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eli5_39422_59134

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{ "a_id": [ "dqmw0un" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "It's called \"gilding\" and is a feature of the site. Someone else likes your comment so much they pay a small fee to upgrade your membership to Reddit Gold for a month. The actual perks are nominal, but it's the thought and real sacrifice that counts." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "eutqh6r", "eutreju", "euurdbr", "euuym0x" ], "score": [ 2, 78, 6, 3 ], "text": [ "Feeling sad is a kind of stress. Stress makes your body do lots of wonky things. One of those things is making your heart beat faster or heavier. When you're sad you're not moving around very much, so all that extra blood doesn't do any good, so your chest hurts because your heart is working too hard.", "When faced with stressful situations (includes situations that make us sad, like a break-up, or a death of a loved one), the body produces fight-or-flight hormones. These have an effect on the blood vessels on the heart, raising blood pressure and increasing heart rate, which all increases the stress on the heart. Sometimes, these can cause the blood vessels to spasm, periodically cutting off blood supply to a particular part of the heart. This causes the heart pain you feel.\n\nWhen the heart is faced with this situation repeatedly over a long period of time, the heart becomes weaker and is less able to pump enough blood to supply the body. This condition is known as Takatsubo’s cardiomyopathy or more widely known as broken heart syndrome.", "People often times forget the effect that pain and stress has on your muscles. The reason you can read body language is because the body expresses itself physically. Nervousness causes muscles to flex that raise your shoulders, for instance, and incredibly sad and devastated people seem to (in my own observation) suck their chest in, almost right at the solar plexus.\n\nThe body is complicated, and any stressor effects hormones and blood pressure, but people always forget about our muscles and their empathetic habit of reacting to how we feel.", "Emotions are understood to be \"musical variations of primordial sensations\" according to Bessell Van Der Kolk in \"The body keeps the score\". Which is to say emotions are our frontal cortexs interpretation of layered signals from out entire body. \n\nIt is now known that when someone remembers a memory, their body responds internally with those same primordial sensations it did at time time of the event. \n\nThere is no \"just\" to emotions. They are part and parcel of our conscious self which is believed to come from the background information about how we're doing so we can decide what to do with that information." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dmhjyaq" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Ahoy, matey! Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: Hypotheticaly, if you made a hole straight through the earth and someone jumped through. What would happen to gravity? ](_URL_0_)\n1. [ELI5: If you were to dig a hole through the earth and you jumped down the hole would you fall all the way through to the other side or would you get stuck in the middle? ](_URL_4_)\n1. [ELI5: If we could drill through the earth...and then jump in it...what would happen? ](_URL_7_)\n1. [ELI5: If I dug a hole from the north pole to the south pole, would I fall halfway and then fly upwards for the second half? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: what would happen if I drilled a human-sized hole through to the opposite side of the earth and jumped in? ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5:If I dug a hole from the US to the other side of the world and jumped feet first, would I come out head first on the other side? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [If you dug a whole through the earth and jumped through it what would happen when you exit the hole? ](_URL_6_)\n1. [ELI5:What would happen if you jumped through a hole that goes through the center of the earth? ](_URL_5_)\n" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/4kjyy6/eli5_hypotheticaly_if_you_made_a_hole_straight/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/4jc1y6/eli5if_i_dug_a_hole_from_the_us_to_the_other_side/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/23ogor/eli5_if_i_dug_a_hole_from_the_north_pole_to_the/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2kcse3/eli5_what_would_happen_if_i_drilled_a_humansized/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1pkk1p/eli5_if_you_were_to_dig_a_hole_through_the_earth/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/2m3vj2/eli5what_would_happen_if_you_jumped_through_a/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/NoStupidQuestions/comments/60s79o/if_you_dug_a_whole_through_the_earth_and_jumped/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1mx9yr/eli5_if_we_could_drill_through_the_earthand_then/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "e85b8tr" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Because the 6th minute is already over. The 6th began at 5:01 just as the 1st began at 0:01. Same concept as the 2000's being the 21st Century" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dxzp636", "dxzu1j7" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Not an expert, but my educated guess would be that hair retains heat, the farther away from the body’s core the more heat would need to be retained to survive a bad winter. So forearms and lower legs would benefit from a thicker fur coat to trap heat.", "not an expert but i have noticed,im a hairy viking,that at least with what i do when im working the hair wears off where the work stuff like jackets and where you drag chains or prop to weld and like that.hope it helps." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d0i720q", "d0i7rh9", "d0i8lia" ], "score": [ 12, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "It isn't uncommon for justices to ask questions, it is just uncommon for Thomas to ask questions. The Supreme Court is a panel of judges and before hearing cases they often already have alliances within the panel and some judges allow the other justices to take the lead in questioning.", "FI imagine he knows what decision he's going to make prior to the oral argument because he reads the novel-like briefs prepared beforehand. Judging from the tone of the Justices and their voting history, it seems rare where the orals actually sway the decision of a Justice and the questions they pose mainly seem to sate curiosity or make a point.\n\nAlso don't forget these people are smart as fuck. They have probably anticipated all the answers the lawyers might give. Here's an hour long interview with him if youre interested: _URL_0_\n\nAt 34:00, paraphrasing: we pretty much know what we're going to vote when we go into the argument. 100% of the time. I dont know why my colleagues beat up on the lawyers. The clerks and I go through a rigorous process and go over the case thoroughly. What my colleagues say in chambers on occasion will make me think of an issue in a new way.", "In the Supreme Court, you're not allowed to introduce new evidence, so everything they really need to know is in the briefs they read before hand. When the justices do ask questions, it is usually about the arguments themselves. " ] }

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[ [], [ "https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=x8rCRLC30dw" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dfmom3z", "dfmoone" ], "score": [ 6, 3 ], "text": [ "The Space Shuttle got back a small part of the system, plus some solid rocket booster parts that were recovered. The SpaceX solution gets back more than half of the rocket.", "The space shuttle could barely be called a reusable space vessel. Whenever we would launch the shuttle we would let go of the first and second stage boosters and they would float off into the void of space. If the space shuttle was a car then every time we launched it we would throw away the engine, transmission, and the wheels where falcon 9 just needs more gas.\n\n[space shuttle going up](_URL_0_)\n\n[what we got back](_URL_1_)" ] }

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[ [], [ "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/STS120LaunchHiRes-edit1.jpg", "http://a.abcnews.com/images/Technology/abc_ann_spec_discovery1_110309_wg.jpg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cca4ori", "cca9ocx", "ccahj5c", "ccakjte" ], "score": [ 20, 4, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Very few schizophrenics hear voices the way you describe them despite common misconceptions. So please ignore those fears.\n\nInstead you are engaging in a very common phenomena know as a pre-sleep dream or Hypnagogia. During the onset of sleep the brain fires impulses despite relaxation occurring and produces small figments of dreams. I often have vivid lucid dreams personally, but others experience a whole range of effects, from eyesight changes to even sounds and twitches.", "Good ole reddit. Once again showing me that the whacked-out shit I go through may very well not be whacked-out after all. Or maybe it is, but at least I'm not alone.", "exploding head syndrome, not really as exciting as it sounds, is a \"relatively undocumented parasomnia event in which the subject experiences a loud bang in their head similar to a bomb exploding, a gun going off, a clash of cymbals, ringing, or any other form of loud, indecipherable noise that seems to originate from inside the head.\" \n\nIt can also be a voice, not just a loud bang or crash.", "This actually happens to me a lot, either with voices, gun shots, weird buzzing/pop noises (like when a guitar is unplugged), or drum noises. The drums is even more interesting because it happens only in my left ear, which is the one I keep an earbud in when I practice on an electric kit. It's like a pre-sleep FUCK YOU *rimshot* from my brain, right as I'm about to drift off. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "czgbhsw", "czgbkbl", "czgbs8e", "czggx45", "czggzfq", "czgnbay" ], "score": [ 5, 56, 10, 4, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Because they are imagining themselfs in same scenario.\n\nSeeing severed head is easy. Problems come, when you imagine it could be your head, or head of somebody you know.\n\nAnd of course, certain people are suffering from hemophobia.", "Part of it is empathetic; humans, on the whole, do not like to see other humans suffering.\n\nIn a self-preservation sense, I believe there's significant evolutionary benefit if you're walking through the forest, and you see a guy with his guts slashed out on the ground, you have an instinct saying *get the fuck away from here because whatever killed him can kill you*", "Your brain doesn't want to see gore because that usually means something went horribly wrong and you're going to die. Naturally, your body will try to prevent this because dying is bad.", "Just yesterday morning on the way to work I stopped off the highway to drag the various pieces of a dead dog off to the side. \nI love dogs, and I have a stong sense of empathy for them, and have had one or more dogs for the last twenty years at all times.\n\nGiven this, I wasn't nauseated or grossed out, it was just meat and fur at that point. I was very sad for the dog that it's life had to end in such a violent way, and I was sad for the owners of the dog (if it wasn't a stray) \n\nWhat WILL give me nausea and a physical reaction is SUFFERING. If the dog was still alive and was in terrible pain, that would have induced a sense of empathy for the pain and suffering. \n\nOne of my own dogs was hit by a car last November and possibly could have lived if a major vein hadn't opened and caused him to bleed out. He died in my arms. The images that still replay in my head every few days are not of the injuries but of the confusion and pain, the whimpering that slowly got quieter as he got colder and finally stopped breathing.\n\nI can remember passing out one time as a young kid when I saw another kid get his fingers slammed in a car door. Again it was his pain and suffering that caused my reaction. \n", "we are able to function in our daily lives by ignoring and distracting ourselves from the reality of our bodies and our mortality\n\n_URL_1_\n\nseeing gore reminds us of something we subconsciously want to ignore.\n\nin the study below, reminding people of their own mortality made them react more strongly and negative to disgusting things, showing that the two are linked\n\n_URL_0_\n\nalso as an interesting side-note, women experienced greater disgust than men", "When you see someone with guts everywhere or broken bones you don't want to look at it. Just in the sense of self preservation you don't want to know see your organs or bones are out of place. That's why people get grossed out. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [ "http://benthamopen.com/contents/pdf/TOPSYJ/TOPSYJ-3-1.pdf", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror_management_theory" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c593drw" ], "score": [ 13 ], "text": [ "LIBOR stands for London InterBank Offered Rate and it's a measure of the *average* amount of interest that banks have to pay if they borrowed from other banks.\n\n**Let's use a simple analogy:**\n\nYou have 10 friends and each of you has Lego. Now, sometimes you like to borrow each others' Lego pieces so that you can have more to play with. Of course that means that your friend has less so you have to give your friend something in return. Let's say that you have to give your friend 8 lollies to borrow his Lego for 1 hour.\n\nIf I go around and ask all of your other friends the same question, they answer 9, 7, 10, 8, 8, 7, 10, 11 and 6. So we would say that, *on average* it costs you 8.4 lollies to borrow Lego for 1 hour.\n\nNow, let's make up an imaginary person called Jack. Jack comes to you and wants to borrow Lego for an hour. If you lend him your Lego and charge less than 8.4 lollies then you could have gotten more lollies by just lending to one of your friends - so you have to charge Jack *at least* 8.4 lollies. You could also just borrow Lego from your friend with the same result. So what you do is charge Jack 8.4 lollies plus a bit extra for yourself. Let's call it 9.4 lollies.\n\nNow, tomorrow, one of your friends decides to rent out Lego for 5 lollies per hour. This changes the average down to 8 lollies. You could keep charging Jack 9.4 lollies but he'd probably get upset at you so you change your rate to 9 lollies so you can still get to keep the same amount of lollies for yourself.\n\nWhat you've done is set your borrowing rate equal to \"lolly average\" + 1.\n\n**Right, back to the real explanation:**\n\nIn the real world, millions of contracts are written with rates at (LIBOR + x)%. If you knew what the LIBOR rate was going to be in the future, you could easily make an awful lot of money because lots of those deals are interest rate swaps to hedge against LIBOR changes.\n\nDuring the financial crisis, Barclays (and presumably other banks under investigation) reported that the cost that they paid to borrow from other banks was *lower* than what it actually was. They did this because it made their own accounts look a lot better and made them look like a better deal for investors.\n\nThe effect it had though was to make LIBOR lower than what it should have been. It's interesting to note that Barclays has admitted to altering its reported rate but that the rate reported by Barclays *was not the lowest reported rate for that period*. That's a pretty good indication that \"everyone was doing it\".\n\nIt's a big deal for several reasons. \n\nFirst, if you were an investor in the banks that under-reported, they had misrepresented material information which is fraud (or at least a Sarbanes-Oxley violation); you could sue and probably win.\n\nSecond, it opens up the avenue for insider trading on the agreed (lower) LIBOR rate which is itself criminal fraud. Someone who did an interest rate swap without knowing that LIBOR was fixed could have lost a lot of money.\n\nThere doesn't really need to be any more downsides than that. The potential is there for massive civil suits, criminal cases and unwinding of contracts based on LIBOR. It's a big deal.\n\nAs for your second question, it's actually getting a lot of coverage in Britain and Europe. I could work up a conspiracy theory as to why the USA mainstream media seems to be ignoring it if you like :)" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dgb0sf9" ], "score": [ 14 ], "text": [ "It is indeed pretty bad. However you may also want to brush up on your search abilities too.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_3_" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/NoStupidQuestions/comments/64ogr2/why_is_the_reddit_search_engine_so_awful/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/3zmrhp/why_does_reddit_search_functionality_suck_so_much/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/146gop/why_does_reddit_have_such_poor_search_and_sort/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/OutOfTheLoop/comments/3csymg/why_is_reddit_search_the_worst_thing_in_the_world/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1z7cke/eli5_why_is_reddits_search_engine_so_bad/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dt0uig3", "dt0wvyu" ], "score": [ 10, 2 ], "text": [ "There's no particular advantage beyond your personal comfort, and a lot of potential disadvantage, like the ability to ignore injuries. \n\nYou being comfortable isn't especially important to your survival or reproductive fitness. But being aware of injury, as well as restrained from continuing to aggravate injuries, is incredibly important. \n\nSo there's no particular selective pressure to let you 'reduce the feeling of pain' and probably a fair amount of pressure to *not* let you do so. \n", "We do reduce pain when it's advantageous to our survival. Right after you get injured, there is usually a short period when you don't feel the pain because you have enough adrenaline going through. It's usually the same when you experience loss - you are numb for a period, and able to act, before it sinks in. That would give you the ability to fight back against a tiger, or time to run away from a rival tribe, before the pain becomes too distracting. After that, pain usually increases. And then, if you don't aggravate the injury, pain will diminish. That's what is most useful to us - your body can send a clear signal that you are getting better when the pain starts to diminish. If you could simply ignore it, you would most likely choose to do so, and push yourself harder than you should, and end up not healing well, or injuring yourself further. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "clf8izz", "clf9pne", "clfdfkh", "clfon9p", "clfx054" ], "score": [ 6, 3, 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "You are simply no longer consciously recording what you saw instead you are busy trying to remember what you where thinking about. What you where seeing would probably just have been passed by in short term memory.", "what happens to your hearing when you're reading a book and don't hear someone saying your name? you just didn't listen. same thing but we use our eyes a lot more.", "The concious part of your brain uses the same \"circuits\" for visualising something from memory (or imagination) as for actual vision so your concious mind only gets one or the other. However, the visual signals still get to the sub-concious part of the brain which is why you can, for example, walk along the street deep in thought and not conciously seeing where you're going but without walking into trees, lampposts or other people.", "One important point that the other responders are missing is the issue of attention. Visual information is still entering your brain, but you're not paying as much attention to it so it seems like the signal is fuzzing out. Here, \"attention\" does essentially mean the standard vernacular definition, but it's also a phenomenon that scientists are studying - what it means in terms of brain activity. People who \"multi-task\" are just switching attention from one task to another very quickly; you can only consciously focus your attention on one thing at a time, so multi-tasking is a bit of a misnomer. In the case you suggest, you shift your attention from the external world to wholly self-contained thoughts.\n\nI'm afraid I don't know what the eyes are actually doing (how they choose what to focus on/how accurately they focus during this time), but that's also an interesting question.", "I guess it makes sense when you think about how we store the information in the first place. Perceptual info goes to the brain to be processed and stored depending on significance and focused attention, and recalling a memory is simply the reverse? For example stimulation of your taste buds when you eat peanut butter leads to the storage of that particular perceptual moment in the form of a memory. So when you do the reverse it's almost as if you re - stimulate those taste buds and boom you can almost taste the peanut butter even though there's nothing in your mouth. Same thing with the rest of the senses." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ebmyhcl", "ebmyzp4", "ebn3g9s", "ebnmdq3" ], "score": [ 7, 2, 2, 3 ], "text": [ "A video will use more frames per second making it much more fluid. Videos also usually have audio files to accompany the video, gifs are more like a looping slideshow", "Technically nothing. \n\nIt have bad compression and do not support audio. A web browser will show a animated GIF without and code like you need to play other video formats. It is not designed for video but for animated icons so life like video have bad quality and the numbers of colors are limited.\n\nThere is also gifv used on may sites that is not a GIF but WebM or MP4 video. Those are common video format with a unusual extension that browsers play automatically.", "A video can have sound, while a gif is silent. They both are lots of pictures put together to give you the illusion of motion.", "The biggest difference is compression - gifs compress each image individually. Video compression looks at the difference between consecutive frames - if you're watching a movie, in any scene, very little changes from frame to frame (the background remains constant, some of the characters stay in the same place), which has less information and is therefore able to compress much smaller. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c39do1u", "c39dpy9", "c39dvd8", "c39do1u", "c39dpy9", "c39dvd8" ], "score": [ 8, 2, 2, 8, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "I don't understand the text part, but I can explain how GPS works, and hopefully that will get things started, at least for other people. \n \nBasically, every few moments, the GPS satellites say, \"Hey this is satellite 7x6rj and it's 15:55:37:035 and stuff!\" \n \nYour GPS unit hears all of those, and using the times from those messages and the time it currently has on it's clock, it can tell how long it took that message to arrive. Using that, it can tell how far away those satellites are. \n \nThen, imagine you wake up in a pitch-black room. You know that you have four friends, and they are all in the corners of this large room. If you can talk to at least two of them, you know where you are in the room. GPSes like having at least three satellites talking to them so they can tell how high up you are. \n \nHopefully that helps. ", "I like [LLCoolGeek's explanation](_URL_1_). Basically, GPS satellites know their own location at all times, and they act as landmarks for GPS receivers.\n\nA GPS receiver figures out its distance from each landmark by measuring how long it took for the radio signal to travel from satellite to receiver. To make this possible, each satellite has to broadcast the current time. Relativity is important because it causes satellite clocks and Earth clocks to drift apart -- the satellites all have to adjust their clocks to compensate.\n\n[Here's a good page on the specifics.](_URL_0_)", "[Equation: How GPS Bends Time](_URL_0_)", "I don't understand the text part, but I can explain how GPS works, and hopefully that will get things started, at least for other people. \n \nBasically, every few moments, the GPS satellites say, \"Hey this is satellite 7x6rj and it's 15:55:37:035 and stuff!\" \n \nYour GPS unit hears all of those, and using the times from those messages and the time it currently has on it's clock, it can tell how long it took that message to arrive. Using that, it can tell how far away those satellites are. \n \nThen, imagine you wake up in a pitch-black room. You know that you have four friends, and they are all in the corners of this large room. If you can talk to at least two of them, you know where you are in the room. GPSes like having at least three satellites talking to them so they can tell how high up you are. \n \nHopefully that helps. ", "I like [LLCoolGeek's explanation](_URL_1_). Basically, GPS satellites know their own location at all times, and they act as landmarks for GPS receivers.\n\nA GPS receiver figures out its distance from each landmark by measuring how long it took for the radio signal to travel from satellite to receiver. To make this possible, each satellite has to broadcast the current time. Relativity is important because it causes satellite clocks and Earth clocks to drift apart -- the satellites all have to adjust their clocks to compensate.\n\n[Here's a good page on the specifics.](_URL_0_)", "[Equation: How GPS Bends Time](_URL_0_)" ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Unit5/gps.html", "http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/j3q6j/how_does_gps_work/c28vqxt" ], [ "http://www.wired.com/magazine/2011/06/st_equation_gps/" ], [], [ "http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Unit5/gps.html", "http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/j3q6j/how_does_gps_work/c28vqxt" ], [ "http://www.wired.com/magazine/2011/06/st_equation_gps/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d2aghgr" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "In general the only real concern in eating time is how active you'll be afterwards; besides that, whether you eat a few small meals or one big meal doesn't seem to have much of an impact on your overall health. It's how much you eat, not when. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cezeqsz", "cezg1le", "cezi3vs", "cezijlq", "cezjec7", "ceztisj", "cf01qea" ], "score": [ 21, 4, 10, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "I asked a coworker of mine who's a native Chinese in his mid- to late-50's. The gist of what he said was that a lot of older Chinese see Mao as someone who was able to get China into the next phase, even though there were a lot of sacrifices made. And he never said anything disparaging about Mao throughout the conversation even though I doubt he agrees with those older people. ", "Power of the not-free press", "Mao was a writer and guerilla fighter. Before his rule, he fought for over a decade against the nationalists and Japanese as leader of an anti-imperialist and communist revolution. That's a massive accomplishment in itself, if he had died shortly after his success then he'd be an idol throughout the world.\nActually ruling the country was not his strongpoint, at least as far as history is concerned. The great leap forward was a great debacle for a variety of reasons, not all of them possibly foreseeable by Mao. In the end, most people see him as mostly good, partially bad (I'm not sure if it was Mao who said he had done 6/7 parts good 4/3 parts bad or another guy). \nIn a nutshell it's the same as any reverence for a country's founder, you know that they made mistakes and you wouldn't agree with their policies if they were alive today, but they made great progress for their time and place. ", "ITT: I watched a bbc documentary about mao and now I know everything there is to know about him", "I'm not sure how much revered as respected for getting a dirty job done, that is, freeing China from having foreign (European, American and Japanese) powers controlling it, and for allowing industrialization that lead to giant increases in the economy. My wife is from China, in her early 40s, and I get the sense from her that Mao is seen by a lot of people in China as kind of like some abusive asshole father who died and left the family a fortune.", "The same reason why he's reviled in the West: propaganda and lack of critical thinking.", "Publicly, the Communist Party still reveres him. Privately, though, they are more ambivalent. The problem is that Mao is considered the father of modern China, and if the full truth of his brutality and mismanagement was acknowledged, it would discredit the ruling party. Deng Xiaoping, the man who sparked China's economic boom with his reforms, was a political enemy of Mao. He was twice purged from office by Mao because Mao didn't like the reforms he was trying to introduce. It's an awkward subject." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d3fk47m" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "A game like whist or bridge where you have to play a round of cards, each person taking turn, and one person wins the trick. Then you take turns again for the next trick." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ddxv5co", "ddxv74k", "ddxv78m", "ddxv96u", "ddxxepo", "ddy37bn", "ddy6t0m", "ddy97bs", "ddy9jxa", "ddy9rrz", "ddyalsy", "ddyatcl", "ddyavtl", "ddybayb", "ddyc1r6", "ddyda75", "ddydeqo", "ddye8h5", "ddyeu9b", "ddyewed", "ddyf20o", "ddygczl", "ddygp7x", "ddyhbdr", "ddyhcss", "ddyhm9l", "ddyholk", "ddyhuuf", "ddyicpc", "ddyjl5p", "ddyk9te", "ddykege", "ddykf57", "ddyl6ze", "ddylgd3", "ddylhaf", "ddym1f2", "ddym2yg", "ddymsve", "ddyn328", "ddyn4r3", "ddynore", "ddyntbu", "ddyo9fa", "ddyp4fd", "ddyqmye", "ddyqrop", "ddyqsic", "ddyqya1", "ddyr5p4", "ddyr97y", "ddys563", "ddytwka", "ddyuvql", "ddyw92t", "ddz418x" ], "score": [ 329, 16, 2, 34, 39, 145, 22, 404, 837, 4, 9, 4, 3, 2, 15, 4, 3, 12, 5, 5, 139, 2, 8, 6, 2, 4, 5, 3, 3, 24, 3, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 4, 2, 9, 2, 4, 16, 4, 5, 2, 7, 3, 2, 8, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "It's one of those unfounded conspiracy theories that just don't hold up to basic scrutiny. Like Chem trails.\n\nThey say fluoride is bad in large quantities. And it is. But there are not large quantities in toothpaste. Small quantities can help strengthen your teeth without negative effects. ", "There's a large enough market made up of people who think fluoride is a Bad Thing to make it profitable now.\n\nA quick google search brought up this hopefully a somewhat balanced lay-person (of which I am one) article:\n\n_URL_0_", "Some places with well water already have plenty of fluoride in the drinking water, so you don't want too much more or you get discolored teeth.", "For the same reason think vaccines cause autism and GMOs are bad for you. That is, people are woefully uninformed. This ranges from plain old not paying attention to full-blown conspiracy theories.", "When they first started adding fluoride to the city water supplies, there were conspiracy theories that it was some sort of government mind control plan. Those rumors have never really gone away and so some people think they need to avoid it at all costs.", "Toothpaste for toddlers should not contain fluoride due to the large amount they will swallow. Ingesting large amounts of fluoride while your adult teeth are forming will cause defects in them. [Dental fluorosis](_URL_0_).", "My sister actually has to use one of those because of some intolerance to great amounts of fluoride. so i would say some people need it for medical reasons. ", "Fluoride-free toothpaste exists for the same reason gluten-free products exist. \n\nSome people have an intolerance to fluoride that can present itself in mouth ulcers. Not uncommon, it seems to run in my family and I'm aware of a couple of friends that have the same issues. Not a big deal, doesn't cause any major harm, just uncomfortable. \n\nBecause some people need it, the product pops up in the market. People see it and either assume it has health benefits or has read something somewhere that says it's bad for you. So the market for it increases and major brands pick it up to increase sales. \n\nSimple as that really. If you can use fluoride toothpaste then you probably should. I hear it's better for you. But if you have frequent mouth ulcers then try brushing with fluoride-free toothpaste and see if it makes a difference. ", "In the rural area where I live, the well water has a fairly high fluoride content. Because it is a little bit higher than the recommended dose, and certainly more than added fluoride content in city water supplies, our local health unit has recommended that children in our community do not use toothpaste with fluoride, to prevent fluorosis. It is likely that fluoride free toothpaste is intended for communities like ours.\n\nEdit: spelling", "Not a dentist, but i grew up in a town that had the potable water supply high on fluoride content, so a lot of this can stain your teeth. so maybe that is why a fluoride free toothpaste would be marketable", "Do you realize that fluoridation is the most monstrously conceived and dangerous communist plot we have ever had to face?\n\n_URL_0_", "Some people are stupid. They believe things like \"vaccinations cause autism\" or \"climate change is a hoax\" or \"Trump is a good president\", and some people believe \"fluoride is a chemical put in water to control and contaminate people's [natural bodily fluids](_URL_0_).\"\n\nUnfortunately, these people make up a pretty large percentage of the population. America is like 30% stupid, at least. But that means that there is a market for \"stupid products\", like fluoride-free toothpaste. So they get made.\n\nYou (or maybe your parents) just got tricked into buying it because it was marketed as \"fluoride-free\", as if that is a good thing.", "Some people do not like having a foreign substance introduced into their precious bodily fluids.", "This has come out of the anti fluoride in water movement. Flouride in concentration is toxic, so similar to the anti-Vaxx movement people have started thinking the water is causing autism or some other such none sense.\n\n", "Since everyone seems to be on the pro-fluoride side, as i am, i feel compelled to point out that its actually quite easy to get fluoride poisoning if you use too much mouthwash or dont rinse properly after brushing. I got it once after discovering mouthwash as a 20-something. In light cases like this all it does is make everything taste like soap.\n\nNot sure what fluoride free toothpaste is usually used for, but i would have bought a tube to use just untill the symptom passed if i had known about it.", "The non flouride toothpaste won't calcify your third eye. Big market for that kind of stuff. ", "I don't know if anyone answered yet, but it's some conspiracy theory shit.\n\nPeople think that the fact that they used it in our drinking water is actually to lower our IQ so people are dumb, therefore, more obedient.\n\nIt reminds me of the gluten free thing.\n\nI wonder who started that rumor? Could it be....say a bottled water company?", "My partner is a dentist. She says that excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones can cause skeletal fluorosis, a bone disease. This is most common in places where the groundwater has excessive fluoride. _URL_0_", "For the vast majority, the amount of fluoride in your average toothpaste is perfectly safe. In large doses, fluoride is in fact toxic. I think the argument against fluoride is that taking small doses every day over many years can be just as toxic as taking one large dose. So to avoid the risks, whether they may or may not exists, many people now want alternatives. Same reasoning applies to organic vs GMO foods.", "Some people are allergic or sensitive to fluoride. I know for myself I've been bothered by gum and mouth ulcers most of my adult life. A dental hygienist recommended I try 'Squiggle' fluoride-free toothpaste that is 38% xylitol, and it has greatly improved my oral health.", "The scientific reason: Some people have a negative reaction to toothpaste containing fluoride. This can be white stripes on the teeth, mouth ulcers, or inflammation due to an allergy.\n\nThe social reason: Some people think the government makes us consume fluoride in toothpaste and water to make the general population easier to manipulate and control. The argument behind this idea varies but what I've seen most is that Hitler added fluoride to German water right before the war supposedly to control the population. Therefore fluoride bad because Hitler's used it. \n\nI use toothpaste with fluoride because it works for me and I don't subscribe the theory that it is used to control he population.", "There are a lot of people that are allergic or hypersensitive to fluoride. One of my brothers used to get sick every time he used the wrong toothpaste", "Because there's an ongoing battle between people saying it's harmless and people saying it's harmful, with a lot of ignorant people on both sides", "What's with all the antivaxxers=antiflouride comparisons. Who cares if people don't want fluoride in their toothpaste, it doesn't affect you, whereas antivaxxers actually affect everyone... I don't understand the outrage.", "Kids toothpaste I think doesn't have it (like for little little kids). I think because they swallow it. It's like training toothpaste to get them used to it.\n\nThere have been concerns, that I'm not going to validate or invalidate, that Flouride has been used in mind control experiments. Specifically by nazis and Australians.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThat it can lead to prenatal issues and birth defects.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nand that it is useless for your teeth if you're an adult. \n\nI was bored a few years ago and started reading about all this. Its all crazy talk to me but sometimes it can be fun to follow conspiracy theories down the proverbial rabbit hole.\n\nI believe a dentist chimed in on a similar reddit question a few days ago. \n\n", "Fluoride is very good for your teeth in a certain dosage. In low doses, it makes your enamel stronger and reduces cavities. In larger doses, it actually weakens your teeth. In large enough doses, it is toxic! And it does accumulate in certain areas of the body, such as the hypothalamus. So it's important to get the right dosage of fluoride: you want just enough to get your teeth the benefit of strengthened enamel.\n\nPersonally, I like to use fluoride-free toothpaste because I like eating breakfast right after brushing my teeth in the morning. If I used fluoridated toothpaste, I would be eating the fluoride before it has a chance to act on my teeth, getting all the negative and none of the positive effects. I'm not worried about my teeth getting inadequate fluoride because I drink lots of tap water, which is fluoridated in my city.", "My dentist told me I needed to be using fluoride free toothpaste. My teeth have weak enamel. We also have fluoride free water.\n\nI'm not seeing any responses here that explain why my dentist recommended it to me, and more about it being along the lines of antivaxing and extreme gluten-free movements. I have IBD and do better without any wheat in my diet, and my GI doc told me g-free was one of the big changes I needed to make, along with other things.\n\nHaven't found a moderate, science based reply in this thread yet. There's a reason why MDs would recommend these \"fads\".", "My daughter is allergic to fluoride. It makes her face swell and she breaks out in hives (we found out when we switched from baby toothpaste to the big kid stuff) ", "When my sister was little, she used a kids' flouride-free toothpaste that was meant for kids still learning how to brush properly. It was safe to swallow in case kids didn't spit it out. ", "I know I'll get downvoted here, but fluoride in water has been linked to lower IQ.\n\nHere's one study: _URL_0_", "Because fluoride is a waste product that is legitimately bad for you, they just figured out that it didn't do immediate damage so they built up a market for it. Nowadays the cats sorta out of the bag about how bad fluoride is for your brain an just about every part of you. (Source: mom is a heath consultant who spends her days figuring out what's actually good/bad for you and not just \"hippy BS\" ", "Do some of your own research. Fluoride is classified as a neurotoxin. Do yourself a favor read about it ", "Fluoride is classified as a nuerotoxin with the likes of mercury, lead and others. Unfortunately I'm not intelligent enough to explain it but the link to the science is below. ;)\n\n_URL_0_", "We use fluoride free tooth paste for our 4 year old son.\n\nFluoride is quite toxic at high concentration levels, that's why it warns you not to swallow toothpaste or mouthwash with fluoride. \n\nIt's just safer to teach kids how to brush using a non-fluoride toothpaste and mouthwash.", "Can't speak for the other stuff on here, but I'm supposed to use it because of medication that I'm on. And yes, an actual MD warned me of this. ", "I used to be one of those people who thought fluoride fear mongering was conspiracy nonsense akin to chemtrails, until I read this report from Harvard:\n\n > For years health experts have been unable to agree on whether fluoride in the drinking water may be toxic to the developing human brain. Extremely high levels of fluoride are known to cause neurotoxicity in adults, and negative impacts on memory and learning have been reported in rodent studies, but little is known about the substance’s impact on children’s neurodevelopment. In a meta-analysis, researchers from Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) and China Medical University in Shenyang for the first time combined 27 studies and found strong indications that fluoride may adversely affect cognitive development in children. Based on the findings, the authors say that this risk should not be ignored, and that more research on fluoride’s impact on the developing brain is warranted.\n\n...\n\n > The average loss in IQ was reported as a standardized weighted mean difference of 0.45, which would be approximately equivalent to seven IQ points for commonly used IQ scores with a standard deviation of 15.* Some studies suggested that even slightly increased fluoride exposure could be toxic to the brain. Thus, children in high-fluoride areas had significantly lower IQ scores than those who lived in low-fluoride areas. \n\n...\n\n > “Fluoride seems to fit in with lead, mercury, and other poisons that cause chemical brain drain,” Grandjean says. “The effect of each toxicant may seem small, but the combined damage on a population scale can be serious, especially because the brain power of the next generation is crucial to all of us.”\n\n\\- _URL_0_ ", "If you're spending more than 89 cents on something besides Close-up or Aim you're doing it wrong. All those five dollar tubes of extra extra extra whitening are hype and all the other stuff in them is nonsense. Fluoride is the only active ingredient that keeps your chicklets from rotting out of your cake hole.", "Because you're not supposed to swallow fluoride toothpaste. Little kids aren't mature enough to heed the warning, \"don't swallow the toothpaste it'll make you sick\". But you want them to learn to brush early so you buy fluoride free toothpaste. Source: am father. ", "A long time ago, a dentist moved to a place in Colorado, and was mystified by the grey coloration of the teeth of the people who lived there. The other odd thing is that even though they ate as much sugar in their food as other places he had been to, they had very few cavities.\n\nThe teeth staining and lack of cavities were both traced to a naturally high level of fluoride in the drinking water. This was during the age where the federal government was trying to \"fix\" everything that they thought they could. Iodine was added to all table salt, and as a result, goiter and some types of mental retardation (diseases resulting from low iodine levels) were virtually eliminated. Vitamin D was added to all milk, which dramatically reduced the incidence of rickets in children, etc...\n\nAs a result, fluoride was added to public drinking water, in the hopes that it would reduce cavities and improve bone density. However, there has been some concern about \"how much is too much\". Some people are more sensitive than others to any substance you might name. The proper amount of fluoride for me might be too much for someone else, leading to health issues from ingesting fluoride.\n\nSome people drink a LOT of fluoridated tap water, and others only drink bottled water with no fluoride at all.\n\nThe only way to be certain that you are not getting too much fluoride, is to try and eliminate all fluoride going into your body, and to then look to see if you begin having the symptoms of osteoporosis (lack of bone density, leading to your bones breaking or cracking easier than they normally would, when stressed).", "I'm fluoride intolerant so when I get fluoriding done at the dentist is has to be done in multiple small phases. And even then, it just makes my gums itchy", "Because the symptoms of acute fluoride toxicity mimic other, common ailments (e.g., upset stomach, nausea, flu), there are undoubtedly countless incidents of fluoride poisoning that routinely go undiagnosed. As noted in the Journal of Public Health Dentistry:\n\n“Estimating the incidence of toxic fluoride exposures nationwide also is complicated by the existence of biases. Parents or caregivers may not notice the symptoms associated with mild fluoride toxicity or may attribute them to colic or gastroenteritis, particularly if they did not see the child ingest fluoride. Similarly, because of the nonspecific nature of mild to moderate symptoms, a physician’s differential diagnosis is unlikely to include fluoride toxicity without a history of fluoride ingestion.”\nSOURCE: Shulman JD, Wells LM. (1997). Acute fluoride toxicity from ingesting home-use dental products in children, birth to 6 years of age. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 57: 150-8.", "_URL_0_\n\nConspiracy theories be damned. When I see a scientific article like the one above, it's worth paying attention to. I have no lab of my own to test the degenerative effects of chemicals on the brain, so I'll take the word of scientists and go out on a limb that brain damage is a justifiable excuse to discontinue the use of something. ", "I work in manufacturing and highly concentrated fluoride is used in one of our processes as a cleaning solution. Extreme care is used around it because calcium neutralizes it. If you get it on you, you can't wash it off. It absorbs into the skin and dissolves your bones until it's neutralized. The emergency procedure is to apply a special paste to the affected area and rush the person to the hospital. Luckily, We have never had an accident. Knowing this about fluoride, it has never made much since to me to use it on teeth. Maybe we have some chemists on Reddit who could shed some light on this.", "Dentist here.\n\nIt's to avoid long term fluoride ingestion by toddlers, which can cause dental fluorosis.\n\nProlonged ingestion of fluoride in elevated doses during the permanent teeth formation years (be it from a contaminated natural water source, or swallowing toothpaste on a daily basis) is known to cause fluorosis (an anomaly in the structure of enamel, resulting in white stains, on most mild to moderate cases).\n\nSo to avoid that, some dentists recomend fluoride free toothpaste for toddlers until they're able to spit properly.\n\nThere's some discusion regarding the exagerated relevance of fluorosis (mostly a minor aesthetic issue, on most mild to moderate cases) against the cavity prevention power of fluoride. Is it better to provide better cavity prevention and risk some fluorosis, or is it better to prevent fluorosis and risk some cavities? That depends on each case and should be decided alongside your dentist.", "I've used Tom's of Maine, fluoride free, whitening toothpaste for many years. My teeth are very white, and people have commented them (I'm a banker). My dentist says my teeth are strong, healthy, and look great. In over 10 years I've had just one cavity. \n\nThe idea of needing to have fluoride in toothpaste or in drinking water is bullshit, and completely unnecessary. If I had the opportunity, I'd use fluoride free water, but replacing all of my cooking and drinking water with something like Poland spring would be prohibitively expensive, so I deal. ", "From everything I've been reading fluoride is now considered a neurotoxin. Here's the [article](_URL_0_) that discusses the medical journal's findings. ", "I have an answer! Because there are some medications that don't do well with flouride! My wife was prescribed a special mouthwash that she can't use flouride toothpaste with. She uses regular toothpaste at night, but non-flouride in the morning when she has to use her special mouthwash. ", "\"The possibility that fluoride ingestion may impair intelligence and other indices of neurological function is supported by research on the human fetal brain as well as a vast body of animal research.\"\n_URL_0_", "I work in water treatment and we feed fluoride. \n\nOn the bags is a big skull and cross bones with the label Toxic. \n\nPeople think anything that is toxic is bad regardless of dosage. \n\nChlorine is toxic but it makes water safe to drink in small doses. ", "I read yesterday something about fluoride and toothpaste in Eli5 I think and a dentist said specifically you need toothpaste WITH fluoride.", "I know that my brother exclusively uses fluoride free toothpaste.\n\nThe reason that he does this is because he believes in conspiracy theories. That is the only reason that anyone would use that toothpaste. He has serious dental issues because of being a dirty hippie and using fluoride free toothpaste doesn't help. \n\nThe conspiracy around fluoride is that it makes people stupid. The irony is that only stupid people believe that. They think that the government puts it in the water to keep us subdued. There is a rumor that Hitler gave it to the Jews. The thing to me that is craziest about fluoride free toothpaste is that it usually costs more than real toothpaste. If you ask any dentist, they will tell you that the most important thing that a toothpaste needs to have is fluoride.\n\nI love him and he is great. The fluoride thing is just one of his problematic views that is detrimental to his life. But, he is great, and I cannot make him change.", "Because it's toxic and you don't want your kid ingesting it, also there's other things you can put in toothpaste that are safer than fluoride.", "I have a fluoride allergy. When I was a kid in Vegas, my mom used to have to buy bottled water just for me because I would break out in a nasty, bloody rash if I drank the tap water with fluoride in it. Some people's allergies are more severe than mine, so even brushing with it can cause a reaction.", "Because there's enough in the water to take care of that. Toothpaste doesn't need fluoride anymore ", "A very few people are allergic or have a sensitivity to fluoride. Some have alot naturally occurring in ground water. They need it.\n\n\nOther people are ignorant \"internet self educated\" anti vax people. They buy it too.", "I'm a dentist. The fluorosis mottling of teeth happens BEFORE they erupt in the mouth. Once they are erupted, fluoride is essential to remineralization caused by plaque, acidic food, carbonated drinks (even zero calorie), citrus drinks and wine. People over 50 should consider a prescription fluoride (higher concentration) to strengthen enamel and exposed roots because as we age, saliva becomes less copious and the immunological and buffering effects are lost. At this time, old people can start to get rapid decay, even if they have not had a cavity in decades. Prescription fluoride will make the teeth much more resistant to this decay. The extra fluoride will NOT cause white lines or mottling.\n" ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.livescience.com/37123-fluoridation.html" ], [], [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_fluorosis" ], [], [], [], [], [ "https://youtu.be/Qr2bSL5VQgM" ], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qr2bSL5VQgM" ], [], [], [], [], [], [ "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_fluorosis" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://fluoridedangers.blogspot.com/2010/02/expert-fluoride-linked-to-still-births.html?m=1", "http://rense.com/general79/hd3.htm" ], [], [], [], [], [ "https://www.nap.edu/read/11571/chapter/9" ], [], [], [ "http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laneur/article/PIIS1474-4422(13)70278-3/fulltext" ], [], [], [ "https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/features/fluoride-childrens-health-grandjean-choi/" ], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://wakingscience.com/2016/02/fluoride-officially-classified-as-a-neurotoxin-in-worlds-most-prestigious-medical-journal/" ], [], [], [], [ "http://wakingscience.com/2016/02/fluoride-officially-classified-as-a-neurotoxin-in-worlds-most-prestigious-medical-journal/" ], [], [ "http://fluoridealert.org/studies/brain04_/" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "eal9ft2" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "Probably because the NY flight doesn't travel in the same direction but would go 'up' and over the pole. Or close to it. Whereas the LA flight probably goes straight across the Pacific" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e82vj2s" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "[This page](_URL_0_) does a good job of explaining what's going on, though it can't avoid being a bit algebra-heavy. I'll try to summarise while hand-waving the algebra.\n\nThe underlying trick is to realise that both floating point and integer numbers are stored as 32 bits in memory, and you can work out equations that relate a floating point number *x* and the integer I_x that's represented by the same 32 bits of data.\n\nThe code works by taking the input *x*, treating it as an integer I_x, and doing a carefully chosen calculation on that integer to get a result I_y. When we then look at I_y as a floating point value *y*, we get a good approximation to 1/sqrt(*x*).\n\nSo where did 0x5f3759df come from? In decimal it's 1597463007, and we got it by calculating \n(3/2) & times;2^(23) & times;(127 - 0.0450465).\n\nThe 2^(23) and 127 are constants that come from the way floating point numbers are represented. They're left over from our equations linking *x* and I_x.\n\nOh good, a new magic number. So where did 0.0450465 come from? In calculating 1/sqrt(*x*), it turns out to be convenient to calculate log2(1-*v*) for small values of *v*. That's roughly a straight line for the values of *v* that we care about, and we approximate it as *v*+0.0450465." ] }

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[ [ "http://h14s.p5r.org/2012/09/0x5f3759df.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cvr72kw", "cvr7i2k" ], "score": [ 3, 3 ], "text": [ "Usually it's some pissing matching between a couple of people that is getting out of hand so a mod deletes the whole chain.", "Comments that are [removed] were done so by a mod, usually because the post violates Reddit or the subreddit terms. To avoid the conversation continuing and exacerbating the issue, the entire comment chain is often removed, regardless of individual violations. This is often referred to as \"nuking\" a thread.\n\nWhen a user removes their own comment it is [deleted]. They can do this for a variety of reasons: they're embarrassed or they made a mistake and are undoing it. Replies will stay, but people who have replied to a comment that was deleted may also delete their own comment since it probably doesn't make sense outside of the original context or they may deem the reply no longer relevant if the original comment was fixed or erased." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fhkulx3" ], "score": [ 8 ], "text": [ "Do you mean as far as the weather goes? It actually is not, that's an old wives tale. You still need to be exposed to the bacteria or virus." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dirmosh" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Some things carry through history so give a basis to estimate long term inflation, although no better than that.\n\nSuch as:-\n\nWorking man's daily pay\n\nCost of a standard loaf\n\nPrice of a cow\n\nGoing far back to 1209, here's the Bank of England's calculator. See the caveats footnote link also.\n\n_URL_0_\n" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/education/Pages/resources/inflationtools/calculator/default.aspx" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "co7p73y" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Because no law has been passed making it illegal yet." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "difso96" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Use this tool _URL_0_ to calculate the current value in pounds. The exchange rate is currently about £1=$1.27.\n\n£5000 in 1950 is worth about £157000 today, or approximately $199,000. " ] }

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[ [ "http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/education/Pages/resources/inflationtools/calculator/default.aspx" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ct4i9ov" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "The Bank of Canada dropped its interest rate in hopes of stimulating the economy. When you take a loan out you have to pay it back (the principal) as well as a certain percent of the loan itself (the interest). If the interest rate is higher then you have to pay back more, which means fewer people will want to borrow money and thus less money will be spent. However, if interest rates drop then more people will borrow money and that money will be used to buy things which puts more money into the economy and hopefully provides enough stimulus so that we don't officially go into another recession." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dvqndnx" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "These bits of light or colour are called *phosphenes*, and are normal to see when in really dark settings, or increased by just about anything stimulating your eye or optic nerve. Pressing one's eyes will cause a lot of phosphenes for example. \n\nSeeing them in the dark is also knows as \"prisoner's cinema\" " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c6lxix9" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "You can get viruses, they just aren't nearly as common as desktop or laptop viruses. I'm actually a little surprised there aren't more smart phone viruses considering there are so many smart phone users these days." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cdl8in4", "cdl8u16" ], "score": [ 5, 3 ], "text": [ "Sorry that this doesn't directly answer your question, but I definitely read somewhere once that people are only born with 2 fears, and the rest are learned.\n\nThe fear of falling, and the fear of loud noises.", "I despise spiders, and their existence on this earth. I go into panic mode just from feeling myself walk through a web, seeing a spider web, a spider itself, or hearing someone say there's a spider. I can't be in that room no longer till someone kills it. I am a straight up bitch when it comes down to it. I'm not a fan of bugs in general, but spiders genuinely strike fear into me. \n\nIt originated when I was in elementary school, and watched a documentary on black widows. Knowing something so small, and stealthy, has the potential to kill you did it for me. \n\nSo I'll have to put a vote down for its learned. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "clw0a5j" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Back in the old days of CRT monitors and before screensavers, showing the same thing would \"burn\" whatever was on the screen into the phospors on the inside of the tube.\n\nBut modern plasma and LCD monitors/TVs are unlikely to get this.... it is possible, but unlikely (and most modern screens now have pixel shifting to actively prevent it.)\n\nThe only time I've seen it on a modern flat screen is where the TV is tuned to the same channel 24/7 and there's a channel watermark or logo somewhere in a corner (CNN is a good example). But for your computer.... for something like the Windows Start button to burn in... chances are you'd be replacing/upgrading your screen long before that burned in." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cxm24en" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Cyber attacks do a lot of damage, and cost companies that use the Internet lots of money. CISPA would allow them to share information with the government to aid in handling attacks (if you attack company A they tell the government who tells all the other companies so the same attack won't work on company B). Your proposed \"anti-CISPA\" is the current state. It's presently illegal for companies to collude with each other and/or the government in a way that would enable machine-speed sharing of information.\n\nThe controversy in CISPA is centered on \"what data will be shared\". The government would like to define that later, agilely, as threats evolve. However, that allows almost unlimited abuse, which doesn't seem like the right answer. If the government could drop their requirement that the data they've requested be a secret, then we could have an intelligent debate. As CISPA currently stands, it's unlimited access for government. The result is likely to be anti-CISPA." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dm6nws6", "dm6nxyz" ], "score": [ 9, 2 ], "text": [ "At the weigh inn they are usually very dehydrated. Then they eat and drink all they can straight after. So most of the added weight is water and stomach content.", "\n[Watch that when you are interested](_URL_0_)\n\nTl;dw: They will loose how much water they can through sweating / not eating salt / drinking little water some days prior the weigh-in. So it's mostly water weight.\n\n" ] }

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[ [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_FO7MzAnzM" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d0g94j4" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Some small number of people play the victim card whenever possible, and use it to con people into doing stuff for them. \n\nThe majority of people do not do this, but those that do have kind of ruined it for everyone else. Most people have met at least one \"card player,\" and psychologically speaking, it's easier to assume that many people are playing the card than it is to accept that lots of people really need help and that the world sucks and is unfair." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d0kzt2r", "d0l2nw4", "d0l3s97", "d0l5po0" ], "score": [ 29, 3, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "We spend our social lives avoiding conflicts. We want to tell that dickhead at Walmart to go fuck himself, but we don't because in a polite society you don't do that. We want to punch the bus driver who wouldn't let you on because you're 5 cents short in the face, but we don't because we'll get arrested. Some people have a natural propensity towards anger and aggression that a developed, civilized society doesn't satisfy, and that anger needs to find a way out.\n\nSome people play video games. Some people play sports. Some people play music. Some people argue on the internet. It's redirected aggression.", "The internet is a place where you don't automatically lose an argument based on your looks, age, gender, how you are dressed, etc... You can also hide behind your anonymity, which makes people bold. You also don't have to be quick thinking. You can take a long time to think about and craft your response. In a real life argument you don't often have people saying \"give me an hour to think of a rebuttal\" or saying something and then tweaking it repeatedly before the other person gets to respond.", "Internet arguments are satisfying because there aren't typically consequences. Even if you're absolutely terrible at arguing and/or completely wrong you can still confront someone and walk away feeling like a winner. Winning feels good so if it makes you feel like you're winning to tell someone \"Your opinion is literally cancer and you should go educate yourself before speaking\" then it's something you'll do. All that matters is that it makes you feel smart and powerful.", "some people thinks it's less responsible if they fight on the internet. It's just words or pictures. some people also do this because they need or want attention from others. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "culbt3l", "culdfcu", "culdw37", "culfukx", "culhmic" ], "score": [ 36, 6, 16, 7, 12 ], "text": [ "Because the bridges are likely made of concrete and the crews are re-laying asphalt. They are two different materials with different maintenance cycles. ", "Generally bridges are exposed concrete and are not paved with asphalt. They do not lay asphalt on the bridges to avoid the added weight.", "Bridges are designed at specific weights and loads to allow for them to remain standing while holding so much weight as traffic passes over them.\n\nAsphalt would increase the weight of the bridge, lowering the amount it can carry safely.\n\nBridges can and are resurfaced, they usually shave off some concrete or similar and put more in, or shave off enough and then pave it with the equal weight in pavement. \n\nBoth are difficult because you have to get the new concrete or pavement to bond with the concrete that is there after the shaving. So unless it really gets bad, they tend to not resurface it, and when they do, they do a lot of it at once.", "Think of it as owning cars (roads) and airplanes (bridges). Your cars are way cheaper to buy then airplanes and there are way more cars built then airplanes. Also, when a car stops working, you pull it over and usually no one dies but when an airplane stops working; it might fall from the sky and kill people. \n\nSo you build cars more cheaply because you can afford to replace them more often and don't need them to last so long. Airplanes are built to last much longer and take much longer to be replaced since they are so much more expensive. \n\nThose are big generalization and I could go into more detail if you wanted. \nSource: I teach a course in Asphalt and Road Engineering in University. ", "Many different things here. First off, some bridges do get repaved. Some bridges actually have asphalt on top of them. I am not a fan of those, because the asphalt acts like a sponge for the salt and water that cause our concrete problems.\n\nNow there are many ways to resurface a bridge. \n\n1. The cheap way is just to [patch](_URL_7_) the bad areas, and that can make a bridge look like a puzzle, and adds to those bumps. All the rest of these options (other than replacing the deck) call for patching. And are also very expensive.\n\n2. You can do what is called an [Overlay](_URL_15_). This is where we patch and then take off the top 1.5 [inches](_URL_0_) of the bridge deck (by hydro blasting or milling machine.) It is then [poured](_URL_2_) back to give you a brand new [top](_URL_3_) of the [deck](_URL_4_). This is very expensive and [dangerous](_URL_8_). about 500k for a 200ft bridge (2 lanes and a shoulder.)\n\n3. There is Epoxy Overlay. Which involves patching, and then cleaning the top of the deck. After that you put a 2 part epoxy over the deck, and throw a certain grade sand on it. This Waterproofs the deck, and the sand gives amazing grip. This also adds a lot of weight to the deck, and can be expensive. [Epoxy on a bridge](_URL_5_)\n\n4. There is High Molecular Weight Methacrylate. It is a very low viscosity chemical, that is applied after patching. It soaks deep into any cracks to seal them. It is basically a waterproofer. It also has a type of sand that is spread over it for traction. Also very expensive.\n\nThe Epoxy adds about .5-1 inch to the deck, while the HMWM adds nothing, but they are only good for 5(HMWM) to 10 years(Epoxy)\n\nAny other questions about it, feel free to ask me. I spent many years rehabilitating bridges, and now I inspect the people doing that work =P I may not know everything, but at least I will pretend to.\n\nAlso Don't forget that there are lots of other [stuff](_URL_6_) we do to them as [well](_URL_17_). So much fun!\n\nImage Dump\n\n[My boy Frank, hard at work.](_URL_13_)\n \n[Joint Rehabilitation.](_URL_9_)\n\n[Idiot truck stuck under a bridge, on a bridge we are patching.](_URL_1_)\n\n[He is always looked up to.](_URL_16_)\n\n[Work sucks but the view is nice.](_URL_10_)\n\n[Tim had a long day.](_URL_14_)\n\n[Lost Dog](_URL_11_) [Tax](_URL_12_)\n\nGod I hope I did this right.\n\nOh and one last thing. Bridges and roads are made of different materials. Even if both are new, when they age, they do different things. You can only hope to minimize their differences.\n" ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [ "http://i.imgur.com/L3zHQhr.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/HITMCSy.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/f7D625q.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/AqKbpED.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/EXGMglH.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/3Gh1uV4.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/NlhzxLG.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/qqHBnnc.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/PPtdAsd.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/z0dTAwQ.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/MDMS1vy.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/YmCOd3Y.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/J2Rtlpt.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/BO2EhHh.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/AM8BZMl.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/eGgip4j.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/flkKWRd.jpg", "http://i.imgur.com/SCRRafQ.jpg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cprfoj6", "cprh3ft" ], "score": [ 6, 6 ], "text": [ "Arabic has more letters than the Latin alphabet so they use numbers to represent the \"missing\" ones.\n\nOne commonly used variant is the [Arabic chat alphabet](_URL_0_).", "Arabic text on the internet is a bit smaller than English letters, and Arabs usually find it easier using Latin letters because of the keyboards some don't have arabic letters on them (like mine), but mainly because it is just faster because typing in Arabic can still be challenging since you mix up where the letters are on the keyboard.\n\nAbout the letters, there are 28 Arabic letters. There are some that don't exist in Latin. And some Latin ones that don't exist in Arabic (Like the P and the V).\n\nThe ones that don't exist in Latin get replaced by Latin numbers (like ح =7 , ع=3, خ=5, ط=6). If you look you can see a bit of similarity between how the letters and the numbers are drawn. This gives more ease for people to write, but still using normal arabic dialect. This also is cool because you don't have to \"abide\" by how words are written, because you just write how it sounds.\n\nIm Arab." ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dv8ttgo" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "Pee is not the result of a direct line from your stomach to the bladder, unlike poo. \n\nWhen you eat food, it goes through your digestive tract (stomach, small and large intestine). In the intestines, broken down food molecules and water are absorbed into the bloodstream and then carried around the body to the cells that need it. Once the nutrients have been used up and waste products have been put in by the cells, the blood flows to the kidneys, which filter out these waste products and some water. \n\nThe part of spicy food that tastes spicy, capsaicin, does not last very long in the bloodstream before being broken down into smaller molecules that don't have the same spicy effect. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dg6mqly" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Drugs have 3 names.\n\n1. The trade name (Viagra, Tylenol, Celebrex): This is mad up by the marketing department to appeal to consumers.\n\n2. The generic name (Sildenafil, Acetaminophen, Celecoxib): This is mostly made up by the marketing department to appeal to medical professionals, but may bare some resemblance to the chemical name of the drug and/or other drugs in the same category.\n\n3. Chemical name (5-[2-ethoxy-5-(4-methylpiperazin-1-ylsulfonyl)phenyl]-1- methyl-3-propyl-1,6-dihydro-7H-pyrazolo[4,3-d]pyrimidin-7-one, etc.): This is the actual IUPAC chemical name that represents the drug's chemical structure." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cwai7ah" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Selecting for reduction of agression/attachment to humans and time.\n\nThere's a project in Russia (and before that the Soviet Union) domesticating foxes. You can actually buy one, I believe.\n\n_URL_0_" ] }

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[ [ "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Domesticated_Red_Fox" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cvy1fak", "cvy2sh6", "cvyduiw" ], "score": [ 2, 12, 20 ], "text": [ "Their is a pigment called melanin. The more you have of it the darker your hair is. As you grow older your body will produce less of it, and your hair will turn lighter. Question tho, why does our hair fall with age?", "When you're young, your hair grows with a pigment mixed into the structure as it springs up from its root. In certain people it's a black pigment, in others it's red, or brown, or yellow. \n\nAs you age, your hair's root stops producing this pigment along with the hair structure it's pushing up, with different follicles stopping the dye production at different times. The colour loss often is seen starting at people's temples or, for guys, in their beard before appearing elsewhere. So what grows instead is a hair without any pigment in it. So you end up with a tube of just a mostly clear hair structure (sometimes with a little hint of yellow though)... except it doesn't look clear.\n\nIn the same way a snowflake appears white even though the individual crystal structures in it are clear ice, the light scatters around when it hits your pigment-lacking hair strand, and that makes it look whitish or grayish.", "For a more ELI5 response. Think of your hair color coming out of a printer. As you get older you no longer have the ink to keep printing." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dcuc1h3", "dcucjrn", "dcucs3f" ], "score": [ 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "What are you talking about specifically?", " > Trump has broadly asserted that he is not hemmed in by conflict of interest laws. “The law is totally on my side, meaning the president can’t have a conflict of interest,” Trump told The New York Times last week.\n\n > Herman and other attorneys say that while the president and vice president are exempt from the federal conflict of interest statute, the country’s founders drew a bright line at accepting foreign gifts.\n\n > That ban is captured in an antique-sounding part of the Constitution called the **emoluments** **clause**.\n\n > It could pose a problem for Trump because he does business all over the world. Even his domestic operations, such as his new hotel at the Old Post Office building in Washington, could trip him.\n\nSource: _URL_0_ \n\nEdit: bolding", "In any moral sense, he isn't. However, in a legal sense, the president is immune because the people who originated the relevant laws thought that everything a president does has the potential for a conflict of interest, and hence there would be no way conflict of interest laws could be enforced. See _URL_0_\n\n(After all, unlike cabinet members and other government officials, there really is no procedure for what to do if there actually is a conflict of interest - would the Vice President just act for once? Would the cabinet? But those people are presidential appointees and serve at his pleasure, that is to say, if they decide against him the president can fire them (except the VP, but since the VP has very little actual responsibility, the president can just shut them out of any policy making processes).\n\nHowever, the presidetn is subject to the \"foreign emolument\" clause of the constitution. Whether and how that applies is AFAIK subject of federal court proceedings right now. \n\nI found another approach to answering your question here: _URL_1_\n\nIn short, since laws are made by Congress yet the president's qualifications are outlined by the constitutions, it would be weird, if not outright illegal, for congress to further determine who can be president, which would be the case with conflict-of-interest-laws. The same does not apply for presidential appointees, tho. " ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/conflict-interest-rules-apply-differently-president/" ], [ "http://www.politico.com/story/2016/11/trump-the-president-cant-have-a-conflict-of-interest-231760", "http://fortune.com/2016/11/15/donald-trump-conflicts-interest-ethics/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cktqmi2", "cktqn93", "cktqukj", "cktrz57" ], "score": [ 5, 11, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "From what I understand, especially in the case of deer, is that their instinct is to freeze and wait. They think the car is a predator, and that it will ignore them if they stand still.\n\nI know a few people who have hit deer though and it's more because they will suddenly change direction.", "What you expect a deer is thinking: \"Oh no a big scary thing is coming, I'd better run!\"\n\nWhat it's really thinking: \"I have no idea what may or may not be happening. I have no language, so I cannot rationalize the phenomena I experience. I am a deer.\"\n\nAnd then squish.", "Cars haven't been around long enough for animals to evolve good adaptive responses. A deer doesn't know what a car is or how to avoid one. \n\nA deer does know it can probably outsprint any predator trying to kill it, so running as fast as it can should solve most of its problems. With cars, it just happens to be wrong.", "There's a really good chance, too, that because a car moves in a way that is clearly not like an animal, it just looks like something getting bigger and bigger, not like something getting closer." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "chy95oc", "chy9aof", "chyeoig", "chyhjxn" ], "score": [ 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "You're likely going at a peak hours, such as right after they open in the mornings. I found mid afternoon is often a good time.", "The USPS is not a business, it's a government service. A service which is not allowed to set its prices (they are dictated to them) and so have to find ways to operate at those revenues - lately by cutting employees and service.", "For under 50 cents, your letter goes clear across the country. That's a pretty decent service in my book. ", "It's a government service, which means that it can't be dissolved because of shitty service. Unlike a real business, if there's shitty service, no one will use it and it will either have to improve it service or go out of business. Government services don't go out of business, so they can do whatever the fuck they want." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d1bnyi1" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "That would be true if all those modes of transportation were the same efficiency. They're not.\n\nWhile it is the same distance, human beings evolved millions of years ago to be highly efficient walkers. The vast majority of creatures out there can be terribly fast over short distances, but need to recuperate afterwards. In fact, early humans were able to *walk* prey to death - some tribes still do this. They simply pursue their prey over miles until it is too worn out to move any more, and then they kill and eat it. Humans have some of the most efficient forms of locomotion over long distances that aren't flying. It's sort of an odd juxtaposition, really.\n\nThat said, we were *not* designed to swim long distances. We don't have smooth skin and flippers like a dolphin, so traveling through water is very energy-intensive for us. Same with biking.\n\nThink of it this way: if you took a dolphin and had it swim a mile, and then walk a mile, which would be easier for it? The water, obviously, because it has adapted to exploit that sort of environment. Take it outside that environment and suddenly it's helpless, just like humans in water. Well, humans can get around in water, but not anywhere near as well as creatures who live there their entire lives." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "clcbk6g", "clcbytw", "clcciw8", "clccns0", "clcg4uz" ], "score": [ 7, 2, 5, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Someone that knows both or has a helpful translation text works it out symbol by symbol to figure out what it means and rewords it in English or whatever.\n\nGo read the same passage in the same text from different translations of it and you'll quickly realize just how much it relies on the translators choice of words. ", "Every language no matter if spoken or written (in most cases both in similar ways) is based on repetitive words or word replacing symbols. \nE.g. there will always be the same word/symbol for one thing (possible exceptions are different relations to that thing). \n\nSome words/symbols will appear more often than others and therefor it will be easier to find out the meaning. Ancient sybolic writings will give you in most cases the meaning of some words/symbols on the basis of it's appearance. The repetition of one word/symbol you already know, will make it easier to find the sense of others.\n\n", "Statistics will cover some things, but in a lot of cases, it is from the same \"text\" being found in different languages, and that gives a great starting point. The greatest example of this is the Rosetta stone _URL_0_ which had the same text writen in Hieroglyphs and started the decoding of ancient Egyptian.\nAn example of one that hasn't been deciphered (if it is a real language) is the Voynich manuscript _URL_1_ and that has been analysed trying to figure out what \"words\" and \"letters\" are most commonly used. So far, all that can be told is that it isn't totally random gibberish, but no clues on what it means. ", "Each language's text is usually derived from another languages text, from that we can use context clues to derive the meaning of the unknown ancient text; of course we need to fully understand the language which we are referencing from. \n\nExample: Simplified Chinese is derived from Traditional Chinese which is derived from Middle Chinese (way back in the day). No one knows how to read Middle Chinese but they do know how to read Traditional Chinese. By noticing similar patterns in the grammar or shapes of the text in Middle Chinese to Traditional Chinese they can derive its meaning. \n\nThere are some cases where we were able to translate from ancient texts by luck and not through the method of looking at the successors of the ancient languages. For example Egyptian writing, no one had any idea how to translate it and there was no reference language to go on (there was no ancestor or successor language based on old Egyptian). One day they discovered the Rosetta Stone; this stone translated Egyptian text to Greek text. Since we knew Greek text we could use this stone to understand the Egyptian text. \n\nThere are many ancient texts which we dont understand and some texts where we translated incorrectly. ", "OP seems to be asking about the origin of written language (arbitrary symbols strung together to convey more complicated ideas, lettering) vs. pictorial descriptions of primitive life (cave drawings etc.)\n\nEgyptian hieroglyphics were an 'alphabet' similar to English or Japanese, though their 'letters' included symbols which could look like simple drawings of early Egyptian life (the 'cave drawings' of a hot sandy desert) like 3 people walking or a snake. \n\nThe Rosetta Stone provided the translation key which virtually unlocked all hieroglyphics... a similar translator was never found for The Aztec civilization. \n\nPerspective may come from a key discovered, but not yet useful: \n_URL_0_\n " ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voynich_manuscript" ], [], [ "http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaistos_Disc" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d4neeu8" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "In some cases the same engine is used in boats and cars. Boat and in general industry engines are made to run at the same speed for hours on end. They might be heavier so they can stay in service longer. Boat engines might also be modified to be cooled by sea water without corroding. Engines usually require distilled water for their cooling. Industry engines are usually optimized for lower revolutions and have a much smaller range. Car engines will have a higher speed which gives greater performance and makes it easier to change speed.\n\nAirplane engines are more similar to car engines however they have a number of safety features built in. They usually have double ignition systems and double spark plugs. Some are even required to work upside down which require special carburetors. They are often air cooled because of the simplicity and the availability of cool air at speeds. The arrangement of the cylinders is also more commonly boxer engine or a wider v-engine so the pilot have an easier time looking over the top of it." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "en23ecy", "en282js", "en2fs7m", "en2g911", "en2mlj9", "en37qe3" ], "score": [ 772, 6, 70, 17, 50, 1332 ], "text": [ "Most likely about surface area, heat distribution, and oxygen content. Fire needs fuel and oxygen to burn, and there's more oxygen on the side (above and below) than the middle (just below). Paper needs to be at 452 degrees farenheit to catch fire. It's easier to catch the corner on fire because you're focusing on a certain point, where in the middle the heat is being distributed.", "Airflow over the surface of the paper. When you start in the center, the fire spreads out until a space is hot enough. On the corner, the fire reaches both the top and bottom of the paper at the same time, heating it faster.", "The edges of paper are not very smooth - they are typically pretty rough and jagged. The surface of paper is very smooth. Flame can brush and ignite the fine fibers and protrusions of the edge.", "From the middle, the paper has at least more than four times as many directions it can ~~radiate~~ conduct heat away, than it will from the corner.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEdited for pedants who think a 5 yr old will care about convection/conduction/radiation differences.", "The short answer is surface area. \n\nBecause: a flame needs a balance of three things in order to start. Oxygen, heat, and a fuel source (paper). If you have too much or too little off any of the three though, your fuel will burn much slower or not at all. \n\nIn the case of trying to light a paper from the center. You've only got one surface for the flame to light, and on top of that it's a large surface so heat will spread throughout the paper and just warm it up before it lights on fire.\n\nOn the corner you've got three surfaces in contact with flame and only one direction for the heat to go.", "Like you're actually 5:\n\nLighting the edge is easier because it's like lighting both sides at the same time." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "f0k5g8g", "f0k5k0h" ], "score": [ 3, 3 ], "text": [ "It's because drug tests test for a specific metabolite threshold of the drugs. If the amount of detectable metabolites in your system is under the predetermined threshold limit, then you still pass the test. You can very well have THC in your system, but pass due to not having enough THC in your system to meet the minimum requirement of metabolites. \n\nThe likelyhood of secondhand THC inhalation meeting the metabolite threshold for standard THC tests is fairly low. There are some tests and standards that are more sensitive and strict.", "Basically there is little to no THC in second hand smoke. It would take a tremendous amount of second hand smoke for it to show up on a drug test. It just won’t register." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dnucesg" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "When you pull joints apart synovial fluid rushes in to fill the void left behind by gasses. So when your back doesn't crack you just don't have enough buildup between joints. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9tv4q0", "c9tvk1d" ], "score": [ 17, 2 ], "text": [ "To anyone who doesn't already know what Australian Medicare is: it is a 'Universal Health Care' system that provides hospital access, and assists with doctors’ fees.\n\nThe technical detail is quite complex, but basically: each citizen pays a 'Medicare Levy' (around 1.5%) through taxes. This generates enough money to provide free healthcare for the public. We amended our constitution slightly, so that the government had the legal right to do this.\n\nThe government also throws in some 'safety nets' to protect people who might otherwise be hit with higher-than-usual bills, which can cover up to 85% of your expenses. If you hit the 'extended safety net', it will then cover up to 100% of your expenses.\n\nTo stop rich people 'mooching off' the system, there is another tax mechanism which increases their levy if they *don't* take out Private Health Insurance. This doesn't exempt them from Medicare benefits, but it essentially ensures that they don't weigh down the public system while they have the wealth to support themselves.\n\nAll in all, it's a really good system. I'm frequently confused why other countries are against universal health care. Yes, it's tricky to implement, and no system is ever going to be perfect. But it's pretty damn great.", "The Medicare levy does not by itself raise enough money to fund Medicare. The majority of Medicare funding comes from the general tax pool." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cr1guea", "cr1hko3" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "There is an incentive and generic manufactures are probably starting or planning production already. The brand only being available could be due to the FDA only approving the brand for OTC use or the manufacturer holds the exclusive rights to producing OTC for x amount of time.", "For a generic to exist it must show that it is within 80 to 100% of the effectiveness of the brand name and also be safe for random everyday people to decide that they want to take the mdeication. All the generic options that are RX only would have to pay and file an application with the FDA to allow their drug to be OTC. Only thing is most drug stores only sell their own brand of generic OTC products. So with that in mind they would have to file an application in the first place that says their drug is close enough of an equivalent that they can sell it in the first place." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8snesm", "c8snh1k", "c8soi40", "c8soz8a", "c8ss7vz", "c8ssix8" ], "score": [ 9, 5, 2, 17, 4, 46 ], "text": [ "No expert on this, but in real basic terms:\n\nHDMI was designed for for packet streams (video) and not data blocks. While it is theoretically possible, especially as they've got a separate pin designed for ethernet data transfer, no drivers exist that would enable this to work between devices (and most don't have the correct ports. \n\nNot sure how to ELI5 this one. ", "[This article by Joel Spolsky](_URL_0_) might explain it. There are different norms because technology is constantly evolving and has to cater for different needs. The article doesn't specifically cite HDMI but explains why we have to have different cables for different uses. Treat yourself to it, it's an hilarious read, and it's ELI5-compatible.", "Actually they've developed a new technology that would use [ethernet instead of HDMI](_URL_0_)", "Because it doesn't have a fast transfer speed on it's digital data pin/wire. HDMI is designed to transfer uncompresed video on the video channels, and analog or digital audio on it's audio pin. The data pins/wires only transfer data at a slow rate when compared to pins in USB2/USB3 or ethernet. The bandwidth that you see on quoted for HDMI is the total bandwidth of the entire connector, and most of that is uncompressed video, so it's not in a standard packet format. In other words, it's not a high bandwidth of usable computer data down a single wire or even two or 4 wires. Then there's compatibility. USB and RJ-45 are still far more common in terms of connectors on a computer. If you converted every wire pair in an HDMI to computer data transfer, and used it to send packets, then yes you could use it for data transfer, but it would still be slower than current Ethernet speeds", "ELI5 version!\n\nHDMI is like a 5 line road where everyone is driving 60mph.\n\nOther roads are only one lane, but you can drive a jetcar at 500mph.\n\nSo other roads are faster to travel on, but HDMI is better for some other things.\n", "Think of a computer network like the road network - You can make turns, merge, drive onto highways and bumble along country roads, all part of the same system. But there's a tradeoff - You have to follow a lot of rules to participate, so that you get from your starting to point to your destination without being rammed off the road. Also, the car you drive has to be up to code, and carries lots of safety features and standardized/tested parts to meet the requirements that make it 'road worthy'. \n\nHDMI is more like a drag strip. There's one start and one finish, and you're completely isolated from the regular road network. Your car is adapted for this - You'll get from start to finish real fast, but you're not about to make any hairpin bends. You also lack turn indicators and all the other formal stuff that's part of participating in a proper road network. But the tradeoff is you can go really fast because you're isolated.\n\nComputer Networks are like the road network and HDMI is like the drag strip.\n\nHow come HDMI isn't used for data transfer? Because there's not many cases where you purely want to go 1-to-1 between 2 points in a fixed fashion. In cases where you do, the speed isn't worth the cost of adding HDMI support over something much cheaper and well-supported like USB 3." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.joelonsoftware.com/items/2008/03/17.html" ], [ "http://www.techhive.com/article/200301/The_End_Of_HDMI_New_Cable_Standard_Finalized.html" ], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "f6rnd7b", "f6rpu30", "f6s0skr", "f6sxu6j" ], "score": [ 8, 44, 2, 3 ], "text": [ "Because these brain scans can only show the momentarily activity of the brain (region). Based on this we can make assumptions about what is going on but we can't be sure what causes it", "These images that you're referring to are not diagnostic of mental disorders.\n\nThey seem compelling, and very sciency, but there are no reliable biological tests for schizophrenia, OCD, depression, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, etc., etc.\n\nDiagnosis is made based on the client/patient's self-reported symptoms as well as any signs that the clinician observes. Collateral information and psychometric assessment can be useful additions.\n\nThe images you're referring to are usually fMRI images that are very carefully tuned to exaggerate very small differences, that do not reliably differentiate between individuals with/without the condition.\n\nTL;DR: \"Brain Scan\" images are not capable of reliably diagnosing most mental disorders. The most reliable methods remain clinical interviews (often structured interviews) combined with psychometric (i.e., questionnaire) assessment.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEDIT: Spelling error", "There are different scans. None of them are diagnostic of these disorders.\n\nThere are the classic CT scan and MRI. These provide still shots of the brain anatomy. And just that. They show you anatomy, not function. Most people with these disorders have normal brain anatomy, and a CT or MRI will not help you diagnose these disorders.\n\nNext, there is functional MRI, or \"fMRI.\" These are interesting for a research perspective, but are not really useful clinically in the world of psychiatry. Some people with certain disorders may have changes in their fMRI. Those changes are not necessarily specific for their disorder, and other disorders might look the same. Those changes might even look different if you repeat the fMRI in a few months. Additionally, not all people with the disorders we're discussing have those changes. Or people could have those changes on fMRI, and not any psychiatric disorder at all.\n\nThe stuff you've seen photos of on popsci websites just aren't sensitive or specific enough to be diagnostic tools. They for doing interesting research and helping unravel the physiology of these disorders. Not for diagnosis.\n\n > How are there brain that show brains have mental disorders\n\nThis is (currently) just a false premise. Some articles may make it seem that way, but it's not really true.", "There are several different ways to answer this question.\n\nFirst, as many people have said, many mental disorders aren't diagnosed based on biological correlates, but rather on self-reported problems. For example, major depressive disorder is diagnosed in part by having depressive symptoms more than 80% of the time for 2 weeks or more. This diagnosis is independent of what's going on in the brain.\n\nThe fact of the matter is that many neural correlates to mental disorders are simply correlational. Individuals with depression, for example, have smaller hippocampi (the hippocampus is a structure in the brain implicated in learning and memory), but that doesn't necessarily mean that all individuals with depression have small hippocampi, or that any individual with a smaller hippocampi is depressed. The brain is a highly complex organ, and mood and mental disorders have highly complex syndromes. They're often not able to be diagnosed by just \"looking\" at the brain, since we don't know what is going wrong in the brain; we just know what differences are seen between healthy individuals and sick individuals, but, again, these differences are largely correlational.\n\nSecond, even if disorders are caused by specific physiological symptoms, they're often not due to *structural* changes in the brain, and the vast majority of brain imaging techniques focus on **strucutre**.\n\nFor example, Tourette's Syndrome is highly correlated with overproduction of the neurotransmitter dopamine in a network of structures called the basal ganglia. Unfortunately, right now our imaging techniques can't tell us about specific neurotransmitters. An MRI is not much more informative than an X-ray of the brain. And just like an X-ray isn't going to be able to spot that you've got the flu, and MRI isn't going to be able to see at the level of neurotransmitters. \n\nOther techinques, like fMRI, only tell you WHERE the brain is active. But fMRI doesn't tell you how structures or active, or what exact neuronal populations. It simply gives you a rough estimate of what general areas of the brain are more excited than other areas, but it doesn't get into why that may be. As an analogy, think about seeing a crime map of the United States. You may see, for example, that lots of people get killed in Detroit, but that doesn't tell you very much useful information about WHY that's the case, or how to solve the problem." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e78xqhp", "e78y1rr" ], "score": [ 12, 41 ], "text": [ "Wool has *lanolin* in it, which is an oil. Oils don't mix with water, so the fabric doesn't get wet. Cotton doesn't have this, so it gets wet when exposed to water.", "The shape of wool fibrils creates air pockets in the large- scale structure of the fabric even when the fibers are wet.\n\nAnd the structure of the fibers allows for then to get wet, but the moisture is wicked to the center of each fiber, so the surface stays drier than the equivalent area of a cotton fiber. \n\nThese pockets provide insulation and are absent in wet cotton." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "djb2pft", "djb76o1" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "They happen a lot more often, just on different parts of the globe. But what I think you're referring to is the solar eclipse passing by where you live.\n\nIt's so rare because the Moon is approximately 400x closer to us than the Sun. And the Sun is approximately 400x wider than the moon. So it's a near perfect match. Ever notice, when watching videos of solar eclipses, that the moon barely blocks out the Sun? This is why!\n\nIf the moon were bigger or closer, we'd see a LOT more solar eclipses. But it just so happens that this ratio is near 1:1, that's why they're so rare! \n\nAnother factor to consider is the tilt of the moon's orbit. So not only does it have to line up horizontally with the Sun, but also vertically.", "There are more than you'd think. Somewhere.\n\nHere's the list for the next few years.\n\n_URL_0_" ] }

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[ [], [ "https://www.timeanddate.com/eclipse/list.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cqvjrx6", "cqvxym4" ], "score": [ 23, 2 ], "text": [ "Blood rushes to the penis making it erect thanks to these blood vessels relaxing. Think of the natural state of your penis as erect and your body specifically has to keep certain veins or arteries squeezed almost shut to stop the blood entering it.\n\nELI5 - a queue of people are trying to get in a nightclub. The bouncers at the door only a few people in one at a time to keep the club quiet and under control. Suddenly the bouncers get the order to open the doors and let people come in all at once - every rushes in and the club is now rammed with people.\n\nThe real trigger for this is incredibly complex and I don't think anyone truly understands it fully. But it seems to be like a domino effect of events - what begins in the brain flicks a switch to pass it to the nervous system (like in your spine) which in turn flicks switches in you heart, muscles and blood stream. I think any number of things could accidentally flick these switches and activate the erection bypassing the brain.", "It is especially common during puberty, but even after that it can still happen. Your body is just keeping your penis up to speed, making sure it can still go erect, so that if an option for reproduction occurs, you are ready." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ekladb8", "eklakcp", "eklc0ei" ], "score": [ 3, 6, 5 ], "text": [ "There are neurons that are a meter long! Sensory pathways (e.g. from your fingertip to your brain) typically involve 3 neurons. The signal is transferred from your fingertips to the spinal cord, and is then relayed to the sensory portion of the brain. Signal transduction would be very inefficient if it involved millions of cells.", "Largest cell and longest cell are two very different things. A coil of rope is going to be far, far smaller than I am but also far, far longer.\n\nSame thing here. The egg cell is more massive and overall bigger, but it's shaped like a ball. Those long nerve cells can be over a meter in length, but they are so very very thin as to make a hair seem giants in comparison. Take that long nerve cell and roll it up into a ball and it would be quite a bit smaller than an egg cell.", "There are only 3 cells (called neurons) sending signals to your brain. The neuron cell bodies are small, but they have a long cable sticking out of them called the axon.\n\nFirst the signal goes from your fingertip sensors to your spinal cord. Then from your spinal cord to part of your brain called the thalamus, and then from your thalamus to the sensory cortex of your brain. Those cables are already there, and they use electrical signals to send information.\n\nThe way those signals work is that they just move salt in and out of the cell. Sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, etc. are all ions. They have an electrical charge. Depending on how many of those ions you have in the cell or outside, you control the electrical signal.\n\nThe great thing about this system is that those ions don't have to move far. That would take forever. They just need to trigger the area next to them, which does the same to the area next to it until it goes to the other end of the neuron. And after they are done, they reset, which means they can't be triggered by their own sigal. It's like if you line up 100 people and play a game of telephone. You don't need to move, but your words do.\n\nThere is one more thing that helps. There are helper cells that wrap a covering around the neurons. This is called myelin and helps the signal move faster. Instead of having to talk to the person next to you in the game of telephone, you can shout to a person 10 people ahead. Myelin allows the chemical signal to jump from uncovered part to the next uncovered part.\n\nSo three long cells sending electrical signals is really fast. It's much faster than if they had to transport some chemical signal from one part of the body to another." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ewyfqbi" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "If you were to mix all three of the primary colours together, you get black. Depending on the amount of each of the three colours you can get a black that may have a slightly 'off' kind of hue, which may to lean towards being a dark green or red/brown." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fiiuxnt", "fiiw24o" ], "score": [ 6, 10 ], "text": [ "what to you mean by clean?", "Less clean. Any water contained in fruit is going to have a higher level of bacteria and contaminants present than filtered water. Any pesticide it absorbed, any sort of heavy metal the plant absorbed etc.\n\nEdit - arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury are in virtually every plant we consume at low levels. The filter would remove some of this." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "da6xyte", "da6y8u4", "da72hw2", "da72umu", "da733if", "da74745", "da74tfb", "da770sz", "da77f72", "da78v3s", "da79i1j", "da7apuk", "da7el8g", "da7h9p1", "da7jc7o", "da7jx4r", "da7m2ug", "da7p7n5", "da7sezs", "da7t9rk" ], "score": [ 995, 2, 21, 108, 154, 14, 12, 5, 8, 2933, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2, 2, 8, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Fingerprints are created by interaction with the environment in the womb. Since both fetuses are not exposed to the *exact* same conditions, even though they're in close proximity, their fingerprints end up different. ", "Because fingerprints aren't genetically determined.", "Everyone else has pretty much answered the question, but I wanted to add one more thing. Even though they are called identical, they are not 100% identical. The process of reproduction for humans is too complex to get an exact 100% clone. If you've ever met twins you'd know that they're not the same person, they have different personalities. That doesn't just come from differing environmental experiences, it also comes from differing brain structures. ", "Fingerprints are impressions of the collection of friction ridges (also called dermal ridges or dermal papillae) of the skin. We have these to help us grip things, especially when it's wet, and also to improve tactile sensations.\n\nFingerprints begin to develop about the 10th week of pregnancy and are largely complete by around the end of the 4th month. The ridge pattern is determined by the underlying interface between the dermal papillae of the dermis (the underlying layer of skin) and the interpapillary pegs of the epidermis (the outermost layer of skin). \nIts development is thought to be influenced by many different factors such as blood pressure, temperature, oxygen levels in the blood, both maternal and fetal, the position adopted in the womb by the fetus, the touching of fingers onto the sac and amniotic fluid, nutrition of the mother, hormone levels, etc.\n\nThat's a lot of different factors that all change frequently, by the minute or second in some casese. So it's almost impossible that any two fetuses would develop under identical conditions, even in the same uterus, thus the ridges all develop slightly differently.", "Twin here. My fingerprints are similar to my twin bro, enough to fool cheap fingerprint readers.", " The chance of two people having the same prints is about one in 64 million. So we know that two people may have the same fingerprints. The chances that these 2 people ever meet is relatively low, so it doesnt cause a problem....usually.\n\n_URL_0_", "Eventually two people will have the same fingerprints right? They may not be alive at the same time but I feel it could be possible. ", "I'm an identical twin and me and brothers fingerprints match except for our pointer finger. Didn't find out until we both went to donate plasma and we had to use different fingers because the computer couldn't tell the difference ", "If I cloned myself, would the clone have different fingerprints?", "Debunking a popular misunderstanding of DNA:\n\nYour DNA does not contain enough information to describe every single cell and how they should be layed out. What it contains are patterns. So for instance, your skin is created by a pattern which says \"turn the outer layer of stem cells into skin cells and have them grow until they are so-and-so thick\". The cells themselves grow in semi-random ways as long as they obey the pattern. The whorls and rings in your finger pads are an example of this. The pattern of the finger pad is dictated by which cells divided when, and where they happened to be. With the exact same DNA, you will end up with a different skin pattern every time. This is true for identical twins, but it is also true for clones (assuming you had the technology to create them). Even if you grew two clones in identical tanks, the small bits of random chance in the arrangement of cells during development would give them different fingerprints. ", "Take two identical bedsheets and lay them out on a hard floor. Have 4 people stand at the edges of the first and push the edges of the sheet toward the middle. Now do exactly the same for the second sheet. Did you end up with the same pattern of wrinkles and folds? No? Oh, similar in some places, sure, like where the sheets were both folded in the package, but not identical.", "Individual snowflakes are formed by the exact same process as other snowflakes, but tiny differences in their environment mean that they are all different. Fingerprints are the same - tiny, almost immeasurable differences in the environment in the womb pile up and add up to significant differences in fingerprints. ", "I hate to give a short answer, but the correct one is short. Fingerprints develop after the twins split and they aren't part of a person's \"genetics\", so there is no \"connection\" between the twins. ", "Fingerprints are not genetic, but they do form in utero. It's believed that they are the result of how the baby's hands touch and rub on the uterine wall and the consistency of fluid in the womb. This cannot be proven as of right now, but this is the common belief. As such, twins would rub and touch the uterine wall in different ways, resulting in different fingerprints. ", "Short answer, methylation. Long answer, outside of our basic genetics, there are a few ways that gene expression can be modified by not directly modifying DNA. Methylation is one of these ways where the sugar backbone (the D in DNA, deoxyribose) has hydrogen groups on the outside of the molecule replaced with a methyl group. This can alter the way and rate transcription enzymes attach to DNA and can be affected in a number of ways, including inheritance, environment, infections, etc. This is what causes differences in fingerprints and other minor differences in twins. Hope this helps.", "Would clones even have identical fingerprints?", "I may be wrong here so take it with a grain of salt but I've always heard it's so cops can tell them apart if they commit a crime. If they had the same fingerprints detectives wouldn't be able to distinguish between the two. \n\nSay for instance Angie kills her boyfriend but the cops question her sister Abby first. They match Abby's fingerprints to the gun and determine that Abby committed the crime. Meanwhile, Angie never pays for her crime while her sister goes to prison. \n\nCops and legislatures such as Ted Cruz and Keith Urban have determined it isn't fair so they made parents have sexual intercourse in at least two different positions to make sure the fingerprints of their offspring are different.", "Because one of them is evil and one of them is good, And you need a way to tell the two apart.", "Identical twin here! My brother and I have several fingerprints that are virtually identical. We've also been told by a dentist that our dental records are indistinguishable. I guess we were pretty congenial in the womb", "Our fingerprint is not a function of our genetics. It's a function of how our skin develops. Basically, our outer layer of skin shrinkwraps onto the lower layers, but bumps remain. Those bumps are our fingerprints." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ctz2euo", "ctz2n1a" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "One reason is that hockey players work in shifts which are usually about a minute before there is a line change. This makes the sport more about several bursts of strength with time to cool down between shifts rather than more sustained endurance. ", "I'm no expert but I would imagine it is because at some point the legs of soccer players just can't handle the grind. They run for miles upon miles during each match, and that kind of volume, even on grass, eventually wreaks havoc on the knees. \n\nMeanwhile, hockey players glide across ice, greatly reducing impact on the knees. Plus hockey games are shorter and there is more rest during games. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "deuu8ap", "deuuakw", "deux7um", "deuz75v", "dev3zc6", "dev8yvp", "devgfh4", "devgnba", "devk7rg", "devs8co", "devsro9", "devwvkq" ], "score": [ 2622, 4, 92, 371, 9, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "EDIT2: A lot of people say it's too complex and includes extraneous information. I agree, and will edit this to be more nicely digested later. *Never let your brain drink and describe!*\nMORE EDIT: I hope everyone who comments understands that this isn't a perfect answer, and no answer is. There are a billion ways to simplify talking about the same exact, specific thing, and not every single person will understand the way it is explained. I encourage all of you who say this is \"too complicated, I'm literally five years old and you suck\" to use Google... The brain is the most complex organ and computer in the universe we know of, practically. It DESERVES a high level conversation. It REQUIRES high level conversation, because using analogies and metaphors is an EXTREMELY POOR way to convey the information about what is actually happening, to develop a real understanding of this question. It would be depriving you of a beautiful, incredible thing that is our brains to just tell you \"drugs work like drugs because drugs are like keys and receptors in your brain are like locks, so they activate and you get high.\" That's dumb as shit, and it doesn't even BEGIN to express how fucking awesome our brains are.\n\n *\"LI5 means friendly, simplified and layman-accessible explanations - not responses aimed at literal five-year-olds.\"* I know most of you are white twenty-somethings with nothing to do at work. Relax, read through more of the comments in this thread if you don't like mine. I'm not going to get mad at you because you don't think what I said was right or explained it easily enough. That's okay! \n\nEDIT: [\"Yo, yo, stump me...\" \"Sex? Talk about sex? Like dude, I haven't ever done that topic before...\"\n\"Yo man, stump me, talk about **WEED!!**\"...](_URL_7_)\n\nThere are multiple neurotransmitter systems which have high or low concentrations in certain brain circuits - parts of the brain that apparently have a specific function. The actions of drugs are directly related to their affinity for particular receptors (strong, moderate, weak) and their binding type (agonist/activator vs antagonist/deactivator, in basic terms... The following may not be entirely accurate, and shortcuts in language will be used to more easily express the idea. Still a good overview though!) \n\nHallucinogens, for example, mostly operate on 5HT, or serotonin receptors.(DA=dopamine, NE=norepinephrine, 5HT=serotonin, GABA=gamma aminobutyric acid, etc... DAT= dopamine transporter of the synapse, NET = NE transporter of the synapse, etc...) There are many serotonin receptors in the gut, which is one reason why hallucinogenic substances can cause transient nausea, for a specific example. The 5HT subtype, 5HT-1A is most closely related the the \"psychedelic\" experience often described, and has a high density in the hippocampus (related to memory,) the amygdala (emotional response and emotional memory,) and the prefrontal cortex (decision making, thought processes, etc.) You can see, then, why a \"trip\" acts like a \"trip\" on a basic level. The actions of drugs is MUCH LESS about \"more dopamine here, less dopamine there,\" than it is, \"this drug tends to cause activation of this particular circuit which leads to this more complex behaviour with x many iterations and variations, and suppresses circuits here which reduces xyz behaviour.\" \n\nConfused yet? Perfect!\n\nAll drugs have different, but interrelated effects. Some don't touch dopamine or serotonin at all, and some drugs actually reduce the actions of those, yet can remain recreational. The most common and most used recreational drugs almost invariably hit a dopamine target, but not all of them. A good rule of thumb is if it hits dopamine as an agonist directly or indirectly, it's abusable. Similarly, sex, food, and all the other lovely behaviours we enjoy? Probably have a basis in indirect dopamine agonism. \n\nA \"downer,\" like benzodiazepines, doesnt actually DIRECTLY affect dopamine or serotonin. It does, indirectly, with what you might call \"downstream effects,\" but primarily, benzos operate on a specific site, which isn't the normal site that GABA binds to. GABARs, or GABA receptors, have MANY separate sites for drugs or other molecules to bind to. The benzodiazepine site is one of them. When bound, it tends to sensitize the GABAR to GABA, the neurotransmitter, which leads to a depressive action in MANY areas or circuits of the brain. GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain. Benzos are highly specific. This inhibitory action prevents or reduces neuron activity and \"firing\" of electrical signals. This is why memory doesn't quite work, you dont have all gears engaged, etc... Not all your neurons are firing! \n\nAlcohol, or ethanol, its a very peculiar molecule. It permeates nearly all membranes, and equally diffuse throughout cells (including neurons) in the body. It leads indirectly to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and other limbic areas, which are associated with the feeling of reward and learning. It also operates on GABARs, and 5HTr's, and glycine receptors, and NMDA and AMPA receptors (sometimes associated with learning, tolerance to drugs, dissociation, anesthesia...) and quite literally almost anything we have knowledge of in neuroscience. It's also destructive and damaging to cells in any quantity to some degree.\n\nCompare the following, which are all similar to dopamine, and bind to DARs in some form or another, as well as NE. receptors. The molecular and atomic nuances of drugs are extremely important in determining their effects: all receptors are slightly different, and subtypes are variant as well. This leads to your question - different drugs have different effects, because atomically, they are different, and bind differently to the variety of sites they can possibly attach to. \n\nEach of the following drugs have extremely different effects.\n\nMethamphetamine: _URL_0_\n\nMDMA, or 'ecstasy': _URL_6_\n\nEphedrine, originally used as a popular and highly effective OTC decongestant: _URL_3_\n\nAmphetamine, like Adderall, Dexedrine, etc...: _URL_2_\n\nPropylhexedrine, ~~a shitty, halfway jerkoff of a molecule pretending it's a decongestant~~ lavender flavoured cotton filled with bullshit people like to try to get high off of: _URL_1_\n\n**Phenylephrine, a shitty, halfway jerkoff of a molecule pretending it's a decongestant:** _URL_5_\n\nDopamine, our best friend and the reason we get up in the morning or do anything repeatedly: _URL_8_\n\nNorepinephrine, a stimulating, flight of fight hormone which has extremely different effects and binding sites compared to DA: _URL_4_\n\nI'm sure you know the difference between methamphetamine and propylhexedrine, for example. The difference? A couple of carbons and aromaticity in the main phenyl ring. One is an extremely addictive drug which will destroy any congesting you may have from a cold, and the other is a piece of shit masquerading like it does anything in cough syrups because lawmakers are scared. The proof is in the molecular structures and our hardware, which has many many subtypes and main types of receptors! \n\nEDIT: This blew up kind of large. I meant 5HT-2A, guys. I mistyped one number. My bad lol\n\nEDIT: Lots of people are asking about cannabis, more info here I guess: _URL_7_\n", "No answers yet but in case this blows up and catches the attention of someone smarter than me, what about marijuana specifically? I have a limited understanding of how thc affects the brain from an asap science video. So how can indica and sativa plants have opposite effects, is it simply a placebo?", "Think of your brain as a book, and neurotransmitters as letters or words. Although there are only a few letters, they can be put together in different ways to spell different words, which make sentences, etc. Sometimes altering a letter produces little change in meaning, sometimes it produces a massive change. Where this change occurs matters too; if it happens in the table of contents, it can reference chapters that aren't really there, or it could change how the story is interpreted completely. The neurotransmitters can be thought of as the letters, neural circuits as the words/sentences, and the different lobes and areas of the brain as the different chapters. An increase of dopamine in the orbitofrontal cortex and basal ganglia will have 2 different effects, just like the word change in the example.\n\n As easy as it is, neurotransmitter functions can't be reduced to facilitating pleasure any more than you could say that the letter \"e\" is only used to spell nouns. It's also noteworthy that reuptake inhibition is only a part of most drugs pharmacology, so there may be more upstream effects that have not been studied as thoroughly. Some drugs also mimic neurotransmitters, which further complicates things, and some even have no apparent effect on neurotransmitters at all! Despite this, the book metaphor is useful in describing the brain in regards to how neurotransmitters effect it.", "**Here's a real ELI5:** \n\nFirst thats not true. Some recreational drugs act on cannabinoids (uh, weed), enkephalin s (heroin, oxy, vicodin), or glutamate (PCP, ketamine, cough syrup) as well. second, you have to look at the receptors in the brain. That's where the magic is. \n\nReceptors are the buttons which neurotransmitters push. For serotonin alone, we have something like 20 different buttons that all do different things. Some buttons make you hallucinate, some make you love everything on the face of the earth, and some will make you vomit and shit your pants. This is all from the same neurotransmitter. Different drugs that all act on serotonin press these buttons differently. LSD and molly are both serotonin drugs, but they feel way different because they push different buttons, and on different circuits. \n\nBut you're right, all recreational drug circuits lead back to dopamine. It just so happens that our pleasure and habit circuit seem to be one and the same, so take something pleasurable enough and it will turn into a habit. That's recreation. Take it too many times and it will become addiction. \n\nTLDR Every drug pushes different buttons. \n\n\n", "I'll try to give a simple answer. It's not JUST dopamine and serotonin. Dopamine is implicated in reward and serotonin in mood. \n\nBasically, there's a whole host of neurotransmitters in the brain. There is Glutamate (stimulation) and GABA (inhibition) - your stop and go signals. Then there's Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine which is involved in general alertness. There's also Acetylcholine, which is involved in movement and some autonomic functions (this one contributes to some drug side effects like dry mouth). There are other neurotransmitters such as Adenosine but that's less relevant.\n\nALSO, there isn't just re-uptake and release! There's also breakdown inhibitors and among those, there are different ways to prevent breakdown of neurotransmitters.\n\nFinally, each drug binds to different neurotransmitter receptors with different strengths (avidity), different proportions (affinity), for different lengths of time, are absorbed at different rates, cross the blood brain barrier at different rates, are broken down at different rates and cleared at different rates. Also, different parts of the brain have different densities of certain neurotransmitter receptors. Among each receptor class, there are variants. For example, there at least 5 main dopamine receptors. Different drugs bind differently to each of these subtypes of dopamine etc.\nThe combination of all of these factors (and probably more) all affect the drug experience. ", "These three do an excellent job of describing how each drug chemically effects them, why effects vary, addiction, feelings during high, and finally hangover.\n\n\n_URL_0_", "\"How are elements different if it's all just based on the electrons?\"", "To answer the question concisely: that's not true, they don't all do the same thing. \n\nThe media loves to talk about dopamine release when talking about drug mechanisms of action but for most that release is only a secondary effect, not the primary source of the 'high'. \n\nStrong stimulants like amphetamine and cocaine are the drugs that work primarily through increasing dopamine levels. But others do not. Alcohol, benzodiazepines and other sedatives work mainly through activating GABA receptors, cannabis through activating cannabinoid receptors, opioids through opioid receptors, dissociative through antagonising (reverse-activating of sorts) NMDA receptors, psychedelics through activating serotonin receptors. MDMA works through increasing serotonin levels.", "since this is ELI5, lets treat this like a kindergarten class.\n\nYour body and brain are like a kindergarten. many different attitudes, likes and dislikes, energy and maturity levels. now lets say we are going to give this class candy. each and every child is going to react different to the type of candy you give them. even though it's all \"Candy\".\n-peppermints\n-red hots\n-licorice\n-m & m's\netc.\n", "You will probably not be able to do this from your phone unless you have dolphin browser or some flash program. It's very interesting and shows how several different drugs work on the brain receptors and synapses. Plus you get to make cartoon mice high. \n\n_URL_0_", "As it's been mentioned before.. this isn't a question nor an answer for a 5 year old. I just wanted to add that there is much more to drugs beyond the currently explainable science. If a drug is capable of taking your mind out of your body and in to another dimension this is evidence of extra-dimensional activity that leaves the boundaries of the explainable phenomena of this world. My best advice to a 5 year old would be to not let the limits of the science this world draw boundaries on the phenomena you will encounter in life. Too many people out there are content to over-rationalize things that may be clues to a far deeper, far greater and far more profound understanding of the universe, drugs especially.", "The simplest way I can describe it is this. Your brain and the drug both have the same shaped pieces which is how they work. So let's say weed is a key, so it fits into the keyshape in your body to work. But likewise there's drugs like spice/k2 (synthetic weed) that are like a lumpy key shape. So it sorta fits but not quite so the effect isn't the same, it's usually more intense and bad for you.\n\nSo drugs will affect the body differently depending on how well they fit. We have used cannbis our entire existence as humans. It's thought that the smell is so strong to us because it'd help us find it (the seeds are highly nutritious, it has medicinal benefits, etc)\n\nBut that's about as much as I know so my comment might get removed." ] }

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[ [ "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Racemic_methamphetamine.svg/238px-Racemic_methamphetamine.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Propylhexedrine.svg/180px-Propylhexedrine.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Racemic_amphetamine_2.svg/206px-Racemic_amphetamine_2.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Ephedrine_enantiomers.svg/150px-Ephedrine_enantiomers.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Norepinephrine.svg/512px-Norepinephrine.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Phenylephrine.png/220px-Phenylephrine.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/MDMA_%28simple%29.svg/220px-MDMA_%28simple%29.svg.png", "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/5z29zs/eli5_why_do_various_recreational_drugs_have_such/deuxf50/", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Dopamine.svg/220px-Dopamine.svg.png" ], [], [], [], [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/drugslab" ], [], [], [], [ "http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addiction/mouse/" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cnphfy9", "cnphvmg", "cnq55fy" ], "score": [ 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Cats must eat only meat, and parts of animals. They cannot digest vegetative matter at all. \n\nCat food is all-meat, or at least smells like its all meat and bits of animal and fish, so the cat knows its food. . \n\nDog food usually has vegetable matter in it. To a cat it smells no more like food than your lawn seems to be food for you. \n\nFinally, once in a while, a cat will nibble on grass. This is because they are not getting enough bulk animal material in their food. Cats natrually eat a lot of fur / feathers etc in their diet. This is important for their digestion, and grass can sometimes be a substitute. ", "There is flavoring that cats and dogs can taste, which is added to their foods. Think of it like the cheese powder on (insert cheesy snack chips here), which you might enjoy with (insert edgy gamer soda here).\n\n_URL_0_", "Cat food is extremely high in protein. Cats are obligate carnivores. They will die if they don't consume meat, specifically the amino acid taurine. There's so much undigested protein in cat feces that dogs will eat it. Dog food does not have adequate taurine and is not attractive to most cats." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-03/chemistry-kibble" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "epplxgn", "eppm0vd", "eppn4re", "epq2pq5", "epq6yvc", "epqbmh3", "epqdd5m" ], "score": [ 183, 15, 2, 28, 2, 13, 5 ], "text": [ "They're right, because what we think of as unhealthy is usually things like salt and sugar, however if you have the correct amount, it's absolutely fine, they're only thought of as unhealthy because they are easy to have too much of", "Your biology teacher is probably exaggerating to make a point. Charitably interpreted, s/he has a good one.\n\nHowever, don't take it too literally or too extreme. What is good for you depends on your needs, and they obviously differ whether you are doing hard physical labor ten hours per day or whether you are ambulating between the couch, the fridge and your pc table.\n\nYou need sufficient energy (calories), but not too much. Sufficient vitamins, but too much are again harmful. The right types of fats. Also you need enough protein, fiber and essential amino acids. And getting enough of this without getting too much calories is impossible if you live on burgers and candy so that's why these things can't be called healthy. Yet in moderation no harm done either.\n\nSo any combination of food that provides all this without containing harmful components like too much heavy metals, pathogens, carcinogenic hydrocarbons or other poisons, is healthy. \n\nFortunately, there are many ways of achieving such a combination, as proven by humans existing for tens of thousands of years all over the planet on widely different diets. We are omnivores.", "Food comes down to three components: Carbohydrates (includes sugar), protein, and fat. You need all 3 to survive. But obviously there are problems with having too much.", "It's the glass-half-full version of \"Everything's a poison at the right dose\". True, but generalised.", "It's easy to class something as unhealthy simply out of measure.\n\nA Big Mac has 65% of your daily sodium intake, so eating a Big Mac every day would force you to not have much more salt from all the other food you eat, or cut out the Big Mac to re-balance your intake.\n\nOf course, most people eating a Bic Mac a day aren't too concerned about the other things they're eating, so it's simple to class the Big Mac as unhealthy", "Surely that doesn't count for things like transfats, nitrates and other additives in processed foods?", "Here’s a summary of a teacher that ate only McDonald’s. He lost weight and improved his health. \n\n[McDonald’s diet](_URL_0_) \n\nHere’s another summary of a nutrition professor that ate mostly junk food. He lost weight and improved his health. \n\n[Convenience store diet](_URL_1_)" ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "https://www.niashanks.com/teacher-lost-weight-eating-mcdonalds/", "http://www.cnn.com/2010/HEALTH/11/08/twinkie.diet.professor/index.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d1qhp6d", "d1qhzmj", "d1qi30m" ], "score": [ 4, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "In modern times, computer search works well, just cycle through the list of the known list of ultra wealthy people. In specifically examples like Panama Papers.\n\nIn the general case, for example, lawsuits between large corporations, as part of the disclosure process, both sides have to give each other potential evidence. To bury the evidence, companies often use code words for people/companies or projects, making a computer search harder. Or use a document dump tactic, where they just give tons of documents so the other party has to sift through it all to find the needle in the hay stack.\n\nIn that case, armies of lawyers are hired to be [document reviewers](_URL_0_) often junior lawyers, and relatively a low paid and boring job.\n\n\n\n \n", "A lot of journalists looked at these files and for a long time. It doesn't take long to skim a document to see what it is about and of course the vast majority of them would be mundane.\n\nOne useful feature of the dump was that the original file structure was preserved. So the documents were neatly organised into folders. This would mean that you could likely grasp what was in a folder from a single file, and disregard if it was clearly not of any interest.", "Doing pattern matching is something computers are pretty good at. If you open a word document and type \"Ctrl + F\", and then search for a word you'll see that it can find all the uses of that word reasonably fast, even for a file that's several MB in size.\n\nFor a huge amount of data this will start to get slow, though. However, you can start to spread the work out. If I have 1000GB to search through for a word and 1000 computers (e.g. a server farm, somewhere) to do it with then I can have each computer search 1GB, and get the job done 1000 times faster.\n\nBy uploading leaked documents online this search can be spread between millions of people with computers. There will be some duplication of work, but interesting finds should end up making their way to the top.\n\nThere is still a human element: choosing what to search for, and then maybe looking at the results and searching again has to be done by a human." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_review" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c97vgps", "c97vimh", "c97w20x" ], "score": [ 3, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Psuedorandom numbers are generated according to a formula. If you know what number was first plugged in (aka the seed) then you can predict exactly which numbers will appear and in which order.\n\nTruly random processes are completely unpredictable but are also not required for most computer applications. Psuedorandom numbers are usually good enough.", "Pseudorandom numbers are generated by a formula. They look random at first glance, but if you know the formula, you can predict the next number with 100% accuracy.\n\nAlso, if the formula is not very good, then you can detect patterns in the numbers that it generates, or determine that it might favour certain numbers over others.\n\nThis is why truly random numbers are preferred for things like lotteries, because otherwise intelligent people could figure out the patterns and beat the odds.", "It's not good enough to say you can predict the next number of a pesudorandom generator, given the seed and the formula: it is more accurate to say that you will generate the sequence of numbers exactly. Let us remember, this isn't truly random, there is no non-determinism here. If we couldn't reproduce the pesudorandom sequence exactly, then a lot of crypto and error correction wouldn't work.\n\nTruly random is just that. There's no way to determine the next value of the sequence, and there is no way to reproduce the sequence. As far as which is faster, that's a hardware problem. There's no reason a hardware generated number can't be faster. Is it in practice? For most consumer products, probably not.\n\nHow does hardware do it? The only way I know needs a noisy circuit you take a sample from at a regular frequency. If the circuit is high, it's a 1, if it's low, a 0. There's your bits for generating a random binary value. Faster hardware samples at a faster frequency, but there's an upper limit, where you end up sampling faster than the circuit can transition, and end up with blocks of zeros or ones. What sort of circuit is noisy? Well, you can use a radio antenna, I guess, but that can be influenced too easily by the user with some amature radio knowledge. Nope, I prefer the good ol' noisy diode. The thing flickers on and off at random, and isn't easily influenced.\n\nThere is a place for each way to generate random numbers. Clearly, if you want to reproduce the sequence, as for many crypto algorithms, then pesudorandom is the way to go. If you're generating a one time key, then true random is probably better. If you need speed, then which ever is fastest. Portability? Pesudorandom (not all hardware has a true random generator available). You can also change code faster and cheaper than you can change hardware. Software is also more consistent than hardware, if multiple platforms are supported, some hardware generators perform better than others. Maybe you're working with algorithms that are sensitive to the distribution and period of some weaker pesudo random generators, or a specific pesudo random generator...\n\nSo, you weigh the costs and benefits, and choose from whatever is adequate for your needs." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cszypva", "ct00etf", "ct02i0l", "ct02o51", "ct02p0k", "ct040ij", "ct060el" ], "score": [ 217, 16, 36, 2, 5, 5, 5 ], "text": [ "It has no other nutrients. So they're malnourished. And they don't eat. And I've seen plenty of fat alcoholics. You're taking about poor alcoholics that can't afford food and booze. ", "I believe we're talking more about late stage alcoholism here, where the alcoholic just drinks and doesn't eat. Also.... a lot of alcoholics get into other drugs like coke or meth which keep weight down. However, I am not aware that alcoholics are underweight as a group.", "In moderation, alcohol is metabolized using the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. The alcohol combines with NAD to produce acetaldehyde and NADH. The NADH goes into your respiratory system and produces ATP, which is what provides the calories in the alcohol. \n \nWhen binge drinking alcohol, the body treats the substance as a drug and metabolizes it with a different pathway. Rather than using a reaction that *creates* NADH, the body uses a microsonal ethanol oxidizing system (MEOS), which *uses up* energy (takes NADPH and produces NADP). \n \nAnd because energy in versus energy out is what determines weight loss and weight gain, an energy deficit would cause weight loss in a person. Since alcoholics are frequently metabolizing through MEOS, they have a net loss of energy.\n\n**Edit:** for the sake of this post, energy=calories", "I lost about 10 pounds wen I quit drinking beer every night for two years hah now I just pour myself a glass or two of rum which is killing myself a little slower now and I don't gain weight (^_^)", "Another factor is that for many people, continuous alcohol consumption kills the taste for sweet foods.", "I was recently diagnosed with alcoholic hepatitis. I had lost a ton of weight, was always fatigued, dizzy and threw up daily. I thought I had diabetes actually. I couldn't eat at all. I was honest with my doctor about my consumption. He said the booze was taking the place of food. I had just been through a bad breakup and was self medicating. I think the low weight is more likely to be seen in extreme cases of alcoholism. I drank all day and night. Lots of people who are depressed also don't eat. I'm one of them so I guess my weight loss was a combination of excessive alcohol and depression. ", "A lot of alcoholics just drink and often do other drugs as well, but they don't eat. The nutrient deficit leads to a lot of problems such as wernicke korsakoff encephalopathy, which essentially develops because the person doesn't consume enough Thiamine/Vitamin B1 for their brain to work properly. When admitting alcoholics to the ward we always have to clarify their bowel habits, \"When was the last time you passed stool/pooped?\", \"Oh, yeah, that was like a week and a half ago\", \"Why do you think it's been so long?\". They'll either say they don't know but their stomach has been killing them or they'll say it's because they haven't eaten anything for just as long, so we need to figure out it they have a GI problem on top of the alcohol consumption or if they just need lunch." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "eh18qhb", "eh1ae2z" ], "score": [ 3, 10 ], "text": [ "They're helping players keep time and indicating when they should be performing big changes or when certain section of instruments are supposed to be joining according to the music. Helps keep everyone on track.\n\n*Very generally* the arm movement direction indicates what \"count\" they are on. So, up is 1, down is 2, left is 3, right is 4 if it's a 4 count piece. ", "Its for tempo and direction. A conductor will keep his tempo and motion to a certain section to direct them to play. The direction can also express sound level. The larger more animated the louder he wants them or a certain section to play, and vice versa. He can also direct individuals in certain sections of a song. In practice, you as a member of the orchestra learns the conductors signals and movements. Many pieces of music have tempo changes so its also helpful to get direction when that happens. If there is a mistake in tempo, if everyone is following direction then at least everyone is off and unnoticeable by most audience members." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c2ajde0", "c2ajepq", "c2ajlvm", "c2ake71", "c2akiqb", "c2ajde0", "c2ajepq", "c2ajlvm", "c2ake71", "c2akiqb" ], "score": [ 56, 14, 4, 10, 15, 56, 14, 4, 10, 15 ], "text": [ "I assume you don't really need a plot explanation, more of a meaning explanation, right?\n\nThere's a boy named Donnie who most people think has trouble telling the difference between what's real and what's pretend. He has an imaginary friend who wears a bunny suit, named Frank. Frank takes him for a walk. Frank tells him that the world is going to end. When Donnie goes home it turns out that going on a walk saved his life. By not dying, an alternate reality was made. \nHis doctor gives him medicine to help Donnie tell the difference between real and pretend but instead of getting better, Donnie sees more make believe things. Frank encourages Donnie to do some things that are bad but those bad things turn out to be good for many people. When Donnie did those bad things he only knew about the bad consequences. Frank takes the mask off his bunny suit and it looks like someone hurt his face really bad. Frank tells Donnie that time travel exists.\nOn Halloween, Donnie is walking with a friend and his friend gets hit by a car. The driver who gets out looks like Frank but he doesn't know Donnie and his face isn't hurt. Donnie is sad about his friend being hit by a car so he hurts Frank's face.\n Donnie knows that today is the day Frank said the world would end. Donnie is sad about all the bad things that happened since going on that walk with Frank, so Donnie sends an airplane back in time to when he went on his walk with Frank. The difference is that this time Donnie didn't go on a walk with Frank. Instead, Donnie dies. Because of this, the alternate reality with all the bad things is avoided.\n\nHope that clears it up.", "I don't know how \"For a 5 year old\" this is, but it's the best Donnie Darko walkthrough I've ever read. \n\nWarning: It's f'ing LOOOONG.\n\n_URL_0_", "I literally just watched this last night, thought the same thing, and found this: (_URL_0_)", "Little advice: watch the directors cut. For whatever reason, the regular version cuts out all the parts of the movie that actually allow it to make sense. The directors cut has clips of whats actually in the book Donnie finds on time travel, and it explains the plot well.", "Wibbly wobbly, timey wimey.", "I assume you don't really need a plot explanation, more of a meaning explanation, right?\n\nThere's a boy named Donnie who most people think has trouble telling the difference between what's real and what's pretend. He has an imaginary friend who wears a bunny suit, named Frank. Frank takes him for a walk. Frank tells him that the world is going to end. When Donnie goes home it turns out that going on a walk saved his life. By not dying, an alternate reality was made. \nHis doctor gives him medicine to help Donnie tell the difference between real and pretend but instead of getting better, Donnie sees more make believe things. Frank encourages Donnie to do some things that are bad but those bad things turn out to be good for many people. When Donnie did those bad things he only knew about the bad consequences. Frank takes the mask off his bunny suit and it looks like someone hurt his face really bad. Frank tells Donnie that time travel exists.\nOn Halloween, Donnie is walking with a friend and his friend gets hit by a car. The driver who gets out looks like Frank but he doesn't know Donnie and his face isn't hurt. Donnie is sad about his friend being hit by a car so he hurts Frank's face.\n Donnie knows that today is the day Frank said the world would end. Donnie is sad about all the bad things that happened since going on that walk with Frank, so Donnie sends an airplane back in time to when he went on his walk with Frank. The difference is that this time Donnie didn't go on a walk with Frank. Instead, Donnie dies. Because of this, the alternate reality with all the bad things is avoided.\n\nHope that clears it up.", "I don't know how \"For a 5 year old\" this is, but it's the best Donnie Darko walkthrough I've ever read. \n\nWarning: It's f'ing LOOOONG.\n\n_URL_0_", "I literally just watched this last night, thought the same thing, and found this: (_URL_0_)", "Little advice: watch the directors cut. For whatever reason, the regular version cuts out all the parts of the movie that actually allow it to make sense. The directors cut has clips of whats actually in the book Donnie finds on time travel, and it explains the plot well.", "Wibbly wobbly, timey wimey." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.salon.com/entertainment/movies/feature/2004/07/23/darko/index.html" ], [ "http://www.themoviegoer.com/donnie_darko.htm" ], [], [], [], [ "http://www.salon.com/entertainment/movies/feature/2004/07/23/darko/index.html" ], [ "http://www.themoviegoer.com/donnie_darko.htm" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cpt4tyi" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "Repetition enforces memorization, they don't want potential customers to forget the number after the commercial." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cqw5r5j", "cqwa7ot", "cqwfqn5" ], "score": [ 9, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "In some fields, there is an idea that tests should be very hard. This is especially true in introductory classes, where part of the goals of the class are to identify truly exceptional students and to deter borderline students who ultimately won't be able to deal with higher level material. \n\nMath is one of these. By making extremely hard tests---that are designed without the average student score in mind---any truly exception student has space to shine, and everyone else gets scared shitless when they are getting 40s on their tests, giving them a realistic sense of how hard the material is. The curve is thrown in because the school doesn't want to go too far and end up failing everyone that they weeded out, especially if the course is required for other majors. \n\nOf course, there are many who think that this approach to teaching is bullshit, and that these fields would be better off focusing more on actually instructing than just weeding out. But, as to your question, it's not (usually), the professors fault or a reflection that they aren't teaching the way they are supposed to. So they don't get fired. ", "À better question is why would they let professors curve the grades? University is supposed to be hard and difficult to graduate. ", "Many professors (And TAs) specifically design tests like this, and in a weird way, other than the effect on morale, it helps the students.\n\nThink of it this way: If you have an exam, where almost everyone gets a 100, if you make a minor, inconsequential mistake, or are having a bad day, you might be at the bottom of the class. Since the professor can't give out a whole class of A's (grade inflation is bad and also hurts the students in the long run because anything below a 4.0 becomes a sign of failure), you get a B, when your test score was only a B+ or A-.\n\nInstead, consider a test that everyone gets about a 50 on, everyone likely won't be grouped right at 50, but running the gammut from 25 to 75. This makes the spread between students larger, and the importance of those small mistakes matter less. As a result, students get grades in the end that are a better indicator of how they performed in the class.\n\nSource: TA" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d2rjte3", "d2rjuy2" ], "score": [ 13, 2 ], "text": [ "People sleep 1/3 of the day. Just by statistics, one third of the \"people who die while never showing any symptoms\" for any sudde health problem will die in their sleep.", "I get that there are causes but my question is more about is there a reason you're prone to die sleeping but while you're awake you seem fine is it easier to die sleeping for some reason because you're so relaxed?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cn1ojfs", "cn1plvf", "cn1pwwu" ], "score": [ 7, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "cause they don't floss and brush their teeth. that bit of tendon that come from the racoon a week ago is still stuck between his teeth. same like when you eat beef stew and that one sliver of meat just got between your teeth. except you use a toothpick or floss or brush it out. ", "Bad breath is caused by tiny particles of food that stick to your tongue and gums. Over time they smell worse and worse. Chances are wild animals aren't brushing these away or using mouthwash to get rid of them.", "If you didnt brush your teeth after licking your butt you too would have bad breath.\n\nSeriously though it is as others have said, meat and other food particulate stuck in teeth rotting or being devoured by bacteria. It makes for a funky fresh scent." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "di4a5zr", "di4b1qz", "di4ca73", "di4d586" ], "score": [ 6, 84, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "Sometimes there's no one else available to teach that subject. In my high school French class we didn't have a real teacher for most of the year. We had a couple who didn't speak French, and one who was the Spanish teacher. ", "Because someoene who is talented as a teacher can and does do a much better job of teaching than someone who is proficient, yet sucks at teaching.\n\nI remember two Spanish teachers. One was a native speaker that was studying for a Masters in Spanish literature, but totally failed as a teacher, because he was bad at teaching.\n\nThe other wasn't terribly fluent in Spanish, but was very good at explaining things and doing the exercises from the textbook. This non-fluent teacher once was asked by the fluent one to explain some grammatical concepts to him that he grew up being able to speak perfectly well, but he didn't understand the concepts behind the grammar that the non-fluent teacher had learned from studying grammar books.\n\nSo a non-proficient teacher that is good at teaching and can read and understand the textbook and associated books can do a much better job teaching the basics of a subject than someone who knows a great deal about it but is unskilled at teaching.", "In my state our district takes a hit on our MSIP report (our rating score) if we have teachers who aren't certified for their positions. \n\nTo gain the certification, you need to take a test. I've taken three tests. I took a test certifying I can teach 5-9 grades (I understand middle school philosophy) plus I took two high school content tests, thus certifying me 5-12 in two content areas. I could teach any classes under those umbrellas and be considered highly qualified, even though I only went to school for one of the content areas. \n\nIn most districts we strive to hire certified people. Math and science are the hardest to fill. The state can grant a temporary certificate, but then you have a certain amount of time to complete your certification or you will be uncertified. You can still teach, your district just loses points. \n\nIn respects to schools moving people around, I've been moved up and down grade level to cover areas of need and because my cert is broader than others. Some teachers get switched to a different subject because their position may be eliminated and they have tenure and accept a spot with a promise to become certified. \n\nNo school wants to do this. It just happens, especially in areas with shortages. ", "Depends on the type of school.\n\nPublic schools K-12: require teachers be state certified, having passed a series of exams and earning additional credits through professional development throughout the years. \n\nCharter schools K-12: may or may not required that same certification. It just depends on the charter.\n\nPrivate schools K-12: Most do not require certification, but if the job market is packed, they may choose certified teachers over non-certified teachers. \n\nWeird situations: Let's say that every algebra teacher quit right before the school year starts. To fill that section, a school is usually allowed to hire a teacher on conditional license. In essence, they can teach 1 - 3 years before getting those tests completed, depending on the school.\n\nCommunity College: Requires a minimum MA/MS/MFA, etc or terminal degree, plus +18-20 graduate credits in the subject matter (for most areas - not for workplace ready degrees). So, if someone has a MA in Humanities, but also took 18+ credits in History, they can also teach History. \n\nUniversity: Requires a terminal degree for TT (Tenure Track) positions and most other positions. MAs/MSs *can* also find jobs as adjuncts, but are usually given lower level courses. However, most markets are saturated with PhDs. Depending on the size of the school, those lower lower courses will most likely go to grad students working toward PhDs or similar, while ABDs/PhDs work on research, publication, etc.\n\nTerminal Degree = The highest degree in a particular field." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dxc5bft", "dxc5qti" ], "score": [ 5, 32 ], "text": [ "Chemical weapons attack you by either nerve agents, blistering, or even choking agents. It is very painful and when dispersed are not very strategic. This leads to a large effected area. This not only kills and maim combatants but innocent civilians. \n\nWhile other conventional attacks are directed directly toward enemy combatants and reduce collateral damage to the most extent possible. ", "Chemical weapons are any weapon that attacks with a chemical, such as chlorine or sarin gas. They are bannee for numerous reasons but among them is because they are non discrimination weapons that will contaminate and spread designed to kill people. Most weapons are actually not designed to kill large groups of people instead they are designed to destroy infrastructure or buildings, but chemical weapons will only even kill people, or contaminate land which can have serious environmental effects. And because things like gas can spread or ground water tainted it can have a vast area of effect hitting civilian populations for a long time and far away.\n\nThey are also fairly cruel, they don't all quickly, they are often very painful, and can mutilate. If a victim survives they can often be left with long term or permanent debilitating side effects that can significantly reduce quality of life or shorten it.\n\nOutside really of bullets and shells, a remarkable small amount of weapons target people on a large scale, chemical weapons only target people, cruelly and in a large scale." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ck7pix1", "ck7pmrm", "ck7pomh", "ck7q3jr", "ck7q94r", "ck7qe3j", "ck7u385" ], "score": [ 28, 16, 22, 7, 5, 4, 2 ], "text": [ "The radiation produced from household electronics is non-ionizing. It can't mutate DNA nor can it create free radicals. ", "You'll never be able to convince her, sadly. The harder you try, the more she'll push back. Just like trying to convince any stripe of fundamentalist into converting to any other religion. \n\nHere's some good, rational facts:\n_URL_0_\n\nEDIT: here's one about WiFi as well\n_URL_1_", "Well even if it did turning off your cellphones will do dick to help. Broadcasts are omni-directional and the tower is going to keep on beaming out that juicy cell phone signal whether your phone is on or off.\n\nThe main part of this, though, is that non-ionizing radiation doesn't cause cancer. Some example of non-ionizing radiation include visible light and what your microwave uses.\n\nNon ionizing radiation carries insufficient energy to cause the cellular damage that makes ionizing radiation dangerous and carcinogenic.\n\nReally, though, if she thinks she's a qualified physicist and doctor that knows enough to conclusively state such things odds are good no amount of reason will convince her.", "It is electromagnetic radiation. It's the stuff in nuclear reactors and x-ray machines. However, it's also what allows you to see me. It's what you feel when you warm yourself by a fire or feel the sun. So how can some of it be cancer inducing murder and some of it such an essential part of life since human origin?\n\nIt all has to do with wavelength and amount. It's all little particles. They hit you all the time and thats how all those things above work. And just like bigger objects what matters is how many hit you and how hard. \n\nSo let's make a hypothetical situation for the bad. In the case of large amounts of \"nuclear\" material without any precautions (like a bomb and not like the kinds of protection and shielding present in every nuclear power reactor in the world that makes them safe) this can be bad for you. These are high energy and an abnormally large amount of little things that hit you and damage your body.\n\nThings like radios, wifi, and cell phones are a bit different though. These little particles have much less energy. Imagine a marble hitting you at 100 mph vs a marble hitting you at 1 mph. These devices also require a much smaller number of these particles. This means that comparatively very small numbers of them will hit you. Going back to marbles, one marble hitting you won't hurt as much as 100. \n\nTL;DR: The radiation from these is too weak and there are too few of them to hurt you.\n\nOf course, best radiation is no radiation ever right? Ban the stuff and it's terrible, killing, murderous ways.\n\nBut wait, remember what I said before? It's what lets me see you and it's the warmth from that fire. Not to mention that it comes off of normal everyday objects such as bricks or granite in a much more significant way than electronics. It's an everyday and perfectly normal part of life that won't hurt you. ", "Cell phone and wifi radiation is not high enough energy to do damage to DNA, as opposed to x-rays. It's similar to how thrown bullets won't do damage.\n\nCell phone and wifi radiation are actually in the same range as a standard kitchen microwave. They're just a lot less powerful. Though maybe you shouldn't include that info...", "Your aunt is crazy. There's no point in reasoning with adults that hold irrational beliefs, she's made up her mind & everything you say will be disinformation in her eyes.\n", "Does she have a microwave in her house?\n\nA microwave is orders of magnitude more powerful and potentially dangerous than a cell phone." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cellphones", "http://www.sciencemediacentre.co.nz/2013/12/03/wifi-and-brain-cancer-risk-experts-respond/" ], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dex68jy", "dex6anb", "dex6e6p", "dex6qru" ], "score": [ 7, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Helium is rare, expensive, and irreplaceable once used. Hydrogen is explosive and moderately expensive to produce from water. \n\nAir is cheap, plentiful, widely available, and non-explosive. Why would we use anything else unless there was a specific need? \n\n\n\n", "Helium is expensive, hydrogen can be dangerous to work with, and air is cheap and abundant. And what benefit would using a specific gas in a sport ball have?.", "Air is basically free and inert enough for most pressurized uses.\n\nHelium is only used when it's extremely low density or ultra-unreactive behavior is necessary.\n\nHelium also has an annoying tendency to squeeze through seals and walls, so you'll have to reinflate every few days.", "Why would it be?\n\nIf you're thinking about making things lighter, the effect in most cases will be negligible. For example a basketball inflated with Helium would become about 9 grams lighter. It's about 1.4% of its total weight and could be easily achieved by reducing the amount/type of materials in the ball itself. Regardless, basketballs (as pretty much any ball in sports) is supposed to always be of the same exact weight. For basketball it's 22oz.\n\nAnother aspect, Helium is quite expensive (compared to air) and also its availability is decreasing. So it's better to use it where it's critical (e.g. MRI machines)" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ca0lps4", "ca0m4kc", "ca0myur", "ca0qb2c", "ca0rzpm", "ca0sm4v", "ca0sxj3", "ca0zl8y" ], "score": [ 31, 25, 11, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "The thing about different grades of gas, is you should only use the one your car requires. Believe it or not, 87 will perform better than 93 in a car that's tuned for 87. \n\nWith that being said, some cars require mid-grade. The ignition timing was increased, but not to the point where the owner would have to get the most expensive gas. You'll find this in some domestic luxury vehicles.", "Octane rating has nothing to do with quality. It refers to how easy it is for the gas to detonate in the engine, rather than burn slowly in a controlled manner (which we want to happen). Higher octane allows engine tuners to tune more aggressively and still avoid detonation, so it ultimately gives the engine more power. Some engines are simply tuned to use mid-grade gas.\n\nAlso, if you hear signs of detonation in your engine, moving up to mid-grade could solve the problem.", "Octane-rating doesn't have anything to do with the quality of the gasoline, it is a measure of detonation resistance. Detonation is self-ignition, so basically it starts to burn before the engine intends it to. This can be bad in a number of ways, and cause physical damage to the interior of the engine if it is bad enough or happens long enough.\n\nEngines are typically built and designed (as an entire system) to expect a certain octane-rating fuel; the required octane is determined by a large number of factors of the engine, such as ignition timing, compression, super/turbocharging, power-adders, etc. In-general, higher octane-rating gasoline allows engines to create more power through the use of more aggressive values of the aforementioned factors (more timing, more compression, etc). \n\nTypically your car will have recommended octane-rating in the manual, or printed on the gas-cap. Using a higher octane-rating gasoline than is called for typically will do nothing but waste your money. Using a lower octane-rating than is called for can cause detonation; but typically most engine-management systems will be able to compensate by retarding ignition timing; but it's reactive, it has to detect detonation first before it takes measures to prevent it. ", "ELI5: The octane rating allows the gas to avoid detonation. Car cylinders have a certain size; the more *fuel* and *air* you cram in there the more POWER you can get when it burns. So you try to put in a fair amount and they call that *compression ratio* (it's listed by the number of times more than the natural volume like 10:1). If you have a high compression ratio you need to have a higher octane rating so squeezing all of that gasoline doesn't make it explode before it's ready. ", "For your follow up question: Most US gas stations are delivered 87 (regular) and 91 AKI (premium) gasoline. It is then mixed in equal proportions to deliver 89 AKI (mid-grade) gasoline at the pump.", "There is no advantage in using a gas with a higher octane than your engine is designed for, and actually some disadvantage to it.\n\nThus, if you have an engine tuned for 89 Octane, why would you want to spend extra money on 91 Octane for absolutely no benefit whatsoever?\n", "no no no. your assumption is incorrect. low octane is the standard. higher octane allows more compression before the possibility of early ignition. this is why a lot of sports cars use it. unless your car manual SPECIFICALLY states to use higher octane gas, you should not use it. In fact you will get WORSE fuel economy in a standard car with the high octane fuel.\n\nNinja edit: the reason for lower fuel economy is that the delay in ignition can actually cause the chamber to burn too late and apply force on the piston on the upswing, essentially pushing the wrong way. ", "The short answer is, there's a middle grade in order to allow for more precise engine tunings, which in turn allows customers to get more powerful engines by way of less expensive fuel. The longer answer is, well, longer.\n\nIn order to answer this question you need to understand the basics of how and why internal combustion engines work.\n\nNearly all automobile gasoline engines are four-stroke piston engines. A \"stoke\" refers to the distance a piston will travel from bottom dead center (BDC; the lowest possible point of the stroke where the piston is not moving) to top dead center (TDC, the highest possible point of the stroke where the piston is not moving). A four-stroke engine therefore moves the piston a total of four times, twice up and twice down. These strokes are called intake, compression, ignition, and exhaust.\n\n* At the beginning of the intake stroke, the piston is at TDC. The intake valve opens. As the piston moves downward it creates a vacuum which draws air and fuel into the cylinder.\n* At BDC, the intake stroke ends and the compression stroke begins. The intake valve closes, and the piston is forced upwards. This compresses the air and fuel into a much smaller space in the engine head called the combustion chamber. Combustion chambers are often measured by volume ratio; for example, an engine with \"9:1 compression\" means that for every nine units of uncompressed air/fuel in the cylinder, the engine will compress that into one unit of compressed air/fuel within the combustion chamber.\n* Just after TDC, the compression stroke ends and the ignition stroke begins. A spark is delivered through the spark plug, igniting the compressed air/fuel mixture. The rapidly expanding ball of gas forces the piston back down the cylinder, producing power to turn the crankshaft and therefore drive the vehicle.\n* Just after BDC, the exhaust valve opens and the piston is again pushed up into the cylinder; this is the exhaust stroke. This pushes the spent gasses out through the exhaust valve and into the exhaust system. At TDC the exhaust stroke ends; the exhaust valve closes, the intake valve opens, and the process begins all over again.\n\nStill with me? Good.\n\nThe most important part of understanding the above in relation to your question is the second stroke, the compression stroke. Compression, if you recall your science classes, creates heat. As the air/fuel mixture is compressed during that stroke, its temperature is raised significantly. Since the air/fuel mixture is volatile even without compression, it can very easily spontaneously combust (that is, without firing a spark plug) within the hot confines of your engine.\n\nImagine for a moment that you're an engine piston, happily sliding up and down the cylinder. Behind you is a rod which is attached to the crankshaft; as the crankshaft spins the rod pushes you up and pulls you down again, over and over again, millions and billions of times over. (Yeah, I know, but get your mind out of the gutter for a few minutes.) Things are designed so that when you're JUST starting the ignition stroke, the crankshaft has spun just enough so that when you're driven back down the cylinder the spark plug ignites and explodes that air/fuel misture, and all that power goes towards turning the crankshaft and thus powering the vehicle. Fun, right? But what happens if that air/fuel mixture explodes BEFORE the crankshaft is in the right place? All of a sudden you're in a position where the rod is pushing you up the cylinder, but this powerful expanding ball of gas is trying to push you back down. You're now caught between the proverbial rock and a hard place.\n\nWhat you've just experienced is detonation: the air/fuel mixture gets so hot in even its partially compressed state that it spontaneously explodes before the engine is ready for it. At best, you'll hear engine knock; it'll sound like someone's banging a hammer inside your engine. At worst you can blow a head gasket, crack a piston, bend a rod, shatter a driveshaft, or completely grenade an engine. So, it's pretty important that detonation is reduced to as close to zero as possible.\n\nEngines with higher compression ratios have a greater chance of experiencing detonation than those with lower compression ratios. As the compression ratio increases, so does power output — but so does the heat that's generated during the compression cycle. Hotter engines have a greater likelihood of causing detonation than cooler engines.\n\nSo how does octane play a role in this? The octane rating describes how well the fuel resists detonation. The higher the number, the more resistive to detonation the fuel will be.\n\n* If your engine requires \"premium\" fuel (typically 92 octane) then you know it is a high compression engine, typically 9.0 or higher. If you put lower octane fuel into such an engine the fuel will detonate a lot and you will very likely damage or destroy your engine as a result.\n* If your engine can use \"regular\" fuel (typically 87 octane) then you know it is a low compression engine, typically below 9.0. You can put higher octane fuel into such an engine but there's no point to it; since 87 octane fuel won't detonate in a low compression engine, higher octane fuel won't either.\n\nSo, why is there a \"plus\" fuel (usually 89 octane)? Because the octane/compression ratio rule isn't cut and dry. There have been, and still are, higher compression engines that don't require 92 octane, work just fine with 89 octane, and won't work with 87 octane. Without a \"plus\" fuel owners of such engines would be forced to purchase more expensive \"premium\" fuel for no reason.\n\nHope that helps." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cbcwsmw", "cbd4q9h", "cbd5ewv", "cbd5jyb", "cbd6a5s" ], "score": [ 10, 16, 3, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "In computer science we have a concept called turing completeness. Any computer called turing complete can do any thing another one can (but it might take longer and use more memory).\n\nSo in reality since we have turing complete computers we could already produce incredibly good graphics but it wont happen in real time (kind of like how CGI movies take months to render).\n\nIt could surpass the details of the real world but of course without magnification we'd never be able to see it. You might be interested in looking up fractals which are images which look the same/similar no matter how much you zoom these effectively can have infinite detail and so surpass real world.", "Um, what do you mean by \"surpass the detail of the actual world\"? Wouldn't that be *less* realistic?", "There's a nice little xkcd comic which kind of deals with this topic: _URL_1_.\nI'm not too familar with the concept, but the highest detail that we know of (obviously) is that of the real world. This resolution is at the Planck length, which is the smallest measurable (according to the uncertainty principle) unit of length we know. Btw, the Planck length is far smaller than the scale of the atom or even subatomic particles; we basically have no idea what goes on at the Planck length-one theory is that everything breaks down into 'quantum foam'. So even if it is theoretically possible to have detail surpassing that of the real world, we would have no way of determining it at this point in time. Like I said, I'm not 100% sure of this, so feel free to correct me if I'm wrong. As to the question of if there are other things that could limit how realistic computer graphics can get, you'd have to ask someone else.\nWiki article on Planck length: _URL_0_", "They could not surpass the detail of the actual world. Can't remember exactly where this quote comes from but I think it sums the concept nicely \"The smallest possible completely accurate model of the universe is the universe itself\" It is possible that the resolution of the human eye could be surpassed at some point (about 576 Mega pixels) there are other factors there such as dot pitch (distance between the pixels) and the refresh rate (how often is the screen redrawn) that can effect how realistic the display looks.", "The human eye can only observe so much detail so while I don't think it would be possible to surpass the detail of the actual world (or at least not in the foreseeable, and I'm talking a really long time here, future) it should be possible to get graphics to a detail that the human eye could not distinguish from a real image." ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_length", "http://www.xkcd.com/1204/" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d3k5e3t", "d3k5f9w" ], "score": [ 5, 2 ], "text": [ "Generally water pressure to your house is maintained by your local water company. Depending on city and country they could be a government or private enterprise. \n\nWater pressure is maintained by way of a pump station or simply gravity. It varies depending on a lot of factors, Depending on your distance to your local pump station or plant, your relative elevation, what storey you're on and who else you share it with. Where I used to work potable water is supplied around 400 to 800 kPa.\n\nReducers and valves bring down the pressure inside the house. I'm not actually sure what the maximum pressure at the tap is. Perhaps someone else can fill you in. ", "For cold water in nearly all cases: Because of the pre-pressure adjusted by the water works. The water goes through the system with a pressure of 6bar (x14.5=psi) and reaches the houses with a pressure of 4-5 bar which is enough to achieve a pressure of 1bar in 40m height.\nThe hotwater boiler normally has an own pump to pressurize the water to be able to be used in your faucet. \nIn special cases (higher buildings, own well) you also need a own pressure pump to get the needed pressure." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d134way", "d134xep", "d134zk1", "d13akbe", "d13b36h", "d13c240", "d13cd0p", "d13cd9w", "d13ctb0", "d13d9yx", "d13gc2w", "d13gni7", "d13i7ep", "d13khua", "d13o4dc", "d13zakf" ], "score": [ 6, 1991, 130, 3, 2, 2, 2, 2, 68, 3, 2, 3, 3, 6, 2, 8 ], "text": [ "It is about common features of the images. In the background a robot indexes all the image files on the internet according some mathematical features like colours, complexity and amount of lumination, even some advanced algorithms index and tag them accoding to the objects appearing in the image. When you upload a photo to be reverse searched robot calculates the features that it takes account and makes matches with the indexed and tagged images in its library then lists the results.", "There are 2 parts to it:\n\n * From each image, a \"fingerprint\" is extracted, something that describes the image as uniquely as possible but doesn't change when the image is manipulated (e.g. resized or changed to a different format with a lower color depth).\n * Have an index that allows you to search through millions of fingerprints efficiently to find the closest match to the fingerprint of your search image (the \"efficient\" part is where it gets complicated).\n\nThis is the stuff of active research, many people are trying to find newer and better algorithms for this.\n\nA very simple fingerprint algorithm would be to resize the image to a very low resolution, e.g. 3x3 pixels with 6bits of color depth, i.e. you have 9 pixels and each can have one of 64 colors. And the search would return all images that are identical when resized to that format, which means they have a similar average color in each of the 9 parts that are sized down to 1 pixel.", "Damn good question!\n\nGoogle searches the internet all the time and stores their findings in a huge database (this is called \"indexing\"). They stumble onto a lot of different images that way. Everytime they find a picture, they take as much data as they can from that image and store it. One of these bits of data is the file's \"checksum\". That's when you take a file and add all the bits and bytes that make up the file together according to a specific calculation - usually a so-called \"hash function\", which is more or less unique for that particular file. The amount of possible permutations is enormous - we're talking about sextillions or septillions of different images before you're likely to find a reoccuring checksum (a so-called \"collision\"). \n\nNow, say that you want to know the origin of a certain picture. You upload the image and Google calculates the file's checksum. This checksum is then compared to the checksums google already has in their databases, and any hits are shown in your browser. The downside of this method is that if an image is altered even slightly, it's checksum will be vastly different. So, cropping or resizing would make a picture \"unique\" again in this respect. That's why Google came up with other aspects of pictures to index as well - colors, hue, saturation and EXIF-data (the metadata stored with digital photographs) are indexed as well, as is the context in which a picture is placed on a website - this may help personalize the results to some extent. \n\nAll of these combined form a scorecard, and the most likely \"hits\" are shown. This enables reverse image searches to be succesful most of the time. Quite cool stuff, huh?", "Lots of good explanations here.\n\nOne method used is indexing the pictures into their most basic pixels. For example, a picture might be \"blurred\" down into 4 total black and white pixels. You can then eliminate approximately 15/16 of the possible picture matches by comparing this \"dumbed down\" picture to libraries of the dumbed down version of other pictures. Next, a slightly less \"dumbed down\" version may be used that is say a 4x4 grid of pixels. This would in theory eliminate another huge portion of the remaining matching pictures.\n\nThe greatest issue with this approach is the overhead involved in indexing pictures. It can be done on the fly, however the processing is much more intensive.\n\nOf course there are tons of approaches each with pros and cons. If you happen to come up with a method that doesn't require indexing, is fairly accurate, and is fast, you're one of the most valuable human beings in the world!", "In computer science, a \"hash\" is a value that you derive from a piece of data that \"represents\" it in some sense. Cryptographic hashes are designed to spot even one changed bit. \n\nWhat we want here is a *perceptual* hash, that represents what the image looks like in some general sense. So, small changes should not change the hash very much. [This is how those are calculated for still images](_URL_2_), or another explanation [here](_URL_1_)\n\nOnce we have a \"fingerprint\" for the image, we then stick it in a database and search images against millions of these records. This is done with something like the [Hamming Distance](_URL_3_) - basically the number of bits that would have to change between the hash of a given input and a stored image. The image with the smallest Hamming Distance (fewest changed bits in the hash) is the most similar.\n\nThis idea actually works the same for audio and video as well - we compute a perceptual hash that represents the media somehow, and then try to find the most similar record in the database. This is how YouTube implements its copyright-infringement scanners - they have a big database of works and they look for things that are similar.\n\nThe PHash library implements perceptual hashes for audio, video, and still images. But one really simple code for music is the [Parsons code](_URL_0_) - you describe the pitch of the melody in terms of up/down/same. You can identify most songs after surprisingly few notes.\n\nWith music and video, one problem you may note is that there's no discrete start and end of the hash. What if I take a 30 second clip from the middle of a song, how would YouTube identify that? This becomes a much tougher problem, and it's actually a problem for images too - let's say I crop an image down to Allison Hannigan's face, that would produce a totally different perceptual hash. Picking up cropping or rotation is quite difficult to do.", "One of the best image search algorithms that I have seen uses a \"Kohonen Map\". This is a type of neural network. Basically, the image that you are searching for is used to \"train\" the network. It will then search the data set (Which could be the internet, a private network, files on your hard drive, etc) for other images that match the same patterns seen in the original image.\n\nThis is extremely effective, because not only will it find identical images, it can also find *similiar* images.\nI saw an example online once when someone created a kohonen map, and tested it by training it with a completely blank (all white) image, expecting it to find no results. In fact, it found a match in an image with a model holding up a plain white billboard. It wasn't an exact match, but it was close enough that the neural net registered it as a hit.\n\n", "Imagine you have a book of little pictures (scaled down copies of all of Google's images), and someone gives you another picture (the image for reverse image search). Hold the one picture out at arm's length so that it's the same size as the ones in the book, and squint so everything is blurry. Now pick out the blurry blobs in your book that look like the blurry blob in your hand.", "Every image is unique in a way the colors are distributed. By making the image smaller the colors become prominent that they can be represented in a cryptographic word. By this method one can build a program to find cryptographic words around the web and build an Excel database. When reverse-searching, the user simply has to find the word in the database that represents the image.\n\n\nThere are many different methods and algorithms that are sortable and recognizable. Some of the more sophisticated reverse engines involve data analysis profiles like face and pattern recognition, where even a small portion of the image can be connected to the full picture.", "A reverse image search is known as a Content Based Image Retrieval system. This is the topic of active research.\n\nAn image can be characterized by a set of features. This could be texture, gradients, colours or shapes, or a combination of all of these. These features can be extracted, stored in a database and indexed for later search.\n\nExactly how you decide that two images are similar depends on your algorithms.\n\nExactly what these features look like, depends on what approach you use. OpenCV implements a number of these approaches, which are described at _URL_0_.", "This isn't necessarily the same for all reverse image searches, but Microsoft's [PhotoDNA](_URL_0_) algorithm is a good case study for one approach you might take.\n\nFirst, you need to know what a \"hash\" is. A hash is a method that takes some kind of input (usually the binary encoding of the data you want to hash) and converts it into a fixed length string of seemingly random data. For example, the MD5 hash of the text of my first paragraph is \"a4b83315b65e90e7499d7c30ae5930a2\". As you can see, the resulting hash is gibberish. The key though, is that a good hash will spread the results evenly among all possible hashes (since it's a fixed length, 16 bytes for MD5, there are a finite number of possible hashes). This means you can take arbitrary amounts of data and turn it into an identifier for that data. That identifier also happens to be easy to store and search through because it is fixed length and randomly distributed. So to apply this to image search, you index all the images you want to be able to search by taking the hash of all of them and storing that along with a link to the original image. Then when doing a reverse search, you take the hash of the image you're searching for and look it up in your list of hashes. If you find a match, you verify the image it points to matches, and if so, you've found an identical image. In much less time than it would have taken to compare every image byte by byte, no less.\n\nHowever, there's one problem, which is that even the smallest change to the image will cause it to have a completely different hash. So this method doesn't work for edited images. You have to get clever.\n\nWhat PhotoDNA does is a) convert the photo to grayscale, and b) cut the photo up in a small grid. They then hash each individual cell of that grid. Then when looking for a match to a given picture, they grayscale it and cut it up, and look for matches to all of the cells. If a large enough number of cells match the database, they've likely got a matching picture. Grayscale helps remove the effect of any light colour filter, and the grid lets you match parts of a photo, in case it was cropped or stitched into another image.\n\nI think PhotoDNA goes farther than many general-purpose reverse matching sites, but the basic idea is the same. Turn the photo to match into some sort of signature that is easy to search, then look that signature up in a database of signatures. If you find a match, then you've found a matching photo.", "Many research teams and companies are developing technology to do image recognition and reverse image searches more efficiently. With that said, it's still not a solid science yet. It is getting better though.\n\nThe primary way that it has been done to do is to resize the images to a really low resolution and capture a information about the pixel colors or MD5 hash to get a signature of the image. This works for direct copies of images but it fails when you try to account for crops, skews, or pictures taken with a slight lighting difference or pitch/angle from the first photo.\n\nThis is where image sampling comes in. Generally, the image is resized, but not to such a small scale, (300x300?) and then sampling takes place on the image in a grid form. Parts of the image are sliced out and examined individually. A program is essentially generating many signatures from just little squares of the full image. By doing it this way, you can create a sophisticated data set of information on that image that you can catalog and then query for later when you have another image to compare it with. This allows for you to not only get back the original, exact image you put in, but any images that have similar objects, foregrounds, backgrounds, etc.. depending on your margin of error and filter settings.\n\nExample.. picture of a dog behind grass and trees.. the latter algorithm can help detect other dogs, or other backgrounds with trees, or other images of dogs with trees in them. If you slim down the margin of error and filters, you will get a result set back of the same dog with the same background but maybe you had a photo shoot where you took 50 photos at varying angles.. you should get all those back in your result set as well.\n\nThat's how web services like TinEye work.", "Say you have a 100x100 pixel image = 10,000 total pixels. A program goes through each of these pixels and records the color. This is your image finger print.\n\nThe Internet has millions of indexed images. You compare your finger print to each one of these images. If there is a match then viola!\n\nNote that for even a small 100x100px image there are a staggering number of possible combinations of pixels and colors. Which is why each image is unique. \n\nFor example, say you only had two colors.. Black & White for each pixel. Think of how many combinations you could put these in for all 10,000 pixels!\n\nNow using an 8-bit color spectrum which has over 16 million single color options. Think of how insane the number of combinations could be! Soooo... your image will have a VERY unique fingerprint which is how it can be looked up", "slightly irrelevant but I once copied a picture from google image search, cut out a part and used it on my site... after 5 years or so I got a letter from getty images (legal dept) - I researched and they use a company or technology from israel that scans the whole web for stock photos content", "One way is take an images and break it up into small equal size square chunks. Take an average of the colors in that chunk.\n\nNow you get a new picture and do the same. Search your list for images that share the same values as the new one. \n\nThe smaller the square chunk the more refined and better your results. ", "Unrelated but, if you think reverse image search is funky, go look up waifu2x, i have no idea how that thing works ", "You see the search engine compresses the image for quicker searching. The method used for compression is middle out.\n\nThe easiest way to explain it is if there is a room full of men and you had to jerk them off what's the fastest way. Well I'll tell you.\n\nYou would line the men up across from each other and touch the tips of their dicks together. That way you could grab two dicks with each hand effectively jerking off four guys at once. Also on the downstroke of each cock you hotswap dicks - wasting no motion.\n\nThen you put that in a search engine or something.\n" ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsons_code", "http://bertolami.com/index.php?engine=blog&content=posts&detail=perceptual-hashing", "http://www.hackerfactor.com/blog/index.php?/archives/432-Looks-Like-It.html", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_distance" ], [], [], [], [ "http://docs.opencv.org/3.0-beta/doc/py_tutorials/py_feature2d/py_features_meaning/py_features_meaning.html#features-meaning" ], [ "http://news.microsoft.com/features/microsofts-photodna-protecting-children-and-businesses-in-the-cloud/" ], [], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "emrsczs", "emsd9ih" ], "score": [ 21, 8 ], "text": [ "Fruit came after animals. When dinosaurs started walking the earth there was no grass or trees evolved yet. We think of plants as being evolved first, but modern plants are fairly new", "It’s a good idea when talking about evolution to be careful about giving changes motivations. It seems like a small change but it really flips the entire reality of evolution.\n\nMutations are not usually responses of any kind. They are almost always small random changes that either don’t interfere or offer some survival advantage.\n\nOthers have answers the fossil record portion of this - animals first. I want to explain the why and how and that they are the same. \n\nSome long extinct plant life long ago generated a chubby seed. It did this because some small part of the pattern that makes it grow the way it does is different from the last generation. This random change resulted in this plants seeds having an extra layer of sugars around the seed - there’s no why, it just did. And you know what happened? \n\nNothing. It’s seeds spread like the other plants and there were a few generations of it, but the change didn’t have any impact because this is before animal life. The mutation died out because there was no advantage, so why would it replace the other “old” style of plants with non-chubby seeds? It wouldn’t. It didn’t.\n\nThis proto-fruit, or a first step like it, may have happened many times throughout time. Without that change giving an advantage, like the seed being transported to a new location by an animal, does the “new” style of plant have the opportunity to keep reproducing. If it does then eventually some small change will make a newer generation with chubbier seeds that the animals prefer. Add a lot of time and generations and you get specialized animals and fruits." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d0wmbya", "d0woew2", "d0x3ga8" ], "score": [ 35, 4, 5 ], "text": [ "The problem is that not all customers hate bloatware. And of the ones that hate it, most of them don't actively hate it enough to influence their buying pattern.\n\nA lot of people on reddit hate bloatware. (understandable) A lot of people on reddit are also above average in technological understanding and interest. They are the kind of people more likely to switch apps, read up on different ones, experiment a little. A lot of people who buy phones though are not like this. They are more like my mom. If you'd hand my mom a phone and there is a pre-installed program on it that edits photos, that is the one she will use. Oh, a preinstalled app to check the news? Gonna use that! Because she is not knowledgeable enough to really know what else is out there, nor interested enough / cares enough to find out. These are the customers that are targeted with these bloatware programs and there is a hell of a lot of them out there. \n\nAdditionally, if the bloatware programs are designed by another third party developer, they will be paying these providers to put their programs on there. Because they also know that loads of people will just use the default installed program and behold, now they have users. ", "It's a simple cost-benefit analysis.\n\nThere are a ton of basic users who really don't care one way or another about the bloatware on the phone. These comprise the bulk of the customer base.\n\nThere are software companies willing to pay the phone manufacturer/service provider for the privilege of having their crappy product be the default or only option on the phone.\n\nThey have found that the money they make from selling bloatware slots is more than the money they lose from the subset of customers that refuse to buy phones with bloatware.\n\nIt's a happy (for them) situation that since almost all manufacturers and providers have accepted this model, even the advanced customers don't have many options for bloat-free phones. They don't even really care if you strip the bloatware off after, because they already got the money for shipping it installed.\n", "Side question: Why does Google even allow these manufacturers to install apps that can *not* be removed by normal means? I feel like giving these manufacturers this ability just makes Android as a whole look bad. Getting a new phone now is like going to those old 2001 era websites with a million flashing banner ads and pop-ups.\n\nI know the question is very similar to OP's, but I'm asking specifically why non-removable apps are even a thing?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7acwuc", "c7af4z2" ], "score": [ 7, 2 ], "text": [ "People tend to be more familiar with seeing their image in a mirror, but your mirror image is flipped left-for-right.\n\nWhen you see yourself in a picture or video, you're seeing yourself as others see you, and it can be a little unfamiliar, and therefore disconcerting.", "why even care, man? cant change it anyway so might as well fuck shit up regardless of the way you look" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c6pe3tk", "c6pe4tt", "c6pe8bj", "c6pej99" ], "score": [ 11, 6, 10, 3 ], "text": [ "try this thread _URL_3_\n\nTo answer your particular points...\n\nEvolution means we evolved from the same common ancestors as apes, they are like cousins rather than grandparents. \n\nApes evolved alongside us to fill a niche, like other animals. If there is space and/or a food/energy source a species in that area may adapt. If an animal adapts better to its environment than others it may cause another species to go extinct (by eating or taking its food away) but this has not happened enough to remove every other species.\n\n[try this video about the development of a complex organ like the eye](_URL_1_)\n\nHow do you define a proper animal and a half evolved animal? There is no such thing. There are different steps but an animal is an animal. Evolution doesn't have a grand scheme, it isn't like pokemon where animals pop from one form to a larger and more powerful one, they go through tiny changes over long periods of time with the ones that fit the environment best becoming more dominant. Fossil records will show steps [-like this one for horses-](_URL_0_). \n\nWhich fossil evidence is faked? Bear in mind here that fossil evidence is not essential to evolution as a scientific idea. Genetics is how evolution is really done these days (see [this experiment](_URL_2_) as a good example)\n\nWhat do you mean we don't function on instinct? If you hear a loud noise you are gonna jump and look for the source right? That is certainly instinctive and not taught to you.\n\nAnimals only change in tiny amounts at a time and big changes take long long periods of time, you won't suddenly have fish trying to mate with a fish-lizard-thing if that is what you are thinking of. ", " > If Evolution is true, why are there still apes and stuff?\n\nEvolution is not about producing some super-species, \"superior\" to all the rest. Evolution produces animals *that are adapted to their environment.* There used to be a primate species that both humans and modern chimps evolved from. That species is extinct. One group of that species lived in the jungle, and became adapted to jungle life. They became the chimps. Another group lived on the Savannah, and became adapted to Savannah life. They became humans.\n\n > How did eyes develop; what's the point of a half-formed eye?\n\nAn animal that can detect if it's dark or light out has an advantage over a completely blind animal. Even if it can't detect shapes or colors.\n\n > Why isn't there any real fossil evidence of one animal half-way through evolving in to a different animal?\n\n[Every fossil is a transitional fossil](_URL_0_)\n\n > Why was a lot of fossil evidence faked?\n\nBecause people wanted recognition. But just because some fossil evidence was faked, does not mean all, or even most, fossil evidence is fake.\n\n > Why are humans the only animals who don't function on \"instinct\"? \n\nBecause it was adaptive for us.\n\n > How did half-evolved animals even breed?\n\nThere's never enough genetic difference between one generation, and the next, for breeding to be impossible. You could breed with a human ancestor from thousands, probably even tens of thousands of years ago. You'd have go back hundreds of thousands, or millions of years, before breeding would be an issue.\n\n > Where did religion start?\n\nSub-Saharan Africa, probably.", " > If Evolution is true, why are there still apes and stuff?\n\nThis is like asking \"If America exists, why is there still Europe?\" We both came from the same \"common ancestor,\" but we branched at some point. Imagine this: let's say that a few million years ago, there was one species of apes. One of them decided, in their search for food, to move down from the trees and go out onto the plains. The other stayed in the trees.\n\nMillions of years pass. Different things happen to force them in different directions. Because they're still in the trees, the tree-apes keep their foot-toes, and remain generally four-legged in how they walk, bow-legged, slow on land, but fast at swinging through trees. Why is this? Because every time someone is born with a mutation (a random change in their genes that causes them to be a little different from everyone else) that moves away from that, they're worse at surviving. So they don't have as many kids, so that gene that's worse at climbing and living in trees dies out.\n\nThe plains-ape evolves totally differently. The feet-and-hands form of walking is much worse for them, so over time, those mutations in the tree-apes that died out, instead live on. If you've got straight legs, or better balance because you don't have this thumb hanging off the side of your foot, then you can run faster after food, or get away from predators easier. So you live longer, have more kids, and your genes out-compete the genes of those with tree-appropriate adaptations.\n\nEventually, what you end up with is chimps and humans - humans walk upright, get bigger brains that allow them to use tools, shed their hair in favor of clothing, and learn to run. Chimps are undoubtedly vastly better than we are at living in trees, though, being more mobile, more able to sustain on a lower-energy plant diet (due to a smaller brain, among other things), and the like.\n\nEither way, that first type of ape, the one that split to become both plains-ape and tree-ape, they existed and evolved into both, simultaneously and separately.\n\n > How did eyes develop; what's the point of a half-formed eye?\n\nThere's a lot of point to it. We have a relatively well-preserved record of the evolution of the eye, because a lot of the older forms are still in use today. Chameleons have a light-sensitive spot on the top of their head. Can't detect shape or color, just the amount of light hitting it. They use this to tell when a predator is overhead, between them and the sun. The basic pinhole eye can't detect anything but the most rudimentary shape, but even that's way better than blundering around by touch and hoping not to run into a predator -- or hoping to recognize prey. Other eyes detect only color, not shape - but that can be useful for telling your orientation relative to the sun, or the like. These structures are each useful, they're just not *as* useful as our eyes, which are able to conceive color, shape, light levels, etc. simultaneously. But starting from any one of them, the other features would be advantageous to survival. That's how a \"half-formed\" eye would be useful. JUST light-sensitivity is great. JUST color-sensitivity is great. JUST shape-definition is great. One came first, and the others followed over tens of millions of generations of trial and error.\n\n > Why isn't there any real fossil evidence of one animal half-way through evolving in to a different animal? \n\nBecause every animal is a \"transitional form,\" not an end product. Every animal (humans included) is one data point on a continuing trend towards whatever its next form is going to be. You can't think of it as \"Well, velociraptors existed for a few million years, and then BAM, they transformed into birds.\" Instead, velociraptors were in a long, slow process of transforming into birds. They had scales and teeth, that slowly became unnecessary as they faced different challenges. Their claws became wings because it helped them stabilize, and they didn't need the front claws to capture prey. They shrank because smaller animals were better able to hunt and survive on meager amounts of food. They began to hop and use their feathers (developed for warmth) to keep them on track while hopping. Lighter raptors hopped further. One was born with lighter bones, letting him hop really far. Eventually (and remember, each of these changes is taking place over tens of thousands of generations) this becomes flight.\n\nOur fossil record is a few hundred specimens, of the hundreds of thousands that stand between \"velociraptor\" and \"chicken.\" Every one of those specimens is halfway between one organism and the next, we just see them as fully-functional organisms because that's how we discover them. But they're all changing every generation - just as humans are.\n\n > Why was a lot of fossil evidence faked? \n\nIt wasn't. Some was faked by people looking to make a quick buck. Most of the stuff that's been discredited has been because other scientists looked at the claims and found they didn't add up. Science isn't infallible, it's just the best way of interpreting information right now, based on what we know. At one point, we thought all the universe followed Newtonian laws of motion. Then we found out there were these particles that very clearly didn't, and suddenly we knew that quantum mechanics was more accurate. But Newtonian laws still work for the majority of interactions we can observe - everything from what happens on a pool table to what happens when you fire a bullet or blow up a bomb. It's just not perfect. Nothing is. We're constantly learning and refining our understanding.\n\n > How did half-evolved animals even breed?\n\nThere's no such thing as \"half-evolved.\" Every next generation is subtly different from the one before it. There are brand-new gene combinations every time. The best way to visualize it, I've seen, is like a [color spectrum](_URL_0_). Now, if you look at that, you can tell me what's yellow and what's red, pretty easy. So let me ask you this: can you point to that and tell me *exactly* where red starts? Not really, right? It just gets more and more orange, but there's still some yellow in it - until suddenly it's gone, but it's hard to say if it started on that pixel or the one before it.\n\nThat's what evolution is like. The difference between humans and our common ancestor with chimps constitute hundreds of millions of tiny changes, most so small the organism wouldn't really notice it much, all taking place over millions of generations. Every generation was close enough to the one before it, and the one after it, to be able to breed successfully - and would probably be close enough to the next 50 or 100 or 500 generations to breed successfully, too. It takes a *lot* of differentiation to make it impossible for an organism to breed with a related organism. But eventually, it's not orange anymore, it's red. It's not the common ancestor anymore, it's humans. And that line is very fuzzy (the whole idea of \"species\" is a human invention, not one that really fits 100% with nature), so we can't look at a given organism and say \"Oh yeah, this is clearly 100% red, no yellow whatsoever.\" Heck, to go back to the raptors and chickens - right now, inactive in its genetic code, there's genes in a chicken that will give it teeth and scales. Millions of years, and that stuff is still there, just inactive! You flick a few genetic switches, and you get some fetuses (they never live, due to lacking enough of the other material that makes a raptor) that are clearly closer to lizards than birds.", " > Someone once told me that \"Evolution doesn't mean we evolved from apes.\" Is this true?\n\nThat's true. We evolved from the same ancestor that apes evolved from. We still haven't really found it (The missing link, as it's often called. [We have come close.](_URL_6_)). So in a way humans and apes are cousins on the great evolutionary tree.\n\n > If Evolution is true, why are there still apes and stuff?\n\nAs I said we evolved from the same. Some found out going down from the trees was better. But some stayed behind. We split. Which isn't all that uncommon. A long time ago someone figured out that it would be better to go out of the ocean. Some stayed behind. An equilibrium was reached (A way to look at this is simple: If everyone moved out of the ocean, the land would be crowded and the sea would be really easy to live in. But for the first one to leave the earth is empty and a big playground. Of course, a guy didn't suddenly decided to leave the ocean or the trees. This happened over thousands of years.)\n\n > How did eyes develop; what's the point of a half-formed eye?\n\nThis is actually a good question. And one of the few none obvious points of the theory.\n\nEyes started as eyespots. Eyespots are just cells that can sense light. That's of course a good thing, as it allows you to sense day and night. Eyespots are quite easy to evolve, and it happened lots of times. \n\nThen in a few cases the eyespots evolved. First it learned to find out which direction the light was coming from (the eyespot evolved to lie in a pit). The pit then evolved to a cup, and a chamber(with a small opening). This allows you to see exactly where the light come from. Which is basically sight. The evolution continued like this, in small steps. All of them gives a small advantage. But a small advantage is all that's needed. [You can read a lot more about the evolution here](_URL_5_).\n\n > Why isn't there any real fossil evidence of one animal half-way through evolving in to a different animal? \n\nThis doesn't really make sense. Evolution doesn't happen from one generation to the next. Every time you see someone with a mutation, you are sort of seeing evolution. It's just not all that useful (most of the time). What we do have are animals that are on their ways to evolving most of the traits we consider \"advanced\", such as lungs, eyes, legs, and so on. There are also what's called transitional fossils. Transitional fossils are fossils of animals at the start of major branches (the places where evolution split). [Further reading](_URL_0_)\n\n > Why was a lot of fossil evidence faked?\n\nWell. It wasn't? There are a few cases of fake fossils. And they were faked for fame and fortune mostly (more fame than fortune, I would imagine). There are also some cases of mistaken identity. But it's nothing compared to the number of real fossils discovered. [Further reading](_URL_3_)\n\n > Why are humans the only animals who don't function on \"instinct\"?\n\nBecause it seems this gives us an advantage. Of course, humans aren't really the only conscious creatures, in some ways at least. There are lots of other creatures that show some signs of consciousness. We can sort of trace consciousness as well, seeing how creatures get smarter and more conscious as time goes on. [Further reading](_URL_1_)\n\n > How did half-evolved animals even breed? \n\nOnes again, there are no clear lines. Almost all animals can breed with their parents and siblings (the only real exception being of course sterile animals). But over time you evolve into a different species, which can't do that. [A like this explanation.](_URL_4_)\n\n > Where did religion start?\n\n\nThere aren't really a clear consensus about what made us religious. It can be multiple things. Some think it's just a by product of other things that help us, or it might be that religion is actually beneficial (One theory is that it reduces stress). We do however know of a few things that allow us to be religious. \n\nBig brains and language are the most obvious things. Some also argue that tool use are important. The logic is that to to create a tool you need to create a imagine of an imaginary item. We also needed to live together.\n[Further reading](_URL_2_)" ] }

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[ [ "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Equine_evolution.jpg/300px-Equine_evolution.jpg", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7jEhzAn1hDc", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli_long-term_evolution_experiment", "http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/pcxo7/im_a_creationist_because_i_dont_understand/" ], [ "http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CC/CC200.html" ], [ "http://www.colortools.net/img25/spectrum_chart.jpg" ], [ "http://evolutionwiki.org/wiki/Transitional", "http://www.peterrussell.com/SCG/EoC.php", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions", "http://evolutionwiki.org/wiki/Fake_Fossils", "http://i.imgur.com/xWpvw.jpg", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye", "http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2062514/Revealed-The-face-missing-link-ape-man.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "fjxw0no", "fjycffp", "fjyndpg", "fjyusb6", "fjyw01m", "fjyxuqp", "fjz2d30", "fjz60sk", "fjzhtzm", "fjzlnt9", "fk03hwq", "fk0c8v8", "fk0eh1t" ], "score": [ 5635, 167, 58, 6, 40, 8, 3, 3, 3, 4, 3, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "First, we need to make sure we know what an earthquake is: it’s the buildup and sudden release of energy causes by two tectonic plates interacting with each other in any direction. \n\n\nThe boundaries between tectonic plates are not a clean, uniform “slice” like you would make in a cake. The boundaries are more like what you see if you dropped a dinner plate and it cracked in half. The edges will be random and have parts that go to one side or the other. Still, for the most part the plates interact smoothly, and areas that sit on top of them have multiple “micro quakes” on a daily basis, as the plates move. Sometimes, however, there is an interaction between the two at a point where neither side is able to move; this causes a buildup of (potential) energy. When one side finally gives way, there is a release of energy from that single, relatively small point, which is the “epicenter”. This release of energy causes shockwaves (for lack of a better term) to travel outward from the point of release, kind of like ripples in a pond; those waves are the actual earthquake", "The plates are elastic, and jagged at the boundaries, when they move across each other the pointy shape of the edge means they get caught up at certain spots, the slow motion of the plates causes tension to build up at the snag until friction cannot hold anymore and it lets loose all at once in that spot; the epicenter,", "When the edges of the tectonic plates press against each other, the bedrock at the edges may shift or crumble, but certain areas build up potential energy.\n\nEventually that energy can be released violently in bursts creating earthquakes and aftershocks. These geological vibrations actually occur along a lenglth of the fault or at multiple points, but the epicenter is not necessarily the \"point of origin\" of an earthquake. Rather it is the averaged locus of activity. It would be impractical to try to relate all the data of relative motion along the fault to the layperson, so the \"epicenter\" is the approximate middle point of the area affected by geological turbulance.", "The epicenter is the point on the surface of the earth that is closest to where the earthquake starts. That is all. \n\nThe energy released from an earthquake will actually come from the sections of the fault that slipped. So if you have an entire fault slip, you essentially have multiple “epicenters” all along the fault as the the slippage rips through the fault.\n\nEpicenters are really only useful for small quakes. In large ones, it’s all about the fault line.", "Earthquakes are rarely the entire giant plate moving. They're usually not even right on the edge between two plates. Rather, they happen along cracks in the bedrock (called faults) *near* the actual plate edges that are much smaller than the entire plate boundary. But even then, most earthquakes aren't from movement along the entire fault.\n\nFaults are very rough surfaces with lots of friction (like velcro), so when an earthquake happens it usually happens in a relatively small area of the fault. Small enough to look like a point on a map. But if you could zoom in enough, you would see it's still an **area** of the fault the moved, not just a **point**. So you're thinking along the right lines!\n\nIn fact, with very large earthquakes (the ones that *do* happen at the actual plate boundaries) like the 2004 Boxing Day Earthquake in Sumatra, geophysicists have mapped out what parts of the plates actually did the moving, like here: [_URL_0_](_URL_1_). The epicenter points (stars) show where each earthquake *started* moving, but the colors show everywhere that moved, and how much. The earthquake itself was actually a lot like the earth zipping up: it started zipping up at the star, then kept zipping northward. Interesting fact about that earthquake, the area that \"zipped\" is approximately the same size as the area that could get \"zipped\" in the Pacific Northwest. ([_URL_2_](_URL_2_) )\n\nBy the way, aftershocks are the (usually) smaller earthquakes that happen after the main one because the rock on either side of the fault isn't done shifting around. The main earthquake moved the rock in one area, which made another area unstable, so it moves too. Then another, and another. Aftershocks can happen for days or weeks after a big earthquake.", "Take a comb, press it against your skin or some fabric, push it forward until some of the teeth straightens out again. (If that doesn't happen, push it forward a little and then put less pressure on it, or maybe a slightly uneven surface like a rock or wood) The rest of the teeth are still under tension, but locally that tension broke. This is what happens between two plates.", "When rocks are as big as continental plates, they stop being so rigid. On those scales, they flex like plastic. Also, a fault isn't a single line, but a ragged crack that's filled in by other rocks. As a plate slides along, it runs into or against another plate, and they push against each other. They flex like plastic, like I said, and eventually the tension builds up too much. The tension releases in one spot, since other spots aren't pushing against each other as hard.", "In the spirit of the sub, I'll be a little simple. I get that it's more complicated than what I'm about to say, but other comments have already filled in those gaps. Consider this entry level before you read the others.\n\nSo, there are a lot of ways earthquakes can happen. Either plates push against each other, they pull apart from each other, they scrape along each other, or one goes on top of the other.\n\nWhen they push against each other, you get mountain ranges where the plates meet. If you take two sponges and push them against each other, they'll start to wrinkle. Those are the mountains. Since this happens so slowly, this usually happens most at a specific point, the epicenter. Earthquakes are somewhat frequent around these boundaries. For an example, see the Himalayas.\n\nNext, some plate boundaries pull apart. When this happens, lava comes in and fills the cracks. Generally, this process doesn't encounter much resistance, so you get volcano ridges, and plenty of eruptions and perpendicular faults where the spread isn't happening equally. Earthquakes are generally minor, but volcanoes are common. See Iceland for an example.\n\nWhen plates scrape each other, the jagged edges hook into each other and keep it from moving well. When one of those teeth snaps, you get an earthquake with an epicenter at that tooth. Earthquakes here are frequent, and can be severe, but not the most severe. Sometimes, the plates can even move unimpeded and without earthquakes. For a general example, see the San Andreas fault. For a specific one about the no earthquakes, check out Hollister, California.\n\nLast are the ones where a plate is moving on top of another. The edge of the top plate is where we consider the boundary to be. If the jagged top and the jagged bottom get stuck, they'll build up energy in the top plate like a ruler at the edge of a table. Push down with your finger until your finger slides up, and the whole thing snaps back up. These are the most severe kinds of earthquakes, but they're the most rare. Most of the Pacific rim has these kinds of faults. When an earthquake happens here, you can get a \"full margin rupture\", where the entire plate boundary snaps up. But you can also get only a partial rupture. Either way, the movement happens on a line, not a point. So we can compare it to other earthquakes, we measure where the movement was greatest, and call that the epicenter.", "Where is my favorite Redditor /u/theearthquakeguy?", "Think of sliding two uneven pieces of wood past each other. One piece gets snagged on the other. You keep applying force, eventually the spot where they are snagged breaks and the wood moves quickly. This is an earthquake along a transform boundary like the San Andreas fault. The spot that snagged is the epicenter.", "Lots of over complication going on here. Earthquakes involve movement along a fault plane. The epicenter is the point on the ground above where that movement begins.", "Actual ELI5: Take a strand of dry spaghetti. Bend it until it snaps. Did it shatter equally all along the strand? No, it snapped at one, maybe two points. It was at either the points where the most pressure was applied and/or the weakest points of the strand. \n\nSame principle applies with fault line pressure. The epicenter is the point where the losing plate gives way, and is either the weakest point or the point under the most pressure.", "ELI5: Consider moving parts in a machine, sliding against each other. Typically, they are smooth and well oiled, and slides easily and smoothly, even under stress.\n\nNow, hit the parts with a big hammer, so they get some nicks in them. For most of the time, they'll still slide smoothly, but occasionally, these nicks will snag. When that happens, the sliding will stop and the energy put into trying to make it slide will instead cause deformations, basically like a rubber band or spring. At some points, the snag can't hold the force, it'll release, and all that energy dropped into deforming it will be released as well.\n\nNow, we all know what happens when we release a stretched rubber band...\n\nThe trick is to not think about tectonic plates as rigid solids, they are just \"mostly rigid\", at least on this scale." ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [ "https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Slip-maps-of-the-December-26-2004-and-March-28-2005-Sumatra-earthquakes-with\\_fig1\\_239556479", "https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Slip-maps-of-the-December-26-2004-and-March-28-2005-Sumatra-earthquakes-with_fig1_239556479", "https://archive.usgs.gov/archive/sites/soundwaves.usgs.gov/2005/03/outreach.html" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cyufpja", "cyugx5y", "cyukwro" ], "score": [ 6, 8, 2 ], "text": [ "We don't know precisely, but the concept is known as abiogenesis. \n\nOne thing to keep in mind is that there's not really a hard and fast line between 'live matter' and 'dead matter.' Rather, life is matter undergoing a number of particular self-sustaining chemical reactions, that have become fairly complex over time.", "Abiogenesis is, literally, \"dead stuff turning into alive stuff\". Pretty much everyone (apart from the loonies) will admit that at one point in the past, life did not exist. Therefore, abiogenesis must have happened. HOW it happened is still something of a mystery.\n\nThere are a handful of plausible scientific theories, each with varying amounts of evidence backing them up. It turns out to be a very very difficult problem to study. The earliest proto-life must have been a loose assemblage of self-sustaining chemical reactions in a liquid, and those don't leave fossils for us to study. The best we can hope to do is to try to figure out how it *could have* or *probably* happened. Hard evidence for how it actually *did* happen is long gone, and barring a time machine, we'll probably never know with 100% certainty what happened.\n\nAnyway, most theories revolve around a complex \"soup\" of chemicals that would have been found on the primordial earth. These chemicals can react with each other, making new chemicals that can react in new ways. Throw in cyclic inputs of energy, like tides or lightning or night and day or thermal vents at the bottom of the ocean, and maybe chemical catalysts like particles of clay, and a few hundred million or so years, and these systems could tend toward \"life-like\" behavior. Various computer models have suggested that far from being a wildly unlikely accident, life emerging from a system like this might actually be almost inevitable given the right conditions. For more detailed information, I'll refer you to the lecture course on Origins by Professor Robert Hazen from (I think) The Teaching Company, which is *excellent*. Also, although it's 20 or so years old now, the book \"At Home in the Universe\", by Stuart Kauffman.\n\nIn the interest of completeness, I should add that some people (creationists) feel that this idea is absolutely ludicrous and stupid, and only a moron would consider it for a moment. They would argue, instead, that it makes FAR more sense to believe that an invisible giant snapped his fingers and magicked us into existence one day when he was bored. I leave that decision up to you.", "I read that life started with two things: \n\n1. \"self-replicating\" molecules. These were molecules which formed when the parent molecule (composed of, let's say, two bound molecules) had two binding sites for these same two separate molecules. Binding to the parent molecule allowed them to come close enough together to react and form a second parent molecule. The second parent molecule would then detach and the cycle would begin again. \n\n2. Micelles--you know how soap makes bubbles? That's essentially what cell membranes are (except soap bubbles are mono-layers and cell layers are double). As more micelle-forming molecules accumulated, they probably enclosed more and more molecules. Kind of like a very, very early cell. But I'm not too sure about this part.\n\nA super-interesting theory that's been coming to light is that the molecules needed for life as we know it (adenosine, thymidine, guanosine and cytosine) were formed on comets. Comets are icy rocks hurtling through space; as they're flung around suns they heat up, partially melt, then as they freeze again they concentrate little bubbles of molecules (mainly HCN) in very tight spaces, allowing them to react. HCN (hydrogen cyanide) is extremely abundant in space, and has been found in large quantities on comets (comet Halley for example). Boiling pure HCN has been known to produce adenosine (in surprisingly high yields) for decades now. Comets most likely brought all of the water we see today to earth (early earth was so hot all of its own water, if it ever had any before the comets, would have boiled away). Given the enormous amount of water on earth, it's plausible that all complex organic material is also from comets.\n\nThe freezing and thawing cycles of comets are certainly much more likely conditions to produce life than pools (or even seas) of very dilute molecules.\n\nYay comets!" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cv863i3" ], "score": [ 13 ], "text": [ "That worked OK when you were selling large areas of mostly unexplored and unpopulated territory (or land populated by natives who didn't recognise either the old or new countries). How do you think the US citizens in any border state would react now to being told \"hey, you're all Canadians now because we sold you to Canada, better move if you want to stay American\"?\n\nPerhaps the closest modern example was Hong Kong being returned to China. However, that happened because part of the colony was leased from China, so it had always been known when that lease would expire." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ecttz35", "ecu314r", "ecu35iu", "ecu4hnv", "ecu4uwv", "ecu5me5", "ecu6h7x", "ecu6wz8", "ecu8jwk", "ecuawm1", "ecuki18", "ecv0sud" ], "score": [ 276, 15, 27, 88, 15, 13, 3, 37, 2, 2, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Ok I’ll attempt it. \n\nSo Pac was to rap music what Elvis was to Pop Music \nAt the height of his fame he was involved with a rivalry with The Notorious BIG who was his equal. \n\nThink Lionel Messi and Ronaldo.\n\nHe was a symbol of rebellion and anti establishment. He wore his heart on his sleeve and put it down on record. His infamy was heightened when he was shot in a New York recording studio, in the same building Biggie smalls and Junior mafia were, speculation increased that it was biggies crew who did this.\n2 Pac went to prison to serve a sentence for alleged sexual assault. Whilst inside Biggie released the song ‘who shot ya’ as well as his debut album Ready to die.\n\nOnce 2 Pac got out he released arguably his most influential album All Eyez on me, as well as the song Hit em up, a diss song to Biggie, Junior Mafia & Mobb Deep.\n\nThis ramped up the east coast vs west coast beef.\n\nAfter his death following a shooting in Las Vegas in 96. His legacy shone for the rest of the hip hop world to follow. He was an icon in a relatively new genre of music. He influenced so many in years to come, he carried an entire coast on his back and is regarded as the Greatest rapper of all time. \n\nHendrix, Jim Morrison, Cobain, are all in the same bracket as Pac for the legacy he left\n\nNot only did Pac create some of the best west coast albums he created some of the best hip hop and albums period.\n\nStart with All Eyez on Me, Then 7 day theory, Then me against the world. \n\nTHUGGGG LIFFFFEEEEE", "Shouldn't be explaining gangster rap to a 5 year old, but his lyrics are amazing, his vocals are great and his beats were dope.\n\nIf you even have to ask it's best to just listen to an album or two and find out for yourself.\n\n\"Dear Mama - 2pac\" is a good song to start with. It tells a deeply personal story of his mom growing up. Our English teacher even read it in class in the late 90's. ", "Tupac and his “fuck you” and “fuck it” attitude were perfect for me and how I felt at the time. I started shaving my head because Pac did. I smoked weed because Pac did. His lyrics were deep spiritually and emotionally. He was a poet. And near his death he was preaching more about unity and diversity which stuck with me after his death. He was a great artist and has over 4000 recorded songs we haven’t heard yet. “Changes” is a great song, meant to be on All Eyez On Me, but PAC hated it. He was a perfectionist and we haven’t heard the best from him yet. ", " > I cry at times I once contemplated suicide,\n\n > and woulda' tried but when I held that 9, all I could see was my momma's eyes\n\n > No one knows my struggle, they only see the trouble\n\n > Not knowin' it's hard to carry on when no one loves you\n\nhis music was great, he had so many sides to show us, he was the voice of the streets, but also the voice that pretty much any marginalized or misfit could relate to", "Just read the lyrics to Keep Ya Head Up and realize he wrote that over 25 years ago. He was on the path to being a revolutionary in the black community and society in general. Died too soon.", "Basically because 22 years later the issues and problems of society Pac pointed at and criticised are as present today as they were when he wrote about them.\n\n “Cops give a damn about a negro? Pull the trigger kill a nigga he's a hero” “Can't a brother get a little peace? It's war on the streets and the war in the Middle East. Instead of war on poverty they got a war on drugs so the police can bother me” \n\nThe lyrics are as biting and as relevant to the listener in 2018 as they were when written in 92. Songs about hanging out by the pay phones or taking your date out for a chocolate soda and a drive through movie are unrelatable now but many listeners especially young male minorities will feel much of the same frustrations and anger at being treated like a second class citizen in their own countries much the same as Tupac protestsed and fought against.\n\nEdit: Stoies like Pac shooting two law breaking police officers in the ass AND WALKING FREE never hurt to make you a permanent hood legend ", "Mostly because he died young. I liken him very, very much to Kurt Cobain. He was the one who came into a genre and shook things up the hardest.\n\nHis music was more honest and emotionally transparent than people were used to, and for that he will always be seen as a wonderful musician.\n\nBut most of all - it's because people love to identify with someone who died too early. People love to proclaim their love for Cobain, Morrison, Joplin and Tupac because it makes that person's death about them. It makes them feel unique because they get to say \"look, I'm a fan and he/she was taken from me.\"\n\nI'm not saying all people are this selfish, but lots and lots of people are. Cobain and Tupac were not the best at what they did. Period. It's the mystery and untimely demise that makes them attractive as icons.", "In addition to what others have said a lot of his music is surprisingly positive despite the thug life lifestyle most people associate with him.\n\nI would recommend checking out changes, hold ya head up, baby don't cry, and Brenda's got a baby for some good examples of that. \n\nThe last 3 of those listed are very empathetic towards women which goes against common rap stereotypes. A lot of his music is still relevant today too, changes is a good example of that. \n\nAnd his music is good as shit. ", "Tupac was a complicated guy, and clearly a symbol of many virtues. His music was smarter than most, and more thoughtful.\n\nReminds me of Lennon in that the messages of raw humanity and love and peace in his music strongly conflicts with his life tho, which included good things for sure but also violence against women. That's really significant though considering how much of a role model for people he's been for decades. Again mostly in good ways but some very bad things too. ", "The Hate U Give Lil' Infants Fuck Everyone\n\nT.H.U.G. L.I.F.E. \n\nTupac is the G.O.A.T., the Ghetto Jesus\n\nI recommend listening to some of his music (Changes, Keep Ya Head Up, Hail Mary, Thug Mansion, Black Jesus, Starin' Through My Rear View, ect..) and imagine being a marginalized disenfranchised youth and have someone making songs that hit home that hard and hopefully you will understand what he means to us. Knowing you aren't alone is very comforting.", "Like James Dean, Elvis, Jimi, or Janis, or Michael, dying young is a brilliant career move. ", "Tupac was a genius who happened to use rap as his medium for expressing his ideas. Myself and many others truly believe this. He had a way of thinking about issues and expressing those thoughts that is unmatched by any other rapper, as well as most other thought leaders. For instance, do you know why his songs are so shocking, vulgar and vividly violent? It's because he saw that it was the media coverage of the vietnam war, particularly the gruesome and shockingly violent imagery that caused people to turn against it and brought about its end. He wanted to do the same for the situation of black people in the united states. He felt that if he rapped about and portrayed exactly what was going on, the violence, the crime, the suffering, that people would take notice and be motivated to stop it (he said this explanation himself in Tupac Resurrection - a documentary you should watch, it is great).\n\n & #x200B;\n\nHis ideas regarding the struggle of african americans weren't only insightful, they were profound, emotional and relatable.\n\n\"I stop and stare at the younger\n\nMy heart goes to em\n\nThey tested with stress that they under\n\nAnd nowadays things change\n\nEveryone's ashamed of the youth 'cause the truth look, strange\n\nAnd for me it's reversed\n\nWe left em a world that's cursed\n\nAnd it hurts\"\n\nHe points out how adult african americans are ashamed of the state of african american youths. but for him it's reverse, because he and other adults left them this world, and it hurts him. This is just one part of one verse of a random song of his. It is one of 100's of lyrics just like it about different topics, all equally insightful and moving. That lyric alone is more than Biggie, Dr. Dre, Jay-Z or Nas ever did to move the needle on the state of the black community at the time.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nevery one of his songs is bursting at the seems with his insights and emotions around it, and it's very interesting and inspiring to hear him express those thoughts. It's not only that what he is saying is so interesting and profound, it's his way of looking at a problem, understanding it, expressing it that is so captivating and inspiring.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nTupac wasn't really a \"rapper\" like other rappers are, they weren't really trying to achieve the same thing. He was a thought leader who used rap to express his ideas, and he was damn good at it. He was essentially the next black civil rights leader, he was on the level of MLK and Malcolm X in terms of his intellect and leadership abilities. He just died too young to see any of that change through." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cgpu2jp", "cgpu8je", "cgpuae7", "cgpve44", "cgpym1k", "cgpz2gy", "cgpz8ru", "cgpze7e", "cgq2en8", "cgq2f6r", "cgq2gxu", "cgq3wnu", "cgq5a4w", "cgq616t", "cgq67ex", "cgq6elg", "cgq8k3h", "cgq8z4n", "cgqeapm", "cgqf79z", "cgqgs2p", "cgqh24z" ], "score": [ 12, 7, 1099, 122, 8, 5, 2, 6, 15, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 10, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "[Radiation pressure](_URL_0_) exerts a very small but real physical force, multiply that over a large area with no resistance and there you go.", "Light exhibits what's called wave-particle duality, which means in some ways it behaves like a wave but in some ways it behaves like a particle. So while it has no mass, it DOES have momentum.\n\nAccording to Newton's second law, if something with momentum strikes an object and changes direction, it imparts momentum onto that object. So even though photons have no mass, if enough of them hit something like a solar sail it creates a small propulsive force.\n \nQuantum mechanics is weird.", "Photons have no mass, but they *do* have momentum.\n\nI suspect that you're tempted for invoke the well-known formula: F=ma. But that's not the *only* formula for determining force. It's just the one for correlating force with accelerating masses at non-relativistic velocities.\n\nThe formula to use for finding the momentum (p) of a photon is:\n\n p=E/c\n\nWhich derives from the full equation that we get E=mc^2 from:\n\n E^2 = (pc)^2 + (mc^(2))^2", "Mass is an interesting one. Photons have no rest mass, but once you introduce relativity mass and energy are completely equivalent. \n\nThis means that, relativistically and quantum mechanically (read: please don't shoot me, fellow physicists, I'm watering this down), a moving photon can carry momentum despite having zero REST mass, because it has energy.\n\nThis momentum is given by h/wavelength (where h is Plancks constant), and so upon hitting a solar sail, this momentum will be transferred to the sail.", "Back up to \"what is a force.\" Things experience forces when their momentum changes in time.\n\nThe momentum of an object may change in a collision. For example, an astronaut is floating in space and she is struck by a satellite (bummer). Momentum is imparted to the astronaut and now she is probably going pretty fast.\n\nAs others have mentioned, photons carry momentum despite having no mass. This is unproblematic (and is in fact super important for lots of other things to work out).\\* \n\nWhen photons are reflected by a solar sail, they change momentum. To make this concrete, photons are traveling to the right with momentum p. They are then reflected by the sail to the left. For momentum to be conserved the sail must then start moving right with momentum equal to the momentum change of the photon (twice its original momentum, so 2p). Add it up: initial = p to the right. final = (2p to the right) - (p to the left). Conserved.\n\nThe momentum of a single photon is very very very small. This is why you are not flattened against the pavement by sunlight.\n\n\\* Classical electromagnetic fields may carry momentum. This is important because otherwise the interactions of charged particles violate Newton's laws. When you do quantum mechanics to get photons, you find that the photons carry the field's momentum, and in some sense it makes \"more\" sense for photons (particles) to carry momentum that it does for some nebulous field. It sounds like the root of your issue is that you are thinking p = m*v. If you want to be a physicist, instead you think of momentum as \"that thing that is conserved when a system is translationally invariant\" --- this is how electromagnetic fields get \"momentum\" associated with them.\n\nHope that helps!", "Look up ~~light~~ radiation pressure - you will find experimental examples of small things being suspended on laser light. Similar process with solar sails - different scales, etc. \n\nEDIT: corrected and added a link. [radiation pressure](_URL_0_)", "Mass and energy are equivalent, and related by Einstein's famous equation; E=mc^2. Therefore whilst it is perhaps accurate to say photons do not consist of matter it is not accurate to say they do not have mass. They are often described as having a mass-energy equivalence. Therefore if a photon has a 'mass' it has a momentum, and if it has a momentum it is able to deliver a force (since force is the rate of change of momentum). ", "Solar sails, like all propulsion system work by the exchange of momentum. Almost everybody who had physics in high school remembers the classic relation of momentum\n\n p = m·v\n\nHowever this is just one relation. And it has the drawback that it makes people think, that momentum is attributed to mass moving. But in fact, *momentum must be attributed to __energy__ moving*. Mass is just another form of energy, as described by the well known equation\n\n E = m·c² ⇒ m = E / c²\n\nAnd of course photons do have energy:\n\n E = h·\\nu = h·c / λ\n\n(I'm writing \\nu here, because the Unicode character 'ν' looks very much like 'v')\n\nNow lets just assume this was a mass then\n\n m = h·\\nu / c² = h / λ·c\n\nPut this into the equation for momentum of a moving mass, and lets assume v = c, then\n\n p = h·\\nu / c = h / λ\n\nwhich is exactly the momentum of a photon of wavlength λ, i.e. frequency \\nu\n", "Noone will EVER read this, but photons aren't the only things the sun kicks out. \"Solar wind\" consists of all kinds of particles, not just photons, and many of them DO have mass.", "So basically what we have here is yet another case of the \"science used to be simple and an educated person could have a fairly solid grasp of everything around 1900, but then Einstein came along with his asshole theories and only specialists understand a damn thing about anything\" effect?", "Conservation of momentum. Photons have momentum, so when it hits the solar sail and gets reflected backwards, that momentum translates to the sail.\n\nYou don't need mass to have momentum, p=mv is only a simplification used for very slow-moving objects, the full equation is more involved.", "NO but they have energy, which as a physicist you kinda remove the barrier between the two concepts and unify them. One U of mass (unit of mass \"u\") is 931.5 MeV, (Mega Electron Volts). ", "Extending on what /u/AnteChronos said,\n\nIn classical (Newtonian) physics, you can find the momentum of an object (or practical) by multiplying its mass by its speed.\nAs you said, a photon with mass 0 would theoretically have no momentum despite its velocity, as multiplying by 0 would always result in 0.\n\nHowever, Einstein's theory of relativity fixes this with his famous 'E=mc^2'\nSort of, E=mc^2 is only part of the full formula. This simplified version states that the energy of a particle is relative to its mass. The full equation however, states 'E^2=(mc^2)^2+(pc)^2'\nIn this formula, E is still energy, m is still mass, c is still the speed of light, and p is equal to the momentum of the particle.\nAs the mass of a photon is 0, we can simplify the equation to 'E^2=(pc)^2'\nSo we can now calculate energy without needing mass, for example, a photon.\nIf we expand and simplify this formula, we get 'p=E/c'. The momentum of a photon is equal it it's energy divided by the speed of light. \n\nSo we now know that a massless particle such as a photon can still have momentum, and force is equal to the change in momentum divided by the change in time.\nWhat this means is that if an object is losing momentum over time, then it is applying a force. \nFor example, if a solid object with a momentum of 10 Newton Second hit a solid panel and stopped moving in 2 seconds, then it would apply a force of 5 Newtons. \n\nThis can be applied to light quantum mechanically.\nA photon, as mentioned before, still has momentum, and despite a photon moving incredibly quickly, it still moves at a finite speed meaning that there is still a delta time. \nThis means that the photon colliding with or interacting with a physical object will give all or some of its momentum to the object in the form of force.\n\nSource:\n_URL_0_\n\nDisclaimer:\nI'm just a kid who has a little understanding of this sort of stuff, and I so expect that I've got some, if not a lot incorrect.", "I haven't seen one answer that's even near the ballpark, but I need to nap.\n\nRephrasing the question, \"a 1km square solar sail is setup such that it reflects 99% of incident photon energy, 1% of the photons are absorbed broadly across the sun's spectrum. The sail is also impacted by a solar wind of undetermined particles. The sail has no charge or magnetic forces. At one astronomic unit from the sun what are the per unit area component contributions of each of these three contributions: reflection, absorption and solar wind due to a spectrum of regular solar radiation at that distance? More specifically how is the summation of the forces done exactly? What if my reflection was to the side but my absorption and solar wind were direct? How can I determine how much force my solar sail will feel from the sun?\" ", "Slow down and back away from the question a little. What actually makes the sail go? What propels a sail is the transfer of energy from something moving into the sail itself. Now, that energy transfer in standard sails is caused by slowing down the moving wind. However, that doesn't mean that all \"sails\" need to work that way.\n\nSolar \"sails\" absorb energy from moving photons, but that energy doesn't come from slowing down the photons. Rather, it comes from the energy of the photons themselves. The photons are absorbed into the sail to create movement energy, in a similar manner to how how a solar panel absorbs photons to create electricity. The precise mechanics of how this all happens can be explained with a lot of physics and math, but that's the general idea of it.\n\nWhat I've always found helpful is that if I'm stuck on a question like this is to take a break and come back to it later - perhaps I'm locked into a way of thinking about the problem that's not helpful.", "Photons have momentum they can impart to the sale, flux of billions and billions of photons gives an appreciable momentum change of the sale. did a project on this so feel free to ask more", "The really simple and dirty answer is that solar sails aren't working off of photons.\n\nHere's the slightly more in-depth answer:\n\nSolar radiation isn't just in the form of photons, because the sun isn't just a ball of light. The sun is a spectacularly large ball of radioactive hydrogen and helium atoms, each reacting and smashing and fusing forever (it will run out of fuel eventually, but compared to the length of our species' existence, it might as well be forever).\n\nThese massive fusion reactions result in the production of lots and lots of **alpha and beta particles**, which are a type of radiation DO have mass.\n\nAlpha particles are basically just the nucleus of a helium atom, and this nucleus has been spat out at stupendous speeds; almost the speed of light. Alpha particles are made of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, and are therefore pretty damn heavy.\n\nBeta particles are electrons, which have almost no mass compared to alpha particles (because they're thousands of times lighter), but which travel even faster. They're so fast that they're almost hitting the speed of light. \n\nNow, the sun spits out quadrillions of these particles every second, and because they're travelling so fast, and they have so much energy, and there's so many of them, solar sails can actually move entire spacecraft simply from the force applied.\n\nPhotons are involved, since photons do have energy and that energy is applied to the sail (look up [\"Crooke's Radiometers\"](_URL_0_) for more) on this, but most of the force is from these alpha and beta particle collisions.", "As someone from Scotland ELI5 the sun ?\n", "Although photons do not have mass, they do have momentum, and thus can apply a force.", "This does seem like the sort of question a 5 year old would ask haha.", "a photon might not have mass but it does have energy. when it collides with something some of that energy is transferred in to that something. this small amount of energy will not make a noticeable change on anything. unless you are in a zero gravity environment with a large exposed surface area in which case the small amount of energy it can provide will build up and eventually you have a considerable speed", "Photons do have particle-like properties, for example, they have momentum. When a photon bumps into an other particle (for example an electron) it can give that particle his momentum (or energy). In the case of en electron, you can shoot the electron out of his orbital around the atoms nucleus. \nIn the case of a solar sail i'm not completely sure...\nI think it will reflect the photons, and by doing so gaining momentum. (The process of reflecting is similar to absorbing and re-emitting the photon, effectively getting twice the momentum out of the photon.)" ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure" ], [], [], [], [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure" ], [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://sciencethat.com/?p=633" ], [], [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crookes_radiometer" ], [], [], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dajwx3u" ], "score": [ 53 ], "text": [ "Anesthesiologist here. The short answer is that we don't know exactly. We know that the drugs I give every day work very well, but for a lot of them we don't know which receptors they target, or which areas of the brain they target. This is an area that is currently being heavily studied, but part of the problem is that we don't really understand consciousness. It's hard to figure out the loss of consciousness when we don't even understand it when it's there. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cbd34c4" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ " > Can anyone explain this in historical terms and also explain if the one-child-law has been effective in curbing population growth?\n\nThe chinese fertility rate is quite low and the population pyramid has kinda inverted.\nHowever a fertility rate change cannot instantaneously affect population growth due to something called the [population momentum](_URL_0_)" ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_momentum" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cvtdt2d" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "Firstly, the world is generally divided in two: countries that grant citizenship based on location of birth, and those where it is derived from parental or familial citizenship.\n\nSo, if you're for example born in the US (regime mainly based on location) by parents from, say, Sweden (based on parental rights) you often have dual citizen from birth.\n\nMy daughter actually has triple citizenship due to me having dual and her dad being citizen of a third country. :-)\n\nOften you will subsequently need to relinquish citizenship of one country though when you turn 18 - depending on the rules (often tied to having lived in the country, etc.)" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ekgvkht", "ekh80ky" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Seeds can lie dormant for a long time when properly dehydrated. I don’t know about years on end. A little rehydration and heat will get them going again and germinating.", "There are a few different factors to this. Often those seeds are not in the store for years. Depending on how effectively they sell, the store will likely only get one shipment of seeds for that season/year. the store simply keeps moving seed packets around to make it look full constantly. \n\nAlso, seeds enter a dormant state until conditions are met. But as seeds began taking on age, they become less and less viable. If you purchase seeds from a local seed producer they often come with the date of testing and germination rate, to give you an idea of how efficient the seeds are.\n\nThe seeds in the packets are often stabilized. seeds from say tomatoes dont last very long unless they are cleaned and processed to allow them extended storage." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cgahx5w", "cgailt9" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "They sell it. Let's say you are the only one in the world who owns blue marbles. And you trade some of your marbles for other colors, but keep about half of your marbles in your safe at home. I am the only one in the world that owns green marbles, and i keep half of mine at home as well. However one day i decide to bring all my green marbles and since there now is so many green marbles in circulation they loose their value. Now one of my greens might only be worth half one of your blues. Tl;dr They store a major portion of their currency at all time, and release it to the marked to devalue. Either that or they print more. ", "Buy Forex (foreign exchange). Usually the quickest way to change the supply and price of your currency overseas is to buy/sell other countries' currency and bonds.\n\nSwitzerland did this recently. _URL_0_ Europeans were buying up Swiss Francs to keep their money safe as the Euro zone was in shambles. The Swiss response was this:\n\n > The central bank “will no longer tolerate” an exchange rate below 1.20 francs to the euro, and “will enforce this minimum rate with the utmost determination and is prepared to buy foreign currency in unlimited quantities,” said the statement, which was unusual for its strong wording. " ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/07/business/global/swiss-franc.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cdxhsa2" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "The air is drier after it snows, because most of the atmospheric moisture has precipitated out as snow. That may be the difference you feel. Also, cold air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air. That's why it's generally drier during the winter than the summer, if you live in a temperate zone." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dfztzeg" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "As bacteria in the milk grow, they produce acids. These bacteria may be naturally present or introduced from the air, drinking out of the carton, etc. The acid causes the proteins in the milk to lose their natural shape (denatured) and clump together, separate from the water in the milk, etc. You can also do this with vinegar or lemon juice. The sour smell is the acid, the \"chunks are the denatured proteins. We do this on purpose when we make yogurt, buttermilk, etc. with controlled bacteria so we know they are not harmful ones. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cokkmpf" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Electricity, work on a simple formula V=IR\nV=Voltage\nI=current/Amps\nR=resistance/omhs \n\nFor a circuit to flow it must be connected at 2 points in DC we call these negative and positive.\nElectricity will always take the path of least resistance. A light bulb with a filiment, has a quiet high resistance. Somewhere from 1.2-6 ohms. Dependent on the voltage, and wattage of the bulb. \n\nBut \"pure\" water is a non conductor meaning without a ridiculously high voltage it wouldn't conduct. (A steamed room, 95%+ humidity would be mostly pure water I would guess)\n\nTo breakdown basic air you need 10,000+ volts which you would never find in a normal house. \n\nHave a look at telsa coils super interesting. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c5h3umk", "c5h3upy", "c5h3wup", "c5h4fei" ], "score": [ 6, 7, 150, 5 ], "text": [ "The temperature of the water doesn't instantly drop to -5 degrees.", "Phase changes require either the input of energy or the release of energy by the system. In this case, your system is the water inside the container, and its various phase changes are seen [here](_URL_2_), and a phase diagram can also be seen [here](_URL_1_).\n\nWhen water is going from a liquid to a solid, its molecules are losing energy (i.e. heat is released). While they are losing energy, the molecules are also falling into an orderly structure called a lattice. Basically, the rate of freezing will come down to how fast those molecules can lose energy and fall into a lattice. The simplest explanation to your question is that this doesn't happen instantaneously at -5 degrees Celsius, which is why the water doesn't freeze instantaneously. Now, under other conditions, this can change. For example, [here](_URL_0_) is a video of boiling water turning into ice powder when thrown into subzero air. Basically, there was a rapid condensation to liquid, and then the liquid recrystallized into ice particles almost immediately after the boiling water is tossed out of the bowl. \n\nHope that helps. ", "Freezing something is like trying to calm a group of people down. The larger the group is(more volume) and the more pissed they all are(hotter), the longer it will take to cool them all off.\n\nThe more effective the negotiator(colder freezer), the faster the people calm down.\n\nConsider energy, momentum, inertia, and the ability to diminish these things.", "It has to get cold enough to freeze first. The freezer is -5 but the water is room temperature when put in. " ] }

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[ [], [ "http://youtu.be/urPngC2dNQ4", "http://www-bioc.rice.edu/pblclass/6th%20grade/Geology/phase.bmp", "http://www.freewebs.com/aimshsdpphysics/02b_water_phase_change.gif" ], [], [] ]