts 24\n      Key to mineral identification charts 25\n      Mineral identification charts 26\n      How to use the rock identification charts 39\n      Rock identification charts 40\n  Descriptions of some Texas rocks and minerals 43\n      Anhydrite 43\n      Asbestos 43\n      Barite 44\n      Basalt 45\n      Calcite 46\n      Cassiterite 47\n      Celestite 48\n      Cinnabar 49\n      Copper minerals (chalcocite, chalcopyrite, malachite, azurite)\n      Dolomite 54\n      Feldspar 55\n      Fluorite 56\n      Galena 57\n      Garnet 58\n      Gneiss 59\n      Granite 61\n      Graphite 62\n      Gypsum 63\n      Halite 65\n      Hematite 66\n      Limestone 68\n      Limonite 70\n      Llanite 71\n      Magnetite 72\n      Manganese minerals (braunite, hollandite, pyrolusite) 73\n      Marble 75\n      Obsidian and vitrophyre 77\n      Pegmatite 79\n      Pyrite 80\n      Quartz 81\n      Quartzite 84\n      Rhyolite 85\n      Sand and sandstone 85\n      Schist 87\n      Serpentine 87\n      Silver minerals (argentite, cerargyrite, native silver) 89\n      Sulfur 90\n      Talc and soapstone 93\n      Tourmaline 94\n      Uranium minerals (carnotite, uranophane, pitchblende) 95\n      Volcanic ash (pumicite) 97\n  Composition, hardness, and specific gravity of some Texas minerals\n  Books about rocks and minerals 100\n      Nontechnical books for beginners 100\n      Textbooks and other reference books 100\n      Selected references on Texas rocks and minerals 100\n  Glossary 102\n  Page\n  Guadalupe Peak and El Capitan in the Guadalupe Mountains,\n          Culberson County, Texas 1\n  Earth\u2019s outer crust 2\n  Geologic time scale 3\n  Generalized geologic map of Texas 4-5\n  A mineral is made up of chemical elements 7\n  A rock is made up of minerals 8\n  Extrusive igneous rocks form at the earth\u2019s surface 9\n  Intrusive igneous rocks form beneath the earth\u2019s surface 10\n  Soils develop from weathered rock and associated organic material\n  Conglomerate from Webb County, Texas 11\n  Precipitated sediments lining a teakettle 12\n  Contact metamorphism 13\n  A scalenohedron 14\n  Barite specimen showing radial form 15\n  Chalcedony showing botryoidal form 16\n  Transparent mineral 16\n  Streak plate 17\n  Conchoidal fracture 18\n  Stalactites and stalagmites in the Caverns of Sonora, Sutton\n          County, Texas 19\n  Calcite geode from Travis County, Texas 20\n  Petrified wood from Texas Gulf Coastal Plain 20\n  Prospector\u2019s hammer 22\n  Hand lens 22\n  Physiographic outline map of Texas 42\n  Massive anhydrite 43\n  Amphibole asbestos from Gillespie County, Texas 44\n  Barite cleavage fragment from west Texas 44\n  Basalt from Brewster County, Texas 45\n  Calcite has perfect rhombohedral cleavage 46\n  Calcite crystals (dog-tooth spar) from the Terlingua area of\n          Brewster County, Texas 47\n  Celestite cleavage fragment from Lampasas County, Texas 48\n  Cinnabar and calcite crystals from the Terlingua area of Brewster\n          County, Texas 50\n  Bentonite is used as a drilling-fluid additive 51\n  Hazel copper-silver mine, Culberson County, Texas 53\n  Dolomite rock from Burnet County, Texas 54\n  Feldspar cleavage fragment from Llano County, Texas 55\n  Microcline feldspar crystals from Llano County, Texas 56\n  Fluorite has octahedral cleavage 57\n  Galena has perfect cubic cleavage 57\n  Garnet crystal forms 58\n  Gneiss from Blanco County, Texas 59\n  Placer gold in stream gravels 60\n  Granite from Gillespie County, Texas 61\n  Texas State Capitol building at Austin is made of Burnet County\n  Graphite is used in pencil lead, generator brushes, and lubricants\n  Selenite gypsum crystal from Bastrop County, Texas 64\n  Selenite gypsum rosettes from Nolan County, Texas 64\n  Fibrous gypsum from Terlingua area, Brewster County, Texas 65\n  Salt domes occur on the Gulf Coastal Plain 66\n  Specular hematite from Carrizo Mountains, Hudspeth County, Texas\n  Limestone from Travis County, Texas 68\n  Limestone quarry at Georgetown, Williamson County, Texas 69\n  Limonite ore is changed to metallic iron in a blast furnace 71\n  Metallic iron is made into steel in an open-hearth furnace 72\n  Magnetite, Llano County, Texas 73\n  Hollandite from Jeff Davis County, Texas 74\n  Precambrian metamorphic marble from Llano County, Texas 75\n  Mica minerals have perfect cleavage in one direction 76\n  Obsidian arrowheads 77\n  Opalized wood from Washington County, Texas 78\n  Quartz-feldspar pegmatite from Burnet County, Texas 79\n  Pyrite veins in white marble from Llano County, Texas 80\n  Cubic crystals of pyrite 80\n  Quartz crystal from Burnet County, Texas 81\n  Amethyst geode from the Alpine area of Brewster County, Texas 82\n  Milky quartz from Burnet County, Texas 82\n  Smoky-quartz crystals from Burnet County, Texas 83\n  Polished agate from Rio Grande gravels of Zapata County, Texas 83\n  Jasper from Uvalde County, Texas 84\n  Sandstone from Zavala County, Texas 86\n  Prospector 89\n  Sulfur is obtained by the Frasch process 92\n  Talc schist from the Allamoore area of Hudspeth County, Texas 93\n  Topaz crystal from Mason County, Texas 94\n  Black tourmaline crystals with milky quartz from Llano County,\n  A Geiger counter is used to detect radioactivity 96\nThis booklet has been designed to serve as a brief, simple guide that\nwill be of help to school children, amateur collectors, and others who\nare just beginning to develop an interest in the rocks and minerals of\nTexas. It is a companion volume to _Texas Fossils_ by William H.\nMatthews III published as Guidebook No. 2 by the Bureau of Economic\nGeology.\nNumerous present and former staff members of The University of Texas\ncontributed time and talents to the preparation of this book, and their\nhelp is gratefully acknowledged: Peter T. Flawn, Director of the Bureau\nof Economic Geology, Thomas E. Brown, John W. Dietrich, Alan Humphreys,\nElbert A. King, Jr., Peter U. Rodda, and others, including the late John\nT. Lonsdale, made many helpful suggestions; John S. Harris and Miss\nJosephine Casey edited the manuscript; Cader A. Shelby prepared a number\nof the photographs; Bill M. Harris made the illustrative sketches under\nthe direction of James W. Macon; and Cyril Satorsky designed the cover.\n                        Texas Rocks and Minerals\nTexas has a great variety of rocks and minerals\u2014some are common and\nothers are not. This book is designed to acquaint you with some of them\nand to tell you in a nontechnical way what they are like, some of the\nplaces where they are found, and how they are used. Although we do not\nknow exactly how all of the rocks and minerals formed, some of the ideas\nabout their origin are mentioned.\nIf you would like to learn more about rocks and minerals in general, the\nnames of several reference books are listed on page 100. In addition,\nscientific reports that describe in detail many of the rocks and\nminerals of Texas have been published by the Bureau of Economic Geology\nof The University of Texas, the United States Geological Survey, and\nother organizations. A selected list of these reports is given on pages\nRocks and minerals are familiar objects to all of us. We pick up\nattractive or unusual pebbles for our collections, we admire rocky\nmountain peaks, we speak of the mineral resources of our State and\nNation. Rocks and minerals enter, either directly or indirectly, into\nour daily living. From them come the soils in which grow the grains, the\nfruits, and the vegetables for our food, the trees for our lumber, and\nthe flowers for our pleasure. The iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, and\nmanganese, the sulfur and salt, the clays and building stones, and the\nother metals and nonmetals that we require for our way of living were\nonce a part of the earth\u2019s crust.\n [Illustration: Texas\u2019 highest mountain is Guadalupe Peak, right, with\nan elevation of 8,751 feet. El Capitan, left, has an elevation of 8,078\n    feet. These peaks in the Guadalupe Mountains in Culberson County\n   consist largely of Capitan reef limestone, which formed during the\nRocks and minerals make up most of the outer layer or crust of our\nearth\u2014the actual ground beneath our feet. The crust is approximately 18\nto 30 miles thick beneath the continents. In general, the outermost part\nconsists of many layers of stratified rocks, one above another. The\nolder rocks normally make up the bottom or the deeper layers, and the\nyounger rocks form the upper layers. Not all the layers are perfectly\nflat and parallel\u2014some are lenticular (lens-shaped), some are tilted,\nsome are partly eroded away, and some are present in one place and\nabsent in another. Beneath the continents, the layers of rock rest on\nancient metamorphic rocks and on great masses of igneous rock such as\ngranite. These lower rocks are known as the _basement_.\n  [Illustration: Earth\u2019s outer crust (thickness not drawn to scale).]\n  Over much of the land surface of the earth, the outermost layer is\n  made up of layers of rock\n  On the continents, the layers of rock rest on metamorphic rocks and on\n  igneous rocks such as granite\nThose who study the earth\u2019s crust\u2014its origin, history, rocks, minerals,\nfossils, and structure\u2014are known as _geologists_. The geologists who are\nespecially interested in a particular phase of _geology_, as this\nscience is called, are given special names: those who study fossils are\ncalled _paleontologists_; those who study minerals are called\n_mineralogists_; those who study rocks are called _petrologists_.\nThe earth\u2019s crust is believed to be at least 3\u00bc billion years old. In\norder to deal with this vast stretch of time, geologists have divided\nthe billions of years into various time units and have given each unit a\nname. The great divisions of geologic time, called _eras_, are Early\nPrecambrian, Late Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. These\neras are divided into smaller units of time called _periods_, and the\nperiods are divided into _epochs_. The _[xx time scale]_ shows the\ngeologic time divisions. Earliest geologic time is shown at the bottom\nof the scale; most recent is shown at the top.\nBy examining and studying the different rocks and rock layers,\ngeologists try to discover in which unit of geologic time these rocks\nformed. Those rocks that formed during a _period_ of geologic time are\ncalled a _system_ of rocks; those that formed during an _epoch_ are\ncalled a _series_. For example, the Cambrian System of rocks formed\nduring the Cambrian Period; the Cretaceous System of rocks formed during\nthe Cretaceous Period; the Tertiary System of rocks formed during the\nTertiary Period. We are now in the younger epoch (called Recent) of the\nQuaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era. The rocks that are forming now\nare the Recent Series of rocks.\n                  [Illustration: Geologic time scale]\n  ERA\n    PERIOD\n      EPOCH\n  CENOZOIC\n    QUATERNARY (lasted 0-1 million years)\n      Recent\n      Pleistocene\n    TERTIARY (lasted 62 million years)\n      Pliocene\n      Miocene\n      Oligocene\n      Eocene\n      Paleocene\n  \u201463 million years ago\u2014\n  MESOZOIC\n    CRETACEOUS (lasted 72 million years)\n    JURASSIC (lasted 46 million years)\n    TRIASSIC (lasted 49 million years)\n  \u2014230 million years ago\u2014\n  PALEOZOIC\n    PERMIAN (lasted 50 million years)\n    PENNSYLVANIAN (lasted 30 million years)\n    MISSISSIPPIAN (lasted 35 million years)\n    DEVONIAN (lasted 60 million years)\n    SILURIAN (lasted 20 million years)\n    ORDOVICIAN (lasted 75 million years)\n    CAMBRIAN (lasted 100? million years)\n  \u2014600? million years ago\u2014\n  LATE PRECAMBRIAN\n  EARLY PRECAMBRIAN\nThese time estimates are from the paper, Geologic Time Scale, by J.\nLawrence Kulp, published in Science, Vol. 133, No. 3459, April 14, 1961.\n(The time divisions are not drawn to scale)\n       [Illustration: Plate 10. GENERALIZED GEOLOGIC MAP OF TEXAS\n               Modified from Geologic Map of Texas, 1933]\n  EXPLANATION\n    CENOZOIC\n      1 Quaternary\n      2 Tertiary (Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene)\n      3 Tertiary (Eocene)\n      4 Volcanic (extrusive) igneous rocks\n    MESOZOIC\n      5 Upper Cretaceous (Gulf series)\n      6 Lower Cretaceous (Comanche series)\n      7 Jurassic\n      8 Triassic\n    PALEOZOIC\n      9 Permian\n      10 Mississippian and Pennsylvanian\n      11 Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and undivided\n          Paleozoic\n      12 Rocks (Precambrian) older than Paleozoic\n      13 Intrusive igneous rocks (Precambrian, Mesozoic or Cenozoic)\nThese rocks are found either at the surface or directly beneath the\nsoils and subsoils which cover most of Texas.\nGeologists also subdivide rocks into lesser units. One of these, called\na _group_, is made up of two or more _formations_. A _formation_\ncomprises rocks or strata (layers of rock) that are recognized and\nmapped as a unit. Some formations consist of layers of one particular\ntype of rock, such as limestone or shale. Formations are named after a\nnearby geographic locality, and in some formation names, the type of\nrock is included. For example, three of the Texas geologic formations\nare called Buda Limestone, Del Rio Clay, and Eagle Ford Shale.\nThe _geologic map_ (pp. 4-5) shows the rocks that are found at the\nsurface in Texas. Some of these are extremely old. Some, geologically\nspeaking, are very young.\n                      WHAT ARE ROCKS AND MINERALS?\nAlthough _rocks_ and _minerals_ are often mentioned together, and to\nsome people they have similar meanings, geologists make a distinction\nbetween the two words. In general, rocks are made up of minerals, and\nminerals are made up of chemical elements.\nThe _chemical elements_ include oxygen, silicon, calcium, sulfur,\ncarbon, gold, silver, and many others. There are 90 naturally occurring\nelements. Each is made up of molecules that consist of only one kind of\natom. Chemical elements may either be combined with each other or occur\nalone. They are the building blocks of our world for they make up all\nthe gases, all the liquids, all the minerals, all the plant and animal\nlife, and all the other physical matter. Some of the chemical elements\nthat occur in the rocks and minerals mentioned in this book are listed\nbelow.\n  Aluminum         Al\n  Beryllium        Be\n  Calcium          Ca\n  Chlorine         Cl\n  Fluorine         F\n  Hydrogen         H\n  Magnesium        Mg\n  Manganese        Mn\n  Mercury          Hg\n  Molybdenum       Mo\n  Potassium        K\n  Silicon          Si\n  Strontium        Sr\n  Thorium          Th\n  Uranium          U\n  Vanadium         V\n  Yttrium          Y\n  Zirconium        Zr\nWe can compare the chemical elements to the letters of our alphabet. The\nletters, like the chemical elements, are fundamental building blocks,\nand they can be brought together in various combinations to form words.\nA _mineral_ can be compared to a word of our language. We combine\nletters to form a word, and nature combines certain chemical elements to\nform each particular mineral. For example, calcite, a mineral that is\nabundant in Texas, is always made up of the same proportions of the same\nthree elements: calcium, carbon, and oxygen.\n [Illustration: A mineral is made up of chemical elements. The mineral\n   _calcite_, for example, always consists of the same proportions of\n                     calcium, carbon, and oxygen.]\nEach mineral has its own characteristic internal structure and other\nproperties. At ordinary temperatures, nearly all the minerals are solids\nrather than gases or liquids. (Water and mercury are the principal\nexceptions.) In addition, minerals are inorganic rather than being\ncomposed of plant or animal matter.\nWhen a single chemical element is found alone in nature as a _solid_, it\nis considered to be a mineral, too. Gold, silver, copper, lead, and\nsulfur are some of the chemical elements that can occur alone as solid\nminerals. When they occur this way, we refer to them as _native_ silver,\n_native_ copper, or _native_ sulfur. Although the element mercury is a\nliquid rather than a solid at ordinary temperatures, it too is a mineral\nwhen it occurs alone in nature. It is then called _native_ mercury.\nWe have already compared the chemical elements to the alphabet and the\nminerals to words. We can now go a step further and compare rocks to\nsentences. We put words together to make sentences; nature puts minerals\ntogether to make rocks. A sentence does not have to be made up of a\ndefinite number of words, nor does a rock have to be made up of a\ndefinite number of minerals. Some rocks, such as granite, may be\ncomposed of several minerals. Others, such as dolomite and rock gypsum,\nconsist of only one mineral.\nMinerals do not lose their identities when they make up a rock. Instead,\nthey are merely associated together in varying proportions. Some rocks,\nas we will find later, instead of being composed of the minerals\nthemselves, are made up of fragments of earlier-formed rocks.\nOrdinarily, we think of rocks as hard and solid substances, such as\nlimestone and granite, but some geologists consider loose and uncemented\nmaterials, such as sand, gravel, or volcanic ash, to be rocks also. The\nwords _sediments_ or _deposits_ are often used to describe this\nuncemented or loose material.\nRocks are commonly grouped, according to how they formed, into three\ngreat classes known as _igneous_, _metamorphic_, and _sedimentary_.\n     [Illustration: A rock is made up of minerals. The igneous rock\n _granite_, for example, consists chiefly of quartz and feldspar; other\n      minerals such as mica and hornblende are commonly present.]\nIgneous rocks result from the cooling of hot, molten rock material or\n_magma_. Magma that reaches the surface through volcanoes is called\n_lava_. Magma comes from deep within the earth and is made up of a\nmixture of molten mineral materials. Igneous rocks have been forming\nthroughout the geologic past and are still forming today. We can\nunderstand how they form when we look at pictures of hot, molten lava\nflowing from volcanoes, such as Mauna Loa in Hawaii. As lava cools, it\nhardens into rock.\n                  Extrusive or Volcanic Igneous Rocks\nThe igneous rocks that form on the earth\u2019s surface are called\n_extrusive_ or _volcanic_ igneous rocks. When magma flows to the\nsurface, it cools and hardens quickly. The mineral grains that form\nduring this fast cooling may be too small to be distinguished from each\nother. Some lava cools too quickly for minerals to crystallize\u2014then the\nrock is volcanic glass.\n[Illustration: Extrusive igneous rocks form at the earth\u2019s surface from\n            lava that cools and hardens relatively quickly.]\nNo volcanic igneous rocks are forming in Texas now. However, during\nTertiary time, in the Big Bend area and in other parts of the\nTrans-Pecos country of west Texas, lava came to the surface and\nhardened. (The physiographic outline map, p. 42, shows where these areas\nare located.)\n                        Intrusive Igneous Rocks\nThe cooling and hardening of hot, molten magma also takes place below\nthe earth\u2019s surface. Here, the magma cools slowly to form rocks made up\nof mineral grains that are large enough to be readily visible. These\nrocks are known as _intrusive_ igneous rocks. We know that they are\npresent below the surface in Texas because of wells drilled in many\nareas of the State. In Pecos County, a well reached granite, an\nintrusive igneous rock, at a depth of 16,510 feet. Other wells in Texas\nhave reached the granite basement rocks at much shallower depths. But\nnot all intrusive igneous rocks in Texas are found underground. In the\nTrans-Pecos country of west Texas, in the Balcones fault zone, and in\nthe Llano uplift of central Texas, some are now seen at the surface.\nThey, like all intrusive rocks, were formed below the ground, but\nearth\u2019s processes of uplift and erosion have gradually uncovered them.\n [Illustration: Intrusive igneous rocks form from molten rock material\n      (magma) that cools and hardens beneath the earth\u2019s surface.]\nSedimentary rocks are made up of sediments, which are rock and mineral\ngrains that have come from weathered rocks of all kinds. Rocks are\nweathered when water, ice, snow, wind, and other agents cause them\neither to dissolve, as table salt does when put in water, or to break\napart, as old pavement commonly does.\nSome of the broken-down rocks, along with associated plant and animal\nmatter, develop into soils. When you examine soil with a magnifying\nglass, you may be able to see some of the small rock and mineral grains\nthat still remain in it. Some soils have formed on top of the rocks from\nwhich they came, and some have been moved in from another place.\n[Illustration: Soils develop from weathered rock and associated organic\n  SOIL\n  SUBSOIL\n  WEATHERED ROCK\n  BEDROCK\n             Sedimentary Rock Materials in Broken Fragments\nWater and wind not only weather the rocks and soils but also move the\nweathered materials (the sediments) and deposit them in other places.\nWhenever you see a dust or sand storm, or a muddy creek or river, you\nare observing the movement of sediments by wind and water to other land\nareas or to the sea. The combination of weathering and movement is\ncalled _erosion_.\n  [Illustration: Conglomerate from Webb County, Texas, is composed of\n            rounded gravel that has been cemented together.]\nSome of the rock fragments carried by water are still fairly large when\nthey reach their destinations. On the basis of size, they are called\n_boulders_, _cobbles_, _pebbles_, and _granules_. Loose deposits of\nthese larger-size sediments make up what is known as _gravel_. Nature\ncements gravels together to form rocks such as _conglomerates_ (made up\nof rounded gravel) and _breccias_ (made up of sharp-cornered gravel).\nThe finer sediments are called _sand_, _silt_, _mud_, and _clay_. When\ncemented, the sand grains become _sandstones_, the silt particles become\n_siltstones_, and the mud and clay particles become _shale_. The\nsedimentary rocks that are made up of these rock fragments are called\n_clastic_ or _fragmental_ rocks.\n                 Sedimentary Rock Materials in Solution\nAs they are weathered, some rocks dissolve and go into solution. For\nexample, a number of the Texas creeks and rivers carry calcium carbonate\nin solution because they flow through areas where limestone rocks, which\nconsist mostly of calcium carbonate, are being weathered. (Water that\ncontains a large amount of dissolved rock material is called _hard_\nwater.)\n             _Cementing materials and chemical sediments._\u2014\nSome of the waters containing dissolved rock material seep through loose\nsediments where the dissolved material may come out of solution and form\na _cement_, which binds the sediments together. For example, when loose\nsand sediments are cemented, they form sandstone. Three of the most\ncommon cements are iron oxide, calcium carbonate, and silicon dioxide,\nalthough a number of other materials also serve as cements.\nDissolved rock materials come out of solution not only to serve as\ncementing agents but to form the chief mineral of some sedimentary rocks\nas well. Sedimentary rocks of this kind form mostly in lakes and seas\ninto which much dissolved material is carried by rivers. When the\ndissolved material comes out of solution, it is said to be\n_precipitated_ and the mineral sediments it forms are the _chemical_\nsediments. Some limestones originate this way. You can see examples of\nprecipitated materials by noting the crust-like deposits that form\ninside some water pipes and teakettles, as dissolved material in the\nwater comes out of solution.\n  [Illustration: Precipitated sediments are commonly observed lining a\n           _Sedimentary rocks formed by plants and animals._\u2014\nThe dissolved rock material can come out of solution in another way.\nSome plants and animals are able to take dissolved calcium carbonate out\nof the sea water and use it to build their shells and other structures.\nSome of these organisms, such as corals and algae, can grow upward from\nthe sea floor in large groups to form reefs that later become reef\nlimestones. Other limestones are made up of the remains of plants and\nanimals that collect on the sea floor and become cemented together.\nMetamorphic rocks come from earlier-formed rocks that have undergone a\nchange or a _metamorphosis_. All igneous and sedimentary rocks, and\nearlier-formed metamorphic rocks too, can be changed, without being\nmoved to some other place, into new and different rocks. As they are\nchanged, they may become harder, new minerals may form, and they may\nlook entirely different. For example, granite, an igneous rock, can be\nchanged into the metamorphic rock known as _gneiss_; limestone, a\nsedimentary rock, can be changed into _marble_; shale, a sedimentary\nrock, can be changed into _slate_. These changes occur because the earth\nis a big and complex chemical system. The agents that bring about these\nchanges, which always occur below the surface of the earth, are heat,\npressure, and fluids\u2014both liquids and gases. Several different kinds of\nchange or metamorphism can take place.\n                          Static Metamorphism\nSome of the changes occur because the rocks are at great depths. As more\nand more younger rocks are deposited on top of them, the older rocks\nbecome deeply buried. The great thicknesses of younger rocks are heavy,\nand they squeeze and press down on the rocks beneath them. The deeply\nburied rocks are also hotter than surface rocks. In general, the\ntemperature increases about 1\u00b0 Fahrenheit for each 50 feet of depth\nbelow the surface. The change of deeply buried rocks into new rocks by\npressure and heat is known as _static metamorphism_.\n                          Contact Metamorphism\nAnother method of change or metamorphism involves molten igneous rock\nmaterial. When hot magma moves up through rocks, it not only heats and\npushes them, but it also may soak them with liquids and gases, causing\nthe nearby rocks to change into new rocks, by a process called _contact\nmetamorphism_.\n [Illustration: Some rocks are altered by heat and fluids when they are\n    invaded by hot magma in a process called contact metamorphism.]\n  UNALTERED ROCK\n  METAMORPHIC ROCK\n  MAGMA\n                          Dynamic Metamorphism\nStill another rock-changing process is one that is associated with\nmountain building. When mountains are formed, heat and great pressures\ndevelop deep within the earth\u2019s crust. The flat layers of rock are then\nslowly pushed and squeezed so that they bend up into arches, fracture,\nor slide over each other. These forces cause great changes in the rocks\nin widespread areas. This process of change is known as _dynamic\nmetamorphism_.\n                 Occurrence and Properties of Minerals\nRocks are made up of minerals. In addition, minerals are associated with\nrocks in other ways. For example, minerals fill or coat cracks and\ncavities that have developed in some of the rocks. Minerals are either\ncrystalline or amorphous.\n                          Crystalline Minerals\nMost minerals are crystalline. In crystalline minerals, combinations of\natoms are arranged in ordered patterns, which are repeated over and\nover. This orderly internal structure of atoms is a characteristic of\neach crystalline mineral, as mineralogists are able to determine by\nusing X-rays and special microscopes.\nWhen a mineral occurs as a well-formed individual crystal, it has a\ndefinite, precise shape. The kind of crystal shape it has depends on its\nown type of crystalline internal structure. A well-formed crystal has\nsmooth, flat, outer surfaces called _crystal faces_, which are arranged\ntogether to form prisms, cubes, pyramids, and many other geometric\nshapes. For example, quartz, a common Texas mineral, is commonly found\nas a six-sided, prism-shaped crystal that is topped by pyramid-like\nforms. Pyrite, another common mineral, occurs as cube-shaped crystals.\nWe can identify some minerals more readily by learning to recognize\ntheir crystal shapes.\n    [Illustration: A scalenohedron, one of the many crystal forms of\nA crystalline mineral commonly forms under conditions that do not permit\nit to become a well-shaped crystal. Although the mineral may show a few\ncrystal faces, it does not have a complete crystal shape and so is\ndescribed as _massive_, or is said to occur in _masses_. Some of the\nminerals that make up rocks occur as crystalline masses. For example,\n_calcite_ is a crystalline mineral that occurs in the metamorphic rock\n_marble_ without its normal crystal shape.\nMany crystalline minerals occur as incomplete and imperfect crystals\nthat are grouped together in various arrangements. If these incomplete\ncrystals are arranged around a common center like the spokes of a wheel,\nthey are said to be _radial_ or _radiated_. If the groups of incomplete\ncrystals look like bundles of strings or fibers, they are described as\n_fibrous_. If they are in rounded masses that resemble bunches of\ngrapes, they are called _botryoidal_. If they look like fish scales,\nthey are described as _scaly_. Some crystalline minerals are made up of\ntiny grains that are grouped together like the grains in a lump of\nsugar. A mineral occurring in this way is described as _granular_. More\ndescriptions of crystalline minerals are found in the section on Texas\nrocks and minerals (pp. 43-98).\n          [Illustration: Barite specimen showing radial form.]\nAn amorphous mineral, unlike a crystalline mineral, does not have a\ndefinite, orderly arrangement of its atoms. Because of this lack of\ninternal structure, the mineral occurs in masses that have no regular\ngeometric shapes, and it has no crystal form of its own. Only a few\nminerals are amorphous.\n               SOME DISTINGUISHING PROPERTIES OF MINERALS\nWe use our senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste to become\naware of the world around us. For example, we recognize a flower by\nnoting its color, its fragrance, and the texture, shape, and arrangement\nof its petals. These are some of its characteristic properties. A\nmineral also has distinguishing properties, among them color, luster,\nand hardness, which help us identify it. Some minerals have a single\noutstanding property, such as the magnetism of magnetite, that makes\nthem easier to recognize. But to identify most minerals, we need to\ndetermine not just one, but several properties.\n          [Illustration: Chalcedony showing botryoidal form.]\nColor is one of the properties we notice first. The color of some\nminerals is always the same, and it helps us to identify them. But it is\nnot a dependable property to use in identifying all minerals, because\nsome contain impurities that change or hide the real color.\nThe luster is the way the surface of a mineral reflects light. The\nluster of a mineral may be _nonmetallic_, _submetallic_, or _metallic_.\nMineral metals such as gold, silver, galena, and pyrite have a\n_metallic_ luster. A few minerals have a luster that is almost, but not\nquite metallic\u2014their luster is _submetallic_. A mineral with a\nnonmetallic luster may look _vitreous_ (glassy), _silky_, _resinous_\n(like resin), _greasy_, _earthy_ (dull), _pearly_, or _adamantine_\n(brilliant).\n                         Transmission of Light\nSome minerals allow light to pass through them; others do not. A mineral\nis _transparent_ if you can see both light and objects through it, as\nthrough clear glass. If you can see only light, but no objects, as\nthrough frosted glass, the mineral is _translucent_. When you hold an\n_opaque_ mineral up to the light, it looks dark. No light at all comes\nthrough it, even through the thin edges.\n                  [Illustration: Transparent mineral.]\nSome minerals are soft and can be scratched easily. Others, which are\nharder, are resistant to scratching. To measure a mineral\u2019s hardness, we\ntry to find out which substances will scratch it and which substances\nwill not scratch it. To do this in a general way, several ordinary\nobjects\u2014such as a fingernail, a copper penny, a pocket knife, a piece of\nwindow glass, and a steel file\u2014can be used. For a more exact way of\ntesting hardness, we can use ten minerals that make up what is known as\n_Mohs scale_. Each mineral in this scale has a different hardness, and\neach one has been given a number that represents its hardness. For\nexample, talc, the softest mineral in this scale, is given a hardness of\n_1_. Gypsum, the next softest mineral in the scale, has a hardness of\n_2_. Diamond, the hardest mineral known, is given the top hardness of\n_10_ in this scale. These ten minerals are listed below. Alongside them\nare five common objects with their hardnesses.\n  1\u2014Talc\n  2\u2014Gypsum         Fingernail\u2014slightly over 2\n  3\u2014Calcite        Copper penny\u2014about 3\n  4\u2014Fluorite\n  5\u2014Apatite        Pocket knife\u2014slightly over 5\n  6\u2014Orthoclase     Window glass\u20145\u00bd\n  7\u2014Quartz         Steel file\u2014about 6\u00bd\n  8\u2014Topaz\n  9\u2014Corundum\n  10\u2014Diamond\nSuppose, for example, that a mineral can be scratched by fluorite, which\nhas a hardness of _4_ on Mohs scale, but cannot be scratched by calcite,\nwhich has a hardness of _3_. We then know that this mineral is softer\nthan fluorite, but harder than calcite; therefore, it has a hardness of\nabout _3\u00bd_. In the same way, if a mineral can be scratched by a pocket\nknife, which is slightly more than _5_ in hardness, but not by a copper\npenny, which has a hardness of about _3_, we know then that its hardness\nis between _3_ and _5_.\nThe streak is the mark, made of fine powder, that a mineral leaves as\nyou rub it across a streak plate. A streak plate is a flat piece of\nwhite tile or porcelain that has a dull, unglazed surface. The streak\nplate is about as hard as quartz, which is _7_ on Mohs scale, and you\nwill not be able to use it for minerals that have a greater hardness.\nFor these, you can obtain the powder by scratching the mineral or by\ncrushing a small piece of it.\n  [Illustration: A streak plate is used to determine the color of the\n                    streak or powder of a mineral.]\nThe color of the streak or powder is extremely helpful in identifying\nsome minerals. For example, hematite is a mineral that may be any one of\nseveral different colors, but its streak or powder is always reddish\nbrown.\nAs they break, some crystalline minerals always split along a smooth,\nflat surface. This property is known as cleavage. Some cleavages are\nsmooth and perfect; others are not so perfect. The cleavage surfaces,\nbecause of the mineral\u2019s crystalline internal structure, are parallel to\npossible crystal faces, even though the mineral itself may occur as a\ncrystalline mass without a perfect crystal shape.\nSome minerals will cleave in only one direction; some, in several\ndirections. For example, galena, a mineral found in Texas, has perfect\n_cubic_ cleavage. It cleaves in three directions that are at right\nangles to each other. These cleavage directions are parallel to possible\ncubic crystal faces, and some of the cleavage fragments are cubes.\nA few minerals sometimes show a kind of false cleavage known as\n_parting_. Parting, unlike cleavage, is not constant and does not occur\nin every specimen of a particular mineral. For this reason, it is not a\nvery dependable means of identification.\nMinerals also break in another way. When the break is in a different\ndirection from that of the cleavage or parting, it is known as the\nfracture. A fracture is called _conchoidal_ if the mineral\u2019s broken\nsurface is curved like the inside of a spoon or shell. Thick pieces of\nglass break with this conchoidal fracture. A fracture is described as\n_hackly_ if the broken surface has sharp, jagged edges; as _even_, if\nthe surface is generally flat; and as _uneven_, if it is rough and not\nflat. If the mineral breaks into splinters, its fracture is called\n_splintery_.\n                  [Illustration: Conchoidal fracture.]\nThe specific gravity is a measure of whether a mineral is heavy or\nlight. It is a comparison of the weight of a piece of the mineral with\nthe weight of an equal volume of water. The mineral quartz, for example,\nhas a specific gravity of 2.65. This means that a piece of quartz is a\nlittle more than 2\u00bd times as heavy as an equal volume of water. Accurate\nmeasurements of specific gravity can be made in a laboratory. You can,\nhowever, learn to estimate specific gravities just by lifting various\nminerals and judging whether they are heavy or light.\n                         Effervescence in Acid\nThis is a property that depends on the chemical composition of the\nmineral. Carbonate minerals, which contain (in addition to at least one\nother element) three parts of oxygen and one part of carbon, can be\ntested with dilute hydrochloric acid. When a drop or two of this acid is\nput on a carbonate mineral such as calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO\u2083),\nthe acid begins to bubble and fizz. The fizzing or effervescence is\ncaused by the carbon dioxide gas that is formed when the acid and\nmineral come in contact with each other. This test is also helpful in\nidentifying rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain carbonate\nminerals.\n                  SOME SPECIAL OCCURRENCES OF MINERALS\nCave Deposits\nBeautiful mineral deposits occur in some natural caves. Deposits that\nlook like icicles, called _stalactites_, are found hanging from the\nceiling of a cave. Other deposits, _stalagmites_, are like the\nstalactites except that they jut upward from the floor. _Columns_ are\nformed from stalactites and stalagmites that have joined together. In\naddition, some caves contain sheet-like deposits that are spread along\nthe ceiling, floor, and walls. These deposits are called _flowstone_.\nCalcite is one of the minerals that commonly form cave deposits.\nJust a few of the caves in Texas contain these deposits. They occur\nmostly in the limestone rocks that are south and southwest of the Llano\nuplift area of central Texas. Some of the commercial caves that contain\ngood examples of calcite deposits are located near Boerne in Kendall\nCounty and near Sonora in Sutton County. Calcite deposits also occur in\nLonghorn Cavern, a large cave located in the Longhorn Cavern State Park\nof Burnet County. These caves were formed by underground waters that\nmoved through cracks and pores in the limestone rocks and dissolved\npassageways in them. After the cave passages were made, water containing\ndissolved calcium carbonate dripped into the cave. As it evaporated,\nthis water left behind a deposit of calcium carbonate\u2014the mineral\ncalcite.\nYou can better understand how the cave deposits are formed by watching\nicicles grow in wet, freezing weather. First, small hanging drops of\nwater freeze, and a small icicle forms. Then, as more water drips over\nit and freezes, the icicle grows longer and wider. Some of the water\ndrips completely over the icicle and falls to the ground. There, it\neither freezes into a sheet of ice, or it begins to build upward to form\nan upside-down icicle. The water dripping down in the caves evaporates\ninstead of freezing, and in doing so it leaves behind a deposit of\ncalcite.\n  [Illustration: Calcite stalactites and stalagmites in the Caverns of\n  Sonora, Sutton County, Texas. Photograph courtesy of the Travel and\n         Information Division of the Texas Highway Department.]\nLimestone, shale, and other sedimentary rocks commonly have scattered\nthroughout them masses of other rocks and minerals, such as limonite,\nchert, and pyrite. These masses are called _concretions_. Concretions\nmay be round or oval, or they may have odd, irregular shapes. They\u2014such\nas some of the limonite concretions of east Texas\u2014even may look like\ngourds or sweet potatoes. Concretions generally are harder than the\nsurrounding rocks. Some are smaller than peas, but others are several\nfeet wide. (The word _nodule_ is used to describe small, rounded\nconcretions as well as other small, rounded mineral occurrences.)\nIt is believed that some concretions form at the same time as the rocks\nin which they occur. Other concretions develop after the rocks\nthemselves have formed. These are deposited by underground water that\ncontains dissolved mineral matter. The water seeps through the rocks and\ndeposits mineral matter around an object in the rock, such as a fossil\nor a grain of sand, to form a concretion.\nGeodes are rounded, generally hollow masses that occur mostly in\nlimestones. They are scattered through the rocks and can be lifted or\ndug out. Some geodes are as small as walnuts, and some are as large as\nbasketballs. Most of them have a rough, dull-looking outer surface. If\nyou break geodes open, you will find that many are lined with beautiful\ncrystals of calcite, celestite, or quartz that point inward toward the\nhollow center.\n[Illustration: Calcite geode found in Lower Cretaceous strata of western\nIt is thought that a geode forms when water, carrying dissolved mineral\nmaterial, seeps into a cavity in the rock, then deposits the mineral\nmaterial as a lining in the cavity. This lining becomes the outer part\nof the geode. Thus a geode\u2014unlike a concretion, which grows from the\ncenter outward\u2014forms from outside to inside.\nSome of the Lower Cretaceous limestone rocks of Travis, Williamson, and\nLampasas counties contain calcite and celestite geodes. Celestite geodes\nhave also been found in Permian rocks in parts of Coke, Fisher, and\nNolan counties.\n     [Illustration: Petrified wood from Texas Gulf Coastal Plain.]\nWe often find some minerals occurring as petrified wood. (Petrified wood\nincludes silicified wood, opalized wood, agatized wood, and carbonized\nwood.) Petrified wood forms when plant material, such as a tree or a\nbush, is replaced by a mineral. It is formed by underground water\ncarrying dissolved mineral matter. As this water seeps through sediments\nin which the plants are buried, it gradually deposits agate, chalcedony,\ncalcite, opal, chalcocite, or some other mineral in the place of each\nfiber of the wood. By this slow change from plant to mineral matter, the\noriginal shape and structure of the wood remain unchanged.\nPetrified wood is commonly found in some of the Tertiary, Permian, and\nLower Cretaceous rocks of Texas. (_See_ Opal, Quartz, Copper Minerals,\n                     COLLECTING ROCKS AND MINERALS\nPerhaps you would like to start your own collection of rocks and\nminerals. For this purpose you will need a _hammer_ (a prospector\u2019s\nhammer with a pick on one end of it is a good tool), some _newspapers_\nto wrap around the specimens to keep them from breaking, and a _cloth\nbag_ in which to carry the specimens.\n                  [Illustration: Prospector\u2019s hammer.]\nBefore you start to collect, be sure to ask the owner\u2019s permission to go\non his property. If he agrees to let you come on his land, be careful\nabout closing gates, and do not leave holes into which his livestock\nmight step and be injured. Look out for snakes. Plenty of rattlers,\ncopperheads, and moccasins are still left in Texas. And, incidentally,\ncollecting is not allowed in State or National parks.\nTo identify the rocks and minerals that you collect, you probably will\nneed several articles with which to make simple tests. The following can\nbe easily obtained:\n  1. A _pocket knife_, a _copper penny_, a piece of _window glass_, a\n  _steel file_, and a piece of _quartz_ to test the hardness. If you\n  prefer to use a group of minerals of known hardness, such as those of\n  Mohs scale described on pages 16-17, you can either collect your own\n  or buy a prepared set from a mineral supply house.\n  2. A _streak plate_ to test the color of the mineral\u2019s streak. Mineral\n  streak plates can be purchased, or a piece of unglazed tile can be\n  used.\n  3. A _magnifying glass_ to examine small cleavage surfaces, crystals,\n  and rock grains. A number of different kinds can be bought, from the\n  simple reading glass to the precisely made hand lens. A lens with\n  ten-power magnification is good for general use.\n  4. A small _magnet_ to test whether or not a mineral is magnetic.\n  5. _Dilute_ (10%) _hydrochloric acid_ (HCl), also known as _muriatic\n  acid_, to test carbonate rocks and minerals. You can buy a small\n  bottle at a drug store. Be extremely careful in handling this acid,\n  and keep it away from small children\u2014it is a _POISON_. If you spill\n  any on yourself, it will burn your skin and eat holes in your clothes.\n                       [Illustration: Hand lens.]\nThe rock and mineral identification charts on pages 24-41 will help you\nto make the simple identification tests in a methodical way.\nIt is a good idea to have some system of labeling your rock and mineral\nspecimens. Some collectors carry note paper with them on field trips.\nThen they can write down the location and, if possible, the name of the\nrock or mineral. This information is either wrapped with the specimen or\nstuck to it with tape. One way to label large collections is to put a\nsmall spot of paint or fingernail polish on each of the rock and mineral\nspecimens. When the paint has dried, a number can be written on it in\nblack India ink. Then, on a file card, the name and the number of the\nspecimen can be written, together with the place where it was found, the\ndate of collection, and the name of the collector.\n                 ROCK AND MINERAL IDENTIFICATION CHARTS\nTo help you identify them, various Texas rocks and minerals are listed\ntogether in the following charts according to properties that they have\nin common. Although useful, the identification charts may not always\ngive you perfect results. For example, hardness, which is used as a\nguide, is not to be completely relied upon in the identification of\nrocks.\nThe charts on the following pages pertain only to the rocks and minerals\nthat are described in this book. It is quite possible that you will find\nrocks and minerals in Texas that are not included in these charts.\nIf you find a rock or a mineral that you are unable to identify, you can\ncheck your local library for reference books that may aid you (several\nsuch references are noted on pages 100-101). If you need further help,\npossibly the science teacher at a nearby public school will be able to\nidentify the specimen for you. Or if a college or university is located\nin your area (especially one that has a department of geology), you can\nobtain help there. In Texas, the Bureau of Economic Geology is a mineral\ninformation center. Most other states have similar geological research\nand public-service organizations. Other sources of information might be\nthe gem and mineral societies that are found in a number of communities.\nMany of the members of these organizations are experts in the\nidentification of rocks and minerals.\n              How To Use the Mineral Identification Charts\nIn the mineral identification charts (pp. 26-38), the minerals have been\ngrouped, first of all, on the basis of _luster_: the first group\nincludes the minerals that appear _metallic_ and _almost metallic_\n(_submetallic_); the second group includes those that appear\n_nonmetallic_. Next, the minerals have been arranged within the two\ngroups according to _color_.\nAfter you have determined the luster and the color of an unknown\nmineral, turn to the _Key to Mineral Identification Charts_ on page 25.\nIt will direct you to the proper mineral chart.\nMineral Charts 1 through 5, which include the minerals of various colors\nwith _metallic_ and _submetallic_ lusters, are subdivided according to\nthe _hardness_ of the minerals. To determine the hardness of a mineral\nthat has one of these lusters, you can make the following tests:\n  1. Will the mineral readily leave a mark on paper?\n  2. If it will not readily leave a mark on paper, will an ordinary\n  pocket knife scratch it?\n  3. Is it too hard to be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife?\nMineral Charts 6 through 15 are for the _nonmetallic_ minerals of\nvarious colors. They, too, are subdivided according to the _hardness_ of\nthe minerals, as follows:\n  1. Can the mineral be scratched by a fingernail?\n  2. If it cannot be scratched by a fingernail, can it be scratched by a\n  copper penny?\n  3. If it cannot be scratched by a copper penny, can it be scratched by\n  an ordinary pocket knife?\n  4. If it cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife, can it be\n  scratched by a piece of quartz?\n  5. Is it too hard to be scratched by quartz?\nWhen the luster, color, and hardness of a mineral have been determined,\nyou may find that several minerals on the charts fit the description. To\nnarrow your choice, you can then test other properties of the mineral.\nNotice the \u201cremarks\u201d column on the charts. In it, is mentioned anything\nthat is distinctive about the mineral.\nFor more complete mineral identification lists and tables, you can use\ntextbooks, such as _Dana\u2019s Manual of Mineralogy_, revised by C. S.\nHurlbut, Jr., or _Mineralogy_, by E. H. Kraus, W. F. Hunt, and L. S.\nRamsdell.\n                  Key to Mineral Identification Charts\nIf the mineral has a _metallic_ or _submetallic_ luster,\n  and is:          Consult Mineral Chart\nIf the mineral has a _nonmetallic_ luster,\n  and is:          Consult Mineral Chart\n  red or pink      13\n  violet\n  colorless        15\n                     Mineral Identification Charts\n  _Chart    _Mineral_            _Streak_           _Remarks_       _Hardness_\n  1.   METALLIC luster, WHITE color\n       A.   Does not readily leave mark on paper but can be scratched by\n            ordinary pocket knife\n            Native silver        Shiny silver       Silver-white       2\u00bd-3\n  2.   METALLIC or SUBMETALLIC luster, GRAY color\n       A.   Will leave mark on paper\n            Argentite            Shiny, blackish    Lead-gray color    2-2\u00bd\n            Galena               Grayish black      Shiny lead-gray    2\u00bd\n       B.   Does not readily leave mark on paper but can be scratched by\n            ordinary pocket knife\n            Chalcocite           Grayish black      Shiny lead-gray    2\u00bd-3\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by ordinary pocket knife\n            Braunite             Steel gray or      Dark steel-gray    6-6\u00bd\n            Hematite             Dark reddish brown Steel-gray color;  5\u00bd-6\u00bd\n  3.   METALLIC luster, YELLOW color\n       A.   Does not readily leave mark on paper but can be scratched by\n            ordinary pocket knife\n            Chalcopyrite         Greenish black     Brass-yellow or    3\u00bd-4\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by ordinary pocket knife\n  4.   METALLIC or SUBMETALLIC luster, BROWN color\n       A.   Does not readily leave mark on paper but can be scratched by\n            ordinary pocket knife\n            Limonite             Rusty yellowish    Dark-brown color;  5-5\u00bd\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife\n            Hematite             Dark reddish brown Dark brown color;  5\u00bd-6\u00bd\n            Limonite             Rusty, yellowish   Dark brown color;  5-5\u00bd\n  5.   METALLIC or SUBMETALLIC luster, BLACK color\n       A.   Will leave mark on paper\n            Argentite            Shiny, blackish    Lead-gray color    2-2\u00bd\n       B.   Does not readily leave mark on paper but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n            Chalcocite           Grayish black      Shiny lead-gray    2\u00bd-3\n            Limonite             Rusty, yellowish   Some specimens     5-5\u00bd\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife\n            Cassiterite          Pale brown, pale   Submetallic        6-7\n            Hematite             Dark reddish brown Notice streak;     5\u00bd-6\u00bd\n            Limonite             Rusty yellowish    Some specimens     5-5\u00bd\n            Pitchblende          Brownish black     Brownish black,    5\u00bd\n  6.   NONMETALLIC luster, WHITE color\n       A.   Can be scratched by a fingernail\n            Cerargyrite          Shiny white or     Appears waxy;      1-1\u00bd\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n  7.   NONMETALLIC luster, GRAY color\n       A.   Can be scratched by a fingernail\n            Amphibole asbestos   White              Made up of         1-2\u00bd\n            Cerargyrite          Shiny white or     Appears waxy;      1-1\u00bd\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n            Amphibole asbestos   White              Made up of         1-2\u00bd\n            Celestite            White              Crystals commonly  3-3\u00bd\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n            Celestite            White              Crystals commonly  3-3\u00bd\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n  8.   NONMETALLIC luster, YELLOW color\n       A.   Can be scratched by a fingernail\n            Limonite             Rusty yellowish    Brownish-yellow    1+\n            Muscovite (white     White              Light colored;     2-2\u00bd\n            Uranophane           Light yellow to    Yellow to          2-3\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n            Muscovite (white     White              Light colored;     2-2\u00bd\n            Uranophane           Light yellow to    Yellow to          2-3\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n  9.   NONMETALLIC luster, BROWN color\n       A.   Can be scratched by a fingernail\n            Limonite             Rusty yellowish    May be soft and    1+\n            Muscovite (white     White              Light colored;     2-2\u00bd\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n            Biotite (black mica) White              Dark brown;        2\u00bd-3\n            Muscovite (white     White              Light colored;     2-2\u00bd\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n            Cassiterite          Pale brown, pale   Brown, reddish     6-7\n       E.   Cannot be scratched by quartz\n  10.  NONMETALLIC luster, BLACK color\n       A.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n            Biotite (black mica) White              Splits into thin,  2\u00bd-3\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by quartz\n  11.  NONMETALLIC luster, GREEN color\n       A.   Can be scratched by a fingernail\n            Amphibole asbestos   White              Made up of         1-2\u00bd\n            Cerargyrite          Shiny white or     Light greenish     1-1\u00bd\n            Muscovite (white     White              Light colored;     2-2\u00bd\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n            Amphibole asbestos   White              Made up of         1-2\u00bd\n            Biotite (black mica) White              Dark green;        2\u00bd-3\n            Muscovite (white     White              Light colored;     2-2\u00bd\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n  12.  NONMETALLIC luster, BLUE color\n       A.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by quartz\n  13.  NONMETALLIC luster, RED or PINK color\n       A.   Can be scratched by a fingernail\n            Hematite             Dark reddish brown Brownish-red       1+\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n  14.  NONMETALLIC luster, PURPLE or VIOLET color\n       A.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n  15.  NONMETALLIC luster, COLORLESS\n       A.   Can be scratched by a fingernail\n            Cerargyrite          Shiny white or     Appears waxy;      1-1\u00bd\n            Muscovite (white     White              Splits into thin,  2-2\u00bd\n       B.   Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by a copper\n            Muscovite (white     White              Splits into thin,  2-2\u00bd\n       C.   Cannot be scratched by a copper penny but can be scratched by an\n            ordinary pocket knife\n       D.   Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife but can be scratched\n       E.   Cannot be scratched by quartz\n               How To Use the Rock Identification Charts\nIn the rock identification charts on pages 40-41, the Texas rocks\ndescribed in this book are arranged in four major groups according to\ntheir texture.\n  1. _Glassy_ (the rocks are smooth, dark, and shiny)\n  2. _Compact, dull, or stony_ (the rocks are smooth and dull, but the\n          individual grains are too small to be recognized)\n  3. _Granular_ (at least some of the individual grains of the rocks are\n          large enough to be seen without a magnifying glass)\n  4. _Fragmental_ (the rocks are made up of fragments that are either\n          loose or cemented together)\nConsult Rock Chart 1, if the rock is glassy; Chart 2, if it is compact,\ndull, or stony; Chart 3, if it is granular; and Chart 4, if it is\nfragmental.\nTwo of the rock charts are subdivided. In Rock Chart 2, the compact,\ndull, or stony rocks are arranged according to hardness as follows:\n  A. Rocks that can be scratched by a fingernail\n  B. Rocks that cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched\n          by an ordinary pocket knife\n  C. Rocks that cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife\nIn Rock Chart 3, the granular rocks also are arranged according to\n_hardness_ into:\n  A. Rocks that can be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife\n  B. Rocks that cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife\n    These harder rocks are subdivided into three groups:\n    1. Those that have grains of about equal size\n    2. Those with large easily seen grains that are scattered through a\n          mass of finer grains\n    3. Those rocks whose grains are arranged in layers\nIn the \u201cremarks\u201d column of the rock identification charts are included\nfurther tests that will aid you in identifying the rock.\nFor a more complete rock determination chart, you can consult a\ntextbook, such as _Rocks and Rock Minerals_, by L. V. Pirsson and A.\nKnopf.\n                       Rock Identification Charts\n    1.                     GLASSY appearance (rock is dark, smooth, and shiny)\n              Obsidian              Entire rock is glassy\n              Vitrophyre            Crystalline grains are scattered\n    2.   COMPACT, DULL, OR STONY appearance (individual grains too small to be\n          A.  Can be scratched by a fingernail\n              Chalk                 Dilute hydrochloric acid fizzes on it\n              Clay                  Earthy odor when breathed on\n              Rock gypsum           Made up of the mineral gypsum\n              Soapstone             Soapy or greasy feel\n          B.  Cannot be scratched by a fingernail but can be scratched by\n              ordinary pocket knife\n              Dolomite              Dilute hydrochloric acid may fizz\n              Limestone             Dilute hydrochloric acid fizzes on it\n              Serpentine rock       Commonly some shade of green\n              Shale                 Breaks in flat, thin flakes; earthy odor\n          C.  Cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife\n              Basalt                Dark colored and heavy\n              Chert                 Hard, smooth, and porcelain-like\n              Rhyolite              Light to dark colored; may show streaks\n    3.   GRANULAR appearance (at least some of the individual grains are large\n                                 enough to be seen without a magnifying glass)\n          A.  Can be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife\n              Limestone             Dilute hydrochloric acid will fizz on it\n              Marble                Dilute hydrochloric acid will fizz on\n              Rock gypsum           Made up of the mineral gypsum\n              Rock salt             Has a salty taste; made up of the\n          B.  Generally cannot be scratched by an ordinary pocket knife (some\n              schist is softer)\n              Grains are of about equal size (equigranular)\n              Granite               Quartz and feldspar grains interlock\n              Pegmatite             Large interlocking grains; commonly\n              Quartzite             Rock breaks across the quartz grains\n              Sandstone             Rock breaks through the cement but\n              Easily seen grains are scattered through a mass of finer grains\n              Basalt                Dark colored, heavy rock\n              Llanite               Rusty pink feldspar and blue quartz\n                                    grains embedded in a brownish rock mass\n              Rhyolite porphyry     Light to dark colored rock; may show\n              Grains are arranged in layers\n              Gneiss                Interlocking grains are in straight or\n              Schist                Splits in thin layers; some schist is\n                                    soft enough to be scratched by a knife\n    4.   FRAGMENTAL appearance (rocks are made up of fragments that are either\n              Breccia               Angular, gravel-size fragments that are\n              Conglomerate          Rounded, gravel-size fragments that are\n              Coquina               Shells and shell fragments that are\n              Pulverulent           Loose, powdery fragments; dilute\n              limestone             hydrochloric acid fizzes on them\n              Sand                  Loose fragments no larger than a pinhead\n              Sandstone             Sand fragments that are cemented\n              Volcanic ash          Loose, fine, gritty particles\n          [Illustration: Physiographic outline map of Texas.]\n             DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME TEXAS ROCKS AND MINERALS\nThe pages that follow contain descriptions of Texas rocks and minerals.\nThe descriptions are given in alphabetical order, except that related\nvarieties are described together. For example, agate, amethyst, chert,\nflint, jasper, onyx, and chalcedony are discussed under quartz, because\nthey are varieties of quartz. The descriptions include the properties of\nthe rock or mineral that will help you identify it and also include\ninformation on where the rock or mineral can be found in Texas, some of\nits uses, and how it may have formed. The chart on page 99 lists\nchemical composition, specific gravity, and hardness of various Texas\nminerals.\nAgate. _See_ Quartz.\nAgatized Wood. _See_ Quartz.\nAlabaster. _See_ Gypsum.\nAlbite. _See_ Feldspar.\nAlmandite. _See_ Garnet.\nAmethyst. _See_ Quartz.\nAmphibole Asbestos. _See_ Asbestos.\nAnhydrite, calcium sulfate, is a rather soft mineral that you can\nscratch with a pocket knife, although not with a fingernail. It has a\nglassy or a pearly luster and is transparent or translucent. Most\nanhydrite is white, but impurities cause it to be grayish, bluish, or\nreddish. When rubbed across a streak plate, anhydrite gives a white\nstreak. This mineral has an uneven fracture, and it cleaves in three\ndirections that are at right angles to each other. It commonly occurs as\nrectangular cleavage fragments or as sugary crystalline masses.\nAnhydrite resembles dolomite, limestone, or gypsum. You can use a\nhardness test to distinguish it from gypsum (anhydrite is harder) and an\nacid test to distinguish it from limestone and dolomite. A drop of\ndilute hydrochloric acid will fizz when you put it on limestone or\npowdered dolomite. On anhydrite, the acid does not fizz.\n                   [Illustration: Massive anhydrite.]\nAnhydrite occurs at several places in Texas. It is, for example, seen in\nbluffs along the Double Mountain Fork and the Salt Fork of the Brazos\nRiver in north-central Texas. Most of the Texas anhydrite, however,\noccurs underground. In the Gulf Coastal Plain, the anhydrite is found\nbelow the surface in salt domes. (Salt domes are described with halite\non p. 66 and with sulfur on p. 91.)\nAnother anhydrite locality is in the subsurface Permian basin of west\nTexas. Oil wells drilled in this basin penetrate great, thick deposits\nof massive anhydrite. The anhydrite was deposited during the Permian\nPeriod from a sea that covered this area. As the sea gradually\nevaporated, the mineral matter that was dissolved in it came out of\nsolution to form anhydrite, halite, and several other minerals.\nAntigorite. _See_ Serpentine.\nArgentite. _See_ Silver Minerals.\nAsbestos is not really any one particular mineral. It is the name given\nto several minerals that occur in masses of slender, delicate fibers. In\nthe more typical kinds of asbestos, these fibers\u2014when pulled\napart\u2014resemble soft, fluffy, silk strings.\nSeveral small deposits of _amphibole asbestos_ have been found in the\nLlano uplift area of central Texas. This asbestos is a variety of the\nmineral _tremolite_, a calcium-magnesium silicate. It has fibers that\nbreak rather easily, and it has a silky luster. It is a shade of green\nor gray and gives a white streak when rubbed across a streak plate. When\nyou pull its fibers apart, you actually are breaking the mineral along\nits two directions of perfect cleavage. This amphibole asbestos is\nsofter than other varieties of the mineral tremolite\u2014a copper penny\nscratches it easily.\n  [Illustration: Greenish, silky amphibole asbestos from northeastern\n                       Gillespie County, Texas.]\nThe asbestos occurs in veins in Precambrian metamorphic rocks in\nsouthern Llano County, northwestern Blanco County, and northeastern\nGillespie County. These deposits are small.\nA variety of the mineral _serpentine_ called _chrysotile asbestos_ is\nthe kind most used by industry. Its fibers are commonly flexible enough\nand strong enough to be woven into cloth. This cloth is made into\narticles, such as fireproof suits, gloves, and theater curtains. Some\nchrysotile has been found in Precambrian metamorphic rocks in\nnorthwestern Blanco County, but it does not break into fibers fine\nenough or flexible enough to be called asbestos.\nAzurite. _See_ Copper Minerals.\nBarite, barium sulfate, is a fairly common mineral in Texas. It has a\nglassy or a pearly luster, and it is transparent to translucent. Barite\nis colorless, white, brownish, bluish, yellowish, or reddish. When\nrubbed across a streak plate, it gives a white streak. It is not\nextremely hard\u2014you can scratch it with a pocket knife, although not with\na fingernail.\nBarite is distinctive because of its weight and cleavage. It cleaves in\nthree directions, and some cleavage fragments are flat or platy. For a\nmineral with a nonmetallic luster, barite is heavy\u2014it has a specific\ngravity of 4.5.\n       [Illustration: Barite cleavage fragment from west Texas.]\nBarite commonly occurs as prism-shaped and as flat crystals, as granular\nmasses, as cleavable masses, and as rounded masses called _nodules_. In\nTexas, some of it was deposited in sedimentary rocks by underground\nwaters. As the waters seeped through these rocks, mineral matter came\nout of solution to form the barite. Some of the barite in Texas also\nformed from solutions that came from hot magmas.\nA number of barite deposits have been found in Texas, but many of them\nare small. Barite occurs in Precambrian metamorphic rocks in Gillespie\nand Llano counties, in Pennsylvanian shale in Brewster County, in\nPermian shales in Baylor and Taylor counties, and in Permian limestones\nin Culberson County. It is found in Triassic red shales in Howard County\nand in Cretaceous sedimentary rocks in Brewster, Brown, Hudspeth, Jeff\nDavis, Kinney, and Val Verde counties. In Live Oak County, barite occurs\nin Tertiary bentonitic clays. Barite is being mined from a deposit in\nthe Seven Heart Gap area northeast of Van Horn in Culberson County.\nBarite is used in a number of ways. It is a source of barium chemicals,\nand it also is powdered and used as an ingredient in paint. The oil\nindustry uses large amounts of barite. In drilling for oil by the rotary\nmethod, water and muds are pumped down the hole to aid drilling. Barite\nis added to these drilling fluids to make them heavy, since\nhigh-pressure gases are not as likely to blow heavy fluids out of the\nhole.\nBasalt is a heavy igneous rock that is black, dark gray, or dark brown.\nThis rock is made up chiefly of a feldspar mineral, such as\n_labradorite_, and a pyroxene mineral, such as _augite_. Other minerals\nmay be present.\nThe mineral grains of some basalts are so small that you cannot\ndistinguish them even with a magnifying glass. Other basalts, however,\nare _porphyritic_, which means that they contain larger, easily seen\ncrystals and grains of feldspar and pyroxene scattered either through a\nmass of the small mineral grains or through glassy material.\nSome basalts contain many small holes. These holes, called _vesicles_,\nwere formed when bubbles of gas were trapped in the hardening magma.\nLater, solutions moving through the rocks may have deposited another\nmineral\u2014such as calcite or chalcedony\u2014in some of the vesicles.\nBasalt forms from molten rock material that hardens either on or beneath\nthe surface\u2014it can be extrusive or intrusive. Much of the basalt now\nfound in the Trans-Pecos country of west Texas formed from lava that\nflowed out onto the surface during the Tertiary Period. A few of the\nplaces where basalt occurs in west Texas are the Chinati Mountains of\nPresidio County, the Chisos Mountains of Brewster County, the Davis\nMountains of Jeff Davis County, and the Van Horn Mountains of Culberson\nand Hudspeth counties.\n          [Illustration: Basalt from Brewster County, Texas.]\nSeveral varieties of basalt occur in the Balcones fault region of\nBandera, Comal, Hays, Kinney, Medina, Travis, and Uvalde counties. These\nbasalts formed from molten magma that forced its way into rocks just\nbelow the earth\u2019s surface.\nSome basalt, which is known commercially as _trap rock_, is produced in\nUvalde County. It is crushed and used for railroad ballast, road\nbuilding material, and as concrete aggregate.\nBentonite. _See_ Clay.\nBiotite. _See_ Mica.\nBraunite. _See_ Manganese Minerals.\nCalcite, calcium carbonate, is one of the most abundant minerals in\nTexas. It is the chief mineral in limestone and in some marble. It also\nserves as the cementing material in many sandstones. Crystals, grains,\nand cleavable masses of calcite, which have been deposited by\nunderground water, occur in cracks and cavities in many of the igneous,\nmetamorphic, and sedimentary rocks of Texas. Calcite also occurs as\ncave, spring, and stream deposits and as caliche.\nCalcite is transparent or translucent, and\u2014depending on the variety\u2014its\nluster is glassy to earthy. Most calcite is white or colorless, but it\ncan be a shade of pink, blue, green, brown, yellow, or gray. It gives a\nwhite streak when you rub it across a streak plate.\nTwo properties of calcite to notice are the hardness and the cleavage.\nThis mineral cleaves perfectly in three directions that are not at right\nangles to each other, and some of the cleavage fragments are\nrhombohedrons. Calcite is rather soft\u2014you can scratch it with a copper\npenny but not with a fingernail. A drop or two of dilute hydrochloric\nacid also will help you to identify this mineral. The acid will readily\nfizz and bubble when it is placed on calcite.\n  [Illustration: Calcite has perfect rhombohedral cleavage. The three\n     directions of cleavage are not at right angles to each other.]\nCalcite occurs in more different kinds of crystal shapes than any other\nmineral. Some of these crystals are flat and tabular; some are\nrhombohedrons; some are prisms. Pointed crystals, called _dog-tooth\nspar_, and twinned crystals have been found in the Terlingua area of\nBrewster County in west Texas. A somewhat unusual occurrence of calcite\ncrystals is in geodes. Some of these are found in Lower Cretaceous rocks\nwest of Austin in Travis County.\nTransparent crystals and cleavage fragments of calcite show a property\ncalled _double refraction_ (other minerals show it, too). To test this\nproperty, you can mark a single dot on paper. When you look at the dot\nthrough a piece of clear calcite, you will see two dots instead of one.\nThis happens because a ray of light is bent (refracted) and is split\ninto two rays as it enters the mineral. These two rays travel through\nthe calcite in slightly different directions, and each carries an image\nof the dot through the mineral. The two images that you see are at the\npoints where the two rays leave the calcite.\nCalcite that is deposited at springs, along river and creek banks, and\nin caves is known as _travertine_. Cave forms of travertine, including\nstalagmites and stalactites, occur in several caves in Texas. Another\nkind of travertine is called _calcareous tufa_ or _calcareous sinter_.\nIt is a porous and spongy-looking material deposited from water carrying\ndissolved limestone and is found around the openings of some springs and\nalong some creek and river banks.\nA dull, earthy calcite deposit, known as _caliche_, occurs in areas of\nTexas that have scant rainfall, such as the High Plains, west Texas, and\nthe southwestern part of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Caliche commonly is\nfound mixed with other materials, such as clay, sand, or gravel. This\nsubstance may be firm and compact or loose and powdery.\nIt is thought that caliche forms when ground moisture, containing\ndissolved calcium bicarbonate, moves upward. In dry areas of the\ncountry, this moisture evaporates. As it does, it leaves a crust of\ncalcium carbonate in the form of caliche on or near the surface of the\nground.\n  [Illustration: Calcite crystals (dog-tooth spar) from the Terlingua\n                    area of Brewster County, Texas.]\nCaliche is quarried in many counties in Texas and is used chiefly as\nroad material and as an aggregate.\nCaliche. _See_ Calcite.\nCarnotite. _See_ Uranium Minerals.\nCassiterite, tin dioxide, is the mineral that serves as the chief source\nof tin. Tin does not corrode and tarnish, and one of its main uses is in\nthe making of tin cans. (Actually, our tin cans are made from thin\nsheets of steel that have been coated with a protective layer of tin.)\nCassiterite has either a nonmetallic or a submetallic luster. Some\nspecimens are brilliant and shiny; others are dull. Cassiterite may be\ntranslucent to transparent. It may be black, brown, gray, reddish brown,\nor yellowish brown. When rubbed across a streak plate, this mineral\nleaves a pale brown, a pale yellow, or a white streak. Cassiterite is\nquite heavy\u2014it has a specific gravity of 6.8 to 7.1. It is too hard to\nbe scratched by an average pocket knife.\nSometimes, prospectors use a chemical test to help them identify\ncassiterite. They put small pieces of metallic zinc into a jar or test\ntube containing dilute hydrochloric acid. Then they add a few fragments\nof the mineral that they suspect is cassiterite. If the fragments are\ncassiterite, they become covered with a pale gray coating of metallic\ntin.\nCassiterite\u2019s most common crystal shape is a short, 8-sided prism with\npyramids at each end, but perfect crystals are not often found. Most\nTexas cassiterite does not show a crystal shape. Instead, it occurs as\ncrystalline masses in igneous rocks and as loose pebbles that have\nweathered out of these rocks.\nCassiterite occurs in a number of places in the United States but not in\nlarge quantities. A small amount of cassiterite has been found in quartz\nveins in Precambrian granite in both central Texas and west Texas. In El\nPaso County, the cassiterite is found on the east side of the Franklin\nMountains a few miles north of El Paso, where some of it has been mined.\nIn central Texas, cassiterite occurs in the Streeter area of Mason\nCounty.\nWhen the granite rocks in these areas were formed, probably not all of\nthe hot magmas cooled and hardened at the same time. The fluids given\noff by the remaining magmas contained tin and several other elements. It\nis believed that these fluids moved up into cracks in the granite rocks\nand formed the cassiterite.\nCelestite is a strontium sulfate mineral. It is colorless, white,\nyellow, or gray. Light blue specimens of this mineral also are found,\nand it is because of this sky-like color that celestite gets its name.\nThe word celestite comes from the Latin word _caelestis_, meaning _of\nthe sky_.\nCelestite has a glassy to a pearly luster, and it is either transparent\nor translucent. It gives a white streak when rubbed across a streak\nplate. Celestite has a specific gravity of 3.95 to 3.97. It is, however,\nlighter than barite, a mineral that it resembles. Celestite is not very\nhard\u2014a knife will scratch it, although your fingernail will not. It\ncleaves in three directions, and some of the fragments are flat and\nslabby.\n[Illustration: Celestite cleavage fragment from Lampasas County, Texas.]\nCelestite occurs commonly either as prism-shaped or flat crystals and as\ncleavable, granular, or fibrous crystalline masses. In Texas, it is\nfound in geodes, as rounded nodules, or as bedded or layer-like deposits\nin limestones and other sedimentary rocks. In Real County, celestite\noccurs on the walls of a cave in Cretaceous limestone.\nSome celestite may be deposited by sea water, but much of the Texas\ncelestite is believed to have been deposited by underground water that\nseeped through cracks and pores in the limestones and other sedimentary\nrocks. This water picked up and dissolved strontium compounds that were\nscattered in small amounts through the rocks. Then, it re-deposited the\nstrontium in the rocks as celestite.\nIn Texas, beds of celestite occur in Permian rocks in Coke, Fisher, and\nNolan counties and in Lower Cretaceous rocks in Brown, Comanche, and\nMills counties. Celestite geodes and nodules are found in Lower\nCretaceous limestone rocks in Lampasas, Travis, and Williamson counties,\nand in Permian rocks in Coke, Fisher, Nolan, and Taylor counties.\nCelestite is one of two minerals (the other mineral is _strontianite_,\nstrontium carbonate) used as a source of strontium. Strontium compounds\ngive a crimson-red color to a flame, so they are used in fireworks,\ntracer bullets, and flares. Perhaps you have seen a red flare set out on\nthe highway at night to warn motorists that a truck has stalled. The\nchances are good that the flare\u2019s red flame was due to a strontium\ncompound. Some of the Texas celestite has been mined, but most of the\nstrontium minerals now used in the United States are imported from\nEngland and Mexico.\nCerargyrite. _See_ Silver Minerals.\nChalcedony. _See_ Quartz.\nChalcocite. _See_ Copper Minerals.\nChalcopyrite. _See_ Copper Minerals.\nChalk. _See_ Limestone.\nChert (Flint). _See_ Quartz.\nChrysotile. _See_ Asbestos; Serpentine.\nCinnabar, which is mercuric sulfide, is the most common mercury mineral.\nIt has a dark red or a bright yellowish-red color and is transparent to\ntranslucent. When rubbed across a streak plate, it leaves a dark red\nstreak. If pure, cinnabar has a brilliant, shiny, nonmetallic luster. It\nis, however, commonly found mixed with impurities, such as clay,\ncalcite, iron oxide, or bituminous material, and then it looks dull and\nearthy. Cinnabar is quite heavy\u2014it has a specific gravity of 8.10. It is\nrather soft, and you can scratch it with a copper penny.\nSome prospectors use a quick chemical test to identify cinnabar. They\nrub a clean, shiny copper coin with a mineral sample that has been\nmoistened with a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid. If the sample\nis cinnabar, a light silvery-gray coating appears on the coin.\nCinnabar occurs as small crystals or as fine-grained or compact\ncrystalline masses. It is found in veins that fill cracks in rocks and\nalso occurs as crusts and coatings on rocks. It also may be widely\nscattered through rocks, such as limestones.\nCinnabar occurs in the Terlingua area of Brewster and Presidio counties\nin west Texas. It has been mined there, off and on, since about 1894,\nand during this time, mercury worth many millions of dollars has been\nproduced.\nMost of this west Texas cinnabar is found in cracks, pores, and\nbreccia-filled cavities of Cretaceous limestones and clays. If you will\nlook at the Texas geologic map (pp. 4-5), you will see that igneous\nrocks occur in this district. Many millions of years ago during the\nTertiary Period, when these igneous rocks were still hot magma, some of\nthem pushed up under the Cretaceous rocks and emitted fluids containing\nmercury. The fluids moved upward through cracks and pores in the\nCretaceous rocks where they deposited the mercury as cinnabar and as\nother mercury minerals.\n [Illustration: Cinnabar crystals (dark) with calcite crystals (white)\n          from the Terlingua area of Brewster County, Texas.]\nMercury is an unusual element. Instead of occurring as a solid metal at\nordinary room temperatures, as do gold, silver, and lead, it remains a\nliquid until it is cooled to 38 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. Because\nthe silvery little drops of liquid mercury roll about as if they were\nalive, this element long has been called _quicksilver_.\nMercury is used in a variety of ways. In some noiseless light-switches,\na glass tube containing a small ball of mercury tilts when the switch is\nturned \u201con.\u201d The mercury then rolls to the end of the tube that contains\nelectrical contacts and quietly completes the electrical circuit. In\nother uses, mercury is added to silver, tin, and other metals to make\nfillings for teeth. Some medicines, such as calomel and mercurochrome,\ncontain mercury. Fulminate of mercury helps to set off dynamite and\nother explosives. Mercury is used in many barometers and thermometers,\nand farmers use mercury poisons to control insects and fungi.\nMercury also commonly is used to obtain gold from its ores. One method\nof accomplishing this is to pass wet gold-bearing gravel or crushed rock\nover metal plates that are coated with mercury. The gold particles\nquickly mix with the mercury to form an _amalgam_, which later can be\nscraped off the plates. The gold is then recovered by heating the\namalgam to drive off the mercury.\nClay is a smooth, soft, earthy rock made up of mineral particles no\nbigger than specks of dust. Some of the particles are clay minerals,\nwhich consist of aluminum, silicon, and other elements. In addition,\ntiny particles of quartz, calcite, and other minerals may also be\npresent in the clay.\nThe clay particles are all that remain of rocks and of minerals, such as\nfeldspar, that have been broken into fragments or altered into clay\nminerals by weathering. Some clay remains at the place where it formed,\nbut some is carried away and deposited elsewhere.\nClay is white, tan, brown, red, green, blue, gray\u2014almost any color. When\nmoist, it has an earthy odor. You can moisten a piece of clay enough to\nnotice this just by breathing on it. Most clays, when wet, can be molded\ninto many different shapes\u2014that is, they are plastic, but when they are\ndry, they are firm and solid.\nClay is abundant in Texas and has a number of uses. Some goes to make\nportland cement, and some is baked or burned in a kiln to make brick,\ntile, sewer pipes, pottery, and other products. This kind of clay is\nobtained from Tertiary formations of the Gulf Coastal Plain, from Upper\nCretaceous formations in central Texas, and from Pennsylvanian\nformations in north-central Texas. (You can locate Tertiary, Cretaceous,\nand Pennsylvanian rocks on the Texas geologic map, pp. 4-5.)\nA special kind of white burning clay that can be used to make chinaware\nis called _kaolin_ or _china clay_. It contains particles of the clay\nmineral _kaolinite_ as well as several other clay minerals. Deposits of\nchina clay occur in southern Jeff Davis County and in Real County near\nLeakey, but none is being produced.\nAnother kind of clay, _bentonite_, forms from weathered volcanic ash.\nBentonite contains the clay mineral _montmorillonite_ and looks smooth\nand soap-like. Fresh samples of this clay are white, pale green, or pale\nblue, but dried-out or weathered samples are tan, brown, yellow, or\nreddish. When wet, bentonite absorbs water, swells, and then has a\njelly-like appearance.\nSurface deposits of bentonite occur chiefly in Eocene Tertiary\nformations of the Gulf Coastal Plain, in Cretaceous formations of the\nBig Bend area of west Texas, and in Quaternary formations of the High\nPlains.\n  [Illustration: Bentonite is used as a drilling-fluid additive in the\n           rotary method of drilling for petroleum and gas.]\nSome bentonite is used to absorb unwanted coloring material in petroleum\nand in vegetable oils. It is then known as a _bleaching clay_. Bentonite\nbleaching clay is obtained from some of the Tertiary formations along\nthe Texas Gulf Coastal Plain. It has been produced in Angelina, Fayette,\nGonzales, Jasper, Walker, and other counties in this area.\nAnother important use of bentonite, and of other clay, too, is as\n_drilling mud_. In the rotary method of drilling for oil and gas, mud is\npumped down into the drilled hole. This mud carries the rock cuttings up\nto the surface, it cools the drilling tools, and it coats and seals the\nwalls of the hole. Along the Gulf Coastal Plain, drilling clay is\nobtained from Tertiary formations.\nCommon Opal. _See_ Opal.\n     Copper Minerals (Chalcocite, Chalcopyrite, Malachite, Azurite)\nA number of minerals containing copper, such as _chalcocite_,\n_chalcopyrite_, _malachite_, and _azurite_, occur in small deposits in\nTexas. They are found chiefly in the Llano uplift area of central Texas,\nin the Van Horn area of Culberson and Hudspeth counties in west Texas,\nand in a group of counties in north-central Texas.\nCopper is an important element. Because it is an unusually good\nconductor of electricity (only silver, which costs much more, is a\nbetter one), it is used for many kinds of wires for switchboards,\ngenerators, motors, telephone and telegraph equipment, and light and\npower lines.\nManufacturers commonly combine copper with other elements. For example,\nsome copper is mixed with zinc to make _brass_ and with tin and a little\nzinc to make _bronze_. These mixtures are called _alloys_. Many products\nare made from copper alloys, including tubing, pipes, jewelry, pots, and\npans. Even our coins contain copper.\nSometimes, a prospector uses a chemical test to find out if copper is\npresent in a mineral. First, he crushes a small sample of what he\nbelieves is a copper mineral (such as chalcocite, chalcopyrite, azurite,\nor malachite). He then puts the sample in a glass jar or test tube and\npours in a small amount of dilute nitric acid (this acid, like\nhydrochloric acid, is poisonous). After the sample has dissolved in the\nacid, he adds enough ammonium hydroxide to make the solution alkaline.\nIf the sample is a copper mineral, the solution turns a deep-blue color.\nOne of the copper minerals, _chalcocite_, copper sulfide, also is known\nas _copper glance_. It is a metallic mineral that commonly tarnishes to\na dull black. By chipping off a fragment to obtain a fresh surface, you\nwill see that it has a shiny lead-gray color. Chalcocite is rather soft,\nand it is sectile, that is, a knife will cut through it as well as\nscratch it. When you rub chalcocite across a streak plate, it gives a\ngrayish-black streak. This mineral commonly occurs as compact masses or\nas granular masses.\nChalcocite, with its dark color, does not look at all like copper, which\nis a bright reddish brown. Chalcocite, however, is the chief copper\nmineral at the most important copper mine in Texas, the Hazel mine,\nwhich is about 15 miles northwest of Van Horn in Culberson County in\nwest Texas. This mine, although now idle and almost filled with water,\nhas produced about one and a half million pounds of copper along with\nmore valuable silver ores. Here, the chalcocite and other minerals occur\nin material that fills large cracks in red sandstone of the Precambrian\nHazel Formation. It is thought that long ago, molten igneous rock\nmaterial far below the surface sent out hot solutions containing copper\nand other elements. These solutions moved upward and deposited minerals\nin the fracture zone in the sandstone.\nChalcocite occurs also in north-central Texas. It is found in Archer,\nBaylor, Clay, Foard, Hardeman, King, Knox, Stonewall, and several other\ncounties of this area. Here, it occurs in Permian sedimentary rocks\n(called \u201cred beds\u201d) as rounded masses, as scattered grains, and as\npetrified wood. Because these deposits are far from any igneous rocks,\nthey apparently did not form in the same way as those at the Hazel mine.\nThese north-central Texas deposits have never really been commercially\ndeveloped. During the Civil War, however, some copper from this area was\nmade into percussion caps for the Confederacy.\n[Illustration: The Hazel copper-silver mine, Culberson County, Texas, as\n            it appeared in 1951. Photograph by P. T. Flawn.]\nAnother copper mineral, _chalcopyrite_, is a copper-iron sulfide. It\nalso is known as _copper pyrites_ and _yellow copper ore_. This mineral\nhas a metallic luster and a brass-yellow or a golden-yellow color. When\nrubbed across a streak plate, it gives a greenish-black streak.\nChalcopyrite will tarnish and then has bronze, blue, purple, and other\nrainbow-like colors. This mineral is fairly soft\u2014you can scratch it with\na pocket knife. Because of chalcopyrite\u2019s yellow color, it has often\nbeen mistaken for gold. For this reason, it, like iron pyrite, is often\ncalled _fool\u2019s gold_. (See Gold, p. 60, for ways to tell them apart.)\nChalcopyrite commonly is found in compact masses that show no crystal\nshapes. These masses either are scattered through rocks or occur in\nmaterial that fills cracks in rocks.\nSome chalcopyrite is found in Precambrian sandstone at the Hazel mine\nand in other deposits in the Van Horn area of Culberson and Hudspeth\ncounties. It also occurs in Precambrian rocks at the Sheridan and\nPavitte prospects in Burnet County. These chalcopyrite localities are in\ndistricts where igneous rocks occur.\nIt is likely that, long ago, hot solutions containing copper moved\nupward, out of deeply buried molten magma. While still far below the\nsurface, the solutions deposited the chalcopyrite in cracks and other\nopenings in the nearby rocks.\nTwo copper minerals of Texas, _azurite_ and _malachite_, are copper\ncarbonates. Azurite is commonly called _chessylite_ and _blue copper_;\nmalachite is called _green copper carbonate_. Because these minerals are\ncarbonates, a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid will fizz and bubble when\nplaced on either of them.\nAzurite has a bright, intense blue color and leaves a blue streak when\nrubbed across a streak plate. Malachite has a bright green color and\nleaves a green streak. These minerals have a nonmetallic luster and a\nglassy to dull appearance. Commonly, they are translucent, although some\nspecimens of azurite are transparent. Both azurite and malachite are\nfairly soft\u2014a pocket knife will scratch them, but a copper penny will\nnot.\nAzurite and malachite occur as individual crystals, but you are more\nlikely to find them as crusts on rocks and on other minerals. Malachite\nis also found in rounded fibrous masses that resemble bunches of grapes\n(described then as _botryoidal_).\nBoth azurite and malachite are formed in the same way. Underground\nwaters seep through rocks that contain deposits of copper minerals (such\nas chalcocite and chalcopyrite) and cause chemical reactions which\nchange these minerals into malachite and azurite.\nMalachite is more plentiful than azurite, but both minerals can be found\ntogether. You can expect to find at least one of them at the same\nlocalities where chalcocite, chalcopyrite, and other copper minerals\noccur.\nCoquina. _See_ Limestone.\nDiatomite. _See_ Opal.\nDolomite is the name given both to a rock and to a mineral. The mineral\nis a calcium-magnesium carbonate and has a glassy or a pearly luster. It\nis any of a number of colors, such as white, pink, brown, or gray, or it\ncan be colorless. Dolomite leaves a white streak on a streak plate and\nis transparent to translucent. It is not particularly hard and can be\nscratched with a pocket knife, although not with a copper penny.\nDolomite cleaves perfectly in three directions, and some of the cleavage\nfragments are rhombohedrons. However, the cleavages of the individual\nmineral grains in specimens of fine-grained massive dolomite are not\nreadily distinguishable.\n   [Illustration: Dolomite rock from the vicinity of Fairland, Burnet\nMost Texas dolomite occurs as coarse-, medium-, and fine-grained\ncrystalline masses as the chief mineral in dolomite rock and in\ndolomitic marble. It is also found as 6-sided crystals that are\nrhomb-shaped; when the faces are curved, they have a saddle-like\nappearance.\nCrystals of the mineral dolomite commonly occur in cavities in the\ndolomite rocks. It is believed that they were deposited there by seeping\nunderground waters. The waters dissolved some of the dolomite in the\nrocks and then re-deposited it as crystals.\nDolomite rock is made up mostly of crystalline grains of the mineral\ndolomite. In addition, quartz grains, calcite, and other minerals may be\npresent. Dolomite rock is almost any color\u2014white, buff, pink brown,\ngray. It resembles some limestone, and these two rocks actually are\nclosely related.\nTo help tell them apart, dilute hydrochloric acid often is used. A few\ndrops of this acid will readily fizz and bubble if the rock you put them\non is a limestone. If the rock is dolomite, the acid will effervesce\nonly very little or not at all. (If, however, the acid is put on\npowdered dolomite, it then will fizz readily.) Dolomite is slightly\nharder than limestone, and it also is slightly heavier.\nSome dolomite rocks formed directly from materials that were dissolved\nin sea water, and others are altered limestone rocks. Some limestones\naltered into dolomite on the sea floor by the addition of magnesium from\nthe sea water. Others changed into dolomite much later after the sea had\nwithdrawn and the limestones had become a part of the land; underground\nwaters containing magnesium seeped through these limestones and altered\nthem into dolomite.\nMany of the dolomite rocks are found with limestones. In Texas they\noccur mostly in Cambrian, Ordovician, Mississippian, Pennsylvanian,\nPermian, and Cretaceous formations. The geologic map (pp. 4-5) indicates\nwhere these strata appear at the surface in Texas.\nDolomite is abundant in the Llano uplift area of central\nTexas\u2014particularly in the Cambrian and Ordovician rocks. A number of\nthese central Texas dolomites have been quarried for use as building\nstones. Some of them also have been crushed and used as a road-building\nmaterial and as a stone aggregate that is mixed with cement to make\nconcrete. This dolomite is also used as terrazzo chips (terrazzo floors\nare described with serpentine on p. 88). In addition, Ellenburger\n(Ordovician) dolomite from Burnet County was used during World War II as\na source of the lightweight metal magnesium.\nDravite. _See_ Tourmaline.\nFeldspar is the name given to a group of nonmetallic minerals that are\nmuch alike. Several of them are so similar that a petrographic\nmicroscope must be used to tell them apart. Each of the feldspar\nminerals is an aluminum silicate. Each of them contains, in addition, at\nleast one of the following elements: potassium, sodium, calcium, and\nbarium. The feldspar minerals that are found in Texas include _albite_,\na sodium-aluminum silicate, and _orthoclase_ and _microcline_, which are\nboth potassium-aluminum silicates.\nThe feldspar minerals are transparent to translucent and have either\nglassy or pearly lusters. They can be white, cream, or a shade of red,\nbrown, yellow, blue, gray, or green. When you rub a feldspar across a\nstreak plate, it leaves a white streak. The feldspars are rather hard\u2014a\npocket knife will not scratch them, although a piece of quartz or a\nsteel file will. These minerals have good cleavage in two directions.\nThe cleavages meet at an angle of about 90\u00b0, so that the cleavage\nfragments have square corners.\n[Illustration: Feldspar cleavage fragment from Llano County, Texas. The\n    two directions of good cleavage meet at an angle of about 90\u00b0.]\nThe feldspars are important rock-forming minerals. You can find them in\nigneous rocks, such as granite or pegmatite, and in metamorphic rocks,\nsuch as gneiss. They also occur as fragments in sedimentary rocks, such\nas some sandstone and conglomerate.\nAlthough the feldspars can originate in other ways, they form mostly\nfrom hot magmas that cool and crystallize into igneous rocks. These\nminerals occur in the rocks as grains, as cleavable masses, and as\nindividual crystals. The crystals may be shaped like prisms, or they may\nbe flat and slabby.\nGood places to look for feldspars are in areas where granites,\npegmatites, and other intrusive igneous rocks appear at the surface. The\npegmatite rocks of Burnet, Gillespie, Llano, and Mason counties in the\nLlano uplift area of central Texas, and those of the Van Horn Mountains\nin Hudspeth and Culberson counties in west Texas, are especially good\nsources of feldspar. Large cleavable masses and crystals that are more\nthan a foot long are found in some of these rocks.\nThe feldspars have a number of uses. Some of the pegmatite feldspars\nfrom Llano County in central Texas have been crushed and used as\ngranules for built-up and composition roofs. In addition, some have been\nshipped to Mexico for glass-making. Some of the other uses of feldspar\nare in making porcelain, ceramic glazes, and scouring compounds. A few\nof the feldspar minerals, such as the variety of microcline known as\n_amazonstone_, are used as gemstones.\n  [Illustration: Microcline feldspar crystals from near Granite Shoals\n                      Lake, Llano County, Texas.]\nFibrous Gypsum. _See_ Gypsum.\nFlint. _See_ Quartz.\nFluorite is calcium fluoride. The fluorite that is mined and sent to\nmarket, however, commonly is found mixed with quartz, calcite,\nlimestone, or other rocks and minerals. Industry calls this mixture\n_fluorspar_.\nFluorite is a transparent to translucent mineral that has a glassy\nluster. It may be colorless, or it may be white, pink, green, purple,\nbrown, or blue. Some specimens show more than one color. When you rub\nfluorite across a streak plate, it leaves a white streak. This mineral\nis not particularly hard\u2014a pocket knife will scratch it, although a\ncopper penny will not. Fluorite has perfect cleavage in four directions.\nBy carefully breaking a specimen, you can obtain cleavage fragments that\nare shaped like octahedrons.\nFluorite occurs as cleavable masses, as fine or coarse grains, and as\ncrystals. Most of the crystals are cubes, but some may be octahedrons,\ndodecahedrons, or combinations of these.\nFluorite has been found both in west Texas and in central Texas. In the\nLlano uplift area of central Texas, it occurs in a number of Precambrian\ngranite, pegmatite, schist, and gneiss rocks. The most important,\nalthough small, deposit in this area is near Spring Creek a few miles\nwest of Burnet in Burnet County. Here, prospectors have dug holes and\npits in gneiss and schist rocks and found layers of fluorite in them.\nThe largest known fluorite deposits in Texas (they are not particularly\nlarge when you compare them with the deposits in Illinois and Kentucky)\nare those in the Eagle Mountains of Hudspeth County. This fluorite\noccurs in both igneous and sedimentary rocks. Many years ago, probably\nduring the late part of the Tertiary Period, hot magma far below the\nsurface gave off liquids and gases containing fluorine. These fluids\nmoved up through large cracks (called faults) in Cretaceous limestones\nand Tertiary igneous rocks and deposited fluorite in them. In places,\nbeds of limestone have been replaced by fluorite. Some of this west\nTexas fluorite has been mined and shipped to market.\n[Illustration: Fluorite has octahedral cleavage. The four directions of\nperfect cleavage can result in cleavage fragments that are octahedrons.]\nFluorite is extremely important as a flux in steel-making to help the\ningredients of the molten steel blend together. In addition, it combines\nwith sulfur, phosphorus, and other unwanted substances so that they can\nbe removed from the steel. Other important uses of fluorite are in\nglass-making and in the manufacture of hydrofluoric acid. This acid is\nused in the aluminum industry as well as in industries that make\nhigh-octane gasoline, insecticides, and refrigerants for refrigerators\nand freezers.\nGalena, lead sulfide, is a shiny, lead-gray, metallic mineral that has a\nspecific gravity of 7.4 to 7.6. It is soft enough to mark paper, and it\nleaves a grayish-black streak on a streak plate. This mineral cleaves\nperfectly in three directions, and the cleavage fragments have square\ncorners\u2014some are cubes.\nGalena occurs as cleavable masses, as fine or coarse grains, and as\ncrystals, most of which are cubes. Galena commonly is associated with\nother minerals; for example, some of the west Texas galena either\ncontains some silver (then called _argentiferous galena_) or occurs with\nit. Sphalerite, a zinc mineral, is commonly found with galena.\nGalena is an important mineral because it is the chief source of lead.\nCompounds of lead, called white lead, red lead, and litharge, are used\nas paint pigments. Automobile batteries contain lead plates, and\ntetraethyl lead is added to gasoline to keep the car\u2019s motor from\nknocking. Some other uses of lead are in bullets, type metal, solder,\nand cable coverings.\n [Illustration: Galena has perfect cubic cleavage. The three directions\n    of cleavage are at right angles to each other resulting in cubic\nGalena has been found in several areas of Texas and has been mined in\ncentral and west Texas. None, however, has been produced in recent\nyears. Most of the galena mined in west Texas was obtained from silver\nmines, where the galena was a by-product. Some of the west Texas galena\ndeposits are at Altuda Mountain east of Alpine in Brewster County, in\nthe Eagle Mountains and the Quitman Mountains in Hudspeth County, and in\nthe Chinati Mountains and the Shafter area in Presidio County. Most of\nthe mining has been from the Shafter area (this area is described with\nsilver minerals on p. 90).\nIn central Texas, several small galena deposits have been found in\nBlanco, Burnet, and other counties of the Llano uplift area. Some galena\nhas been mined at Silver Creek in northwestern Burnet County. Here,\ngalena occurs in cracks and as scattered grains in Cambrian limestones\nand sandstones.\nIt is probable that much of the galena in west Texas and in central\nTexas was formed when hot magma forced out solutions containing lead.\nThese solutions moved up through cracks and other openings in the\nsubsurface rocks and deposited the galena in them.\nSmall amounts of galena, which likely had a different origin, have been\nfound in Fisher, Foard, Hardeman, and Young counties. A little occurs\nalso in rocks associated with salt in a number of the Gulf Coastal Plain\nsalt domes.\nGarnet is not one mineral but is the name given to a group of several\nminerals that are very much alike. In fact, it often is impossible to\ntell some of them apart without using special laboratory tests.\n   [Illustration: Garnet crystal forms include: A, trapezohedron; B,\n  dodecahedron; C and D, combination trapezohedron and dodecahedron.]\nThe garnet minerals have glassy to resinous lusters and are transparent\nor translucent. A pocket knife will not scratch them, and some specimens\nare too hard even for quartz to scratch. Two of the garnet minerals most\ncommonly found in Texas are _almandite_, an iron-aluminum silicate, and\n_grossularite_, a calcium-aluminium silicate. Almandite has a deep-red\nor a brownish-red color. Grossularite is pale green, brownish yellow,\ncinnamon brown, or rose red.\nGarnet minerals occur as crystals and as masses that are scattered\nthrough some of the metamorphic and igneous rocks. After they have\nweathered out of these rocks, the garnets make up a part of many sands\nand sandstones. Because these minerals so commonly occur as crystals, it\nis helpful to learn to recognize the crystal shapes.\nGarnet minerals are found in the igneous and metamorphic rocks of both\ncentral Texas and west Texas. In central Texas, they occur in ancient\nPrecambrian schist and pegmatite rocks of the Llano uplift area. Some of\nthese central Texas garnet localities are in northeastern Mason County,\ncentral and northwestern Llano County, west-central Burnet County, and\nnortheastern Gillespie County.\nIn west Texas, garnets occur in metamorphic rocks in the Quitman\nMountains, which are southwest of Sierra Blanca in Hudspeth County, and\nin the Mica Mine area, which is south of Van Horn near the\nHudspeth-Culberson County line. Garnets also have been found in igneous\nrocks in the Franklin Mountains a few miles north of El Paso in El Paso\nCounty.\nGarnets that are found in metamorphic rocks such as schists were formed\nwhen great forces squeezed and heated rocks far below the earth\u2019s\nsurface. This heat and pressure caused elements in the rocks to join\ntogether into different combinations to form new minerals, such as\ngarnets. Garnets that occur scattered through igneous rocks, such as\nsome pegmatites and granites, cooled and crystallized from hot, igneous\nfluids when the rocks themselves formed.\nMost Texas garnets are not transparent. A few, however, are clear enough\nto be used as gemstones. These can be cut, polished, and mounted in\nrings, brooches, bracelets, and earrings. Although some garnet is widely\nused as an abrasive, none from Texas has been produced for this purpose.\nGneiss is a metamorphic rock that has parallel layers or bands. Some\ngneiss is made up of the same minerals (chiefly feldspar and quartz) as\ngranite, and it is then called _granite gneiss_. Several of the other\nkinds of gneiss are known as _mica gneiss_, _conglomerate gneiss_,\n_gabbro gneiss_, and _hornblende gneiss_. In order to be a gneiss, a\nmetamorphic rock has to have bands or layers. These bands may be either\nstraight or wavy and either wide or narrow. In most gneisses, you will\nfind a layer made up of long or flat mineral grains next to a layer made\nup of the grains of an entirely different mineral. The bands may show\ncolor differences, too. For example, a pink layer made up of feldspar\ngrains may be found next to a black layer made up of hornblende grains.\nThe mineral grains interlock as they do in igneous rocks, and they are\ngenerally large enough to be seen without a magnifying glass.\n[Illustration: Gneiss from Blanco County, Texas, showing light and dark\nGneiss can form from an igneous rock, such as granite, or from a\nsedimentary rock, such as sandstone. Heat, fluids, and pressures below\nthe earth\u2019s surface change these rocks into gneiss.\nGneiss that formed during Precambrian time is now seen at the surface in\nboth west Texas and central Texas. In west Texas, it occurs principally\nin the Van Horn area of Culberson and Hudspeth counties. In central\nTexas, it is found in Blanco, Burnet, Gillespie, Llano, and Mason\ncounties of the Llano uplift area.\nOne of the Llano uplift rocks is called the Valley Spring Gneiss. It\ngenerally has a light color (much of it is pinkish), and it is believed\nto have once been a sandstone. Another gneiss of this area, the Big\nBranch Gneiss, which has a medium to dark gray color, occurs in northern\nGillespie and Blanco counties and is an altered igneous rock. Some of\nthe Texas gneiss rocks are suitable for use as building stones.\nGold commonly occurs in nature as a single element\u2014gold\u2014but much native\ngold has a small amount of some other element, such as silver, copper,\nor iron, mixed with it.\nNative gold is a shiny, yellow, metallic mineral that does not tarnish,\nand it leaves a shiny, golden-yellow streak when you rub it across a\nstreak plate. If silver is present, the color and streak have a lighter\nshade. Pure gold is extremely heavy\u2014its specific gravity is 19.3.\nBecause it is malleable, this mineral will flatten into a thin sheet\nwhen hammered. It is ductile enough to be drawn out into wires. Gold is\nalso soft\u2014a pocket knife will scratch it easily. When it is to be used\nfor ornaments and jewelry, gold is usually mixed with other metal, such\nas silver, copper, nickel, or palladium, to make it harder. The amount\nof gold that is present is then indicated by _carats_ (or _karats_).\nPure gold is 24 carats. If you have a gold ring that has _14 K_ stamped\ninside it, you know that it is made of a mixture of 14 parts gold and 10\nparts of other metal.\nGold commonly occurs in nature as plates, scales, or grains. Some of the\ngrains are large enough to be called _nuggets_. It also is found in a\nwire-like shape described as _filiform_, it occurs in a network, called\n_reticulate_, and it can have a branching and fern-like shape, described\nas _dendritic_. Gold is not often found as individual crystals.\nSeveral other minerals, such as pyrite, chalcopyrite, and mica, are\nsometimes mistaken for gold. None of these, however, is malleable and\nductile, and none is nearly as heavy as gold. Pyrite and chalcopyrite\nhave dark-colored streaks unlike that of gold. Mica cleaves so perfectly\nthat it can be split into thin, flat sheets, but gold has no cleavage at\nall.\nThe best places to look for gold are in areas near igneous rocks and\nalong the creeks and rivers that drain these areas. It is thought that\nmost gold originally was carried up from molten igneous rock by hot\nsolutions. The solutions moved into cracks and other openings in nearby\nrocks and deposited the gold, commonly along with quartz. Later, some of\nthese gold-bearing rocks weathered away. The gold that the rocks\ncontained either remained at the spot or was washed into creeks and\nrivers. These transported accumulations of loose gold are called _placer\ndeposits_.\n [Illustration: Placer gold in very small quantities has been found in\n                 some of the stream gravels of Texas.]\nNo really important gold deposit has ever been found in Texas, although\ntraces and small amounts have been reported in several areas. A little\ngold has been found in the Llano uplift area of central Texas. It occurs\nin quartz veinlets that cut through some of the Precambrian metamorphic\nrocks of Llano, Mason, northeastern Gillespie, and west-central Burnet\ncounties. Many years ago, a small amount of gold was mined northeast of\nLlano in Llano County from the Heath mine. Some gold also has been found\nin sands and gravels along streams, such as along Sandy Creek and its\ntributaries, in parts of this Llano uplift area.\nIn the Trans-Pecos country of west Texas, small amounts of gold have\nbeen found in the Van Horn area of Culberson and Hudspeth counties, in\nthe Quitman Mountains district of Hudspeth County, and in the country\naround Shafter in Presidio County. Most of the small quantity of gold\nthat was mined in west Texas was obtained as a by-product from the\nPresidio mine in the Shafter district (described with silver minerals on\nSmall amounts of gold have been reported from other parts of Texas. Some\nof these localities are in Eocene Tertiary sandstones in the Gulf\nCoastal Plain, in Cretaceous limestones in Irion, Uvalde, and Williamson\ncounties, and in sand and gravel in Howard and Taylor counties. None of\nthese deposits has been found to have any commercial value.\nGranite is an intrusive igneous rock that is made up chiefly of\ncrystalline grains or crystals of quartz and a feldspar mineral, such as\northoclase or microcline. Several other minerals, including mica and\nhornblende, may also be present.\nAll of the mineral grains in granite are about the same size, and you\ncan distinguish them without using a magnifying glass. A granite may be\ncoarse grained, medium grained, or fine grained. When you examine this\nrock, you will see that its grains are not cemented but interlocked like\nthe pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The color of granite, which is pink, red,\ngray, or brownish, depends chiefly on the color of its feldspar grains.\nMost granites formed from hot, molten magma that slowly cooled and\nhardened far below the earth\u2019s surface. Because of this slow cooling,\nfairly large mineral grains were formed.\n [Illustration: Polished section of pink granite from Gillespie County,\nGranites are now seen at the surface in several areas of Texas. They\nwere gradually uncovered as the areas became higher and the overlying\nrocks slowly weathered away. One of these areas is the Llano uplift of\ncentral Texas where the granites occur in Blanco, Burnet, Gillespie,\nLlano, and Mason counties. These granites formed during Precambrian time\nand are believed to be about a billion years old. (Scientists are now\nable to determine the age of some rocks accurately by very precisely\nmeasuring the relative amounts of isotopes produced by decay of\nradioactive minerals.)\n[Illustration: Texas State Capitol building at Austin is made of Burnet\nCounty granite obtained from Granite Mountain near Marble Falls, Texas.]\nGranites also appear at the surface in the Trans-Pecos country of west\nTexas. Some of these areas include the Franklin Mountains of El Paso\nCounty, the Quitman Mountains of Hudspeth County, the Chisos Mountains\nof Brewster County, and the Chinati Mountains of Presidio County.\nRed, pink, and gray granites from quarries in the Llano uplift area are\nwidely used as building stones and monument stones. A large quarry at\nGranite Mountain just west of Marble Falls in Burnet County has supplied\npink granite for buildings in many parts of the United States. The Texas\nCapitol building and several other State buildings in Austin are made of\nthis granite.\nGraphite is a mineral that is made up of a single element\u2014carbon.\n(_Diamond_, although it does not look at all like graphite, is a\ncrystalline form of carbon.) Graphite is a steel-gray or black mineral\nthat commonly has a metallic luster. It is not heavy and is extremely\nsoft. Graphite will soil your fingers and leave a black mark on paper.\nThis mineral cleaves perfectly in one direction and splits into thin\nflakes that feel greasy.\nTo help distinguish graphite from _molybdenite_, a mineral it resembles,\nyou can use a shiny, glazed surface, such as is found on a saucer or a\nplate, to test its streak. When rubbed across this kind of surface,\ngraphite will leave a black streak, but molybdenite will leave a\ngreenish one.\nGraphite commonly occurs as scales, as sheet-like layers, or as compact\nmasses. It may be found mixed with clay or other impurities, and it then\nlooks dull and earthy. Crystals of graphite, which are seldom found, are\n6-sided and flat.\nGraphite occurs in Llano, Burnet, and other counties in the Llano uplift\narea of central Texas. One of the Nation\u2019s most important graphite mines\nis located in the Clear Creek area several miles northwest of Burnet in\nBurnet County. Some graphite has also been mined near Lone Grove in\nLlano County. In addition, a graphite schist, obtained south of Llano in\nLlano County, has been used as a filtering material.\n [Illustration: Graphite is used in pencil lead, generator brushes, and\nAll of this graphite occurs in extremely old Precambrian graphite schist\nrocks that we now see at the surface in this part of Texas. It is\nbelieved that the schists were once ancient sedimentary rocks, such as\nshales, which contained organic matter. Long ago, great forces below the\nearth\u2019s surface altered these rocks. When this happened, the organic\nmaterial that they contained changed into the mineral we know as\ngraphite.\nGraphite has a number of uses. It is mixed with clay to make the pencil\nlead that we use for writing. It serves as a lubricant, either alone or\nmixed with oil, grease, or water. In addition, graphite is used to make\ngenerator brushes, stove and shoe polish, and special paints. Because it\ncan stand great heat without melting, some graphite is mixed with clay\nto make the pots or crucibles that hold molten metals.\nGrossularite. _See_ Garnet.\nGypsite. _See_ Gypsum.\nGypsum is a hydrous calcium sulfate. This mineral is normally colorless\nor white, but impurities cause it to appear gray, brownish, yellowish,\nor reddish. It is transparent or translucent and is not heavy. When you\nrub gypsum across a streak plate, it leaves a white streak. This mineral\nis so soft that a fingernail scratches it easily. Gypsum occurs in\nseveral varieties.\nThe colorless, glassy, and transparent variety of gypsum is called\n_selenite_. It is found as cleavable masses and as crystals that are\nprism-shaped or flat and diamond-shaped. It is not uncommon for two\ncrystals to be joined together so that they have a swallow-tail\nshape\u2014these crystals are _twinned_. Groups of flat selenite crystals\narranged together so that they resemble flowers are called _rosettes_.\nMany of these have been found in Nolan County.\nGypsum has four directions of cleavage. One of these directions is so\nperfect that some selenite splits into thin, clear sheets that may be\nmistaken for mica; other selenite cleavage fragments may be mistaken for\ncalcite. You can distinguish selenite sheets from calcite by testing\ntheir hardness (selenite is softer) and by putting a drop or two of\ndilute hydrochloric acid on them. The acid will fizz and bubble on\ncalcite but not on the selenite gypsum. There is also a quick way to\ndistinguish the thin selenite cleavage fragments from mica. After you\ncarefully bend a thin sheet of mica, it will snap back to its original\nshape without breaking. Selenite gypsum, however, is not elastic. It\nwill bend, but it will break if you try to straighten it again.\n  [Illustration: Selenite gypsum crystal from Bastrop County, Texas.]\nSelenite is found in cracks and cavities in rocks. Good crystals have\nbeen collected at Gyp Hill, a salt dome southeast of Falfurrias in\nBrooks County, and some selenite has been mined there. Selenite crystals\nalso occur scattered through clays, particularly along creek banks, in\nLee, Fayette, Bastrop, and several other counties.\nAnother variety of gypsum is known as _fibrous gypsum_. It is made up of\nslender, brittle, needle-like fibers that fill the cracks in some rocks.\nIf fibrous gypsum has a silky or pearly luster, it is called _satin\nspar_. One of the places where satin spar occurs is in Permian rocks in\nHardeman County.\n   [Illustration: Selenite gypsum rosettes from Nolan County, Texas.]\nMost of the fibrous gypsum and selenite is formed by solutions. Some of\nthese solutions develop when underground waters, seeping through rocks,\npick up and dissolve minerals that contain sulfur (such as pyrite). This\ndissolved material changes the water into very weak sulfuric acid. When\nthe sulfuric acid meets calcium carbonate (as in limestone or calcite),\nit combines with the calcium to form the gypsum.\n  [Illustration: Fibrous gypsum from Terlingua area, Brewster County,\nA massive, fine-grained, and translucent variety of gypsum, known as\n_alabaster_, is used for articles such as lamp bases, statuettes, vases,\nand book-ends.\nA loose, earthy, crumbly variety of gypsum, called _gypsite_, is\nordinarily found mixed with other materials, such as clay, sand, and\nsoil. It occurs either at or near the surface of the ground. Gypsite is\nfound in Culberson, Reeves, and other counties in west Texas.\nA massive, granular variety of gypsum, called _rock gypsum_, may occur\nin large deposits. This is the gypsum that is used for making products\nsuch as plaster, wallboard, and some cements.\nDeposits of rock gypsum are found both underground and at the surface in\nTexas. Surface deposits occur in Permian rocks in several counties to\nthe east of the Texas High Plains. They also occur in the area between\nthe Pecos River and the Delaware and Apache Mountains in Culberson and\nReeves counties. Some of the other surface deposits are found near the\nMalone Mountains in Hudspeth County and in Lower Cretaceous rocks in\nGillespie and Menard counties. Rock gypsum has been mined from the\ndeposits in Fisher, Gillespie, Hardeman, Hudspeth, and Nolan counties.\nIt also has been produced from the cap-rock at Hockley salt dome in\nHarris County.\nGypsum and another mineral, anhydrite, have very nearly the same\ncomposition. Both are calcium sulfates. Gypsum, however, contains water\nof crystallization, and anhydrite does not. It is likely that most of\nthe rock-gypsum deposits of Texas originally were beds of anhydrite. By\nabsorbing water that seeped through it, the anhydrite changed into\ngypsum.\nHalite, sodium chloride, is the table salt you sprinkle on food for\nseasoning. This mineral ordinarily is white or colorless, but other\nmaterials cause it to be tinted red, blue, gray, brown, or green. When\nyou rub halite across a streak plate, it leaves a white streak.\nBecause halite cleaves in three directions, all at right angles to each\nother, the cleavage fragments are shaped like cubes. You can see some of\nthem by looking at a few grains of table salt through a magnifying\nglass.\nHalite has a salty taste and dissolves easily in water. It also is\ntransparent to translucent and has a glassy luster. This mineral is soft\nenough for a copper penny to scratch it. Halite commonly occurs as cubic\ncrystals and as granular or compact masses.\nIn addition to its use as table salt, much halite goes to make soda ash,\nchlorine, and other chemicals. A few of its other uses are in leather\nmaking, meat packing, and food canning.\nTexas has large underground deposits of halite. These deposits, known as\n_rock salt_, occur in the Permian subsurface basin of west Texas and in\nthe salt domes of the Gulf Coastal Plain. The Permian basin, which\nextends under parts of west Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado, and\nKansas, is now completely filled with sediments. It appears level and\nflat when you travel across it and does not look at all like a basin or\na valley. During Permian time, however, this area was covered by a salty\nsea. As the sea gradually dried up, the dissolved material that it\ncontained was deposited as thick beds of halite, anhydrite, and other\nminerals. Later, these minerals were covered by sedimentary rocks which\nwere deposited on top of them. Now, the minerals are found many hundreds\nof feet below the surface. In Hutchinson, Mitchell, Ward, and Yoakum\ncounties, some of this Permian basin salt has been produced (as brine)\nfrom wells that have been drilled into it.\n   [Illustration: Salt domes, which are huge, underground columns of\n               halite, occur on the Gulf Coastal Plain.]\nThe Gulf Coastal Plain salt domes are huge and almost circular columns\nof halite, some of which are more than 2 miles wide. Some are less than\n300 feet below the surface, but most of them are much deeper. These salt\ncolumns pushed upward many thousands of feet from great, deeply buried\nsalt deposits. The halite is mined from shafts dug into the Hockley salt\ndome in Harris County and into the Grand Saline salt dome in Van Zandt\nCounty. Salt brines are produced from wells drilled into several salt\ndomes of this area.\nAt the surface in Texas, halite occurs in salt lakes in Crane and\nHudspeth counties and in alkali lakes on the High Plains. It is found\nalso on the shores of bays and lagoons in Cameron, Kenedy, Kleberg, and\nWillacy counties, and it occurs at springs and seepages in various\nplaces in the State.\nHematite, iron oxide, the chief ore of iron, is found in many places in\nTexas but not in large deposits. This mineral may have a metallic luster\nand appear reddish brown, dark brown, steel gray, or black or it may\noccur as a soft, red, earth-like material called _red ocher_.\n   [Illustration: Specular hematite from Carrizo Mountains, Hudspeth\nMost metallic hematite is too hard for a pocket knife to scratch, but\nquartz or a steel file will scratch it. Hematite is fairly heavy, for it\nhas a specific gravity of 5.26. This mineral has no cleavage, but some\nspecimens show three directions of parting that are almost at right\nangles to each other. A great help in identifying hematite is the dark\nreddish-brown streak it leaves when you rub it across a streak plate.\nSome hematite occurs as rounded masses that resemble kidneys or bunches\nof grapes (then called _kidney ore_); it also is found as flat crystals.\nMost of the Texas hematite occurs as granular or compact masses. One of\nthese massive varieties is composed of shiny scales or plates and is\ncalled _micaceous_ or _specular hematite_. This variety has been found\nin Hudspeth County and in northeastern Mason County. Hematite also\ncommonly occurs as cementing material in many Texas sandstones.\nSome hematite is formed by the alteration of magnetite, another iron\nmineral. This hematite is known as _martite_, and some of it still has\nthe crystal shape (an octahedron or a dodecahedron) that belonged to the\nmagnetite. Most of the hematite found in the Llano uplift area of\ncentral Texas is believed to be altered magnetite. In this central Texas\narea, some massive, granular martite has been mined at the Gamble\nprospect, a few miles southeast of Fredonia in northeastern Mason\nCounty, where it occurs as layers in Precambrian gneiss.\nSmall deposits of hematite occur in other parts of Texas, too. Some of\nthe west Texas localities include Sierra Blanca, the Quitman Mountains,\nand the Carrizo Mountains of Hudspeth County and the area around Shafter\nin Presidio County.\nHollandite. _See_ Manganese Minerals.\nHyalite. _See_ Opal.\nJasper. _See_ Quartz.\nKaolin. _See_ Clay.\nLimestone is a sedimentary rock made up chiefly of calcite, a\ncalcium-carbonate mineral. This rock also commonly contains grains of\nquartz, clay minerals, the mineral dolomite, or other materials. If a\nlarge amount of dolomite is present, the rock is called _dolomitic\nlimestone_. In some limestones, the mineral grains are too small to be\ndistinguished from each other without a magnifying glass or a\nmicroscope, but in other limestones, the individual mineral grains are\neasily seen.\nPure limestone is white, but if it contains clay or plant or animal\nmatter it is light gray, dark gray, or black. Limestone also may be some\nshade of yellow, brown, or red. It is fairly soft and can be scratched\nwith a knife. Because this rock contains calcite, an easy chemical test\nwill help identify it: a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid will\nquickly fizz and bubble when placed on the limestone.\nLimestones form in fresh water, such as in lakes, but most of them form\nin the seas. As some earlier-formed rocks are weathered, the calcium\nminerals that they contain are dissolved. Creeks and rivers carry this\ndissolved material to the sea. There, small animals, such as corals,\ncrinoids, sponges, and foraminifers, take the dissolved material out of\nthe water to build their calcium carbonate shells. Plants, such as\nalgae, can take calcium carbonate out of solution too, and it collects\non them. Shells, shell fragments, and plant remains accumulate on the\nsea floor, forming limy deposits that later become limestone.\nLimestones also originate in a slightly different way. When the\ntemperature and chemical composition of the water permit, calcium\ncarbonate precipitates as millions of tiny grains of calcite and forms a\nlimy mud that is converted to limestone. Many limestones contain shell\nor plant fragments in addition to these tiny grains of calcite.\n [Illustration: Polished section of Lower Cretaceous Edwards Limestone\n       from Travis County, Texas, containing fossil gastropods.]\nThere are several special kinds of limestone. If the rock is made up of\nmany little rounded calcite grains that resemble fish eggs, it is called\n_\u00f6olitic limestone_. Another limestone, _chalk_, is soft, white, and\nfine grained. It consists mostly of tiny shell fragments and\nfine-grained calcite. _Coquina_ is a porous limestone made up of loosely\ncemented shells and shell fragments. Another special kind of limestone,\nknown as _lithographic limestone_, because it can be used in printing,\nis smooth, firm, and hard. Its mineral grains are too small to be\nrecognized without a microscope. This kind of limestone breaks with a\nsmooth, sometimes curved, fracture. Still another variety, _pulverulent\nlimestone_, is loose, soft, powdery, and white. It occurs in the Lower\nCretaceous Edwards Limestone in Williamson and Bell counties of central\nTexas. Some of this limestone is used to polish rice grains, and it is\nadded to livestock feeds to provide calcium for the animals.\n[Illustration: Limestone quarry in Lower Cretaceous Edwards Limestone at\n                 Georgetown, Williamson County, Texas.]\nMuch limestone is found at the surface in Texas in Cambrian, Ordovician,\nMississippian, Pennsylvanian, Permian, and Cretaceous formations. If you\nwill look at numbers 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 on the Texas geologic map (pp.\n4-5), you will see that these strata appear at the surface in central,\nnorth-central, and Trans-Pecos Texas.\nLimestone has many important uses. Much Texas limestone is crushed and\nused as a road-building material and as an aggregate that is mixed with\ncement to make concrete. Farmers in some areas improve their crops by\nadding limestone to the soil. Limestone also is sent to the iron\nfurnaces in east Texas to be used in the production of pig iron and\nsteel.\nSome of the Texas limestones are heated to a fairly high temperature in\norder to change them into _lime_ (calcium oxide). Industry uses a large\namount of lime in making chemicals, steel, glass, paper, and other\nproducts. Builders use it to make plasters, mortars, and stuccos. At\nplants in Comal, Johnson, Travis, and Williamson counties, lime is made\nfrom Cretaceous limestones.\nAnother important use of limestone is in making _portland cement_. The\nlimestone is mixed with clay or shale, and the mixture is burned in a\nkiln until it just begins to melt. Then it is allowed to cool. Next, it\nis finely ground and in order to keep the finished cement from hardening\nor setting too quickly when it is used, a _retarder_, such as gypsum, is\nadded. A number of cement-manufacturing plants in Texas use Cretaceous\nlimestones, shales, and clays.\nMany of the Texas limestones make excellent building stones. Some of\nthem are quarried from Pennsylvanian and Cretaceous formations in\nnorth-central Texas and from Lower Cretaceous formations in counties\nnear the Llano uplift of central Texas. A large quarry on the\nWilliamson-Travis County line near Cedar Park in central Texas has\nsupplied Cretaceous limestone for many buildings and monuments in the\nUnited States and Canada.\nLimonite is not really a definite mineral but is a mixture of iron\noxides containing water. It is believed to be closely related to an iron\nmineral called _goethite_. Some limonite may be dull and earthy with the\nappearance of brownish-yellow or rusty brown clay. This variety is so\nsoft that a fingernail will scratch it easily.\nOther limonite has a dark brown or black color and a metallic or almost\nmetallic luster. A copper penny will not scratch it, but a steel file\nwill. This kind of limonite may have a shiny black surface that\nresembles glossy lacquer. The property that will help you most in\nidentifying limonite is the rusty, yellowish-brown streak it leaves when\nrubbed across a streak plate.\nLimonite has no cleavage and no crystal shape of its own. But crystals\nof other iron minerals, such as pyrite and magnetite, alter to form\nlimonite. It then occurs with a crystal shape that originally belonged\nto one of these other minerals. (Such false forms of minerals are called\n_pseudomorphs_.) Limonite also occurs as layers in rocks, as hollow or\nsolid concretions, or as coatings on other minerals. It is found mixed\nwith minerals such as clays and serves as the cementing material in some\nsandstones.\nLimonite is found in many localities in Texas including Blanco,\nBrewster, Burnet, Llano, and San Saba counties. The most important\nlimonite deposits in Texas, however, are in the eastern part of the\nState, particularly in Anderson, Cass, Cherokee, Henderson, Marion,\nMorris, Nacogdoches, Smith, and Upshur counties.\nThe east Texas limonite deposits occur mainly in Weches sedimentary\nrocks. These rocks, which were deposited in the sea during Eocene\nTertiary time, contain clay along with greensands. (Greensands are\nsmall, soft grains that contain _glauconite_, a mineral composed of\niron, silicon, and several other elements.) Later, as the sea retreated,\nthese sediments became a part of the land. Waters seeping through the\nsediments changed into weak solutions of carbonic and sulfuric acid that\ndissolved the iron out of some of the greensands. When conditions were\nfavorable, this iron was re-deposited as an iron-carbonate mineral\ncalled _siderite_. Siderite was changed to limonite by weathering. Some\nsiderite is still found in east Texas, and it is also mined along with\nthe limonite as an iron ore.\nEast Texas iron ore has been mined from time to time ever since about\n1855, and records show that a number of local iron furnaces once\noperated. The brown iron ore (as the limonite is also called) now is\nmined from open pits in Cass, Cherokee, and Morris counties.\nThis ore, after being washed, goes into blast furnaces at Lone Star\n(near Daingerfield) and at Houston. In the blast furnaces the ore is\nchanged into metallic iron by mixing it with coke (made from coal) and\nlimestone and blowing in blasts of hot air.\nTo make steel, the iron from the blast furnace (called _pig iron_) is\nput into open-hearth furnaces together with scrap iron, limestone, and\nother materials. This mixture is heated and melted together to get rid\nof unwanted substances. Then other elements, such as molybdenum,\nmanganese, or nickel, are added to make steel with the right strength\nand toughness.\n   [Illustration: Limonite ore is changed to metallic iron in a blast\n  Skip car\n  Hot Gases\n  Blast Furnace\n  Iron Ore\n  Limestone\n  Coke\n  Fire Brick lining\n  Steel Plate covering\n  Hot Air Blast\n  Slag\n  Slag Ladle\n  Molten Iron\n  Iron Ladle\nSteel mills alongside the furnaces in Texas turn out many products, such\nas steel plates for oil tanks, ships, and tank cars and steel beams for\nframework in buildings and bridges. Some of their other products include\npipes for the oil and chemical industries and wire for nails and fencing\nmaterial.\nLithographic Limestone. _See_ Limestone.\nLlanite is a unique rock that is found only in Llano County in central\nTexas. This intrusive igneous rock is made up of easily seen crystals\nand grains of quartz and feldspar that are scattered through a\nbrown-colored mass of extremely small mineral grains. The quartz is\nbeautiful, sky-blue, and opal-like; the feldspar has a rusty pink color.\n(Because the quartz looks like opal, this rock often is called _opaline\ngranite_.) The mineral grains that make up the brown-colored mass are so\ntiny that they can be identified only with a microscope. They are\nquartz, feldspar, mica, fluorite, and apatite.\nLlanite formed during Precambrian time. Molten rock material forced its\nway upward into cracks that cut across granite and schist rocks while\nthe rocks were still far underground. This hot magma remained in the\ncracks where it cooled and hardened to form long, narrow, wall-like\nmasses (called _dikes_) of llanite. We can see some of the llanite dikes\nexposed at the earth\u2019s surface to the north and northeast of Llano in\nLlano County because the overlying rocks have weathered away.\nLlanite has been quarried from one of the dikes west of Babyhead in\nnorthern Llano County. Because llanite is both attractive and strong, it\nhas been used as an ornamental stone and as a monument stone.\nMagnetite, iron oxide, is a black, metallic mineral with an outstanding\nphysical property: it is magnetic\u2014fragments of magnetite readily cling\nto a magnet. It also leaves a black streak when rubbed across a streak\nplate. Although this mineral is too hard to be scratched by the average\npocket knife, a steel file will scratch it. Magnetite is fairly heavy\u2014it\nhas a specific gravity of 5.18.\nMagnetite occurs as compact or granular masses, as scattered grains, and\nas crystals. Most of the crystals are octahedrons, but some\ndodecahedrons are found. Magnetite helps make up a part of many\nmetamorphic and igneous rocks, and it also occurs as tiny crystals and\ngrains in some sands, sandstones, and other sedimentary rocks.\n [Illustration: Metallic iron, after leaving the blast furnace, is made\n                 into steel in an open-hearth furnace.]\n  Open-Hearth Furnace\n  Scrap metal\n  Alloying Elements\n  Limestone\n  Furnace Interior\n  Live Fuel Burner\n  Air pre-heated\nMost of the magnetite that has been found in Texas occurs in Precambrian\ngneiss and schist rocks of the Llano uplift area of central Texas,\nparticularly in Llano County and in eastern Mason County. It occurs as\nthin layers, as thick lens-shaped deposits, and as scattered grains in\nthe rocks. Probably at least a billion years ago these gneisses and\nschists were sedimentary rocks, such as shales and sandstones. Some\ngeologists believe that these rocks could have contained iron sediments\n(perhaps in the form of _glauconite_). Great forces below the earth\u2019s\nsurface crumpled and squeezed the sedimentary rocks and changed them\ninto the metamorphic schist and gneiss rocks we see today. As this\nhappened, the iron sediments in the rocks were changed into magnetite.\n  [Illustration: Granular magnetite fragments from northwest of Llano,\n            Llano County, Texas, are attracted to a magnet.]\nAt least some of the magnetite in this area (such as the deposit at Iron\nMountain in Llano County) probably had a different sort of origin.\nMolten igneous rock material containing iron could have moved up into\ncracks in the ancient sedimentary rocks. Then the magnetite formed from\nthis iron material when the igneous and sedimentary rocks were changed\ninto the schists and gneisses of today.\nNone of the Llano and Mason County magnetite deposits is really very\nlarge. Nevertheless, prospecting and a little mining have been carried\non from time to time at several deposits in this area. At Iron Mountain,\nwhich is about 12 miles northwest of Llano in Llano County, magnetite\nhas been mined from open pits. Although magnetite is commonly used as a\nsource of iron, the magnetite from this deposit was used as a heavy\nconcrete aggregate.\nMalachite. _See_ Copper Minerals.\n         Manganese Minerals (Braunite, Hollandite, Pyrolusite)\nAlthough manganese does not occur alone in nature as a native element,\nit makes up a part of many minerals and compounds. This element has an\nimportant use in steel making, where it helps rid the steel of unwanted\nsubstances, such as oxygen and sulfur, and, in addition, it is used to\nmake tough, hard, manganese steel for armor plate, railroad tracks,\nsafes, and steam shovels. Manganese has various uses outside the steel\nindustry. It is added to copper and nickel to make alloys, it is used in\nthe manufacture of dry-cell batteries, and (as manganese sulfate) it is\nused as a fertilizer.\nManganese minerals and compounds, such as _braunite_, _hollandite_,\n_pyrolusite_, and _wad_, occur in several counties in Texas. No large,\ncommercial deposits have been found here.\nSome manganese compounds and minerals are covered with a soft, sooty\nblack material that will soil your fingers. This can help you recognize\nthese minerals; however, a few non-manganese minerals, such as some\nchalcocite, also have a black coating that soils your fingers in a\nsimilar way.\nOne of the manganese minerals, _braunite_, is a complex oxide of\nmanganese that contains silica. It has a submetallic luster and is dark\nsteel-gray or black. When rubbed across a streak plate, it leaves a\nsteel-gray or a black streak. This mineral is too hard to be scratched\nby a pocket knife, but a piece of quartz or a steel file will scratch\nit. Braunite has a specific gravity of 4.75 to 4.82. It has four\ndirections of cleavage that are parallel to the faces of a pyramid.\nIn the Spiller mine, about 15 miles northeast of Mason in Mason County,\nmasses of braunite occur as lens-shaped layers in Precambrian gneiss and\nquartzite rocks. This braunite may have formed from another manganese\nmineral (possibly manganese garnet) that was exposed at the earth\u2019s\nsurface after the overlying rocks eroded away. As this other mineral\nweathered, it may have altered into braunite, or the braunite could have\nbeen deposited from solutions emanating from hot magmas before the great\nthickness of overlying rock was removed.\nThe mineral variety _hollandite_ is a rare manganate of manganese and\nbarium. It has a metallic luster, and its color is silvery gray or\nblack. When you rub it across a streak plate, hollandite leaves a black\nstreak. It has a specific gravity of 4.7 to 5. Hollandite is rather\nhard, but a steel file will scratch it.\n       [Illustration: Hollandite from Jeff Davis County, Texas.]\nHollandite occurs in western Jeff Davis County in west Texas at what is\ncalled the Mayfield prospect. Here, it is found as rounded masses that\noccur in a vein near a large fault in Lower Cretaceous limestone rocks.\nOther manganese compounds, _pyrolusite_ and _wad_, are found in several\nimportant deposits near the Pecos River in western Val Verde County.\n_Pyrolusite_ is a manganese dioxide mineral. It is black, opaque, and so\nsoft that it rubs off on your fingers like soot. Pyrolusite may be\ngranular and massive or may be powdery. It also occurs as a fern-like\ncoating on rocks. _Wad_ is not really a mineral but is an impure,\ndull-black or brownish-black mixture of manganese oxide, water, and\nother substances. It can be soft enough to soil your fingers, or it can\nbe too hard to scratch with a pocket knife. Wad occurs in earthy or\ncompact masses or in crusts or stains on rocks.\nIn Val Verde County, the wad and pyrolusite are found mixed with soil,\nclay, gravel, sand, and plant remains. This material fills cracks in\nLower Cretaceous limestones, it is scattered through gravels, and it is\ndeposited in low places at the surface. The manganese in these deposits\ncame from limestone rocks that have since weathered away. Rainwater\ntrickled into these rocks and dissolved the manganese minerals they\ncontained. This manganese was washed down toward the Pecos River and was\ndeposited as wad and pyrolusite.\nMarble is a metamorphic rock made up chiefly of sparkling grains of\ncalcite or dolomite, but other minerals may be present. The marble may\nbe fine grained, medium grained, or coarse grained; commonly, all the\nmineral grains are about the same size.\nMarble may be of uniform color, banded, spotted, or streaked. If it is\nmade up only of pure calcite or dolomite, the marble is white. If,\nhowever, it contains carbonaceous material, such as graphite, it is\ngrayish or black. Limonite impurities cause the marble to be yellowish\nbrown, and manganese oxides and hematite give it a brownish, pinkish, or\nreddish color.\nMarble is a rather soft rock, and you can scratch it easily with a\npocket knife. A few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid will bubble and\nfizz readily on calcite marble; on dolomite marble, it may fizz\nslightly.\nMarble forms from limestone or from dolomite rock. Heat and pressure\nbelow the earth\u2019s surface cause the calcite and dolomite mineral grains\nin these rocks to recrystallize. A fine-grained limestone can be changed\ninto a coarse-grained calcite marble. The marble is not made up of new\nand different minerals, but it has a new texture unlike that of the\nlimestone. (To a builder, the word _marble_ has another meaning. He\nconsiders rocks such as unaltered limestone, unaltered dolomite, or even\nserpentine to be marble, if they will take a high polish.)\n [Illustration: Polished section of Precambrian metamorphic marble from\nMetamorphic marbles occur at the surface in central Texas and in west\nTexas. Some of the west Texas occurrences are in the Van Horn area of\nCulberson and Hudspeth counties and in the Big Bend area of Brewster\nCounty. In central Texas, Precambrian marbles are found in Burnet,\nGillespie, Llano, and Mason counties of the Llano uplift area. Many of\nthem are suitable for use as monument and building stones. Some of the\nLlano County marble is quarried and used as granules for roofs and as\nterrazzo chips for making colorful floors (described with serpentine on\nMartite. _See_ Hematite.\nMica is not just one mineral but is the name given to a group of similar\nminerals. The mica minerals are easy to recognize. Because they have\nperfect cleavage in one direction, they split into thin, flat sheets.\nYou can see through some mica sheets, and they are elastic enough to be\nbent back and forth. (Another mineral, selenite gypsum, also will split\ninto thin, flat, transparent sheets, but selenite sheets break when you\nbend them.)\n  [Illustration: Mica minerals have perfect cleavage in one direction,\n           resulting in thin, sheet-like cleavage fragments.]\n  Basal Cleavage\nTwo of the mica minerals that you are most likely to find in Texas are\n_muscovite_ and _biotite_. Both these minerals are potassium-aluminum\nsilicates, and biotite, in addition, contains magnesium and iron. In\ngeneral, muscovite is light colored, that is, it has a light brown,\nyellow, or green tint, or is colorless, and biotite is dark colored,\ncommonly dark green, brown, or black. These minerals have glassy or\npearly lusters and are rather soft\u2014a copper penny scratches them. The\nspecific gravity of biotite is 2.8 to 3.2, and that of muscovite is 2.76\nMica minerals occur in igneous rocks, such as granite and pegmatite, and\nin metamorphic rocks, such as schist and gneiss. They also are found as\ntiny flakes in some sandstones, limestones, and other sedimentary rocks.\nMost of the Texas mica is found in the Llano uplift area (particularly\nin Llano County) and in the Mica Mine area. (The Mica Mine area is in\nthe Van Horn Mountains about 15 miles south of Van Horn in west Texas.)\nIn both these areas, the mica minerals occur mostly in Precambrian\npegmatites and mica schists.\nThe gleaming mica schists were once igneous rocks or sedimentary rocks\nsuch as sandstones and shales. Long ago, great forces beneath the\nearth\u2019s surface changed the rocks into mica schists. The mica that is\nfound in pegmatites formed from hot fluids of igneous origin when the\npegmatite rock itself was formed.\nClusters of mica in the pegmatites are called _books_, because the thin\nsheets into which the mica splits look like pages. Some muscovite books\nup to 8 inches across are found in the Mica Mine area of the Van Horn\nMountains.\nThe books or sheets of muscovite mica that occur in pegmatites are\nespecially valuable to industry. Muscovite can stand great heat without\nmelting, it is tough, it splits into thin sheets, and it lets very\nlittle heat and electricity pass through. Because of these properties,\nmuscovite is used in fuses and as insulators in heating elements of\nelectric irons and toasters. (Biotite is not used, because the iron it\ncontains makes it a conductor of electricity.) Sheet muscovite also is\nwidely used by the electronics industry as a non-conducting material in\nthe manufacture of tubes and other products.\nBoth muscovite and biotite from mica schist rocks, as well as scrap\npieces of sheet mica from pegmatites, are ground into flakes or powder.\nThis ground-up mica has many uses, ranging from a powder coating for\nautomobile inner-tubes to Christmas tree \u201csnow.\u201d\nOnly a small amount of mica has been mined in Texas. A fair grade of\nsheet mica occurs in the pegmatites at Mica Mine in west Texas, but the\ndeposit is not large. In the pegmatites of the Llano uplift area of\ncentral Texas, no sheet mica has been found that is considered good\nenough for the requirements of industry. Mica suitable for grinding,\nhowever, is found in both these Texas areas.\nMicaceous Hematite. _See_ Hematite.\nMicrocline. _See_ Feldspar.\nMilky Quartz. _See_ Quartz.\nMuscovite. _See_ Mica.\nNative Silver. _See_ Silver Minerals.\n                        Obsidian and Vitrophyre\nObsidian is a dark, glassy-looking igneous rock. Most obsidian contains\nthe same chemical elements as granite and rhyolite, since all three of\nthese rocks can form from the same type of molten rock material.\nObsidian, however, has no separate minerals, because its chemical\nelements are not combined in an orderly way. It is a natural glass.\nBecause it is a glass, we know that obsidian forms very quickly. One way\nfor it to form is from the sudden cooling of hot, molten lava that flows\nout of volcanoes. If the lava cools and hardens before the separate\nminerals can crystallize, it becomes a natural glass, such as obsidian.\nThis rock is smooth and shiny. Most of it is black, but some can be dark\ngreen or dark brown. Obsidian allows light to pass through it, and it\nbreaks with a curved, conchoidal fracture. The broken edges are very\nsharp.\nAnother glassy igneous rock that forms from fast-cooling lava is\n_vitrophyre_. It looks like obsidian except that it has crystals or\ncrystalline mineral grains (which may be light colored) scattered\nthrough the dark glassy material.\n  [Illustration: Obsidian was used by the Indians to make arrowheads.]\nObsidian and vitrophyre are found in the Big Bend area of Brewster and\nPresidio counties in west Texas. They occur with other igneous rocks\nthat formed there during Tertiary time.\nThe Indians who long ago roamed this area used the smooth, shiny\nvitrophyre and obsidian to make some of their arrowheads and scrapers.\nToday, rock collectors pick up these attractive rocks for their\ncollections, and some of them cut and polish obsidian and vitrophyre for\nuse as gemstones.\nOnyx. _See_ Quartz.\n\u00d6olitic Limestone. _See_ Limestone.\nOpal is like hardened jelly or gelatin. It has no crystalline inner\nstructure and no crystal shape of its own\u2014it is amorphous. This mineral\nhas almost the same chemical composition as quartz. Both are silicon\ndioxides (silica), but opal, in addition, contains water.\nOpal can be almost any color\u2014red, yellow, blue, brown, gray, white\u2014or it\ncan be colorless. It is transparent or translucent and appears glassy,\nresinous, greasy, or dull. Opal has a specific gravity of 1.9 to\n2.2\u2014this mineral is a little lighter than quartz. It also is softer than\nquartz. A copper penny will not scratch opal, but quartz will. Opal has\na white streak and a curved, conchoidal fracture but no cleavage.\nOpal occurs in a number of places in Texas. In the Trans-Pecos country\nof west Texas, it fills cracks and cavities in some of the extrusive\nigneous rocks. It occurs on the High Plains of northwest Texas, and it\nis found in Tertiary formations of the Gulf Coastal Plain where it\noccurs as masses that fill cracks and cavities in sedimentary rocks, as\nthe cementing material in some sandstones (such as in the Catahoula\nsandstone), and as opalized wood.\nMuch opal forms from underground waters that contain silicon. These\nsolutions move through the rocks and deposit the opal in them.\nOpal is found in a number of varieties. Some show a beautiful, lustrous\nplay of colors that comes from inside the specimens. These varieties are\nknown as _precious opal_ and are prized as gemstones. In Texas, some\nprecious opal is found near Alpine in Brewster County. It has a milky\nwhite to bluish-white color, is translucent, and shows a fiery orange,\nred, blue, and green play of colors.\nThe variety known as _common opal_ shows no play of colors. It may be\nwhite, gray, bluish, reddish, greenish, or yellowish, and it is only\nslightly translucent. It is found in Brewster, Jeff Davis, Presidio, and\nother counties of the Trans-Pecos country of west Texas. It occurs also\naround some of the wet-weather (playa) lakes on the Texas High Plains.\nIn the Gulf Coastal Plain, common opal is found with chalcedony (a\nvariety of quartz) in Tertiary formations. A south Texas locality\nsometimes visited by collectors is near Freer in Duval County.\nA clear, commonly rounded, variety of opal that looks like ice is called\n_hyalite_. Two areas in which it has been found are in Presidio County\nin west Texas and in Llano County in central Texas.\n      [Illustration: Opalized wood from Washington County, Texas.]\nA variety of petrified wood, called _opalized wood_, is opal that\nreplaced the fibers of a piece of wood. Wood opal is found at a number\nof places in the Gulf Coastal Plain. It occurs there in Tertiary\nformations within about 20 miles of the boundary line between areas 2\nand 3 shown on the geologic map (pp. 4-5).\nA soft opaline material called _diatomite_, or _diatomaceous earth_, is\nmade up chiefly of the skeletons of diatoms\u2014tiny, one-celled plants that\nlive in fresh or salt water. These little plants are able to take silica\nfrom the water to make opal skeletons for themselves. When the diatom\nskeletons collect at the bottom of a lake or sea, they form the light,\ncrumbly, white, gray, or cream-colored deposit of impure opal known as\ndiatomite. Industry uses this material as a filter, as insulation, as an\nabrasive, and as a filler.\nDiatomite formed in ancient lakes on the Texas High Plains during late\nTertiary (Pliocene) and early Quaternary (Pleistocene) times. It is\nfound in Armstrong, Crosby, Dickens, Ector, Hartley, and Lamb counties.\nOpaline Granite. _See_ Llanite.\nOrthoclase. _See_ Feldspar.\nPegmatites occur in igneous rock areas, and most geologists consider\nthem intrusive igneous rocks. They are made up of crystals and\ncrystalline mineral grains that fit together\u2014the grains are interlocked.\nThe crystals and grains in pegmatites are larger than those of\nsurrounding rocks, and some are huge, even larger than a man. However,\nthere is a wide range of grain sizes in pegmatite.\nSome pegmatites cut through igneous or metamorphic rocks in such a way\nthat they resemble walls (called _dikes_). Others are found as veins, as\nflat masses, or as odd-shaped bodies in rocks. Many pegmatites occur in\ngranites and contain feldspar, quartz, mica, and other minerals, as\ngranite does. Some pegmatites occur with other kinds of igneous rocks\nand contain the same minerals as these rocks. A few pegmatites contain\nrare and unusual minerals.\nMany geologists believe that pegmatites form from hot fluids of igneous\norigin that are left after other igneous rocks, such as granite, have\nalready formed. These left-over fluids contain large amounts of\naluminum, potassium, silicon, sodium, and several other elements. While\nthe granite or other rocks are still far underground, this material\npushes up into them, and may even partly dissolve them. Then it slowly\ncools and hardens into pegmatite. It is believed that, later, more\nfluids move into cracks in some pegmatites. This new material adds other\nminerals to the pegmatites and alters some of those minerals already\nthere.\n  [Illustration: Quartz-feldspar pegmatite from Burnet County, Texas.]\nSome of the pegmatites we now see at the surface in Texas are probably\nabout a billion years old. They formed during Precambrian time and occur\nwith other extremely old rocks. One well-known Texas pegmatite area is\nthe Mica Mine district of west Texas. It is about 15 miles south of Van\nHorn in the Van Horn Mountains of Culberson and Hudspeth counties.\nAnother pegmatite area is in the Llano uplift of central Texas. These\ncentral Texas pegmatites occur in Burnet, Gillespie, Llano, and Mason\ncounties.\nLarge crystals and grains of feldspar, mica, and quartz are found in the\npegmatites of both these areas. A small amount of mica has been mined\nfrom the west Texas pegmatites, and feldspar has been produced from the\ncentral Texas pegmatites.\nAn extremely rare and unusual pegmatite occurs in the Llano uplift area\nat Baringer Hill, which is west of Burnet in Llano County. This\npegmatite was once on the bank of the Colorado River, but when Buchanan\nDam was built, the area was flooded. The Baringer Hill pegmatite now\nlies beneath the water of Lake Buchanan. Many rare minerals, which\ncontain beryllium, cerium, thorium, uranium, yttrium, zirconium, and a\nnumber of other elements, occur in this pegmatite. Some of these\nminerals, such as those containing yttrium and zirconium, glow or\nincandesce when they are heated. During the early part of this century,\nbefore the area was flooded, several of the yttrium minerals were mined\nand used in making lamp mantles.\nPitchblende. _See_ Uranium Minerals.\nPrecious Opal. _See_ Opal.\nPulverulent Limestone. _See_ Limestone.\nPumicite. _See_ Volcanic Ash.\nPyrite is a shiny, pale golden-yellow or brassy-yellow metallic mineral.\nThis mineral, an iron disulfide, is so often mistaken for gold that it\nis widely known by the nickname _fool\u2019s gold_.\nExcept for their similar color and luster, pyrite and gold are really\nvery different. When you rub pyrite across a streak plate, it leaves a\nblack, a greenish-black, or a brownish-black streak, but the streak of\ngold is gold-colored. Pyrite is too hard for the average pocket knife to\nscratch, but a knife will scratch gold easily. Pyrite is brittle and\nreadily breaks, but gold is malleable and flattens out when hit with a\nhammer. Pyrite is only about 5 times as heavy as an equal volume of\nwater, but pure gold is over 19 times as heavy. And pyrite may have a\nbrown or a multicolored tarnish on it, but gold never tarnishes.\n [Illustration: Pyrite veins in white marble from Llano County, Texas.]\n               [Illustration: Cubic crystals of pyrite.]\nPyrite is a common mineral and is found in many of the igneous,\nmetamorphic, and sedimentary rocks of Texas. It may be scattered through\nthe rocks, or it may fill cracks and cavities in them. This mineral\noccurs as granular and compact masses, as rounded masses, or as\ncrystals. The crystals are commonly cubes, pyritohedrons, or\noctahedrons. In some crystals, the shapes are combined (such as a cube\nwith an octahedron or two pyritohedrons grown through each other). You\nmay notice that the sides of some cubes and pyritohedrons have fine,\nparallel grooves (called _striae_ or _striations_) on them.\nPyrite originates in a number of different ways. Some of it forms, along\nwith other minerals in igneous rocks, from hot magmas. It also forms in\nmetamorphic rocks by the same processes that produce these rocks. Some\nof the pyrite in limestone and other sedimentary rocks is formed when\nthe rocks themselves are deposited by seas or streams. Pyrite also is\ndeposited by the hot fluids that are given off by magmas. These fluids\ntravel up into cracks and other openings in rocks and then form pyrite\nas well as other minerals. Much pyrite forms in still another way. As\nwater seeps through rocks, it dissolves some of the iron minerals that\nthey contain. When, under certain conditions, these iron solutions mix\nwith hydrogen sulfide (this is the gas that makes some water smell like\nrotten eggs), pyrite is formed.\nPyrite alters easily. Because of this, most builders carefully check the\nlimestone, granite, marble, or whatever other building stone they plan\nto use to be sure that it does not contain large amounts of pyrite. When\nexposed to the weather, pyrite changes to limonite and causes an\nunsightly rust stain.\nPyrite is used as a source of sulfur, and it is produced for this\npurpose in several states. In Texas, however, no pyrite deposits have\nbeen found that are large enough to be mined.\nPyrolusite. _See_ Manganese Minerals.\nQuartz, silicon dioxide, is one of the most common minerals. It is\nglassy, waxy, greasy, or dull and is transparent or translucent. Pure\nquartz is colorless, but impurities make some varieties white, black, or\na shade of red, yellow, blue, violet, or brown. Quartz is a hard\nmineral. It scratches window glass and cannot be scratched by a pocket\nknife or even by a steel file. It has a specific gravity of 2.65. The\ncurved, conchoidal fracture shown by many specimens helps identify it.\nQuartz is plentiful in Texas. It occurs in igneous rocks, such as\ngranite, llanite, and pegmatite; in metamorphic rocks, such as\nquartzite, schist, and gneiss; and in sedimentary rocks, such as some\nsandstone, conglomerate, and breccia.\n  [Illustration: Quartz crystal, with inclusions, from Burnet County,\nQuartz is found as crystals and as masses. Some of the masses are\ncoarsely crystalline, but some are made up of extremely small\ncrystalline particles called _cryptocrystalline_ quartz. Some of the\ncryptocrystalline varieties of quartz found in Texas are chalcedony,\nchert, and jasper. Some of the coarsely crystalline varieties found here\nare amethyst, milky quartz, rose quartz, smoky quartz, and rock crystal.\n [Illustration: Amethyst geode from the Alpine area of Brewster County,\nA colorless, glassy variety of quartz, called _rock crystal_, is clear\nenough to see through. It is found as crystals that are 6-sided prisms\nwith pyramid-like faces on the ends. This variety is commonly associated\nwith igneous rocks, such as those of the Llano uplift area of central\nTexas and of the Trans-Pecos country of west Texas. It is commonly used\nas a gemstone and is made into necklaces, earrings, and other jewelry.\nSome specimens of rock crystal have slender, needle-like crystals of\nother minerals, such as tourmaline, actinolite, or rutile, enclosed in\nthem.\nA clear, glassy variety of quartz, _amethyst_, has a purple or violet\ncolor. It, like rock crystal, is commonly found in 6-sided prisms with\npyramid-shaped ends and is also prized as a gemstone. Amethyst has been\nfound in Precambrian rocks in the Llano uplift area of central Texas.\n(Amethyst Hill, a locality well known to collectors for many years, is\nin northeastern Gillespie County.) In west Texas, amethyst has been\nfound in Cenozoic igneous rocks in the Sierra Blanca and Quitman\nMountains of Hudspeth County and in the Alpine area of Brewster County.\n        [Illustration: Milky quartz from Burnet County, Texas.]\nA variety of quartz with a milk-white color and a glassy to greasy\nluster is called _milky quartz_. It occurs either as crystals or as\ncrystalline masses. Very little light will pass through it. In central\nTexas, milky quartz occurs abundantly in the Precambrian rocks of the\nLlano uplift area in Blanco, Burnet, Gillespie, Llano, and Mason\ncounties. It also is found in some of the rocks of the Trans-Pecos\ncountry of west Texas, such as in the Carrizo Mountains of Culberson and\nHudspeth counties. Other good places to look for this variety of quartz\nare in the sands and gravels along many streams in Texas.\nSome quartz has a glassy to a greasy luster and a rose or pink color.\n_Rose quartz_, as this variety is called, commonly occurs as masses\nrather than as individual crystals. It can be found along some of the\nstreams in Texas and also in igneous rocks, such as those of the Llano\nuplift area of central Texas.\nA kind of quartz with a smoky brown, a smoky yellow, or a dark\nbrownish-black color is called _smoky quartz_. Its luster is glassy, and\nit may be either translucent or transparent. Smoky quartz is commonly\nfound as crystals that are shaped like 6-sided prisms with pyramid-like\nends. It is commonly associated with igneous rocks, and beautiful\nspecimens have been found in the Lake Buchanan area of Llano and Burnet\ncounties in central Texas.\n    [Illustration: Smoky-quartz crystals from Burnet County, Texas.]\nA cryptocrystalline variety of quartz, _chalcedony_, has a waxy to dull\nluster and a tan, white, gray, or light-blue color. It is translucent\nbut not transparent. Chalcedony does not have its own crystal shape but\ninstead is found in masses that line or fill cracks, pores, and other\ncavities in rocks. It is formed when water containing silicon slowly\nseeps into these openings in the rocks and deposits the silicon dioxide\nthere as chalcedony.\nChalcedony commonly occurs in some of the Tertiary rocks of the Gulf\nCoastal Plain. For example, chalcedony associated with opal is found\nnear Freer in northern Duval County. In the High Plains of west Texas,\nit is found in alkali-lake deposits, such as at Shafter Lake in Andrews\nCounty and at Cedar Lake in Gaines County. In the Trans-Pecos country of\nwest Texas, it can be found filling small cavities in extrusive igneous\nrocks.\n[Illustration: Polished agate from Rio Grande gravels of Zapata County,\nA variety of chalcedony that generally is made up of more than one color\nis called _agate_ (although agates consisting of several shades of a\nsingle color are also found). The colors may be spread out unevenly so\nthat the agate has a cloudy appearance, or they can be arranged in wavy,\nin straight, or in concentric lines or bands. If the bands are straight\nand parallel, the specimen is called _onyx_. Agate that has a moss-like\nor tree-like design in it is called _moss agate_. Some agates make\nattractive gemstones when cut and polished.\n[Illustration: Jasper from Uvalde County, Texas. Dark areas are brownish\n                 red; light areas are a yellowish-tan.]\nMuch agate has been found filling cavities in Cenozoic igneous rocks in\nBrewster, Presidio, and other counties in the Trans-Pecos country of\nwest Texas. It has been found also in an area about 10 to 15 miles wide\nalong the Rio Grande, mostly in southern Webb County and in Zapata and\nStarr counties.\nTrees and other plants have been replaced by agate. Many specimens of\n_agatized wood_ have been collected from Tertiary formations in Fayette,\nGonzales, Lee, Washington, and other counties of the Gulf Coastal Plain.\n(The agatized wood, along with opalized wood, occurs within about 20\nmiles of the boundary between no. 2 and no. 3 on the geologic map, pp.\nA hard, compact, slightly translucent variety of cryptocrystalline\nquartz is called _jasper_. It commonly has a red, brown, or yellow color\ndue to the presence of an iron oxide, such as hematite. Some jasper is\nmade up of irregular bands of more than one of these colors. This\nvariety of quartz often is polished to make attractive gem or ornamental\nstones. It has been collected at several localities in Texas,\nparticularly from creek and river gravels. Starr and other nearby\ncounties along the Rio Grande have furnished a number of good specimens.\nA hard, smooth, compact, translucent rock that is made up mostly of\ncryptocrystalline quartz is called _chert_ or _flint_. It is white,\nblack, or some shade of gray, brown, or pink, and its luster is waxy,\nslightly glassy, or dull. Chert is found in many creek and river gravels\nin Texas. It also occurs with limestone, such as in the Lower Cretaceous\nEdwards Limestone of central Texas and in the Ordovician Ellenburger\nstrata in the Llano uplift area. Chert also is found with the Ordovician\nrocks of the Marathon area of Brewster County.\nGeologists do not agree on whether chert and flint are two names for one\nvariety of rock, or whether each is a separate variety. Some, however,\nnow give _chert_ a geological meaning and _flint_ an archaeological\nmeaning. They use the word _chert_ to describe geological formations or\nrock specimens. They give the name _flint_ to the same rock when it has\nbeen used by Indians in making arrowheads, scribers, scrapers, and\nspearheads.\nQuartzite is either a metamorphic rock or a sedimentary rock. (The\nsedimentary kind of quartzite is described with sand and sandstone on p.\n86.) Metamorphic quartzite is made up mostly of quartz. It forms when\nheat and fluids below the earth\u2019s surface cause the grains and cement of\na quartz sandstone to recrystallize. When this happens, the grains\ninterlock and are no longer held together by cement. Metamorphic\nquartzite, like sedimentary quartzite, is a hard, firm rock that breaks\nthrough the quartz grains instead of between them.\nAncient Precambrian metamorphic quartzite occurs at the surface in the\nLlano uplift area of central Texas, in the Van Horn area of west Texas,\nand in the Franklin Mountains north of El Paso in extreme west Texas.\nRhyolite is a fine-grained or glassy igneous rock that commonly is\nextrusive or volcanic. It has a pink, red, tan, white, gray, purple, or\nblack color. This rock, like granite, is made up chiefly of feldspar and\na silica mineral, such as quartz, but other minerals may be present.\nBoth rhyolite and granite form from the same kind of molten rock\nmaterial. Nevertheless, even though their compositions are the same,\nthese two rocks do not look alike. Their textures differ because granite\nforms slowly and rhyolite forms quickly.\nMuch of the Texas rhyolite formed from hot, molten lava. This lava\nflowed out onto the surface either through volcanic cones or cracks in\nthe ground. Some of the lava cooled and hardened too quickly for mineral\ngrains to develop. This rapidly cooled lava formed a rhyolite rock that\nis made up, at least partly, of glass. In many of the rhyolites,\ncrystalline mineral grains were able to form, but these grains are\nextremely small, and you may not be able to distinguish them even with a\nmagnifying glass. Some rhyolite, because it hardened from moving,\nflowing lava, has streaks and bands of different colors and textures.\nThis rhyolite has _flow structure_.\nOne variety of rhyolite has easily seen crystals and grains of minerals,\nsuch as feldspar, quartz, and mica, scattered through a mass of the tiny\ncrystalline grains (in much the same way that raisins are scattered\nthrough a cake). The easily seen crystals and grains are called\n_phenocrysts_, and the rock itself is called a _rhyolite porphyry_.\nMany rhyolites and rhyolite porphyries occur in the Tertiary igneous\nrocks of the Trans-Pecos country of west Texas. Just a few of these\nlocalities include the Barrilla Mountains of Jeff Davis and Reeves\ncounties, the Chisos Mountains of Brewster County, the Chinati Mountains\nof Presidio County, and the Davis Mountains of Jeff Davis County.\nRock Crystal. _See_ Quartz.\nRock Gypsum. _See_ Gypsum.\nRock Salt. _See_ Halite.\nRose Quartz. _See_ Quartz.\nSalt. _See_ Halite.\nSand is a loose, uncemented sedimentary deposit made up of fragments of\nweathered rocks and minerals. These fragments must be of a certain size\n(between \u00b9/\u2081\u2086 millimeter and 2 millimeters in diameter) in order to be\ncalled sand grains. The largest sand grains are about the size of a\npinhead. Sand grains are smaller than the fragments known as _granules_;\nthey are larger than those known as _silt_.\nMany sands are made up chiefly of grains of quartz. This mineral is\nplentiful and does not easily weather away. In addition, rock fragments\nand many other minerals, such as feldspar, mica, gypsum, magnetite, and\ngarnet, are found as sand grains.\nRains wash many of the sand grains and other weathered rock and mineral\nfragments into creeks and rivers. These streams may carry the sand and\nother sediments long distances before depositing them. Today, we find\nsands along the banks of many creeks and rivers in Texas and along the\nbeaches of the Gulf of Mexico. The sand in the rivers is in transit to\nthe Gulf. In addition, sand occurs at the surface in other Cenozoic\nformations and in some of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations of\nTexas.\nSand has many uses. Much _building sand_, which is used in mortar and\nconcrete, is produced from numerous sand and gravel pits in Texas. Pure\nquartz sand that can be used to make glass is known as _glass sand_.\nSome of it is found in north-central Texas in Lower Cretaceous\nformations. A large glass sand quarry is located at Santa Anna in\nColeman County. Along the Gulf Coastal Plain, sand that is used in\nglassmaking occurs in Eocene Tertiary strata.\nA coarse-grained sand, _blast sand_, is used with compressed air to\nclean the walls of brick and stone buildings and to carve designs on\nmonument stones, such as marbles. Some coarse sand is also used as a\n_filtering_ sand in purifying water. These types of sand have been\nproduced from the Gulf Coastal Plain as well as from other areas of\nTexas.\nSand grains, when nature cements them together, make up the sedimentary\nrock _sandstone_. Some sandstones form when underground water carrying\ndissolved mineral matter moves through loose sand. As the dissolved\nmineral matter comes out of solution, it forms a cement that binds the\nsand grains together.\nThe cement may be material such as calcite (calcium carbonate), quartz,\nchalcedony, or opal, which are silica minerals, and limonite and\nhematite, which are iron oxides. Clay also may serve as a cement. It is\neither deposited along with the sand or is formed from weathered\nfeldspar sand grains.\nThe color of the cementing material helps determine the color of the\nrock. Iron oxide cement, for example, causes the sandstone to have a\nreddish, yellowish, or brownish color. Sandstones also are white, black,\ngray, green, or cream colored.\nOrdinarily, sandstones break through the cementing material, not through\nthe sand grains. Thus, the broken surface of the rock feels rough and\ngritty. Some quartz sand grains, however, are tightly cemented with\nsilica to form an extremely hard and compact rock. If this rock breaks\nsmoothly through the grains instead of between them, it is known as\n_quartzite_. Some of this sedimentary quartzite occurs in the Texas Gulf\nCoastal Plain in the Tertiary Catahoula strata. (Another kind of\nquartzite is described on pp. 84-85.)\n   [Illustration: Sandstone from the Eocene Wilcox Group of strata of\n                  northwestern Zavala County, Texas.]\nOrdinary sandstones are seen at the surface in many localities in Texas,\nand a number of them have been used as building stones. Some of the\nplaces where sandstones occur are in the Cambrian and Pennsylvanian\nformations of the Llano uplift area of central Texas and in the\nPennsylvanian, Permian, and Lower Cretaceous formations of north-central\nTexas. Tertiary sandstones occur in the Texas Gulf Coastal Plain, and\nTriassic sandstones are found along the edges of the Texas High Plains.\nSandstone is also found in many formations of the Trans-Pecos country of\nwest Texas.\nSandstone. _See_ Sand and Sandstone.\nSatin Spar. _See_ Gypsum.\nSchist is a metamorphic rock that splits easily along thin, generally\nparallel layers, called _folia_. These layers may be either straight or\ncurved, and they are made up of crystalline grains of one or more than\none mineral. This structure is called _schistosity_ or _foliation_. When\nyou examine schist, you will see that many of the mineral grains are\nflat or long, and that they are lined up in one direction to form the\nlayers. Some schists have fairly large crystals (many with perfect\nshapes) scattered through them. For example, mica schists may contain\nbeautiful crystals of garnet.\nEach kind of schist is named for an outstanding mineral that it\ncontains. Mica schist contains a large amount of mica. We also find\nhornblende schist, actinolite schist, chlorite schist, talc schist, and\ngraphite schist. (Graphite schist is discussed with graphite on p. 63.)\nSchists form from other rocks, such as granite, gabbro, or shale. The\nrocks are changed into schists by fluids and by heat and pressure below\nthe earth\u2019s surface.\nExtremely ancient schists that formed during Precambrian time are\nexposed at the surface in the Allamoore\u2014Van Horn area of west Texas and\nin the Llano uplift area of central Texas. Geologists believe that the\nPacksaddle Schist of the Llano uplift area was once shale. Good\nexposures of this schist are seen in the Honey Creek area near\nPacksaddle Mountain in Llano County.\nSchorl. _See_ Tourmaline.\nSedimentary Quartzite. _See_ Sand and Sandstone.\nSelenite. _See_ Gypsum.\nSerpentine is the name given both to a rock and to a mineral. The\nmineral serpentine (a hydrous magnesium silicate) is found in two\ndifferent forms. If it is fibrous, it is called _chrysotile_; if it is\nlayered and platy, it is known as _antigorite_. Antigorite is brownish\ngreen and smooth and waxy looking. Some of it can be split into thin\nsheets. Chrysotile is made up of greenish, silky fibers, which may be\nbrittle and break apart in large pieces. If, however, the fibers can be\npulled apart into soft flexible, little threads, the mineral is called\n_chrysotile asbestos_.\nLight will pass through both these varieties of serpentine, and both are\nsoft enough to be scratched by a pocket knife. When rubbed across a\nstreak plate, they leave white streaks. Antigorite and chrysotile have\nno crystal shapes of their own, but several other minerals can alter to\nform these two varieties of serpentine. Thus antigorite and chrysotile\nmay be found as _pseudomorphs_ in a crystal shape that originally\nbelonged to another mineral.\nAntigorite and chrysotile are commonly found closely mixed with\ndolomite, talc, magnetite, calcite, pyrite, and several other minerals.\nThese minerals make up serpentine rock (also called _serpentinite_).\nThis rock ordinarily is some shade of green (such as whitish, yellowish,\nbrownish, bluish, or dark blackish green), and it may be mottled. It is\nbrittle or tough and generally is massive. Serpentine rock, like the\nserpentine minerals, is fairly soft\u2014you can scratch it with a pocket\nknife.\nIn the Llano uplift area of central Texas, serpentine rock is found\namong Precambrian metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss and schist. An\nespecially large deposit in this area is known as the Coal Creek\nserpentine mass. It is over 3\u00bd miles long, and at one place, it is\nalmost 1\u00bd miles wide. This mass of serpentine extends across the\nBlanco-Gillespie County line in the extreme northern parts of these two\ncounties. (A little fibrous chrysotile is found here, but it will not\nbreak into flexible enough threads to be called chrysotile asbestos.)\nSeveral other deposits of serpentine occur in northeastern Gillespie\nCounty and in southern Llano County.\nIt is believed that the Coal Creek serpentine was formed from an igneous\nrock such as _peridotite_, which is made up chiefly of grains of the\nmineral _olivine_. The peridotite may have been altered into serpentine\nby underground waters that seeped through it. It is possible, however,\nthat other serpentines in the area were formed when rocks were altered\nby hot fluids and great pressures far below the earth\u2019s surface.\nThe Llano area serpentine has been widely used in terrazzo floors. To\nmake these floors, small pieces of serpentine and other colored rocks\nare put into cement that is spread over a concrete slab. Then, after the\ncement has hardened, it is ground to a flat, smooth surface and\npolished. The resulting terrazzo floor is both colorful and durable.\nSerpentine rock also is cut into slabs, polished, and used as indoor\nbuilding stones. _Verde antique_, a variety often seen in the lobbies of\noffice buildings, consists of green serpentine rock with streaks of\nwhite calcite or dolomite in it.\nIn the Balcones fault zone area (shown on the Texas physiographic\noutline map, p. 42) from Uvalde County to Williamson County, serpentine\noccurs with Upper Cretaceous rocks. The serpentine rock is seen at the\nsurface in a few places (such as in Travis and Uvalde counties), but\nmuch of it is underground. In several oil fields of this area (as at\nThrall field in Williamson County and at Lytton Springs field in\nCaldwell County), the serpentine rocks contain oil.\nSerpentinite. _See_ Serpentine.\nShale is a sedimentary rock made up of tightly packed clay and mud\nparticles. It has a smooth appearance because it is so fine grained. In\nfact, most of the particles in it are too small to be distinguished with\na magnifying glass. These particles are the weathered remains of earlier\nrocks. They were carried by creeks and rivers to other parts of the land\nor to the sea, where they formed layers of clay and mud. Later, other\nsediments were deposited on top of them. The weight of these new\nsediments squeezed the clays and muds together to form firm, compact\nshale.\nShale looks very much like some clays. It, like clay, can be almost any\ncolor. If the shale contains animal or plant matter, it is black, gray,\nor blue. If it contains iron oxide (many minerals containing iron alter\nto this material), it is a shade of red, yellow, or brown. Shale is soft\nand can be easily scratched by a knife. It also is brittle and crumbles\neasily. This rock has a property that will help you to distinguish it\nfrom clay: the particles that make up the shale were deposited in\nlayers, and the shale splits into flat, thin flakes along these layers,\nwhich clay will not do.\nShale is fairly abundant in Texas, especially in Mississippian,\nPennsylvanian, and Cretaceous formations. For example, Pennsylvanian\nshales are found at the surface in north-central Texas, in the area\naround the Llano uplift of central Texas, and in the Marathon and\nSolitario uplifts of west Texas.\nMany of shale\u2019s uses are the same as those of clay. Some of it can be\nused to make brick, tile, and other products, and some is often used\ninstead of clay in making portland cement. Cement plants at Dallas, El\nPaso, Fort Worth, and Waco are located at places where Cretaceous\nlimestones, which also are used in cement making, and Cretaceous shales\nare found near each other at the surface.\nOil shale, from which petroleum can be obtained by heating, has been\nfound in central Texas. It occurs in Mississippian formations in\nLampasas, McCulloch, and San Saba counties. Because oil is much less\nexpensive to obtain from wells, it is not produced from these shales.\n        Silver Minerals (Argentite, Cerargyrite, Native Silver)\nSilver has many uses. Like gold, it is a beautiful metal that long has\nbeen used for coins and ornaments. A large amount of silver goes to make\narticles such as spoons, forks, platters, and trays. The photographic\nindustry uses silver\u2014much of the film for cameras is coated with a\nsilver halide. Doctors and dentists use silver, too. The mixture that a\ndentist uses to fill teeth contains silver along with several other\nmetals. Doctors sometimes use silver wire to fasten broken bones, and\nsilver compounds and solutions, such as silver nitrate, are used in some\nkinds of medical treatment.\nPerhaps more people have heard of legendary, lost silver mines of Texas\nthan of the actual and important silver deposits found in the\nTrans-Pecos country of west Texas. Some of the west Texas silver\nminerals include _argentite_, _cerargyrite_, and _native silver_.\nAlthough the argentite and native silver commonly found there are mixed\nwith galena, a lead mineral, or with chalcocite, a copper mineral, they\nalso occur separately.\nThe element silver is found alone as _native silver_. When pure, it is\nrather easy to recognize. It is metallic and has a silver-white color\nthat may tarnish to gray, black, or yellowish brown. Native silver is\nheavy (it has a specific gravity of 10.5) and soft (a pocket knife\nscratches it easily). When you rub it across a streak plate, native\nsilver, unless it is tarnished, leaves a shiny, silver-white streak.\nThis metal is so ductile that it can be drawn into a wire. It is also\nmalleable and flattens when hit with a hammer.\nSilver occurs as crystals, which are poorly shaped cubes and\noctahedrons, or as irregular masses. It may have a net-like appearance\n(called _reticulate_), or it may be shaped like little needles\n(described then as _acicular_). It occurs in wires (then called\n_filiform_) or as scales or plates.\n                      [Illustration: Prospector.]\nTwo of the Texas silver minerals, _argentite_ and _cerargyrite_, do not\nresemble silver at all. _Argentite_, a silver sulfide, is also called\n_silver glance_. It is a dark, lead-gray mineral with a metallic luster\nthat weathers to a dull black. When you rub it across a streak plate,\nargentite gives a shiny, blackish to lead-gray streak. This mineral is\nsoft enough to leave a mark on paper. It has a specific gravity of 7.3,\nand it is sectile enough to be cut smoothly (like soap) with a knife. In\nsome places argentite is found as irregular masses or as a coating on\nrocks and other minerals.\nAnother silver mineral, _cerargyrite_ (or _horn silver_) is a silver\nchloride. This mineral has a nonmetallic luster and is transparent to\ntranslucent. It resembles pearl-gray, white, greenish, or colorless wax.\nWhen exposed to the light it turns violet brown or black. Cerargyrite is\nsoft\u2014you can scratch it with a fingernail. Like argentite, it is\nsectile. This mineral has a specific gravity of 5.5, and it commonly\noccurs as irregular masses and as crusts.\nThese silver minerals have been mined at a number of places in\nTrans-Pecos Texas. The largest silver mine in Texas, the Presidio mine,\nis located near Shafter in south-central Presidio County. It contains\nargentite, cerargyrite, and native silver, along with galena and several\nother minerals. This mine is not open now, but in the years between 1885\nand 1942, it produced a large amount of silver along with some lead and\ngold. There are several other lead-silver mines in this Shafter area,\nbut none has produced as much as the Presidio mine.\nIn this mine, the silver minerals occur mostly in large, flat deposits\nin Permian limestone and other sedimentary rocks. The minerals are\nbelieved to have been deposited there\u2014probably during Tertiary time\u2014by\nsolutions that came from hot magma far below the rocks. As they moved in\nalong the layers of limestone, the solutions replaced portions of this\nrock with minerals containing silver, lead, and other elements. Later,\nwater seeped into these deposits and dissolved some of the minerals.\nThis dissolved material was then re-deposited, and it formed most of the\nminerals we now find there.\nNo silver is being mined in Texas at present, but it has, in the past,\nbeen produced from other Trans-Pecos mines. Galena that contains silver\n(called _argentiferous galena_) has been mined at the Bird mine at\nAltuda Mountain (about 14 miles east of Alpine) in northern Brewster\nCounty. It also has been obtained from mines in the Quitman Mountains\nand in the Eagle Mountains of Hudspeth County. Some cerargyrite has been\nmined at the Plata Verde mine near the Culberson-Hudspeth County line.\nSeveral mines in the Van Horn area of Culberson and Hudspeth counties\nhave produced silver along with copper. An important silver mine in this\narea is the now idle and flooded Hazel mine. (This mine is described\nwith copper minerals on p. 52.)\nSmoky Quartz. _See_ Quartz.\nSoapstone. _See_ Talc and Soapstone.\nSpecular Hematite. _See_ Hematite.\nSulfur is one of Texas\u2019 most valuable minerals. It consists of only a\nsingle element, sulfur. This mineral has a resinous luster and is\ntransparent to translucent. Sulfur ordinarily is yellow, but impurities\ncause it to look greenish, brownish, reddish, or grayish. When you rub\nit across a streak plate, it leaves a white or a pale-yellow streak.\nSulfur has a specific gravity of 2.04 to 2.09 and is soft enough to be\nscratched by a copper penny. It breaks with a conchoidal to uneven\nfracture. When it gets hot enough (478\u00b0 Fahrenheit), sulfur will burn.\nFor this reason, it often is called _brimstone_.\nSulfur does not conduct electricity and is a poor conductor of heat. You\ncan test how poorly heat passes through it by holding a fragment of\nsulfur up to your ear. You may be able to hear a crackling sound. The\nsound results when the outer part of the fragment expands (due to the\nheat from your hand) while the inner part (which has received no heat)\nremains unchanged.\nCrystals of sulfur are sometimes found, and most of them have either a\ndouble-pyramid shape or a flat, tabular shape. Sulfur also occurs as\ncompact masses, as crusts, and as scattered grains.\nNative sulfur deposits are found in two widely separated areas of\nTexas\u2014one in west Texas and the other along the Gulf Coast in southeast\nTexas, extending over into Louisiana. In the Gulf Coast area, native\nsulfur is found on some of the salt domes.\nThe salt domes are huge (from about half a mile to more than 2 miles\nacross), column-shaped masses made up of halite and some anhydrite.\nThese masses have pushed up toward the surface through thousands of feet\nof sand, clay, and other sedimentary rocks. On top of many of the salt\ncolumns is a covering of limestone (calcite), anhydrite, and gypsum\nknown as the _cap-rock_. It is in this cap-rock that the sulfur is\nfound.\nIt is thought that when the masses of halite and anhydrite pushed toward\nthe earth\u2019s surface, some of the upper part of the halite dissolved. The\nanhydrite, however, did not dissolve, and it remained on top of the salt\ncolumn. Then, a part of this anhydrite was altered into the gypsum,\nlimestone, and sulfur that now are found in some of the cap-rocks.\nLaboratory experiments have shown that the sulfur in the cap-rocks\nlikely formed through the action of sulfate-reducing bacteria. These\nbacteria, in the presence of petroleum, converted the sulfate in some of\nthe anhydrite into hydrogen sulfide. Later, hydrogen sulfide was\noxidized\u2014perhaps by reaction with more of the anhydrite\u2014to form the\nsulfur.\nMost of the large cap-rock sulfur deposits are about 1,500 to 2,400 feet\nunderground. At first, an attempt was made to get this sulfur out of the\nground by digging shafts down to it, but loose, wet, caving sands and\npoisonous gases, such as hydrogen sulfide, made this mining method\nalmost impossible. Finally, a chemist, Herman Frasch, found a way to\nobtain the sulfur by making use of sulfur\u2019s low melting point. When\nsulfur gets slightly hotter than boiling water (235\u00b0 to 247\u00b0\nFahrenheit), it melts and becomes a dark, yellowish-brown liquid.\nIn the Frasch method of sulfur mining, a well is drilled into the\nsalt-dome cap-rock, and three pipes, one inside the other, are put into\nthe well. Superheated water under pressure (hotter than 212\u00b0 Fahrenheit,\nthe temperature at which water ordinarily turns into steam) is sent down\none of the pipes to melt the sulfur in the cap-rock around the bottom of\nthe well. Then, compressed air is sent down another of the pipes. This\nair presses against the liquid sulfur and forces it up to the surface\nthrough the third pipe. At the surface, the sulfur is poured into bins,\nwhere it cools and becomes a solid again, or it is transported molten,\nin pipelines and tankers.\nSulfur has been obtained from a number of the Texas Gulf Coast salt\ndomes including Bryan Mound, Clemens dome, Damon Mound, and Hoskins\nMound in Brazoria County; Palangana dome in Duval County; Long Point\ndome, Nash dome, and Orchard dome in Fort Bend County; High Island dome\nin Galveston County; Fannett dome and Spindletop dome in Jefferson\nCounty; Moss Bluff dome in Liberty County; Gulf dome in Matagorda\nCounty; and Boling dome in Wharton County.\nIn west Texas, sulfur occurs in Permian rocks both at the surface and\nunderground. A small amount of sulfur has been mined in the Rustler\nSprings area of northeastern Culberson County and northwestern Reeves\nCounty, about 50 miles northwest of Pecos. There, scattered grains,\ncrystals, and irregular masses of sulfur occur in cracks and in\ndissolved-out openings in the Castile Gypsum and in the surface gravel,\ngypsum, sand, and clay that cover most of this formation.\nSulfur has many uses. It is used as an insect-killer, thus helping our\nfood crops to grow. It is used in pulp and paper manufacturing and in\nthe vulcanizing of rubber. Some other uses are in the making of paints,\ndyes, and explosives. A large amount of sulfur goes to make sulfuric\nacid, which itself has numerous uses in the chemical, steel, oil\nrefining, and other industries.\n  [Illustration: Sulfur is obtained from the cap-rock of Gulf Coastal\n                Plain salt domes by the Frasch process.]\n  Sulfur\n  Uncemented Sediments\n  Limestone\n  Sulfur-Bearing Limestone\n  Hot Water\n  Melted Sulfur\n  Anhydrite\nTalc, a hydrous magnesium silicate, is an extremely soft mineral\u2014your\nfingernail scratches it easily. It has a greasy or a pearly luster, and\nits color is white, light green, or gray. When rubbed across a streak\nplate, it leaves a white streak.\nTalc cleaves perfectly in one direction, and the cleavage fragments are\nthin, flat, and sheet-like. Its fracture is uneven. This mineral has a\nsoaplike or greasy feel, and it is sectile\u2014a knife will cut through it.\nTalc is not particularly heavy\u2014it has a specific gravity of 2.7 to 2.8.\nThis mineral seldom occurs with a crystal shape. More commonly it is\nmassive and is granular or layered.\nTalc is not always found as a single, pure mineral. In nature, it\ncommonly occurs mixed with one or more other minerals, such as\ntremolite, anthophyllite, chlorite, and magnetite. This combination of\ntalc with other minerals forms a soft, greasy or soapy-feeling\nmetamorphic rock called soapstone. The talc in this rock may be\ndifficult to identify without special laboratory tests.\nIn Texas, talc and soapstone are found in Precambrian metamorphic rocks.\nIn west Texas, talc occurs in an area about 20 miles long (just north of\nU. S. Highway 80 in the vicinity of Allamoore, Eagle Flat siding, and\nTalc Rock siding) in Hudspeth County. Some of this talc is mined from\nopen pits and used by the ceramic industry to make wall tile. Some of it\nis finely ground, mixed with insect poison, and used as insect powders\nand dusts.\n [Illustration: Talc schist from the Allamoore area of Hudspeth County,\nDeposits of soapstone, containing talc, occur in the Llano uplift area\nof central Texas with schist, gneiss, and serpentine rocks in\nnortheastern Gillespie, northwestern Blanco, and southern Llano\ncounties. Smaller deposits occur in northeastern Mason County and in\nnorthwestern and southeastern Llano County.\nThe Llano uplift area soapstones are light green to light buff. It is\nthought that some of them were once igneous rocks that contained\nmagnesium minerals. Fluids, along with great heat and pressures below\nthe earth\u2019s surface, changed these igneous rocks into soapstone.\nSome of this Llano uplift area soapstone is mined from open pits near\nWillow City in Gillespie County. It is used mostly in making insect\npowders and roofing granules. In addition, some of the central Texas\nsoapstones have been used for hearths and for fireplace linings.\nTopaz, an aluminum fluorosilicate, is a mineral especially prized by\ncollectors because many specimens are gemstones. Topaz is transparent,\nhas a glassy luster, and is quite hard (neither quartz nor a steel file\nwill scratch it). The topaz that has been found in Texas is either\ncolorless, pale blue, or sky blue. This mineral is fairly heavy\u2014its\nspecific gravity is 3.4 to 3.6. It cleaves perfectly in one direction\n(called basal cleavage), and some of the cleavage fragments have a flat,\nslabby appearance.\nTopaz is commonly found as prism-shaped crystals, as cleavage fragments,\nand as irregular grains. Some fragments of topaz look like quartz.\nTopaz, however, is harder and heavier than quartz, and it has perfect\nbasal cleavage, which quartz does not have.\nIn Texas, crystals, grains, and cleavage fragments of topaz occur in the\nLlano uplift area of central Texas. They are found near Streeter and\nGrit in west-central Mason County and near Katemcy in northern Mason\nCounty. Here, some of the topaz occurs in Precambrian pegmatite veins\nthat cut through granite rocks. Most of the topaz, however, is found as\npebbles in the gravels of nearby creeks, where it has washed after\nweathering out of the rocks.\n [Illustration: Topaz crystal from near Streeter, Mason County, Texas.]\nTopaz probably originates when hot fluids move up out of molten magma\ninto cracks and cavities in the surrounding rocks. There, the fluids\nreact with elements in the rocks to form the topaz.\nTopaz is a good gemstone because, in addition to its beauty, it is hard\nand is not easily marred by scratches. The Mason County topaz makes\nexcellent gemstones. Most of it is beautiful and clear and is either\ncolorless or of a pleasing blue color. These stones are cut, polished,\nand mounted in rings and other jewelry. A number of specimens of this\nMason County topaz are displayed in museums.\nTourmaline is a complex silicate of boron and aluminum. Other elements,\nsuch as magnesium, sodium, lithium, calcium, iron, or fluorine, also may\nbe present. This mineral has a glassy to resinous luster. Only the\ndark-colored varieties of tourmaline have been found in Texas. One is a\nblack variety called _schorl_, and another is a brown variety called\n_dravite_. Other kinds of tourmaline, although not found in Texas, are\ncolorless or some shade of blue, yellow, red, pink, or green. Some\ncrystals even show more than one color.\nTourmaline is too hard to scratch with a steel file, it has a specific\ngravity of 3 to 3.25, and it has a conchoidal to uneven fracture. Very\nlittle light passes through the dark varieties, and some fragments of\nschorl look like shiny, black coal.\nTourmaline occurs as masses without crystal shapes, but crystals are\ncommonly found. The crystals are prism-shaped and have small vertical\ngrooves, called _striations_, on the prism faces. When you look at some\ncrystals from an end, you will see that the cross section is a triangle\nwith the sides bowed outward.\n[Illustration: Black tourmaline crystals with milky quartz from north of\n                      Llano, Llano County, Texas.]\nBoth the black and the brown varieties of tourmaline have been found at\nseveral places in the Llano uplift of central Texas. One well-known\nlocality is at Town Mountain north of Llano in Llano County. Here, the\ntourmaline occurs in milky quartz that is associated with Precambrian\ngranite rocks. In west Texas, in Culberson and Hudspeth counties, black\ntourmaline occurs in pegmatite rocks in the Van Horn Mountains, the\nCarrizo Mountains, and the Wylie Mountains. In the Eagle Mountains of\nHudspeth County, it is found in metamorphic rocks as well as in\npegmatites.\nSome tourmaline formed from hot fluids containing boron that were given\noff by magmas far below the earth\u2019s surface. These fluids traveled up\nthrough cracks and other openings in overlying rocks. As the fluids\nreacted with other elements and compounds, the tourmaline formed.\nThe clear, light-colored varieties of tourmaline are much admired, and\nthey are more widely used as gemstones than are the dark-colored\nvarieties. Some collectors, however, find that the dark-colored Texas\ntourmalines, when cut and polished, make shiny, attractive gemstones.\nSome tourmaline is used as grinding material, but no Texas tourmaline is\nproduced for this purpose.\nTravertine. _See_ Calcite.\n         Uranium Minerals (Carnotite, Uranophane, Pitchblende)\nIn 1945, the world suddenly became aware of the awesome power of atomic\nenergy when the element _uranium_ was used to produce some of the first\natomic bombs. Uranium does not occur alone in nature but is found\ncombined with other elements in a number of minerals.\nAll of the uranium minerals are radioactive. The uranium they contain is\ngradually breaking down and changing into a series of 13 other elements,\ncalled _daughter_ elements. Each daughter element breaks down and\nchanges into the next daughter element of the series. While breaking\ndown, these elements give off particles and rays of energy.\nThis energy or _radioactivity_ is made up of what are called alpha\nparticles, beta particles, and gamma rays. You cannot see, hear, taste,\nsmell, or feel them. The alpha and beta particles are weak and do not\ntravel far. The gamma rays, however, can travel farther and can pass\nthrough seemingly solid material. Scientists have found that these rays\ncan move through about 1 foot of rock, 2\u00bd feet of water, and several\nhundred feet of air.\nProspectors searching for uranium minerals carry instruments that are\nable to detect this radioactivity. The uranium itself gives off only\nalpha particles, but some of its daughter elements give off gamma rays.\nThese daughter elements are normally found with the uranium, and it is\ntheir strong gamma rays that the instruments are most apt to detect.\n   [Illustration: A Geiger counter is used to detect radioactivity.]\nOne of the instruments used is the _Geiger counter_. It indicates\nradioactivity by means of a meter, a flashing light, or a clicking\nsound, which can be heard through earphones. Another instrument for\ndetecting radioactivity is the _scintillation counter_. It is more\nsensitive than the Geiger counter and it can detect radioactivity from a\ngreater distance. The scintillation counter can be used from an\nautomobile or an airplane, but the Geiger counter must be quite close to\nthe source of radioactivity to be of use.\nVarious uranium minerals have been found, mostly in small amounts, in a\nnumber of places in Texas. Some of these minerals, such as uraninite or\npitchblende, are heavy and dark colored. Others, including carnotite,\ntyuyamunite, autunite, and uranophane, are a shade of yellow or green.\nThey are quite soft. Deposits of the light-colored uranium minerals have\nbeen mined from two areas of Texas. One of these areas is in Garza\nCounty on the Texas High Plains, and the other is in Karnes and Live Oak\ncounties in the Gulf Coastal Plain.\nOne of the light-colored uranium minerals, _carnotite_, is a\npotassium-uranium vanadate, which has a bright canary-yellow or\nlemon-yellow color. This mineral is transparent to translucent and has\nan earthy or a pearly luster. Carnotite usually is found as crusts and\nas powdery masses. It is quite soft and can be scratched with a\nfingernail.\nCarnotite, along with tyuyamunite, autunite, and several other soft,\nyellowish or greenish uranium minerals, is found in the Texas Gulf\nCoastal Plain. These minerals occur in the Jackson, Catahoula, and\nOakville strata (which are Tertiary in age) in an area extending from\nGonzales County to the Rio Grande (in parts of the area indicated by no.\n2 and no. 3 on the geologic map, pp. 4-5). The largest deposits in this\ndistrict have been found in the Karnes County area.\nThe Gulf Coastal Plain uranium minerals occur mostly with sandstones and\nclays in a sequence of strata that contains volcanic ash. It is believed\nthat small scattered amounts of uranium compounds that were present in\nthe volcanic ash sediments were dissolved by seeping underground water.\nThese waters then moved into the sandstones and clays where they\ndeposited the uranium as carnotite and as other uranium minerals.\nAnother uranium mineral, _uranophane_ (calcium-uranium silicate), also\noccurs in Texas. Uranophane has a yellow to yellow-orange color and a\npearly to greasy luster. When rubbed across a streak plate, it leaves a\nlight yellow to a light yellow-orange streak. It is soft enough to be\nscratched by a copper penny. Uranophane has been found in extrusive\nigneous rocks in northwestern Presidio County in west Texas.\nA dark-colored uranium mineral, _pitchblende_, is a variety of the\nmineral _uraninite_, uranium dioxide. Pitchblende does not occur with a\ncrystal shape but rather as rounded and irregular-shaped masses. It is\nbrownish black, greenish black, or black. If you rub it across a streak\nplate, pitchblende leaves a brownish-black streak. This mineral is heavy\n(it has a specific gravity of 6.5 to 8.5) and hard (a pocket knife will\nnot scratch it, although a steel file will). Pitchblende has a\nsubmetallic luster and looks dull, greasy, or like pitch or tar.\nSmall amounts of pitchblende have been found at several places in Texas.\nOne of these localities is a few miles west of Burnet in Burnet County\nin central Texas. Here, the pitchblende occurs in Precambrian igneous\nrocks that are associated with gneiss. In south Texas, some fine,\nscattered particles of pitchblende have been found about 325 feet below\nthe surface in Tertiary (Pliocene) sediments that cover the Palangana\nsalt dome in Duval County. No pitchblende is mined in Texas.\nUranophane. _See_ Uranium Minerals.\nVitrophyre. _See_ Obsidian and Vitrophyre.\n                        Volcanic Ash (Pumicite)\nVolcanic ash deposits, which also are known as _pumicite_, are loose and\npowdery. They are made up mostly of material that is thrown into the air\nwhen volcanoes erupt. If a volcano erupts with a violent explosion, the\nnearby rocks are blown into powder. Molten lava also is hurled into the\nair, where some of it immediately cools to become tiny bubbles and\nparticles of glass. The winds may carry some of this fine material far\naway before depositing it.\nDeposits of volcanic ash are white, bluish, greenish, yellowish, or\ngrayish, and some of them glisten like snow in the sunlight. They feel\nrough and gritty. When examined under a microscope, this material shows\nthe tiny curved and sharp-cornered particles of the broken volcanic\nglass. Deposits of volcanic ash may also contain clay, silt, sand, or\nother impurities.\nVolcanoes, which may have been located in the Davis Mountains and in\nother areas of west Texas and in northern Mexico, erupted during\nTertiary time. The volcanic ash that we find at the surface today in\nsome of the Tertiary formations in Texas could have come from these\nvolcanoes. Tertiary volcanic ash deposits occur in the Texas Gulf\nCoastal Plain (such as in Brazos, Fayette, Karnes, Polk, Starr, Trinity,\nand other counties) and in the Trans-Pecos country of west Texas.\nVolcanic ash deposits of Quaternary (Pleistocene) age, which are less\nthan a million years old, are found in a number of counties on the Texas\nHigh Plains. Farther to the east, ash deposits occur in Baylor, Dickens,\nKent, and Wilbarger counties. This volcanic ash may have come from a\nvolcano that erupted in northern New Mexico during Quaternary time.\nVolcanic ash or pumicite has several commercial uses. Some is used to\nmake pozzolan cement, and some is used in sweeping compounds, cleansing\nand scouring powders, and abrasive soaps. Pumicite has been mined in\nDickens, Scurry, Starr, and several other counties of Texas.\nWad. _See_ Manganese Minerals.\nWood Opal. _See_ Opal.\n   COMPOSITION, HARDNESS, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOME TEXAS MINERALS\nFor convenient reference, the Texas minerals described in this book are\nlisted below, together with their chemical compositions, specific\ngravities, and hardness. You will be able to find similar information\nabout additional minerals in mineralogy textbooks such as those noted on\npage 24.\n  _Mineral_     _Composition_         _Specific Gravity_    _Hardness_\n  asbestos\n  Feldspar (_see_ Albite, Microcline, Orthoclase)\n  Garnet (_see_ Almandite, Grossularite)\n  Mica (_see_ Muscovite, Biotite)\n  Tourmaline    Complex silicate of   3.0-3.25              7-7\u00bd\n                boron and aluminum\n                     BOOKS ABOUT ROCKS AND MINERALS\nMany books have been written about rocks and minerals. Some are listed\nbelow, and it is likely that your librarian will be able to suggest\nothers.\n                    Nontechnical Books for Beginners\nGetting Acquainted With Minerals, by George L. English and David E.\nJensen. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, N. Y. (second edition,\nThe Rock Book, by Carroll L. Fenton and Mildred A. Fenton. Doubleday &\nCompany, Inc., Garden City, N. Y. (1940).\nMineral Collector\u2019s Guide, by David E. Jensen. Ward\u2019s Natural Science\nEstablishment, Inc., Rochester, N. Y. (1953).\nMy Hobby is Collecting Rocks and Minerals, by David E. Jensen. Hart Book\nCompany, New York, N. Y. (1955).\nRocks and Minerals, by Richard M. Pearl. Barnes & Noble, New York, N. Y.\n1001 Questions Answered About the Mineral Kingdom, by Richard M. Pearl.\nDodd, Mead & Company, New York, N. Y. (1959).\nRocks and Minerals, by Herbert S. Zim and Paul R. Schaffer. Simon and\nSchuster, Inc., New York, N.Y. (1957).\n                  Textbooks and Other Reference Books\nEconomic Mineral Deposits, by Alan M. Bateman. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,\nNew York, N. Y. (second edition, 1950).\nA Textbook of Mineralogy, by Edward S. Dana, revised by William E. Ford.\nJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. (fourth edition, 1932).\nIndustrial Minerals and Rocks (Nonmetallics Other Than Fuels), Joseph L.\nGillson, Editor-in-Chief. The American Institute of Mining,\nMetallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, New York, N. Y. (third edition,\nDana\u2019s Manual of Mineralogy, revised by Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr. John\nWiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. (seventeenth edition, 1959).\nMineralogy, by Edward H. Kraus, Walter F. Hunt, and Lewis S. Ramsdell.\nMcGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, N. Y. (fifth edition, 1959).\nNonmetallic Minerals, by Raymond B. Ladoo and W. M. Meyers. McGraw-Hill\nBook Company, Inc., New York, N. Y. (second edition, 1951).\nRocks and Rock Minerals, by Louis V. Pirsson, revised by Adolph Knopf.\nJohn Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y. (third edition, 1947).\nA Field Guide to Rocks and Minerals, by Frederick H. Pough. Houghton\nMifflin Company, Boston, Mass. (third edition, 1960).\nMineral Facts and Problems, by the Staff of the Bureau of Mines. U. S.\nBureau of Mines Bulletin 585. U. S. Government Printing Office,\nWashington, D. C. (1960).\n            Selected References on Texas Rocks and Minerals\n  Entries marked with an asterisk are published by the Bureau of\n  Economic Geology, The University of Texas, Austin. Those not out of\n  print are distributed at nominal sale price, and a list of\n  publications will be sent on request. These publications can be\n  consulted at many public libraries and Chamber of Commerce offices.\n*Report on the Pavitte Silver-Copper Prospect in Burnet County, Texas,\nby V. E. Barnes. Univ. Texas, Bureau Econ. Geol. Mineral Resource Survey\n*Report on the Sheridan Copper Prospect in Burnet County, Texas, by V.\nE. Barnes. Univ. Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Mineral Resource Survey Circ. 9\n*Building Stones of Central Texas, by V. E. Barnes, R. F. Dawson, and G.\nA. Parkinson. Univ. Texas Pub. 4246 (1947).\n*Iron Ore in the Llano Region, Central Texas, by V. E. Barnes. Univ.\nTexas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 5 (1949).\n*Utilization of Texas Serpentine, by V. E. Barnes, D. A. Shock, and W.\nA. Cunningham. Univ. Texas Pub. 5020 (1950).\n*Lead Deposits in the Upper Cambrian of Central Texas, by V. E. Barnes.\nUniv. Texas, Bureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 26 (1956).\n*Mineral Resources of the Colorado River Industrial Development\nAssociation Area, by J. W. Dietrich and J. T. Lonsdale. Univ. Texas,\nBureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 37 (1958).\n*Some Uranium Occurrences in West Texas, by D. H. Eargle. Univ. Texas,\nBureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 27 (1956).\n*A Preliminary Report on the Stratigraphy of the Uranium-Bearing Rocks\nof the Karnes County Area, South-Central Texas, by D. H. Eargle and J.\nL. Snider. Univ. Texas, Bureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 30 (1957).\nThe Brown Iron Ores of Eastern Texas, by E. B. Eckel. U. S. Geol. Survey\n*The Rustler Springs Sulphur Deposits as a Source of Fertilizer, by G.\nL. Evans. Univ. Texas, Bureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 1 (1946).\nOrigin of the Gulf Coast Salt-Dome Sulphur Deposits, by Herbert W. Feely\nand J. Lawrence Kulp. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., vol. 41, pp.\n*Pegmatites of the Van Horn Mountains, Texas, by P. T. Flawn. Univ.\nTexas, Bureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 9 (1951).\n*The Hazel Copper-Silver Mine, Culberson County, Texas, by P. T. Flawn.\nUniv. Texas, Bureau Econ. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 16 (1952).\n*Basement Rocks of Texas and Southeast New Mexico, by P. T. Flawn. Univ.\n*Texas Miners Boost Talc Output, by P. T. Flawn. Univ. Texas, Bureau\nEcon. Geol. Rept. Inves. No. 35 (1958).\n*Geology and Mineral Deposits of Pre-Cambrian Rocks of the Van Horn\nArea, Texas, by P. B. King and P. T. Flawn. Univ. Texas Pub. 5301\n*Igneous Rocks of the Balcones Fault Region of Texas, by J. T. Lonsdale.\nUniv. Texas Bull. 2744 (1927).\nMineral Resources of the Llano-Burnet Region, Texas, with an Account of\nthe Pre-Cambrian Geology, by Sidney Paige. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 450\n*Mineral Resources of the Texas Coastal Plain (Preliminary Report), by\nJ. M. Perkins and J. T. Lonsdale. Univ. Texas, Bureau Econ. Geol.\nMineral Resource Circ. 38 (1955).\nGeology and Ore Deposits of the Shafter Mining District, Presidio\nCounty, Texas, by C. P. Ross. U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 928-B (1943).\n*The Geology of Texas, Vol. II, Structural and Economic Geology, by E.\nH. Sellards, C. L. Baker, and others. Univ. Texas Bull. 3401 (1935).\n*Texas Mineral Resources, by E. H. Sellards and others. Univ. Texas Pub.\n*Geological Resources of the Trinity River Tributary Area in Texas and\nOklahoma, by H. B. Stenzel, A. E. Weissenborn, and others. Univ. Texas\nUranium at Palangana Salt Dome, Duval County, Texas, by A. D. Weeks and\nD. H. Eargle. _In_ U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B (1960).\nGeology of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Terlingua District, Texas, by\nR. G. Yates and G. A. Thompson. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 312\nAmorphous\u2014without crystalline structure and therefore without regular\nform.\nBalcones fault zone\u2014a system of faults extending from north of Waco in\nMcLennan County, through Travis and Bexar counties, to near Del Rio in\nVal Verde County (_see_ p. 42).\nBoulder\u2014a large rock or mineral fragment that has a diameter greater\nthan 256 millimeters (about 10 inches).\nBreccia\u2014a rock made up of sharp-cornered, cemented fragments with\ndiameters greater than 2 millimeters (about \u2078/\u2081\u2080\u2080 of an inch).\nCambrian\u2014the earliest period of the Paleozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nCenozoic\u2014the present era, one of the great divisions of geologic time\n(_see_ p. 3). This era began about 63 million years ago.\nClastic\u2014made up of broken fragments of rocks or minerals.\nCleavage\u2014occurs when minerals split along smooth flat surfaces that are\nparallel to possible crystal faces. These planes as well as crystal\nfaces are controlled by the crystal lattice or atomic structures of the\nminerals.\nCleavage fragment\u2014a mineral specimen that has been broken along its\nplanes of cleavage.\nCobble\u2014a rock or mineral fragment that has a diameter between 64 and 256\nmillimeters (about 2\u00bd and 10 inches).\nConchoidal\u2014a curved fracture surface shaped like the inside of a shell\nor spoon.\nConglomerate\u2014a rock composed of cemented, rounded rock or mineral\nfragments, most of which are of gravel size.\nCretaceous\u2014the third and latest period of the Mesozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nCryptocrystalline\u2014made up of tiny crystalline particles that are too\nsmall to be distinguished even under high magnification.\nCrystalline\u2014having a definite, orderly internal structure.\nCube\u2014a solid that has six equal, square sides.\nDodecahedron\u2014a solid that has twelve plane, four-sided faces.\nElement\u2014a basic building block of all matter, which cannot be separated\ninto different substances by ordinary chemical means.\nEocene\u2014the second epoch of the Tertiary Period (_see_ p. 3).\nEpoch\u2014a unit of geologic time that is a subdivision of a period.\nEra\u2014a major division of geologic time, which consists of several\nperiods.\nExtrusive rocks\u2014igneous rocks formed from magma that was extruded on the\nearth\u2019s surface.\nFault\u2014a break in the rocks or strata of the earth\u2019s crust along which\nmovement or slippage has taken place.\nFluid\u2014a substance made up of particles that can move freely about; it\ncan be a liquid or a gas.\nFormation\u2014rocks or strata that are recognized and mapped as a unit.\nFracture\u2014the kind of surface obtained if a mineral is broken in a\ndifferent direction from that of the cleavage or parting. Commonly,\nfracture surfaces are rough, uneven, or curved, whereas cleavage\nsurfaces are smooth.\nGeologic map (areal)\u2014shows the extent and distribution of formations\nexposed at the earth\u2019s surface.\nGranular\u2014the texture of a rock or mineral that is made up of visible\ngrains. If all the grains are about the same size, the term\n_equigranular_ is used.\nGranule\u2014a rock or mineral fragment that has a diameter of from 2 to 4\nmillimeters (about \u2078/\u2081\u2080\u2080 to \u00b9\u2075/\u2081\u2080\u2080 of an inch).\nGravel\u2014uncemented rock or mineral fragments that have diameters greater\nthan 2 millimeters (about \u2078/\u2081\u2080\u2080 of an inch).\nGulf Coastal Plain\u2014an area that extends, in Texas, from the Gulf of\nMexico to the Balcones fault zone and in which Quaternary, Tertiary, and\nUpper Cretaceous strata crop out at the surface (_see_ p. 42).\nHigh Plains\u2014an area in northwest Texas extending from the Pecos River\nvalley north to the Oklahoma-Texas boundary (_see_ p. 42).\nIgneous rocks\u2014rocks formed by the cooling and hardening of hot, molten\nrock material.\nIntrusive rocks\u2014igneous rocks that have formed below the surface of the\nearth.\nLava\u2014molten rock material that has poured out onto the earth\u2019s surface\nfrom volcanoes; also the rock that is formed after the molten material\nhas cooled and hardened.\nLlano uplift\u2014an area in central Texas where Precambrian and early\nPaleozoic rocks occur at the earth\u2019s surface (_see_ p. 42).\nMagma\u2014hot, molten rock material from which igneous rocks form.\nMassive\u2014in a mass, without a regular or complete form.\nMesozoic\u2014an era, one of the great divisions of geologic time (_see_ p.\n3). This era began about 230 million years ago and lasted until about 63\nmillion years ago.\nMetamorphic rock\u2014rock formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks that are\naltered by heat, pressure, and fluids below the earth\u2019s surface.\nMiocene\u2014the fourth epoch of the Tertiary Period (_see_ p. 3).\nMississippian\u2014the fifth period of the Paleozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nNodule\u2014a small, rounded mass or lump.\nOctahedron\u2014a solid that has eight triangular faces.\nOpaque\u2014no light can pass through.\nOrdovician\u2014the second period of the Paleozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nPaleozoic\u2014an era, one of the great divisions of geologic time (_see_ p.\n3). This era began at the end of Precambrian time and lasted until about\n230 million years ago.\nParting\u2014occurs when a mineral breaks along a flat surface that is not a\ntrue cleavage plane.\nPebble\u2014a rock or mineral fragment that has a diameter between 4 and 64\nmillimeters (about \u00b9\u2075/\u2081\u2080\u2080 and 2\u00bd inches).\nPennsylvanian\u2014the sixth period of the Paleozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nPeriod\u2014a unit of geologic time, a subdivision of an era.\nPermian\u2014the last period of the Paleozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nPhysiographic outline map\u2014shows location of natural regions (p. 42).\nPlaya lake\u2014a temporary shallow lake in a nearly level, closed basin,\nwhich has no drainage outlet.\nPleistocene\u2014the first epoch of the Quaternary Period (_see_ p. 3).\nPliocene\u2014the last epoch of the Tertiary Period (_see_ p. 3).\nPrecambrian\u2014comprises the Early and the Late Precambrian Eras, the\nearliest great divisions of geologic time. Rocks that formed more than\n600 million years ago are known as Precambrian rocks.\nPyritohedron\u2014a solid that has twelve 5-sided faces.\nQuaternary\u2014the present period of geologic time; the second period of the\nCenozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nRecent\u2014the present epoch of geologic time; the second epoch of the\nQuaternary Period (_see_ p. 3).\nSectile\u2014describes material, such as soap, that can be cut smoothly with\na knife.\nSediments\u2014material deposited by water, wind, or ice on the earth\u2019s\nsurface.\nSedimentary rocks\u2014rocks made up of sediments.\nSeries\u2014a subdivision of a system that includes all rocks formed during\nan epoch.\nSpecific gravity\u2014the ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of\nan equal volume of water.\nStreak\u2014the color of the powder of a mineral.\nSystem\u2014all rocks formed during a period.\nTertiary\u2014the first period of the Cenozoic Era (_see_ p. 3).\nTranslucent\u2014light will pass through, but objects cannot be seen.\nTransparent\u2014light will pass through, and objects can be seen.\nTrans-Pecos\u2014area of Texas located west of the Pecos River (_see_ p. 42).\nVolcanic rocks\u2014igneous rocks that have formed on the earth\u2019s surface;\nextrusive rocks.\n  acid tests (_see also_ chemical tests): 18\n  actinolite: 82\n  schist: 87\n  agatized wood: 20, 84\n  age, earth\u2019s crust: 2\n  alabaster: 65\n  albite: 55\n  alkali lakes: 66, 83\n  Allamoore: 87, 93\n  alloys: 52\n  almandite: 58\n  Altuda Mountain: 57, 90\n  amalgam: 51\n  amazonstone: 56\n  amethyst: 37, 82\n  Amethyst Hill: 82\n  amorphous minerals, definition of: 15\n  amphibole asbestos: 29, 33, 34, 44\n  Anderson County: 70\n  Andrews County: 83\n  Angelina County: 52\n  anthophyllite: 93\n  antigorite: 87\n  Apache Mountains: 65\n  apatite: 72\n  Archer County: 52\n  argentiferous galena: 57, 90\n  Armstrong County: 79\n  asbestos: 43\n      chrysotile: 44, 87\n  ash, volcanic: 41, 97\n  augite: 45\n  autunite: 97\n  Babyhead: 72\n  Balcones fault zone: 10, 42, 45, 88\n  Bandera County: 45\n  Baringer Hill pegmatite: 80\n  barium: 45\n  Barrilla Mountains: 85\n  Baylor County: 45, 52, 98\n  basal cleavage: 76, 93, 94\n  basement: 2, 9\n  Bastrop County: 64\n  Bell County: 69\n  bentonite: 51, 52\n  beryllium: 80\n  Big Branch Gneiss: 59\n  Bird mine: 90\n  black mica (_see_ biotite)\n  blast furnace: 70, 71\n  blast sand: 86\n  bleaching clay: 51\n  blue copper: 53\n  Boerne: 18\n  Boling salt dome: 91\n  books about rocks and minerals: 24, 39, 100\n  brass: 52\n  Brazoria County: 91\n  Brazos County: 98\n  Brazos River, Double Mountain Fork and Salt Fork of: 43\n  brimstone: 90\n  bronze: 52\n  Brooks County: 64\n  Brown, Thomas E.: vii\n  Brown County: 45, 49\n  brown iron ore (_see also_ limonite): 70\n  Bryan Mound salt dome: 91\n  building sand: 85\n  calcareous sinter and tufa: 46\n  dog-tooth spar: 46, 47\n  Caldwell County: 88\n  caliche: 46, 47\n  Cameron County: 66\n  Capitan reef limestone: 1\n  Capitol building, Texas State: 62\n  carats: 60\n  carbonized wood: 20\n  Carrizo Mountains: 67, 83, 95\n  Casey, Miss Josephine: vii\n  Cass County: 70\n  cassiterite: 27, 32, 47\n  Castile Gypsum: 91\n  Catahoula strata: 78, 86, 97\n  cave deposits: 18\n  Caverns of Sonora: 19\n  Cedar Lake: 83\n  Cedar Park: 70\n  cementing materials: 12, 46, 67, 70, 86\n  cerium: 80\n  chemical elements: 7\n  chemical sediments: 12\n  Cherokee County: 70\n  chessylite: 53\n  china clay: 51\n  Chinati Mountains: 45, 57, 62, 85\n  Chisos Mountains: 45, 62, 85\n  chlorite: 93\n  chrysotile: 44, 87, 88\n  cinnabar: 36, 49\n  clastic rocks: 12\n      bleaching clay: 51\n      china clay: 51\n  clay minerals: 51\n  Clay County: 52\n  Clear Creek area: 63\n  cleavage: 17\n      octahedral: 56, 57\n      pyramidal: 74\n      rhombohedral: 46, 54\n  Clemens salt dome: 91\n  Coal Creek serpentine: 87, 88\n  Coke County: 20, 49\n  Coleman County: 86\n  color of minerals: 16\n  columns: 18\n  Comal County; 45, 69\n  Comanche County: 49\n  common opal: 78\n  composition of minerals: 99\n  concretions: 19\n  contact metamorphism: 13\n      blue copper: 53\n      green copper carbonate: 53\n      minerals: 52\n      pyrites: 53\n      yellow copper ore: 53\n  coquina: 41, 69\n  Crane County: 66\n  cryptocrystalline quartz: 81, 84\n  crystal, definition of: 14\n  crystals, twinned: 46, 63\n  crystalline minerals, definition of: 14\n  Crosby County: 79\n  crust, earth\u2019s: 2\n  cubic cleavage: 17, 57, 65\n  Daingerfield: 70\n  Dallas: 88\n  Damon Mound salt dome: 91\n  daughter elements: 95, 96\n  Davis Mountains: 45, 85, 98\n  Delaware Mountains: 65\n  diamond: 62\n  diatomaceous earth: 78\n  diatomite: 40, 78\n  Dickens County: 79, 98\n  Dietrich, John W.: vii\n  dog-tooth spar: 46, 47\n  dolomitic limestone: 68\n  Double Mountain Fork of the Brazos River: 43\n  double refraction: 46\n  dravite: 95\n  dynamic metamorphism: 14\n  Eagle Flat: 93\n  Eagle Mountains: 56, 57, 90, 95\n  earth\u2019s crust: 2\n  east Texas: 70\n  Ector County: 79\n  Edwards Limestone: 68, 69, 84\n  effervescence in acid: 18\n  El Capitan Peak: 1\n  Ellenburger strata: 55, 84\n  El Paso County: 48, 58, 62\n  epoch: 2\n  erosion: 11\n  extrusive igneous rocks, definition of: 9\n  Fairland: 54\n  Falfurrias: 64\n  Fannett salt dome: 91\n  Fayette County: 52, 64, 84, 98\n      amazonstone: 56\n      orthoclase: 55, 61\n  fibrous gypsum: 64, 65\n  filtering sand: 86\n  Flawn, Peter T.: vii\n  flint: 84\n  flowstone: 18\n  flow structure: 85\n  Foard County: 52, 58\n  foliation: 87\n  fool\u2019s gold: 53, 80\n  formation: 6\n  Fort Bend County: 91\n  Fort Worth: 88\n  fracture of minerals: 17\n  fragmental rocks: 12\n  Franklin Mountains: 48, 58, 62, 85\n  Frasch method of sulfur mining: 91, 92\n  Fredonia: 67\n  furnace (_see_ blast furnace; open-hearth furnace)\n  gabbro: 87\n  Gaines County: 83\n      argentiferous: 57, 90\n  Galveston County: 91\n  Gamble prospect: 67\n  gamma rays: 96\n  Garza County: 97\n  Geiger counter: 96\n  geologic map: 4, 5\n  geologic time scale: 2, 3\n  geologists: 2\n  geology: 2\n  glass sand: 85-86\n  glauconite: 70, 73\n  glossary: 102-103\n      conglomerate: 59\n      granite: 59\n      hornblende: 59\n  goethite: 70\n  Gonzales County: 52, 84, 97\n  Grand Saline salt dome: 66\n      opaline: 72\n  Granite Mountain: 62\n  Granite Shoals Lake: 56\n  granules: 85\n  green copper carbonate: 53\n  greensands: 70\n  Grit: 94\n  grossularite: 58\n  group: 6\n  Guadalupe Mountains, Peak: 1\n  Gulf Coast: 91\n  Gulf salt dome: 91\n  Gyp Hill salt dome: 64\n  gypsite: 65\n      alabaster: 65\n      fibrous gypsum: 64, 65\n      rock gypsum: 40, 65\n      satin spar: 64\n  hand lens: 22\n  Hardeman County: 52, 58, 64, 65\n  hardness of minerals: 16, 99\n  Harris, Bill M.: vii\n  Harris, John S.: vii\n  Harris County: 65, 66\n  Hartley County: 79\n  Hays County: 45\n  Hazel Formation: 52\n  Heath mine: 60\n      specular: 67\n  Henderson County: 70\n  High Island salt dome: 91\n  Hockley salt dome: 65, 66\n  Honey Creek area: 87\n  hornblende: 8, 59, 61\n  horn silver: 90\n  Hoskins Mound salt dome: 91\n  Houston: 70\n  Howard County: 45, 60\n  Humphreys, Alan: vii\n  Hutchinson County: 66\n  hyalite: 78\n  hydrochloric acid (_see also_ chemical tests): 18, 22\n  identification charts: 24\n  igneous rocks, definition of: 9\n  intrusive igneous rocks, definition of: 9\n  Irion County: 60\n  Iron Mountain: 73\n  Jackson strata: 97\n  Jasper County: 52\n  Jefferson County: 91\n  Johnson County: 69\n  kaolin: 51\n  kaolinite: 51\n  karats: 60\n  Karnes County: 97, 98\n  Katemcy: 94\n  Kendall County: 18\n  Kenedy County: 66\n  Kent County: 98\n  kidney ore: 67\n  King, Elbert A., Jr.: vii\n  King County: 52\n  Kinney County: 45\n  Kleberg County: 66\n  Knox County: 52\n  labeling rock and mineral specimens: 23\n  labradorite: 45\n  Lake Buchanan: 80, 83\n  Lamb County: 79\n  Lampasas County: 20, 48, 49, 88\n  lava: 9\n  Leakey: 51\n  Lee County: 64, 84\n  lens: 22\n  Liberty County: 91\n  lime: 69\n      dolomitic: 68\n      lithographic: 69\n      \u00f6olitic: 69\n      pulverulent: 41, 69\n  lithographic limestone: 69\n  Live Oak County: 45, 97\n  Lone Grove: 63\n  Lone Star: 70\n  Longhorn Cavern: 18\n  Long Point salt dome: 91\n  Lonsdale, John T.: vii\n  luster of minerals: 16\n  Lytton Springs oil field: 88\n  Macon, James W.: vii\n  magma: 9\n  magnesium, source of: 55\n  Malone Mountains: 65\n  manganese: 73, 75\n  map\u2014\n      geologic: 4-5\n      physiographic outline: 42\n  Marathon area: 42, 84, 88\n  Marble Falls: 62\n  Marion County: 70\n  martite: 67\n  Mason: 74\n  masses, crystalline, definition of: 14\n  Matagorda County: 91\n  Mayfield prospect: 74\n  McCulloch County: 88\n  Medina County: 45\n  Menard County: 65\n  metamorphic rocks, definition of: 12\n  metamorphism, definition of: 13, 14\n  mica (_see also_ biotite; muscovite): 8, 60, 61, 63, 64, 72, 76,\n  mica gneiss and/or schist: 59, 76, 87\n  microcline: 55, 56, 61\n  milky quartz: 82\n  Mills County: 49\n  mineral identification charts: 24\n  mineralogists: 2\n  minerals, definition of: 7, 14, 15\n  Mississippian: 3, 55, 69, 88\n  Mitchell County: 66\n  Mohs scale of hardness: 16, 17\n  molybdenite: 63\n  montmorillonite: 51\n  Morris County: 70\n  moss agate: 84\n  Moss Bluff salt dome: 91\n  muriatic acid: 22\n  Nacogdoches County: 70\n  Nash salt dome: 91\n  native elements: 8\n  native mercury: 8\n  native silver: 26, 89\n  Oakville strata: 97\n  obsidian: 40, 77\n  occurrence of minerals: 14\n  ocher, red: 67\n  octahedral cleavage: 56, 57\n  oil shale: 88\n  olivine: 88\n  onyx: 84\n  \u00f6olitic limestone: 69\n  opaline granite: 72\n  opalized wood: 20, 78, 84\n  open-hearth furnace: 70, 72\n  Orchard salt dome: 91\n  orthoclase: 55, 61\n  Packsaddle Mountain: 87\n  Packsaddle Schist: 87\n  Palangana salt dome: 91, 97\n  paleontologists: 2\n  parting of minerals: 17\n  Pavitte prospect: 53\n  Pecos County: 9\n  Pecos River: 65, 74, 75\n      Baringer Hill: 80\n  peridotite: 88\n  period: 2\n  petrified wood: 20, 52, 78, 84\n  petrologists: 2\n  phenocrysts: 85\n  physiographic outline map: 42\n  pitchblende: 28, 95, 97\n  placer deposits: 60\n  Plata Verde mine: 90\n  Polk County: 98\n  porphyritic rocks: 45, 85\n  portland cement: 51, 69, 88\n  precious opal: 78\n  Presidio mine: 60, 90\n  properties of minerals: 14\n  pseudomorphs: 70, 87\n  pulverulent limestone: 41, 69\n  pumicite: 97, 98\n  pyramidal cleavage: 74\n  pyrolusite: 27, 73, 74\n  pyroxene: 45\n      cryptocrystalline: 81, 84\n      rock crystal: 82\n  quicksilver (_see also_ mercury): 50\n  radioactivity: 95, 96\n  Real County: 49, 51\n  Recent: 2, 3\n  \u201cred beds\u201d: 52\n  red ocher: 67\n  reef limestone: 1, 12\n  Reeves County: 65, 85, 91\n  reference books: 24, 39, 100\n  refraction, double: 46\n  rhombohedral cleavage: 46, 54\n  rhyolite: 40, 85\n  rock\u2014\n      crystal: 82\n      identification charts: 39\n  rocks, definition of: 8\n  Rodda, Peter U.: vii\n  rose quartz: 82, 83\n  rosettes: 63, 64\n  Rustler Springs area: 91\n  rutile: 82\n  salt (_see also_ halite): 40, 65, 66\n  Salt Fork of the Brazos River: 43\n      building: 85\n      filtering: 86\n  Sandy Creek: 60\n  San Saba County: 70, 88\n  Santa Anna: 86\n  satin spar: 64\n  Satorsky, Cyril: vii\n  scale, geologic time: 2, 3\n  scintillation counter: 96\n      actinolite: 87\n      hornblende: 87\n  schistosity: 87\n  schorl: 95\n  Scurry County: 98\n  sedimentary rocks, definition of: 10\n  sediments: 8, 11\n      chemical: 12\n  selenite gypsum: 63, 64, 76\n  series: 2\n  serpentinite: 87\n  Seven Heart Gap: 45\n  Shafter Lake: 83\n  Shelby, Cader A.: vii\n  Sheridan prospect: 53\n  siderite: 70\n  Sierra Blanca: 58, 67, 82\n  silicified wood (_see also_ petrified wood): 20\n  siltstones: 12\n      minerals: 89\n  Silver Creek: 58\n  sinter, calcareous: 46\n  slate: 13\n  Smith County: 70\n  smoky quartz: 82, 83\n  soapstone: 40, 93\n  soils: 10\n  Solitario uplift: 42, 88\n  Sonora: 18\n      Caverns of: 19\n  specific gravity: 18, 99\n  specular hematite: 67\n  sphalerite: 57\n  Spiller mine: 74\n  Spindletop salt dome: 91\n  Spring Creek: 56\n  stalactites: 18, 19\n  stalagmites: 18, 19\n  Starr County: 84, 98\n  static metamorphism: 13\n  Stonewall County: 52\n  streak or powder of minerals: 17\n  streak plate: 17, 22\n  Streeter: 48, 94\n  striations: 81, 95\n  strontianite: 49\n  strontium: 49\n  Sutton County: 18, 19\n  system: 2\n  Talc Rock: 93\n  Taylor County: 45, 49, 60\n  terrazzo\u2014\n  tests, chemical (_see_ chemical tests)\n  thorium: 80\n  Thrall oil field: 88\n  time, geologic: 2, 3\n  tourmaline: 33, 82, 94\n  Town Mountain: 95\n  trap rock: 45\n  travertine: 46\n  tremolite: 44, 93\n  Trinity County: 98\n  tufa, calcareous: 46\n  twinned crystals: 46, 63\n  tyuyamunite: 97\n  Upshur County: 70\n  minerals: 95\n  uraninite: 97\n  uranophane: 31, 95, 97\n  Valley Spring Gneiss: 59\n  Val Verde County: 45, 74, 75\n  Van Horn Mountains: 45, 55, 76, 79, 95\n  Van Zandt County: 66\n  verde antique: 88\n  vesicles: 45\n  vitrophyre: 40, 77\n  volcanic ash: 41, 97\n  volcanic igneous rocks, definition of: 9\n  volcanoes: 9, 97, 98\n  Waco: 88\n  Walker County: 52\n  Ward County: 66\n  Washington County: 78, 84\n  weathering: 11\n  Webb County: 11, 84\n  Weches strata: 70\n  Wharton County: 91\n  white mica (_see_ muscovite)\n  Wilbarger County: 98\n  Willacy County: 66\n  Williamson County: 20, 60, 69, 70, 88\n  Willow City: 94\n  wood opal: 78\n  Wylie Mountains: 95\n  yellow copper ore: 53\n  Yoakum County: 66\n  Young County: 58\n  yttrium: 80\n  Zapata County: 83, 84\n  Zavala County: 86\n  zirconium: 80\n--Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook\n  is public-domain in the country of publication.\n--Corrected a few palpable typos.\n--Included a transcription of the text within some images.\n--In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by\n  _underscores_.\n--Added a label to one figure (to match the Table of Illustrations).\nEnd of Project Gutenberg's Texas Rocks and Minerals, by Roselle M. 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{"language": "eng", "scanningcenter": "capitolhill", "contributor": "The Library of Congress", "date": "1948", "subject": ["Austria -- Politics and government -- 1945-", "Austria -- Economic conditions -- 1945-"], "title": "Austria: problems of U. S. Army in occupation, 1945-1947", "creator": "United States. Department of the Army. Civil Affairs Division. [from old catalog]", "lccn": "59022307", "collection": ["library_of_congress", "americana"], "shiptracking": "ST009431", "call_number": "8419939", "identifier_bib": "00197219051", "boxid": "00197219051", "possible-copyright-status": "The Library of Congress is unaware of any copyright restrictions for this item.", "publisher": "Washington, National War College", "description": "ii, 46 l. 27 cm", "mediatype": "texts", "repub_state": "19", "page-progression": "lr", "publicdate": "2018-06-21 11:37:37", "updatedate": "2018-06-21 12:39:01", "updater": "associate-mike-saelee@archive.org", "identifier": "austriaproblemso00unit", "uploader": "associate-mike-saelee@archive.org", "addeddate": "2018-06-21 12:39:03", "scanner": "scribe2.capitolhill.archive.org", "operator": "associate-richard-greydanus@archive.org", "notes": "No copyright.<br />", "tts_version": "v1.58-final-25-g44facaa", "imagecount": "138", "scandate": "20180626135803", "ppi": "300", "republisher_operator": "associate-jillian-davis@archive.org", "republisher_date": "20180628132342", "republisher_time": "195", "foldoutcount": "0", "identifier-access": "http://archive.org/details/austriaproblemso00unit", "identifier-ark": "ark:/13960/t5s82bp4v", "scanfee": "300;10;200", "invoice": "1263", "openlibrary_edition": "OL26465125M", "openlibrary_work": "OL17886342W", "curation": "[curator]associate-denise-bentley@archive.org[/curator][date]20180629124505[/date][state]approved[/state][comment]199[/comment]", "sponsordate": "20180630", "backup_location": "ia906707_11", "external-identifier": "urn:oclc:record:1156055251", "ocr_module_version": "0.0.21", "ocr_converted": "abbyy-to-hocr 1.1.37", "page_number_confidence": "0", "page_number_module_version": "1.0.3", "creation_year": 1948, "content": "ft ft\nOL- \u00b0^WftF\nV\u00b0 Vft V\u00bbT^\"V ftft\nQ cf^^O\nft\n^jt> Xy\n'ft -Qi\nOf t\nft ^O. ft\nO o\n'/ oTOXTft <^'\no CJ\n\u2022ft\nO4 ^Tq ft'X <fV\nO CJ\ntA\nTjbt XT ^\n^ ft\u2019 rP CV ft\u2019\nz\no\n% ftft\nv-^ftp/^v\n'iPV\ni-ft <S O\nK\ni^fel\nbv\no o\n\"bv\nov\nCONC, <\nAP\nft\n^ tft\nd\nA'^r. o^^Wft ft^Haft \u201cW^^ft A-^\n'S A-iaX cpyifcAo X-\nft AO.\n.cv\nIf*\n\"Cij*.\nfi lii\nMS'\ni't T\nn \\iL M\n\"liii\nrC I\nifc LN.y\nfMA /ntr >'.\n---\nI I i\nn ii'-\nSI r\n'll ik.\ni-jm\niC\u00a3 i\ni P)\nLr.>i\nvr t > Jtt\nti\u2019< Vl\nih ifl\nirt,\niii\nVO M\nsArc:.'i\nI il? i\ntil\n*hi^A\n---\nSI . ijJ\nSai*\nCopy 1\nmotiLi:Ms ###<\nfj\\ S. A it MY i\\ O0:t i PATiON\ntSEccsssrsiiD\nOBRARY on CONGRES'S^\nF.A.C File No\nAUTHORIII^;/*^/*. /fAAieJ For. rW-\nn\n'PREPARED BY\nn\nCIVIL AFFAIRS DIVISION, SPECIAL STAFF\n,/S department of the ARMY \u2013\n1 JANUARY 1948\ny\nTHE NATIONAL WAR COLLEGE.\nWASHINGTON D.C.\nCONTENTS\nj.fliyy.\nPolitical and Social Developments:\nAustria's Position and Historical Background: 1\nPosition of Military Government: 2\nObjectives of Occupation: 3\nCONTROL: 4\nDemilitarization: 5\nEstablishment of Government: 6\nThe Provisional Government: 6\nThe 1945 Elections: 7\nThe New Control Agreement: 7\nPolitical Activities and Parties: 7\nRelation of Military Government to Federal and Local Governments: 7\nThe Parties: 8\nPublic Safety and Denazification: 10\nDevelopments in Social Fields: 11\nPublic Health: 11\nDisplaced Persons and Repatriation: 12\nEducation: 14\nEcclesiastical Affairs: 15\nEconomic Problems: 18\nSynopsis: 18\nBackground of Austria\u2019s Economic Problem: 22\nU.S. Economic Policy in Austria: Reparations, Deliveries and Restitutions ... 23, Manpower and Employment ... 25, Mining Resources ... 26, Food and Agriculture ... 27, Electric Power ... 33, The Power Balance ... 34\n\nManufacturing Industries ... 35\nAluminum ... 36\nPaper and Woodworking Industries ... 37\nEngineering Industries ... 3B\nChemical Industries ... 40\nForeign Trade and Balance of Payments ... 41\nCurrency and Price Control ... 44\nReduction of Occupation Costs ... 45\n\nPolitical and Social Developments\nAustria, a comparatively small yet most important country, lies on the historical border line between eastern and western Europe.\nIt has been a pillar of western civilization since the Middle Ages, and any consideration of its problems should take account of its historical traditions. For many centuries, Austria had been the center of a powerful empire stretching far to the south and east, consisting of Slavic, Italian, Magyar and other people, all of which contributed in leaving their imprint on the Austrian character, which is thoroughly cosmopolitan.\n\nToday, the Austrian Republic is an outpost of the west whose trade with the East is very limited. Although her language is German, Austria\u2019s people have characteristics and traditions different from those of her once powerful neighbor. After the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Austria\u2019s natural resources and her degree of self-sufficiency were greatly reduced, and it became to a large extent economically dependent on\nGermany. These conditions prepared the ground for the expansionist ambitions of the Nazis. For several years, Austria withstood the onslaughts of intrigue, persuasion, and threats, but finally, in 1938, was integrated into Hitler\u2019s Reich as the first victim of Nazi Germany.\n\nAustria, at the outbreak of World War II, had ceased to exist as an entity. She had been reduced to a group of provinces of the Third Reich, her economy was submerged into the German war economy, her traditions, culture, and characteristics were ruthlessly suppressed. Even her name was lost, and an effort was made to Germanize the country completely.\n\nThe most strenuous efforts of the new masters of Austria, however,\nAustrians were unable to produce any great change in the characteristics of their people. The Austrian character has a peculiar resiliency and an easy-going philosophy of life that refuses to take a too serious view of material difficulties. Despite the upheavals of the war years, she has slipped back into her previous mental outlook, which combines an easy-going nonchalance, skilled workmanship, artistic brilliance, fertile inventiveness, and a positive genius for making the best of an extremely bad situation.\n\nAustrians consider themselves an integral part of western civilization and think of Vienna as one of its foremost cultural centers. The present Austrian Government is based on democratic principles, as was her first Republican Government \u2014 formed after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I.\n\nPosition of Military Government in Austria.\nThe Military Government in Austria occupies a different position than in the occupied areas of Germany, Japan, and Korea. Austria has an elected, constituted, and recognized government which, although not enjoying the full rights of a sovereign state, maintains and assumes the functions and responsibilities of any normal government. These responsibilities were confirmed under the terms of the New Control Agreement of June 26, 1946, and only in a few instances do governmental rights remain with the Allied Control Council or with the respective military commanders of the four Occupied Zones and the quadripartite area or Vienna.\n\nThe United States, in effect, acts in an advisory or supervisory capacity with respect to the Austrian Government; responsibilities for external affairs are with the Austrian Government.\nNegotiations with other nations, internal problems of political or economic nature are to a very large extent the sole prerogative of that government.\n\nObjectives of Occupation:\n1. The basic policy with reference to Austria was laid down by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the USSR in the Moscow Declaration of November 1, 1943. In this declaration, Austria was recognized as \"the first free country to fall victim to Hitlerite aggression.\" The three powers pledged themselves to her liberation and to the reestablishment of a \"free and independent Austria\" which would find \"political and economic security.\"\n2. However, these statements were qualified by a reminder of Austria\u2019s responsibilities for participation in the war at the side of Hitlerite Germany. A warning was given that in the final settlement, account would be taken of Austrian contribution to her own liberation.\nFrance later became an adherent to the Moscow Declaration. United States policy has been based on a generous interpretation of the Moscow Declaration. The Commanding General of the U.S. Forces in Austria was directed to devote his efforts to the reestablishment of a free and independent Austrian State, freedom of speech and of the press, and a sound economy which could guarantee a fair standard of living for the Austrian people. Intensive studies of the physical, economic and political aspects of the country were made during the period of U.S. occupation, and the data collected were used to develop a comprehensive plan of rehabilitation. The initial objectives considered vital in carrying out U.S. policy in Austria were discontinuance of political and economic dependency from Germany, and purging of the Nazi element, both in private and public life.\nRESTRICTED\n\nI Is -Tir V-jV'. rA . -Jif i Tti ifFS I A V Iff' \u00a3' . XsftXr f\n\nRestricted\n\nUntil the establishment of the Allied Commission in Vienna in September 1945, no unified control existed in Austria. The Allied Commission assumed supreme authority within the country and its decisions were based on a unanimous vote by the four High Commissioners comprising the Allied Council, each of whom was the Commanding General of one of the occupying Allied armies.\n\nThe Allied High Commissioners were assisted by a staff of experts to cope with the various problems arising from quadripartite occupation. Directorates consisting of Military Government Chiefs of Divisions were organized to resolve specialized problems - political, legal, economic and others. These Directorates in turn were assisted by working committees in the more technical areas.\nAll decisions or recommendations of the Directorates were reported to the Executive Committee, composed of the four Allied Deputy Commissioners. They became effective with unanimous agreement in the Allied Council.\n\nThe United States Element of the Allied Commission (USACA) is a special staff section under the direction of the United States Deputy Commissioner and the Commanding General. It recommends policy and action and is responsible for implementing the decisions of the Allied Council within U.S. controlled territory.\n\nThe United States Zone of Austria comprises Land Salzburg and Land Upper Austria with the exception of that portion lying north of the Danube towards the Czechoslovakian border. The Military Government of the Zone is responsible for its administration.\nFor the development and maintenance of the policies transmitted from USACA, each of the Allied Powers in Vienna has an area within the city, designated as follows:\n\nInner city (first district) - an International Zone, a quadripartite Kornickiandatura, composed of the Vienna Area Commanders. The chairmanship rotates monthly, and the Area Commander designated as chairman also supervises control in the International Zone. Decisions of the Kommandatura are implemented by the Military Government of each element. If controversial issues cannot be agreed upon by the Kommandatura, they are referred to the Allied Control Commission.\nThe quadripartite Aoramandatura were submitted to the Allied Council for a decision. The new Control Agreement of June 1946 between the Occupying Powers and Austria returned a greater degree of sovereignty to the Austrian Government in political and economic affairs. Accordingly, the functions of the United States control organizations developed towards an advisory position.\n\nDEMILITARIZATION\n\nThe problem of demilitarization was of immediate concern to the United States Forces in Austria. The purely military phase, which included the disarming of the German and Hungarian armies and the destruction of war materials, proceeded in a routine manner. More complex problems were involved in the handling of material, especially industrial equipment, which had belonged to the German armed forces, the Nazi State, or private individuals.\nIn a peace-time economy, perishable materials and clothing were issued to supply and equip displaced persons or turned over to the Austrian government. Machinery and machine tools were collected, inventoried, and authorized for use (without release of U.S. title) by Austrian industries where most needed. All war industries and experimental laboratories engaged in war work were checked, and some of them were dismantled. Practically everything convertible to peace-time use was turned back to the Austrians, and the task of demilitarization within the U.S. Zone is considered completed.\n\nThe Provisional Government, when the Russians fought their way into Vienna in April 1945, had organized anti-Nazi resistance units which were operating in Vienna.\nFollowers of all the old political parties, Conservatives (now the Peoples Party), Socialists, and Communists, cooperated actively in the liberation of the Austrian capital. Faced with the necessity of establishing a government, the Russians chose Dr. Karl Renner, an old member of the Socialist Party who had previously been active in Austria's government, as Chancellor of a Provisional Government. His government consisted of twelve ministers, five of them from the Peoples Party, four Socialists, and three Communists. Because two of the key ministries of this government were held by Communists, who in the country as a whole constituted a very small minority, the apparent imbalance caused the U.S. Element to doubt the sincerity of the government's purpose at the beginning. Dr. Renner, however,\nEver since, the government followed a politically independent line and, after the arrival of American troops in July of 1945, showed clearly that it was completely neutral with regard to the conflicting interests of the occupying powers. Dr. Renner's statesmanship and experience, along with strong support from the Peoples and Socialist Parties, succeeded in bringing the government through the critical period of 1945.\n\nThe provisional government was so constructed that no action could be taken without unanimous consent of the Ministers. Within each ministry, no important decision could be rendered without agreement by the Minister and his two Under Secretaries, who always had to be of party affiliations different from that of the Minister.\n\nThe 1945 Elections\nFor a time, travel restrictions and lack of communications presented obstacles to the smooth functioning of central control by the provisional government. These difficulties were relieved by the meeting of representatives of all provinces in Vienna, who also laid the foundation for the calling of national elections under the reestablished constitution of 1929. The elections were held in a fair and orderly manner on 25 November 1945 without interference by the occupying powers, and in December 1945, the provisional government was succeeded by a new Federal government.\n\nThe New Control Agreement\nThe new Control Agreement, signed by the occupying powers on 28 June 1946, was the most important step in the achievement of United States policy objectives in Austria. It put into effect previous declarations made with regard to:\n\n1. The demilitarization and denazification of Austria.\n2. The restoration of Austrian independence and sovereignty.\n3. The reestablishment of a strong and effective Austrian government.\n4. The protection of Austria from the threat of Soviet expansion.\n\nThe agreement provided for the stationing of Allied troops in Austria, the disarmament and demilitarization of the Austrian armed forces, and the denazification of the Austrian civil service and other key institutions. It also established a system of Allied control over Austria's economy, communications, and other vital sectors, with the aim of preventing the resurgence of Nazi ideology and ensuring the country's democratic development. The agreement was a significant achievement for the United States and its allies in the post-World War II period, and marked the beginning of a new chapter in Austria's history.\n[The Austrian government was formally restored with all sovereign rights, subject only to exceptions in matters of concern to the Allied Powers. The Austrian Government was authorized to pass laws and ordinances effective within 31 days, unless unanimously vetoed by the Allied Council. Activities of the United States Element changed from active control to supervision and advice.\n\nPolitical Activities and Parties\nRelation of Military Government to Federal and Local Governments.\n\nDuring the first six months of occupation, there were no official relations between the United States Forces and the Austrian Provisional Government, but after that:]\n\nThe Austrian government was given back all its sovereign rights, subject only to exceptions in matters directly concerning the Allied Powers. The Austrian Government was authorized to pass laws and ordinances, which became effective within a period of 31 days unless unanimously vetoed by the Allied Council. The activities of the United States Element shifted from active control to supervision and advice.\n\nPolitical Activities and Parties:\nRelation of Military Government to Federal and Local Governments:\n\nDuring the first six months of occupation, there were no official relations between the United States Forces and the Austrian Provisional Government. However, after this period:\nThe newly elected Federal Government established close contacts with USAGA, working closely with Austrian Government authorities. USAGA exercised supervision over various ministries and advised them on their problems. Military Government authorities in the U.S. Zone assisted Land and municipal governments in their operations. Due to disrupted communication and transportation facilities and generally unsettled conditions in 1945 and early 1946, it took considerable time for the authority of the newly elected Federal Government to become effective in the Austrian provinces. During this period of transition, the United States Element facilitated full cooperation between provincial governments and Federal authorities. Military government in the Zone also acted as a liaison.\nLiaison office brought complaints of provincial authorities to the attention of the United States Element of the Allied Commission, which were then referred to the Federal authorities. The parties: Austrians have traditionally been politically conscious and jealous of individual rights under constitutional government. In rural areas, they are devoutly Catholic and anti-Marxist. In the national elections of November 1945, nearly 3.2 million valid votes were cast. The Peoples Party received 49.66%, the Socialists 46.1%, and the Communists only 5.42%. The low vote of the Communist Party was remarkable given the bitter and aggressive campaign carried out in the pre-election period. It was due to many factors; the behavior of the Russians in eastern Austria being one of them.\nAustria and systematic removals of machinery and equipment, and other property seizures had combined to produce a defensive attitude towards the Russians. As a result of the November 1945 elections, 85 parliamentary seats went to the Peoples Party, 76 to the Socialists, and 4 to the Communists. The Peoples Party is the party of peasants, small businessmen and traders. It includes many former members of the same named party of the pre-Anschluss period, as well as many former Christian Socialists and Catholics. It believes in free enterprise, opposes excessive governmental controls, and follows, ideologically, a philosophy of religious conservatism.\nThe Socialist Party, which is the party of workers, contains a portion of the lower middle class and of the Austrian intelligentsia. Ably led and implacably anti-Communist, the Socialists are a tightly organized party and far from radical in character. They advocate nationalization of key industries but would leave large portions of the Austrian economy to operate without restrictions.\n\nThe Communist Party follows a Soviet-directed line, but has, for reasons of opportunism, developed a special brand of Communism adapted to Austrian conditions. This brand of Communism dares not go so far as to advocate collectivization of farms nor interference with the small shopkeeper or businessman. The Party's present leaders came from Moscow where most had fled after the emergence of National Socialism. Their tactics are directed against the west, particularly.\nAfter Africa; their propaganda calls for cooperation with the Soviets. The government of Austria is a coalition government. As a result, most measures promulgated have failed to satisfy completely either of the major parties, but in nearly all cases, workable compromises have been achieved.\n\nThe present government has consistently opposed Russian encroachments. It has refused to give clear title to Russian-seized enterprises or be tempted by spurious partnership propositions. It has consistently worked for the economic unity of Austria, opposed Russian transgressions and policies regarding seized German assets, and has ardently demanded the return of Austrian prisoners of war. It has shown a willingness to trade with countries of the Eastern Bloc, but trade with free currency countries has been favored. Generally\nThe record of the government is one of firm opposition to Russian pressure but not hostile to Russia. The present government was elected in November 1945 for a term of four years. The Constitution gives the President of the Republic the power to dissolve Parliament before that time, and there is some Communist agitation for such a move. In view of the comparative popularity of the present government, which gives a fair representation to the various political groups, it does not seem likely that such action will be taken.\n\nPublic Safety and Denazification\nOne of the first problems for the United States Forces was the re-establishing of an Austrian police force in the U.S. Zone. Nazis were removed and replaced by dependable individuals. The police force was uniformed and equipped to a limited degree, and excellent cooperation was established between the military police and the new Austrian force.\nthe  United  States  is^Iilitary  Police  and  the  Austrian  police. \nIn  Vienna  the  problem  was  complicated  by  quadripartite  control  and  by \nthe  establishment,  by  the  Soviet  Element,  of  a  political  police  which  was  almost \nentirely  Comrfainistic. \nDenazification  proceedings  were  closely  associated  with  the  police \nRESTRICTED \nt \ns \n'Ki \nX V \nV \ni'Jv \nTr' \n\u25a0'fr \n'ly; \nivi\u2018i  . \nMr. \n~WHf  riTlT \n:v7A \n\u25a0r-iy \ny  j \ni  Un  Aj.\u2019i'ti./fV^O  \u2018i^X^ \nll* \nJ  J \nV \nKSk ' \nA \nr\u2019r: \nRESTRICTED \nproblem,  .^1  Nazis  who  were  in  arrestable  categories  were  taken  into  custody \nby  .American  Security  Troops,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  reconstituted  Austrian \npolice,  and  placed  in  detention  camps.  The  Austrian  Parliament  passed  denazi\u00ac \nfication  legislation  and  reported  regularly  on  the  purging  of  Nazis  from  govern\u00ac \nment  payrolls.  The  problem  in  private > industry  is  extremely^  complicated.  In  the \nAmerican  Zone  the  United  States  Element  has  insisted  that  Nazi  party  members  be \ndismissed  from  any  position  of  responsibility.  j\\f ter  much  urging  the  Austrian \nGovernment  produced  a  draft  of  law  defining  the  character  of  industrial  activity \nand  the  type  of  responsibility  which  should  be  closed  to  former  Nazi  party \nmembers.  This  law  was  unacceptable  to  the  /illied  Powers  and  no  further  action \nhas  been  taken  since, \nDEVELOPl/ENTS  IN  THE  SOCIiil  FIELDS \nPublic  Health \nProtection  of  the  health  of  United  States  troops,  as  well  as  of  the \npopulation  of  occupied  territories,  became  an  urgent  problem  after  VE  Day. \nLocal  health  authorities  were  assisted  in  checking  the  spread  of  contagious \ndisease  and,  in  case  of  need,  were  supplied  with  drugs  and  hospital  equipment. \nThe  United  States  Element,  by  the  end  of  1946,  had  furnished  to  the \nThe Austrian Government received 17,750 tons of medical supplies and assisted in their distribution to the population. The stocks included captured enemy medical supplies as well as imported government military medical supplies. Twenty-four complete former German Army hospitals, each with an average of 300 beds, were handed over to the Austrians, and 27 ambulances were delivered. A total of 484 kilograms of captured raw narcotics was released to Vienna. Austrian Government and assistance was given in establishing a laboratory for processing these products for medicinal use. A poor nutritional situation had lowered resistance to disease, particularly in Vienna and the cities of lower Austria. Active US assistance, combined with their efforts, helped improve these conditions.\nThe establishment of a control system for typhus and venereal diseases was largely responsible for preventing any outbreak of these diseases from assuming epidemic proportions. While typhus and other diseases appeared sporadically, their spreading was brought immediately under control with the assistance of United States authorities.\n\nDisplaced Persons and Repatriation\n\nThe United States Zone in Austria faced the problem of handling a large influx of displaced persons to a greater extent than any other zone. In the course of some 18 months, more than 950,000 displaced persons passed into or through the zone, and at times nearly a half million of these people were superimposed on the normal population of about 1,250,000. Among those displaced persons were individuals of various nationalities, former inmates of concentration and slave labor camps, and discharged soldiers.\nGerman personnel and refugees, including many Austrians who had fled from the advancing Russian armies, have been a problem in the U.S. Zone. Since the end of hostilities, the issue has been further aggravated by the infiltration of large numbers of additional refugees from areas under Soviet domination, primarily Hungarians, German minorities formerly residing in the Danubian states, and Jews from Poland, Hungary, and Romania. Adhering strictly to U.S. policies for the treatment of displaced persons, the Commanding General of USFA segregated people by nationality as far as practicable and gave preferential status to persons of neutral or allied nationality. Ex-enemy nationals were given equal treatment with the Austrians. Extraordinary efforts were made to rehabilitate persons victimized by Nazism.\nThe United States policy since 1945 ensured that no displaced person of any nationality would be returned to their country against their will, except as a war criminal. A massive repatriation program was carried out, with over 757,000 displaced persons returning to their countries of origin or resettling in other territories, more than 80% with active assistance of U.S. military authorities. The Army also facilitated the transfer of over 25,000 persons between Hungary and Germany. It assumed the burden for the care of the displaced persons in Austria, organizing the supply of food, housing, medical care, and clothing, and directing the welfare work of UNRRA and other voluntary relief agencies.\nMore than 160,000 displaced persons remained in the U.S. Zone of Austria, including 15,000 Jewish refugees recently arrived from Romania. Some of these people may still desire repatriation. The resettlement of others in western Europe, South America, or elsewhere will be slow and costly. Since it has long been evident that a considerable number of displaced persons will remain in the U.S. Zone for many years, strenuous efforts were made to reduce the administrative burden carried by both the U.S. Army and the Austrian Government. The displaced persons were required to become self-supporting to the maximum possible extent, pending their eventual repatriation or resettlement outside of Austria.\n\nEducation\nIn the early days of occupation, schools and universities were closed. A large number of teaching staff had left Austria years ago for other countries to avoid Nazi persecution, many were inmates of concentration camps, and school buildings were used by troops or as shelters for displaced persons. Austrian civilian authorities took steps to bring back some instructors, subjected others to a careful screening process, removed objectionable material from textbooks and other school media, and revised curricula and courses of study. The U.S. Military Government authorities gave their fullest assistance and cooperation in this undertaking.\n\nWith the beginning of the school year in September 1945, most school buildings were again available for use; some repairs had been made.\nFacilities were provided for approximately 85% of all children of elementary school age, and 70% of those of secondary school age. High schools and universities reopened to a limited extent but with greatly reduced staffs, depleted and disorganized facilities, and severely damaged buildings.\n\nIn 1946 and 1947, attendance in elementary schools was back to normal, and conditions in the secondary schools also showed further improvement. Adult education increased, and universities recorded the highest enrollment in ten years.\n\nThe continued shortage of teachers, books, and supplies was partially overcome by short sessions, double shifts, and large classes. Teacher training institutions operated at full capacity and with increased enrollments.\n\nAction by the Military Government was generally limited to emergency measures.\nMore than 300 textbooks were examined by educational experts of the occupying powers, and over 200 were approved. Hundreds of tons of book paper, linen backing board, and other materials were procured. Textbooks and manuals formerly used in the US Army Information and Education Program were turned over to the Austrian Ministry of Education for use at all levels of Austrian schools. US authorities succeeded in locating and returning some 500 tons of evacuated technical apparatus, scientific and research equipment to Austrian universities. Educational films were examined; some were banned or revised, but the majority were approved. Scientific and technical journals were obtained from the American Library Association for use in the Austrian school system.\n\nAs a result of ideological isolation under the Nazi regime, most Austrian schools experienced a lack of access to educational materials.\nAustrian educators have been out of touch with educational developments in other countries. Some have suffered from the war or have been eliminated by political considerations. Many former teachers have established citizenship in other countries. These factors illustrate some of the handicaps to the complete rehabilitation of the Austrian educational system.\n\nEcclesiastical Affairs:\nWhen the U.S. Forces entered Austria in early 1945, the Nazis had not only suppressed but actively persecuted clergymen and religious organizations. They had ordered the closing of all places of public worship. Ecclesiastical and institutional properties, with the exception of church buildings, were confiscated. Even these were stripped of bells and other materials which could be used in the Nazi war effort.\n\nThe U.S. Military Government has restored freedom of worship and religion.\n\nRESTRICTED\nAll Austrian church properties were returned and restored. Attendance at services has greatly increased. Churches are resuming charitable, social, cultural, and educational programs. Repairs are being made as fast as materials become available. Churches are contributing to denazification through appropriate sermons, lectures, newspapers, and pamphlets. With poverty, hunger, cold, and employment at mere subsistence levels, churches face great difficulties in preventing the civilian population from becoming an easy prey to demagogic attempts. They perform a significant service in keeping up popular morale during the present period of material hardship by emphasizing spiritual values. Press, Radio, Literature, Art.\nThe U.S. Forces in Austria were accompanied by representatives of the Information Services Branch. Their first move was to shut down all publishing activities in the U.S. Zone of Austria. Then began the task of rebuilding the press, radio, and theater along lines conforming to western democratic conceptions. The Austrian press in general is a party press, though in the Western Zones there are a few newspapers without party affiliations. The U.S. authorities established and continue to support daily publications in Innsbruck, Salzburg, Linz, and Vienna. The most important of these is the \"Wiener Kurier,\" with a daily circulation of 300,000. The U.S. Forces established and supervise a radio network which is recognized by the public for its straightforward presentation of the news. In the important field of ideological reorientation, the United States: I\n\n(Assuming the missing text is not crucial to the overall context, I have left it as is since the text is already clean and readable.)\n[Element has accomplished much in presenting the story of American democracy to the public. Reference and lending libraries have been established, and hundreds of volumes of American literature and the latest issues of more than one hundred U.S. magazines and journals are thus made available to the Austrian public. The U.S. authorities have greatly contributed to the rehabilitation of Austrian cultural activities by supplying pertinent literature on world developments during the seven years of Austrian isolation. They also returned many million dollars worth of art treasures belonging to Austrian institutions but held in concealment in Germany.]\nAustria's basic economic needs are food for her people and fuel and raw materials for her factories. Since a portion of these needs must be imported, Austria must sell goods and services to other countries to achieve a balanced economy.\n\nEven in the best crop years, Austria has not been able to produce more than 75% of her food requirements. During the years of German occupation and war, agriculture suffered from arbitrary crop regulations in the interest of the German Reich rather than Austria, and the lack of supplies, equipment, and manpower that developed then has continued. As a result, the country is currently unable to produce more than about half of its required food supply. Agricultural rehabilitation is a slow process which will take time.\nAustria can produce nearly all of its brown coal requirements but imports over 90% of its industrially important hard coal. The country's basic industrial import need is hard coal, used as fuel or raw material in almost all of Austria's industries. Manufacturing industries, which account for a significant portion of Austria's exportable goods, import raw materials and semi-finished goods for processing. This is particularly true in the textile industry, which requires raw materials such as cotton, wool, hemp, and others, as well as yarn and semi-finished cloth to produce finished products. The metal-working industry also faces similar requirements.\nI. industries require zinc, copper, lead, and various alloy materials, and certain types of machinery must be imported. Austria normally produces most of her own railroad rolling stock, but at the present time imports are needed to overcome shortages caused by destruction coupled with meager replacements. To balance these and other import needs, Austria is potentially capable of exporting a variety of items urgently needed by other countries. The dislocations of war have crippled her capacity to produce these items, and the proposals for aid to Austria under the European Recovery Program aim primarily at the restoration and development of her productive facilities. A balanced economy \u2014 and ultimate termination of the need for aid \u2014 depends on\nBuilding up exports to a point where they will pay for imports. The principal natural resource providing a basis for Austrian exports lies in her forests. Wood and paper products in a great variety of finished and semi-finished forms constituted, before the war, 23% of Austria's exports by value; but their importance is even greater because the raw materials are obtained within the country. Today, Austria's forests are threatened. Serious overcutting during the years of German occupation have depleted reserves, and corrective measures must be taken by decreasing cutting and increasing reforestation programs to restore a normal balance. Exportable surpluses of other natural resources are limited. In normal times, Austrian mines can support some exports of iron ore, magnesite, graphite, and salt.\n\nOil was discovered near Vienna in recent times but was not developed.\nIntensively, Austria became part of the German Reich in 1933. Since the war, large quantities of Austrian oil have been shipped to Eastern Europe. Up to the present, the Austrian economy has not benefited from such exports due to Soviet occupation authorities retaining control, pending a settlement of the Gerian external assets question. Electric energy obtainable by harnessing the large potential water power in Austria's western mountain areas represents another potential export item. Even at the present stage of hydro-electric development, surpluses of power are already available. Before the war, revenues from Austria's large tourist trade and from transit freight and handling charges were important sources of foreign exchange. It is expected that this important aid in achieving a balance of payments will continue.\nOther Austrian export items depend on importation of raw materials or semi-finished goods for their production. Items expected to be important in this class of exports are metallurgical and paper products, textiles and leather goods. Increasing exports will also be derived from recently developed chemical industries.\n\nSo far, the supply of raw materials and semi-finished products required by most manufacturing industries for processing has been insufficient to enable these industries to produce sufficient quantities for domestic consumption and exports. Therefore, they are at a small fraction of prewar levels.\n\nConversion and adjustment of Austria's industrial plant to postwar conditions presents serious problems. Most of the machinery is of German manufacture.\nfacture and of comparatively recent origin, with years of productive use remaining. Purchase of replacement parts, however, is difficult due to existing regulations in the German Bizonal Area \u2014 the center of German machine industry.\n\nAustria\nPOPULATION DENSITY OF ZONES\n& COMPARISON OF AUSTRIA & U.S.\n\nU.S. Austria USSR French\n- Austrian Zones -\n\nVienna\n\nThe largest densities appear in the J.S.S.R. and U.S. Zones. The lesser population per square mile in the more rugged sections of the country is found in the British and particularly the French Zone. The large population concentrated in the city of Vienna raises the average density for Austria to a level higher than that of any of the zones.\nAustria has five times more people per square mile but only about half as many as Potsdam, Germany. For Austria as a whole, no significant population changes have occurred during the last fifteen years. Regionally, however, the changes were considerable, as shown in the following table:\n\nPopulation\nPre-1939\nMid-Present\nIncrease Decrease\n\nUS Zone\nUK Zone\nUSSR Zone\nFrench Zone\nVienna\nTotal Austria\n\n---\n\nRestrictions on industry exist in Austria - forbidding barter transactions and permitting exports only in return for dollar payments.\n\nUnder the provisions of the Potsdam Agreement, \"Appropriate German External Assets\" in Austria may be applied against reparation claims. The Western Powers consider only bona fide pre-1939 German ownership as German assets. Post-Anschluss German ownership is subject to scrutiny.\nAnd in many cases, a legal claim may be established by Austrians or others regarding property. The Soviets, on the other hand, claim that German ownership, however acquired, is definitive proof that the property is a German asset, and they dispose of such property accordingly. Despite many handicaps, it is expected that, with initial external aid, Austrian production will eventually reach a level permitting sufficient exports to restore a balanced economy. Austria began to reestablish foreign trade by means of barter transactions with several European nations, and normal trading on a limited scale was later established with several European countries where trade could be based on an exchange of the respective currencies. The estimated balance of payment for 1947 shows a considerable deficit.\nIn the immediate post-war period, outside aid to Austria had to address the most pressing needs, such as food, and was therefore in the character of relief rather than rehabilitation. Long-term rehabilitation supplies, which are indispensable for a sound economic recovery, were expected to become available under the ERP. Austria's financial structure was precarious when the Allies arrived. There is considerable uncertainty as to the ultimate fate of some of her important banking and insurance institutions due to Soviet claims. These institutions were restricted to certain German external assets. Inflationary pressure still exists, but the country has made great strides in reducing the amount of currency in circulation and in maintaining control over the upward movement of prices and wages.\nThe most desirable development for the rehabilitation of the country's economy would be an early peace treaty. However, even under such conditions, Austria will continue to need outside help for several years to rebuild and maintain its economy on a sound basis.\n\nBackground of Austria's Economic Problem\n\nFor the second time in a generation, Austria faces major problems of economic readjustment. The first World War spared the country from the ravages of war, but Austria, which had been the heart of the larger Austro-Hungarian Empire, became a small nation, deficient in food and raw materials. At the end of World War II, the eastern section of the country, agriculturally and industrially the most important part, was devastated and despoiled, and the retreating Germans left it in complete chaos behind them. Railroads had been destroyed.\nall but ceased to operate, cities and factories were smashed by bombing. Remaining crops were diminished by unfavorable weather and lack of manpower. Hundreds of thousands of displaced persons were roaming the countryside, looting and plundering. Despite these conditions, there were some compensatory aspects. In spite of war damage and subsequent heavy removals of capital goods by the Soviets, Austria\u2019s latent industrial capacity remained at a comparatively high level, largely because of industrial expansion initiated by the Germans in 1938 for their own purposes. The oil fields near Vienna were rapidly developed during the war.\n\nDespite war damage and subsequent heavy removals of capital goods by the Soviets, Austria's latent industrial capacity remained at a comparatively high level, largely due to industrial expansion initiated by the Germans in 1938 for their own purposes. The oil fields near Vienna were rapidly developed during the war.\nAustria's economic recovery requires the restoration of foreign credits and trade. Exports are essential for a country when it cannot produce self-sufficiency in food supplies and must import raw materials for its finishing industries. U.S. economic policy towards Austria is based on the Bretton Woods Declaration, which classifies Austria as a victim of Hitlerite aggression rather than an enemy country. U.S. goals are to help Austria achieve a balanced economy ensuring an adequate standard of living. U.S. troops and nationals have not been involved.\n[Allowed to use Austrian products and food or purchase critical or rationed items. Reparations and Restitutions. Before the occupation of Austria, it was recognized that control and protective measures over certain classes of properties would have to be established to ensure proper preservation and operation pending final disposition in accordance with policies agreed on by the four occupying powers. All properties in the US Zone of Austria, owned directly or indirectly by German interests or nationals, were to be subject to reparation agreements among the occupying powers. In the US Zone, properties belonging to members of the United Nations and expropriated properties of victims of Nazi persecution were segregated and RESTRICTED.]\nAmong the German assets placed under U.S. control were numerous large plants of paramount importance to the Austrian economy. Rather than letting them remain idle, the U.S. Element concluded the so-called \"Trusteeship Agreement\" with Austria in July 1946. This permitted the Austrian Government to operate allegedly German-owned industrial and commercial properties, pending final disposition of the problem of German capital assets. The Austrian government, as trustee, is accountable to the U.S. Forces in Austria for the proper use and maintenance of these properties. Moreover, coordination with the other parties involved was necessary.\nWestern occupation powers have made possible interzonal movement of German-owned machinery, and the Austrian Government may distribute and allocate such machinery to meet economic requirements.\n\nReal and movable properties, title to which is claimed by any United Nations national or by a victim of Nazi persecution, are returned as claims are proved. This involves many removals of machinery brought to Austria from some other country by the Nazis and since used in production of vital goods, and has a disturbing effect on the progress of Austria\u2019s economic rehabilitation.\n\nEnormous quantities of stolen or unidentifiable movable properties were collected and warehoused. Looted property has been returned to the proper owners, and more claims are still being received.\n\nThe Soviet interpretation of the terms of the Potsdam and London agreements causes controversy.\nDeclarations relating to reparations and restitutions have differed for the Western Allies and the Soviets. Property to which a German national held title prior to August 1945 is considered by the Soviets as bona fide German property.\n\nComparative Distribution of Land Areas by Zones\n\nAustria\nArable Land\nVienna\n\nUSSR Zone\n60% of the area of the Soviet Zone consists of arable and other agricultural land. This compares with only 17% agriculturally productive land for the French Zone, which includes much mountainous territory with large areas of alpine meadows and unproductive land. The American and British Zones also vary significantly in area, population, and economic resources.\n\nAustria was divided into zones of occupation by agreement of the European Advisory Commission in July 1945. The zones vary considerably in area, population, and economic resources.\n\n60% of the Soviet Zone's area consists of arable and other agricultural land. This compares with only 17% agriculturally productive land for the French Zone, which includes much mountainous territory with large areas of alpine meadows and unproductive land. The American and British Zones also vary significantly in area, population, and economic resources.\n\nAustria was divided into zones of occupation by agreement of the European Advisory Commission in July 1945. The zones vary considerably in area, population, and economic resources. In the Soviet Zone, 60% of the area is composed of arable and other agricultural land. This is in contrast to the French Zone, which includes much mountainous territory and has only 17% agriculturally productive land. The American and British Zones also differ significantly in terms of area, population, and economic resources.\nBritish zones have a significant amount of forest areas, which is a common characteristic for all zones and highlights the importance of wood and wood products in the Austrian economy.\n\nRestricted. These areas are therefore subject to reparation claims. No investigation is made into potential claims on such properties by owners who held them prior to the Nazi invasion of Austria in 1938 and may have transferred them to German nationals under duress.\n\nAs a result, industrial installations in the Soviet Zone, including the valuable Zistersdorf oilfields and cable and electrical equipment plants, have been seized, and their production diverted from the Austrian economy.\n\nThe Austrian Government has adopted a firm stance, refusing to sanction or recognize the transfer of German assets to Soviet ownership.\nThe issue of proving that properties were German-owned prior to Nazi occupation has caused a deadlock in quadripartite negotiations. The Austrian perspective has received the full support of the United States and the United Kingdom, and partial support from France.\n\nManpower and Employment\n\nIn the initial stages of occupation, the labor situation was very serious. Hundreds of thousands of workers in the most productive age classes had been replaced by women, prisoners of war, foreign, and forced labor. As soon as Allied troops entered Austria, these people abandoned their tools and left their employment.\n\nSlowly, order was restored. Displaced persons who remained sought employment, and returning Austrian prisoners of war began to resume their former occupations. The accompanying chart illustrates the development of post-war employment.\nThe employment situation improved after the fuel and power crisis of winter 1946-47, with employment figures recovering by the end of June. Austria's employment sectors were as follows: Agriculture, Industry & Trade, Commerce & Transport, Public & Private Services. The percentage of the population employed in these sectors were: Domestic Services (2.9%), Agriculture (1%), Industry & Trade (31% of population), Commerce & Transport (4%), Public & Private Services (1.2% of population). The number of gainfully occupied persons had increased by about 20% over 1937 levels, with the trend continuing upward. Despite increased employment, agricultural and industrial production figures were still significantly below prewar levels, indicating Austria's low production efficiency due to material shortages.\nThe inability to replace or maintain existing machinery and low worker productivity due to insufficient feeding levels.\n\nRestricted.\n\nThe number of employed was in excess of 1937 levels and only slightly below the all-time prewar high reached in 1939.\n\nBy the end of June 1947, there were 17,058 job seekers compared to 128,165 vacancies. It is evident that Austria is not faced with unemployment problems in the immediate future.\n\nOnly in the category of white collar workers are there more job-seekers than vacancies. The greatest labor shortage is in agriculture, but there is also an unceasing demand for skilled industrial workers. The fact that employment figures are higher than in 1937, while actual industrial production is less than half of prewar production illustrates the great drop in labor productivity.\nResult of over two years of consistent underfeeding of the working man and a lack of skilled labor and properly maintained equipment has hindered Austrian economic recovery. Mining Resources. Though Austria is deficient in mining resources, the country is self-sufficient in some ores and those play an important role in her economy. Foremost are the large iron ore deposits of the Erzberg in the British Zone, which form the basis for the Austrian iron and steel industry. Production was 1,550,000 tons in 1937, of which 450,200 tons were exported. Austrian production amounted to 460,000 tons in 1946 and rose to 330,000 tons for the first six months of 1947. Magnesite, another important ore, was mined at the rate of [amount unknown].\nProduction of principal agricultural crops in Austria:\n\nBread grains:\nProduction in 100,000 metric tons: 400,000\nYield in bushels per acre (average barley, oats, corn): [Unreadable]\n\nUSA:\nCoarse grains:\nProduction in 100,000 metric tons: (Barley, oats, corn)\nYield in bushels per acre: [Unreadable]\n\nProduction of principal agricultural crops in Austria is less than half of pre-war volume. To some extent, this is due to a reduction in acreage planted, caused by manpower and seed shortages. However, a major portion of the decreased production is a direct result of a dramatically reduced yield, due to a lack of fertilizer.\nAustrian agriculture had reached a high degree of scientific cultivation comparable to Germany's before the war. Prewar agricultural yields still compared favorably with corresponding U.S. figures. However, Austrian wheat and coarse grain yields are now considerably below U.S. yields.\n\nGraphite production decreased from a prewar level of 18,000 tons to an insignificant volume in 1946. The British Zone, which contains all the iron ore, magnesite, and most of the graphite, also has Austria\u2019s lead, zinc, and molybdenum ore mines. Some copper ore is mined in the United States Zone, but production is insufficient for Austria\u2019s internal requirements.\n\nAnother important mining product is salt. More than 90% of the known salt deposits are in the U.S. Zone, and Austria has an export surplus in this.\nMining production, except for salt, has significantly dropped below the 1937 level due to the removal or lack of maintenance of mining machinery and insufficient availability of qualified miners and mining supplies. An increase in production depends on the import of capital goods, mining equipment, and supplies, as well as labor improvement.\n\nFood is the basic necessity for a country's economic life. The dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I resulted in the loss of vital food-producing areas for the Austrian economy and the necessity to import nearly 50% of all food consumed. In the subsequent period of readjustment, Austria managed to reduce food imports and achieve self-sufficiency in dairy products and sugar beets. However, even in its best year, 1937, the country could not produce enough food to meet its needs.\ncould not produce more than 75% of total food requirements and had to cover the deficit by imports, mostly grains, from eastern European states. With the Nazi occupation, changes were forced on the agricultural economy of the country, with easing on the production of oil-bearing crops at the expense of grains. The general disorganization brought about by the war caused a further acreage loss of arable land, and exhaustion, due to insufficient supplies of fertilizer, resulted in far lower yields per hectare than in prewar years. The combination of all these factors produced the extremely critical food situation which has existed ever since the end of World War II.\nVienna was particularly vulnerable to food shortages after the withdrawal of German armies in May, June, July, and August 1945. The Soviet Army, which was the only occupying power at the time, was not prepared for the task of feeding the large population. By mid-July, the normal consumer received only 800 calories daily of the lowest quality food, mainly potatoes, dried peas, and beans. Some industrial areas in the Soviet Zone fared even worse with about 600 calories per day for extended periods. The situation was not improved until September when other Allied Powers moved into Vienna and provided additional foodstuffs, bringing the normal consumer ration to 1550 calories.\n\nThe period from 1 September 1945 to 1 April 1946 might be called the \"initial recovery\" period.\nThe fourth phase of the Austrian food problem involved four isolated zones. The U.S. Army supplied a total of 240,000 tons of food, with 70,000 tons going to the French Zone. These additional supplies enabled the provision of 1550 daily calories for the normal non-self-supplying consumer in the U.S. Zone, 1000 calories in the French Zone, and 1200 to 1500 calories in the U.S. area of Vienna. The British also maintained a normal ration of 1550 calorie daily rations. No accurate information is available for the Soviet Zone, but it is certain that urban rations there fell far below even the low standards of the other zones. The 1945 harvest was the worst in Austrian history.\nVfaisvv SiRjKto rV AUSTRIA DECLINE IN PER CAPITA FOOD CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION POPULATION Population Average Consumption 2850 calories per person per day If it, it - ft, will fill. Ix ihk Al A ii lib -^rv kuA Austria Before WW2, Austrian food consumption was on a par with other Western European nations. In 1937, Austria covered three quarters of its consumption by indigenous production. During the Nazi regime, Austria was fitted into an overall plan for greater Germany, and was forced to reduce its grain acreage in favor of other crops. The general disorganization of the Austrian economy after the war further aggravated the food problem and caused serious shortages. In certain sections of the population.\nCountry-specific consumption in Vienna and other areas of Austria reached as low as 800 calories per person per day during certain weeks. Indigenous production was supplemented only by contributions from UNRRA and U.S. Army stocks. The average ration for 1936-47 was an average of various graduations in the ration scale, ranging from 1200 for small children to 2800 for heavy workers.\n\nAfter April 1, 1946, UNRRA became the sole provider for Austria. This was an important step because from this point, all Austrian food resources were pooled, and the ration scale was made uniform for the entire country under a food distribution plan prepared by the Austrian Government. However, with a maximum Austrian contribution of only about 850 calories per day per person, the imported supplies would not be sufficient.\nThe UNRRA requested a reduction in the normal ration from 1550 to 1250 calories in 1946. This reduced ration was maintained until November 1946, when it was returned to the 1550-calorie level. Supplementary rations were issued to heavy workers, mothers, and children in addition to the normal ration. The average caloric intake of a non-self-supplier from April 1946 to August 1947 was 1660 calories, and it is currently 1780 calories.\n\nLow-caloric value rations, especially when maintained over a long period, pose a significant threat to public welfare, as proven by health statistics. A weight survey conducted by U.S. authorities in Vienna and the U.S. Zone showed that 73% of the population was below the U.S. standard.\nDuring this period, the incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis increased alarmingly. The mean rate was 1.683 per 1,000 population in the years 1940-44. The average in Vienna for the year 1946 was 2.769, and for the first six months of 1947 was still 1.958. The increase in the infant mortality rate for babies under one year of age in Vienna rose from 12.59 per thousand in 1939 to a peak of 188.22 in 1945 and was at 72.56 for the first six months in 1947. Insufficient and inadequate ration levels have continued for more than two years and have caused important repercussions in the economy of Austria. They have seriously affected labor efficiency, encouraged absenteeism, and have resulted in lowered industrial production and consequent reduction of exports.\nThe 1946 and 1947 harvests failed to reach anticipated goals due to inadequate agricultural supplies and a disastrous drought during spring and summer of 1947. Permanent improvement of the feeding level can be expected only through the gradual process of rehabilitation of Austrian agriculture and economy in general, which will increase indigenous production and eventually permit Austria to build up export trade and finance her own food imports. A continued shortage of almost everything needed for full-scale agricultural production, such as supplies of seed, fertilizer, pesticides, equipment, and repair parts for agricultural machinery, continues to impede production. UNRRA aid in equipment and supplies intended to rehabilitate agricultural production was inadequate in quantity, and lack of confidence in the economic situation further hindered progress.\nAustrian schilling, low prices for farm produce, and absence of purchasable consumer goods kept many farmers from bringing their products to market. Livestock. The farmers made attempts to increase livestock at the expense of grain deliveries, but due to shortages of fodder and oilcakes and a prevalence of animal diseases, livestock had decreased since 1937 in quantity and quality, thus reducing the supply of meat, fats, and dairy products. Animal milk production dropped from 2100 kilograms per head of cattle in 1933-37 to an all-time low of 1200 kilograms in 1946.\n\nThe United States Element of the Allied Commission took immediate steps to restrict:\n\nLTV-# .nt. J t r JKw '\u2022\u2019fl tik- :is t i-c V J y y-vt |MP% \u2022V' /\u2022 '\u2022. t\\ tfviffiipiM t\u2019 '.OP' '\u2018\u2022^iwiv Jio ..aM ijf.v '.ry\u2019jipi .AUSTRIA PRODUCTION OF SELECTED AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS.\nCommodities in 1946 by Zones of Occupation\n\nM. Cattle\nEach unit equals 50,000 heads of cattle\nPopulation: 1,670,000\n\nThe natural resources and economic potentials of the four occupation zones differ greatly. None of the zones are economically self-sufficient. Some heavy industries, particularly steel production, are located in the western zones; most of the hard coal, oil, finishing industries, and agricultural production are centered in the Soviet Zone. The economic interdependence of the zones is therefore evident.\n\nThe U.S. Zone is a predominantly agricultural region, but also contains a small portion of Austria\u2019s brown coal and all of its salt. Of manufacturing industries, textiles and leather are of some significance.\n\nThe U.K. Zone is the largest in area and furnishes most of Austria\u2019s brown coal and important ores, such as iron, lead, zinc, molybdenum, and magnesite.\nThe Soviet Zone leads in production of Austria's most important raw materials. It produces approximately 60% of Austria's grain, 95% of its important hard coal, and all of its oil.\n\nThe French Zone is predominantly mountainous and poor in agricultural production. It has no mineral resources but is rich in hydro-electric power. Textiles are its leading manufacturing industry.\n\nThe Soviet Zone requires rehabilitation to restore depleted livestock supplies. Veterinary supplies and equipment were imported, with UNRRA assistance, to increase breeding through the establishment of artificial insemination stations. An expert U.S. advisor teaches these modern methods, and the success of this venture is encouraging.\n\nRecovery of Austrian agriculture is a slow process. It depends largely on the fulfillment of rehabilitation needs. Much of it remains to be restored.\nThe agricultural acreage lost since 1937 can be regained, and farming methods can be improved gradually through education of the younger generation. The main and immediate problem is the enrichment of the depleted soil by increased use of fertilizers, most of which have to be imported.\n\nFuel and Power\nCoal, oil, and water are the three main sources of power in a modern industrial economy.\n\nAustria is deficient in coal, but has ample supplies of oil, though at present, control of the production is denied her. A vast potential for hydroelectric power will allow further development of her present electric power supply to the point where a valuable export surplus will be available.\n\nIn 1937, Austria was almost self-sufficient in the production of brown coal. Deposits of hard coal, however, are negligible, and more than 90% of her coal needs must be imported.\n[90% of this industrially important type of coal had to be imported. At the time of entry of Allied troops, the coal situation was disorganized. Mines had ceased to operate and coal imports from outside areas had stopped. Since no coal could be obtained from Austria's former chief suppliers, Poland and Czechoslovakia, the United States Element followed by the British, imported the following:\n\nAUSTria\nPRODUCTION & IMPORTS OF SOLID FUELS\nPRE-WAR & PRESENT\nMONTHLY AVERAGES IN 1000 METRIC TONS\nBROWN COAL & GLANZ COAL\nHARD COAL & COKE\n\nLEGEND\n1937 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct\n\nIMPORTS (HARD COAL AND COKE) _\nIndigenous Production]\n\nNote: The text contains some unclear or illegible characters that could not be corrected without additional context. The text appears to be listing coal production and imports for Austria, with monthly averages in 1000 metric tons for brown coal, glanz coal, hard coal, and coke. The text also indicates that a significant portion of coal had to be imported due to the disruption caused by the entry of Allied troops.\nHard coal, which has more than twice the heating value of brown coal and is used in the production of coke, steel, pig iron, and gas, is by far the most important type of coal for the country's economy. Domestic production in previous years covered less than 75% of requirements, and is now actually in excess of prewar levels. However, the potential productivity of Austria's hard coal mines is small, as almost all of this basic raw material has to be imported. Production difficulties in the main importing regions (Ruhr, Poland, Czechoslovakia) have necessarily restricted Austria, with a resultant adverse effect on the country's economy.\n\nBrown coal (lignite)\nAustria can normally produce enough brown coal to cover most of its domestic needs. At present, there is an extra drain on brown coal.\nsupplies because, while this type of fuel is properly suited only for domestic space heating, industry is forced to use lignite in combination with the small supplies of hard coal now available.\n\nRestricted. French elements initiated negotiations with the Allied occupation authorities in Germany for the allocation and shipment of Ruhr coal to Austria. As a result of combined efforts by the Western Allies, Austrian local production of brown coal (lignite) in 1946 was kept at 75% of 1937 production, and imports of brown coal were greatly increased. Imports of hard coal and coke, however, were less than half of the 1937 volumes.\n\nThe greatest sufferers from the decrease of available coal in 1946 were the large and medium-sized industry groups which on a monthly average basis received\nReceived only 53.3% of their 1937 consumption. The railroads were allocated $63 and small industries and householders $68. Irregularity of deliveries was an added complicating factor. Stockpiles were small, and when, with the beginning of cold weather, deliveries began to drop, the increasing demands could not be met. The crisis became so acute that in December 1946 and January 1947, Austrian industries, with the exception of a few key plants, were forced to cease operations for a period of four to six weeks. In 1947, coal production, imports, and regularity of deliveries showed considerable improvement, and it is anticipated that a recurrence of a coal crisis in the winter of 1947-48 will be avoided.\n\nOil: Oil was not discovered in Austria until after World War I. The first records in 1933 show a production of 833 tons, which was increased by 1937.\nProduction and Disposition of Oil in Austria\n\nThe Austrian oilfields total approximately 33,000 tons. Large-scale exploitation began with the advent of the Nazis. During the war years, production increased to one million tons a year, and it is still not far below that level.\n\nThe Austrian oilfields are entirely within the Soviet Zone and are under seizure by the Soviets, who allow Austria no interest or control at present. About 50% of the oil in crude or refined form is withheld by the Soviets.\n\nPRODUCTION AND DISPOSITION OF OIL IN AUSTRIA\n\nAt present, about 60% of the Austrian output of crude and refined oil is withheld or exported.\nby the N.S.S.R. The toilet rim in 1940 and 1947 fell far short of requirements. To redress these shortages, the C5Fa authorized the supply of on-site rabbit oil and gasoline from Army sources to the U.S. Zone and Vienna.\n\nRESTRICTED\n\nRussians and what remains for Austrian use is insufficient for the country's minimum requirements. To relieve these shortages, the United States Element has been aiding the U.S. Zone and U.S. area of Vienna by providing certain quantities of oil and oil products.\n\nIf Austria had control of her oil resources, she would have an exportable surplus of this raw material, which would constitute a valuable source of foreign exchange and hence play an important role in Austria's economy.\n\nElectric Power. One of Austria's few advantages resulting from Nazi occupation was the control of her electric power resources.\nThe occupation of Austria led to an increase in its developed hydro-electric power. However, developments under the German program were primarily for the benefit of the German Reich rather than Austria. The large reservoir plants in the westernmost provinces were intended to provide power for the industrial sections of western Germany and were not connected to the Austrian grid. Until October 1946, the \"Loel\" was compelled to sell its surplus power in a buyer's market to Bavarian utilities. The eastern provinces were left without sufficient hydro-electric power to meet the demands of their industries, most of which were centered near Vienna. At the present time, hydro-electric power provides a small export surplus except during winter months when glacier-fed water supplies are low. At such periods, thermal plants must cover the deficiencies.\n[\"Combination of lack of sufficient coal and vastly increased demands by industry and domestic consumers during the cold season have made the power supply in the 1946-47 winter so precarious that the slightest disturbance of the delicate balance between power generation and consumption caused an immediate and complete breakdown of Vienna's electric power supply. Austria Electric Power Production. Consumption, Imports and Exports. Average Monthly Rates in Million KWH. LEGEND. THERMAL GENERATION. NET IMPORTS (Total Imports Less Exports). HYDRO GENERATION. NET EXPORTS (Total Exports Less Imports). MILLION KWH. FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE. Austria has large resources of water power in its extensive western mountain areas. Up to 1938 exploitation was limited, but during the war,\"]\nThe German occupation accelerated construction of hydro-electric plants. The network established under the German program was calculated to serve German Reich interests rather than Austrian. New hydro-electric plants were linked with Bavaria and Italy instead of Eastern Austria (Vienna), where most Austrian consumers lived. Only a fraction of the total potential capacity has been developed, but electric power is a significant export item in Austria's economy. Export surpluses are available most of the year, except winter months when water supplies are low. The surrounding industrial area is restricted. Further development of Austria's large potential in hydro-electric power is desirable but requires large capital investments.\nThe Power Balance. Energy from various sources is interchangeable to a limited extent. Certain industries must continue using coal as a source of energy, but in others, oil or water power in the form of electricity can be substituted.\n\nThe greatest potential coal savers are the Austrian railroads. In the provinces of Vorarlberg, Tyrol, Salzburg, and parts of Upper Austria and Carinthia, main lines are electrified. However, the rest of the railroad system still depends on imported coal as an energy source. Austria is well aware of the great economic value of electrification and has a definite program providing for the electrification of all main traffic lines of her rail system within 12 years. Such a development will substantially reduce coal imports.\n\nThe return of control over her oil resources would result in further savings.\nAustria's savings in coal and increasing self-sufficiency.\n\nTransportation:\n\nThe Austrian State Railways form the backbone of the Austrian transportation system. During the war, railroad installations were the target objectives of the U.S. Air Forces. Post-war inspection testified to the accuracy of U.S. bombing. Artillery fire and demolition by the retreating German forces added to the destruction. More than one-third of the rails, many bridges and technical installations, and 255 of the State railways' buildings were destroyed or damaged. By December 1946, nearly all of the rails and most of the bridges and technical installations were again in serviceable condition, but shortages of construction materials delayed the repair of buildings.\n\nRESTRICTED\niZj- r V 'feas' w i Vt r Dl .trA 'iJ u j tV: \u2022finnsw AUSTRIA POST-WAR PRODUCTION OF\nA definite recovery in industrial and mining production took place during 1946 and 1947. Present production levels of vital commodities show significant variations. No industrial production index has been compiled, but average industrial output was estimated to be slightly below 50% of 1937 production in the summer of 1947. Comparisons with 1937 levels may produce a too favorable picture, as industrialization of the country proceeded at an accelerated pace after its occupation by Germany in 1933, and present latent industrial capacity is considerably above 1937 production levels.\n\nAlthough indigenous coal production has shown a substantial recovery, Austria's hard coal resources can furnish only a small fraction of her requirements. Lack of sufficient imports caused a shortage of this vital raw material.\nThe shortage of materials was largely responsible for the pronounced dip in important industries during the winter months of 1946-47. The high level of heavy chemical industries reflects expansion after 1937, during the time of German occupation.\n\nRestricted.\n\nThe supply of rolling stock is satisfactory due to considerable quantities of abandoned cars and locomotives put into service. Much of this rolling stock, however, is subject to restitution proceedings. Since Austria's entire rolling stock had been absorbed by the German Reich railways in 1937, it is difficult to establish Austrian ownership. The Allied Commission unanimously adopted a resolution on March 21, 1947, as a temporary remedy, allowing Austria 25,000 freight cars and 5,000 passenger cars, which is below 1937 levels. The question of allocation of locomotives awaits final settlement.\nNet tonnage carried by the Austrian railways in 1946 was approximately that of 1937, with an upward trend. The heavy use of poorly maintained rolling stock poses a constant threat to the system.\n\nManufacturing Industries\nThe rehabilitation of Austrian industry is a complex and thorny problem. Under the Nazi regime after 1933, Austrian industrial plant was greatly expanded. It is estimated that despite war damage, destruction, and removals, industrial capacity today is at least equal to the 1937 level. However, German efforts in Austria were designed to complement Nazi Germany's war economy without consideration for Austria's needs. A realignment of industrial capacities to meet the requirements of a small independent Austria should be the first step in the rehabilitation of industry.\nThe problem is complicated by a number of factors, such as (1) lack of raw materials, (2) difficulties in obtaining raw materials from foreign sources, (3) shortage of skilled labor, (4) improper redistribution of machine tools concentrated by the Nazis at centers of production, (5) shortages of fuel and power.\n\nAustria's crude steel production Prewar and Present\nMonthly Rate In Thousand Metric Tons\n\nAustria's steel production does not compare with that of Western Europe's highly industrialized countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, England and Sweden. But it is higher than that of most other middle European nations.\n\nPrewar Austria's steel output was sufficient for its limited industrial needs.\nIndustrial demands have increased since 1930 due to rampant industrialization. In the first quarter of 1946, the monthly production rate reached a low of 13% of the 1938 rate, primarily due to a coal shortage. Production gradually improved, except during January and February of 1947. Production in the summer of 1947 rose to over 60% of the 1938 rate.\n\nOn a per capita basis, pre-war Austrian steel production was about four times less than US production, reflecting the difference in industrialization and mechanization between the two countries.\n\nRestricted: building materials; (6) absence of a comprehensive plan for financing the reconstruction of damaged or destroyed plants; (7) lack of operation on the part of Soviet authorities in supporting Austrian rehabilitation plans.\nI. Austrian steel production covered indigenous requirements and exported small quantities of high-grade electric steel. In 1937, Austria produced k% of the total world steel production and nearly one-fourth of Austrian steel production was special steel. The rehabilitation of the Austrian iron and steel industry relied on coal imports. Production of pig iron came to a complete halt after World War II. Some steel was produced using accumulated pig iron stockpiles, but blast furnace operation at the Donawitz Works in the British Zone wasn't resumed until August 1946. Since then, production has shown a steady rise. In 1947, under a three-way contract between Sweden, Austria, and another country, production continued to increase.\nPoland and Austria secured Polish coal supplies for the large steel works at Linz in exchange for steel to be produced for Sweden. If hard coal deliveries can be maintained at adequate levels, steel production, which is of basic importance for Austrian economy at the present stage of industrial rehabilitation, will be maintained in satisfactory volume.\n\nPre-war capacity for aluminum production in Austria was 6,000 tons per year. The country lacks alumina and depends on imports from Bavaria for this raw material.\n\nDuring the war, the Germans built a gigantic modern aluminum plant of 65,000 ton capacity at Braunau, Upper Austria, on the German border, which remained idle after the end of the war. Early in 1946, a quadripartite agreement was reached to restore the aluminum plant.\nAustria: Pulp & Paper Products Production & Exports Prewar & Present (in Metric Tons, Thousands)\n\nMonthly Rates\n\n---\n\nIndigenous Use\n\nLegend\n\nTons Thousand Metric\n\nexports\n\nMetric\n\n---\n\nNewsprint & Other Paper\n\nThousands Metric Tons\n\nAustria's extensive forests have always been an important source for exports. Over-exploitation after World War I and particularly during the period of Nazi occupation will restrict cutting for a number of years. It is planned to utilize Austrian forest resources to better advantage for the country's economy by expanding exports of processed products rather than of timber and pulp.\n\nRestricted\n\nLimited Austrian production of aluminum sulfate to 15,000 tons annually, but because of power shortages only 1035 tons were produced during that year.\nPaper and Woodworking Industries. One of Austria's most important sources of raw materials are her large forests, which cover the mountain slopes in the West and extend to the hilly country on her eastern borders. It has long been recognized that this source of wealth can be retained only by carefully planned exploitation, and the extent of annual cutting, proper reforestation, and the rigid control of pests were strictly regulated by legislation. Austrian industries, based on the timber resources of the country, have made important contributions to her foreign trade. In 1937, exports of wood and wood products paid for four-fifths of her food deficit. Ever since World War I, there had been a tendency to over-exploit Austrian forest resources, but after 1933, overcutting by the Germans began to assume alarming proportions.\nSeveral decades of careful reforestation will be needed to restore Austrian timber production to prewar levels. Loss in revenue from decreased output can be offset by increased emphasis on the export of paper and paper products, prefabricated houses, furniture, and other manufactured products. Since the end of the war, timber cutting has lagged due to labor shortages and insufficient rations for forest workers. The paper industry suffered constant setbacks due to the diversion of pulpwood to space heating \u2013 an extremely wasteful process brought about by a lack of coal, imports of wood and wood products, which had reached an approximate dollar value of $59 million in 1937, dropped to $2,642,500 in 1946, and quantitatively they dropped from 2,045,000 to 44,000 tons. The first six months of 1947 give promise of better conditions.\nThe value of wood and wood products for the year's production was RESTRICTED. As of 1 July 1947, the value was $5,006,000, more than double the yearly figure for 1946. Further increase of exports under present conditions could be achieved only by withdrawing consumer goods from home markets.\n\nEngineering Industries\nThe engineering industries are an important pillar in the country's industrial economy. In addition to supplying the home market with vitally needed machines, tools and metal goods, they provide valuable export products.\n\nThe rehabilitation of these industries is difficult and is greatly retarded by shortages of coal, power, raw materials and skilled labor and by lack of Soviet cooperation.\nIn the western zones, there are active signs of industrial revival. One of the large automotive plants in the U.S. Zone returned to the production of trucks in July 1946 and produced 4B4 units in the remaining six months of that year. This production level has been maintained in 1947 despite shortages of vital parts produced in Soviet-held factories.\n\nThe ball bearing industries at Steyr, in the U.S. Zone, which were greatly expanded during the Nazi occupation, are of great importance to the country. Except for Germany, where manufacture is permitted on a temporary basis, no ball bearings are manufactured in neighboring countries. Production in Austria was resumed in May 1946 and by the end of the year, total production reached 355,000 units. Output in the first six months of 1947 has steadily increased and the future outlook is encouraging.\nThe remaining engineering industries - locomotive, machine tool, agricultural machinery and electric equipment - are making slight progress in their rehabilitation. Most of these industries are concentrated in the Soviet controlled area of Vienna and have suffered from the effects of removal of equipment by the Soviets. Many of the industries are operating at approximately 25% of pre-war production, but the Austrian economy does not benefit fully from such production since the Soviet authorities control many of the plants and divert their production as reparations.\n\nTextiles. Austria has a well-developed textile industry.\nIn the exception of small quantities of wool, flax, and hemp, all raw materials have to be imported. In prewar years, foreign exchange obtained from exports of high-grade finished and semi-finished textile goods was sufficient to pay for most of the imported raw materials.\n\nAfter 1937, cotton substitutes, with wood and chemicals as a basis, were manufactured in a newly constructed plant in Upper Austria. This substituted indigenous products for some of the raw materials that formerly had to be imported. However, production at this plant is still spotty due to the coal and power shortage and dependence on certain chemicals, especially sulphuric acid, produced in the Soviet-held plants in Lower Austria.\n\nIn 1946, the Austrian textile industry had attained a level of 25 to 35% of its single-shift capacity. Much of the work was on the basis of 'finishing'.\nContracts under which the industry was supplied with raw material and retained a certain percentage in payment for processing. Austria's textile industry has suffered relatively small damage during the war. The major obstacle to speedy rehabilitation are sufficient credits to purchase raw material abroad.\n\nLeather industry, likewise, has always been dependent on imports of raw materials, hides and tanning material. Its exports were of luxury goods type. At present time, the industry is operating at no more than 20% of capacity, Chemical industries, Prior to 1938, Austrian chemical industries were of minor importance. During the Nazi period, a vast expansion took place, partially restricted.\n\nChemical industries, Prior to 1938, Austrian chemical industries were of minor importance. During the Nazi period, a vast expansion took place.\nIn the manufacture of semi-finished materials for final processing in Germany, particularly those in the production of vital heavy chemicals such as sulphuric acid, many newly built plants were stripped by the Soviets for reparations. However, those located in the Western Zones remained intact. The production facilities for sulphuric acid are entirely under Soviet control, and 1946 production figures are unavailable.\n\nProduction of hydro-chloric acid, caustic soda, and soda ash increased considerably during 1946 and the second quarter of 1947 in the U.S. Zone.\n\nThe production curve of industrial gases is of particular interest due to the close relationship between recent industrial development and the coal supply. Production shows a slow but steady rise from January 1946 to November 1946, followed by a sudden drop and decline until March 1947.\nflecting  the  serious  state  of  industry  during  the  winter  power  and  coal  crisis, \nDuring  the  second  quarter  of  1947,  production  again  shows  a  sharp  increase. \nSignificant  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  production  of  fertilizer. \nBefore  the  war  Austria  produced  nitrogenous  and  phosphoric  fertilizers,  with \npotassium  fertilizer  the  only  one  of'  the  three  basic  fertilizer  groups  which  had \nto  be  entirely  imported.  Now  the  huge  nitrogen  plant  at  Linz  not  only  can  pro\u00ac \nvide  all  of  Austria\u2019s  requirements  for  nitrogenous  fertilizer  but  is  able  to \nproduce  great  quantities  of  this  much-needed  product  for  export.  Production  of \nphosphatic  fertilizers,  concentrated  in  the  Soviet  Zone,  however,  has  ceased \nbecause  of  destruction  or  removal  of  plant  equipment, \nlESTIUtTED \n\u2022.it \nt \nt \nr \nlA \n\u25a0iij-  \u2022'^lmu  ^'V^'fuyC \nJ  V \nV \nt \nt \nfl'JX \ns \nI \nf \nftiV?  H. \n^cr \nr.  by \n'I  kk \n.iiA\\ \nW  fiA. \nilV/s4k \nI \nH \nf  j \nJ \nAustria: Ranging Volume and Composition of Imports and Exports - Prewar and Present\n\nImports:\nTotal Imports: 790 million Schillings\nExports:\nTotal Exports: 470 million Schillings\nFinished Goods: 5%\nTotal Imports: 563 million Schillings\nTotal Exports: 320 million Schillings\n\nUnproductive components make up the most substantial portion of postwar imports, despite their absolute figures. Imports are limited due to insufficient exports to pay for them. The recent development of Austria's water power and oil fields has created two new potential export items: wood and wood products. Wood and wood products were one of prewar Austria's principal exports, but over-exploitation during the years of German occupation will restrict timber cutting during the next few years. In 1947, the percentage of per-capita exports was:\nCentage distribution in A.U. groups is similar to prewar, but total Lports are only at about one-third their prewar level. Optical glass and a type of glass used for artificial jewelry are produced in the French Zone. Production was resumed late in 1945 and has been maintained at a fairly high level. Artificial jewelry glass is exported in quantity to the US and therefore has particular significance in providing dollar credits badly needed for the rehabilitation of Austria's economy.\n\nForeign Trade and Balance of Payments\n\nThe disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I left Austria a relatively small country, with an economy geared to the requirements of the old empire rather than to those of the truncated new Austrian State. Foreign trade was badly unbalanced during the years of transition.\nForeign loans played an important role in Austria's economy, but the country gradually achieved a workable economy. In 1937, the foreign merchandise trade deficit was entirely covered by invisible exports, such as tourist trade, revenues from freight and handling charges on goods in transit, insurance, etc., which amounted to approximately 2% of total merchandise exports. Austria must export to survive and maintain her standards of living. Industries catering to the export market are of vital importance to provide for imports of the country\u2019s basic fuels and raw materials.\n\nFrom primitive barter deals in 1945, generally carried out on a zonal basis, the rehabilitation of Austria\u2019s export-import trade progressed to the more orderly form of trade agreements. The end of 1946 saw official trade relations established.\nRelations were established with Czechoslovakia, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, Great Britain, France, the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union, Holland, and Hungary. The present trend is characterized by a definite shift of Austria's trade from her prewar eastern trade to the west. New markets have to be found for many Austrian exports that were sold formerly to Eastern European countries.\n\nAn itemized quantitative comparison between Austria's foreign trade in 1937 and present trade is impossible due to inaccurate official records during the immediate postwar period and the inability of the Austrian government to maintain any degree of control over exports of raw materials and finished or processed materials by the Soviet authorities.\n\nAlthough certain monetary figures have been compiled by the Military Government.\nGovernment authorities in Vienna. These figures are not fully indicative of actual conditions and are not published here.\n\nBoth exports and imports included only commercial trade transactions. Relief imports by UNRRA, by the occupying powers, and by charitable organizations, as well as coal imports through OMIUS, for which no definite arrangements for payment were concluded, are not shown under imports. Exports do not include shipments out of the country from Soviet-controlled industries. The value of which is at best an Austrian estimate, with no assurance as to the amount which eventually may be credited to Austria.\n\nImports in terms of 1937 schillings in 1947 were only about one-half and exports not much more than one-third of corresponding 1937 figures. The foreign trade deficit is very large and invisible.\nexports, which are an important factor in Austria\u2019s balance of payment, are only a small fraction of prewar levels. Assistance to Austria under ERP should be in the direction of rehabilitation of her economy rather than mere relief. A revitalized industry will eventually enable Austria to increase production to the point where sufficient export surpluses will be available to provide for her vital needs.\n\nTourist trade is a major invisible export item and has always accounted for a large portion of Austria\u2019s national income. Tourist trade facilities have suffered both from the war and the occupation that followed. Many hotels are bomb-damaged or destroyed, others were requisitioned by the occupying forces.\nforces have suffered much wear and tear and cannot be replaced. In 1947, with the assistance of the Western Allies, tourist trade was inaugurated on a modest scale. By 1 July, Austrian authorities had reserved 26 hotels in the three western zones for use by tourists against payment in hard currencies. Only minor results are anticipated this year, but the first step in the revival of the important tourist trade has been taken.\n\nFinance\nThe rehabilitation of the Austrian economy depends to a great extent on the stability of the country\u2019s currency. One of the first steps taken by the Allies and the Austrian government after the end of World War II was to extricate Austria's currency from its complete submergence in the German monetary system, and to reestablish the faith of the people in the restored Austrian schilling currency.\n[At first, control over financial institutions in the U.S. Zone was exercised through the established branches of the former Reichsbank. However, U.S. authorities immediately took active steps towards the establishment of complete control by the reconstituted Austrian National Bank. The Allied Powers, including the Allied Military Government (AMG), gave every aid to private insurance companies in recovering missing records which had been removed to Germany. With the assistance of other Allied Powers, a balance was established between the payment of claims and the rebuilding of minimum premium reserves. An important problem for Austria\u2019s financial institutions is the final disposition of holdings of Reichsbank notes and other German marks.]\n\nRESTRICTED\nX\nh t uW*\n\u2018jMt\nt A -ri tf.ij'lo ,;.iX-l'iiXt.-.U-.;\n'V\u2019^i -'ivi.v\nf i'r\u2019iu A'.iC'\n\\ HAJ\n*x.Vfn#\nK f\nXmx-\ny r : til aAiX4^0#i ^\n'Sl.\n\nRESTRICTED\nThe Reich Government's obligations and genuine Austrian assets, according to existing interpretations of the Potsdam Agreement, regarding German External Assets. Currency and Price Control. The most significant issue was the currency problem. The United States Element took active steps to reinstate an independent Austrian currency. Conversion of Reichsmarks to Austrian schillings occurred in December 1945; Reichsmarks were exchanged for schillings on a one-for-one basis. Simultaneously, however, bank deposits were frozen, and withdrawals were permitted only on a monthly basis to achieve a drastic reduction in the amount of money in circulation. This measure was necessary to eliminate the grave threat to the Austrian currency's stability, resulting from the large increase in currency and bank deposits.\nDeposits that had taken place during the Anschluss period and from additional inflationary pressure by financing large occupation costs. As a result, black market schilling quotations for the dollar dropped more than 9056 between December 1945 and August 1946, and monetary circulation was reduced by about 50%. However, the effects of large Soviet demands for occupation costs gradually raised the circulation once again. This new rise in currency circulation necessarily exerted pressure on the legal wage-price structure of the country. Until April 1946, prices in general were held at the level established by the Nazis, although an upward movement was recognized as inevitable. The rise in production costs, due to the disruption of normal supply channels and other postwar conditions, called for higher prices. The acceptance of the exchange rate was necessary.\nThe rate of 10 schillings for one U.S. dollar resulted in a mild inflation. Manufacturers attempted to charge repair costs for war damages and reconstruction to consumers, increasing the risk of inflation. Since early 1946, upward movement of legal prices has been kept in check. However, due to the great scarcity of goods, currency circulation remained too large to prevent high prices on black markets. Legislation enacted by the Austrian Parliament in November 1947 provided for replacement of the 1945 schilling with a new currency designed to have a higher value in terms of commodities. It is expected that this second currency reform will further advance the work begun with the Conversion Bill of December 1945.\nReduction of occupation costs was imperative in 1946 to safeguard the favorable results achieved by the currency control measures instituted in 1945. Occupation expenditures in the first quarter of 1946 were 200% of the Austrian civilian budget, with the major portion payable to the Soviet authorities. A quadripartite agreement reached in May 1946 provided for drastic reductions. Accordingly, allocations for occupation expenditures for the period 1 April to 30 June 1946 were reduced to 35% of the civilian budget, and in the third and fourth quarters of 1946 they were further lowered to 30% and 2.5% respectively. In 1947, total allocations for occupation costs were reduced to 15% of the civilian budget for the first and second quarters and to 13.7% for the third quarter.\nThe United States Element renounced further demands on the Austrian Government for occupation costs and agreed to provide $3.4 billion to purchase occupation funds or reimburse the Austrian Ministry of Finance in dollars for schilling expenditures made on its behalf. As a result, occupation expenditures by the Austrian Government for the July-September period 1947 dropped to slightly over 10% of the Austrian civilian budget. In addition, the Austrian Government obtained much-needed free dollar exchange. At the same time, it was agreed to turn over to the Austrian Government.\na  total  of  3OB  114.111  on  schillings  held  by  the  U.S.  Forces  in  Austria.  In  re\u00ac \nturn,  the'  Austrian  Government  assumed  responsibility  for  all  claims  outstanding \nagainst  the  U.S*  Forces  in  Austria  as  of  30  June  1947* \nV \nJuJA  n\\> \n\u25a0ebwrt \nSi \npi \n-ii, \nr \nIsV; \ntr- \ntfr\" \nv^cr \ntP'^.K \nr \nN  Deacidified  using  the  Bookkeeper  process. \nNeutralizing  agent:  Magnesium  Oxide \nTreatment  Date:  August  201 7 \na'WMWF  '^\u00ae^^''\u00ae''2'f\u20199  agent:  Magnesiui \nt>  ,  Treatment  Date:  August  201 7 \n,  Pi'eservationTechnologies \nO  A  WORLD  LEADER  IN  COLLECTIONS  PRESERVATION \n'*bv^  ^11  Thomson  Park  Drive \n111  Thomson  Park  Drive \n'\u2022^  r  Cranberry  Township.  PA  16066 \na \nJo \nCp<t^ \nyiiO \nO \na \nO  )P<lA  t \nO \no  ^Z//a^AXX-X\u2018 \nn  c?>'fp \nv^cr  ir \ny  V  cv \nv-cy \ncn", "source_dataset": "Internet_Archive", "source_dataset_detailed": "Internet_Archive_LibOfCong"}
]