We will start with a conceptual understanding of PCI Express. This will let us appreciate the importance of PCI Express. This will be followed by a brief study of the PCI Express protocol. Then we will look at the enhancements and improvements of the protocol in the newer 3.0 specs.
1 Basic PC system architecture
We will start by looking at the basic layout of a PC system. Logically, an average PC system is laid out in something like shown in the figure.
The core logic chipset acts as a switch or router, and routes I/O traffic among the different devices that make up the system.
In reality, the core logic chipset is split into two parts: the northbridge and the southbridge (or I/O bridge). This split is there for a couple of reasons, the most important of which is the fact that there are three types of devices that naturally work very closely together, and so they need to have faster access to each other: the CPU, the main memory, and the video card. In a modern system, the video card's GPU is functionally a second (or third) CPU, so it needs to share privileged access to main memory with the CPU(s). As a result, these three devices are all clustered together off of the northbridge.
The northbridge is tied to a secondary bridge, the southbridge, which routes traffic from the different I/O devices on the system: the hard drives, USB ports, Ethernet ports, etc. The traffic from these devices is routed through the southbridge to the northbridge and then on to the CPU and/or memory.
As is evident from the diagram above, the PCI bus is attached to the southbridge. This bus is usually the oldest, slowest bus in a modern system, and is the one most in need of an upgrade.
The main thing that we should take away from the previous diagram is that the modern PC is a motley collection of specialized buses of different protocols and bandwidth capabilities. This mix of specialized buses designed to attach different types of hardware directly to the southbridge is something of a continuously evolving hack that has been gradually and collectively engineered by the PC industry as it tries to get around the limitations of the aging PCI bus. Because the PCI bus can't really cut it for things like Serial ATA, Firewire, etc., the trend has been to attach interfaces for both internal and external I/O directly to the southbridge. So today's southbridge is sort of the Swiss Army Knife of I/O switches, and thanks to Moore's Curves it has been able to keep adding functionality in the form of new interfaces that keep bandwidth-hungry devices from starving on the PCI bus.
In an ideal world, there would be one primary type of bus and one bus protocol that connects all of these different I/O devices ? including the video card/GPU ? to the CPU and main memory. Of course, this "one bus to rule them all" ideal is never, ever going to happen in the real world. It won't happen with PCI Express, and it won't happen with Infiniband (although it technically could happen with Infiniband if we threw away all of today's PC hardware and started over from scratch with a round of natively Infiniband-compliant devices).
Still, even though the utopian ideal of one bus and one bus protocol for every device will never be achieved, there has to be way bring some order to the chaos. Luckily for us, that way has finally arrived in the form of PCI Express (a.k.a. PCIe).
2 A primer on PCI
Before we go into detail on PCIe, it helps to understand how PCI works and what its limitations are.
The PCI bus debuted over a decade ago at 33MHz, with a 32-bit bus and a peak theoretical bandwidth of 132MB/s. This was pretty good for the time, but as the rest of the system got more bandwidth hungry both the bus speed and bus width were cranked up in a effort keep pace. Later flavors of PCI included a 64-bit, 33MHz bus combination with a peak bandwidth of 264MB/s; a more recent 64-bit, 66MHz combination with a bandwidth of 512MB/s.
PCI uses a shared bus topology to allow for communication among the different devices on the bus; the different PCI devices (i.e., a network card, a sound card, a RAID card, etc.) are all attached to the same bus, which they use to communicate with the CPU. Take a look at the following diagram to get a feel for what a shared bus looks like.
Because all of the devices attached to the bus must share it among themselves, there has to be some kind of bus arbitration scheme in place for deciding who gets access to the bus and when, especially in situations where multiple devices need to use the bus at the same time. Once a device has control of the bus, it becomes the bus master, which means that it can use the PCI bus to talk to the CPU or memory via the chipset's southbridge.
The shared bus topology's main advantages are that it's simple, cheap, and easy to implement ? or at least, that's the case as long as you're not trying to do anything too fancy with it. Once you start demanding more performance and functionality from a shared bus, then you run into its limitations. Let's take a look at some of those limitations, in order to motivate our discussion of PCI Express's improvements.
This scheme works fine when there are only a few devices attached to the bus, listening to it for addresses and data. But the nature of a bus is that any device that's attached to it and is "listening" to it injects a certain amount of noise onto the bus. Thus the more devices that listen to the bus ? and thereby place an electrical load on the bus ? the more noise there is on the bus and the harder it becomes to get a clean signal through.
2.1 Summary of PCI's shortcomings
To summarize, PCI as it exists today has some serious shortcomings that prevent it from providing the bandwidth and features needed by current and future generations of I/O and storage devices. Specifically, its highly parallel shared-bus architecture holds it back by limiting its bus speed and scalability, and its simple, load-store, flat memory-based communications model is less robust and extensible than a routed, packet-based model.
3 PCI-X: wider and faster, but still outdated
The PCI-X spec was an attempt to update PCI as painlessly as possible and allow it to hobble along for a few more years. This being the case, the spec doesn't really fix any of the inherent problems outlined above. In fact, it actually makes some of the problems worse.
The PCI-X spec essentially doubled the bus width from 32 bits to 64 bits, thereby increasing PCI's parallel data transmission abilities and enlarging its address space. The spec also ups PCI's basic clock rate to 66MHz with a 133MHz variety on the high end, providing yet another boost to PCI's bandwidth and bringing it up to 1GB/s (at 133MHz).
The latest version of the PCI-X spec (PCI-X 266) also double-pumps the bus, so that data is transmitted on the rising and falling edges of the clock. While this improves PCI-X's peak theoretical bandwidth, its real-world sustained bandwidth gains are more modest.
While both of these moves significantly increased PCI's bandwidth and its usefulness, they also made it more expensive to implement. The faster a bus runs, the sensitive it becomes to noise; manufacturing standards for high-speed buses are exceptionally strict for this very reason; shoddy materials and/or wide margins of error translate directly into noise at higher clock speeds. This means that the higher-speed PCI-X bus is more expensive to make.
The higher clock speed isn't the only thing that increases PCI-X's noise problems and manufacturing costs. The other factor is the increased bus width. Because the bus is wider and consists of more wires, there's more noise in the form of crosstalk. Furthermore, all of those new wires are connected at their endpoints to multiple PCI devices, which means an even larger load on the bus and thus more noise injected into the bus by attached devices. And then there's the fact that the PCI devices themselves need 32 extra pins, which increases the manufacturing cost of each individual device and of the connectors on the motherboard.
All of these factors, when taken together with the increased clock rate, combine to make the PCI-X a more expensive proposition than PCI, which keeps it out of mainstream PCs. And it should also be noted that most of the problems with increasing bus parallelism and double-pumping the bus also plague recent forms of DDR, and especially the DDR-II spec.
And after all of that pain, you still have to deal with PCI's shared-bus topology and all of its attendant ills. Fortunately, there's a better way.
4 PCI Express: the next generation
PCI Express (PCIe) is the newest name for the technology formerly known as 3GIO. Though the PCIe specification was finalized in 2002, PCIe-based devices have just now started to debut on the market.
PCIe's most drastic and obvious improvement over PCI is its point-to-point bus topology. Take a look at the following diagram, and compare it to the layout of the PCI bus.
In a point-to-point bus topology, a shared switch replaces the shared bus as the single shared resource by means of which all of the devices communicate. Unlike in a shared bus topology, where the devices must collectively arbitrate among themselves for use of the bus, each device in the system has direct and exclusive access to the switch. In other words, each device sits on its own dedicated bus, which in PCIe lingo is called a link.
Like a router in a network or a telephone switchbox, the switch routes bus traffic and establishes point-to-point connections between any two communicating devices on a system.
4.1 Enabling Quality of Service
The overall effect of the switched fabric topology is that it allows the "smarts" needed to manage and route traffic to be centralized in one single chip ? the switch. With a shared bus, the devices on the bus must use an arbitration scheme to decide among themselves how to distribute a shared resource (i.e., the bus). With a switched fabric, the switch makes all the resource-sharing decisions.
By centralizing the traffic-routing and resource-management functions in a single unit, PCIe also enables another important and long overdue next-generation function: quality of service (QoS). PCIe's switch can prioritize packets, so that real-time streaming packets (i.e., a video stream or an audio stream) can take priority over packets that aren't as time critical. This should mean fewer dropped frames in your first-person shooter and lower audio latency in your digital recording software.
4.2 Traffic runs in lanes
When PCIe's designers started thinking about a true next-generation upgrade for PCI, one of the issues that they needed to tackle was pin count. In the section on PCI above, I covered some of the problems with the kind of large-scale data parallelism that PCI exhibits (i.e. noise, cost, poor frequency scaling, etc.). PCIe solves this problem by taking a serial approach.
As I noted previously, a connection between two a PCIe device and a PCIe switch is called a link. Each link is composed of one or more lanes, and each lane is capable of transmitting one byte at a time in both directions at once. This full-duplex communication is possible because each lane is itself composed of one pair of signals: send and receive.
In order to transmit PCIe packets, which are composed of multiple bytes, a one-lane link must break down each packet into a series of bytes, and then transmit the bytes in rapid succession. The device on the receiving end must collect all of the bytes and then reassemble them into a complete packet. This disassembly and reassembly happens must happen rapidly enough to where it's transparent to the next layer up in the stack. This means that it requires some processing power on each end of the link. The upside, though, is that because each lane is only one byte wide, very few pins are needed to transmit the data. You might say that this serial transmission scheme is a way of turning processing power into bandwidth; this is in contrast to the old PCI parallel approach, which turns bus width (and hence pin counts) into bandwidth. It so happens that thanks to Moore's Curves, processing power is cheaper than bus width, hence PCIe's tradeoff makes a lot of sense.
We saw earlier that a link can be composed of "one or more lanes", so us clarify that now. One of PCIe's nicest features is the ability to aggregate multiple individual lanes together to form a single link. In other words, two lanes could be coupled together to form a single link capable of transmitting two bytes at a time, thus doubling the link bandwidth. Likewise, you could combine four lanes, or eight lanes, and so on.
A link that's composed of a single lane is called an x1 link; a link composed of two lanes is called an x2 link; a link composed of four lanes is called an x4 link, etc. PCIe supports x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16, and x32 link widths.
PCIe's bandwidth gains over PCI are considerable. A single lane is capable of transmitting 2.5Gbps in each direction, simultaneously. Add two lanes together to form an x2 link and you've got 5 Gbps, and so on with each link width. These high transfer speeds are good, good news, and will enable a new class of applications, like SLI video card rendering.
5 PCIe Protocol Details
Till now we were concerned with the system level impact of PCIe. We did not look at the protocol itself. The following material will make an attempt to explain the details of PCIe protocol, its layers and the functions of each of the layers in a brief way.
PCI Express is a high performance, general purpose I/O interconnect defined for a wide variety of future computing and communication platforms.
5.1 PCIe Link
A Link represents a dual-simplex communications channel between two components. The fundamental PCI Express Link consists of two, low-voltage, differentially driven signal pairs: a Transmit pair and a Receive pair
5.2 PCIe Fabric Topology
5.2.1 Root Complex
A Root Complex (RC) denotes the root of an I/O hierarchy that connects the CPU/memory
subsystem to the I/O.
Endpoint refers to a type of Function that can be the Requester or Completer of a PCI Express transaction either on its own behalf or on behalf of a distinct non-PCI Express device (other than a PCI device or Host CPU), e.g., a PCI Express attached graphics controller or a PCI Express-USB host controller. Endpoints are classified as either legacy, PCI Express, or Root Complex Integrated Endpoints.
5.2.3 PCI Express to PCI/PCI-X Bridge
A PCI Express to PCI/PCI-X Bridge provides a connection between a PCI Express fabric and a
5.3 PCI Express Layering Overview
PCI Express can be divided into three discrete logical layers: the Transaction Layer, the Data Link Layer, and the Physical Layer. Each of these layers is divided into two sections: one that processes outbound (to be transmitted) information and one that processes inbound (received) information.
PCI Express uses packets to communicate information between components. Packets are formed
in the Transaction and Data Link Layers to carry the information from the transmitting component to the receiving component. As the transmitted packets flow through the other layers, they are extended with additional information necessary to handle packets at those layers. At the receiving side the reverse process occurs and packets get transformed from their Physical Layer representation to the Data Link Layer representation and finally (for Transaction Layer Packets) to the form that can be processed by the Transaction Layer of the receiving device. Figure below shows the conceptual flow of transaction level packet information through the layers.
Note that a simpler form of packet communication is supported between two Data Link Layers
(connected to the same Link) for the purpose of Link management.
5.4 Layers of the Protocol
We take a brief look at the functions of each of the 3 layers.
5.4.1 Transaction Layer
This is the top layer that interacts with the software above.
Functions of Transaction Layer:
1. Mechanisms for differentiating the ordering and processing requirements of Transaction Layer Packets (TLPs)
2. Credit-based flow control
3. TLP construction and processing
4. Association of transaction-level mechanisms with device resources including Flow Control and Virtual Channel management
5.4.2 Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer acts as an intermediate stage between the Transaction Layer and the Physical Layer. Its primary responsibility is to provide a reliable mechanism for exchanging Transaction Layer Packets (TLPs) between the two components on a Link.
Functions of Transaction Layer:
1. Data Exchange:
2. Error Detection and Retry:
3. Initialization and power management:
5.4.3 Physical Layer
The Physical Layer isolates the Transaction and Data Link Layers from the signaling technology
used for Link data interchange. The Physical Layer is divided into the logical and electrical subblocks.
Takes care of Symbol Encoding, framing, data scrambling, Link initialization and training, Lane to lane de-skew
The electrical sub-block section defines the physical layer of PCI Express 5.0 GT/s that consists of a reference clock source, Transmitter, channel, and Receiver. This section defines the electrical-layer parameters required to guarantee interoperability among the above-listed PCI Express components. This section comprehends both 2.5 GT/s and 5.0 GT/s electricals. In many cases the parameter definitions between 2.5 and 5.0 GT/s are identical, even though their respective values may differ. However, the need at 5.0 GT/s to minimize guardbanding, while simultaneously comprehending all phenomena affecting signal integrity, requires that all the PCI Express system components - Transmitter, Receiver, channel, and Refclk, be explicitly defined in the specification. For this reason, each of these four components has a separate specification section for 5.0 GT/s.
6 Changes in PCIe 3.0 (GEN3)
The goal of the PCI-SIG work group defining this next-generation interface was to double the bandwidth of PCIe Gen 2, which is 5 gigatransfers per second (GT/s) signaling but 4GT/s effective bandwidth after 8b/10b encoding overhead. The group had two choices: either to increase the signaling rate to 10GT/s with 20 percent encoding overhead or select a lower signaling rate (8GT/s) for better signal integrity and reduced encoding overhead with a different set of challenges. The PCI-SIG decided to go with 8GT/s and reduce the encoding overhead to offer approximately 7.99GT/s of effective bandwidth, approximately double that of PCIe Gen 2. The increase in signaling rate from PCIe Gen 2's 5GT/s to PCIe Gen 3's 8GT/s provides a sixty percent increase in data rate and the remainder of the effective bandwidth increase comes from replacing the 8b/10b encoding (20 percent inefficiency) with 128b/130b coding (1-2 percent inefficiency). The challenge of moving from PCIe Gen 2 to Gen 3 is to accommodate the signaling rate where clock timing goes from 200ps to 125ps, jitter tolerance goes from 44ps to 14ps and the total sharable band (for SSC) goes down from 80ps to 35ps. These are enormous challenges to overcome but the PCI-SIG has already completed board, package, and system modeling to make sure designers are able to develop systems that support these rates. The table below highlights some key aspects of PCIe Gen 2 and Gen 3. The beauty of the Gen 3 solution is that it will support twice the data rate with equal or lower power consumption than PCIe Gen 2. Additionally, applications using PCIe Gen 2 would be able to migrate seamlessly as the reference clock remains at 100MHz and the channel reach for mobiles (8 inches), clients (14 inches), and volume servers (20 inches) stay the same. More complex equalizers, such as decision feedback equalization, may be implemented optionally for extended reach needed in a backplane environment. The Gen 3 specification will enhance signaling by adding transmitter de-emphasis, receiver equalization, and optimization of Tx/Rx Phase Lock Loops and Clock Data Recovery. The Gen 3 specification also requires devices that support Gen 3 rate to dynamically negotiate up or down to/from Gen 1 and Gen 2 data rates based on signal/line conditions.
6.1 Benefits from the newer specs:-
6.1.1 Higher Speed
Goal: improve performance. Each successive generation doubles the bit rate of
the previous generation, and that holds true for Gen3, too, but thereís a significant difference this
time. Since the previous speed was 5.0 GT/s, the new speed would normally have been 10.0
GT/s, but the spec writers considered a signal that used a 10GHz clock problematic because of
the board design and signal integrity issues that many vendors would face. Constrained to stay
under that frequency, they were forced to consider other options. The solution they chose was to
move away from the 8b/10b encoding scheme that PCIe and most other serial transports have
used because it adds a 20% overhead from the receiverís perspective. Instead, they chose a
modified scrambling method that effectively creates a 128/130 encoding method. This gain in
efficiency meant that an increase in frequency to only 8.0GHz would be enough to achieve a
doubling of the bandwidth and meet this goal
6.1.2 Resizable BAR Capability
Goal: allow the system to select how much system resource is
allocated to a device. This new optional set of registers allows functions to communicate their
resources size options to system software, which can then select the optimal size and
communicate that back to the function. Ideally, the software would use the largest setting
reported, since that would give the best performance, but it might choose a smaller size to
accommodate constrained resources. Currently, sizes from 1MB to 512GB are possible. If these
registers are implemented, there is one capability register to report the possible sizes, and one
control register to select the desired size for each BAR. Note that devices might report a smaller
size by default to help them be compatible in many systems, but using the smaller size would
also reduce its performance.
6.1.3 Dynamic Power Allocation
Goal: provide more software-controlled power states to improve
power management (PM). Some endpoint devices donít have a device-specific driver to manage
their power efficiently, and DPA provides a means to fill that gap. DPA only applies when the
device is in the D0 state, and it defines up to 32 substates. Substate0 (default) defines the max
power, and successive sub-states have a power allocation equal to or lower than the previous
one. Software is permitted to change the sub-states in any order.
The Substate Control Enabled bit can be used to disable this capability. Any time the device is
changing between substates, it must always report the highest power requirement of the two until
the transition has been completed, and the time needed to make the change is implementation
To allow software to set up PM policies, functions define two transition latency values and every
substate associates its max transition time (longest time it takes to enter that substate from any
other substate) with one of those.
6.1.4 Alternative Routing-ID Interpretation
Goal: support a much larger number of functions inside devices. For requesters and completers, this means treating the device number value as though
it was really just an extension of the function field to give an 8-bit value for the function number.
Since the device number is no longer included, itís always assumed to be 0.
The spec also defines a new set of optional registers that can be used to assign a function group
number to each function. Within an ARI device, several functions can be associated with a single
group number, and that can serve as the basis for arbitration or access control.

Tosaímid le tuiscint choincheapúil ar PCI Express. Tabharfaidh sé seo deis dúinn tábhacht PCI Express a thuiscint. Ina dhiaidh sin déanfar staidéar gairid ar an bprótacal PCI Express. Ansin beimid ag féachaint ar na feabhsuithe agus na feabhsúcháin ar an bprótacal sna sonraíochtaí 3.0 níos nuaí.
1 Ailtireacht bhunúsach córais ríomhaire pearsanta
Tosaímid ag féachaint ar leagan amach bunúsach córas ríomhaire. Go loighciúil, tá córas PC meán suite amach i rud éigin cosúil le léirítear sa phictiúr.
Feidhmíonn an croí loighciúil chipset mar lasc nó ródaire, agus bealaí I / O trácht i measc na gléasanna éagsúla a dhéanann suas an córas.
I ndáiríre, tá an croí loighciúil chipset roinnte ina dhá chuid: an northbridge agus an southbridge (nó I / O droichead). Tá an scoilt ann ar chúpla cúis, is é an ceann is tábhachtaí ná go bhfuil trí chineál feistí ann a oibríonn go nádúrtha go dlúth le chéile, agus mar sin ní mór dóibh rochtain níos tapúla a bheith acu ar a chéile: an CPU, an príomhchomhfhios, agus an cárta físe. I gcóras nua-aimseartha, is é GPU an chárta físe go feidhmiúil an dara (nó an tríú) CPU, mar sin ní mór dó rochtain phribhléideach ar phríomhchuimhne a roinnt leis na CPUanna. Mar thoradh air sin, tá na trí ghléas seo go léir clustered le chéile amach as an northbridge.
Tá an northbridge ceangailte le droichead tánaisteach, an southbridge, a ritheann trácht ó na feistí éagsúla I / O ar an gcóras: na dioscaí crua, calafoirt USB, calafoirt Ethernet, srl. Déantar an trácht ó na feistí seo a threorú tríd an southbridge go dtí an northbridge agus ansin ar aghaidh chuig an CPU agus / nó an chuimhne.
Mar a fheictear ón léarscáil thuas, tá an bus PCI ceangailte leis an mbruid ó dheas. Is é an bus seo de ghnáth an bus is sine, is moille i gcóras nua-aimseartha, agus is é an ceann is mó a bhfuil gá le uasghrádú air.
Is é an rud is mó ba chóir dúinn a thógáil ar shiúl ó an léaráid roimhe seo go bhfuil an ríomhaire nua-aimseartha bailiúchán motley de busanna speisialaithe de phrótacailí éagsúla agus cumas bandaleithead. Is é an meascán seo de bhusanna speisialaithe a ceapadh chun cineálacha éagsúla crua-earraí a cheangal go díreach leis an mbridge ó dheas rud éigin de hack atá ag teacht chun cinn go leanúnach a ndearna tionscal na ríomhaire pearsanta a innealtóireacht de réir a chéile agus go comhchoiteann agus é ag iarraidh teorainneacha an bhus PCI atá ag dul in aois a sheachaint. Toisc nach féidir leis an mbus PCI é a ghearradh i ndáiríre do rudaí cosúil le Serial ATA, Firewire, etc., ba é an treocht idirlíní a cheangal do I / O inmheánacha agus seachtracha go díreach leis an mbruid theas. Mar sin tá an southbridge inniu ar chineál na Swiss Army Knife de I / O lascainí, agus a bhuíochas le Moore's Curves tá sé in ann a choinneáil ag cur feidhmiúlacht i bhfoirm na comhéadan nua a choimeád feistí bandwidth-éagórach ó gortaithe ar an mbus PCI.
I saol idéalach, bheadh cineál príomha amháin bus agus prótacal bus amháin a nascann na feistí éagsúla I / O go léir? lena n-áirítear an cárta físe/GPU? chun an CPU agus príomhchomhfhios. Ar ndóigh, ní bheidh an idéalach "bus amháin chun iad go léir a rialú" seo riamh, riamh ag tarlú sa saol fíor. Ní tharlóidh sé le PCI Express, agus ní tharlóidh sé le Infiniband (cé go bhféadfadh sé tarlú go teicniúil le Infiniband dá gcaithfimid gach crua-earraí ríomhaire inniu a chaitheamh agus tús a chur leis ó scratch le babhta de ghléasanna atá comhoiriúnach go hinmheánach le Infiniband).
Mar sin féin, fiú má tá an utopic idéalach de bus amháin agus an prótacal bus amháin do gach gléas riamh a bhaint amach, ní mór go mbeadh bealach a thabhairt roinnt ord a chaos. Ar ár son, tá an bealach sin ar deireadh tháinig i bhfoirm PCI Express (a.k.a. PCIe).
2 Tús ar PCI
Sula dtéann muid isteach i mionsonraí ar PCIe, cabhraíonn sé le tuiscint a fháil ar conas a oibríonn PCI agus cad iad a theorainneacha.
Tháinig an bus PCI chun cinn níos mó ná deich mbliana ó shin ag 33MHz, le bus 32-giotán agus le bandleithead teoiriciúil uasta de 132MB / s. Bhí sé seo go leor maith don am, ach mar a fuair an chuid eile den chóras níos mó bandaleithead ocras an dá luas bus agus bus leithead bhí cranked suas i iarracht a choinneáil ar an luas. I measc blasanna níos déanaí de PCI bhí meascán bus 64-giotán, 33MHz le bandleithead buaic de 264MB / s; meascán níos déanaí 64-giotán, 66MHz le bandleithead de 512MB / s.
Úsáidtear topológa bus comhroinnte chun cumarsáid a cheadú idir na feistí éagsúla ar an mbus; na feistí PCI éagsúla (i.e., cárta líonra, cárta fuaime, cárta RAID, srl.) Tá siad go léir ceangailte leis an mbus céanna, a úsáideann siad chun cumarsáid a dhéanamh leis an CPU. Féach ar an léaráid seo a leanas chun tuiscint a fháil ar an gcuma atá ag bus comhroinnte.
Toisc go gcaithfidh na feistí go léir atá ceangailte leis an mbus é a roinnt eatarthu féin, ní mór go mbeadh scéim eadrána busta ann chun cinneadh a dhéanamh cé a fhaigheann rochtain ar an mbus agus cathain, go háirithe i gcásanna ina gcaithfidh feistí iomadúla an bus a úsáid ag an am céanna. Nuair a bhíonn rialú ag feiste ar an mbus, bíonn sé ina mháistir bus, rud a chiallaíonn gur féidir leis an mbus PCI a úsáid chun labhairt leis an CPU nó leis an gcuimhne trí bhridge theas an chipset.
Is iad na príomhbhuntáistí a bhaineann le topólóige an bhus chomhroinnte go bhfuil sé simplí, saor, agus éasca a chur i bhfeidhm? nó ar a laghad, sin an cás chomh fada agus nach bhfuil tú ag iarraidh rud ar bith ró-fhiancy a dhéanamh leis. Nuair a thosaíonn tú ag éileamh níos mó feidhmíochta agus feidhmiúlachta ó bhus roinnte, ansin ritheann tú isteach ina theorainneacha. Déanaimis féachaint ar chuid de na teorainneacha sin, d'fhonn ár bplé ar fheabhsuithe PCI Express a spreagadh.
Oibríonn an scéim seo go maith nuair nach bhfuil ach cúpla feiste ceangailte leis an mbus, ag éisteacht leis le haghaidh seoltaí agus sonraí. Ach is é nádúr bus go gcuireann aon ghléas atá ceangailte leis agus atá "ag éisteacht" leis méid áirithe torann isteach ar an mbus. Mar sin an níos mó feistí a éisteacht leis an mbus? agus dá bhrí sin a chur ar an muirear leictreach ar an mbus ? An níos mó fuaime atá ann ar an mbus agus an níos deacra é a fháil ar comhartha glan tríd.
2.1 Achoimre ar easnaimh an PCI
Chun é a achoimre, tá roinnt easnaimh thromchúiseacha ag PCI mar atá sé inniu a chuireann cosc air an bandleithid agus na gnéithe a theastaíonn ó ghlúin reatha agus glúnta amach romhainn de ghléasanna I / O agus stórála a sholáthar. Go sonrach, cuireann a ailtireacht bus comhroinnte an-chomharsanacht bac air trína luas agus a in-leastú a theorannú, agus tá a mhúnla cumarsáide simplí, stórála ualaigh, múnla cuimhneacháin shleamhnach níos lú láidir agus in-leathnaithe ná samhail roiteáilte, bunaithe ar phacáiste.
3 PCI-X: níos leithne agus níos tapúla, ach fós as dáta
Ba iarracht é an sonraíocht PCI-X PCI a nuashonrú chomh pianmhar agus is féidir agus ligean dó dul ar aghaidh le cúpla bliain eile. Agus é seo mar atá, ní réitíonn an speic aon cheann de na fadhbanna bunúsacha a luaitear thuas. Go deimhin, déanann sé cuid de na fadhbanna a dhéanamh níos measa.
D'ardaigh sonraíocht PCI-X an leithead bus go bunúsach ó 32 giotán go 64 giotán, rud a mhéadaigh cumais tarchurtha sonraí comhthreomhar PCI agus a spás seoltaí a mhéadú. Cuireann an speicis ráta clog bunúsach PCI suas go 66MHz le éagsúlacht 133MHz ar an deireadh ard, ag cur le borradh eile ar leithead bainc PCI agus ag tabhairt suas é go 1GB / s (ag 133MHz).
An leagan is déanaí den speicis PCI-X (PCI-X 266) cuireann sé an bus faoi dhó, ionas go dtarchuirfear sonraí ar imeall ag ardú agus ag titim an chloig. Cé go bhfeabhsaíonn sé seo an bandleithead teoiriciúil buaic PCI-X, tá a chuid gnóthachain bandleithead inbhuanaithe sa saol fíor níos measartha.
Cé gur mhéadaigh an dá ghluaiseacht seo leordhóthanacht banna PCI agus a úsáideacht, rinne siad níos costasaí é a chur i bhfeidhm. An níos tapúla a théann bus, is amhlaidh a bhíonn sé níos íogaire don fhuaim; tá caighdeáin mhonaraithe do bhusanna ardluais thar a bheith dian ar an gcúis sin féin; déantar ábhair throm agus/nó imill mhóra earráide a aistriú go díreach go fuaim ag luasanna cluais níos airde. Ciallaíonn sé seo go bhfuil an bus PCI-X níos tapúla níos costasaí a dhéanamh.
Ní hé an luas clog níos airde an t-aon rud a mhéadaíonn fadhbanna torann PCI-X agus costais déantúsaíochta. Is é an fachtóir eile an leithead bus méadaithe. Toisc go bhfuil an bus níos leithne agus go bhfuil níos mó sreangáin ann, tá níos mó torann ann i bhfoirm crosstalk. Ina theannta sin, tá na sreangacha nua sin go léir ceangailte ag a gcuid pointí deiridh le go leor feistí PCI, rud a chiallaíonn go bhfuil ualach níos mó fós ar an mbus agus dá bhrí sin níos mó torann a instealladh isteach sa bhus ag feistí ceangailte. Agus ansin tá an fhíric go bhfuil na feistí PCI féin gá 32 pinneacha breise, a mhéadaíonn an costas déantúsaíochta gach feiste aonair agus na nascóirí ar an mbord máthar.
Nuair a chuirtear na tosca seo go léir le chéile leis an ráta clog méadaithe, déanann siad an PCI-X ina tairiscint níos costasaí ná PCI, rud a choinníonn sé as príomhshrutha ríomhairí pearsanta. Agus ba cheart a thabhairt faoi deara freisin go bhfuil an chuid is mó de na fadhbanna a bhaineann le comhthreomhar bus a mhéadú agus an bus a phumpáil dhá uair ag cur isteach ar fhoirmeacha nua-aimseartha DDR, agus go háirithe speicis DDR-II.
Agus tar éis an pian sin go léir, ní mór duit déileáil le topology bus roinnte PCI agus a chuid droch-chomhfhreastail go léir. Ar an dea-uair, tá bealach níos fearr ann.
4 PCI Express: an chéad ghlúin eile
Is é PCI Express (PCIe) an t-ainm is nua don teicneolaíocht a bhí ar eolas roimhe mar 3GIO. Cé gur críochnaíodh sonraíocht PCIe i 2002, tá feistí bunaithe ar PCIe díreach tar éis tús a chur leis ar an margadh.
Is é an feabhas is suntasaí agus is soiléire atá ag PCIe ar PCI ná a topológa bus pointe go pointe. Féach ar an léaráid seo a leanas agus déan comparáid leis an leagan amach ar an mbus PCI.
I topólóige bus pointe go pointe, cuireann comhlán roinnte in ionad an bhus roinnte mar an acmhainn roinnte aonair trína ndéanann na feistí go léir cumarsáid. Murab ionann agus i topológa bus comhroinnte, áit ar chóir do na feistí idirghabháil a dhéanamh go comhchoiteann eatarthu chun an bus a úsáid, tá rochtain dhíreach agus eisiach ag gach feiste sa chóras ar an lasc. I bhfocail eile, suíonn gach feiste ar a bhus tiomnaithe féin, ar a dtugtar nasc i nglaoch PCIe.
Cosúil le ródaire i líonra nó i mbosca ceangail teileafóin, déanann an t-aistriú trácht bus a bhealach agus nasc pointe go pointe a bhunú idir dhá ghléas cumarsáide ar chóras.
4.1 Cáilíocht na Seirbhíse a Chumhachtú
Is é an éifeacht fhoriomlán a bhaineann leis an topológa fabraic a athsholáthar ná go gceadaíonn sé na "smart" a theastaíonn chun trácht a bhainistiú agus a threorú a láidriú i gcripéad amháin? an casadh. Le bus comhroinnte, ní mór do na feistí ar an mbus scéim eadrána a úsáid chun cinneadh a dhéanamh eatarthu féin ar conas acmhainn chomhroinnte a dháileadh (i.e., an bus). Le fabraic a athsholáthar, déanann an t-athsholáthar na cinntí go léir maidir le comhroinnt acmhainní.
Trí na feidhmeanna treoraithe tráchta agus bainistíochta acmhainní a láidriú i ngrúpa amháin, cuireann PCIe feidhm eile tábhachtach eile den chéad ghlúin eile ar fáil freisin: cáilíocht na seirbhíse (QoS). Is féidir le lascaine PCIe tosaíocht a thabhairt do phacáistí, ionas gur féidir le pacáistí sruthú fíor-ama (ie sruth físe nó sruth fuaime) tosaíocht a thabhairt do phacáistí nach bhfuil chomh criticiúil le ham. Ba chóir go gciallódh sé seo níos lú frámaí a thit i do shooter chéad duine agus latency fuaime níos ísle i do bogearraí taifeadta digiteacha.
4.2 Rith na tráchta i léin
Nuair a thosaigh dearthóirí PCIe ag smaoineamh ar uasghrádú fíor-ghinealach eile do PCI, ceann de na saincheisteanna a bhí le tabhairt orthu ná comhaireamh pinne. Sa chuid thuas maidir le PCI, rinne mé clúdach ar chuid de na fadhbanna leis an gcineál comhthreomhar sonraí ar scála mór a léiríonn PCI (i.e. Is féidir leis an gcineál seo a bheith ina chuid de na modhanna is fearr le haghaidh an chothaithe. Réitíonn PCIe an fhadhb seo trí chur chuige sraitheach a ghlacadh.
Mar a thug mé faoi deara roimhe seo, is é an nasc idir dhá gléas PCIe agus lasc PCIe ar a dtugtar nasc. Tá gach nasc comhdhéanta de shraith amháin nó níos mó, agus tá gach sraith in ann aon bhait amháin a tharchur ag an am i mbeirt threo ag an am céanna. Tá an cumarsáid lán-dúplach seo indéanta toisc go bhfuil gach sráid comhdhéanta de péire comharthaí amháin: seoladh agus fáil.
Chun pacáistí PCIe a tharchur, atá comhdhéanta de bhaitéanna iomadúla, ní mór nasc aon-líne gach pacáiste a bhriseadh síos i sraith de bhaitéanna, agus ansin na baitéanna a tharchur i ndiaidh a chéile go tapa. Ní mór don ghléas ar an taobh a fhaigheann na baithe go léir a bhailiú agus iad a athcheangal ina phacáiste iomlán. Ní mór an dí-shuiteáil agus athshuiteáil a tharlaíonn a tharlaíonn go tapa go leor go dtí go bhfuil sé trédhearcach go dtí an chéad sraith eile suas sa stack. Ciallaíonn sé seo go dteastaíonn roinnt cumhachta próiseála ar gach ceann den nasc. Is é an buntáiste, áfach, toisc nach bhfuil gach sráid ach baite amháin ar leithead, go bhfuil an-bheagán pinneanna ag teastáil chun na sonraí a tharchur. D'fhéadfá a rá gur bealach é an scéim tarchurtha sraitheach seo chun cumhacht próiseála a thiontú i mbandleithead; tá sé seo i gcodarsnacht leis an sean-thionscnamh comhthreomhar PCI, a thiocfaidh le leathan bus (agus dá bhrí sin comhaireamh pinne) i mbandleithead. Tarlaíonn sé go raibh maith agat do Moore's Curves, tá cumhacht próiseála níos saoire ná leithead bus, dá bhrí sin tá an t-airgead PCIe a dhéanann a lán ciall.
Chonaic muid níos luaithe gur féidir le nasc a bheith comhdhéanta de "líne amháin nó níos mó", mar sin a shoiléiriú dúinn go anois. Ceann de na gnéithe is fearr de PCIe is ea an cumas chun bealaí aonair iomadúla a chur le chéile chun nasc amháin a chruthú. Is é sin le rá, d'fhéadfaí dhá shraith a lánú le chéile chun nasc amháin a chruthú ar féidir dhá bhait a tharchur ag an am, rud a dhúbailteann an bandaleithead nasc. Ar an gcaoi chéanna, d'fhéadfá ceithre shraith, nó ocht shraith, agus mar sin de a chur le chéile.
Tugtar nasc x1 ar nasc atá comhdhéanta de shraith amháin; tugtar nasc x2 ar nasc atá comhdhéanta de dhá shraith; tugtar nasc x4 ar nasc atá comhdhéanta de cheithre shraith, etc. Tacaíonn PCIe le leithead nasc x1, x2, x4, x8, x12, x16 agus x32.
Tá gnóthachain bandaleithead PCIe thar PCI suntasach. Tá bealaí aonair in ann 2.5Gbps a tharchur i ngach treo, ag an am céanna. Cuir dhá shraith le chéile chun nasc x2 a chruthú agus tá 5 Gbps agat, agus mar sin de le gach leithead nasc. Tá na luasanna ard aistrithe go maith, nuacht maith, agus beidh sé ar chumas aicme nua de iarratais, cosúil le SLI cárta físe a dhéanamh.
5 Sonraí ar Phrótacal PCIe
Go dtí seo bhíomar buartha faoi thionchar PCIe ar leibhéal an chórais. Níor fhéachamar ar an bprótacal féin. Déanfaidh an t-ábhar seo a leanas iarracht mionsonraí an phrótacail PCIe, a shraithí agus feidhmeanna gach ceann de na sraitheanna a mhíniú ar bhealach gearr.
Is idirnascadh I/O ardfheidhmíochta, ginearálta é PCI Express a shainmhínítear do réimse leathan ardán ríomhairí agus cumarsáide amach anseo.
5.1 Ceangal PCIe
Léiríonn nasc cainéal cumarsáide dúbailte-simplex idir dhá chomhpháirt. Is éard atá sa Chonraíocht Chríochnaitheach PCI bunúsach dhá péire comhartha, voltais íseal, tiomána go difríochtúil: péire tarchuir agus péire glactha
5.2 Topology Físeán PCIe
5.2.1 Coimpléasc Root
Léiríonn Coimpléasc Root (RC) fréamh na hiararchí I/O a nascann an CPU/chuimhne
an fho-chóras go dtí an I/O.
Tagraíonn Endpoint do chineál Feidhme a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina Iarratasóir nó ina Chríochnaitheoir ar idirbheart PCI Express ar a shon féin nó ar son feiste neamh-PCI Express ar leith (seachas feiste PCI nó CPU Óstach), e.g. rialaitheoir grafaicí ceangailte le PCI Express nó rialaitheoir óstach PCI Express-USB. Déantar na pointí deiridh a aicmiú mar pointí deiridh oidhreachta, PCI Express nó pointí deiridh comhtháite casta fréamhacha.
5.2.3 PCI Express go PCI/PCI-X Bridge
Soláthraíonn PCI Express go PCI/PCI-X Bridge nasc idir fabric PCI Express agus
5.3 Léargas ar Chéimithe PCI Express
Is féidir PCI Express a roinnt ina thrí shraith loighciúil dhifriúla: an Sraith Trasnaíochta, an Sraith Ceangail Sonraí, agus an Sraith Fisiciúil. Tá gach ceann de na sraitheanna seo roinnte ina dhá chuid: ceann a phróiseálann faisnéis amach (a bheidh le tarchur) agus ceann a phróiseálann faisnéis isteach (a fhaightear).
Úsáideann PCI Express pacáistí chun faisnéis a chur in iúl idir comhpháirteanna. Tá pacáistí déanta
i sraitheanna idirbhearta agus nasc sonraí chun an fhaisnéis a iompar ón gcomhpháirt tarchuirthithe chuig an gcomhpháirt glacadóra. De réir mar a shreabhann na pacáistí a tharchur trí na sraitheanna eile, cuirtear faisnéis bhreise a theastaíonn chun pacáistí a láimhseáil sna sraitheanna sin ar fáil dóibh. Ar an taobh a fhaigheann an próiseas a mhalairt tarlaíonn agus pacáistí a fháil a athrú óna léiriú Ciseal Chéim chun an léiriú Ciseal Ceangail Sonraí agus sa deireadh (do Transaction Ciseal pacáistí) go dtí an fhoirm is féidir a phróiseáil ag an Ciseal Transaction an gléas a fháil. Léiríonn an figiúr thíos sreabhadh coincheaptha faisnéise pacáiste leibhéal idirbhirt trí na sraitheanna.
Tabhair faoi deara go bhfuil foirm níos simplí de chumarsáid pacáiste tacaíocht idir dhá Chéadna nasc sonraí
(nasctha leis an nasc céanna) chun críche bainistíochta na nasc.
5.4 Scairteanna an Phrótacail
Déanaimid léargas gairid ar fheidhmeanna gach ceann de na 3 shraith.
5.4.1 Scairt idirbhearta
Is é seo an ciseal is airde a idirghníomhaíonn leis an mbogearraí thuas.
Feidhmeanna na sraithe idirbhearta:
1. an t-am a bhí ann. Meicníochtaí chun na ceanglais ordú agus próiseála Paicéid Saighde Transaction (TLPs) a dhifreáil
2. Seachadadh. Rialaithe srutha bunaithe ar chreidmheas
3. Tá an t-am ann. Tógáil agus próiseáil TLP
4. Tá an t-am Meicníochtaí ar leibhéal idirbhearta a chomhcheangal le hacmhainní feistí lena n-áirítear Rialú Sliocht agus bainistíocht Cainéil Ghnéasach
5.4.2 Scairt Ceangail Sonraí
Feidhmíonn an Scairt Ceangail Sonraí mar chéim idirmheánach idir an Scairt Idirbhearta agus an Scairt Fisiciúil. Is é a phríomhfhreagracht meicníocht iontaofa a sholáthar chun pacáistí sraithe idirbhearta (TLPs) a mhalartú idir an dá chomhpháirt ar nasc.
Feidhmeanna na sraithe idirbhearta:
1. an t-am a bhí ann. Malartú Sonraí:
2. Seachadadh. Aimsir Earráide agus Aththriail:
3. Tá an t-am ann. Túsú agus bainistíocht cumhachta:
5.4.3 Scairt Fisiceach
Tá an Ciseal Fisiciúil ag scaradh na Ciseal Trasnaíochta agus na gCiseal Ceangail Sonraí ón teicneolaíocht comharthaíochta
Úsáidtear é chun sonraí a mhalartú ar an Idirlíon. Tá an Ciseal Fisiciúil roinnte ina fho-bhloic loighciúil agus leictreacha.
Déileálann sé le Códú Symbol, frámaíocht, scrambling sonraí, tionscnamh agus oiliúint nasc, Lane chun Lane de-skew
Sa rannán fo-bloc leictreach sainmhínítear an ciseal fisiciúil de PCI Express 5.0 GT/s a chuimsíonn foinse clog tagartha, tarchuradóir, cainéal, agus glacadóir. Sa rannóg seo, sainmhínítear na paraiméadair sa chiseal leictreach a theastaíonn chun idir-inoibritheacht a ráthú idir na comhpháirteanna PCI Express thuasluaite. Cuimsíonn an rannán seo leictreacha 2.5 GT/s agus 5.0 GT/s araon. I go leor cásanna tá na sainmhínithe paraiméadair idir 2.5 agus 5.0 GT/s comhionann, cé go bhféadfadh a luachanna faoi seach a bheith difriúil. Mar sin féin, an gá ag 5.0 GT / s chun an gardabandáil a íoslaghdú, agus ag an am céanna gach feiniméan a théann i bhfeidhm ar ionracas an chomhartha a thuiscint, éilíonn sé go ndéantar na comhpháirteanna uile de chóras PCI Express - Transmitter, Receiver, channel, agus Refclk, a shainiú go sainráite sa tsonraíocht. Ar an gcúis seo, tá rannán sonraíochta ar leithligh ag gach ceann de na ceithre chomhpháirt seo le haghaidh 5.0 GT/s.
6 Athruithe ar PCIe 3.0 (GEN3)
Ba é aidhm an ghrúpa oibre PCI-SIG an comhéadan seo den chéad ghlúin eile a shainiú ná leathleithead bainc PCIe Gen 2 a dhúbailt, is é sin 5 gigatransfer sa dara (GT / s) a chomharthaíocht ach 4GT / s leithead bainc éifeachtach tar éis códú 8b / 10b os cionn. Bhí dhá rogha ag an ngrúpa: an ráta comharthaithe a mhéadú go 10GT / s le 20% de chódú os cionn nó ráta comharthaithe níos ísle a roghnú (8GT / s) le haghaidh sláine comhartha níos fearr agus os cionn códaithe laghdaithe le sraith éagsúla dúshláin. Chinn an PCI-SIG dul le 8GT/s agus an t-uaslódáil códaithe a laghdú chun thart ar 7.99GT/s de leathanbhanda éifeachtach a thairiscint, thart ar dhá oiread an méid sin de PCIe Gen 2. Soláthraíonn an méadú ar ráta comhartha ó 5GT / s PCIe Gen 2 go 8GT / s PCIe Gen 3 méadú seasca faoin gcéad ar ráta sonraí agus tagann an chuid eile den méadú baindleithead éifeachtach ó chódú 8b / 10b a athsholáthar (neamhéifeachtúlacht 20 faoin gcéad) le códú 128b / 130b (neamhéifeachtúlacht 1-2 faoin gcéad). Is é an dúshlán atá le bogadh ó PCIe Gen 2 go Gen 3 ná an ráta comharthaíochta a chur in iúl áit a dtéann amú clog ó 200ps go 125ps, téann toilteanas jitter ó 44ps go 14ps agus téann an banna roinnte iomlán (do SSC) síos ó 80ps go 35ps. Is dúshláin ollmhóra iad seo le sárú ach tá an PCI-SIG tar éis samhailíocht bhord, pacáiste agus córais a chríochnú cheana féin chun a chinntiú go bhfuil dearthóirí in ann córais a fhorbairt a thacaíonn leis na rátaí seo. Léiríonn an tábla thíos roinnt príomhghnéithe de PCIe Gen 2 agus Gen 3. Is é an áilleacht atá ag réiteach Gen 3 ná go dtacóidh sé le ráta sonraí dhá oiread le tomhaltas cumhachta comhionann nó níos ísle ná PCIe Gen 2. Ina theannta sin, d'fhéadfadh feidhmchláir a úsáideann PCIe Gen 2 aistriú gan uaim mar go bhfanann an clog tagartha ag 100MHz agus go bhfanann an sroich cainéal do ghluaisteáin (8 orlach), do chliaint (14 orlach), agus do sheirbhísigh toirte (20 orlach) mar an gcéanna. Is féidir equalizers níos casta, mar shampla equalization aisghabhála cinntí, a chur i bhfeidhm go rogha ar mhaithe le sroich leathnaithe a theastaíonn i dtimpeallacht cúlchláir. Feabhsóidh sonraíocht Gen 3 comharthaíocht trí dhícháineadh tarchuradóir, comhionannú glacadóir, agus uasmhéadú Loops Lock Tx / Rx Phase agus Athshlánú Sonraí Clog a chur leis. Éilíonn sonraíocht Gen 3 freisin go ndéanfaidh feistí a thacaíonn le ráta Gen 3 idirbheartaíocht dinimiciúil suas nó síos go dtí/ó rátaí sonraí Gen 1 agus Gen 2 bunaithe ar choinníollacha comhartha/líne.
6.1 Sochair ó na sonraíochtaí níos nuaí:-
6.1.1 Luas níos airde
Sprioc: feabhas a chur ar fheidhmíocht. Gach glúin ina dhiaidh sin déanann an ráta bita de
an ghlúin roimhe seo, agus go bhfuil sé fíor do Gen3, freisin, ach tá sé difríocht shuntasach seo
am. Ós rud é go raibh an luas roimhe seo 5.0 GT/s, ba chóir go mbeadh an luas nua 10.0
GT / s, ach mheas na scríbhneoirí specs comhartha a úsáideann 10GHz clog fadhbanna mar gheall ar
an dearadh bord agus saincheisteanna ionracaíochta comhartha a bheadh ag go leor díoltóirí. Cuirtear iallach orm fanacht
faoi an minicíocht sin, bhí orthu roghanna eile a mheas. Ba é an réiteach a roghnaigh siad ná
bogadh ar shiúl ón scéim chódála 8b/10b atá ag PCIe agus ag formhór na n-iompar sraitheach eile
Úsáidtear an t-airgead seo mar go gcuireann sé 20% de chostas breise leis ó thaobh an fhaighteora de. Ina áit sin, roghnaigh siad
modh scramblaithe modhnaithe a chruthaíonn modh códaithe 128/130 go héifeachtach. An t-airgead seo i
ciallaíonn sé sin go mbeadh méadú ar an minicíocht go 8.0GHz amháin go leor chun
an bandleithid a dhúbailt agus an sprioc seo a bhaint amach
6.1.2 Cumas BAR Risizable
Cumas: ligean don chóras a roghnú cé mhéad acmhainn chórais
a leithdháileadh ar fheiste. Ligeann an tacar nua roghnach clár seo d'fheidhmeanna a gcuid sonraí a chur in iúl
Roghanna méid acmhainní a chur ar fáil do bhogearraí an chórais, a fhéadfaidh an méid is fearr agus
a chur in iúl go ar ais go dtí an fheidhm. Go hidéalach, ba cheart don bogearraí an leagan is mó a úsáid
a thuairiscigh, ós rud é go mbeadh a thabhairt ar an fheidhmíocht is fearr, ach d'fhéadfadh sé a roghnú méid níos lú a
acmhainní teoranta a chur san áireamh. Faoi láthair, tá méideanna ó 1MB go 512GB indéanta. Má tá na
Tá clár cumas amháin ann chun na méideanna féideartha a thuairisciú, agus tá clár cumas amháin ann chun na méideanna féideartha a thuairisciú.
clár rialaithe chun an méid is mian le gach BAR a roghnú. Tabhair faoi deara go bhféadfadh feistí a thuairisciú níos lú
méid réamhshocraithe chun cabhrú leo a bheith comhoiriúnach i go leor córais, ach ag baint úsáide as an méid níos lú a bheadh
a fheidhmíocht a laghdú freisin.
6.1.3 Ailtíocht cumhachta dinimiciúil
Cumas: níos mó stáit cumhachta atá á rialú ag bogearraí a sholáthar chun feabhas a chur ar
bainistiú cumhachta (PM). Níl tiománaí sonrach feiste ag roinnt feistí críochphointe le bainistíocht a dhéanamh
a n-chumhacht go héifeachtúil, agus soláthraíonn DPA bealach chun an bhearna sin a líonadh. Ní bhaineann DPA ach amháin nuair a bhíonn an
Tá an gléas i stát D0, agus sainmhíníonn sé suas le 32 fo-stádas. Sainmhíníonn fo-stádas0 (míchumais) an uasmhéid
cumhachta, agus fo-stáit a leanas a bhfuil leithdháileadh cumhachta comhionann le nó níos ísle ná an
ceann amháin. Ceadaítear do bhrabhsálaí na fo-stáit a athrú in aon ord.
Is féidir an bit Substate Control Enabled a úsáid chun an cumas seo a dhíchumasú. Aon uair a bhíonn an gléas
ag athrú idir fo-stáit, ní mór dó an riachtanas cumhachta is airde den dá cheann a thuairisciú i gcónaí go dtí go
tá an t-aistriú críochnaithe, agus is é an t-am a theastaíonn chun an t-athrú a dhéanamh cur i bhfeidhm
Chun a cheadú do bhogearraí beartais PM a chur ar bun, sainmhíníonn feidhmeanna dhá luach latency idirthréimhse agus gach
a chuid ama aistrithe uasta (an t-am is faide a thógann sé chun dul isteach sa fho-staidéal sin ó aon
substaint eile) le ceann acu sin.
6.1.4 Léiriú Ailtire Bealach-Aitheantais
Cumas: tacaíocht a thabhairt do líon i bhfad níos mó feidhmeanna taobh istigh de ghléasanna. I gcás iarrthóirí agus comhlánaithe, ciallaíonn sé seo go gcaithfear leis an luach uimhir feiste mar
go raibh sé i ndáiríre ach síneadh an réimse feidhme a thabhairt ar luach 8-bit don uimhir feidhme.
Ós rud é nach bhfuil an uimhir feiste san áireamh a thuilleadh, is é 0 a mheastar i gcónaí.
Sa speicis sainmhíníonn freisin sraith nua de chlár roghnach is féidir a úsáid chun grúpa feidhme a shannadh
uimhir do gach feidhm. Laistigh de ghléas ARI, is féidir roinnt feidhmeanna a chur i gcomhar le feiste amháin
uimhir an ghrúpa, agus is féidir é sin a úsáid mar bhunús le haghaidh eadrána nó rialaithe rochtana.


Black History Month 2011
For Black History Month 2011, the Maynard Institute for Journalism Education website celebrates 28 individuals. One for each day of February, the shortest month of the year.
The lives of these Americans are worthy of celebration and further study, which our short profiles hope to encourage. The women and men included are writers, editors, journalists, publishers, trailblazers and change makers. They remind us of the rich contributions African Americans make and have made in the world of words.
This is by no means a definitive or exhaustive listing. It’s a starting point for learning, comment & discussion during Black History Month - February, 2011 when our nation pays a little more attention to issues of diversity. Be heard. Tell us what you think & what we can learn!
February 10, 2011Jupiter Hammon became the first published African American writer while a slave in New York in 1760. Hammon established the legacy of black writers in the United States and was instrumental in developing respect for the intellect of African... more »
February 11, 2011Bob Herbert is a New York Times editorial columnist who first reported for the Star-Ledger in 1970, after a tour of duty in the United States Army. He was a founding panelist for Sunday Edition on CBS and was a national correspondent on NBC.... more »
February 12, 2011Charlayne Hunter-Gault started her journalistic career in 1959 fighting a legal battle for minorities’ right to enroll in the University of Georgia, eventually becoming the first black to graduate from there. Since 1967 Hunter-Gault has been... more »
February 13, 2011Zora Neal Hurston worked her way through Barnard College for an anthropology degree to become one of the most prominent figures in African American literature. Well known for her book, “Their Eyes Were Watching God,” she is closely connected with... more »
February 14, 2011Robert L. Johnson studied politics and international affairs at University of Illinois and Princeton University, respectively. As a lobbyist for the National Cable Association in the 1970s, he founded Black Entertainment Television in 1980. From a... more »
February 15, 2011Known for his soaring oratory, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was also a prolific writer whose words literally changed our world. In 1963 he delivered the now-celebrated speech during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. At 35, he was the... more »
February 16, 2011Paula Madison is the Executive Vice President of Diversity for NBC Universal, marking the first time in NBC’s history that diversity is an executive’s primary focus. Prior to this appointment, she was the President and General Manager of KNBC, and... more »
February 17, 2011As a teen-ager, Nancy Hicks Maynard was outraged at the media’s distorted depiction of her neighborhood. She began her journalism career at the New York Post where she worked as a copy girl while going to college. At the age of 21 she was hired by... more »
February 18, 2011As a young man, Robert C. Maynard dreamed of being a newspaper reporter, but back in the 1950s newspapers were either not hiring “Negro” reporters or already had their one black reporter on staff. Undaunted, Maynard sent out 200 resumes, ... more »
Work We <3 | FDP
Instead of spending all our time calling out journalism that doesn't work, we want to find work we like. We'd like to encourage our readers to submit links to content that is moving or challenging and that goes beyond the standard narrative either at the level of form or content. In other words, we want to see journalism that works.
We're particularly interested in work at the nexus of the following categories:
- Please include a comment explaining why the content you're sharing works.
- Comments can be as short or long as desired.
Find us on Facebook
- US-Russia Journalism Teachers Exchange @ The Russian and East European Institute (REEI) of Indiana University
- Assistant Professor - JOURNALISM / Broadcast @ California State University, Northridge
- Assistant Professor - JOURNALISM / Digital media entrepreneurship or digital public @ California State University, Northridge
Dori Maynard tweets on Diversity, Media & More
@JamilSmith The distorted #media depiction of African American men & boys has real life consequences, again. #mediadiversity #Tremaine

Mí Stair an Duibhe 2011
Le haghaidh Mí Stair an Duine Dubh 2011, déanann suíomh Gréasáin Institiúid Oideachais iriseolaíochta Maynard ceiliúradh ar 28 duine aonair. Ceann do gach lá de mhí Feabhra, an mhí is giorra sa bhliain.
Tá saol na Meiriceánach seo fiú ceiliúradh agus staidéar breise, a bhfuil súil againn go spreagfaidh ár bpróifílí gearr. Is scríbhneoirí, eagarthóirí, iriseoirí, foilsitheoirí, lucht tosaigh agus lucht athraithe iad na mná agus na fir a chuimsítear sa chomórtas. Cuireann siad i gcuimhne dúinn na ranníocaíochtaí saibhre a dhéanann Meiriceánaigh Afracacha agus a rinne siad i saol na bhfocal.
Ní liosta críochnaitheach ná críochnaitheach í seo ar chor ar bith. Is pointe tosaigh é chun foghlaim, trácht & plé a dhéanamh le linn mhí Stair an Duine Dubh - Feabhra, 2011 nuair a thugann ár náisiún beagán níos mó aird ar shaincheisteanna éagsúlachta. A bheith éisteacht. Inis dúinn cad a cheapann tú & cad is féidir linn a fhoghlaim!
10 Feabhra, 2011Ba é Jupiter Hammon an chéad scríbhneoir Meiriceánach Afracach foilsithe agus é ina sclábhaí i Nua-Eabhrac i 1760. Bhunaigh Hammon oidhreacht scríbhneoirí dubha sna Stáit Aontaithe agus bhí sé ina uirlis chun meas a fhorbairt ar intleacht na hAfraice... níos mó
11 Feabhra, 2011Bob Herbert is colúnóir eagarthóireachta New York Times a d'fhógair don Star-Ledger den chéad uair i 1970, tar éis turas dualgas san Arm na Stát Aontaithe. Bhí sé ina phéinealista bunaitheoir do Sunday Edition ar CBS agus bhí sé ina chomhfhreagraí náisiúnta ar NBC.... níos mó
12 Feabhra, 2011Tosaigh Charlayne Hunter-Gault a gairme iriseolaíochta i 1959 ag troid cath dlíthiúil ar cheart mhionlaigh clárú in Ollscoil Georgia, agus sa deireadh tháinig sí ar an gcéad dubh chun céim a bhaint amach ann. Ó 1967 Hunter-Gault Tá... níos mó
Feabhra 13, 2011D'oibrigh Zora Neal Hurston a bhealach trí Choláiste Barnard le haghaidh céim anthrópaolaíochta chun a bheith ar cheann de na figiúirí is suntasaí i litríocht Mheiriceá Afracach. Is eol do leabhar, "Their Eyes Were Watching God", go bhfuil sí nasctha go dlúth le... níos mó
14 Feabhra, 2011D'fhoghlaim Robert L. Johnson polaitíocht agus gnóthaí idirnáisiúnta in Ollscoil Illinois agus in Ollscoil Princeton, faoi seach. Mar lóbálaí don National Cable Association sna 1970idí, bhunaigh sé Teilifís Siamsaíochta Dubh i 1980. Ó... níos mó
Feabhra 15, 2011Is é an Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. a raibh aithne air mar gheall ar a chuid òratóireachta ard, scríbhneoir folláine a raibh a chuid focal ag athrú ár saol go liteartha. Sa bhliain 1963 thug sé an óráid a bhfuil ceiliúradh air anois le linn an Mhárta ar Washington le haghaidh Oibreacha agus Saoirse. Ag 35, bhí sé an... níos mó
Feabhra 16, 2011Paula Madison is í an Leas-Uachtarán Feidhmiúcháin ar Éagsúlacht do NBC Universal, ag marcáil an chéad uair i stair NBC go bhfuil éagsúlacht mar phríomhfhócas feidhmiúcháin. Roimh an ceapachán seo, bhí sí ina hUachtarán agus ina Bhainisteoir Ginearálta ar KNBC, agus... níos mó
17 Feabhra, 2011Mar dhéagóir, bhí Nancy Hicks Maynard feargach ar léiriú saird na meán ar a comharsanacht. Thosaigh sí a gairme iriseolaíochta ag an New York Post áit ar oibrigh sí mar chailín cóip le linn di dul go dtí an ollscoil. Ag 21 bliain d'aois, bhí sí fostaithe ag... níos mó
18 Feabhra, 2011Mar fhear óg, bhí sé mar aidhm ag Robert C. Maynard a bheith ina thuairisceoir nuachtán, ach ar ais sna 1950idí ní raibh nuachtáin ag glacadh le tuairisceoirí "Negro" nó bhí a thuairisceoir dubh amháin acu cheana féin ar an bhfoireann. Gan eagla, chuir Maynard 200 athscríobh amach, ... níos mó
Oibre We <3  FDP
In ionad ár gcuid ama a chaitheamh ag tabhairt tuairisc ar an nuachtóireacht nach n-oibríonn, ba mhaith linn obair a fháil a thaitníonn linn. Ba mhaith linn ár léitheoirí a spreagadh chun naisc a chur isteach le hábhar atá ag gluaiseacht nó ag dúshlán agus a théann thar an scéal caighdeánach ar leibhéal na foirme nó an ábhair. I bhfocail eile, ba mhaith linn go bhfeicfimid iriseoireacht a oibríonn.
Tá suim ar leith againn i gcuid oibre ag nasc na gcatagóirí seo a leanas:
- Cuir le do thoil trácht lena míniú cén fáth go n-oibríonn an t-ábhar atá á roinnt agat.
- Is féidir le tuairimí a bheith chomh gearr nó chomh fada agus is mian leat.
Faigh sinn ar Facebook
- Malartú Múinteoirí iriseolaíochta na Stát Aontaithe agus na Rúise @ Institiúid na Rúise agus Oirthear na hEorpa (REEI) Ollscoil Indiana
- Ollamh Cúnta - SÉIRLÉITHE / Craoladh @ California State University, Northridge
- Ollamh Cúnta - SÉIRNÉALSÁIN / Fiontraíocht sna meáin dhigiteacha nó an phobal dhigiteach @ California State University, Northridge
Dori Maynard tweets ar Éagsúlacht, Meáin & Níos Mó
@JamilSmith Tá iarmhairtí fíor-saoil ag an léiriú #meáin a bhaineann le fir agus buachaillí Meiriceánaigh Afracacha, arís. #meánéagsúlacht #Tremaine


CUHK finds that a booster vaccine dose is effective in retriggering antibodies in breast milk that protect babies
Researchers from The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK)’s Faculty of Medicine (CU Medicine) and collaborators from Spain conducted a study to evaluate the temporal changes in the amount and neutralising activity of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in breast milk stimulated by natural infection and vaccination. The study shows that the neutralising activity becomes undetectable in vaccinated mothers about five to six months after receiving a first dose of vaccine, and that a booster dose is effective in retriggering the protection. The findings have recently been published in the medical publication Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology.
COVID-19 infection and vaccination can produce antibody response in breast milk
Previous international studies, have found evidence that mothers who have been infected with SARS-CoV-2 or vaccinated can pass antibodies to their children, protecting them against the virus through breast milk.
Dr. Hillary Hiu Yu LEUNG, Clinical Lecturer from the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at CU Medicine said, “It is a common query from mothers on whether they should breastfeed following a SARS-CoV-2 infection or COVID-19 vaccination. The answer is ‘yes’. Studies have shown that both disease- and vaccination-acquired immunity produce high levels of Immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies against the virus in breast milk. For very young children who are not eligible for vaccination for the time being, breast milk could be a possible way to attain SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. But we need to find out how long the protection would last.”
The research team collected serial breast milk samples from postnatal individuals: 18 mothers from the infected group and eight from the vaccinated group. No one in the infected group was vaccinated during the study period, while those in the vaccinated group had received at least two doses. Results showed a rapid increase in neutralising SARS-CoV-2 specific antibodies in breast milk after infection or vaccination. After reaching the peak, the IgA levels and binding capacity progressively decreased over time in both groups. These are the key findings:
- Levels and the neutralisation capacity of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in breast milk decline as time passes.
- SARS-CoV-2 antibodies could become undetectable by about 150 days after the first dose of the COVID-19 vaccine.
- A booster dose of the COVID-19 vaccine is effective in sustaining the secretion of neutralising IgA in breast milk.
Professor Liona POON, Professor from the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at CU Medicine, said, “This study has demonstrated that a booster dose is effective in retriggering the secretion of neutralising antibodies in breast milk after they have become undetectable. This signifies the importance of a booster dose to sustain neutralising antibody levels in the breast milk, which may potentially provide protection for very young children.”
 Titres and neutralising capacity of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies in human milk: a systematic review. Archives of Disease in Childhood-Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 2022;107(2):174-80.
 SARS-CoV-2–specific antibodies in breast milk after COVID-19 vaccination of breastfeeding women. Jama. 2021;325(19):2013-4.

Tá an t-údarú seo ag cur le dochtúir a bhfuil taithí acu ar an bhfíric go bhfuil an druga ag cur le dochtúir a bhfuil taithí acu ar an bhfíric go bhfuil an druga ag cur le dochtúir a bhfuil taithí acu ar an bhfíric go bhfuil an druga ag cur le dochtúir.
Rinne taighdeoirí ó Ollscoil na Síne i Hong Cong (CUHK) 's Faculty of Medicine (CU Medicine) agus comhoibrithe ó Spáinn staidéar chun meastóireacht a dhéanamh ar na hathruithe ama i méid agus gníomhaíocht neodrúcháin frith-chomhlachtaí SARS-CoV-2 i bainne cíche a spreagtar le hailse nádúrtha agus vacsaín. Léiríonn an staidéar go mbíonn an ghníomhaíocht neodrúcháin gan a bheith le feiceáil i máithreacha vacsaínithe thart ar chúig go sé mhí tar éis dóibh an chéad dáileog vacsaín a fháil, agus go bhfuil dáileog athbhuailte éifeachtach chun an cosaint a athshlánú. Foilsíodh na torthaí le déanaí sa fhoilseachán leighis Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology.
Is féidir le hachtáil agus vacsaínú COVID-19 freagairt frithchomhlachta a tháirgeadh i mbainne cíche
Tá fianaise le fáil i staidéir idirnáisiúnta roimhe seo go bhféadfadh máithreacha a bhí ionfhabhtaithe le SARS-CoV-2 nó a vacsaíníodh frith-chomhlachtaí a tharchur chuig a gcuid páistí, ag cosaint iad i gcoinne an víris trí bhainne cíche.
Dúirt an Dr. Hillary Hiu Yu LEUNG, Léachtóir Chliniciúil ó Roinn na hOstaiteolaíochta agus na Gineicolaíochta ag CU Medicine, "Is ceist choitianta í ó mháithreacha an chóir dóibh beathú cíche a thabhairt tar éis ionfhabhtú SARS-CoV-2 nó vacsaín COVID-19. Is é an freagra "tá". Léirigh staidéir go dtáirgeann an díolúine a fuarthas ó ghalar agus ó vacsaínú leibhéil arda de fhreasúracha Immunoglobulin A (IgA) i gcoinne an víris i mbainne cíche. I gcás leanaí an-óg nach bhfuil incháilithe le haghaidh vacsaínithe faoi láthair, d'fhéadfadh bainne cíche a bheith ina bhealach féideartha chun frith-chomhlachtaí SARS-CoV-2 a bhaint amach. Ach ní mór dúinn a fháil amach cé chomh fada a d'fhéadfadh an chosaint a mhaireann.
Bailíodh samplaí bainne cíche i sraith ó dhaoine iarbhreith: 18 mháthair ón ngrúpa ionfhabhtaithe agus ochtar ón ngrúpa vacsaínithe. Níor vacsaíníodh aon duine sa ghrúpa ionfhabhtaithe le linn thréimhse an staidéir, agus fuair na daoine sa ghrúpa vacsaínithe dhá dáileog ar a laghad. Léirigh na torthaí go raibh méadú tapa ar na frith-fhillteanna sonracha SARS-CoV-2 a neodrú i mbainne cíche tar éis ionfhabhtaithe nó vacsaínithe. Tar éis an buaic a bhaint amach, tháinig laghdú de réir a chéile ar leibhéil IgA agus ar chumas ceangailteach le himeacht ama sa dá ghrúpa. Seo na príomhthorthaí:
- Laghdaíonn leibhéil agus cumas neodrúcháin na n-aghaidh-chorp SARS-CoV-2 i bainne cíche de réir mar a théann an t-am.
- D'fhéadfadh frith-chomhlachtaí SARS-CoV-2 a bheith neamh-inbhraite faoi 150 lá tar éis an chéad dáileog den vacsaín COVID-19.
- Tá dáileog dóchasach den vacsaín COVID-19 éifeachtach chun secretion IgA neodrúcháin a chothabháil i bainne cíche.
Dúirt an tOllamh Liona POON, Ollamh ó Roinn na hOstaiteolaíochta agus na Gineicolaíochta ag CU Medicine, "Tá an staidéar seo tar éis a léiriú go bhfuil dáileog booster éifeachtach chun secretion na n-aghaidh-chorp a neodrú i bainne cíche a athshlánú tar éis dóibh a bheith neamh-inbhraite. Léiríonn sé seo an tábhacht a bhaineann le dáileog dóthain chun leibhéil na n-ionchas-chorp a neodrú sa bhainne cíche a chothabháil, rud a d'fhéadfadh cosaint a sholáthar do leanaí an-óg.
Teideal agus cumas neodrúcháin na n-aghaidh-chorp sonrach SARS-CoV-2 i mbainne daonna: athbhreithniú córais. Archives of Disease in Childhood-Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 2022;107(2):174-80.
Anticorpí sonracha SARS-CoV-2 i mbainne cíche tar éis vacsaín COVID-19 a thabhairt do mhná atá ag tabhairt cothaithe cíche. Jama. 2021;325(19):2013-4.


The widespread consumption high fructose corn syrup poses serious health problems worldwide, suggests an international study by researchers at the University of Southern California and Oxford University.
Researchers examined the use of high fructose corn syrup in 42 nations in North America, Asia, Europe and Northern Africa. They found that people who use the refined sweetener in their foods and beverages had a 20 percent higher rate of Type-2 diabetes than thosein nations that don’t use it.
Type-2 diabetes is the most common form of the chronic, life-long disease caused by high levels of sugar in the blood. Worldwide, it afflicts more than 150 million people, says the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
The researchers found that the United States had the highest per capita consumption of the corn-based sweetener – about 55 pounds a year, per person.
The study, published in the Journal Global Public Health, adds to evidence that suggests consumption of high fructose corn syrup is worse for heath than natural sugar - in part because it contains a higher proportion of fructose to glucose than does natural sugar.
Unlike glucose, fructose is metabolized by the liver and the researchers say they believe this could be a reason for another serious health problem: the rise in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease among Latinos in the US and in Mexico.
The study points out that Mexico has received “exponential” increases in high fructose corn syrup exports from the United States since trade restrictions were lifted in 2008.

Tugann an sioróip arb é an fructose atá i bhfad níos mó ann a ithe fadhbanna sláinte tromchúiseacha ar fud an domhain, de réir staidéir idirnáisiúnta a rinne taighdeoirí in Ollscoil Southern California agus in Ollscoil Oxford.
Rinne taighdeoirí scrúdú ar úsáid sioróip arbhar ard-fructose i 42 náisiún i Meiriceá Thuaidh, san Áise, san Eoraip agus i dTuaisceart na hAfraice. Fuair siad amach go raibh ráta 20 faoin gcéad níos airde diaibéiteas Cineál-2 ag daoine a úsáideann an milsín scagtha ina gcuid bia agus deochanna ná iad siúd i náisiúin nach n-úsáideann é.
Is é diaibéiteas cineál 2 an cineál is coitianta den ghalar ainsealach, fad-saoil a bhíonn mar thoradh ar leibhéil arda siúcra sa fhuil. Ar fud an domhain, tá níos mó ná 150 milliún duine ag fulaingt as, a deir na hIonaid Chónaidhme um Rialú agus Cosc ar Ghalair (CDC).
Fuair na taighdeoirí go raibh an tomhaltas is airde de an milseog arb éard atá sa chorn-bhunaithe in aghaidh an duine sna Stáit Aontaithe - thart ar 55 punt in aghaidh na bliana, in aghaidh an duine.
Cuireann an staidéar, a foilsíodh sa Journal Global Public Health, le fianaise a thugann le tuiscint go bhfuil tomhaltas sioróip arbhar ard-fructose níos measa do shláinte ná siúcra nádúrtha - go páirteach toisc go bhfuil cion níos airde fructose i gcomparáid le glúcóis ná siúcra nádúrtha.
Murab ionann agus glúcóis, déantar meitibileacht ar fhructose ag an ae agus deir na taighdeoirí go gcreideann siad gur chúis le fadhb sláinte tromchúiseach eile é seo: an méadú ar ghalar ae saille neamh-alcólach i measc Latinos sna Stáit Aontaithe agus i Meicsiceo.
Tugann an staidéar le fios go bhfuair Meicsiceo méaduithe 'exponential' ar onnmhairí sioróip arbhar ard-fhrúchtóis ó na Stáit Aontaithe ó cuireadh deireadh le srianta trádála i 2008.


Activity examples on Starting Point
Activities are examples for each of the Starting Point modules. Some were created by the module authors; most were submitted by instructors using the module. Each activity is a stand-alone example demonstrating one way in which the pedagogy teaches an important economic concept. The examples range from short activities requiring only a few minutes of in-class time to activities that run over several class meetings. All include a full description with teaching notes and materials attached, recommendations for assessment of student learning, and links to related resources.
When to submit an activityInstructors who have developed a new way to use one of the Starting Point module pedagogies are encouraged to submit an activity for posting on the Starting Point site. The innovation can be an application to an economic concept not yet covered in currently available examples, or an application that uses the pedagogy in a manner not yet described in the currently available examples.
How to submit an activityActivites are submitted via the Activity Submission Form The form is easy to use with boxes that the author fills in for: contact information, teaching method applied, goals, teaching method, teaching notes, assessment and resources. Photos and other illustrations are encouraged as are attachments for handouts or instructions.
Activity reviewThe activity will be peer-reviewed by a team of economic educators who will offer suggestions for improving the activity. Once accepted, the activity will be will be formated and posted as a web page.
CopyrightAuthors retain copyright over the materials they submit. However, materials posted on the SERC site are sharable under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike license that allows others to reuse materials for non-commerical purposes as long as they give attribution and share any derivative work similarly. Read more about copyright.
- Provide all of the information a faculty member needs to successfully implement an activity
- Enable faculty at a glance to determine if they want to learn more about this example
- Writing for the web isn't the same as writing for print. Avoid lengthy paragraph. Put long instructions on attachments. Use bullets to highlight key points.
- Don't overlook the assessment section. How can an instructor deterimine whether or not students have achieved the learning goals outlined for the activity? Consider innovative assignments or projects in addition to traditional tests.
- Attach one or more photos or graphics. These will improve the page's visual impact.
- If you use photos of students or examples of their work, obtain permission to do so.
Editing your activityAfter an activity has been accepted and posted on Starting Point, you may choose to edit this page through a web-based interface at any time.
Create an account
The first step to gaining access is to create an account for yourself using the same email address you provided when submitting the activity. You can create an account for yourself here:Account Creation Page If you've already created an account with SERC you can skip this step.
Visit the My Account page
The My Account page provides a gateway to all the activities you've submitted. You can get there by choosing the My Account tab if you've already logged in; or by visiting http://serc.carleton.edu/account at any time. You should see all the activities you've submitted with options to view the web pages as they currently exists as well as to edit these activities directly.
Verify your email address
The first time you work with one of your submitted activities the system will walk you through a process to verify that you really are the person who's email address is associated with the activity. As part of this process (which is necessary to ensure random folks don't wander in and modify your activity) you'll need to follow a url sent to your email address. You need only go through this process once when you first create your account. In subsequent visits you can simply go to the My Account address above, log in and start editing.
Edit your activity
The editing link for each activity takes you into a web-based editing interface which is described in more detail within the interface itself. You can make changes and view the resulting changed web page through this interface.
When you are finished make it publically viewable
When working in the editing interface you will be modifying a development version of your activity which isn't visible through the public site. The editing interface provides a button where you can request (after you've finished a series of edits and are happy with the result) that the page be made live so that it is visible on the public site. A member of the SERC staff or other party responsible for that area of the site will push the button to make that happen. You may return at any time, make further edits to the development version of the activity (the only version you can edit directly) and request they be made live.

Samplaí gníomhaíochta ar an bpointe tosaigh
Tá na gníomhaíochtaí mar shamplaí do gach ceann de na modúl Píosa Tosaigh. Bhí cuid acu cruthaithe ag údar na modúl; chuir teagascóirí an modúl a úsáid isteach an chuid is mó. Is sampla neamhspleách é gach gníomhaíocht a léiríonn bealach amháin ina múineann an teagasc coincheap eacnamaíoch tábhachtach. Tá na samplaí seo ó ghníomhaíochtaí gearr nach éilíonn ach cúpla nóiméad de chuid an chlas go gníomhaíochtaí a reáchtálann roinnt cruinnithe ranga. Cuimsíonn gach ceann cur síos iomlán le nótaí teagaisc agus ábhair a ghabhann leo, moltaí maidir le measúnú ar fhoghlaim na mac léinn, agus naisc le hacmhainní gaolmhara.
Nuair a chuirfear gníomhaíocht isteachCuirtear spreagadh ar mhúinteoirí a d'fhorbair bealach nua chun ceann de na teagaisc modúl Starting Point a úsáid, gníomhaíocht a chur isteach le postáil ar shuíomh Starting Point. Is féidir leis an nuálaíocht a bheith ina chur i bhfeidhm ar choincheap eacnamaíoch nach bhfuil clúdaithe fós sna samplaí atá ar fáil faoi láthair, nó ina chur i bhfeidhm a úsáideann an oideachas ar bhealach nach bhfuil cur síos déanta air fós sna samplaí atá ar fáil faoi láthair.
Conas gníomhaíocht a chur isteachTáirgeann na gníomhaíochtaí tríd an bhfoirm a chur isteach ar ghníomhaíocht Tá an fhoirm éasca le húsáid le boscaí a chomhlánaíonn an t-údar le haghaidh: faisnéis teagmhála, modh teagaisc a úsáidtear, spriocanna, modh teagaisc, nótaí teagaisc, measúnú agus acmhainní. Moltar grianghraif agus léaráidí eile a úsáid chomh maith le gairis le haghaidh lámhleabhair nó treoracha.
Athbhreithniú ar ghníomhaíochtDéanfaidh foireann oideachasóirí eacnamaíocha athbhreithniú ar an ngníomhaíocht agus tabharfaidh siad moltaí chun an ghníomhaíocht a fheabhsú. Nuair a bheidh an ghníomhaíocht glactha, formáidfear í agus cuirfear í ar leathanach gréasáin.
Ceartúipíleog: Coinníonn údair cóipcheart ar na hábhair a chuireann siad isteach. Mar sin féin, is féidir ábhair a phostáiltear ar shuíomh SERC a roinnt faoi cheadúnas Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike a cheadaíonn do dhaoine eile ábhair a athúsáid chun críocha neamhthráchtála chomh fada agus a thugann siad luachan agus a roinneann aon obair dhíorthaithe go comhchosúil. Léigh tuilleadh faoi chóipcheart.
- an fhaisnéis uile a theastaíonn ó chomhalta dáimhe chun gníomhaíocht a chur i bhfeidhm go rathúil a sholáthar
- Lig do fhoireann ar radharc a chinneadh más mian leo níos mó a fhoghlaim faoin sampla seo
- Ní hé an rud céanna a scríobh don ghréasán agus a scríobh don phriontáil. Seachain mír fhada. Cuir treoracha fada ar na ceangaltáin. Úsáid lionsaí chun príomhphointí a chur i bhfios.
- Ná déan dearmad ar an rannóg measúnaithe. Conas is féidir le teagascóir a chinneadh an bhfuil na spriocanna foghlama a leagtar amach don ghníomhaíocht bainte amach ag na daltaí nó nach bhfuil? Smaoinigh ar thairiscintí nó tionscadail nuálacha a chur san áireamh mar bhreis ar thástálacha traidisiúnta.
- Glac grianghraf nó grafaicí amháin nó níos mó leis. Feabhsóidh siad seo tionchar amhairc an leathanaigh.
- Má úsáideann tú grianghraif de mhic léinn nó samplaí dá gcuid oibre, faigh cead chun é sin a dhéanamh.
Ag eagarthóireacht ar do ghníomhaíochtTar éis gníomhaíocht a ghlacadh agus a phostáil ar Starting Point, is féidir leat an leathanach seo a eagarthóireacht trí chomhéadan gréasáin ag am ar bith.
Cláraigh chun cuntas a chruthú
Is é an chéad chéim chun rochtain a fháil ná cuntas a chruthú duit féin ag baint úsáide as an seoladh ríomhphoist chéanna a thug tú nuair a chuir tú an ghníomhaíocht isteach. Is féidir leat cuntas a chruthú duit féin anseo:Leathanach Cruthaithe Cuntas Má tá cuntas cruthaithe agat cheana féin le SERC is féidir leat an chéim seo a sheachaint.
Téigh go dtí an leathanach Mo Chuntas
Soláthraíonn an leathanach Mo Chuntas geata chuig na gníomhaíochtaí go léir a chuir tú isteach. Is féidir leat teacht ann trí rogha a dhéanamh ar an tab Mo Chuntas má tá tú logáilte isteach cheana féin; nó trí chuairte a dhéanamh ar http://serc.carleton.edu/account ag am ar bith. Ba chóir duit na gníomhaíochtaí go léir a chuir tú isteach a fheiceáil le roghanna chun na leathanaigh ghréasáin a fheiceáil mar a bhíonn siad ann faoi láthair chomh maith le na gníomhaíochtaí seo a chur in eagar go díreach.
Seiceáil do sheoladh ríomhphoist
An chéad uair a oibríonn tú le ceann de na gníomhaíochtaí a chuir tú isteach, tabharfaidh an córas tú trí phróiseas chun a fhíorú gur tusa i ndáiríre an duine a bhfuil seoladh ríomhphoist aige a bhaineann leis an ngníomhaíocht. Mar chuid den phróiseas seo (a bhfuil gá leis chun a chinntiú nach ndéanann daoine randamacha dul isteach agus do ghníomhaíocht a mhodhnú) beidh ort URL a aistrithe chuig do sheoladh ríomhphoist a leanúint. Ní gá duit ach an próiseas seo a dhéanamh uair amháin nuair a chruthaíonn tú do chuntas den chéad uair. Le linn do chuairteanna ina dhiaidh sin, ní mór duit ach dul chuig an seoladh Mo Chuntas thuas, logáil isteach agus tosú ag eagarthóireacht.
Déan do ghníomhaíocht a chur in eagar
Tógann an nasc eagarthóireachta do gach gníomhaíocht tú isteach i gcomhéadan eagarthóireachta bunaithe ar an ngréasán a thuairiscítear go mionsonraithe laistigh den chomhéadan féin. Is féidir leat athruithe a dhéanamh agus an leathanach gréasáin a athraíodh mar thoradh air a fheiceáil tríd an idirlíon seo.
Nuair a bheidh tú críochnaithe a dhéanamh é le feiceáil go poiblí
Nuair a bheidh tú ag obair san idirlíon eagarthóireachta beidh tú ag modhnú leagan forbartha de do ghníomhaíocht nach bhfuil le feiceáil tríd an suíomh poiblí. Soláthraíonn an comhéadan eagarthóireachta cnaipe inar féidir leat a iarraidh (tar éis duit sraith eagarthóireachta a chríochnú agus a bheith sásta leis an toradh) go ndéanfar an leathanach a chur beo ionas go mbeidh sé le feiceáil ar an suíomh poiblí. Beidh comhalta de fhoireann SERC nó páirtí eile atá freagrach as an limistéar sin den láithreán ag brú an cnaipe chun é sin a dhéanamh. Féadfaidh tú teacht ar ais ag am ar bith, tuilleadh eagarthóireachta a dhéanamh ar an leagan forbartha den ghníomhaíocht (an t-aon leagan is féidir leat a eagarthóiriú go díreach) agus iarraidh go ndéanfar iad a chur ar bun.


The role of storytelling in advertising: Consumer emotion, narrative engagement level, and word-of-mouth intention by Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019)
The role of storytelling in advertising: Consumer emotion, narrative engagement level, and word-of-mouth intention by Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019) is a research paper that seeks to investigate the influence of storytelling in audio advertisements. The authors argue that storytelling increases the emotional aspects of radio advertisements. Consumers tend to absorb and store information they can relate to in terms of stories. Consumers react differently when exposed to ads with stories against those without. However, the effectiveness of these stories depends on certain factors like the CEO image, consumer involvement, and product brand. Besides, the narrator od the ad story also influences the emotional engagement of the consumer towards the specific product. This is a positive research evaluation that identifies the positive response towards storytelling in audio advertisements.
The article by Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019) explores the role of storytelling in the audio advertisement. Specifically, the research looks at the effect of storytelling on the consumers’ emotions towards sharing information about the product. the authors argue that storytelling ads increase customers’ engagement level in a way that increases the probability to share the same information with others. The research uses a national sample of 300 online customers who are exposed to an ad with three different versions of a fictitious product. The first version is a commercial where the company founder is the storyteller, the second is a version a customer is a narrator, while the third commercial is the control with the only the information about the product. results show that narrative preference influences customer engagement and the emotional response towards sharing the product information through the word of mouth.
The article provides important information on the effects of storytelling ads on customers’ probability to pass the same message to other people by word of mouth. It is an academic paper with a research methodology that is easy to follow. The strength of the research paper lies in the methodology used in acquiring the data for analysis. On the same note, the sampling and analysis of the data make the research authentic to the readers (Gilliam, & Zablah, 2013). Analysis tools also provide the correct information on variance and covariance to approve or disapprove the hypothesis of the research. On the other hand, the research has a weakness in the type of product used. The type of product used could have affected the response from the sample. Therefore, the results may produce different results with other products.
The role of storytelling in advertising: Consumer emotion, narrative engagement level, and word-of-mouth intention by Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019) have strengths that produce positive observation of the project. Getting a sample from various online customers helped in balancing the geographical boundaries. People from given geographical areas may tend to behave in a particular way; therefore, sampling from one area may lead to a particular result. The online platform allowed the researchers to obtain a balanced sample for better data. The authors used Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to acquire the participants with an approval rate of more than 97%. It meant that these people had been loyal customers with proven purchasing power. Therefore, the sampling method is a strength to the whole research work.
The type of ads used during the research also adds to the authenticity of the work. The authors device three storytelling commercials that are accurate for the customers. The research sought to understand the type of storytelling that influences consumers emotionally. The first advert had a CEO’s story, the second one had a customer’s story while the third was simply an informative ad. Such clarity ensures that participants avoid emotional ambiguity towards the products on sale. Out of this, the authors record accurate data for analysis. Participants were to respond to eight positive aspects of the advertisements. The responses were (a) interesting, (b) creative, (c) impressive, (d) different, (e) touching, (f) meaningful, (g) believable and (h) convincing. Out of these, participants were to respond whether they strongly disagreed (1) or strongly agreed (5). The panel of experts conducted the random exposure of the adverts to participants at different times. The methodology and clarity if the ads and collection of the response is a positive strength of the article.
The analysis method utilizes tools that present various aspects of the research. The research had up to five hypotheses that needed approval or disapproval. Academic research may require more than one tool to analyze the best results. On the same note, each hypothesis may require a different tool (Dale, 2005). This research utilizes Hierarchical Regression Analysis for the first and second hypotheses. The first hypothesis sought to prove whether narration could increase positive emotional response towards the ad content (H1: β = .336, p < .001) (46). Hypothesis 2 investigated the effect of narrative preference on the ability of the customer to share the ad information though the word of mouth (H2: β = .274, p < .001). All the first two hypotheses were proven. For hypothesis 3, the researchers use analysis of variance (ANOVA), multivariate analysis of covariance came in handy for the fourth and fifth hypothesis (48). Hypothesis 3 sought to prove whether different types of storytelling would enhance the positive emotional response of the consumers and their intention to spread the message by word of mouth.
The research proves the hypothesis at the beginning of the article. The authors sought to find out the effect of storytelling in different types of audio advertising on customer emotions, engagement levels, and the ease to pass the information to others through word of mouth. Out of the respondents, the research finds out that women were positively affected than the male respondents. Results prove that storytelling is important, especially when it comes to the CEO. Therefore, the articles are an added resource in the field and can be used for further research. It can be used by advertisers to design ads that improve sales through word of mouth.
The weakness of the research comes from the fact that the authors only used one item to collect from the participants. There was a possibility that different products would have yielded different results depending on their preferences. Therefore, similar research should be conducted using different products to collect balanced data.
The article presents excellent academic research on consumer behavior. Advertising is a huge market that requires constant research to ensure success. Consumer tastes and preferences also change with changes in lifestyles. Therefore, to ensure a competitive edge, companies have no option but to come up with advertisement strategies for the products with positive emotional influence on the customers (Dale, 2005). The author has clear hypotheses that have helped them design appropriate sampling and methodology. Analysis tools have also helped make focuses conclusion of the research. The outcome of this research can be confidently used for academic and research purposes. Evaluation helps in determining the authenticity and professionalism of research before adopting its outcome.
Dale, C. J. (2005). Critiquing research for use in practice. Journal of Pediatric Health Care 19:
Gilliam, D. A., & Zablah, A. R. (2013). Storytelling during retail sales encounters. Journal of
Retailing and Consumer Services pp. 150-173.
Kang, J. A., Hong, S., & Hubbard, G. T. (2019). The role of storytelling in advertising:
Consumer emotion, narrative engagement level, and word-of-mouth intention. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 19(1), 47-56.

An ról a bhíonn ag scéalaíocht san fhógraíocht: mothúchán tomhaltóra, leibhéal rannpháirtíochta scéalaíochta, agus rún ó bhéal go béal le Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019)
Is páipéar taighde é ról na scéalaíochta i bhfógraíocht: mothúchán tomhaltóirí, leibhéal rannpháirtíochta scéalaíochta, agus rún focal-de-mhullach le Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019) a dhéanann iarracht tionchar na scéalaíochta i bhfógraí fuaime a imscrúdú. Deir na húdair go gcuireann scéalaíocht le gnéithe mothúchánach fógraí raidió. Tá claonadh ag tomhaltóirí faisnéis a ionsú agus a stóráil ar féidir leo a ghabháil le hais scéalta. Glacann tomhaltóirí le fógraí a bhfuil scéalta acu i gcoinne na cinn nach bhfuil. Mar sin féin, braitheann éifeachtúlacht na scéalta seo ar fhachtóirí áirithe cosúil le íomhá an POF, rannpháirtíocht an tomhaltóra, agus branda táirge. Thairis sin, bíonn tionchar ag an scéal a insíonn an fógra ar an rannpháirtíocht mhothúchánach a bhíonn ag an tomhaltóir i leith an táirge ar leith. Is meastóireacht dhearfach taighde é seo a aithníonn an freagra dearfach ar scéalaíocht i bhfógraí fuaime.
Déanann Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019) staidéar ar ról na scéalaíochta sa fógraíocht fuaime. Go sonrach, déanann an taighde féachaint ar an éifeacht atá ag scéalaíocht ar mhothúcháin na dtomhaltóirí maidir le faisnéis a roinnt faoin táirge. Deir na húdair go gcuireann fógraí scéalaíochta leibhéal rannpháirtíochta na gcustaiméirí ar ardú ar bhealach a mhéadaíonn an dóchúlacht an fhaisnéis chéanna a roinnt le daoine eile. Baineann an taighde úsáid as sampla náisiúnta de 300 custaiméir ar líne a bhfuil siad nochtaithe do fhógra le trí leagan éagsúla de tháirge ficseach. Is é an chéad leagan tráchtála áit a bhfuil bunaitheoir na cuideachta an scéalaí, is é an dara leagan a bhfuil custaiméir ina scéalaí, agus is é an tríú tráchtáil an rialú leis an bhfaisnéis amháin faoin táirge. Léiríonn na torthaí go mbíonn tionchar ag an rogha scéalaíochta ar rannpháirtíocht an chustaiméara agus ar an bhfreagra mothúchánach i leith faisnéis an táirge a roinnt trí bhéal.
Soláthraíonn an t-alt faisnéis thábhachtach maidir le héifeachtaí fógraí scéalaíochta ar dóchúlacht na gcustaiméirí an teachtaireacht chéanna a chur ar aghaidh chuig daoine eile trí bhéal. Is páipéar acadúil é le modheolaíocht taighde atá éasca a leanúint. Tá neart an pháipéir taighde sa mhodheolaíocht a úsáidtear chun na sonraí a fháil le haghaidh anailíse. Ar an nóta céanna, déanann sampláil agus anailís na sonraí an taighde barántúil do na léitheoirí (Gilliam, & Zablah, 2013). Soláthraíonn uirlisí anailíse an fhaisnéis cheart freisin maidir le héagsúlacht agus comhéagsúlacht chun hipoteis an taighde a fhormheas nó a dhiúltú. Ar an láimh eile, tá laige sa taighde maidir leis an gcineál táirge a úsáidtear. D'fhéadfadh an cineál táirge a úsáideadh tionchar a bheith aige ar fhreagra an sampla. Dá bhrí sin, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh torthaí difriúla ag táirgí eile.
An ról a bhaineann le scéalaíocht san fhógraíocht: Tá neart ag mothúchán tomhaltóirí, leibhéal rannpháirtíochta scéalaíochta, agus rún focal-de-mhullach le Kang, Hong, & Hubbard (2019) a tháirgeann breathnóireacht dhearfach ar an tionscadal. D'fhág sampla a fháil ó chustaiméirí éagsúla ar líne go raibh sé ina chúnamh chun na teorainneacha geografacha a chothromú. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh claonadh ag daoine ó limistéir gheografacha áirithe iompraíocht a dhéanamh ar bhealach áirithe; dá bhrí sin, d'fhéadfadh toradh ar leith a bheith mar thoradh ar shamplaíocht ó limistéar amháin. Thug an t-ardán ar líne deis do na taighdeoirí sampla cothrom a fháil le haghaidh sonraí níos fearr. Ba é an t-údar a d'úsáid Mechanical Turk (MTurk) Amazon chun na rannpháirtithe a fháil le ráta formheasa níos mó ná 97%. Ciallaíonn sé go raibh na daoine seo ina gcustaiméirí dílis a raibh cumas ceannaigh cruthaithe acu. Dá bhrí sin, is é an modh samplaíochta neart an obair taighde ar fad.
Cuireann an cineál fógraí a úsáidtear le linn an taighde le fírinneacht an oibre freisin. Déanann na húdair trí fhógraí scéalaíochta a bhfuil cruinn acu do na custaiméirí. Bhí sé mar aidhm ag an taighde tuiscint a fháil ar an gcineál scéalaíochta a mbíonn tionchar aige ar thomhaltóirí go mothúchánach. Bhí scéal an POF sa chéad ad, scéal an chustaiméara sa dara ceann agus bhí an tríú ad eolaíoch go simplí. Cinntíonn an soiléireacht sin go seachnaíonn rannpháirtithe amhuilíocht mhothúchánach i leith na dtáirgí atá ar díol. As seo, taifeadann na húdair sonraí cruinn le haghaidh anailíse. Bhí ar rannpháirtithe freagairt do ocht gné dhearfach de na fógraí. Bhí na freagraí (a) suimiúil, (b) cruthaitheach, (c) suntasach, (d) difriúil, (e) snasúil, (f) bríomhar, (g) creidiúnach agus (h) cinnte. D'iarr na rannpháirtithe a rá an raibh siad ag diúltú go mór (1) nó ag aontacht go mór (5). Rinne an painéal saineolaithe nochtadh randamach na bhfógraí do rannpháirtithe ag amanna éagsúla. Is é an modheolaíocht agus soiléire má na fógraí agus bailiú an fhreagra neart dearfach an ailt.
Baineann an modh anailíse úsáid as uirlisí a chuireann gnéithe éagsúla den taighde i láthair. Bhí suas le cúig hipitéis sa taighde a theastaigh uathu a cheadú nó a dhiúltú. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh níos mó ná uirlis amháin ag teastáil ó thaighde acadúil chun na torthaí is fearr a anailísiú. Ar an nóta céanna, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh uirlis éagsúil ag teastáil ó gach hipitéis (Dale, 2005). Baineann an taighde seo úsáid as Anailís Athbhliain Iarcharcharchúil don chéad agus don dara hipoteas. Ba é an chéad hipitéis a bhí ag iarraidh a chruthú an bhféadfadh an scéal a insint freagairt mhothúchánach dearfach a mhéadú i leith ábhar an fhógra (H1: β = .336, p < .001) (46). Rinne Hipitéis 2 imscrúdú ar éifeacht na roghanna scéalaíochta ar chumas an chustaiméara an fhaisnéis fógra a roinnt trí fhocal ó bhéal (H2: β = .274, p < .001). Bhí na chéad dá hipitéis go léir cruthaithe. I gcás hipitéis 3, úsáideann na taighdeoirí anailís ar an difríocht (ANOVA), bhí anailís ilmheathúil ar choibhéiseach áisiúil don cheathrú hipitéis agus don chúigiú hipitéis (48). Ba éard a bhí i gceist le Hipitéis 3 ná a chruthú an gcuirfeadh cineálacha éagsúla scéalaíochta le freagairt dhearfach mothúchánach na dtomhaltóirí agus a n-intinn an teachtaireacht a scaipeadh trí bhéal.
Léiríonn an taighde an hipitéis ag tús an ailt. Bhí sé mar aidhm ag na húdair an éifeacht a bhí ag scéalaíocht i gcineálacha éagsúla fógraíochta fuaime ar mhothúcháin an chustaiméara, ar leibhéil rannpháirtíochta agus ar an éascaíocht an fhaisnéis a tharchur chuig daoine eile trí bhéal. De réir na freagróirí, faigheann an taighde amach go raibh tionchar dearfach ag mná ná mar a bhí ag na freagróirí fireannacha. Léiríonn na torthaí go bhfuil scéal a insint tábhachtach, go háirithe nuair a thagann sé chuig an bPríomhfheidhmeannach. Dá bhrí sin, is acmhainn bhreise iad na hailt sa réimse agus is féidir iad a úsáid le haghaidh tuilleadh taighde. Is féidir le fógraitheoirí é a úsáid chun fógraí a dhearadh a chuireann feabhas ar dhíolacháin trí fhocal ó bhéal.
Tagann laige an taighde as an bhfíric nár úsáid na húdair ach mír amháin chun iad a bhailiú ó na rannpháirtithe. Bhí an fhéidearthacht ann go mbeadh torthaí éagsúla ag táirgí éagsúla ag brath ar a gcuid roghanna. Dá bhrí sin, ba cheart taighde den chineál céanna a dhéanamh ag baint úsáide as táirgí éagsúla chun sonraí cothromaithe a bhailiú.
Cuireann an t-alt taighde acadúil den scoth ar iompar tomhaltóirí i láthair. Margaidh ollmhór é an fógraíocht a éilíonn taighde leanúnach chun rath a chinntiú. Athraíonn blas agus roghanna an tomhaltóra freisin le hathruithe ar stíl mhaireachtála. Dá bhrí sin, chun buntáiste iomaíoch a chinntiú, níl aon rogha ag cuideachtaí ach straitéisí fógraíochta a chur ar fáil do na táirgí a bhfuil tionchar dearfach mothúchánach acu ar na custaiméirí (Dale, 2005). Tá hipitéisí soiléire ag an údar a chabhraigh leo samplaíocht agus modheolaíocht iomchuí a dhearadh. D'fhág uirlisí anailíse freisin go raibh sé ina chuidiú chun conclúidí dírithe a dhéanamh ar an taighde. Is féidir toradh an taighde seo a úsáid go muiníneach chun críocha acadúla agus taighde. Cuidíonn meastóireacht le fírinneacht agus gairmiúlacht na taighde a chinneadh sula nglacfar a thorthaí.
Dale, C. J. Tá mé ag iarraidh a bheith ag caint. (2005) agus an t-alt seo. Taighde a chríochaint le húsáid i gcleachtas. Journal of Pediatric Health Care 19:
Gilliam, D. A., & Zablah, A. R. (2013). Scéal a insint le linn na ndaltaí díolacháin miondíola. Journal of
Díolachán agus Seirbhísí Tomhaltóirí pp. 150-173. Tá sé seo go maith.
Kang, J. A., Hong, S., & Hubbard, G. T. (2019). Ról na scéalaíochta i bhfógraíocht:
Feidhmíocht tomhaltóra, leibhéal rannpháirtíochta scéalaíochta, agus intinn focal ó bhéal. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 19), 47-56.