Potentially Misidentified Species:
Melaleuca are unlikely to be mistaken for any other species where it
grows in Florida. The river birch (Betula nigra), whose papery bark is
somewhat similar to that of melaleuca, is restricted to north Florida
counties in which M. quinquenervia does not occur (University of Florida
II. HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION
Melaleuca quinquenervia is a non-indigenous species whose native range includes Australia,
New Guinea and the Solomon Islands (Langland and Burks 1998).
In Florida, melaleuca is restricted to the southern half of the state, and
counties at the southern end of the state are most vulnerable. The northern
limit of its potential range is commonly cited as Indian River County on the east coast and Pinellas County on the Gulf
coast. However, melaleuca has been found naturalized as far north
as Hernando, Lake, and Brevard counties, and even up into Volusia County on the
east coast (Wunderlin et al. 1995, FLEPPC 2005).
Melaleuca quinquenervia is established in all six counties in the IRL watershed.
III. LIFE HISTORY AND POPULATION BIOLOGY
Age, Size, Lifespan:
Melaleuca quinquenervia can grow to around 33 m in Florida at a rate of approximately 1-2 m/year (Langeland ad Burks 1998).
Melaleuca quinquenervia is considered the most prominent of 60 non-native plant species
presently invading the natural areas of south Florida. The species has invaded had
invaded more than 200,000 hectares (nearly a half-million acres) in South
Florida by 1994, including significant acreage within the Everglades (Langland
and Burks 1998, Mazzotti et all 2002).
Melaleuca quinquenervia primarily propagates by sexual seed production. The
species matures rapidly, and is capable of flowering within three
(and as little as two) years of germination and as frequently as
five times each year (Meskimen 1962, Laroche 1994b). In South
Florida, the species blooms primarily during the winter months
(November-January), although it is capable of some flowering
throughout the year. Flowering is asynchronous both among trees
and among the flowers of a single specimen (FLEPPC 1999).
Large M. quinquenervia specimens have a very high reproductive
potential and up to 20 million seeds per year are stored in the
seed capsules of a single tree. Seed capsules must be dried out
before they can release seeds to the environment. Seeds can
remain viable within seed capsules for several (at least ten) years
(Meskimen 1962, Langland and Burks 1998).
Physical damage such as broken or cut branches will trigger the rapid
release of seeds from capsules on the injured branch. If a tree is
felled or experiences a hot-burning fire this will trigger the
shedding of all seeds within a few days (Woodall 1983).
Percent seed viability is reported to be fairly low at 10-20%, although the
seeds that are viable may remain so in their seed capsules for years (Meskimen
1962). Because trees can harbor several million seeds, the viable seedstock on
each tree can reach a level of several hundred thousand seeds.
Manipulitive studies suggest that the viability of released seeds is reduced by
50% after 8 months in the ground (FLEPPC 1999). Germination occurs in moist
soils within several days of wetting and inundated seeds can germinate or
can remain viable for up to six months (Myers 1975, Lockhart 1996).
IV. PHYSICAL TOLERANCES
Frost appears to limit northward expansion in Florida, although young trees may
be the most susceptible to freezing; mature melaleuca have been observed to
survive record-breaking freeze events. Freezing is yet another environmental
stress factor known to trigger mass seed release (Woodall 1981).
Melaleuca quinquenervia responds optimally in seasonally wet sites, but is also able to
flourish in standing water as well as in well-drained upland soils (Laroche
1994b). Wetter communities are usually more susceptible than drier sites to
initial invasion and unusually wet years extend the flowering and growing
season in M. quinquenervia (FLEPPC 1999).
Salinity is believed to be a limiting factor, although melaleuca is capable of
growing in mangrove and backmangrove areas in both its natural and introduced
range (Myers 1975, Center and Dray 1986).
Young seedlings are usually killed by fire, but older individuals withstand
fire well (Meskimen 1962, Myers 1975, 1983). Frequent fires facilitate the
establishment of Melaleuca quinquenervia by triggering seed release, killing back
competitors, and preparing the site for germination of seedlings (Myers, 1983,
FLEPPC 1999). Melaleuca invasion alters community fire regimes, as when it
displaces herbaceous species such as sawgrass, Cladium jamaicense (Flowers 1991).
V. COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
Within its native range Melaleuca quinquenervia thrives in low-lying wet areas that
experience periodic fires. These are conditions similar to those found in a
number of south Florida habitats. Florida habitats that have been invaded by
melaleuca include natural systems such as lake margins, pastures, pine
flatwoods, mesic prairies, sawgrass marshes, and cypress stands, as well as
marginal habitats like roadsides, rights-of-way, and ditch banks. Habitat
disturbance may facilitate invasion by this pioneering species but it is not a
prerequisite condition (FLEPPC 1999).
In general, melaleuca stands in South Florida are reported to be little-used by
native wildlife. Schortemeyer et al. (1981) reported an exception in a number
of bird species (including anhingas, egrets, and herons) who were observed to
utilize melaleuca stands where artificially deep water and extended
hydroperiods had killed or damaged a significant number of native trees.
VI. INVASION INFORMATION
Melaleuca was brought to Florida through multiple introduction
events in the early 20th century, originally for use as a landscape
ornamental tree and also as a source of wood. The first two
introduction sites were in Broward and Lee counties, where M.
quinquenervia seeds transported from Australia were planted. In the
1930s, M. quinquenervia trees were planted as soil stabilizers on
canal levees bordering the southern end of Lake Okeechobee and also
in Big Cypress National Preserve. Seeds were also intentionally
scattered from airplanes over the Everglades in the 1930s to
facilitate the rapid establishment of melaleuca forests (Austin
The popularity of melaleuca as an ornamental species, as a
windbreak, and for fence rows further facilitated spread of the
species in Florida. Environmentally-mediated spread of melaleuca
through South Florida and deep into the interior of the Everglades
was also greatly facilitated by propagule transport via wind and
water (FLEPPC 1999). Even decades later, the general South Florida
distribution of melaleuca centers around those areas where the tree
was originally introduced (Mazzotti et al. 2002).
As recently as 1970, M. quinquenervia continued to be recommended as
"one of Florida's best landscape trees" (Langland and
The speed at which melaleuca spreads and comes to dominate new areas
has been described as explosive (Cost and Carver 1981, Hofstetter
1991). As little as 25 years is required for a one square-mile
area to progress from 5% to 95% M. quinquenervia infestation
(Laroche and Ferriter 1992). It poses a serious threat to ongoing
Everglades restoration and preservation efforts, and a threat to
South Florida's other natural areas as well (FLEPPC 1999).
Potential to Compete With Natives:
Melaleuca is principally an invader of disturbed sites, but undisturbed native
Florida habitats may exhibit a degree of resistance to invasion and
establishment (Ewel et al. 1976). Canal banks, pine savanna, managed pineland
margins, prairie and cypress marshes and sawgrass prairies are among the
disturbed and undisturbed habitats susceptible to M. quinquenervia
(Myers, 1975, Richardson 1977, DiStefano and Fisher 1983, Duever et al. 1986,
Laroche and Ferriter 1992). Where it does become established, M.
quinquenervia can form dense monotypic stands capable of sisplacing native
plants (Richardson 1977).
Langland and Burks (1998) note that melaleuca is now recognized
internationally as a threat to the Florida Everglades, a World Heritage Site
and International Biosphere Reserve.
Possible Economic Consequences of Invasion:
Although melaleuca appears to have minor positive economic benefit in Florida as a
plant utilized by commercially managed honeybees, the negative impacts of
invasion by this species are of far greater consequence.
Diamond et al. (1991) published a cost-benefit analysis for south Florida in
which they contrasted a modest estimated annual benefit to the beekeeping and
pollination service industry of around $15 million with an estimated $168.6
million a year gained through Eco-tourism and other industries that would be
lost in the event of complete infestation by melaleuca of the Everglades and other south Florida wetlands.
The World Conservation Union's Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) lists
melaleuca as among "100 of the world's worst invasive alien species" and
recognizes them as potentially major drivers of ecosystem change.
Austin D.F. 1978. Exotic plants and their effects in southeastern Florida.
Environmental Conservation 5:25-34.
CenterT.D., and F.A. Dray, Jr. 1986. Melaleuca quinquenervia, a serious
threat to South Florida wetlands, report of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Aquatic Plant Laboratories, Ft.
Diamond C., Davis D., and D.C. Schmitz. 1991. Impact Statement: The addition of
Melaleuca quinquenervia to the Florida Prohibited Aquatic Plant list.
In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Exotic Pest Plants, November 2-4, 1988,
Doren, R.L. Hofstetter, R.L. Myers, and L.D. Whiteaker, eds), pp. 87-110.
NPS/NREVER/NRTR-91/06 Tech. Report, U.S. Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Denver, Colorado.
DiStefano J.F., and R.F. Fisher. 1983. Invasion potential of Melaleuca
quinquenerviain southern Florida, U.S.A. Forestry Ecological Management
Duever M.J., Carlson J.,. Meeder J, Duever L., Gunderson L., Riopell L.,
Alexander T., Myers R., and D. Spangler. 1986. The Big Cypress National
Preserve. The National Audubon Society Research Center Report No. 8. New York.
Ewel J., Meador R., Myers R., Conde L., and B. Sedlik. 1976. Studies of
vegetation changes on South Florida. Report to U.S. Forest Service on Research
Agreement 18-492, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
FLEPPC. 1999. Melaleuca management plan: Ten years of successful melaleuca
management in Florida 1988-1998. Recommendations from the Melaleuca Task Force,
Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (3rd edition). Laroche F.B. (Ed.). 128 p.
FLEPPC. 2005. List of Florida's Invasive Species. Florida Exotic Pest Plant
Council. Available online.
Flowers J.D. 1991. Subtropical fire suppression in Melaleuca
quinquenervia. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Exotic Pest Plants,
November 2-4, 1988, Miami.
Hofstetter R.H. 1991. The current status of Melaleuca quinquenervia in
southern Florida. In: Proceedings of the Symposium on Exotic Pest Plants,
November 2-4, 1988, Miami.
Langeland K.A. and K.C. Burks (Eds.). 1998. Identification and biology of
non-native plants in Florida's natural areas. UF/IFAS. 165 p.
Laroche F.B., and A.P. Ferriter. 1992. Estimating expansion rates of melaleuca
in south Florida. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 30:62-65.
Lockhart C.S. 1996. Aquatic heterophylly as a survival strategy in Melaleuca
quinquenervia (Myrtaceae). Canadian Journal of Botany. 74:243-246
Mazzotti F.J., Ostrenko W., and A.T. Smith. 1981. Effects of the exotic plants
Melaleuca quinquenervia and Casuarina equisetifolia on small mammal
populations in the eastern Florida Everglades. Florida Scientist 44:65-71.
Meskimen G F. 1962. A silvical study of the Melaleuca quinquenervia tree
in south Florida. Unpublished MS Thesis. University of Florida, Gainesville,
Florida 177 p.
Myers R.L. 1975. The relationship of site conditions to the invading capability
of melaleuca in southern Florida. Unpublished MS Thesis. University of Florida,
Gainesville, 151 p.
Myers R.L. 1983. Site susceptibility to invasion by the exotic tree
Melaleuca quinquenervia in southern Florida. Journal of Applied Ecology
Richardson D.R. 1977. Vegetation of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge of Palm Beach
County, Florida. Flaorida Scientist. 40:281-330.
Schortemeyer J.L., Johnson R.E., and J.D. West. 1981. A preliminary report on
wildlife occurrence in melaleuca heads in the Everglades Wildlife Management
Area. p. 81-89 in: Proceedings of the Melaleuca Symposium, Sept. 23-24, 1980.
Florida Division of Forestry, Tallahassee.
University of Florida 2006. Florida Forest Stewardship Trees Of Florida online
database. Available online.
Woodall S.L. 1981. Site requirements for melaleuca seedling establishment. Pp
9-15 In: Geiger R.K. (Ed). Proceedings of the Melaleuca Symposium, Sept. 23-24,
1980. Division of Forestry, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer
Woodall S.L. 1983. Establishment of Melaleuca quinquenervia seedlings in the
pinecypress cotone of southwest Florida. Fla. Scientist. 46:65-71.
Wunderlin R.P., Hansen B.F., and B.L. Bridges. 1995. Atlas of Florida vascular
plants. Available online.
J. Masterson, Smithsonian Marine Station
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Page last updated: September 307, 2007

Speiceas a D'fhéadfadh a bheith Mí-Aitheanta:
Tá sé dóchúil nach ndéanfar Melaleuca a mheabhrú le speiceas ar bith eile nuair a bhíonn sé
fásann i Florida. An birch abhainn (Betula nigra), a bhfuil a chraiceann páipéir
Tá sé cosúil le melaleuca, tá sé teoranta do thuaidh Florida
na contaeanna nach bhfuil M. quinquenervia ann (Ollscoil Florida
II. Tithíocht agus dáilte
Is speiceas neamh-thúchasach é Melaleuca quinquenervia a bhfuil an t-airgead dúchasach aige san Astráil,
Ghuine Nua agus Oileáin Shlóman (Langland agus Burks 1998).
I Florida, tá melaleuca teoranta do leath theas an stáit, agus
Tá na contaetha ag deireadh theas an stáit is leochailí. An tuaisceart
Is é an teorainn a raon féideartha a luaitear go coitianta mar Chontae Indian River ar an gcósta thoir agus Chontae Pinellas ar an nGolf
cósta. Mar sin féin, tá melaleuca fuarthas naturalized mar thuaidh
mar Hernando, Loch, agus Brevard contae, agus fiú suas i Volusia Contae ar an
An t-eas-chostas (Wunderlin et al. 1995, FLEPPC 2005).
Tá Melaleuca quinquenervia bunaithe sna sé chontae go léir sa dtráthchríoch IRL.
III. an t-údarás IS EOLAR agus BÚILÓGÁIS NA SAOLÁIN
Aois, Méid, Fad saoil:
Is féidir le Melaleuca quinquenervia fás go dtí thart ar 33 m i Florida ag ráta thart ar 1-2 m / bliain (Langeland ad Burks 1998).
Meastar go bhfuil Melaleuca quinquenervia an ceann is suntasaí de 60 speiceas plandaí neamh-thorrach
Faoi láthair ag ionradh ar na limistéir nádúrtha de Florida theas. An speiceas a bhfuil ionsaí a bhí
Bhí níos mó ná 200,000 heicteár (beagnach leath mhilliún acra) sa Deisceart
Florida faoi 1994, lena n-áirítear limistéar suntasach laistigh de na Everglades (Langland
agus Burks 1998, Mazzotti et all 2002).
Tá Melaleuca quinquenervia tar éis a bheith ar an eolas go maith faoi na coinníollacha maidir le cur chun feidhme an Rialacháin seo. An
Tá an speiceas ag aibíocht go tapa, agus tá sé in ann bláthanna a chur laistigh de thrí bliana.
(agus chomh beag le dhá bhliain) de gheimhríocht agus chomh minic agus
cúig huaire sa bhliain (Meskimen 1962, Laroche 1994b). Sa Deisceart
Florida, bloomann an speiceas go príomha le linn mhíonna an gheimhridh
(Samhain-Eanáir), cé go bhfuil sé in ann roinnt bláthanna a chur air
i rith na bliana. Tá bláthú asynchronous araon i measc crainn
agus i measc bláthanna speiceas amháin (FLEPPC 1999).
Tá speiceas M. quinquenervia mór-
Tá an fhéidearthacht ag an gcóras seo go bhfuil suas le 20 milliún síolta in aghaidh na bliana stóráilte sa
capsúl síolta de chrann amháin. Ní mór cáipéisí síolta a thriomú
sula bhféadfaidh siad síolta a scaoileadh chuig an gcomhshaol. Is féidir le síolta
i gcáipéisí síolta a bheith inmharthana ar feadh roinnt (deich mbliana ar a laghad) bliana
(Meskimen 1962, Langland agus Burks 1998).
Beidh damáiste fisiciúil mar bhrainse briste nó gearradh a spreagadh an tapa
scaoileadh síolta ó chaipisíní ar an bhrainse díobhálach. Má tá crann
go bhfuil an t-amhrán seo á chur ar fáil do dhaoine fásta agus do dhaoine fásta.
go gcailltear na síolta go léir laistigh de chúpla lá (Woodall 1983).
Tuairiscítear go bhfuil an láidreacht céatadáin síolta sách íseal ag 10-20%, cé go bhfuil an
Is féidir le síolta atá inmharthana fanacht mar sin ina gcáipéisí síolta ar feadh blianta (Meskimen
1962) a chur i bhfeidhm. Toisc gur féidir le crainn roinnt milliún síolta a choinneáil, is é an stoc síolta inmharthana ar
Is féidir le gach crann leibhéal roinnt céadta mílte síolta a bhaint amach.
Léiríonn staidéir manipulitive go laghdaítear inláimhsitheacht na síolta scaoilte ag
50% tar éis 8 mhí i dtalamh (FLEPPC 1999). Tarlaíonn géarmad i bhfód
is féidir le ithir atá fliuch agus tuilte a ghlanadh laistigh de chúpla lá ó fhliuchadh nó
Is féidir le feithiclí a bheith inmharthana ar feadh suas le sé mhí (Myers 1975, Lockhart 1996).
IV. TÚLLACHTÍ PHÍSICHE
Is cosúil go gcuireann an fhriota teorainn le leathnú ó thuaidh i Florida, cé go bhféadfadh crainn óga
Is iad na melaleuca is so-ghabhálacha le reo; breathnaíodh go bhfuil melaleuca aibí
maireachtáil imeachtaí reoite taifead-bris. Tá reoite ar an gcomhshaol
Factor strus a bhfuil a fhios aige a spreagann scaoileadh mais síolta (Woodall 1981).
Freagraíonn Melaleuca quinquenervia go huathoibríoch i suíomhanna atá fliuch go séasúrach, ach tá sé in ann
Tá an t-eitleán seo ag fás i dtuiscí uisce agus i dtalamh ard-dránaithe (Laroche
1994b). De ghnáth bíonn pobail atá níos fliuch níos so-ghabhálach do thréimhse an fhéilire ná suíomhanna níos
Tá an t-am ag teacht chun cinn agus tá an t-am ag dul chun cinn.
Tá an t-ábhar seo le feiceáil i gclár na n-earraí a úsáidtear chun an t-ábhar a chur ar fáil.
Creidtear go bhfuil salannas ina fhachtóir teoranta, cé go bhfuil melaleuca in ann
a fhásann i limistéir mangróba agus backmangrove ina chuid nádúrtha agus a tugadh isteach
(Myers 1975, Center and Dray 1986) agus tá an t-eagrán seo leagtha amach i gCuid II.
De ghnáth bíonn tine ag bás a chur ar fhéithidí óga, ach bíonn daoine níos sine in ann seasamh
go bhfuil an t-easnamh ar an ngá atá le bheith ag an bhfoireann (Meskimen 1962, Myers 1975, 1983). Éascaíonn tineanna a bhíonn go minic an
Measúnú ar an gcineál feistí a úsáidtear chun an t-eitleán a chur ar fáil
Tá an t-ábhar a úsáidtear chun an t-oideas a chur ar fáil do na hionadaithe, agus tá sé ag ullmhú an láithreáin chun síolta a ghlanadh (Myers, 1983,
FLEPPC 1999). Athraíonn ionradh Melaleuca réimeas dóiteáin pobail, mar nuair a
Cuireann sé speicis luibheacha ar an áit mar sawgrass, Cladium jamaicense (Flowers 1991).
V. ECOLÓGÁIL COMHAONTA
Laistigh dá raon dúchasach, measaíonn Melaleuca quinquenervia i limistéir fliuch íseal atá
go bhfuil tineanna tréimhsiúla acu. Tá na coinníollacha seo cosúil leis na coinníollacha a fhaightear i
líon na gnáthóga i ndeisceart Florida. Tá an t-amhrán seo á chur ar fáil ag an suíomh gréasáin seo.
Áirítear ar melaleuca córais nádúrtha mar imeall loch, féaraí,
Fógráin, préirí meisce, marshes sawgrass, agus seastáin ciprís, chomh maith le
go bhfuil an t-ábhar a úsáidtear le haghaidh na n-oidis a bhfuil an t-ábhar a úsáidtear le haghaidh na n-oidis a úsáidtear le haghaidh na n-oidis a úsáidtear le haghaidh na n-oidis a úsáidtear le haghaidh na n-oidis a úsáidtear le haghaidh na n-oidis a úsáidtear. Gnáthóg
Is féidir leis an gcineál seo a bheith ina speiceas réabhlóideach, ach ní gá go mbeadh sé ina speiceas réabhlóideach.
an t-ábhar a bhí ag an gcineál sin de chóireáil (FLEPPC 1999).
Go ginearálta, tuairiscítear nach n-úsáidtear go leor stáisiún melaleuca i ndeisceart Florida ag
ainmhithe fiáine dúchasacha. Schortemeyer et al. (1981) tuairiscíodh eisceacht i roinnt
speicis éan (lena n-áirítear anhingas, egrets, agus herons) a breathnaíodh a bheith
úsáid melaleuca seasamh áit uisce domhain saorga agus leathnaithe
Bhí líon suntasach de chrainn dúchasacha maraithe nó damáiste déanta ag hidroperiods.
VI. FÓRMHAIS INVASÓRTA
Tugadh Melaleuca go Florida trí iontráil iolracha
imeachtaí go luath sa 20ú haois, a úsáidtear ar dtús mar tírdhreach
crann uachtar agus mar fhoinse adhmaid. An chéad dá
Bhí áiteanna a tugadh isteach i gcontaeanna Broward agus Lee, áit a raibh M.
Bhí síolta quinquenervia a iompar ón Astráil curtha. Sa
1930í, plandáil crainn M. quinquenervia mar chobhsaitheoirí ithreach ar
damhaí cainéal atá ar theorainn ag deireadh theas Loch Okeechobee agus freisin
i gCaomhnú Náisiúnta Big Cypress. Bhí síolta freisin go ciontach
scaipthe ó eitleáin thar na Everglades sna 1930idí go dtí
go n-éascaíonn sé bunú tapa foraoisí melaleuca (Austin
Tá an-tóir ar melaleuca mar speiceas ornáideach, mar speiceas
windbreak, agus do shraith fál a éascú tuilleadh scaipeadh an
speiceas i Florida. An t-easpa a dhéantar trí mheán an chomhshaoil a dhéanamh ar melaleuca
trí Florida Theas agus go domhain isteach i lár na Everglades
Bhí an iompar propagule trí ghaoith agus trí mheán
uisce (FLEPPC 1999). Fiú blianta ina dhiaidh sin, an Florida Theas ginearálta
Tá an t-amhrán seo ag cur síos ar an méid a tharla i gcathair na hAlban.
a tugadh isteach ar dtús (Mazzotti et al. 2002).
Go dtí 1970, bhí M. quinquenervia á mholadh mar
"aon cheann de na Florida is fearr crainn tírdhreach" (Langland agus
An luas a scaipeann melaleuca agus a thagann chun réimsí nua a rialú
Tá sé cur síos air mar phléascálach (Cost and Carver 1981, Hofstetter
1991) a chur i bhfeidhm. Ní gá ach 25 bliain le haghaidh míle cearnach amháin
limistéar chun dul chun cinn ó 5% go 95% ionfhabhtú M. quinquenervia
(Laroche agus Ferriter 1992). Is bagairt thromchúiseach é do
Everglades athchóiriú agus caomhnú iarrachtaí, agus bagairt do
Áiteanna nádúrtha eile i ndeisceart Florida freisin (FLEPPC 1999).
An Cumas a Bheadh Ag Dul i gConcursacht le Lucht Dúchasach:
Tá Melaleuca ina ionsaíoir go príomha ar shuíomhanna a bhfuil cur isteach orthu, ach is é an t-ionadaí neamhchlaonta
D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh leibhéal friotaíochta ag gnáthóga Florida i gcoinne ionradh agus
go bhfuil an t-ionad bunaithe (Ewel et al. 1976), agus Cóstaí cainéal, savanna pinne, pineland bainistithe
Tá na prairies, prairie agus cypress marshes agus sawgrass prairies i measc na
gnáthóga suaite agus neamh-suaite atá inghlactha le M. quinquenervia
(Myers, 1975, Richardson 1977, DiStefano agus Fisher 1983, Duever et al. 1986, an tAcht
Laroche agus Ferriter 1992). Nuair a bheidh sé bunaithe, M.
Is féidir le quinquenervia seasamh monotypic dlúth a chruthú atá in ann sibhlíní dúchasacha a chur in ionad
(Richardson 1977).
Léiríonn Langland agus Burks (1998) go bhfuil an melaleuca aitheanta anois mar
go hidirnáisiúnta mar bhagairt do Florida Everglades, Suíomh Oidhreachta Domhanda
agus Cúlchiste Idirnáisiúnta na Bithsféire.
Cúiseanna Eacnamaíocha a D'fhéadfadh a bheith ag Inbhitiú:
Cé gur cosúil go bhfuil sochar eacnamaíoch beag dearfach ag melaleuca i Florida mar
Tá an t-ábhar seo ag cur le heaspartaigh a úsáidtear ag milí milis a bhainistítear go tráchtála,
Tá an t-ionsaí i gcoinne ionradh na speiceas seo i bhfad níos mó.
Diamond et al. (1991) d'fhoilsigh anailís chostais-sochair do Florida theas i
a chuir siad i gcomparáid le tairbhe bliantúil measta measartha don bheathú agus
tionscal seirbhíse pollination de thart ar $ 15 milliún le meastachán $ 168.6
Tá an-chuid de na tionscail a bhfuil an-tóir orthu ag an earnáil seo.
Tá an t-airgead a chailleadh i gcás ionfhabhtú iomlán ag melaleuca ar na Everglades agus ar fhás-leathanna eile i ndeisceart Florida.
Liostaí Grúpa Speisialtóirí Speiceas Ionsaitheach (ISSG) an Aontais Domhanda um Chaomhnú
Tá an t-eitleán i measc na speiceas eachtrach ionrach is measa ar domhan.
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Diamond C., Davis D., agus D.C. Schmitz. 1991. an tSeapáin. Ráiteas Tionchair:
Melaleuca quinquenervia chuig liosta Florida de Phlant Uisceacha Toirmeasc.
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plandaí neamh-thorrach i limistéir nádúrtha Florida. UF/IFAS. 165 p.
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quinquenervia (Myrtaceae). Iris Bótáine Cheanada. 74:243-246
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teacht ar fhiadhúlra i gceann melaleuca i mBainistíocht Fiadhúlra Everglades
Ceantar. Leathanach 81-89 in: Proceedings of the Melaleuca Symposium, Sept. 23-24, 1980.
Roinn Foraoiseachta Florida, Tallahassee.
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Cotton pinecypress de dheas-thiar Florida. Fla. Eolaí. 46:65-71.
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Cuir faisnéis bhreise, grianghraif nó tuairimí isteach
An leathanach a nuashonraíodh deireanach: 307 Meán Fómhair, 2007


Posted on February 16, 2008 by Monica Valentinelli
The ultimate A to A of fantastic beings from myth and magic.
Written by John and Caitlin Matthews
Whether you’re a gamer, a fiction writer, or you enjoy the fantasy genre, sometimes there are resources available that gather together everything you’re looking for in one place. The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures is one such book.
Spanning worldwide myths, this well-researched encyclopedia has monsters from A Bao a Qu to the creature called “Zu.” Like most well-respected reference works, there is a series of essays in the introduction, as well as at its conclusion. The copy I picked up from Barnes & Noble was in hardcover, and is a hefty book at over 650 pages of dense material covering unusual creatures I had never heard of to “common” monsters like the zombie.
Unlike other research materials, there is a definite and intentional desire in this work for you, as the reader, to easily reference and understand where the origin of these “creatures” began, from both a location and a mythological perspective. I found the stylistic entries to be exceptionally useful; creatures are cross-referenced throughout the work by being “bolded,” and their multiple names are included as separate entries.
Let’s look at an example of an entry, so you can see what I’m referring to:
Erqigdlit A group of blood-drinking monsters in the legends and traditions of the people of Greenland and Baffin Island. Among the Inuit people of Labrador and the Hudson Bay coastline of Canada they are considered the most fearsome and terrifying monsters of which they have knowledge. They are also known as the Adlet.
If this reference book could be improved, I would recommend the inclusion of a world map to cross-reference mythic locations – especially since my geography isn’t as good as what it used to be. I also found the packaging of this book to be quite amusing; this is not a reference work of fiction rather, this is a well-researched compendium of creatures, fairies, monsters, and other mythic gods and goddesses that have taken the form of an animal or hybrid. Published by Barnes & Noble this is one of those “overlooked” reference guides because, in my opinion, the title, the cover art, and its “occult” categorization do not represent the accuracy and the time it took to create this book that is only “magical” because it covers mythic creatures.
Of the other reference guides out there, I would highly recommend The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures; this is not a guide of how to summon, attract the attention of, or tame a magical creature like many works within the occult section claim to do. Instead, this is a thorough work (complete with a full bibliography) that spans global myth from African to East Asian and South American, shedding light on the beliefs and fears that unify us all. The book is not filled with pictures, so you’ll have to use your imagination if you want to see what the Peri look like or if, when you come across the Fei Lian, you’ll treat this commander of winds with kindness.
Great for writers and game designers, I’ve never come across a more thorough and massive work detailing creatures so rare you may not recognize them. There are two, other books in the series entitled, The Element Encyclopedia of 5000 Spells and The Element Encyclopedia of Witchcraft. If either of those two books are as down-to-earth and fact-filled as this one, I wouldn’t hesitate to buy either one to add substance to my fantasy stories.

Postáilte ar Feabhra 16, 2008 ag Monica Valentinelli
An A is fearr le A de na daoine iontach ó miotas agus draíocht.
Scríobh John agus Caitlin Matthews
Cibé an gamer, scríbhneoir ficsean, nó is breá leat an seánra fantaisíochta, uaireanta tá acmhainní ar fáil a bhailíonn gach rud atá á lorg agat le chéile in aon áit amháin. Is leabhar den sórt sin é The Element Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures.
Ag dul thar miotais ar fud an domhain, tá monstraí ag an ensíclopóid seo a bhfuil taighde maith déanta air ó A Bao a Qu go dtí an créatúr ar a dtugtar Zu. Cosúil leis na hoibreacha tagartha is mó a bhfuil meas orthu, tá sraith aisteanna san iontráil, chomh maith lena conclúid. An cóip a thóg mé suas ó Barnes & Noble bhí i gcló crua, agus tá leabhar hefty ag os cionn 650 leathanach dense ábhar clúdaíonn neamhghnácha créatúir a raibh mé riamh chuala de go "choitianta" monsters cosúil leis an zombie.
Murab ionann agus ábhair thaighde eile, tá dúil shonraithe agus intinne sa saothar seo agat, mar léitheoir, tagairt a dhéanamh go héasca agus tuiscint a fháil ar áit a thosaigh bunús na "criostaí" seo, ó shuíomh agus ó pheirspictíocht mhiotaseolaíochta araon. Fuair mé go raibh na hiontrálacha stílíochta thar a bheith úsáideach; tá na créatúir tras-thuairiscigh ar fud an oibre trí bheith  bold, agus tá a n-ainmneacha iomadúla san áireamh mar iontrálacha ar leithligh.
Déanaimis sampla de iontráil a fheiceáil, ionas go bhfeicfidh tú cad atá á rá agam:
Erqigdlit Grúpa de mhúnlaí ag ól fola i finscéalta agus traidisiúin mhuintir na Groinne agus Oileán Baffin. I measc na ndaoine Inuit de Labrador agus an Hudson Bay cósta na Ceanada meastar go bhfuil siad na monstraí is eagla agus is uafásacha a bhfuil a fhios acu. Tá siad ar a dtugtar freisin mar an Adlet.
Dá bhféadfaí an leabhar tagartha seo a fheabhsú, mholfainn léarscáil domhanda a chur san áireamh chun áiteanna miotaseacha a thras-thagartha  go háirithe ós rud é nach bhfuil mo gheo-eolaíocht chomh maith leis an méid a bhí sé. Fuair mé freisin go raibh pacáistiú an leabhair seo an-chúramach; ní saothar fiosrúcháin ficsean é seo, ach is é seo an t-iomlán taighde go maith ar na créatúir, na féirí, na monstraí, agus na déithe agus na déitheacha miotaseacha eile a ghlac foirm ainmhithe nó hibride. Foilsithe ag Barnes & Noble tá sé seo ar cheann de na treoracha tagartha "a bhfuil dearmad déanta orthu" toisc, i mo thuairim, nach léiríonn an teideal, an ealaín clúdach, agus a chatagóirithe "occult" an cruinneas agus an t-am a thóg sé an leabhar seo a chruthú nach bhfuil ach "maighnéadach" toisc go gcumhdaíonn sé créatúir mhiotaseacha.
I measc na dtreoracha tagartha eile atá ar fáil, molaim go mór An t-Eileamaint Encyclopedia of Magical Creatures; ní treoir é seo maidir le conas créatúr draíochta a ghairm, aird a tharraingt air, nó a mhaolú mar a éilíonn go leor saothar laistigh den rannán occult. Ina áit sin, is saothar críochnúil é seo (comhlán le leabhrán iomlán) a shíneann miotas domhanda ó na hAfraice go dtí an Oirthear na hÁise agus Meiriceá Theas, ag cur solais ar na creidimh agus na eagla a aontaíonn muid go léir. Níl an leabhar líonta le pictiúir, mar sin beidh ort do shamhlaíocht a úsáid más mian leat a fheiceáil conas a fhéachann an Peri nó más rud é, nuair a thagann tú trasna an Fei Lian, déileálfaidh tú leis an gceannas gaoithe seo le cairdiúlacht.
Is iontach do scríbhneoirí agus dearthóirí cluiche, Ní raibh mé riamh teacht ar a chuid oibre níos críochnúlaí agus ollmhór mionsonraithe créatúir chomh neamhchoitianta is féidir leat a aithint iad. Tá dhá leabhar eile sa tsraith dar teideal, An t-Eileamaint Encyclopedia of 5000 Spells agus An t-Eileamaint Encyclopedia of Witchcraft. Má tá an dá leabhar sin chomh domhain agus chomh lán fíricí leis an gceann seo, ní dhéanfainn aon leisce aon cheann acu a cheannach chun ábhar a chur le mo scéalta fantaisíochta.


Viability stains are contradictory because the staining itself kills all the organisms, but it’s used to tell which one was dead from the get go and which one was alive. There’s two types of viability stains, Methylene Blue and Trypan Blue Exclusion.
Methylene Blue is used for yeast viability in beer, wine, alcohol. Viable (living) yeast do not stain and remain colorless; whereas non-viable, non-metabolizing cells stain blue.
Trypan blue is used on animal cells and the results are the same as MB. Since cells are very selective in the compounds that pass through the membrane, in a viable cell, trypan blue is not absorbed, or in other words, it is excluded, which is why it is sometimes called a dye exclusion method. In dead cells though, the dye passes through and appears blue under a microscope.

Tá stains beochta contrártha toisc go mbraitheann an staining féin na heintitis go léir, ach úsáidtear é chun a rá cé acu a bhí marbh ón tús agus cé acu a bhí beo. Tá dhá chineál stains inmharthanachta ann, Methylene Blue agus Trypan Blue Exclusion.
Úsáidtear Methylene Blue le haghaidh inmharthanacht giosta i mbia, fíon, alcól. Ní dhéanann giostaí inmharthana (beo) dath agus fanann siad gan dath; ach bíonn cilleanna neamh-inmharthana, neamh-metabolizing gorm.
Úsáidtear Trypan blue ar chealla ainmhithe agus tá na torthaí mar an gcéanna le MB. Ós rud é go bhfuil cealla an-roghnach sna comhdhúile a théann tríd an mbramán, i gceall inmharthana, ní dhéantar gorm trypan a ionsú, nó i bhfocail eile, cuirtear as, agus is é sin an fáth go dtugtar modh eisiata datha air uaireanta. Ach i gcealla marbh, téann an dath tríd agus is cosúil go bhfuil sé gorm faoi mhicreascóip.


Updated global burden of cholera in endemic countries
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© 2015 Ali et al. Background The global burden of cholera is largely unknown because the majority of cases are not reported. The low reporting can be attributed to limited capacity of epidemiological surveillance and laboratories, as well as social, political, and economic disincentives for reporting. We previously estimated 2.8 million cases and 91,000 deaths annually due to cholera in 51 endemic countries. A major limitation in our previous estimate was that the endemic and non-endemic countries were defined based on the countries’ reported cholera cases. We overcame the limitation with the use of a spatial modelling technique in defining endemic countries, and accordingly updated the estimates of the global burden of cholera. Methods/Principal Findings Countries were classified as cholera endemic, cholera non-endemic, or cholera-free based on whether a spatial regression model predicted an incidence rate over a certain threshold in at least three of five years (2008-2012). The at-risk populations were calculated for each country based on the percent of the country without sustainable access to improved sanitation facilities. Incidence rates from population-based published studies were used to calculate the estimated annual number of cases in endemic countries. The number of annual cholera deaths was calculated using inverse variance-weighted average case-fatality rate (CFRs) from literature-based CFR estimates. We found that approximately 1.3 billion people are at risk for cholera in endemic countries. An estimated 2.86 million cholera cases (uncertainty range: 1.3m-4.0m) occur annually in endemic countries. Among these cases, there are an estimated 95,000 deaths (uncertainty range: 21,000-143,000). Conclusion/Significance The global burden of cholera remains high. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for the majority of this burden. Our findings can inform programmatic decision-making for cholera control.
Showing items related by title, author, creator and subject.
Ali, Mohammed; Lopez, A.; You, Y.; Kim, Y.; Sah, B.; Maskery, B.; Clemens, J. (2012)Objective To estimate the global burden of cholera using population-based incidence data and reports. Methods Countries with a recent history of cholera were classifed as endemic or non-endemic, depending on whether they ...
Lopez, A.; Macasaet, L.; Ylade, M.; Tayag, E.; Ali, Mohammed (2015)© 2015 Lopez et al. Despite being a cholera-endemic country, data on cholera in the Philippines remain sparse. Knowing the areas where cholera is known to occur and the factors that lead to its occurrence will assist in ...
Mass Vaccination with a New, Less Expensive Oral Cholera Vaccine Using Public Health Infrastructure in India: The Odisha ModelKar, S.; Sah, B.; Patnaik, B.; Kim, Y.; Kerketta, A.; Shin, S.; Rath, S.; Ali, Mohammed; Mogasale, V.; Khuntia, H.; Bhattachan, A.; You, Y.; Puri, M.; Lopez, A.; Maskery, B.; Nair, G.; Clemens, J.; Wierzba, T. (2014)Introduction: The substantial morbidity and mortality associated with recent cholera outbreaks in Haiti and Zimbabwe, as well as with cholera endemicity in countries throughout Asia and Africa, make a compelling case for ...

Uasdátú ar an ualach domhanda cóiré i dtíortha endéimeacha
Meta-sonraíShow full item record
© 2015 Ali et al. Cúlra Níl a fhios go mór faoin ualach domhanda a bhaineann le cóirleach toisc nach ndéantar an chuid is mó de na cásanna a thuairisciú. Is féidir an t-ionchur íseal a chur i leith acmhainn theoranta faireacháin agus saotharlanna eipidéimeolaíocha, chomh maith le díspreagadh sóisialta, polaitiúil agus eacnamaíoch maidir le tuairisciú. Roimhe seo, mheasamar go raibh 2.8 milliún cás agus 91,000 bás in aghaidh na bliana mar gheall ar cholera i 51 tír endemic. Is mór-shrianta a bhí inár meastachán roimhe sin ná gur sainmhíníodh na tíortha endéimeacha agus neamh-endéimeacha bunaithe ar na tíortha a thuairiscigh cásanna cóiré. D'éirigh linn an teorainn a shárú trí theicníc samhlaíochta spásúla a úsáid chun tíortha endéimeacha a shainiú, agus dá réir sin, rinneamar na meastacháin ar an ualach domhanda cóiré a nuashonrú. Mhodhanna/Príomh-Forais Rinneadh tíortha a aicmiú mar cholera endemic, cholera neamh-endemic, nó saor ó cholera bunaithe ar an méid a thuar samhail aisghabhála spásúil ráta teagmhála thar tairseach áirithe i dtrí bliana ar a laghad de chúig bliana (2008-2012). Rinneadh na daonra atá i mbaol a ríomh do gach tír bunaithe ar an céatadán den tír gan rochtain inbhuanaithe ar áiseanna sláintíochta feabhsaithe. Baineadh úsáid as rátaí teagmhála ó staidéir foilsithe atá bunaithe ar an daonra chun an líon measta bliantúil cásanna i dtíortha endéimeacha a ríomh. Rinneadh an líon báis bliantúla ó cholera a ríomh trí mheánráta báis cásanna (CFRanna) a mheáladh le difríocht inverse ó mheastacháin CFRanna bunaithe ar litríocht. Fuair muid amach go bhfuil thart ar 1.3 billiún duine i mbaol cóireála i dtíortha endemic. Meastar go dtarlaíonn 2.86 milliún cás cóiré (réimse éiginnteachta: 1.3m-4.0m) in aghaidh na bliana i dtíortha endéimeacha. I measc na gcásanna seo, meastar go bhfuil 95,000 bás ann (réim neamhchinnteachta: 21,000-143,000). Conclúid/Céadmhacht Tá an t-ualach domhanda ar cholera ard fós. Is ar an Afraic faoi-Shahárach atá formhór na muirear seo. Is féidir lenár bhfáiltí cur le cinnteoireacht chláir chun cóireáil cholera a dhéanamh.
Ag taispeáint earraí a bhaineann le teideal, údar, cruthaitheoir agus ábhar.
Ali, Mohammed; Lopez, A.; Tú, Y.; Kim, Y.; Sah, B.; Maskery, B.; Clemens, J. (2012)Cuspóir Measúnú a dhéanamh ar an ualach domhanda cóireála ag baint úsáide as sonraí agus tuarascálacha ar thráthúlacht atá bunaithe ar an daonra. Mhodhanna Rinneadh tíortha a raibh cóireáil orthu le déanaí a aicmiú mar thíortha endéimeacha nó neamh-endéimeacha, ag brath ar cibé acu ...
Lopez, A.; Macasaet, L.; Ylade, M.; Tayag, E.; Ali, Mohammed (2015) © 2015 Lopez et al. In ainneoin gur tír é a bhfuil cóireáil-endéamach ann, tá sonraí faoi cholera sna hOileáin Fhilipíneacha fós gann. Beidh an t-eolas a bheith againn ar na ceantair ina bhfuil colera agus na fachtóirí a chuireann leis an gcollera a bheith ann cabhrú linn ...
Glacadh vacsaínithe ar fud an domhain le vacsaín cóiré béil nua, níos saoire ag baint úsáide as bonneagar sláinte poiblí san India: The Odisha ModelKar, S.; Sah, B.; Patnaik, B.; Kim, Y.; Kerketta, A.; Shin, S.; Rath, S.; Ali, Mohammed; Mogasale, V.; Khuntia, H.; Bhattachan, A.; You, Y.; Puri, M.; Lopez, A.; Maskery, B.; Nair, G.; Clemens, J.; Wierzba, T. (2014) Tús: Is é an morbidity agus an mortality suntasach a bhaineann le ráigí cóiré le déanaí in Haiti agus i Zimbabwe, chomh maith le tíortha endemicity cóiré ar fud na hÁise agus na hAfraice, cás láidir a dhéanamh le haghaidh ...


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In our previous article we had explained the role of bacteria in maintaining the coffee plantation ecology. This article highlights the role of yet another important microorganism namely, FUNGI in shaping the coffee mountain ecology. Fungi are a group of diverse and widespread unicellular and multicellular eukaryotic microorganisms.
Fungal species are commonly found in soil, in water, on plant debris, and as symbionts, parasites, and pathogens of animals, plants, and other microorganisms. Saprophytic species are important in the decomposition of plant litter and in the recycling of organic matter. Scientists have reported that in nature fungal colonies have been known to continue growing for 400 years or more.
Many fungi are involved in symbiotic associations with various biotic partners within the coffee mountain. Classical examples are mycorrhizae, lichens, and mycetocytes.
The systematic study of fungi dates back to the early part of the 17th century. The ancient Greeks and Romans were experts in wine fermentation but they had no modern tools to understand and imply that fungi were largely responsible for these transformations.
Fungus (pl.fungi) constitutes a group of living organisms devoid of chlorophyll. Fungi resemble plants in structure and are capable of utilizing inorganic nitrogen compounds but appear to be more related to animals in requiring oxygen in their metabolism and eliminating carbon dioxide. They have definite cell walls, usually non motile, (they may have motile reproductive cells) and they reproduce by means of spores.
Next to Bacteria, fungi are the most dominant group of microorganisms in soil. The primary role of fungi in coffee plantations is to degrade the vast amounts of complex organic molecules generated from time to time due to the addition of mature plant residues, green manures, organic manures, leaf litter, and convert them into simpler compounds necessary for plant growth and development. Coffee farmers need to understand that most of the biomass available on the coffee farm is relatively free from toxic materials and can be used as stimulants for growth and development of beneficial fungi.
Fungi are important agents in the bio degradation of cellulose, hemi cellulose, starch, pectin, organic acids, disaccharides, fats and lignin which is particularly resistant to bacterial degradation. Fungi are known to adapt themselves to even the most complex of food materials. Fungi are largely responsible in the formation of ammonium and simple nitrogen compounds in soil. Many species of fungi form symbiotic association with plant roots and help in plant growth. Fungi are capable of utilizing simple substances and build them into compounds of higher molecular weight bearing great complexity.
Secondly, We need to appreciate the role of fungi in improving soil texture and in soil aggregation. Many fungi are known to produce substances similar to humic substances there by energizing the humic content and organic matter content of the soil. The biomass and organic matter on the forest floor is composed of polysaccharides of varying complexity. Fungi use starch as an excellent source of carbon, chitin is used both as a carbon and nitrogen source by few species of streptomyces. Lipids are attacked by moulds. Complex proteins and polypeptides are further broken down with the help of enzymes.
|TYPE OF INTERACTION||PLANT OR SOIL INVOLVEMENT||MICROORGANISMS INVOLVED|
|ORGANIC MATTER DECOMPOSITION||SOIL||DIFFERENT GENERA OF FUNGI|
|BIOLOGICAL CONTROL||SOIL/PLANT||Trichoderma species|
|NITROGEN IMMOBILIZATION||SOIL||DIFFERENT GENERA OF FUNGI|
|ECTOMYCORRHIZAE||FOREST TREES||BASIDIOMYCETOUS FUNGI|
|RHIZOPLANE||ALL BIOTIC PARTNERS-ROOT SURFACE||DIFFERENT GENERA OF FUNGI|
|RHIZOSPHERE||ALL BIOTIC PARTNERS-ASSOCIATED WITH ROOTS||DIFFERENT GENERA OF FUNGI|
|HISTOSPHERE||ASSOCIATED WITHIN ROOTS||DIFFERENT GENERA OF FUNGI|
|PHYLLOSPHERE||ASSOCIATED WITH LEAF SURFACE||DIFFERENT GENERA OF FUNGI|
Fungi consist of filamentous mycelium composed of individual hyphae. The hyphae may be uni or multinucleate and with or without cross walls. The length of fungal mycelium ranges from 50 to 100 meters per gram of surface soil and few microbiologists have recorded values up to 500 meters.
Based on filament diameter, specific gravity and mycelial length the weight of fungi ranges from approximately 500 to 6000 kg per hectare of surface soil. The fungal mycelium spreads like a mat and is closely attached to soil particles. These figures indicate the importance of fungi in coffee plantation ecology.
The coffee farm consists of well drained and well aerated soils for the simple reason that coffee cannot tolerate water logged conditions. Luckily, for the coffee farmer, these soil characteristics, together with a thick cover of leaf biomass favors the growth and proliferation of beneficial fungi. Because of their large diameter and underground net work of filaments they contribute significant amounts of total microbial protoplasm, to the coffee soil economy.
Myxomycetes are also known as SLIME MOULDS. The characteristic feature of these slime fungi is that they colonize decaying wood, leaf litter, and other organic residues on the floor of the coffee forest. They profusely produce spores known as SPORANGIA. During favorable conditions the spores germinate and the fungal mycelium spreads rapidly attacking the organic debri.
They are also referred to as algal fungi. This group comprises several moulds, saprophytes, soil forms, parasites and pathogens. Some are known to be parasitic on insects. The asexual spore bearing structure is called SPORANGIUM. They may germinate directly giving rise to germ tubes which form hyphae and mycelium. The fungus is also capable of sexual reproduction. Some species of fungi are known to be plant pathogenic. E.g. Phytophthora infestans.
Mucor, Rhizopus and Pilobolus are the common genera under this group. They obtain their nutrients from the substrate. In the evolutionary ladder this group consists of advanced morphological characters and sexual forms of reproduction. Zygomycetes and Trichomycetes are the two classes of fungi under this group.
They are also referred to as sac fungi because their spores are formed in a sac called ascus. Some fungi are unicellular like yeasts and some like Morchella are highly developed with large fleshy structures. Ascomycetes are very important from the agricultural view point because they are adapted to varied habitats. There are over 35,000 species under this sub division. They are more advanced than the Phycomycetes.
Yeasts are spherical, ovoid, or rod shaped unicellular fungi. They are widely distributed in coffee soils and sometimes present even on plant parts. They reproduce by the budding mechanism but under certain circumstances a few of them may grow into filamentous forms.
This group of fungi too is important from the coffee farmer’s perspective because some are saprophytes and others are parasitic. There are more than 15,000 species under this sub division. Basidiomycetes are highly developed fungi. They bear a reproductive structure known as BASIDIUM. The fungi included in this group are mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, rust, smut fungi, etc.
Fungal species which produce only asexual spores and not sexual spores are considered to be imperfectly understood, hence called Fungi Imperfecti (DEUTEROMYCETES). Some of the fungal species under this subdivision are the Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, and Gleosporium. The above mentioned fungi commonly inhabit coffee soils and most of them are of great commercial value in the preparation of microbial inoculants.
GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION:
There are two phases in the life cycle of fungi. They may take place simultaneously or in succession. Way back in 1900 Klebs reported that the reproduction in FUNGI is governed by 4 laws.
- Growth and reproduction are life processes, which depend upon different sets of conditions; in the lower organism’s external conditions mainly, determine whether growth or reproduction takes place.
- Reproduction in the lower organisms does not occur as long as characteristic external conditions which are favorable for reproduction are always more or less unfavorable for growth.
- The process of growth and reproduction differ in that growth may take place under a wide range of environmental; conditions than reproduction; growth may take place , therefore under conditions which inhibit reproduction and
- Vegetative growth appears to be mostly a preliminary step for reproduction in that it creates a suitable internal environment for it.
The pioneering work done by Klebs holds good even today.
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON FUNGAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
ORGANIC MATTER STATUS:
The quality and quantity of organic matter plays a major role in the abundance of fungi. The number of filamentous fungi in soil varies depending on the amount of utilizable organic matter present in coffee soils. Addition of organic matter stimulates fungal activity and is maximum during the initial period of decomposition.
HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION:
Fungi are dominant in acid soils because acidic environment is not favorable for the growth and multiplication of either bacteria or actinomycetes. This special evolutionary mechanism to tolerate highly acidic conditions results in the power of adaptation to hostile environments, including highly acidic soils. However, fungi can also grow in neutral or alkaline soils and some species can tolerate hydrogen ion concentrations beyond pH values of 8.0.
The moisture requirement varies from species to species. Soils which have relatively high moisture regimes, suppress the growth and development of certain fungi. Fungi belonging to Basidiomycetes multiply profusely in wood containing less than 20 % moisture. On the other hand the Phycomycetous fungi require very high moisture content for its growth and multiplication. Various moisture regimes determine the fate of spore germination. In general, a high level of moisture facilitates the germination of spores and other reproductive structures of the fungus.
Coffee soils which are well aerated contain abundant fungi because most of the fungal species are aerobic.
Most fungal species are mesophilic (25 to 35 degree centigrade). However in coffee compost pits, the presence of thermophilic fungi is commonly observed. Thermophilic fungi multiply at 50 to 60 degree centigrade but not at 65degree centigrade.
Since coffee plantations are exposed to different seasons, it has a very deleterious effect on the fungal population. The rainy season provides ideal conditions for the proliferation of fungi but in heavy rainfall regions receiving in excess of 200 inches per annum the growth of fungi are restricted. December and January are winter months in the plantation area and fungi are at low ebb during these months.
TYPE OF VEGETATION:
Incorporation of crop residues, green manures and carbonaceous materials improves the microbial load, particularly the fungal growth. Certain species dominate initially, but subsequently their numbers decline. Some species maintain high population levels for relatively long periods after the incorporation of plant residues.
Different species of Fungi are known to occupy different ecological niches. They exhibit selective preferences for various depths of soil. At different soil horizons different species of fungi reside. In coffee soils, fungi are most numerous in the surface layers. A great number of species occur on the surface, and sub surface of coffee soils than in deeper layers of soil. The influence of depth on the distribution and abundance of fungal species may be due to the availability of organic matter and the composition of soil atmosphere.
Fertilizers, chemicals, weedicides, nematicides, algaecides, pesticides and insecticides influence the type of fungal flora. Ammonium fertilizers are commonly applied in coffee farms. The addition of ammonium fertilizers increases the fungal population and diminishes the bacterial and actinomycete population.
Most fungi are heterotrophs and to date there are no reports of fungi having the pigment chlorophyll to manufacture their own food. The nutrients enter the fungal cell / hypha in solution. Some fungi can use any of the wide range of compounds as sources of carbon and energy while others have highly specific nutritional requirements. A number of fungi require specific growth factors.
Inside the coffee mountain fungi obtain their food either as PARASITES (infecting living organisms) or by attacking dead organic matter as SAPROBES. Fungi that live on dead matter and are incapable of infecting living organisms are called OBLIGATE SAPROBES ; those capable of causing disease or of living on dead organic matter, according to circumstances are referred to as FACULTATIVE SAPROBES, and those that cannot live except on living protoplasm are called OBLIGATE PARASITES.
COFFEE MOUNTAIN & CHAIN REACTIONS:
The coffee eco system increasingly relies on natural processes for decomposition of organic matter, recycling of nutrients, maintenance of humus, regulation of pest population, and the control of disease causing microorganisms. It in this context that the coffee farmer can appreciate the role of FUNGI in maintaining equilibrium within the coffee habitat.
The fungal interactions with the inhabitants of the coffee mountain are essential for the effective transformations of various elements, especially insoluble rock phosphate ultimately leading to release of nutrients for most of the biotic partners. Fungi are also important in the mobilization of nitrogen and phosphorus. Some species of fungi are known to impart drought tolerance to plants.
MOST COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED SOIL FUNGI:
Fusarium, Aspergillus, Pencillium, Acrostalagmus, Trichothecium, Alternaria, Pythium, Rhizopus, Botrytis, Verticillium, Pullularia, Trichoderma, Cephalosporium, Gliocladium, Scopulariopsis, Cladosporium, Spicaria, Absidia, Monilia, Cunninghamella, Mortierella, Rhiozoctonia, Chaetomium, Mucor, Dematium, Helminthosporium, Humicola, Metarrhizium.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE FUNGAL CELL ON DRY WEIGHT BASIS
The major constituent is water to the extent of 90 %. The ash content varies.
An assay of fungal cells may yield carbohydrates ranging from 5-60%, 2-10% chitin, 15-40% protein, 5-20%lipids.
Two types of spores are produced by fungi. namely SEXUAL and ASEXUAL. Asexual reproduction does not involve the union of sex cells or sex organs. Sexual reproduction is characterized by the union of two nuclei. Asexual reproduction is considered to be more important for the propagation of the species because it occurs several times during a season, where as sexual multiplication generally occurs only once a year.
Most of the fungal species are capable of producing spores in great masses. Because of their light weight, spores are easily dispersed to great distances by wind and air currents. These spores are highly resistant to unfavorable environmental conditions such as high temperatures, heat, extreme cold, desiccation, ultra violet light, extremes of hydrogen ion concentration, and low nutrient supply. The spores are more resistant to heat than the fungal mycelium. The specialized structures that permit survival of the population are conidia, sclerotia, oospores, chlamydospores, sporangiospores, ascospores, sporangia, and rhizomorphs.
TABLE 2: Persistence of Viable Fungal Structures in Soil
[Alexander Martin, 1975. Microbial Ecology 2:17-27.]
|Structure||Fungus||Persistence in Years|
FUNGI AS BIOCONTROL AGENTS:
The coffee soils are known to contain different species of nematodes. The root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae is known to cause great economic damage in Arabica plantations. Robusta farms are tolerant.
Some species of fungi have developed a mechanism to entrap nematodes and devour them. It has taken millions of years for fungi to develop tentacles helpful in fooling predators. It appears that a normal microflora has an important protective function against pathogenic and opportunistic microorganisms. Other species of fungi are known to predate over protozoans.
A PEEP INTO THE FUTURE:
A number of fungi present within the coffee farm have medicinal, therapeutic and high protein value. Coffee farmers can easily exploit their usefulness by simply learning the behavior of such fungi. An interesting fact about fungi is that they can be easily mass cultured inside the coffee farm itself without any sophisticated laboratory equipment. The raw material or the substrates on which the fungus grows is abundantly available on the farm itself.
Farmers have to take extreme care only in the isolation and identification of pure cultures. Once the pure culture is isolated, the farmer should inoculate a sample flask or a glass container having the requisite medium with the fungal culture and store it in a refrigerator for further mass multiplication. This saves precious time and energy in subsequent field isolations.
Microbial inhabitants find comfort in the coffee forest sanctuary. At JOE’S SUSTAINABLE FARM, KIREHULLY, Nature employs microbes on a higher scale to establish and maintain a balance among the diverse forms of life inside the coffee mountain. The presence of different species of microorganisms inside the coffee mountain is a symbol of co existence.
Fungi play a pivotal role in the slow but constant changes taking place inside the coffee mountain. Fungi are key drivers in the recycling of important chemical elements that, without their activity, would remain forever locked up in dead plant and animal bodies. They transform abundantly available leaf litter and wood wastes to worthwhile end products containing high nutrient value.
Fungi are more beneficial to the coffee plantation ecology compared to many other microorganisms. Every day new techniques are being discovered which are relatively easy to perform at the farm level itself. There is little doubt that basic and applied research with microorganisms within the coffee mountain will continue to provide valuable information and technology of economic value to the coffee farmers. This knowledge can be used for improvements of commercial cultures for improving the productivity of the farm.
The presence of fungi inside the coffee mountain signals a technique that can distinguish between healthy and diseased or abnormal plant tissues. These techniques are of immense value in reducing the time required to identify genetic defects and mutations. Coffee farmers world wide should be convinced that the beneficial activities of fungi can be exploited in increasing the overall productivity of the ecofriendly farm.
German scientist Albrecht Kaupp , has this to say. The human being is, after all, one of the most poorly optimized combustion engines of this planet. For thousands of years the design has remained unchanged. We continue to burn the most expensive energy, in a completely inefficient body. There are too many of us and our numbers are growing fast. On the other hand just look at Fungi; They form an invisible network of mycelial mats that are so small and highly efficient in converting non edible crop residues into energy rich nutrients, there by supplying the needs of the entire biotic community.
Of great significance are certain fungi that form mycorrhizal associations with both forest trees and coffee, providing valuable phosphorus and other essential nutrients for growth and development. Certain species of fungi impart drought tolerance to various plant species. In addition several fungal species act as natural bio-control agents against a diverse array of disease causing organisms within the coffee farm.
- Farm Coffee Organic Manures
- The Fine Art of Composting In Coffee Plantations
- Organic Matter Decomposition In Coffee Plantations
- Soil Water Conservation in Coffee Plantations
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In ár n-alt roimhe seo bhí míniú againn ar ról na baictéir i gcoimeád na heicléise plandaíochta caife. Sa t-alt seo, tugtar béim ar ról micreorganisma tábhachtach eile, FUNGI, i gcruthú éiceolaíochta sléibhte caife. Is grúpa micreorgansaí eucaróití aonchill agus ilchill atá éagsúil agus forleathan iad na fungais.
Is gnách go bhfaightear speicis fungais sa ithir, san uisce, ar dhramhaíl phlandaí, agus mar chomhghleacaithe, paraisítí, agus paiteogain ainmhithe, plandaí, agus micreorganismí eile. Tá speicis saprófacha tábhachtach i dtráth na dtráthú de chréatúir phlandaí agus i n-athchúrsáil ábhar orgánach. Tá sé aithníodh ag eolaithe go bhfuil a fhios go leanann coilíneachtaí fungas ag fás sa nádúr ar feadh 400 bliain nó níos mó.
Tá go leor fungais páirteach i gcomhlachais siombhiotacha le comhpháirtithe bithéiticiúla éagsúla laistigh den sliabh caife. Is samplaí clasaiceacha iad micorrhizae, licéin, agus mycetocytes.
Tosaíonn staidéar córeasach ar fungais ar ais go dtí an chéad chuid den 17ú haois. Bhí na Gréagaigh agus na Rómhánaigh ársa ina saineolaithe i ndeirmiú fíona ach ní raibh uirlisí nua-aimseartha acu chun a thuiscint agus a chur in iúl go raibh fungais freagrach go mór as na hathruithe seo.
Is grúpa orgánaigh bheo gan chlóróifíl é feithidí (pl. fungi). Tá fungais cosúil le plandaí i struchtúr agus tá siad in ann comhdhúile nítrigine neamhorgánacha a úsáid ach is cosúil go bhfuil siad níos cosúla le hainmhithe i dteagmháil ocsaigine ina mbetabóil agus i dtráth a n-airgead dé-ocsaíd charbóin a dhíchur. Tá ballaí cealla sainithe acu, de ghnáth neamh-ghluasach, (is féidir go bhfuil cealla atáirgthe gluaiseacha acu) agus táirgtheann siad trí spór.
Taobh le Baictéir, is iad fungais an grúpa is mó de mhicreorganismí sa ithir. Is é príomh-roil na bhfonghais i mbunaíochtaí caife na méideanna ollmhóra de mhóilíní orgánacha casta a ghintear ó am go ham mar gheall ar chúlchistí plandaí aibí, boinn ghlas, boinn orgánacha, litreacha duille a chur leis, agus iad a thiontú ina gcomhdhúile níos simplí atá riachtanach le haghaidh fás agus forbairt plandaí. Ní mór d'fheirmeoirí caife a thuiscint go bhfuil an chuid is mó den bithmhaise atá ar fáil ar fheirm caife saor ó ábhair thocsaineacha agus gur féidir é a úsáid mar spreagthóirí d'fhás agus d'fhorbairt fungais tairbheacha.
Tá fungais ina gníomhairí tábhachtacha i mbia-imní cellulóis, hemicellulóis, snáithín, pectin, aigéid orgánacha, disaccharidí, saillte agus lignin atá go háirithe resistant i gcoinne imní baictéarach. Tá a fhios go bhfuil fungais in oiriúint dóibh féin fiú leis na hábhair bhia is casta. Tá na fungais freagrach go mór as comhdhúile amóiniam agus nítrigine simplí a fhoirmiú sa ithir. Forbraíonn go leor speiceas fungais comhlachas siombéiseach le fréamhacha plandaí agus cuireann siad le fás plandaí. Tá fungais in ann substaintí simplí a úsáid agus iad a thógáil ina gcomhdhúile le meáchan móilíneach níos airde a bhfuil castacht mhór acu.
Ar an dara dul síos, ní mór dúinn meas a bheith againn ar ról na bhfonghaí i bhfeabhsú struchtúr na talún agus i gcomhtháthú na talún. Tá a fhios ag go leor fungais go dtáirgeann siad substaintí atá cosúil le substaintí humic ann trí ábhar humic agus ábhar orgánach an ithir a chumhachtú. Tá an bithmhais agus an t-ábhar orgánach ar urlár na coille comhdhéanta de pholasaicraídí a bhfuil castacht éagsúil acu. Úsáideann fungais an t-imchlú mar fhoinse charbóin den scoth, úsáidtear chitin mar fhoinse charbóin agus nítrigine ag roinnt speiceas streptomyces. Déantar ionsaí ar liopidí ag múnlaí. Déantar próitéiní casta agus ilpeiptídí a bhriseadh síos tuilleadh le cabhair ó einsímí.
☐CINNEACHADH INTERACTIONS ☐CINNEACHADH PLANTAÍN NÓ SOIL ☐CINNEACHADH MICROORGANISMÍN ☐CINNEACHADH SAILTE ☐CINNEACHADH SAILTE
DECOMPOSITION ORGANIC MATTER Cad a rinne SOIL Cad a rinne GINDIFFERENT GIND OF FUNGI Cad a rinne

ÍOMHÓILÍOSÁIN NITRÓGIN
"Ectomycorrhizae" "An t-Eagla" "Trí Foraoise" "An t-Eagla" "Bhasidiomycetus Fungi"
RHIZOPLANE Cad a dhéanann gach comhpháirtithe BIOTIC-Root SURFACE Cad a dhéanannGENERATE DIFFERENT de FUNGI Cad a dhéanann
RHIZOSPHERE Cad a dhéanann gach comhpháirtithe BIOTIC-COMHLAINTE LE ROOTS Cad a dhéanannGENERA DIFFERENT de FUNGI Cad a dhéanann

 PHYLLOSPHERE   ASSOCIATED WITH LEAF SURFACE
Tá miceil filamentúil ag fungais atá comhdhéanta de hyphae aonair. Is féidir go mbeidh an hyphae uni nó multinucleate agus le ballaí tras-chroise nó gan iad. Tá fad miceil fungach idir 50 agus 100 méadar in aghaidh gach gram de thalamh dromchla agus tá luachanna suas le 500 méadar taifeadta ag cúpla microbiologist.
Bunaithe ar thorais filament, ar thromlach sonrach agus ar fhad mycelial, tá meáchan na ngéibheanna idir thart ar 500 agus 6000 kg in aghaidh an heicteár d'amharclann dromchla. Tá an miceil fungach ag scaipeadh mar mhát agus tá sé ceangailte go dlúth le cáithníní ithreach. Léiríonn na figiúirí seo tábhacht na bhfonghais in éiceolaíocht plandaí caife.
Is éard atá i bhfeirm an cháfaidh ná ithir dea-dhraenáilte agus dea-aeráilte ar an gcúis shimplí nach féidir le caife coinníollacha logáilte uisce a fhulaingt. Ar an dea-shásamh, do fheirmeoir caife, cuireann na tréithe talún seo, mar aon le clúdach tiubh bithmhaise duille, le fás agus le méadú na ngéibheanna tairbheacha. Mar gheall ar a thrácht mór agus ar obair ghréasáin filamentí faoi thalamh, cuireann siad méideanna suntasacha de protoplasm microbiúil iomlán le geilleagar ithir caife.
Tá Myxomycetes ar a dtugtar SLIME MOULDS freisin. Is é an ghné is tréithe de na boilgeoga slime seo ná go gcónaíonn siad adhmad atá ag dul in olcas, scrabha duilleach, agus iarmhar orgánacha eile ar urlár na coille caife. Táirgeann siad spóranna go mór ar a dtugtar SPORANGIA. Le linn coinníollacha fabhracha, bíonn na spóirí ag luí agus scaipeann an miceil fungach go tapa ag ionsaí na scriosanna orgánacha.
Tugtar fungais algaí orthu freisin. Cuimsíonn an grúpa seo roinnt múnlaí, saphroíte, foirmeacha talún, paraisítí agus pataigéin. Tá a fhios go bhfuil cuid acu paraisítí ar inseictí. Tugtar SPORANGIUM ar an struchtúr neamhghnéasach ina bhfuil spór. D'fhéadfadh siad a bheith ag luí go díreach ag tabhairt tús do tháblaí luí a chruthaíonn hyphae agus mycelium. Tá an fongus in ann atáirgeadh gnéasach a dhéanamh freisin. Tá a fhios go bhfuil roinnt speiceas fungais paiteogain phlandaí. Mar shampla: Phytophthora infestans.
Is iad Mucor, Rhizopus agus Pilobolus na cineálacha coitianta faoin ngrúpa seo. Faigheann siad a gcuid cothaithigh ón substrate. Sa léim éabhlóideach, tá carachtair mhórfholaíocha agus foirmeacha atáirgthe gnéasacha chun cinn sa ghrúpa seo. Is iad na Zygomycetes agus na Trichomycetes an dá rang de fungais faoin ngrúpa seo.
Tugtar fungais sac orthu freisin toisc go ndéantar a spóranna i sac ar a dtugtar ascus. Tá roinnt fungais aonchillteach cosúil le giosta agus tá cuid acu cosúil le Morchella an-fhorbartha le struchtúir mhéasacha móra. Tá an-tábhacht ag na ascomicéid ó thaobh na talmhaíochta de toisc go bhfuil siad oiriúnaithe do ghnáthóga éagsúla. Tá os cionn 35,000 speiceas faoin bhfo-roinn seo. Tá siad níos forbartha ná na Phycomycetes.
Is fungais aon-chilléir spherical, ovoid, nó rod-chruthach iad giosta. Tá siad scaipthe go forleathan i ithir caife agus uaireanta tá siad i láthair fiú ar chodanna plandaí. Táirgeann siad trí mheicníocht an bhróg ach faoi chúinsí áirithe d'fhéadfadh cúpla ceann acu fás i bhfoirmeacha filamentúla.
Tá an grúpa seo fungais tábhachtach freisin ó thaobh feirmeoir caife de toisc go bhfuil cuid acu saprophytes agus cuid eile parasiteacha. Tá níos mó ná 15,000 speiceas faoin bhfo-roinn seo. Is fungais ardfhorbartha iad Basidiomycetes. Tá struchtúr atáirgthe ar a dtugtar BASIDIUM orthu. Is iad na fungais a chuimsítear sa ghrúpa seo feithidí, toadstools, puffballs, rust, fungais smut, srl.
Meastar nach dtuigeann speicis fungais nach dtáirgeann ach spór neamhghnéasach agus ní spór gnéasach, dá bhrí sin ar a dtugtar Fungi Imperfecti (DEUTEROMYCETES). Is iad cuid de na speicis fungais faoin bhfo-roinn seo na Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Rhizoctonia, Penicillium, agus Gleosporium. Tá na fungais thuasluaite ina gcónaí go coitianta i dtalamh caife agus tá luach tráchtála mór ag an gcuid is mó acu i ullmhú inócóilant microbiúil.
Fás agus Athghiniúint:
Tá dhá chéim i dtimthriall saoil na fungais. Féadfaidh siad a bheith ag tarlú go comhuaineach nó i ndiaidh a chéile. Ar ais i 1900 thuairiscigh Klebs go bhfuil an atáirgeadh i FUNGI rialaithe ag 4 dhlí.
- Is próisis bheo iad fás agus atáirgeadh, a bhíonn ag brath ar shraith éagsúla dálaí; i gcomhthéacsanna seachtracha na n-orgánach níos ísle, déanann siad cinneadh go príomha an dtarlaíonn fás nó atáirgeadh.
- Ní tharlaíonn atáirgeadh sna heintitis íseal fad is a bhíonn coinníollacha seachtracha tréitheacha a bhfuil fabhrach dóibh le haghaidh atáirgeadh i gcónaí níos mó nó níos lú mí-fhabhrach don fhás.
- Tá difríocht idir próiseas an fhás agus an atáirgthe sa mhéid gur féidir an fhás a bheith ann faoi raon leathan coinníollacha comhshaoil ná atáirgthe; is féidir an fhás a bheith ann, dá bhrí sin faoi choinníollacha a chuireann bac ar atáirgthe agus ar atáirgthe
- Is cosúil gur céim réamh-ghníomhach den atáirgeadh é fás na féithíochta den chuid is mó, toisc go gcruthóidh sé timpeallacht inmheánach oiriúnach dó.
Tá an obair phréamhscoile a rinne Klebs fós i bhfeidhm go dtí an lá atá inniu ann.
TÚCHTÍ EXTERNAL ar FÓGAS agus ar FHÓIN
CÁITHEACHTAIR GINÉALÓGÁN:
Tá ról mór ag cáilíocht agus cainníocht na n-ábhar orgánach i líon mór na fungais. Tá líon na bhfonghais filamentúil sa ithir ag athrú ag brath ar an méid ábhar orgánach inúsáidte atá i dtír caife. Spreagann an breiseán ábhar orgánach gníomhaíocht fungach agus is é an t-uasmhéid é le linn na tréimhse tosaigh díchóimeála.
CÚNACHTÚIR IONADHÍODRÓIN:
Tá fungais i réim i ithir aigéadacha toisc nach bhfuil timpeallacht aigéadach fabhrach d'fhás agus d'iomadaíocht baictéir nó actinomycetes. Mar thoradh ar an meicníocht éabhlóideach speisialta seo chun coinníollacha an-aigéadacha a fhulaingt, tá cumas oiriúnaithe le timpeallachtaí naimhdeacha ann, lena n-áirítear ithir an-aigéadacha. Mar sin féin, is féidir le haingil fás i dtalamh neodrach nó alcaileach agus is féidir le roinnt speiceas tiúchan iain hidrigine a fhulaingt thar luachanna pH 8.0.
Tá an riachtanas taise éagsúil ó speiceas go speiceas. Cuirtear cosc ar fhonghais áirithe a fhás agus a fhorbairt i dtalamh a bhfuil córais taise réasúnta ard aige. Tá an t-éileamh ar an mbonn a bhfuil an t-éileamh ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn ar an mbonn. Ar an láimh eile, éilíonn na fungais Phycomycetous cion taise an-ard dá fhás agus dá iliomadú. Cinntíonn réimeachtaí taise éagsúla an fód a ghearrtar. Go ginearálta, cuireann leibhéal ard taise le geirmíniú spóirí agus struchtúir atáirgthe eile an fungais.
Tá go leor fungais i ithir caife atá aeráilte go maith toisc go bhfuil an chuid is mó de na speicis fungais aeróbach.
Tá an chuid is mó de speicis fungais mesophilic (25 go 35 céim centigrád). Mar sin féin, i mboll compósta caife, breathnaítear go coitianta go bhfuil fungais thermophilic i láthair. Tá na boilgeoga teirmofíleacha ag méadú ag 50 go 60 céim céilí ach ní ag 65 céim céilí.
Ós rud é go bhfuil plandaíochtaí caife faoi lé as séasúir éagsúla, tá éifeacht an-díobhálach aige ar an daonra fungas. Soláthraíonn séasúr na báistí coinníollacha idéalacha d'fhorleathadh fungais ach i réigiúin ina mbíonn báistí trom a fhaigheann níos mó ná 200 orlach in aghaidh na bliana tá srian ar fhás fungais. Is míonna geimhridh iad Nollaig agus Eanáir i limistéar na plandaíochta agus tá na fungais ag titim íseal le linn na míonna seo.
TÍOCHTIN FÉITIMH:
Tá an t-ábhar a úsáidtear chun an t-ábhar a chur le chéile agus a chur le chéile i measc na n-ábhar a úsáidtear chun an t-ábhar a chur le chéile. Tá speicis áirithe i gceannas ar dtús, ach ina dhiaidh sin laghdaíonn a líon. Tá roinnt speiceas ag coinneáil leibhéil ard daonra ar feadh tréimhsí réasúnta fada tar éis iarsmaí plandaí a ionchorprú.
Tá a fhios go bhfuil speicis éagsúla Fungi ag glacadh niches éiceolaíocha éagsúla. Léiríonn siad roghanna roghnacha do dhoimhneachtaí éagsúla ithreach. Ag réimsí éagsúla talún tá speicis éagsúla fungais ina gcónaí. I ithir caife, tá na fungais is mó i sraitheanna dromchla. Tá líon mór speiceas ar fáil ar dhromchla agus faoi dhromchla ithir caife ná i sraitheanna níos doimhne ithir. D'fhéadfadh tionchar an domhain ar dháileadh agus ar iomadaíocht speiceas fungas a bheith mar gheall ar an ábhar orgánach atá ar fáil agus ar chomhdhéanamh atmaisféar an ithir.
Tá tionchar ag breoslaí, ceimiceáin, weedcides, nematicides, algaecides, pesticides agus insecticides ar an gcineál flóra fungach. Tá feirmeoirí ag cur le hithíocht agus le saibhreas. Tá an t-ábhar a úsáidtear chun an táirge a tháirgeadh ag an táirge a bhfuil an t-ábhar i gceist aige.
Tá an chuid is mó de na fungais heterotrófacha agus go dtí seo níl aon tuairiscí ann go bhfuil an clóróifíl pigment ag fungais chun a gcuid bia féin a mhonarú. Téann na cothaithigh isteach sa chealla / hypha fungal i tuaslagán. Is féidir le roinnt fungais aon cheann de na comhdhúile leathan a úsáid mar fhoinsí carbóin agus fuinnimh agus tá riachtanais chothaitheacha an-shonracha ag daoine eile. Éilíonn roinnt fungais fachtóirí fáis ar leith.
Sa charraig, faigheann fungais na sléibhte caife a gcuid bia mar PARASITÍ (orgánaigh bheo a ionfhabhtaíonn) nó trí ionsaí a dhéanamh ar ábhar orgánach marbh mar SAPROBES. Tugtar SAFRAÍDÍ OIBHÍONTACH ar fungais a chónaíonn ar ábhar marbh agus nach bhfuil in ann orgánaigh bheo a ionfhabhtuithe; tugtar SAFRAÍDÍ OIBHÍONTACH ar na fungais atá in ann galar a chur ar fáil nó a chónaíonn ar ábhar orgánach marbh, de réir na gcúinsí, agus ar na fungais nach féidir leo maireachtáil ach ar phrótaplasma beo.
COFFEE MOUNTAIN & CHAIN REACTIONS: Tá an t-amhrán seo ar fáil go héasca.
Tá an córas éiceachórais caife ag brath níos mó agus níos mó ar phróisis nádúrtha chun ábhar orgánach a dhoilliú, cothaithigh a athchúrsáil, humus a chothabháil, daonra plága a rialáil, agus micreorganismí a chuireann galar i bhfeidhm a rialú. Is sa chomhthéacs seo a d'fhéadfadh feirmeoir caife a thuiscint ról FUNGI i gcoimeád cothromaíochta laistigh den ghnáthshaol caife.
Tá na hidirghníomhaíochtaí fungach le háitritheoirí na sléibhe caife ríthábhachtach chun athruithe éifeachtacha eilimintí éagsúla a dhéanamh, go háirithe fosfáit carraig neamh-in-dhlúth a fhágann go scaoilfear cothaithigh don chuid is mó de na comhpháirtithe bithéiticiúla. Tá fungais tábhachtach freisin i ngníomhachtú nítrigine agus fosfar. Tá a fhios go gcuireann speicis áirithe fungais inbhuanaitheacht triomachta ar phlandaí.
FUNGAÍ TÚSLACHTA is coitianta:
Fusarium, Aspergillus, Pencillium, Acrostalagmus, Trichothecium, Alternaria, Pythium, Rhizopus, Botrytis, Verticillium, Pullularia, Trichoderma, Cephalosporium, Gliocladium, Scopulariopsis, Cladosporium, Spicaria, Absidia, Monilia, Cunninghamella, Mortierella, Rhiozoctonia, Chaetomium, Mucor, Dematium, Helminthosporium, Humicola, Metarrhizium.
COIMHÍCLEACH CÚN GHÍOMHAIR DE CÍOL FONGAL ar BUNAS TÍOLACHTÍ
Is é an príomh-chomhdhéant uisce a mhéid le 90%. Athraíonn an cion luais.
Is féidir le tástáil cealla fungais carbaihiodráití a fháil idir 5-60%, 2-10% chitin, 15-40% próitéin, 5-20% lipidí.
Tá dhá chineál spóirí a tháirgtear ag fungais. is é sin SEXUAL agus ASEXUAL. Ní bhaineann atáirgeadh neamhghnéasach le haontas cealla nó orgáin ghnéasacha. Tá atáirgeadh gnéis tréithithe ag aontacht dhá núicléas. Meastar go bhfuil atáirgeadh neamhghnéasach níos tábhachtaí le haghaidh leathnú na speiceas toisc go dtarlaíonn sé roinnt uaireanta le linn shéasúr, agus mar a tharlaíonn moltaí gnéasach de ghnáth ach uair amháin sa bhliain.
Tá an chuid is mó de na speicis fungais in ann spór a tháirgeadh i maisí móra. Mar gheall ar a meáchan éadroma, scaiptear spóra go héasca ar fad fad ag gaoth agus sruthanna aeir. Tá na spóirí seo an-difhleathach i gcoinne coinníollacha neamhfhabhracha comhshaoil mar thimpeallachtaí ard, teas, fuar mhór, triomaithe, solas ultra-violait, tiúchan ion hidrigine thar a bheith ard, agus soláthar íseal cothaithigh. Tá na spóirí níos resistant do theas ná an mycelium fungal. Is iad na struchtúir speisialaithe a cheadaíonn maireachtáil an daonra ná conidia, sclerotia, oospores, chlamydospores, sporangiospores, ascospores, sporangia, agus rhizomorphs.
TABLA 2: Coinneáil struchtúir fhongála inmharthana i dtalamh
[Alexander Martin, 1975.] Éiceolaíocht Microbiúil 2:17-27.]
 Structure
FUNCTIONS mar AGENTÍ BIOCONTRÓLA:
Tá a fhios go bhfuil speicis éagsúla nematóidí sna ithir caife. Tá a fhios go gcuireann an nematóid léasaigh fréamhacha, Pratylenchus coffeae, damáiste mór eacnamaíoch i bplantálacha Arabica. Tá feirmeacha Robusta fhulaingte.
Tá meicníocht forbartha ag speicis áirithe fungais chun nemátóidigh a ghabháil agus a ithe. Thóg sé na milliúin bliain do fungais chun tentacles a fhorbairt a chabhraíonn le creachadóirí a mheabhrú. Is cosúil go bhfuil feidhm chosanta tábhachtach ag microflora gnáth i gcoinne micreorganismí paiteogain agus opportunistic. Tá a fhios go bhfuil speicis eile fungais níos sine ná prótazoaigh.
TÁITHEANNACH INNÉ AN TÉAMHÁIN:
Tá luach míochaine, teiripeach agus próitéine ard ag roinnt fungais atá i láthair laistigh den fheirm caife. Is féidir le feirmeoirí caife a n-úsáide a shaothrú go héasca trí iompar na bhfongha seo a fhoghlaim. Fíric suimiúil faoi fungais ná gur féidir iad a chultúr go mór laistigh den fheirm caife féin gan aon trealamh saotharlainne sofaisticiúil. Tá an t-ábhar amh nó na substaintí ar a bhfásann an fungas ar fáil go leor san fheirm féin.
Ní mór d'fheirmeoirí a bheith an-chúramach ach amháin i leithlíonadh agus i sainaithint na gcultúr íon. Nuair a bheidh an cultúr glan ar leithligh, ba cheart don fheirmeoir bolg sampla nó coimeádán gloine a bhfuil an t-amhrán riachtanach aige a inóculadh leis an gcultúr fungas agus é a stóráil i reoiteoir chun an líon a mhéadú tuilleadh. Sábhálann sé seo am agus fuinneamh luachmhar i leithlíneacha feirme ina dhiaidh sin.
Faigheann áitritheoirí miocróbach comhfhurtacht sa fhoraois caife. Ag JOE'S SUSTAINABLE FARM, KIREHULLY, úsáideann an Dúlra micribí ar scála níos airde chun cothromaíocht a bhunú agus a chothabháil i measc na bhfoirmeacha éagsúla saoil taobh istigh den sliabh caife. Is siombail de chomh-éireacht é go bhfuil speicis éagsúla miocrorgánaigh taobh istigh den sliabh caife.
Tá ról ríthábhachtach ag fungais sna hathruithe mall ach leanúnacha a tharlaíonn taobh istigh den sliabh caife. Tá fungais ina phríomh-fheidhmeoirí i n-athchúrsáil eilimintí ceimiceacha tábhachtacha a bheadh, gan a ngníomhaíocht, faoi ghlas go deo i gcorp plandaí agus ainmhithe marbh. Déantar iad a athrú ó na dramhaíola duilleach agus adhmaid atá ar fáil go leor go dtí táirgí deiridh luachmhara a bhfuil luach cothaitheach ard acu.
Tá fungais níos tairbheach don éiceolaíocht plandaíochta caife i gcomparáid le go leor micreorgansaíom eile. Gach lá tá teicnící nua á n-aimsiú atá réasúnta éasca a chur i bhfeidhm ar leibhéal na feirme féin. Níl mórán amhras ann go leanfaidh taighde bunúsach agus feidhmchláir le micreorganisimh laistigh den sliabh caife ag soláthar faisnéise luachmhar agus teicneolaíocht luach eacnamaíoch do fheirmeoirí caife. Is féidir an t-eolas seo a úsáid chun feabhas a chur ar chultúir tráchtála chun táirgiúlacht an fheirme a fheabhsú.
Léiríonn láithreacht fungais taobh istigh den sliabh caife teicníc a d'fhéadfadh idirdhealú a dhéanamh idir fíocháin phlandaí sláintiúla agus tinn nó neamhghnácha. Tá luach ollmhór ag na teicnící seo maidir leis an am a theastaíonn chun lochtanna géiniteacha agus mutations a aithint a laghdú. Ba cheart a chur ina luí ar fheirmeoirí caife ar fud an domhain gur féidir gníomhaíochtaí tairbheacha na ngéibheanna a shaothrú chun táirgiúlacht foriomlán an fheirme atá neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol a mhéadú.
Tá sé seo le rá ag an eolaí Gearmánach Albrecht Kaupp. Is é an duine, tar éis an tsaoil, ceann de na hinnill dóiteáin is meangadh a oiriúnaíodh ar an bpláinéad seo. Le mílte bliain, níor athraíodh an dearadh. Leanann muid ag dó an fuinneamh is costasaí, i gcorp go hiomlán neamhéifeachtach. Tá an iomarca againn agus tá ár líon ag fás go tapa. Ar an láimh eile, féach ar Fungas; Forbraíonn siad líonra dofheicthe de mhátáin mhícealacha atá chomh beag agus an-éifeachtach i ndíoltóireacht iarmhéid na dtorthaí neamh-inithe i gcothaithigh saibhir fuinnimh, ag soláthar riachtanais an phobail bithéadach ar fad.
Tá tábhacht mhór ag fungais áirithe a chruthaíonn comhlachais mycorrhizal le crainn foraoise agus le caife araon, ag soláthar fosfar luachmhar agus cothaithigh riachtanacha eile le haghaidh fáis agus forbartha. Tugann speicis áirithe fungais fothroime do speicis éagsúla plandaí. Ina theannta sin, gníomhóidh roinnt speiceas fungas mar ghníomhairí nádúrtha bith-rialú i gcoinne raon éagsúil d'orgánaigh a chuireann galar isteach laistigh den fheirm caife.
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