The global geothermal power market size was valued at USD 7.87 billion in 2022. It is estimated to reach USD 11.79 billion by 2031, growing at a CAGR of 4.6% during the forecast period (2023–2031).
The demand for renewable energy is rising due to the adverse effects of thermal energy. Technological advancements have led to the introduction of electronic products that need electricity for domestic and commercial purposes, increasing the energy demand and simulating the geothermal power market. Geothermal power is the energy derived from the heat stored within the Earth's core. The natural heat produced by the Earth's interior is captured and used as a renewable energy source to produce electricity or provide heating and cooling. Geothermal power is typically generated by tapping into geothermal reservoirs, areas of the Earth's subsurface where hot water or steam is trapped. These reservoirs are usually located in regions with active volcanoes, geothermal hotspots, or areas with high geothermal gradients.
To harness geothermal power, geothermal power plants drill wells into the ground to access the hot water or steam reservoirs. These wells can reach depths of thousands of meters. Once the wells are in place, hot water or steam is extracted from the geothermal reservoirs through production wells. The high temperatures and pressure of the fluids make them suitable for generating power. However, geothermal power generation is location-dependent. It requires access to geothermal reservoirs, which are not evenly distributed worldwide. The initial development costs can be high due to the drilling and exploration required.
|Market Size||USD 11.79 billion by 2031|
|Fastest Growing Market||Europe|
|Largest Market||North America|
|Report Coverage||Revenue Forecast, Competitive Landscape, Growth Factors, Environment & Regulatory Landscape and Trends|
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes like wind and sunlight. Solar, geothermal, wind, bioenergy, hydropower, and ocean are some of the major renewable energy sources. Renewable energy is utilized in heating, electricity, cooling, and transport. Renewable energy collectively provides around 7% of the world’s energy demands. Renewables are relatively more expensive as compared to fossil fuels. The International Energy Agency projects that during the next five years, renewable energy will increase in proportion to the total energy consumption of the world, reaching a 12.4% level in 2023.
This is attributed to the fact that several factors are responsible for driving the usage of renewable energies, the most crucial being the rise of global warming due to a rise in carbon dioxide emission from the combustion of fossil fuels. A worry is the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the increase in the search for energy security, the aversion to traditional nuclear power, and the lack of progression in the application of nuclear power, which are anticipated to drive the demand for geothermal power during the forecast period.
The electricity demand has increased immensely in recent years. This is attributed to technological advancements that have led to the introduction of electronic products that need electricity for domestic and commercial purposes. Furthermore, consumers' rising per capita disposable income and spending abilities have raised the sales of electronic devices such as refrigerators, televisions, and air conditioners. The modernization and development of the construction industry and the evolution of high-end residential buildings have increased the demand for power over the past few years. In 2012, the world electricity consumption was 20,900 TWh, which increased by 1.9% to 21,297 in 2013.
Renewable energy sources accounted for approximately 21% of the total electricity production in 2015. The increase in GDP and a rise in infrastructural development in emerging economies are the major factors fueling the demand for geothermal power. India and China recorded the largest increment in global electricity consumption between 2013 and 2015. The global GDP projection is projected to achieve the USD83 trillion mark by 2022. Consequently, there would be a greater need for power generation to meet the industries' and consumers' electronics' growing demand for electricity.
Building infrastructure is necessary for the development of new resources. These investments increase electricity costs, especially during the early years. Initially, the developers must find publicly acceptable sites with appropriate resources and access to transmission lines. Finding a potential solar site requires several years of monitoring to determine whether it is suitable for generating power. Moreover, the workers must be trained to install, operate, and maintain power plants. Some require operating experiences in certain climatic conditions before optimizing performance. All these factors raise the cost of installing geothermal power plants. This high cost is expected to hamper market growth as it limits the use of geothermal power.
Economies like China and India are anticipated to drive the demand for geothermal power owing to a significant increase in energy demand. This is attributed to the rise in investment in renewable energy projects in these countries. The residential and industrial sectors are anticipated to consume more energy during the anticipated period in Asia-Pacific, attributed to an increase in population and a surge in demand for electricity generation.
Furthermore, India offers significant growth potential; however, due to its inconsistent policies and business environment regarding renewable energy generation in the past, the share in total energy production was less. India is one of the nations seeing strong expansion in the Asia-Pacific market due to rising investments in renewable energy projects. Thus, all these factors collectively are anticipated to offer remunerative opportunities for expanding the global geothermal power market during the forecast period.
Based on region, the global market is bifurcated into North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Latin America, and the Middle East and Africa.
North America is the most significant global geothermal power market shareholder and is estimated to grow at a CAGR of 4.2% over the forecast period. The growth of the North American geothermal energy market is driven by increased efforts taken by scientists and developers to meet the growing demand for energy in the Western U.S. and Mexico. Several geothermal projects are ongoing in the U.S. and Mexico, further fueling the demand for geothermal energy. At the end of 2013, the capacity of geothermal power was 3,440 MW in the Western U.S., with new or renovated power plants in Utah, Nevada, California, and New Mexico.
Furthermore, the Mexican Department of Energy will likely have 35% of Mexico's energy production from renewable energy sources by 2024. Mexico is making reforms such as Energy Reform 2013–2018 and Estrategia Nacional de Energía 2013–2027 to open the power market for private and outside organizations. Such initiatives are forecasted to drive the demand for geothermal power and thus contribute towards the market's growth. Moreover, Canada is making a significant contribution to boosting the market growth. For instance, GEA's April 2014 International Projects List has displayed nine current geothermal power generation projects at early or prospective stages. These projects include six geothermal plants in British Columbia, two in Saskatchewan, and one in Alberta.
Europe is anticipated to exhibit a CAGR of 3.6% over the forecast period. Europe's geothermal power market is analyzed across the UK, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and the rest of Europe. The European Geothermal Energy Council (EGEC) stated that there was a steady growth of geothermal energy in Europe, with 16 new plants expecting to start their operation in 2017, with a combined geothermal power generation capacity of 33 MW. The installed geothermal electricity capacity per year amounts to 2.8 GWe, producing over 15 TWh of energy.
Furthermore, about 330 MWe of new geothermal electricity capacity will be online in Turkey in 2019. Europe is one of the global leaders in investments in renewable energy. One of the biggest research programs in the EU is "Horizon 2020," which allocated USD 6.7 million to renewable energy for 2014–2020. Europe has aimed to cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 80%. To achieve this, the share of renewables is expected to grow significantly, not only in power but also in the transportation, heating, and cooling industries. This factor is expected to contribute to the geothermal power market's growth significantly.
The Asia-Pacific market is analyzed across China, Japan, India, South Korea, Australia, and the rest of Asia-Pacific. The geothermal power market is strong in Indonesia. In addition, when the 330MW Sarulla geothermal power plant went online in May 2018, it denoted another achievement in Indonesia's geothermal power sector. The USD1.7 billion venture of over 2.1 million Indonesian family units is considered the nation's world's biggest single-contract geothermal power plant. Such a milestone is driving the growth of the Asia-Pacific geothermal power market.
The LAMEA geothermal power market is analyzed across Latin America, the Middle East, and Africa. In 2015, around 13% of Costa Rica’s energy was generated from geothermal power plants using the country’s abundant volcanic resources. With five million inhabitants, Costa Rica is the seventh largest geothermal producer out of 25 countries. As per the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and the World Bank, Latin America uses around 5% of its geothermal potential of 300 terawatt-hours per year. There is less scope for geothermal power generation in the LAMEA region; however, the market is expected to grow with growth initiatives and investment toward energy development.
The global geothermal power market is bifurcated into power station type and end-use.
Based on power station type, the global market is bifurcated into dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations, and binary cycle power stations.
The dry steam power stations segment dominates the global market and is projected to exhibit a CAGR of 3.5% over the forecast period. Dry steam control plants draw steam from underground resources. The steam is piped from underground wells to the power plant, where it is coordinated into a turbine/generator unit. Two known underground resources of steam are available in the U.S. The Geysers in northern California and Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, where Old Faithful is a spring. Since Yellowstone is shielded from advancement, The Geysers are home to most of the country's dry steam plants.
Additionally, an increase in the use of dry steam power stations in Italy is expected to drive the market's growth. The first dry steam power station was built and used at Lardarello in Italy in 1904. Dry steam technology is still effective at the Geysers in Northern California, one of the largest single geothermal power sources. It is anticipated that most of the geothermal power plants in the future will depend on dry steam power generation technology, which is an important element that will fuel the growth of the global market during the forecast period.
Based on end use, the global market is bifurcated into residential, commercial, industrial, and others.
The residential segment dominates the global market and is projected to exhibit a CAGR of 4.2% over the forecast period. Geothermal power is used in the residential sector, mainly for heating, cooling, and electricity generation. In the residential sector, geothermal energy serves as an ideal alternative to fossil fossils and can be used to produce electricity. This is attributed to geothermal power ensuring less oil, coal, and gas use and considerably minimal discharge of greenhouse gasses. Geothermal energy is used in several homes to decrease electric bills and attain eco-friendly electricity generation practices.
Furthermore, the rise in the use of geothermal heat pumps in residential heating applications is expected to drive the market's growth. As demand for electricity increases, it is forecasted that the requirement for geothermal power will increase significantly, thereby driving the growth of the global market. Several businesses in the market provide geothermal energy to the residential sectors. Enel Green Power is one company that owns power plants at a complex serving approximately 2 million families, 8,700 residential and business customers, and 25ha of greenhouses.

Ba é an méid margaidh domhanda cumhachta geothermal luach USD 7.87 billiún in 2022. Tá sé beartaithe go dtiocfaidh sé ar USD 11.79 billiún faoi 2031, ag fás ag CAGR de 4.6% le linn na tréimhse réamhaisnéis (20232031).
Tá an t-éileamh ar fhuinneamh in-athnuaite ag méadú mar gheall ar éifeachtaí díobhálacha an fhuinnimh teirmeach. Tá dul chun cinn teicneolaíoch tar éis táirgí leictreonacha a thabhairt isteach a dteastaíonn leictreachas uathu chun críocha tí agus tráchtála, ag méadú an éilimh ar fhuinneamh agus ag samhlú an mhargaidh cumhachta geotermaí. Is éard atá i gcumhacht gheo-theirmeach ná an fuinneamh a fhaightear as an teas atá stóráilte laistigh de chroílár na Talún. Déantar an teas nádúrtha a tháirgtear ag taobh istigh den Domhan a ghabháil agus a úsáid mar fhoinse fuinnimh in-athnuaite chun leictreachas a tháirgeadh nó teas agus fuaraithe a sholáthar. De ghnáth déantar cumhacht geotermaí a ghiniúint trí thapáil isteach i stórálacha geotermacha, limistéir de bhunús na Talún ina bhfuil uisce te nó gaile gafa. De ghnáth bíonn na cisterna seo suite i réigiúin le bolcánna gníomhacha, le hotspots geotermacha, nó i gceantair a bhfuil gradient geotermacha ard iontu.
Chun fuinneamh geothermal a shaothrú, déanann gléasraí cumhachta geothermal tochailtí sa talamh chun rochtain a fháil ar an uisce te nó ar an stoirm. Is féidir leis na tobar seo dul go domhain na mílte méadar. Nuair a bhíonn na tobar i bhfeidhm, baintear uisce te nó gaile as na cúlchistí geotharmacha trí tobar táirgeachta. Tá teochtaí agus brú ard na sreabhán ag déanamh go bhfuil siad oiriúnach chun cumhacht a ghiniúint. Mar sin féin, tá táirgeadh cumhachta geothermaí ag brath ar an suíomh. Éilíonn sé rochtain ar stórálacha geothermacha, nach bhfuil dháileadh cothrom ar fud an domhain. D'fhéadfadh na costais forbartha tosaigh a bheith ard mar gheall ar an tochailt agus an taiscéalaíocht a theastaíonn.
Mhéid Margaidh US$11.79 billiún faoi 2031
Margadh is mó fáis sa Eoraip
An margadh is mó a bhí i Meiriceá Thuaidh
☐Clúdach Tuarascála ☐Treoracha Ioncaim, Tuairimí ar Thírdhreach na gComaíochta, Fachtóirí Fáis, Tuairimí ar Thírdhreach an Chomhshaoil agus na Rialaithe agus Treochtaí
Déantar fuinneamh in-athnuaite a dhíriú ó phróisis nádúrtha cosúil le gaoth agus solas na gréine. Tá an ghrian, geothermal, gaoth, bithfhuinneamh, hidreamháileacht, agus aigéan ar chuid de na príomhfhoinsí fuinnimh in-athnuaite. Úsáidtear fuinneamh in-athnuaite i dteas, leictreachas, fuaraithe agus iompar. Soláthraíonn fuinneamh in-athnuaite go comhpháirteach thart ar 7% de éilimh an domhain ar fhuinneamh. Tá fuinneamh in-athnuaite réasúnta níos costasaí i gcomparáid le breoslaí iontaise. Tá an Ghníomhaireacht Idirnáisiúnta Fuinnimh ag súil go dtiocfaidh méadú ar fhuinneamh in-athnuaite i gcomhréir le tomhaltas fuinnimh iomlán an domhain le linn na cúig bliana amach romhainn, agus go sroichfidh sé 12.4% de leibhéal i 2023.
Tugtar é seo leis an bhfíric go bhfuil roinnt fachtóirí freagrach as úsáid fuinnimh in-athnuaite a thiomáint, agus is é an ceann is tábhachtaí ná an t-ardú ar théamh domhanda mar gheall ar ardú ar astaíochtaí dé-ocsaíd charbóin ó dhó na n-olaí iontaise. Is cúis imní é an gá atá le astaíochtaí gás ceaptha teasa a laghdú, an méadú ar an ngá le slándáil fuinnimh, an t-athrú ar chumhacht núicléach thraidisiúnta, agus an easpa dul chun cinn i gcur i bhfeidhm chumhacht núicléach, a bhfuiltear ag súil go dtiocfaidh an t-éileamh ar chumhacht gheoiteirmeach chun cinn le linn na tréimhse réamhaisnéise.
Tá méadú mór tagtha ar an éileamh ar leictreachas le blianta beaga anuas. Tá sé seo mar gheall ar na dul chun cinn teicneolaíocha a thug ar tháirgí leictreonacha a thabhairt isteach a dteastaíonn leictreachas uathu chun críocha tí agus tráchtála. Ina theannta sin, tá méadú ar ioncam iníoctha an tomhaltóra in aghaidh an duine agus ar a gcumas caiteachais tar éis díolacháin feistí leictreonacha amhail fuílleacháin, teilifíseáin agus aerchóirithe a mhéadú. Tá an nuachóiriú agus forbairt an tionscail tógála agus forbairt na bhfoirgnimh chónaithe ard-deireadh tar éis an t-éileamh ar chumhacht a mhéadú le cúpla bliain anuas. I 2012, bhí an tomhaltas leictreachais ar fud an domhain ag 20,900 TWh, a d'ardaigh 1,9% go 21,297 in 2013.
Ba é an méid sin a bhí i gceist le haghaidh na dtáirgí a bhí ag an táirgeoir leictreach. Is iad an méadú ar OTI agus an méadú ar fhorbairt bonneagair i ngeilleagair atá ag teacht chun cinn na príomhfhachtóirí a spreagann an t-éileamh ar chumhacht gheoiteirmeach. Tá an-chuid de na táirgí a úsáidtear ag an margadh ag na tíortha sin agus tá an-chuid acu i dtáirgí a tháirgtear ag na tíortha sin. Tá sé beartaithe go mbainfidh an TDP domhanda amach $83 trilliún faoi 2022. Dá bhrí sin, bheadh gá níos mó le táirgeadh cumhachta chun freastal ar éileamh méadaithe na dtionscal agus leictreonaic tomhaltóirí ar leictreachas.
Tá sé riachtanach bonneagar a thógáil chun acmhainní nua a fhorbairt. Méadaíonn na hinfheistíochtaí sin costais leictreachais, go háirithe sna blianta tosaigh. Ar dtús, ní mór do na forbróirí suíomhanna a fháil a nglactar leo go poiblí le hacmhainní iomchuí agus rochtain ar línte tarchurtha. Chun suíomh féideartha gréine a aimsiú, ní mór roinnt blianta de mhonatóireacht a dhéanamh chun a chinneadh an bhfuil sé oiriúnach le haghaidh cumhachta a ghiniúint. Ina theannta sin, ní mór na hoibrithe a oiliúint chun gléasraí cumhachta a shuiteáil, a oibriú agus a chothabháil. Éilíonn cuid acu taithí oibriúcháin i gcoinníollacha aeráide áirithe sula ndéantar feidhmíocht a bharrfheabhsú. Cuireann na fachtóirí seo go léir an costas a bhaineann le gléasraí cumhachta geothermacha a shuiteáil ar ardú. Táthar ag súil go gcuirfidh an costas ard seo bac ar fhás an mhargaidh toisc go gcuireann sé srian ar úsáid chumhacht geotermaí.
Táthar ag súil go dtiocfaidh éileamh ar chumhacht gheoiteirmeach ó gheilleagair mar an tSín agus an India mar gheall ar mhéadú suntasach ar éileamh ar fhuinneamh. Tá sé seo mar gheall ar an méadú ar infheistíocht i dtionscadail fuinnimh in-athnuaite sna tíortha seo. Táthar ag súil go n-úsáidfidh earnálacha cónaithe agus tionsclaíochta níos mó fuinnimh le linn na tréimhse réamh-mheasta san Áise-Aigéan Ciúin, mar gheall ar mhéadú daonra agus ar éileamh ard ar ghiniúint leictreachais.
Ina theannta sin, tá acmhainneacht fhás suntasach ag an India; áfach, mar gheall ar a bheartais agus a timpeallacht ghnó neamhsheasmhach maidir le giniúint fuinnimh in-athnuaite san am atá caite, bhí an sciar sa táirgeadh fuinnimh iomlán níos lú. Tá an India ar cheann de na náisiúin a bhfuil méadú láidir acu ar mhargadh na hÁise-Aigéan Ciúin mar gheall ar infheistíochtaí atá ag ardú i dtionscadail fuinnimh in-athnuaite. Is é an sprioc atá ag an Aontas maidir le soláthar fuinnimh ó na geotermais, mar a leagtar amach i bpointe (b) den chéad fhomhír d'Airteagal 2 (2) de Threoir 2003/87/CE, ná soláthar fuinnimh ó na geotermais a chur ar fáil do na Ballstáit.
Bunaithe ar réigiún, tá an margadh domhanda roinnte i Meiriceá Thuaidh, san Eoraip, san Áise-Aigéan Ciúin, i Meiriceá Laidineach, agus sa Mheánoirthear agus san Afraic.
Is í Meiriceá Thuaidh an scairshealbhóir is suntasaí ar mhargadh domhanda na cumhachta geothermaí agus meastar go dtiocfaidh fás de 4,2% ar an CAGR thar thréimhse na réamhaisnéis. Tá fás an mhargaidh fuinnimh geothermal Mheiriceá Thuaidh á thiomáint ag iarrachtaí méadaithe a rinne eolaithe agus forbróirí chun freastal ar an éileamh atá ag fás ar fhuinneamh i Meiriceá Thiar agus sa Mheicsiceo. Tá roinnt tionscadal geothermal ar siúl sna Stáit Aontaithe agus sa Mheicsiceo, rud a spreagann an t-éileamh ar fhuinneamh geothermal. Ag deireadh 2013, bhí cumas cumhachta geothermal 3,440 MW san Iarthar na SA, le gléasraí cumhachta nua nó athchóirithe i Utah, Nevada, California, agus Nua-Mheicsiceo.
Is dócha go mbeidh 35% de tháirgeadh fuinnimh Mheicsiceo ó fhoinsí fuinnimh in-athnuaite ag an Roinn Fuinnimh Mheicsiceo faoi 2024. Tá Meicsiceo ag déanamh athchóirithe mar Athchóiriú Fuinnimh 20132018 agus Estrategia Nacional de Energía 20132027 chun an margadh cumhachta a oscailt d'eagraíochtaí príobháideacha agus seachtracha. Táthar ag súil go spreagfaidh tionscnaimh den sórt sin an t-éileamh ar chumhacht gheoiteirmeach agus go gcuirfidh siad leis sin fás an mhargaidh. Ina theannta sin, tá rannchuidiú suntasach ag Ceanada le fás an mhargaidh a spreagadh. Mar shampla, tá naoi dtionscadal reatha maidir le giniúint cumhachta geothermal i gcéimeanna luath nó ionchais le feiceáil ar Liosta Tionscadal Idirnáisiúnta GEA i mí Aibreáin 2014. I measc na dtionscadal seo tá sé phlanda geothermal i British Columbia, dhá phlanda i Saskatchewan, agus ceann i Alberta.
Táthar ag súil go mbeidh CAGR de 3.6% ag an Eoraip le linn na tréimhse réamhaisnéis. Déantar anailís ar mhargadh fuinnimh geothermaí na hEorpa ar fud na Ríochta Aontaithe, na Gearmáine, na Fraince, na hIodáile, na Spáinne agus an chuid eile den Eoraip. Dúirt an Chomhairle Eorpach um Fuinneamh Geo-theirmeach (EGEC) go raibh fás seasmhach ar fhuinneamh geo-theirmeach san Eoraip, agus táthar ag súil go dtosóidh 16 gléasra nua ag feidhmiú in 2017, le cumas comhcheangailte de 33 MW de chumhacht ghinearáide geo-theirmeach. Is é an cumas leictreachais gheo-theirmeach suiteáilte in aghaidh na bliana ná 2.8 GWe, ag táirgeadh níos mó ná 15 TWh fuinnimh.
Tá an méid sin le rá go bhfuil an Coimisiún ag súil go mbeidh an Coimisiún in ann an méid sin a dhéanamh. Tá an Eoraip ar cheann de na ceannairí domhanda i dtaca le hinfheistíochtaí in fhuinneamh in-athnuaite. Ceann de na cláir taighde is mó san AE is ea "Horizon 2020", a leithdháil USD 6.7 milliún do fhuinneamh in-athnuaite don tréimhse 2014-2020. Tá sé mar aidhm ag an Eoraip a astaíochtaí gáis cheaptha teasa a laghdú 80%. Chun é seo a bhaint amach, táthar ag súil go dtiocfaidh méadú suntasach ar sciar na n-athnuaite, ní hamháin i gcumhacht ach freisin sna tionscail iompair, téimh agus fuaraithe. Táthar ag súil go gcuirfidh an fachtóir seo go mór le fás an mhargaidh fuinnimh geotermaí.
Déantar anailís ar mhargadh na hÁise-Aigéan Ciúin ar fud na Síne, na Seapáine, na hIndia, na Cóiré Theas, na hAstráile, agus an chuid eile den Áise-Aigéan Ciúin. Tá an margadh cumhachta geothermal láidir san Indinéis. Ina theannta sin, nuair a chuaigh gléasra cumhachta geotermaí 330MW Sarulla ar líne i mí na Bealtaine 2018, léiríodh éacht eile i earnáil chumhachta geotermaí na hIndinéise. Meastar gurb é an fiontar USD1.7 billiún de níos mó ná 2.1 milliún aonad teaghlaigh Indinéisis an gléasra cumhachta geothermal is mó ar domhan ar chonradh aonair. Tá an chéim seo ag spreagadh fás an mhargaidh geothermal Asia-Pacific.
Déantar anailís ar mhargadh cumhachta geothermal LAMEA ar fud Mheiriceá Laidineach, an Mheánoirthear agus na hAfraice. In 2015, cruthaíodh thart ar 13% d'fhuinneamh Chosta Rica ó ghléasraí cumhachta geothermacha ag baint úsáide as acmhainní volcánta sa tír. Le cúig mhilliún áitritheoir, is é Costa Rica an seachtú táirgeoir geothermal is mó as 25 tír. De réir an Bhainc Forbartha Idir-Mheiriceánach (IADB) agus an Bhainc Domhanda, úsáideann Meiriceá Laidineach thart ar 5% dá acmhainneacht gheo-theirmeach de 300 terawatt-uair in aghaidh na bliana. Tá níos lú réimsí ann chun geothermal a ghiniúint i réigiún LAMEA; áfach, táthar ag súil go dtiocfaidh fás ar an margadh le tionscnaimh fáis agus infheistíocht i dtreo forbairt fuinnimh.
Tá an margadh domhanda cumhachta geothermal roinnte ina leith de réir chineál stáisiún cumhachta agus úsáide deiridh.
Bunaithe ar chineál na stáisiúin cumhachta, tá an margadh domhanda roinnte ina stáisiúin cumhachta gaile tirim, stáisiúin cumhachta gaile flash, agus stáisiúin cumhachta cearcála dénártha.
Tá an roinn de stáisiúin chumhachta gaile tirim i gceannas ar an margadh domhanda agus tátear ag súil go mbeidh CAGR de 3.5% aige le linn na tréimhse réamhaisnéis. Tarraingíonn gléasanna rialaithe gaile tirim gaile ó acmhainní faoi thalamh. Cuirtear an t-uisce ó bholl faoi thalamh chuig an gléasra cumhachta, áit a ndéantar é a chomhordú i ngrúpa/ghineadóir. Tá dhá acmhainn faoi thalamh de ghaoth ar fáil sna Stáit Aontaithe. Na Geysers i dtuaisceart California agus Páirc Náisiúnta Yellowstone i Wyoming, áit a bhfuil Old Faithful mar earrach. Ós rud é go bhfuil Yellowstone cosanta ó dhul chun cinn, tá na Geysers ina mbaile don chuid is mó de ghléasraí gaile tirim na tíre.
Ina theannta sin, táthar ag súil go dtiocfaidh méadú ar úsáid stáisiúin cumhachta gaile tirim san Iodáil chun fás an mhargaidh a spreagadh. Tógadh an chéad stáisiún cumhachta gaile tirim agus baineadh úsáid as i Lardarello san Iodáil i 1904. Tá teicneolaíocht gaile tirim fós éifeachtach ag na Geysers i dTuaisceart California, ceann de na foinsí cumhachta geothermal aonair is mó. Táthar ag súil go mbeidh an chuid is mó de na stáisiúin cumhachta geotermacha sa todhchaí ag brath ar theicneolaíocht giniúna cumhachta gaile tirim, rud atá ina ghné thábhachtach a spreagfaidh fás an mhargaidh dhomhanda le linn na tréimhse réamhaisnéisí.
Bunaithe ar úsáid deiridh, tá an margadh domhanda roinnte ina chónaithe, tráchtála, tionsclaíoch, agus eile.
Tá an t-earnáil cónaithe i gceannas ar an margadh domhanda agus tátear ag súil go léireoidh sé CAGR de 4,2% le linn na tréimhse réamhaisnéis. Úsáidtear fuinneamh geotermaí san earnáil chónaithe, go príomha le haghaidh téimh, fuaraithe agus táirgeadh leictreachais. Sa earnáil chónaithe, is rogha iontach é an geothermal mar mhalairt ar fhóisíní iontaise agus is féidir é a úsáid chun leictreachas a tháirgeadh. Tá sé seo i gceist le cumhacht geothermal a chinntíonn níos lú ola, guail agus gáis a úsáid agus scaoileadh go suntasach íosta gás ceaptha teasa. Úsáidtear fuinneamh geotermaí i roinnt tithe chun billí leictreachais a laghdú agus chun cleachtais ghiniúna leictreachais atá neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol a bhaint amach.
Ina theannta sin, táthar ag súil go spreagfaidh méadú úsáid pompaí teasa geothramacha in iarratais teasa cónaithe fás an mhargaidh. De réir mar a mhéadaíonn an t-éileamh ar leictreachas, táthar ag tuar go méadóidh an riachtanas le haghaidh cumhachta geothermaí go suntasach, rud a spreagfaidh fás an mhargaidh dhomhanda. Soláthraíonn roinnt gnólachtaí sa mhargadh fuinneamh geothramach do na hearnálacha cónaithe. Is cuideachta amháin é Enel Green Power a bhfuil gléasraí cumhachta aici i gcomhfhillteach a fhreastalaíonn ar thart ar 2 mhilliún teaghlach, 8,700 custaiméir cónaithe agus gnó, agus 25 heicteár de theachlann glas.


778 The Battle of Roncevaux Pass (Pyrenees on the border between France and
Spain), at which Roland (commander of the rear guard of Charlemagne's army) was
killed. The battle was romanticized by oral tradition into a major conflict
between Christians and Muslims, when in fact both sides in the battle were
Christian. The legend is recounted in the 11th century The Song of Roland,
which is the oldest surviving major work of French literature, and in Orlando
Furioso, which is one of the most celebrated works of Italian literature.
Holy Roman Emperor Otto II was defeated by the Saracens in the battle of Capo
Colonna, in Calabria.
1248 –The foundation stone of Cologne Cathedral, built to
house the relics of the Three Wise Men, was laid.
1261 Michael VIII Palaeologus
was crowned Byzantine emperor in Constantinople.
1309 – The city of Rhodes
surrendered to the forces of the Knights of St. John, completing their conquest
of Rhodes. The knights established their headquarters on the island and renamed
themselves the Knights of Rhodes.
1457 "Mainz Psalter," the earliest
dated book was completed. 1
483 Pope Sixtus IV consecrated the Sistine Chapel.
1548 Mary, Queen of Scotland, arrived in France.

778 Cath Pas Roncevaux (Pyrenees ar an teorainn idir an Fhrainc agus
An Spáinn), áit a raibh Roland (comandóir garda cúl arm Charlemagne)
marbh. Bhí an cath romanticised ag traidisiún béil i gcath mór
idir Críostaithe agus Moslamaigh, nuair a bhí i ndáiríre an dá thaobh sa troid
Críostaí. Tá an finscéal a insint sa 11ú haois An t-amhrán Roland,
is é an obair is sine a mhaireann mór na litríochta Fraincis, agus in Orlando
Furioso, ar cheann de na hoibreacha is cáiliúla de litríocht na hIodáile.
Bhí na Saracens ag bualadh le hImpire na Róimhe Naofa Otto II i gcath Capo
Colonna, i Calabria.
1248 Cathedrail Cholóin a tógadh chun
teach a leagadh relics na Trí Wise Men,
1261 Michael VIII Palaeologus
Bhí coróin impire Byzantine i Constantinople.
1309  Cathair Rhodes
Thit sé i bhfolach go raibh sé ina chónaí i gCill Chainnigh.
de Rhodes. An ríthe a bunaíodh a n-ionad ceanncheathrú ar an oileán agus ath-ainmníodh
iad féin na Ridireanna Rhodes.
1457 "Mainz Psalter", an chéad
leabhar dáta a chríochnaigh. 1 an t-am
483 D'inghreos an Pápa Sixtus IV an Capall Siostine.
1548 Tháinig Mary, Banríon na hAlban, go dtí an Fhrainc.


The flu vaccine protects children from serious illness and even death. The youngest children are especially vulnerable to the viruses that cause the flu. Every year in the United States, an average of 20,000 children younger than 5 are hospitalized with flu complications such as pneumonia.
Children age 2 and younger who come down with the flu are the most likely to need hospitalization. And kids between 2 and 4 who get the flu are more likely than older children to see a doctor, be taken to an urgent care center, or end up in an emergency room.
Learn more about the flu and how to recognize the symptoms.
The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the flu vaccine for everyone, including babies who are at least 6 months old. (Infants younger than 6 months aren't old enough to get vaccinated.) For other exceptions, see "Who shouldn't get the flu vaccine" below.
It's most effective to get the vaccine as soon as it's available in the fall to allow time for immunity to build up before flu season is in full swing. But if your child turns 6 months old during the winter, it's not too late to get it in January or even February.
Every year, a new vaccine is developed about nine months before flu season. Scientists formulate the new vaccine based on the viruses in circulation at the time and the strains they predict will be most prevalent during the upcoming flu season. Each vaccine protects against at least three different strains of flu virus.
In December 2012, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved a new vaccine to provide broader coverage against influenza viruses by protecting against four different strains of the disease. Both 3-strain and 4-strain vaccines are available for the 2013-2014 flu season. Ask your child's doctor which one is right for your child.
Some children age 6 months through 8 years require two doses of influenza vaccine. Children being vaccinated for the first time will need two doses one month apart. Some children who have received an influenza vaccine previously will also need two doses. Your child's healthcare provider can tell you whether two doses are recommended for your child.
Healthy children age 2 and older who have no history of recurrent wheezing or asthma can be given a nasal spray version of the flu vaccine called FluMist. The FluMist vaccine available for the 2013-2014 flu season protects against four strains of the flu virus.
Both 3-strain and 4-strain flu vaccines help prevent H1N1 and other influenza viruses.
If you have any questions about whether your child should receive the flu vaccine, talk with his doctor. In general, your child won't be vaccinated if he:
Fortunately, the flu vaccine provides some protection against other strains of flu. So even if your child becomes infected with one that's not included in the vaccine, he'll probably have a milder case.
Some flu shots are still made with thimerosal, a preservative that contains a form of mercury. If you prefer, you can ask your doctor whether a thimerosal-free flu shot is available. You can also avoid thimerosal if your child is at least 2 years old by choosing the nasal spray flu vaccine, which doesn't contain any preservatives.
The most common side effect of the flu shot (for both children and adults) is soreness at the injection site. Children, particularly those who haven't been exposed to the flu virus, may develop a low fever and feel achy and tired. These symptoms can last up to two days.
Less than 1 percent of people who get the flu shot report symptoms such as fever, chills, and muscle aches. Studies show that people who get a placebo injection (one without the vaccine) are just as likely to report these symptoms.
Children who get the nasal spray vaccine may develop a runny nose, wheezing, headache, muscle aches, vomiting, and fever. These side effects are mild and short-lived, especially compared to a bout of the flu.
Severe allergic reactions are rare but possible with any vaccine. See what our expert says about how to tell whether your child is having an adverse reaction.

Cosnaíonn an vacsaín fliú leanaí ó ghalair thromchúiseacha agus fiú ó bhás. Tá na páistí is óige faoi mhíchumas go háirithe do na víris a chuireann an fliú i gcúis. Gach bliain sna Stáit Aontaithe, déantar meán de 20,000 leanbh atá níos óige ná 5 bliana d'aois a ospidéalú le deacrachtaí an fhliú mar nimhiú.
Is iad leanaí 2 bliana d'aois agus níos óige a thagann síos leis an nglaoch an seans is mó go dteastaíonn ospidéalú uathu. Agus tá seans níos mó ag páistí idir 2 agus 4 bliana d'aois a fhaigheann an fliú ná páistí níos sine dul chuig dochtúir, a bheith i lár cúraim éigeandála, nó a bheith i seomra éigeandála.
Foghlaim níos mó faoi an fliú agus conas na comharthaí a aithint.
Molann Ionad na Stát Aontaithe um Rialú agus Cosc ar Ghalair (CDC) an vacsaín fliú do gach duine, lena n-áirítear leanaí atá 6 mhí d'aois ar a laghad. (Ní bhíonn leanaí níos óige ná 6 mhí d'aois go leor chun an vacsaín a fháil.) Maidir le heisceachtaí eile, féach " Cé nach chóir an vacsaín fliú a fháil " thíos.
Is é an rud is éifeachtaí ná an vacsaín a fháil a luaithe a bheidh sé ar fáil san fhómhar chun go mbeidh am ag an díolúine a thógáil suas sula mbeidh séasúr an fhliú ag dul i bhfeidhm. Ach má bhíonn do leanbh 6 mhí d'aois i rith an gheimhridh, níl sé ró-dhéanach é a fháil i mí Eanáir nó i mí Feabhra.
Gach bliain, déantar vacsaín nua a fhorbairt thart ar naoi mí roimh shéasúr an fhliú. Déanann eolaithe an vacsaín nua a fhoirmliú bunaithe ar na víris a bhí ag scaipeadh ag an am agus na cineálacha a thuar siad a bheidh is forleithne le linn shéasúr na hionfhabhtála atá le teacht. Cosnaíonn gach vacsaín i gcoinne trí shraith éagsúla de víreas na ngrípe ar a laghad.
I mí na Nollag 2012, cheadaigh Riarachán Bia agus Drugaí na Stát Aontaithe vacsaín nua chun clúdach níos leithne a sholáthar i gcoinne víris an fhliú trí chosaint a dhéanamh ar cheithre strain éagsúla den ghalar. Tá vacsaíní 3-strain agus 4-strain ar fáil don séasúr fliú 2013-2014. Iarr ar dhochtúir do pháiste cén ceann atá ceart do do leanbh.
Éilíonn roinnt leanaí idir 6 mhí agus 8 mbliana dhá dháileog de vacsaín an fhliú. Beidh dhá dhosú ag teastáil ó leanaí atá á vacsaínú den chéad uair, idir mí amháin agus mí eile. Beidh dhá dhosú ag teastáil ó roinnt leanaí a fuair vacsaín an fhliú roimhe seo freisin. Féadfaidh soláthraí cúraim sláinte do pháiste a rá leat an bhfuil dhá dháileog molta do do pháiste.
Is féidir le páistí sláintiúla 2 bliana d'aois agus níos sine nach bhfuil aon stair acu de wheezing athfhillteach nó asthma a thabhairt do leagan sprae nasal den vacsaín fliú ar a dtugtar FluMist. Cosnaíonn vacsaín FluMist atá ar fáil don séasúr fliú 2013-2014 i gcoinne ceithre shliocht den víreas fliú.
Cabhraíonn vacsaíní fliú 3-strain agus 4-strain le H1N1 agus víris fliú eile a chosc.
Má tá aon cheist agat maidir le cibé an chóir do leanbh an vacsaín fliú a fháil, labhair lena dhochtúir. Go ginearálta, ní dhéanfar do leanbh a vacsaínú má tá sé:
Ar an dea-shástacht, soláthraíonn an vacsaín fliú cosaint éigin i gcoinne cineálacha eile fliú. Mar sin, fiú má thiteann do leanbh le ceann nach bhfuil san áireamh sa vacsaín, is dócha go mbeidh cás níos éadroime aige.
Déantar roinnt lámhaigh fliú fós le thimerosal, coimhdeoir ina bhfuil cineál meicreacha. Más fearr leat, is féidir leat a iarraidh ar do dhochtúir an bhfuil vacsaín fliú gan thimerosal ar fáil. Is féidir leat thimerosal a sheachaint freisin má tá do leanbh 2 bliana d'aois ar a laghad trí vacsaín an ghrianghraif a chur i sprae nasal, nach bhfuil aon choimeádáin ann.
Is é an fo-éifeacht is coitianta a bhíonn ag an bhréagán fliú (do leanaí agus do dhaoine fásta araon) ná pian ag an áit a instealladh. D'fhéadfadh teas íseal a bheith ag leanaí, go háirithe iad siúd nach raibh nochtaithe don víreas fliú, agus go mbraitheann siad tinn agus tuirseach. Is féidir leis na hairíonna seo dul ar aghaidh suas le dhá lá.
Tuairiscíonn níos lú ná 1 faoin gcéad de na daoine a fhaigheann an vacsaín fliú comharthaí ar nós teas, creathadh, agus pian matáin. Léiríonn staidéir go bhfuil na hairíonna seo chomh seans maith le daoine a fhaigheann instealladh phláiseabo (aon cheann gan an vacsaín).
D'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh srón ag rith ar leanaí a fhaigheann an vacsaín spraeire srón, siúlóid, tinneas cinn, pian muscle, meá, agus fiabhras. Tá na fo-iarsmaí seo éadrom agus gearrthéarmach, go háirithe i gcomparáid le haire an fhuil.
Tá frithghníomhartha ailléirgeacha tromchúiseacha annamh ach is féidir iad a bheith ann le haon vacsaín. Féach cad a deir ár saineolaí faoi conas a insint má tá imoibriú díobhálach ag do leanbh.


|First published in English in 1925, The Geometry of Rene Descartes brings to audiences one of the most revolutionary works in mathematics since Euclid. Descartes changed the field of mathematics with his invention of analytic geometry. He loved Euclid, because Euclidean geometry offered truth and certainty, and all of its conclusions were drawn from irrefutable axioms.
Descartes wanted to have this kind of certainty in all areas of life, and so he sought to answer questions about the real world using algebra combined with geometry. This produced the Cartesian plane, which suddenly allowed equations to be graphed. It was a revolution.
In this book, mathematicians can follow a true genius as he explains his mathematical principles and truths.
New York lawyer and mathematician DAVID EUGENE SMITH (1860-1944) authored a number of books while a professor of mathematics at Columbia University, including The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics (1900), A History of Japanese Mathematics (1914), and History of Modern Mathematics (1896).

"D'fhoilsigh The Geometry of Rene Descartes ar dtús i mBéarla i 1925, agus tugann sé seo do lucht féachana ceann de na hoibreacha is réabhlóideach i matamaitic ó bhí Euclid ann. D'athraigh Descartes réimse na matamaitice le a fhionnachtain ar gheoiméide anailíseach. Bhí grá aige do Euclid, toisc go raibh fíor agus cinnteacht ag geometry Euclidean, agus go raibh a chuid conclúidí go léir tarraingthe ó axioms neamh-in-chúlchúl.
Bhí sé ag iarraidh an cineál cinnteachta seo a bheith aige i ngach réimse den saol, agus mar sin d'iarr sé ceisteanna faoin saol fíor a fhreagairt ag baint úsáide as algaibra i dteannta le heimeatraíocht. Mar thoradh air seo, cruthaíodh an pláinéad Cartesian, a cheadaigh go tobann go ndéanfaí graifí de chothromanna. Bhí sé ina réabhlóid.
Sa leabhar seo, is féidir le matamaiticeoirí fíor-ghine a leanúint agus é ag míniú a phrionsabail agus a fhírinne matamaitice.
Scríobh dlíodóir agus matamaiticeoir Nua-Eabhrac DAVID EUGENE SMITH (1860-1944) roinnt leabhair agus é ina ollamh matamaitice in Ollscoil Columbia, lena n-áirítear The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics (1900), A History of Japanese Mathematics (1914), agus History of Modern Mathematics (1896).


Games for Kids Christmas – How to Play: Have children put Vaseline on their noses and then put red circles on their nose. Children will ride one leg. The kids kept jumping on one foot until player says “Santa says stop”. It’s a fun game to play with younger children.
Stocking, spoon and bowl for each team. Are children lined up at one end of the room. At the other end, hang a Christmas stocking for each team. How to Play: Have children sit in a large circle and blindfold one child. Another child will be given the sleigh and must say:
How to Play: Show the items in the boxes for the kids. Remove one or more items out of the box (without the kids see you). Ask the children to guess what items are missing. Instructions must be appropriate age for children to play.
How to Play: Challenge the children to perform random act of kindness for someone else for a day. How to play: in pairs children. On your mark children vying to become the first pair crossed the line.
Divide the children into teams. Each child got a letter and they have to hold the card and stand in the proper order to spell the word for all to see. source idea Christmas Games
Child rows behind the line and a bucket of marshmallows beside them. How to play: Give each piece of paper and a pencil. Explain to them that they will close their eyes and you will tell them what to draw. One girl and one boy are chosen to dance for a minute (or two), a signal is given and the girls and boys choosing new partners.
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Cluichí do Leanaí Nollaig  Conas a Imirt: Cuir Vaseline ar a n-aigne ag leanaí agus ansin cuir ciorcail dearga ar a n-aigne. Beidh leanaí ag marcaíocht ar chos amháin. Lean na páistí ag léim ar chos amháin go dtí go deir an t-imreoir "Deir Santa stop". Is cluiche spraíúil é le himirt le páistí níos óige.
Stocking, spúnóg agus bowl do gach foireann. Tá leanaí ar líne ag ceann amháin de dheireadh an tseomra. Ar an deireadh eile, crochadh stocaí Nollag do gach foireann. Conas a Imríonn sé: Cuir na páistí i suí i gciorcal mór agus cuir blindfold ar leanbh amháin. Beidh leanbh eile a thabhairt ar an sleigh agus ní mór a rá:
Conas a Imirt: Taispeáin na míreanna sna boscaí do na páistí. Tóg rud amháin nó níos mó as an mbosca (gan na páistí a fheiceáil). Iarr ar na páistí buille faoi thuairim a dhéanamh ar na rudaí atá ar iarraidh. Ní mór na treoracha a bheith oiriúnach d'aois na leanaí chun imirt.
Conas a Imirt: Iarraig ar na páistí gníomh cairdiúil a dhéanamh do dhuine eile ar feadh lá amháin. Conas a imirt: i péirí leanaí. Ar do chomhartha leanaí ag dul chun bheith ar an chéad péire trasna an líne.
Roinn na páistí ina bhfoirne. Fuair gach leanbh litir agus ní mór dóibh an cárta a shealbhú agus seasamh san ord ceart chun an focal a litreáil le go bhfeicfeadh gach duine. smaoineamh foinse Cluichí Nollag
Ritheann páistí taobh thiar den líne agus buidéal marshmallows ina thaobh. Conas a imirt: Tabhair píosa páipéir agus peann luaidhe do gach duine. Mínigh dóibh go ndúnfaidh siad a súile agus go n-insíonn tú dóibh cad atá le tarraingt. Roghnaítear cailín agus buachaill amháin le damhsa ar feadh nóiméad (nó dhó), tugtar comhartha agus roghnaíonn na cailíní agus na buachaillí comhpháirtithe nua.
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OLYMPIA – No less than 137 wildlife species in Washington and Oregon – from killer whales to giant salamanders – depend one way or another on Pacific salmon for part of their diet.
Entire watersheds are nourished by salmon carcasses, packed with chemical nutrients borne inland from the sea.
For these reasons, the decline of Pacific Northwest salmon stocks has implications that extend far beyond the salmon themselves.
That is the conclusion of Pacific Salmon and Wildlife, a new report produced by a consortium of organizations with the Washington departments of Natural Resources and Fish and Wildlife playing leading roles.
Drawing from more than 500 scientific studies published over the past century, the report synthesizes decades of research to document the special role salmon play in sustaining a variety of life forms in the Pacific Northwest.
"The critical role that salmon play in the Northwest ecosystem has been documented in various ways, but that often gets lost in the current discussion about salmon recovery," said Jeff Cederholm, salmon research scientist for the Washington Department of Natural Resources and principal author of the report. "Our goal was to draw the results of all those scientific studies into a single report that illustrates what's really at stake."
The report describes native salmon as a "keystone species" that determines the fate of many others.
Of the 137 wildlife species cited in the report whose diet depends directly or indirectly on salmon, 41 are mammals (killer whales, river otters, black bear), 89 are birds (bald eagles, caspian terns, grebes), five are reptiles (turtles, aquatic garter snake) and two are amphibians (giant salamanders).
Several species, including bald eagles, rely on salmon both directly and indirectly for their dietary needs: They not only eat salmon themselves but also prey on other species that eat salmon.
Insects, such as stoneflies, caddisflies, blackflies, have their own special relationship with salmon. Many feed off salmon carcasses, then become food for juvenile salmon, completing the cycle.
"We now know that some 82 species of wildlife are consumers of salmon carcasses," said David Johnson, who conducted the study as a scientist for the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. "This information greatly strengthens our collective understanding of the role that salmon play in the populations of Pacific Northwest wildlife species, and how management activities such as hatcheries, harvest, and other actions can impact these species."
An example of what can happen when these interrelationships break down can be found in the collapse of the kokanee salmon run at McDonald Creek in Glacier National Park.
In 1981, McDonald Creek drew 639 bald eagles to feed on salmon carcasses, the densest concentration of eagles south of the Canadian border. When opossum shrimp were later introduced to an adjacent lake, they competed with the kokanee for zooplankton and ultimately caused the run to fail. By 1989, only 25 eagles returned to the creek area.
The report suggests that black bears may be following the same course. Although bears in Alaska are well known for their appetite for salmon, most of their cousins in Washington and Oregon appear to favor huckleberries in the higher elevations. After citing several studies on the subject, the report offers a possible explanation:
"In summary, bears have a strong relationship to salmon where they have access to them, but it appears that ... current salmon populations do not represent a predictable food supply to bears in Washington and Oregon."
Concerned that may soon be the case with many other species, the authors of Pacific Salmon and Wildlife recommend that more native adult salmon be allowed to escape the fishery and spawn. According to the report, this is necessary not only to increase the population of wild salmon but to ensure the survival many other wildlife species that depend on salmon as a source of food.
Building on that theme, the report cites numerous studies outlining the important role salmon play in cycling nutrients from the ocean to freshwater habitats. All agree that salmon, which gain 95 percent of their body weight while at sea, provide a major source of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous for their own young and for entire ecosystems through the Northwest.
"As we recover salmon populations and their habitats, we will likely see measurable improvements in these wildlife species and in the overall health and functioning of these ecosystems," Johnson said.
Contributing to Pacific Salmon and Wildlife were scientists from the Washington departments of Natural Resources, Fish and Wildlife, and Ecology; the National Marine Fisheries Service and the U.S. Forest Service; the University of Washington and Oregon State University; and several private consultants.
Copies of the report are available by contacting WDFW at firstname.lastname@example.org, calling 360-902-2534, or writing to the WDFW, Habitat Program, 600 Capitol Way N., Olympia, WA 98501-1091.

OLYMPIA  Ní lú ná 137 speiceas fiadhúlra i Washington agus Oregon  ó bhalann killer go salamanders ollmhór  ag brath ar shalmon an Aigéin Chiúin ar bhealach amháin nó ar bhealach eile le haghaidh cuid dá n-aiste bia.
Tá báistí salmon ag cothú leachtanna uisce iomlána, atá pacáilte le cothaithigh cheimiceacha a thugtar isteach ón bhfarraige.
Ar na cúiseanna seo, tá impleachtaí ag laghdú stoic salmón an Aigéin Chiúin Thuaidh atá i bhfad níos faide ná na salmón féin.
Sin an conclúid atá le Pacific Salmon and Wildlife, tuarascáil nua a d'eagraigh comhchoiste eagraíochtaí agus na ranna Washington d'Acmhainní Nádúrtha agus Iascaigh agus Fiadhúlra ag imirt ról ceannaire.
Ag tarraingt ó níos mó ná 500 staidéar eolaíoch a foilsíodh le linn na céadta bliain anuas, déanann an tuarascáil comhcheangal le blianta taighde chun an ról speisialta a imríonn an salmón a dhoiciméadú chun cineálacha éagsúla beatha a chothabháil i dTuaisceart an Aigéin Chiúin.
"Tá an ról ríthábhachtach a imríonn an salmón san éiceachóras an Iarthuaiscirt curtha i gcuntas ar bhealaí éagsúla, ach is minic a chailleann sé sin sa phlé reatha faoi ghnóthú salmón", a dúirt Jeff Cederholm, eolaí taighde salmón do Roinn Acmhainní Nádúrtha Washington agus príomh-údar an tuarascála. "Ba é ár gcuspóir torthaí na staidéir eolaíochta sin go léir a tharraingt isteach i dtuarascáil amháin a léiríonn cad atá i gceist i ndáiríre".
Déanann an tuarascáil cur síos ar shalmon dúchasach mar "speiceas clochch" a chinneann chinniúint go leor eile.
As na 137 speiceas fiadhúlra a luaitear sa tuarascáil a bhfuil a n-aiste bia ag brath go díreach nó go hindíreach ar an salmón, is mamaigh iad 41 (bhál killer, otters abhainn, ursa dubh), is é 89 éan (eaglaí bald, terns Caspian, grebes), is iad cúig réptílí (turtur, nathair garter uisceacha) agus is iad dhá amphibian (salamanders ollmhór).
Braitheann roinnt speiceas, lena n-áirítear eagles bald, ar shalmon araon go díreach agus go hindíreach dá riachtanais aiste bia: Ní amháin go n-itheann siad shalmon iad féin ach go n-éireoidh siad le speiceas eile a itheann shalmon.
Tá caidreamh speisialta ag insteallacha, amhail stoneflies, caddisflies, blackflies, le salmón. Tá go leor acu ag ithe carcasses salmón, ansin a bheith ina bhia do salmón óg, ag críochnú an timthriall.
"Tá a fhios againn anois go n-itheann thart ar 82 speiceas fiadhúlra carcasaí sialmóin", a dúirt David Johnson, a rinne an staidéar mar eolaí do Roinn Iasc agus Fiadhúlra Washington. "Leisíonn an t-eolas seo go mór ár dtuiscint chomhchoiteann ar an ról a imríonn an salmón i ndaonra speicis fiadhúlra an Aigéin Chiúin Thuaidh, agus conas is féidir le gníomhaíochtaí bainistíochta mar eisiataí, fiontar, agus gníomhaíochtaí eile tionchar a imirt ar na speicis seo".
Is féidir sampla de na rudaí a d'fhéadfadh tarlú nuair a bhriseann na hidirchaidrimh seo a fháil i gcraoladh an lochta kokanee ag McDonald Creek i bPáirc Náisiúnta Glacier.
Sa bhliain 1981, tharraing McDonald Creek 639 oighlín geal chun bia a fháil ar charcasaí salmóin, an tiúchan is déine d'oighlín ó dheas ó theorainn Cheanada. Nuair a tugadh creimíní opossum isteach ina dhiaidh sin i loch in aice láimhe, bhí siad san iomaíocht leis an kokanee le haghaidh zooplankton agus sa deireadh rinne siad an rith a theip. Faoi 1989, níor tháinig ach 25 eagle ar ais go limistéar an srotáin.
Tugann an tuarascáil le fios go bhféadfadh gur ag na beorach dubha atá an bealach céanna á leanúint acu. Cé go bhfuil a fhios go maith go bhfuil an-taitneamh ag bears in Alasca as salmón, is cosúil go bhfuil an chuid is mó dá gcúinsí i Washington agus Oregon ag tairbhe huckleberries sna háiteanna níos airde. Tar éis dó roinnt staidéir a lua faoin ábhar, tugann an tuarascáil míniú féideartha:
"Ar an iomlán, tá caidreamh láidir ag béar le salmón nuair a bhíonn rochtain acu orthu, ach is cosúil nach léiríonn ... daonra salmón reatha soláthar bia intuartha do béar i Washington agus Oregon".
Ar eagla go bhféadfadh sé a bheith amhlaidh go luath le go leor speiceas eile, molann údar na Pacific Salmon and Wildlife go ligfí do níos mó salmón dúchasach fásta éalú ón iascaireacht agus go gcuirfí an t-eagla orthu. De réir an tuairisc, ní gá sin a dhéanamh chun líon na sáile saill fiáine a mhéadú ach freisin chun a chinntiú go mairfidh go leor speiceas fiáine fiáine eile a bhfuil siad ag brath ar an sáile mar fhoinse bia.
Ag tógáil ar an téama sin, luaitear sa tuarascáil go leor staidéir a léiríonn an ról tábhachtach a imríonn an salmón i gciorcal cothaithigh ó na farraige go dtí gnáthóga uisce milis. Aontaíonn gach duine go soláthraíonn an salmón, a fhaigheann 95 faoin gcéad dá meáchan coirp agus é ar muir, foinse mhór carbóin, nítrigine agus fosfar dá gcuid féin agus do éiceachórais iomlána ar fud an Iarthuaiscirt.
"De réir mar a athshlánúimid daonra na salmóine agus a gnáthóga, is dócha go bhfeicfimid feabhsuithe in-mheasta sna speicis fiadhúlra seo agus i sláinte agus i bhfeidhmiú foriomlán na n-éiceachóras seo", a dúirt Johnson.
Bhí eolaithe ó ranna Washington na dTacmhainní Nádúrtha, na nIasc agus na Saoil Fuar, agus na hEiceolaíochta; an tSeirbhís Náisiúnta Iascaigh Mhuirí agus Seirbhís Foraoise na SA; Ollscoil Washington agus Ollscoil Stáit Oregon; agus roinnt comhairleoirí príobháideacha ag cur le Salmón an Aigéin Chiúin agus Saoil Fuar.
Tá cóipeanna den tuarascáil ar fáil trí teagmháil a dhéanamh le WDFW ag firstname.lastname@example.org, ag glaoch 360-902-2534, nó ag scríobh chuig WDFW, Habitat Program, 600 Capitol Way N., Olympia, WA 98501-1091.


The arteries are the blood vessels that deliver oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the tissues of the body. Each artery is a muscular tube lined by smooth tissue and has three layers:
- The intima, the inner layer lined by a smooth tissue called endothelium
- The media, a layer of muscle that lets arteries handle the high pressures from the heart
- The adventitia, connective tissue anchoring arteries to nearby tissues
The largest artery is the aorta, the main high-pressure pipeline connected to the heart's left ventricle. The aorta branches into a network of smaller arteries that extend throughout the body. The arteries' smaller branches are called arterioles and capillaries. The pulmonary arteries carry oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs under low pressure, making these arteries unique.
Read more on: heart

Is iad na cnámha fola na cnámha fola a chuireann fuil shaibhir ocsaigine ón gcroí chuig fíocháin an choirp. Is tiúb matáin é gach cnámh atá líonta le fíochán réidh agus tá trí shraith aige:
- An intima, an ciseal istigh atá líonta ag fíochán réidh ar a dtugtar endothelium
- Na meáin, sraith de muscle a ligeann do na hairtearacha déileáil leis na brú ard ón gcroí
- An adventitia, fíochán nasctha a cheanglaíonn na hairtearaí le fíocháin in aice láimhe
Is é an t-artéar is mó an aorta, an príomhphíobáin ardphreasa atá ceangailte le ventricle chlé an chroí. Tá na brainsí ar an aorta ina líonra de na hairteoga níos lú a shíneann ar fud an chomhlachta. Tugtar arterioles agus capillaries ar bhrainse níos lú na n-artéar. Tugann na cithfholcadh phléasóireachta fuil bhocht ó ocsaigine ón gcroí go dtí na scamhóga faoi bhrú íseal, rud a fhágann go bhfuil na cithfholcadh seo uathúil.
Léigh tuilleadh ar: croí


C. auris, a fungal infection, had never been seen before in the United States, and now it's popping up all over the place.
Authorities are trying to get a handle on a new fungal infection that is sometimes fatal after 13 people fell ill from such a disease for the first time in the United States, according to a report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The fungus is called Candida auris, and is known to occur in hospitals and nursing homes, however it hadn’t yet been seen in the U.S., an alarming development.
A total of seven cases were reported between May 2013 and August 2016 in Illinois, Maryland, New Jersey and New York, and four of those patients died with bloodstream infections, although authorities couldn’t confirm that C. auris was the cause. Another six cases have been identified since August, and those are under investigation.
Scientists have found that C. auris bloodstream infections have a 50 percent fatality rate in some countries, although it’s unclear how potent this drug resistant infection would be in the U.S.
“In two separate circumstances, two patients were hospitalized in the same hospital,” the CDC statement reads. “The first instance included the two patients from Illinois who were admitted to the same hospital on three separate occasions but were on different floors or wings of the hospital. These two patients were subsequently also admitted to a long-term acute care hospital within days of one another, although their admission dates did not overlap. The second instance involved the patients identified in Maryland and New Jersey. The patient identified in Maryland was a resident of New Jersey and had been hospitalized at the same time as the New Jersey patient, in the same New Jersey hospital, but on a different ward. This overlapping admission occurred approximately 6 months before C. auris was identified in the Maryland hospital.
“Specimens for surveillance cultures to evaluate patients for colonization were taken from the three living patients (one with C. auris in the blood, one in urine and one in the external ear canal),” the statement continues. “In all three cases, cultures yielded C. auris from at least one body site, including groin, axilla, nares, and rectum, 1–3 months after initial detection of C. auris. Environmental cultures of the hospital room were collected during a subsequent hospitalization of one of the Illinois patients who had a C. auris bloodstream infection 3 months earlier, and who remained persistently colonized in multiple body sites; samples taken from the mattress, bedside table, bed rail, chair, and windowsill all yielded C. auris. C. auris was not detected in this patient’s hospital room after terminal cleaning with sodium hypochlorite solution and ultraviolet light.”

C. auris, ionfhabhtú fungach, nár fhaca riamh roimhe seo sna Stáit Aontaithe, agus anois tá sé ag teacht amach ar fud na háite.
Tá údaráis ag iarraidh a fháil ar láimhseáil ar ionfhabhtú fungach nua go bhfuil marfach uaireanta tar éis 13 duine a fuair tinn ó galar den sórt sin den chéad uair sna Stáit Aontaithe, de réir tuarascála ó na Lárionaid um Rialú agus Cosc ar Ghalair. Tugtar Candida auris ar an ngréasán, agus tá a fhios go dtarlaíonn sé in ospidéil agus i dtithe altranais, ach níor breathnaíodh air go fóill sna Stáit Aontaithe, forbairt uafásach.
Tuairiscíodh seacht gcás ar an iomlán idir Bealtaine 2013 agus Lúnasa 2016 in Illinois, Maryland, New Jersey agus Nua-Eabhrac, agus fuair ceathrar de na hothair bás mar gheall ar ionfhabhtuithe sruth fola, cé nach raibh na húdaráis in ann a dhearbhú gurbh é C. auris an chúis. Tá sé chás eile aitheanta ó Lúnasa, agus tá siad sin faoi imscrúdú.
Fuair eolaithe go bhfuil ráta báis 50 faoin gcéad ag ionfhabhtuithe sruth fola C. auris i roinnt tíortha, cé nach bhfuil sé soiléir cé chomh láidir a bheadh an t-ionfhabhtuithe frithsheasmhach drugaí seo sna Stáit Aontaithe.
"I dhá chás ar leith, cuireadh beirt othair san ospidéal céanna", a deir ráiteas CDC. An chéad chás baineann leis an mbeirt othar ó Illinois a tugadh isteach san ospidéal céanna trí huaire ar leith ach a bhí ar urlabhraí nó ar sciathanna éagsúla den ospidéal. Ina dhiaidh sin, tugadh an dá othar seo isteach in ospidéal cúraim ghéarthéarthéartharrachta fadtéarmach laistigh de laethanta óna chéile, cé nach raibh na dátaí iontrála ag dul i gcodarsnacht. Baineann an dara cás leis na hothair a aithníodh i Maryland agus i New Jersey. Bhí an t-othar a aithníodh i Maryland ina chónaí i New Jersey agus cuireadh san ospidéal é ag an am céanna leis an othar i New Jersey, san ospidéal céanna i New Jersey, ach ar chodladh difriúil. Tharla an t-aistriú seo thart ar 6 mhí sular aithníodh C. auris in ospidéal Maryland.
Tógadh samplaí do chultúir faireachais chun othair a mheas le haghaidh coilíneachta ó na trí othair beo (aon duine le C. auris sa fhuil, ceann amháin san fhál agus ceann amháin sa chanáil chluas seachtrach),  leanann an ráiteas.  Sna trí chás go léir, d'fhág cultúir C. auris ó shuíomh amháin ar a laghad den chorp, lena n-áirítear an groin, an axilla, na nases agus an rectum, 13 mhí tar éis an chéad bhrath de C. auris. Bailíodh cultúir chomhshaoil an tseomra ospidéil le linn ospidéilithe ina dhiaidh sin ar dhuine de na hothair Illinois a raibh ionfhabhtú sruth fola C. auris 3 mhí roimhe sin, agus a d'fhan i gcónaí i gcoláiste i míreanna éagsúla den chorp; d'fhág samplaí a tógadh ón mattress, ón mbord cnámh, ón ráil leaba, ón chathaoirleach, agus óna bhfuinneoga C. auris. Níor aimsíodh C. auris i seomra ospidéil an othair seo tar éis glanadh deiridh le tuaslagán hipoclóiríte sóidiam agus solas ultraivialait.


PMNCH Knowledge summary #17 Civil Registration and Vital Statistics (CRVS)
Publisher: The Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health
Publication date: 2012
Language: English only
Note: Full text and all graphs, tables and references for each Knowledge Summary are available only on the PDF version.
Every individual has the right to be counted and to have their birth and death legally recognized. More than 100 countries do not have well-functioning civil registration systems, and it is estimated that over three quarters of uncounted births and deaths are in sub-Saharan Africa and south-east Asia. Further, there is insufficient data on the causes of maternal and child deaths. These data are required to inform planning for health and socioeconomic development, take remedial action, and to track progress. Progress towards reducing maternal deaths (MDG 5) and child deaths (MDG 4) is greatly hindered due to inaccurate and incomplete reporting. The Commission on Information and Accountability for Women’s and Children’s Health calls for 74 countries in high burden and low-income areas to take significant steps towards strengthening civil registration and vital statistics systems by 2015.
Civil registration systems are used to record vital events–including births, deaths, and marriages–and have the potential to serve as the main source of national vital statistics. These data are required to develop ‘vital statistics’ which are the basic demographic and epidemiological measures needed in national planning, such as for education, labor and health programs.
Globally, more than 100 countries do not have well- functioning civil registration systems. As a result, fertility, morbidity and mortality statistics are not available on a consistent, timely basis, and do not cover large segments of the population. Even more countries do not have reliable cause of death information. Hospital reporting of deaths is often poor and the medical certification and coding of the underlying causes of death are often not done as per the rules of the standard International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). No cause is attributed to most deaths outside hospitals and, when reported, even where CRVS systems are reliable, deaths are often ascribed to immediate causes, rather than underlying causes of death. The absence of CRVS systems in low and middle-income countries has hampered efforts to build a reliable evidence base upon which decisions for health improvement and overall socioeconomic development can be made. For example, data obtained from CRVS systems provide inputs for 42 out of the 60 Millennium Development Goals (MDG) indicators, including to track progress on women’s and children’s health; inadequate data are the main reason for inconsistencies between MDG reporting at the national and international level. In the context of HIV and AIDS, civil registration systems allow states and governments to monitor their population, enabling effective policies to be formulated and implemented, protecting and fulfilling the rights of people living with HIV and communities affected by the pandemic.
The Report of the UN Commission on Information and Accountability for Women’s and Children’s Health, Keeping Promises, Measuring Results, establishes a framework for global reporting, oversight and accountability on women’s and children’s health in 74 high burden and low-income countries. As part of the Global Strategy for Women’s and Children’s Health, launched by the UN Secretary-General in September 2010, the report makes two key recommendations related to the improvement of CRVS systems for all countries by 2015:
- Vital events: Take significant steps to establish a system for registration of births, deaths and causes of death, and have a well-functioning, interoperable health information system;
- Innovation: Integrate the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in national health information systems and health infrastructure.
Links with RMNCH
Reducing under-5 mortality (MGD 4) through improvements in reproductive, maternal, and newborn and child (RMNCH) is a global priority given the persistently high rates of morbidity and mortality in developing countries. While pneumonia and diarrhea account for the largest share of deaths among children globally, underreporting or misreporting of deaths and cause of death reduces the effectiveness of health policy planning and underestimates the extent of the problem in many low-income countries. Similarly, progress towards reducing maternal deaths (MDG 5) is greatly hindered due to inaccurate and incomplete reporting. Maternal mortality measurement, including numbers of death and cause of death, are under reported due to poorly functioning civil registration and vital statistics systems in low-income countries. A maternal death surveillance and response system that includes death identification can provide the essential information to stimulate and guide actions to prevent future deaths and improve the measurement of maternal mortality.
For children who do survive past their fifth birthday, birth certificates identify and provide legal proof of name, parents’ names, and date and place of birth. As a legal document, a birth certificate serves to define and protect a person’s human and civil rights in society, and the right to birth registration is the first legal recognition of the child in Article 7 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Non-registration can have severe negative consequences for a child’s fundamental rights to benefits such as identity, inheritance, education, health, and social services. In the absence of a functioning birth-registration system, it is difficult for a country to enforce age-related requirements and legislation related to health, education, child labor, juvenile justice, early marriage, and sexual exploitation.
Globally, an estimated one-third of the world’s annual births and two-thirds of annual deaths are not legally recognized by civil registration systems; three-quarters of all uncounted people are in sub-Saharan Africa and south-east Asia. In Africa, there have been several efforts in the past to improve the coverage and completeness of CRVS systems, however, at present, only four countries have a complete registration system that can generate cause-of-death statistics: Egypt, Mauritius, Seychelles and South Africa. Efforts to date have been mostly statistically oriented with the sole objective of obtaining vital statistics on a regular basis and efforts aimed at improving CRVS systems have been largely dominated by isolated, project-based and institution-led, ad hoc exercises. Some key challenges to African countries improving CRVS systems include addressing vulnerable and politically disadvantaged communities, such as those located in conflict areas and nomadic communities, and those displaced by natural disasters and famine; as well as a lack of demographically distributed and well advertised CR centers in urban areas. In addition, the lack of infrastructure and technology in rural areas, combined with an absence of representation for disadvantaged groups, contributes to poor or non-functioning CRVS systems in Africa.
To achieve improved planning and development, civil registration and (national) vital statistics offices each contribute to improving CRVS through a combination of appropriate and effective policies, as well as programs designed to raise awareness and strengthen the relationship between CRVS sectors, health workers and civil society to improve responsiveness and efficiency in data collection. Government officials can ensure the appointment of a high level representative to coordinate the improvement of CRVS systems as well as aid in the facilitation and collaboration between national CR and VS organs. Furthermore, decentralization of the registration process and the removal of registration fees can greatly improve participation and efficiency.
The Health Metrics Network (HMN)’s MOVE-IT initiative aims to improve monitoring of vital events -- births, deaths and causes of death -- through innovation and the use of information technologies. The HMN supports activities across Africa to improve national CRVS efforts, including:
- Assessments of CRVS systems to identify key priorities for action and develop roadmaps for improvement;
- Establish coordination committees with relevant stakeholders (i.e. technical experts and civil society);
- Involve outreach health workers using mobile phones to record and transmit birth and death data at the community level;
- Establish systems for tracking pregnancies and pregnancy outcomes in support of MDGs 4 & 5;
- Support measures to improve training of medical professionals in ascertainment of causes of death according to international standards.
A successful CRVS system requires country-led programs to establish interoperable systems and create demand among the population and those responsible for registration. Working with partners already engaged with RMNCH activities presents an efficient and effective opportunity for improving CRVS systems for the mutual benefit of aligned interests. The establishment of an effective and complete CRVS system requires political will for necessary investment and legislation, stewardship by national and local authorities, as well as trust and collaboration of ‘civil society’, households, medical professionals, and health workers. A well-functioning CRVS system is a necessary and essential long-term investment for countries that can be achieved, even in low-resource settings, with sustained political commitment.

Gearrthóg eolais PMNCH #17 Cláraithe Sibhialta agus Staitisticí Maireachtála (CRVS)
Foilsitheoir: An Comhpháirtíocht um Shláinte na Máthar, na Nuabhreith agus na Leanaí
Dáta foilsithe: 2012
Teanga: Béarla amháin
Nóta: Níl an téacs iomlán agus na grafaí, na táblaí agus na tagairtí go léir do gach Gearrthóg Eolais ar fáil ach ar an leagan PDF.
Tá sé de cheart ag gach duine a bheith á gclárú agus a bhreith agus a bhás a aithint go dlíthiúil. Ní bhíonn córais chlárúcháin sibhialta dea-fheidhmiúla ag níos mó ná 100 tír, agus meastar go bhfuil níos mó ná trí cheathrú de na breitheanna agus na báis nach bhfuil á gclárú san Afraic faoi bhun na Saáraí agus san Áise ó dheas. Ina theannta sin, níl go leor sonraí ann maidir le cúiseanna báis mháithreacha agus leanaí. Tá gá leis na sonraí seo chun pleanáil a dhéanamh ar son na sláinte agus ar son na forbartha socheacnamaíoch, chun bearta ceartaitheacha a dhéanamh, agus chun dul chun cinn a rianú. Tá bac mór á dhéanamh ar dhul chun cinn i dtreo laghdú ar bhás máithreacha (MDG 5) agus ar bhás leanaí (MDG 4) mar gheall ar thuairisciú neamhréir agus neamhiomláir. Iarrann an Coimisiún um Fhaisnéis agus um Chomhthaobhacht do Sláinte na mBan agus na Leanaí ar 74 tír i gceantair ardualach agus íseal-ioncaim céimeanna suntasacha a ghlacadh i dtreo na gcóras clárúcháin shibhialta agus staidrimh ríthábhachtacha a neartú faoi 2015.
Úsáidtear córais chlárúcháin shibhialta chun imeachtaí ríthábhachtacha a thaifeadadh - lena n-áirítear breitheanna, báis agus póstaí - agus tá sé de chumas acu a bheith mar phríomhfhoinse staitisticí ríthábhachtacha náisiúnta. Tá gá leis na sonraí seo chun "staitisticí ríthábhachtacha" a fhorbairt, is iad sin na bearta bunúsacha déimeagrafacha agus eipidéimeolaíocha a theastaíonn i bpleanáil náisiúnta, mar shampla do chláir oideachais, saothair agus sláinte.
Ar fud an domhain, níl córais chlárúcháin sibhialta dea-fheidhmiúla ag níos mó ná 100 tír. Mar thoradh air sin, níl staitisticí maidir le torthúlacht, morgáiste agus báis ar fáil ar bhonn comhsheasmhach, tráthúil, agus ní chlúdaíonn siad codanna móra den daonra. Ní bhíonn faisnéis iontaofa ag níos mó tíortha fós maidir le cúis bháis. Is minic a bhíonn tuairisciú na mbásanna san ospidéal lag agus is minic nach ndéantar an deimhniúchán leighis agus códú na gcúiseanna bunúsacha a bhaineann leis an bhás de réir rialacha an Chláraitheora Idirnáisiúnta Caighdeánach na gCearbhóidí (ICD-10). Ní thugtar cúis ar bith do chuid is mó de na báis lasmuigh d'ospidéil agus, nuair a thuairiscítear iad, fiú nuair a bhíonn córais CRVS iontaofa, is minic a thugtar básanna do chúiseanna láithreach, seachas cúiseanna bunúsacha báis. Tá an easpa córais CRVS i dtíortha íseal-ioncaim agus meán-ioncaim tar éis bac a chur ar iarrachtaí chun bonn fianaise iontaofa a thógáil ar ar féidir cinntí a dhéanamh chun feabhas a chur ar shláinte agus forbairt socheacnamaíoch foriomlán. Mar shampla, soláthraíonn sonraí a fhaightear ó chórais CRVS ionchur do 42 as 60 táscaire de na Spriocanna Forbartha na Mílaoise (SDM), lena n-áirítear chun dul chun cinn a rianú maidir le sláinte na mban agus na leanaí; is é an phríomhchúis atá le sonraí neamhleor idir tuairisciú SDM ar an leibhéal náisiúnta agus idirnáisiúnta ná go bhfuil sonraí neamhleor ann. I gcomhthéacs VEID agus SEIF, ceadaíonn córais chlárúcháin shibhialta do stáit agus do rialtais faireachán a dhéanamh ar a ndaonra, ag cur ar chumas beartais éifeachtacha a fhoirmiú agus a chur i bhfeidhm, cearta daoine atá ag maireachtáil le VEID agus pobail a bhfuil an paindéim i bhfeidhm orthu a chosaint agus a chomhlíonadh.
An Tuarascáil ón gCoimisiún na Náisiún Aontaithe ar Fhaisnéis agus Ard-fhreagracht do Shláinte na mBan agus na mBan, Gealltanas a Chothabháil, Torthaí a thomhas, bunaíonn sé creat do thuairisciú, maoirseacht agus cuntasacht dhomhanda ar shláinte na mban agus na leanaí i 74 tír ardualach agus íseal-ioncaim. Mar chuid den Straitéis Dhomhanda um Shláinte na mBan agus na Leanaí, a sheol Rúnaí Ginearálta na Náisiún Aontaithe i Meán Fómhair 2010, tugann an tuarascáil dhá phríomhmhol maidir le feabhas a chur ar chórais CRVS do gach tír faoi 2015:
- Imeachtaí ríthábhachtacha: Céimeanna suntasacha a ghlacadh chun córas a bhunú chun breith, bás agus cúiseanna báis a chlárú, agus córas faisnéise sláinte atá idir-inoibritheach a bheith ag feidhmiú go maith;
- Nuálaíocht: Úsáid na Teicneolaíochtaí Faisnéise agus Cumarsáide (FFTIanna) a chomhtháthú i gcórais náisiúnta faisnéise sláinte agus i mbonneagar sláinte.
Ceangail le RMNCH
Is tosaíocht dhomhanda é básmhaireacht faoi bhun 5 bliana d'aois (MGD 4) a laghdú trí fheabhsuithe ar fheabhas atáirgthe, máthar, agus nuabheirthe agus leanaí (RMNCH) mar gheall ar na rátaí ard morbidity agus básmhaireachta i dtíortha i mbéal forbartha. Cé go bhfuil an sciar is mó de bháis i measc leanaí ar fud an domhain ag painiméine agus an diarrhea, laghdaíonn fo- tuairisciú nó mí-tuairisciú báis agus cúis báis éifeachtacht phleanáil bheartais sláinte agus lagmheasann sé méid an fhadhb i go leor tíortha íseal-ioncaim. Ar an gcaoi chéanna, tá bac mór á dhéanamh ar dhul chun cinn i dtreo laghdú ar bhás máithreacha (MDG 5) mar gheall ar thuairisciú neamhréir agus neamhiomlánach. Tá méadú ar an líon na mban a fuair bás agus ar na cúiseanna a d'fhág gur tháinig básanna ó mhná a bhí ag fáil breis agus dhá mhí ó shin. Is féidir le córas faireacháin agus freagartha ar bhás máithreacha lena n-áirítear aithint bháis an fhaisnéis riachtanach a sholáthar chun gníomhaíochtaí a spreagadh agus a threorú chun báis a chosc sa todhchaí agus chun tomhas na maireachtála máithreacha a fheabhsú.
I gcás leanaí a mhaireann thar a gcúigiú lá breithe, aithníonn deimhniú breithe ainm, ainmneacha na dtuismitheoirí, agus dáta agus áit breithe agus soláthraíonn sé fianaise dhlíthiúil. Mar dhoiciméad dlíthiúil, feidhmíonn deimhniú breithe chun cearta daonna agus sibhialta duine sa tsochaí a shainiú agus a chosaint, agus is é an ceart chun breithe a chlárú an chéad aitheantas dlíthiúil don leanbh in Airteagal 7 den Choinbhinsiún um Chearta an Linbh. D'fhéadfadh iarmhairtí diúltacha tromchúiseacha a bheith ag neamhchláraithe ar chearta bunúsacha an linbh maidir le sochair amhail aitheantas, oidhreacht, oideachas, sláinte agus seirbhísí sóisialta. In éagmais córas clárúcháin breithe atá ag feidhmiú, tá sé deacair do thír ceanglais a bhaineann le haois agus reachtaíocht a bhaineann le sláinte, oideachas, saothar leanaí, ceartais óige, pósadh go luath, agus saothrú gnéis a fhorfheidhmiú.
Ar an leibhéal domhanda, meastar nach n-aithníonn córais chlárúcháin shibhialta go dlíthiúil aon trian de na breitheanna bliantúla ar fud an domhain agus dhá thrian de na báis bliantúla; tá trí cheathrú de na daoine uile nach bhfuil á gclárú san Afraic faoi-Shahárach agus san Áise ó dheas. I bhFrainc, rinneadh roinnt iarrachtaí san am atá thart chun clúdach agus iomláine na gcóras CRVS a fheabhsú, ach faoi láthair, níl ach córas clárúcháin iomlán ag ceithre thír is féidir a bheith ag cur staitisticí cúiseamh báis: an Éigipt, Maoiric, na Seiseilí agus an Afraic Theas. Go dtí seo, bhí na hiarrachtaí dírithe go mór ar staitisticí agus an cuspóir amháin acu staitisticí ríthábhachtacha a fháil ar bhonn rialta agus bhí cleachtaí ad hoc ar leithligh, bunaithe ar thionscadal agus faoi stiúir na hinstitiúide i gceannas ar na hiarrachtaí a bhí dírithe ar chórais CRVS a fheabhsú. I measc na príomhdhúshláin atá ag tíortha na hAfraice maidir le feabhas a chur ar chórais CRVS tá aghaidh a thabhairt ar phobail leochaileacha agus faoi mhíbhuntáiste pholaitiúil, amhail iad siúd atá suite i gceantair choimhlinte agus i bpobail nódacha, agus iad siúd a díláithrithe ag tubaistí nádúrtha agus ag ocrais; chomh maith le easpa ionaid CR atá scaipthe go déimeagrafach agus a bhfuil fógraíocht mhaith á dhéanamh acu i gceantair uirbeacha. Ina theannta sin, tá easpa bonneagair agus teicneolaíochta i gceantair thuaithe, mar aon le hionadaitheacht nach bhfuil ag grúpaí faoi mhíbhuntáiste, ag cur le córais CRVS bochta nó neamhfheidhmiúla san Afraic.
Chun pleanáil agus forbairt níos fearr a bhaint amach, cuireann clárú sibhialta agus oifigí staidrimh ríthábhachtach (náisiúnta) le feabhas a chur ar an CRVS trí chomhcheangal de bheartais oiriúnacha agus éifeachtacha, chomh maith le cláir atá deartha chun feasacht a ardú agus an caidreamh idir earnálacha CRVS, oibrithe sláinte agus an tsochaí shibhialta a neartú chun freagairt agus éifeachtúlacht a fheabhsú i mbailiú sonraí. Is féidir le hoifigigh rialtais a chinntiú go gceapfar ionadaí ardleibhéil chun feabhas a chur ar chórais CRVS a chomhordú chomh maith le cúnamh a thabhairt i ndáil le éascaíocht agus comhoibriú idir orgáin náisiúnta CR agus VS. Ina theannta sin, is féidir le díláithriú an phróisis chlárúcháin agus le haistriú na gcostas clárúcháin rannpháirtíocht agus éifeachtúlacht a fheabhsú go mór.
Tá sé mar aidhm ag tionscnamh MOVE-IT Gréasán Méadracha Sláinte (HMN) monatóireacht a dhéanamh ar imeachtaí ríthábhachtacha - breitheanna, báis agus cúiseanna báis - trí nuálaíocht agus úsáid teicneolaíochtaí faisnéise. Tacaíonn an HMN le gníomhaíochtaí ar fud na hAfraice chun iarrachtaí náisiúnta CRVS a fheabhsú, lena n-áirítear:
- Measú ar chórais CRVS chun príomhthosaíochtaí a shainaithint le haghaidh gníomhaíochta agus chun treochlár a fhorbairt chun feabhas a chur air;
- Coistí comhordaithe a bhunú le páirtithe leasmhara ábhartha (i.e. saineolaithe teicniúla agus an tsochaí shibhialta);
- oibrithe sláinte amach a chur i bhfeidhm ag baint úsáide as fóin phóca chun sonraí breithe agus báis a thaifeadadh agus a tharchur ar leibhéal an phobail;
- Córais a bhunú chun rianú a dhéanamh ar thráthnasacha agus ar thorthaí toirchis chun tacú le MDGanna 4 & 5;
- Bearta tacaíochta chun oiliúint ghairmithe leighis a fheabhsú maidir le cúiseanna báis a dhearbhú de réir caighdeáin idirnáisiúnta.
Chun go mbeidh córas CRVS rathúil, ní mór do chláir faoi stiúir na dtíortha córais idir-inoibritheacha a bhunú agus éileamh a chruthú i measc an daonra agus i measc na ndaoine atá freagrach as clárú. Tá sé de dheis éifeachtach agus éifeachtach chun córais CRVS a fheabhsú chun leasa leasanna comhghaolta a chéile, oibriú le comhpháirtithe atá ag gabháil cheana féin le gníomhaíochtaí RMNCH. Chun córas éifeachtach iomlán CRVS a bhunú, teastaíonn toil pholaitiúil chun infheistíocht agus reachtaíocht a dhéanamh, agus gá le stiúrthóireacht ó údaráis náisiúnta agus áitiúla, chomh maith le muinín agus comhoibriú ó "sóisialta na sibhialta", ó theaghlaigh, ó ghairmithe leighis agus ó oibrithe sláinte. Tá córas CRVS atá ag feidhmiú go maith ina infheistíocht riachtanach agus riachtanach fadtéarmach do thíortha is féidir a bhaint amach, fiú i suíomhanna íseal acmhainní, le tiomantas polaitiúil leanúnach.


Authors: R. Bernstein, P. Cooper
Reference: 1307.5787 (Phys. Rept. 532 (2013) 27)
Not all searches for new physics involve colliding protons at the the highest human-made energies. An alternate approach is to look for deviations in ultra-rare events at low energies. These deviations may be the quantum footprints of new, much heavier particles. In this bite, we’ll focus on the decay of a muon to an electron in the presence of a heavy atom.
The muon is a heavy version of the electron.There are a few properties that make muons nice systems for precision measurements:
- They’re easy to produce. When you smash protons into a dense target, like tungsten, you get lots of light hadrons—among them, the charged pions. These charged pions decay into muons, which one can then collect by bending their trajectories with magnetic fields. (Puzzle: why don’t pions decay into electrons? Answer below.)
- They can replace electrons in atoms. If you point this beam of muons into a target, then some of the muons will replace electrons in the target’s atoms. This is very nice because these “muonic atoms” are described by non-relativistic quantum mechanics with the electron mass replaced with ~100 MeV. (Muonic hydrogen was previous mentioned in this bite on the proton radius problem.)
- They decay, and the decay products always include an electron that can be detected. In vacuum it will decay into an electron and two neutrinos through the weak force, analogous to beta decay.
- These decays are sensitive to virtual effects. You don’t need to directly create a new particle in order to see its effects. Potential new particles are constrained to be very heavy to explain their non-observation at the LHC. However, even these heavy particles can leave an imprint on muon decay through ‘virtual effects’ according (roughly) to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle: you can quantum mechanically violate energy conservation, but only for very short times.
One should be surprised that muon conversion is even possible. The process cannot occur in vacuum because it cannot simultaneously conserve energy and momentum. (Puzzle: why is this true? Answer below.) However, this process is allowed in the presence of a heavy nucleus that can absorb the additional momentum, as shown in the comic at the top of this post.
Muon conversion experiments exploit this by forming muonic atoms in the 1s state and waiting for the muon to convert into an electron which can then be detected. The upside is that all electrons from conversion have a fixed energy because they all come from the same initial state: 1s muonic aluminum at rest in the lab frame. This is in contrast with more common muon decay modes which involve two neutrinos and an electron; because this is a multibody final state, there is a smooth distribution of electron energies. This feature allows physicists to distinguish between the conversion versus the more frequent muon decay in orbit or muon capture by the nucleus (similar to electron capture).
The Standard Model prediction for this rate is miniscule—it’s weighted by powers of the neutrino to the W boson mass ratio (Puzzle: how does one see this? Answer below.). In fact, the current experimental bound on muon conversion comes from the Sindrum II experiment looking at muonic gold which constrains the relative rate of muon conversion to muon capture by the gold nucleus to be less than . This, in turn, constrains models of new physics that predict some level of charged lepton flavor violation—that is, processes that change the flavor of a charged lepton, say going from muons to electrons.
The plot on the right shows the energy scales that are indirectly probed by upcoming muonic aluminum experiments: the Mu2e experiment at Fermilab and the COMET experiment at J-PARC. The blue lines show bounds from another rare muon decay: muons decaying into an electron and photon. The black solid lines show the reach for muon conversion in muonic aluminum. The dashed lines correspond to different experimental sensitivities (capture rates for conversion, branching ratios for decay with a photon). Note that the energy scales probed can reach 1-10 PeV—that’s 1000-10,000 TeV—much higher than the energy scales direclty probed by the LHC! In this way, flavor experiments and high energy experiments are complimentary searches for new physics.
These “next generation” muon conversion experiments are currently under construction and promise to push the intensity frontier in conjunction with the LHC’s energy frontier.
Solutions to exercises:
- Why do pions decay into muons and not electrons? [Note: this requires some background in undergraduate-level particle physics.] One might expect that if a charged pion can decay into a muon and a neutrino, then it should also go into an electron and a neutrino. In fact, the latter should dominate since there’s much more phase space. However, the matrix element requires a virtual W boson exchange and thus depends on an [axial] vector current. The only vector available from the pion system is its 4-momentum. By momentum conservation this is $p_\pi = p_\mu + p_\nu$. The lepton momenta then contract with Dirac matrices on the leptonic current to give a dominant piece proportional to the lepton mass. Thus the amplitude for charged pion decay into a muon is much larger than the amplitude for decay into an electron.
- Why can’t a muon decay into an electron in vacuum? The process cannot simultaneously conserve energy and momentum. This is simplest to see in the reference frame where the muon is at rest. Momentum conservation requires the electron to also be at rest. However, a particle has rest energy equal to its mass, but now there’s now way a muon at rest can pass on all of its energy to an electron at rest.
- Why is muon conversion in the Standard Model suppressed by the ration of the neutrino to W masses? This can be seen by drawing the Feynman diagram (fig below from 1401.6077). Flavor violation in the Standard Model requires a W boson. Because the W is much heavier than the muon, this must be virtual and appear only as an internal leg. Further, W‘s couple charged leptons to neutrinos, so there must also be a virtual neutrino. The evaluation of this diagram into an amplitude gives factors of the neutrino mass in the numerator (required for the fermion chirality flip) and the W mass in the denominator. For some details, see this post.
- 1205.2671: Fundamental Physics at the Intensity Frontier (section 3.2.2)
- 1401.6077: Snowmass 2013 Report, Intensity Frontier chapter

Údair: R. Bernstein, P. Cooper
Tagraíocht don Choimisiún Athdhéanamh. 532 (2013) 27)
Ní bhaineann gach cuardach ar fhisice nua le prótóin a thitim ag na fuinneamh is airde a rinne an duine. Is é cur chuige malartach ná meath a lorg i dtimpeallachtaí ultra-annamh ag fuinneamh íseal. D'fhéadfadh na héabhlóidí seo a bheith ina léarscáileanna cuanta de phrionsabail nua, i bhfad níos trom. Sa bhosca seo, díreoimid ar an dílseacht de mhian go leictreon i láthair adamh trom.
Is leagan trom den leictreon é an mhian. Tá roinnt airíonna ann a fhágann go bhfuil mionónna ina gcórais áisiúla le haghaidh tomhais chruinn:
- Tá siad éasca a tháirgeadh. Nuair a bhriseann tú prótóin i sprioc dlúth, cosúil le tungsten, a fháil tú go leor hadrons solais - i measc iad, na pions muirear. Déantar na pions gearradh seo a bhriseadh síos ina muons, ar féidir iad a bhailiú ansin trína dtrialacha a mhaolú le páirceanna maighnéadacha. (Phuzzle: cén fáth nach ndéanann pions díghrádú i leictreonacha? Freagra thíos.)
- Is féidir leo leictreoin a athsholáthar in aadamaí. Má tá tú a dhíriú ar an píog seo de muons i sprioc, ansin cuid de na muons beidh a chur in ionad leictreoin i spriocs adamh. Tá sé seo an-deas toisc go ndéantar cur síos ar na h-atamaí muonic seo trí mheicnic chuanma neamh-ghaolmhara leis an mais leictreon a athsholáthar le ~ 100 MeV. (Tugadh hidrigin Muonic roimhe seo sa bhite seo ar fhadhb radaim na prótóine.)
- Tá siad a bhriseadh, agus na táirgí briseadh i gcónaí a chuimsíonn leictreon gur féidir a bhrath. Sa vacsaim, titfidh sé ina leictreon agus ina dhá neodríon tríd an gcumhacht lag, cosúil le titim béite.
- Tá na dí-chruthú seo íogair do éifeachtaí fíorúla. Ní gá duit coinníoll nua a chruthú go díreach chun a éifeachtaí a fheiceáil. Tá na cáithníní nua féideartha teoranta a bheith an-trom chun a mí-amharc ag an LHC a mhíniú. Mar sin féin, is féidir fiú na cáithníní trom seo a bheith ina mbraighdeáin ar an dílseacht muon trí "éifeachtaí fíorúla" de réir (garbh) prionsabal neamhchinnteachta Heisenberg: is féidir leat caomhnú fuinnimh a shárú go meicniúil uamhnach, ach amháin ar feadh tréimhsí an-ghearr.
Ba chóir go mbeadh iontas ar dhuine go bhfuil an t-athrú muon fiú indéanta. Ní féidir leis an bpróiseas tarlú i bhfolláine toisc nach féidir leis fuinneamh agus luas a chaomhnú ag an am céanna. (Phuzzle: cén fáth go bhfuil sé seo fíor? Freagra thíos.) Mar sin féin, ceadaítear an próiseas seo i láthair núicléas trom a d'fhéadfadh an luas breise a ionsú, mar a thaispeántar sa cheolchoirm ag barr an phoist seo.
Baintear leas as seo i dturgnaimh tiontaithe muon trí atamaí muonacha a fhoirmiú i stát 1s agus ag fanacht go n-athróidh an muon go leictreon ar féidir é a bhrath ansin. Is é an taobh suas go bhfuil gach leictreon ó thiontú a bhfuil fuinneamh seasta toisc go bhfuil siad go léir a thagann as an staid tosaigh céanna: 1s alúmanam muonic ag sos i gcreat an saotharlainne. Tá sé seo i gcodarsnacht le modhanna dílseachta muon níos coitianta a chuimsíonn dhá neodríon agus leictreon; toisc gur staid deiridh ilchorp é seo, tá dáileadh réidh fuinnimh leictreon ann. Ligeann an ghné seo do phiceolaithe idirdhealú a dhéanamh idir an tiontú i gcoinne na dí-chruthú muon níos minice i bhfithis nó gabháil muon ag an núicléas (arna chosúil le gabháil leictreon).
Is é an t-ionchas samhlacha caighdeánach don ráta seo minisculeits a mheastar le cumhachtaí an neodríona go dtí an cóimheas mais boson W (Puzzle: conas a fheiceann duine é seo? Freagra thíos.). Go deimhin, tagann an teorann turgnamhach reatha ar thiontú muon ón turgnamh Sindrum II ag féachaint ar ór muonónach a chuireann srian ar ráta coibhneasta tiontú muon chun gabháil muon ag núicléas óir a bheith níos lú ná . Cuireann sé seo, ar a láimh, srianta ar mhúnlaí na fisice nua a thuar leibhéal áirithe de shárú blas lepton luchtaithe - is é sin, próisis a athraíonn blas lepton luchtaithe, a rá ag dul ó múnóidí go leictreonacha.
Taispeánann an grá leis an gceart na scálaí fuinnimh a ndéantar suirbhéanna indíreacha a dhéanamh trí thástálacha alúmanaim muonónach atá le teacht: an turgnamh Mu2e ag Fermilab agus an turgnamh COMET ag J-PARC. Taispeánann na línte gorma teorainneacha ó díghrádú neamhchoitianta eile muon: muons ag díghrádú i leictreon agus fotón. Léiríonn na línte soladacha dubh an raon le haghaidh tiontú muon i alúmanam muonónach. Freagraíonn na línte dashed do mhothúcháin thrialacha éagsúla (rátaí gabháil le haghaidh tiontú, cóimheasanna brainse le haghaidh dí-deagú le fótan). Tabhair faoi deara gur féidir leis na scálaí fuinnimh a dhéantar a bhfiosrú a bhaint amach 1-10 PeV, is é sin 1000-10,000 TeV, i bhfad níos airde ná na scálaí fuinnimh a bhfiosrú an LHC go díreach! Ar an mbealach seo, tá turgnaimh blas agus turgnaimh ardfhuinnimh cuardach comhlántacha do fhisice nua.
Tá na turgnaimh "athghiniúna chéadghiniúna" um thiontú muon faoi láthair á dtógáil agus geallaimid go gcuirfear an teorainn déine i gcomhar le teorainn fuinnimh an LHC.
Réitigh ar chleachtaí:
- Cén fáth go ndéanann pions díghrádú i muons agus ní leictreonacha? [Nóta: éilíonn sé seo roinnt cúlra i fisiceanna coirp ar leibhéal fochéime.] D'fhéadfadh duine a bheith ag súil go má d'fhéadfadh pion gearradh a bhriseadh síos i muon agus i neodróin, ansin ba chóir go rachadh sé isteach i leictreon agus i neodróin freisin. Go deimhin, ba cheart go mbeadh an dara ceann i réim ós rud é go bhfuil go leor spás céim níos mó ann. Mar sin féin, éilíonn an eilimint mhátraí malartach boson W malartach agus mar sin braitheann sé ar sruth veicteora [aisiúil]. Is é an t-aon veictear atá ar fáil ón gcóras pion a 4-momentum. De réir caomhnú momenta, is é seo $p_\pi = p_\mu + p_\nu$. Ansin, déantar an momenta leptón a chonradh le maitríní Dirac ar an sruth leptónach chun píosa ceannasacha a thabhairt atá comhréireach le mais leptón. Dá bhrí sin, tá an luas don dí-cháil pion gearradh isteach i muon i bhfad níos mó ná an luas don dí-cháil isteach i leictreon.
- Cén fáth nach féidir le muon dílseacht i leictreon i vacsaim? Ní féidir leis an bpróiseas fuinneamh agus luas a chaomhnú ag an am céanna. Is é seo is simplí a fheiceáil sa fráma tagartha áit a bhfuil an muon ag sos. Éilíonn caomhnú momantaim go bhfuil an leictreon ag fanacht freisin. Mar sin féin, tá fuinneamh fois ag coinníoll atá comhionann lena mhais, ach anois tá bealach ann anois go bhféadfadh muon ag sos a chuid fuinnimh go léir a thabhairt chuig leictreon ag sos.
- Cén fáth go gcuirtear cosc ar thiontú muon sa Mhúnla Caighdeánach ag an gcoincheap idir an neodró agus mais W? Is féidir é seo a fheiceáil trí dheascadh na léarscáileanna Feynman (fig thíos ó 1401.6077). Éilíonn sárú blas sa Mhúnla Caighdeánach bosón W. Toisc go bhfuil an W i bhfad níos troime ná an muon, ní mór go mbeadh sé seo fíorúil agus ní bheidh sé le feiceáil ach mar chos inmheánach. Ina theannta sin, tá leptóin charged Ws le neutrinos, mar sin ní mór go mbeadh neutrino fíorúil ann freisin. Tugann meastóireacht an léarscáileáin seo i amplitude fachtóirí an mhais neodráin sa mhéadair (a theastaíonn don flip chirality fermion) agus an mhais W sa ainmníocht. Le haghaidh roinnt sonraí, féach an post seo.
- 1205.2671: Físeolaíocht bhunúsach ag Teorainn an Dlúth-Ionad (roinn 3.2.2)
- 1401.6077: Tuarascáil 2013 ar Snowmass, caibidil Teorainn an Dlúth-Innealtóireachta