In order to diagnose this, you need to do an arterial blood gas
PaO2<8kPa. There are two types which are defined based on the PaCO2.
PaCO2 is normal or low. Basically, hypoxia without hypercapnia (low oxygen, not high carbon dioxide). It doesn't matter if the CO2 is low or normal - if it's not high and the patient is hypoxic, it's type I respiratory failure.
PaCO2 > 6kPa i.e. it's high. In words, it's hypoxia with hypercapnia (low oxygen with high carbon dioxide).
Type I is caused by anything which results in a ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) mismatch. In normal ventilation the amount of air coming into the lungs (ventilation) is just enough to oxygenate the amount of blood coming into the lungs (perfusion). In V/Q mismatch, that ratio is out of whack causing the body to breath more quickly to make up for it. Causes include: pneumonia, pulmonary oedema, PE, asthma, emphysema, fibrosing alveolitis and ARDS
As for type II, there are a bunch of theories on how this works. The theory of hypoxic drive (where oxygen becomes the primary stimulus for breathing) has become more controversial recently. So in terms of pathophysiology, it's a bit difficult to be sure what's right or not. If nothing else, remember the "hypoxia with hypercapnia (PaCO2 > 6kPa)" bit and nothing else. It's basically anything with respiratory failure where they are hypoventilating (breathing too slowly). Causes include:
- Lung - asthma, COPD, pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis, sleep apnoea
- Brain - sedative drugs, CNS tumour, trauma
- Neuro/Muscle - Cervical cord lesion, paralysed diaphragm, polio, myastehnia gravis, Guillain-Barre syndrome
- Bones - kyphoscolisosis, any deformity of the chest wall that would stop efficacious chest expansion on inspiration
Having any of the diseases listed above, really.
Essentially, they can be split into those caused by hypoxia and those causes by hypercapnia.
Hypoxia will present with: dyspnoea, restlessness, agitation, confusion and central cyanosis. Longstanding, it will give polycythaemia, pulmonary hypertension and cor pulmonale.
Hypercapnia will present with: headache, peripheral vasodilatation, tachycardia, bounding pulse, tremor (CO2 retention tremor), papilloedema, confusion, drowsiness, coma
- FBC - WCC↑ in infection, platelets↑ in inflammation, Hb↓ in anaemia
- U+Es - provide baseline if they become very ill
- CRP - raised in inflammation
- D-dimer if PE suspected
- ABG - determines nature of respiratory failure
- Blood culture if febrile - determine infection
- Sputum culture - infection
Treat underlying cause. Whether it's type I or type II, you need to figure out what's causing it and deal with it.
Type I - give oxygen (35-60%) and assisted ventilation if PaO2<8kPa. You are looking to get oxygen saturation up (92-96% depending on age).
Type II - controlled oxygen (24%). You also need to recheck ABG after 20 mins. If the PaCO2 remains the same or gets lower, increase O2 to 28%. If the PaCO2 continues to fall consider assisted ventilation or a respiratory stimulant (doxapram 1.5-4mg IVI). If all this fails, intubate and ventilate.

Chun a dhearbhú seo, ní mór duit a dhéanamh gáis fola arterial
PaO2<8kPa. Tá dhá chineál ann a shainmhínítear bunaithe ar an PaCO2.
Tá PaCO2 gnáth nó íseal. Go bunúsach, hipocsia gan hypercapnia (ocsaigin íseal, ní dé-ocsaíd charbóin ard). Níl sé tábhachtach an bhfuil an CO2 íseal nó gnáth - mura bhfuil sé ard agus go bhfuil an t-othar hypoxic, tá sé cineál I easnamh anailíse.
PaCO2 > 6kPa i.e. Tá sé ard. I bhfocail, is hypoxia é le hypercapnia (ocsaigin íseal le dé-ocsaíd charbóin ard).
Is é an cineál I a tharlaíonn de bharr aon rud a fhágann go bhfuil mí-chomhoiriúnú aerála/fhorchuir (V/Q) ann. I gnáth-aimsíocht, tá an méid aeir a thagann isteach sna scamhóga (aimsíocht) díreach go leor chun an méid fola a thagann isteach sna scamhóga (fhorchur) a ocsaigineáil. I míchomhoiriúnú V / Q, tá an cóimheas sin as ucht a fhágann go bhfuil an corp ag anailís níos tapúla chun é a dhéanamh suas. I measc na gcúiseanna tá: niúmóine, edema scamhóige, PE, asthma, emfysema, alveolitis fibrosing agus ARDS
Maidir le cineál II, tá go leor teoiricí ann maidir leis an gcaoi a n-oibríonn sé. Tá an teoiric tiomána hypoxic (nuair a bhíonn ocsaigin mar phríomh-spreagadh don anailís) níos conspóideacha le déanaí. Mar sin ó thaobh paiteofiseolaíocht de, tá sé deacair a bheith cinnte cad atá ceart nó nach bhfuil. Mura bhfuil aon rud eile, cuimhnigh ar an "hypoxia le hypercapnia (PaCO2 > 6kPa) " bit agus aon rud eile. Is rud é go bunúsach aon rud le teip anáil nuair a bhíonn siad hypoventilating (anáil ró-mhall). I measc na gcúiseanna tá:
- Asthma scamhóg, COPD, nimonóid, fíbróis scamhóg, apnea codlata
- Drogaipeanna suaimhneacha inchinne, tumoir CNS, trauma
- Neuro/Muscle - Léasúr cnámh ceircíochta, diaphragm paraliasta, póilíneo, myastehnia gravis, siondróm Guillain-Barre
- Cnámha - kyphoscolisosis, aon dífhoirmiú ar bhalla na cnámha a chuirfeadh cosc ar leathnú éifeachtach an chnámha nuair a
Ag aon cheann de na galair atá liostaithe thuas, i ndáiríre.
Go bunúsach, is féidir iad a roinnt ina n-aonad a bhíonn mar thoradh ar hypoxia agus na cinn a bhíonn mar thoradh ar hypercapnia.
Beidh hypoxia i láthair le: dyspnoea, restlessness, agitation, mearbhall agus cyanosis lárnach. Le fada, beidh sé a thabhairt polycythaemia, ardteannas pulmonary agus cor pulmonale.
Beidh hipearcapnia le: tinneas cinn, vasodilatation imeallach, tachycardia, buille teoranta, tremor (trémor coinneála CO2), papilloedema, mearbhall, drowsiness, coma
- FBC - WCC↑ i n-ionfhabhtú, plátaí↑ i ndea-
- U+Es - bunlíne a sholáthar má bhíonn siad an-breoite
- CRP - ardaithe i ndea-
- D-dimer má tá amhras ar PE
- ABG - cinntíonn sé cineál an mhainneachtain aeir
- Cultúr fola má tá fiabhras ann - ionfhabhtú a chinneadh
- Cultúr sputum - ionfhabhtú
Déan cóireáil ar an gcúis bhunúsach. Cibé an cineál I nó cineál II é, ní mór duit a fháil amach cad é a bhíonn ag cúis leis agus déileáil leis.
Gné I - ocsaigin a thabhairt (35-60%) agus gaoithe a chabhrú má tá PaO2<8kPa. Tá tú ag iarraidh a fháil ar sháthaitheacht ocsaigine suas (92-96% ag brath ar aois).
Cineál II - ocsaigin rialaithe (24%). Ní mór duit ABG a sheiceáil arís tar éis 20 nóiméad. Má fhanann an PaCO2 mar an gcéanna nó má théann sé níos ísle, méadaigh O2 go 28%. Má leanann an PaCO2 ag titim, déan machnamh ar fhéinteáil chúnta nó ar spreagóir anáil (doxapram 1.5 - 4 mg IVI). Má theipeann ar seo go léir, intubat agus ventilate.


The difference between Eastern Standard Time and Eastern Daylight Time is one hour, as Eastern Standard Standard Time is one hour earlier. Eastern Daylight Time is used in the summer months. Conversely, Eastern Standard Time is used in the winter months, where clocks are set one hour earlier.Continue Reading
Various converters can be found through the Internet to change EDT times to EST times and vice versa, but their difference is very simple. EDT time will always be an hour later, or EST will be one hour earlier. The EDT time zone variation is used in various eastern parts of North America and Canada.
Eastern Daylight Time is observed in various states and areas, like Connecticut, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, Virginia and West Virginia. There are other states where Eastern Daylight Time is observed, but it only applies for sections of these states, such as the southern and eastern parts of Florida, all counties in Indiana that aren't near Chicago, the eastern parts of Kentucky, all parts of Michigan besides the western counties and the eastern counties of Tennessee.
There are also some Canadian provinces that observe the rules of Eastern Daylight Time. These parts of Canada include most areas in Nunavut and Quebec, as well as areas within Ontario that are east of 90 West, including the Shebandowan and Upsala communities, which are are west of 90 West.Learn more about Time Zones

Tá an difríocht idir Am Caighdeánach an Oirthir agus Am Laethanta an Oirthir uair an chloig, mar go bhfuil Am Caighdeánach Caighdeánach an Oirthir uair an chloig níos luaithe. Úsáidtear Am Laethanta an Oirthir i míonna an tsamhraidh. Ar a mhalairt, úsáidtear am Chaighdeánach an Oirthir i míonna an gheimhridh, áit a bhfuil cloganna socraithe uair an chloig níos luaithe.Continue Reading
Is féidir le hiontrálaithe éagsúla a fháil tríd an Idirlíon chun amanna EDT a athrú go amanna EST agus a mhalairt, ach tá a gcuid difríochta an-simplí. Beidh am EDT i gcónaí uair an chloig níos déanaí, nó beidh EST uair an chloig níos luaithe. Úsáidtear an athrú crios ama EDT i gcodanna éagsúla ó oirthear Mheiriceá Thuaidh agus i gCeanada.
Déantar am Laethanta an Oirthir a urramú i stáit agus i gceantair éagsúla, mar Connecticut, Delaware, Dúiche Columbia, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Carolina Thuaidh, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Carolina Theas, Vermont, Virginia agus West Virginia. Tá stáit eile ann ina ndéantar am Laethanta an Oirthir a urramú, ach ní bhaineann sé ach le codanna de na stáit seo, mar shampla codanna theas agus thoir Florida, gach contae in Indiana nach bhfuil in aice le Chicago, codanna thoir Kentucky, gach cuid de Michigan seachas na contaeanna thiar agus na contaeanna thoir Tennessee.
Tá roinnt cúigeanna Cheanada ann freisin a choimeádann rialacha am Laethanta an Oirthir. Áirítear leis na codanna seo de Cheanada an chuid is mó de na ceantair i Nunavut agus i Quebec, chomh maith le ceantair laistigh d'Ontario atá soir ó 90 West, lena n-áirítear pobail Shebandowan agus Upsala, atá siar ó 90 West.


Essential tremor is a disorder of your nervous system. It is marked by uncontrolled rhythmic tremors (shaking) in different areas and on different sides of your body. Uncontrolled means that you are not trying to shake.
Essential tremor occurs most often in your hands. However, it may also affect your arms, chin, tongue, head, larynx or voice box (makes your voice sound shaky). Essential tremor does not usually affect your lower body, but it can.
Essential tremor can make it difficult to do some simple tasks. You may have trouble doing things like writing, drinking from a glass, shaving or tying your shoelaces.
Essential tremor is known by other names. It is also referred to as ET, benign essential tremor, hereditary tremor and familial tremor.
Essential tremor is a common disorder that affects around 10 million people in the United States. It affects 4 to 5% of people between the ages of 40 to 60. Essential tremor affects about 6.3 to 9% of people over the age of 60.
Even though essential tremor primarily affects elderly people, it can also affect middle-aged people and children. This disorder is not gender or race specific.
There are several signs and symptoms that may be an indication of essential tremor. Some of these are:
§ Shaking that is usually small, rapid movements that occur more than five times a second
§ A quivering or shaking voice
§ Difficulty doing simple things like writing, drawing or using tools
§ Nodding of your head.
The shaking (tremors) may:
§ Start gradually
§ Be aggrevated by fatigue, caffeine, temperature extremes or emotional stress
§ Occur and be more noticeable when you move and be less noticeable when you rest
§ Not affect both sides of your body in the same way
§ Come and go, but usually get worse as you get older.
Essential tremor is often confused with Parkinson’s disease. However, there are some key differences in the two conditions. These include:
§ Associated conditions – Essential tremor does not cause other health problems, but Parkinson’s does.
§ Parts of your body that are affected – Essential tremor affects more parts of your body than Parkinson’s.
§ When tremors happen – Essential tremor usually occurs when you use your hands, while Parkinson’s usually occurs when your hands are at rest.
You or a loved one may have essential tremor. This disorder and/or complications that have resulted from or other conditions that you may have along with it may be why you are disabled and in need of financial help.
You or your loved one may have applied for financial assistance from the Social Security Administration by applying for Social Security disability benefits or disability benefits because of the disability caused by essential tremor and/or complications that have resulted from or other conditions that you have along with it. Have you or your loved one already applied and been denied?
If you or your loved one reapplies or appeals the denial, consider this. People who are represented by a disability attorney like the one at Social Security Home are approved more often than people who do not have a disability lawyer on their side.

Is neamhoird é tremor riachtanach do chóras néaróg. Tá sé marcáilte le tremors ritimice neamhrialta (shaking) i réimsí éagsúla agus ar thaobh éagsúla de do chorp. Ciallaíonn neamhrialú nach bhfuil tú ag iarraidh a shake.
Tarlaíonn creathadh riachtanach is minic i do lámha. Mar sin féin, d'fhéadfadh sé difear a dhéanamh do do lámha, do chin, do theanga, do cheann, do larynx nó do bhosca gutha (déanann sé do ghuth a bheith crith). Ní dhéanann creathadh riachtanach difear de ghnáth do chuid íochtarach do chorp, ach d'fhéadfadh sé.
D'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh sé deacair ag an gcreathrú bunúsach roinnt tascanna simplí a dhéanamh. B'fhéidir go mbeadh deacracht agat rudaí a dhéanamh amhail scríobh, ól ó ghloine, rothú nó do shuachaillí a cheangal.
Tá ainmneacha eile ar an gcreathadh riachtanach. Tugtar ET, tremor bunúsach neamhdhíobhálach, tremor oidhreachta agus tremor teaghlaigh air freisin.
Is neamhoird choitianta é tremor riachtanach a théann i bhfeidhm ar thart ar 10 milliún duine sna Stáit Aontaithe. Bíonn tionchar aige ar 4 go 5% de dhaoine idir 40 agus 60 bliain d'aois. Bíonn tionchar ag creathadh bunúsach ar thart ar 6.3 go 9% de dhaoine os cionn 60 bliain d'aois.
Cé go mbíonn tionchar ag creathadh bunúsach go príomha ar dhaoine scothaosta, is féidir go mbeadh tionchar aige ar dhaoine meánaosta agus ar leanaí freisin. Ní bhaineann an neamhord seo le gnéas nó cine.
Tá roinnt comharthaí agus comharthaí ann a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina léargas ar chothroime bunúsach. Seo cuid de na cinn seo a leanas:
§ Tréigthe a bhíonn beag de ghnáth, gluaiseachtaí tapa a tharlaíonn níos mó ná cúig huaire sa dara
§ Guth ag crith nó ag crith
§ Éascachtaí le rudaí simplí a dhéanamh mar scríobh, líníocht nó uirlisí a úsáid
§ Ag ceapadh le do cheann.
Féadfaidh an cith (trémor):
§ Tosaigh de réir a chéile
§ A bheith ag éirí níos measa le tuirse, caiféin, teochtaí iomarcacha nó strus mothúchánach
§ Tarlaíonn sé agus bíonn sé níos suntasaí nuair a ghluaiseann tú agus bíonn sé níos lú suntasaí nuair a bhíonn tú ag fanacht
§ Ní dhéanann sé difear do dhá thaobh de do chorp ar an mbealach céanna
§ Téann agus tagann, ach de ghnáth bíonn sé níos measa de réir mar a théann tú in aois.
Is minic a dhéantar mearbhall ar tremor riachtanach le galar Parkinson. Tá roinnt difríochtaí tábhachtacha idir an dá choinníoll, áfach. I measc na n-ábhar sin tá:
§ Coinníollacha gaolmhara  Ní bhíonn trioblóid bhunúsach ina chúis le fadhbanna sláinte eile, ach bíonn Parkinsons ann.
§ Cuid de do chorp a bhfuil tionchar aige  Bíonn tionchar ag creathadh riachtanach ar níos mó codanna de do chorp ná Parkinson.
§ Nuair a tharlaíonn tremors  Is gnách go dtarlaíonn tremor riachtanach nuair a úsáideann tú do lámha, agus is gnách go dtarlaíonn Parkinsons nuair a bhíonn do lámha ag fanacht.
D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh tremor bunúsach agat féin nó ag duine a bhfuil grá agat. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh an t-aontacht seo agus/nó na deacrachtaí a tháinig as nó coinníollacha eile a d'fhéadfadh a bheith agat in éineacht leis an ghalair seo mar chúis go bhfuil tú faoi mhíchumas agus go bhfuil cabhair airgeadais de dhíth ort.
D'fhéadfadh go raibh tú féin nó do ghaolmhar tar éis iarratas a dhéanamh ar chúnamh airgeadais ó Riarachán na Slándála Sóisialaí trí thacaíocht míchumais Slándála Sóisialaí a iarraidh nó trí thacaíocht míchumais a iarraidh mar gheall ar an míchumais a tharla mar gheall ar chothroime riachtanach agus/nó ar choimhlintí a tháinig as nó ar choinníollacha eile a bhí agat in éineacht leis. An ndearna tú nó do ghaolmhar iarratas cheana féin agus an diúltaíodh?
Má dhéanann tú nó do ghaolta iarratas ar an diúltú arís nó achomharc, déan smaoineamh ar seo. Déantar daoine a bhfuil dlíodóir míchumais acu, cosúil leis an duine sa Chúirt Slándála Sóisialta, a cheadú níos minice ná daoine nach bhfuil dlíodóir míchumais acu.


Jokes are statements or acts that stir amusement or laughter. They are meant to be funny, yet you and I know there are dry jokes out there.
Why Tell Jokes?
Telling jokes will make people laugh and help you connect easier with people. Not only that, some people’s source of income comes from being funny.
Also, sometimes, a joke aims to criticize or point out wrongs but in a humorous way. It makes people not to take you seriously while hammering a valid point to them.
Elements that make up funny jokes
6 main elements make a funny joke. The six elements form an acronym spelled as THREES.
Jokes are always about someone or something. Your job is to choose a target, what you want your joke to be. A target can be a country, a person, an animal, an event, and more.
After picking a target, be sure to direct your jokes at the right people.
For instance, if you are telling a joke about teachers, students are your right audience. They will relate better than someone who has never been to school.
Jokes can be cruel. Usually, they are in the form of subtle criticism or satire, so that they reduce the blow on the target.
By employing hostility in your jokes, you are telling the truth about an idea, a group of people, or even a celebrity form of ridicule. A classic example is Trevor Noah’s jokes about Donald Trump.
Meanwhile, while being hostile with jokes, it is essential to make it so funny that people think of you as funny not cruel.
Funny jokes should be truthful or believable. It’s the way people can relate to you. Jokes should be about real things, real people but told in an exaggerated way. Also, imagining the reality differently makes listeners find you relatable.
For instance, you can make jokes about how a particular politician would be if he were female.
A practical joke isn’t enough. Also, exaggeration is necessary to make funny jokes. Stretch your joke a little bit and spice it up in a way most people haven’t imagined. It will surprise them and make them laugh.
Making someone laugh depends on how you make them feel. Build up suspense and anticipation when telling jokes. This will keep people aching for what you will say next. Also, it will keep them curious, attentive and makes what you say funny.
Your jokes must surprise the listeners. It should be unexpected. Spin your jokes, curve it unexpectedly. Make people think they know what you are going to say next and divert to a different route.
When my wife and I argue, she wins half of the time. Her family wins the rest of the time.
In summary, to tell funny jokes, you should:
Target a place, person you want to talk about.
Be hostile in a way that is funny so that even the people affected by the joke would find it funny and less hostile.
Make your jokes real and believable. Exaggerate the truth; build up the emotions of the listeners by creating suspense. In the end, spin off your joke in a different direction that surprises the audience.

Is ráitis nó gníomhartha iad greannanna a spreagann spraoi nó gáire. Tá siad ceaptha a bheith greannmhar, ach tá tú agus a fhios agam go bhfuil greannmhar greannmhar amuigh ansin.
Cén Fáth a Dhéanann Sé Gnéas?
Cuirfidh greann a insint daoine ag gáire agus cuideoidh sé leat nasc a dhéanamh níos éasca le daoine. Ní hamháin sin, tagann foinse ioncaim daoine áirithe ó bheith greannmhar.
Uaireanta, bíonn sé mar aidhm ag greann freisin cáineadh a dhéanamh nó mícheart a chur in iúl ach ar bhealach greannmhar. Ní chuireann sé daoine a ghlacadh tú dáiríre agus hammering pointe bailí dóibh.
Eileamaint a dhéanann greann greannmhar
6 príomh-eilimintí a dhéanamh greann greannmhar. Tá na sé eilimint seo mar fhocail ghrianghraf a scríobhtar mar THREES.
Is i gcónaí faoi dhuine nó rud éigin a bhíonn greann. Is é do phost a roghnú sprioc, cad ba mhaith leat do joke a bheith. Is féidir le sprioc a bheith i dtír, duine, ainmhí, imeacht, agus níos mó.
Tar éis duit sprioc a roghnú, bí cinnte go ndéanann tú do chuid greann ar na daoine ceart.
Mar shampla, má tá tú ag insint greann faoi mhúinteoirí, is iad na mic léinn do lucht féachana ceart. Beidh siad a chur i dteagmháil níos fearr ná duine éigin nach raibh riamh ag an scoil.
Is féidir le greann a bheith cruálach. De ghnáth, bíonn siad i bhfoirm cáineadh nó satire subtle, ionas go laghdaíonn siad an buille ar an sprioc.
Trí naimhdeas a úsáid i do chuid greann, tá tú ag rá an fhírinne faoi smaoineamh, grúpa daoine, nó fiú foirm gáire cáiliúil. Is sampla clasaiceach é greann Trevor Noah's faoi Donald Trump.
Idir an dá linn, cé go bhfuil tú in aghaidh na scéalta greannmhar, tá sé riachtanach é a dhéanamh chomh greannmhar sin go measaíonn daoine go bhfuil tú greannmhar agus nach bhfuil tú cruálach.
Ba chóir go mbeadh greann spraoi fíor nó creidiúnach. Is é an bealach is féidir le daoine a bhaineann leat. Ba chóir go mbeadh greann faoi rudaí fíor, daoine fíor ach a insint ar bhealach iomarcach. Chomh maith leis sin, nuair a bhíonn an réaltacht á shamhlú agat ar bhealach difriúil, bíonn lucht éisteachta in ann teacht ar a leithéid de rud.
Mar shampla, is féidir leat greann a dhéanamh faoi conas a bheadh polaiteoir áirithe dá mba bean í.
Ní leor greann cleachtúil. Chomh maith leis sin, tá sé riachtanach an t-idirmhíniú chun greann spraoi a dhéanamh. Spreag do joke beagán agus spice sé suas ar bhealach nach bhfuil an chuid is mó daoine imagined. Beidh sé iontas orthu agus beidh siad ag gáire.
Braitheann a dhéanamh ar dhuine gáire ar an gcaoi a mbraitheann tú iad. Cuir an t-amhrán agus an t-amhrán i láthair nuair a bhíonn tú ag insint greann. Coinneoidh sé seo daoine ag súil leis an méid a ráfidh tú ina dhiaidh sin. Chomh maith leis sin, coinneoidh sé a n-aigne, aireach agus déanann sé an rud a deir tú greannmhar.
Ní mór do chuid greann a iontas ar an lucht éisteachta. Ba chóir go mbeadh sé gan choinne. Spin do greann, curve sé gan choinne. Déan daoine a cheapann go bhfuil a fhios acu cad atá tú ag dul a rá ina dhiaidh sin agus a chur ar bhealach difriúil.
Nuair a phléann mé agus mo bhean chéile, buaileann sí leath an ama. Faigheann a teaghlach an chuid eile den am.
I gcur síos, chun greann spraoi a insint, ba cheart duit:
Cinntigh áit, duine ar mhaith leat labhairt faoi.
Bí ionsaitheach ar bhealach atá greannmhar ionas go bhfaighidh fiú na daoine a bhfuil tionchar ag an greann orthu go bhfuil sé greannmhar agus níos lú ionsaitheach.
Déan do chuid greannáin fíor agus creidiúnach. Déan an fhírinne a chur i bhfad níos mó ná mar a bhí; tóg mothúcháin na gcluichí trí shuspóir a chruthú. Sa deireadh, cas ar do joke i dtreo difriúil a chuireann iontas ar an lucht féachana.


Bermuda Grass vs. Fescue Gass
Common Bermuda grass (Cynodon spp.) grows as a turf grass in subtropical and tropical climates, but your best choice for a lawn will likely be a hybrid. Hybrid Bermuda grasses were developed to grow denser turf with finer blades of a richer green color. Of the many species of fescue, the deep-rooted tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) is most often used for lawns and turf.
Warm-season grasses grow well in the summer and tend to lose their color in winter. Cool-season grasses are green in fall, winter and spring and tend to lose their color in the summer. Bermuda grass, a warm-season grass, grows best in warm climates, generally U.S. Department of Agriculture plant hardiness zones 9 through 11. Tall fescue, a cool-season grass, grows best in roughly USDA zones 3 through 8.
University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources rated 14 commonly planted lawn and turf grass varieties for their qualities of growing and use. It concluded common and hybrid Bermuda grasses tolerate heat well, but tall fescue does not. Similarly, common and hybrid Bermuda grasses withstand drought better than tall fescue. Neither hybrid Bermuda grass nor tall fescue can tolerate shade, but they can take it better than common Bermuda grass. Tall fescue has a medium tolerance for cold, better than common and hybrid Bermuda grass. If you live near the ocean, both common and hybrid Bermuda grass tolerate salt; tall fescue tolerates salt less well.
Texture and Wear
Tall fescue and common Bermuda grass have roughly similar, wide, coarse blades. Hybrid Bermuda grasses have finer blades. All three grasses withstand wear from foot traffic and sports equally well. University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources found hybrid and common Bermuda grass recover quickly from heavy use, but tall fescue takes slightly longer.
Establishment and Maintenance
You can plant common Bermuda grass and tall fescue from seed, but you have to plant hybrid Bermuda grass from sprigs or lay sod. Hybrid Bermuda grasses need a lot of maintenance, but common Bermuda grass and tall fescue have lower maintenance needs. You have to mow tall fescue 1 1/2 inches or taller, but you can mow common Bermuda grass at moderate heights. You can close-crop hybrid Bermuda grass -- it’s used for putting greens in warm climates. You have to provide hybrid Bermuda grass with high amounts of nitrogen fertilizer, while common Bermuda grass and tall fescue require far less nitrogen.
- University of Hawaii Cooperative Extension: Bermudagrass
- University of Tennessee Extension: Bermudagrass
- Texas A&M University Extension: Tall Fescue
- University of California Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program: Tall Fescue - Festuca arundinacea
- University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources: Turfgrass Selection for the Home Landscape

Grá Bermuda vs Gás Fescue
Grá choitianta na Bermuda (Cynodon spp.) fásann sé mar ghlas trá i gclimaí fo-theochracha agus thrópaiceacha, ach is dócha gurb é an rogha is fearr atá agat do ghruaim ná hibrideach. Forbraíodh féar Bermuda hibrideach chun tuirse níos dlúithe a fhás le liopaí níos fíneáil de dhath glas níos saibhre. De na speicis fescue go leor, is minic a úsáidtear an fescue ard-rooted (Festuca arundinacea) le haghaidh lawns agus turf.
Fásann féar na séasúr te go maith sa samhradh agus bíonn claonadh acu a gcuid dath a chailleadh sa gheimhreadh. Tá féar glas i rith an earraigh, an gheimhridh agus an earraigh agus bíonn claonadh acu a gcuid dath a chailleadh sa samhradh. Fásann féar Bermuda, féar shéasúr te, is fearr i gclimaí te, go ginearálta, limistéir inbhuanaitheachta plandaí Roinn Talmhaíochta na Stát Aontaithe 9 go 11. Fescue ard, féar séasúr fionnuar, fásann sé is fearr i gceantair 3 go 8 de chuid USDA.
Rinne Ollscoil Talmhaíochta agus Acmhainní Nádúrtha California 14 cineálacha féar agus féar féar a phlandaítear go coitianta a rátáil ar a gcáilíochtaí fáis agus úsáide. Chinn sé go ndéanann féasóg Bermuda coitianta agus hibrideach caitheamh go maith le teas, ach ní dhéanann fescue ard. Ar an gcaoi chéanna, is fearr le féiscín ard ná féiscín coitianta agus hibrideach Bermuda fhulaingt trioma. Ní féidir le féisc hibrideach Bermuda ná le féisc ard tolladh scáth, ach is féidir leo é a dhéanamh níos fearr ná féisc choitianta Bermuda. Tá toilteanas meánmhéide ag fescue ard ar fuar, níos fearr ná féar Bermuda coitianta agus hibrideach. Má tá cónaí ort in aice leis an aigéan, déanann féasóg Bermuda a dhíchumas salann, an féasóg coitianta agus an féasóg hibrideach araon; ní dhéanann an féasóg ard salann a dhíchumasú go maith.
Teachtaireacht agus Caitheamh
Tá sciathanna garbh, leathan, garbh den chineál céanna ag fescue ard agus ag féar coitianta Bermuda. Tá sciathanna níos fíneáil ag féar hibrideacha Bermuda. Tá an trí ghruaig go léir in ann dul in aghaidh an iompair coise agus an spóirt go maith. Fuair Ollscoil Talmhaíochta agus Acmhainní Nádúrtha California go bhfás hibrideach agus coitianta Bermuda a ghnóthú go tapa ó úsáid throm, ach tógann fescue ard beagán níos faide.
Bunú agus Cothabháil
Is féidir leat féar Bermuda coitianta agus féasc ard a phlanda ó shíol, ach caithfidh tú féar Bermuda hibrideach a phlanda ó sprigs nó sod a leagan. Teastaíonn go leor cothabhála ó ghrásaí hibrideacha Bermuda, ach tá riachtanais chothabhála níos ísle ag grásaí coitianta Bermuda agus fescue ard. Ní mór duit a mowing ard fescue 1 1/2 or inch níos airde, ach is féidir leat mowing bermuda grass coitianta ag airde measartha. Is féidir leat crainn na Bermuda hibrideach a chur in aice le chéile - úsáidtear é chun glasraí a chur i gclimaí te. Ní mór duit a chur ar fáil hibrideach Bermuda féirín le méideanna arda de naitróigin, cé go bhfuil coitianta Bermuda féirín agus fescue ard ag teastáil i bhfad níos lú nítrigin.
- Ollscoil Hawaii Co-Oibriúcháin: Bermudagrass
- Ollscoil Tennessee Extension: Bermudagrass
- Leathnú Ollscoil Texas A&M: Tall Fescue
- Clár Comhtháite um Bainistíocht Lochtanna in Ollscoil California: Tall Fescue - Festuca arundinacea
- Ollscoil Talmhaíochta agus Acmhainní Nádúrtha California: Roghnú Turfgrass don tírdhreach Baile


Recently, scientists discovered that bottlenose dolphins (the ones that look like Flipper) have more complex social communication than was previously thought.
At the University of St Andrews in Scotland, Nicola J. Quick and Vincent M. Janik recorded bottlenose dolphins encountering other pods in the wild. Using computerized sound analysis, they found consistent sounds when the groups approached each other. They observed that each dolphin made a particular whistle, as if they were saying, “Hi, my name is Mary.” The scientists are calling these sounds “signature whistles.” The dolphins will call out to another pod, then join up and travel together for a little while. You can read the entire academic paper here.
But what does this mean? Just because the dolphins repeat sounds, does it mean that they are using a language? Scientists have long known that animals communicate with each other. Some species (like vervet monkeys) make particular sounds that represent a specific direction or warning to others, but we don’t really know how animal groups relate to each other linguistically in the wild.
Other animal studies have looked into how animals understand human language. For example, when dogs follow directions, do they actually understand the words? Learn about the border collie who understands 1,000 words here.
The bottlenose dolphin research is still in the early stages, and scientists don’t know what all the sounds they make might mean. Questions like how dolphins decide who calls out to other dolphin groups, and if groups regularly “speak” to the the same groups during one day are still being studied. You can learn more at the Discover Magazine blog.
Do you think dolphins are “speaking?”
Back to Top

Le déanaí, fuair eolaithe amach go bhfuil cumarsáid shóisialta níos casta ag na dalfíneanna a bhfuil a n-aghaidh cosúil le Flipper ná mar a cheapadh roimhe seo.
In Ollscoil St Andrews sa Albain, Nicola J. Chonaic Quick agus Vincent M. Janik dalfáin bhotlónacha ag teacht ar cháblaí eile san fhiáine. Ag baint úsáide as anailís fuaime ríomhaireachta, fuair siad fuaimeanna comhsheasmhacha nuair a chuaigh na grúpaí in aice lena chéile. Thug siad faoi deara go ndearna gach dalfín síolta ar leith, amhail is dá mba rud é go raibh siad ag rá, "Slá, is é Mary mo ainm". Tá na heolaithe ag glaoch ar na fuaimeanna seo "síolta síolta". Is féidir leat an páipéar acadúil iomlán a léamh anseo.
Ach cad a chiallaíonn sé seo? An ciallaíonn an rud go ndéanann na dalfíneanna fuaimeanna a athdhéanamh go bhfuil teanga á úsáid acu? Tá a fhios ag eolaithe le fada go bhfuil ainmhithe ag cumarsáid lena chéile. Déanann roinnt speiceas (cosúil le haimhreacha vervet) fuaimeanna ar leith a léiríonn treo ar leith nó rabhadh do dhaoine eile, ach níl a fhios againn i ndáiríre conas a bhaineann grúpaí ainmhithe lena chéile go teangacha sa fhiáine.
D'fhéach staidéir eile ar ainmhithe ar an gcaoi a dtuigeann ainmhithe teanga an duine. Mar shampla, nuair a leanann madraí treoracha, an dtuigeann siad na focail i ndáiríre? Foghlaim faoi na collies teorann a thuigeann 1,000 focal anseo.
Tá taighde ar an dolphin boladh-a-naos fós i gcéimeanna luatha, agus níl a fhios ag eolaithe cad a d'fhéadfadh a bheith i gceist leis na fuaimeanna go léir a dhéanann siad. Tá ceisteanna mar conas a chinneann dalfíní cé a ghlaonn le grúpaí dalfíní eile, agus má bhíonn grúpaí ag "labhairt" go rialta leis na grúpaí céanna le linn lá amháin á staidéar fós. Is féidir leat níos mó a fhoghlaim ag an Discover Magazine blog.
An gceapann tú go bhfuil dalfíiní ag "labhairt"?
Ar Ais go dtí an Céad


The 2012 Hurricane Season should be a “near normal” season – according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – or NOAA.
WHQR’s Rachel Lewis Hilburn reports that Hurricane Preparedness Week, which begins Sunday, is not just for newcomers to coastal areas.
“Near normal” in the meteorological vernacular means that between June 1st and November 30th, the United States could see nine to fifteen named storms. And that makes hurricane preparation critical for residents near the coast. But not everyone takes the warnings seriously.
Rick Kreitner, lead forecaster at the National Weather Service in Wilmington, says it’s not uncommon for people to ignore warnings and skip the development of an emergency plan… until they’ve survived a Category 3, 4, or 5 storm.
Kreitner says this year forecasters predict that between four and eight storms will become hurricanes – with one to three of those storms turning into major category 3 storms or higher.
Hurricane Preparedness Week starts Sunday, with each day of the week focused on a different aspect of readiness.
For more information on Hurricane Preparedness Week, visit http://www.ready.gov/hurricanes.

Ba chóir go mbeadh Séasúr na Hurricane 2012 ina  séasúr  beagnach gnáth  de réir an Riaracháin Náisiúnta Aigéin agus Atmaisféire  nó NOAA.
Tuairiscíonn Rachel Lewis Hilburn de WHQR go bhfuil Seachtain Ullmhaitheachta na Hurricane, a thosaíonn Dé Domhnaigh, ní hamháin do dhaoine nua-theachta i gceantair chósta.
Ciallaíonn "thart ar ghnáth" i bhfocal na meitéareolaíochta go bhféadfadh na Stáit Aontaithe naoi go cúig déag stoirm ainmnithe a fheiceáil idir an 1 Meitheamh agus an 30 Samhain. Agus déanann sé sin ullmhúchán hurricane ríthábhachtach do chónaitheoirí in aice leis an gcósta. Ach ní ghlacann gach duine na rabhaidh dáiríre.
Rick Kreitner, príomh-réamhaisnéisí ag an tSeirbhís Náisiúnta Aeráide i Wilmington, deir nach bhfuil sé neamhchoitianta do dhaoine neamhaird a dhéanamh ar rabhaidh agus plean éigeandála a sheachaint... go dtí go mairfidh siad stoirm Catagóir 3, 4, nó 5.
Creitner deir an bhliain seo caite réamhaisnéisí a thuar go mbeidh idir ceithre agus ocht stoirmeacha a bheith hurricanes  le ceann amháin go trí de na stoirmeacha ag casadh isteach i mór stoirmeacha catagóir 3 nó níos airde.
Tosaíonn Seachtain Ullmhaitheachta na Hurricane Dé Domhnaigh, agus dírithe gach lá den tseachtain ar ghné éagsúil den ullmhacht.
Le haghaidh tuilleadh faisnéise ar Sheachtain Ullmhaitheachta na Hurricane, tabhair cuairt ar http://www.ready.gov/hurricanes.


More than 400 miles above Earth, a satellite the size of a school bus is earning its frequent flyer miles. On October 6, 2018 Terra completed 100,000 orbits around Earth. But just as a plane can’t fly without a crew, the Terra satellite never could have reached this milestone without decades of dedicated work by talented engineers and scientists.
Completing over 2.5 billion miles of flight around Earth over almost 19 years does not happen unless a satellite is designed, constructed, and operated with the greatest care. “You have multiple, different aspects in the team to make it work,” says the Deputy Project Manager – Technical at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Eric Moyer.
“You have flight operations, subsystem engineers, subject matter experts, the instrument teams, and the science teams for each of the instruments. Overall it all has to be coordinated, so that one activity doesn’t negatively impact another instrument,” explains Moyer, who worked on Terra during construction and continues to be involved with its operations today.
Terra joins a handful of satellites to mark this orbit milestone, including the International Space Station, Landsat 5 and Landsat 7. Terra, which launched December 18, 1999, is still going strong and is projected to continue operation into the 2020s.
Dimitrios Mantziaras, Terra Mission Director at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, sums up what it takes: “A well-built spacecraft, talented people running it and making great science products, with lots of people using the data, that’s what has kept it running all these years.”
Designing a Pioneer
Terra was unique from the beginning. It was the first satellite to study Earth system science, looking at land, water and the atmosphere. Unlike many previous, smaller satellites, Terra didn’t have a previously launched satellite platform to build upon. It had to be designed from scratch.
“Unlike the Landsat mission, that continues to improve upon its original design, nothing like Terra had ever been built,” says Dick Quinn, Terra’s spacecraft manufacturing representative from Lockheed Martin, who still works part-time with the team responsible for Terra’s continued flight.
Terra was meant to be the first in a series of satellites, known as AM-1, 2, and 3, each with a design life of about 5 years. Instead, they ended up designing a satellite that lasted longer than the combined design life of 3 generations of Terra satellites.
Constructing and Operating a Solid Satellite
The built-in redundancies and flexibility of the satellite were put to the test in 2009, when a micrometeoroid struck a power cell, degrading the thermal control for the battery. “We had to change the way we manage the battery to keep it operating efficiently and keep it at the right temperature.” says Jason Hendrickson, Terra flight systems manager at Goddard Space Flight Center, who joined the team in 2013. To do this, the team used the charge and discharge cycle of the battery itself to generate the heat necessary to keep the battery operating. They have been fine tuning this cycle ever since.
Terra engineers and scientists continually plan for worst-case scenarios, anticipating problems that may never develop. “We are always thinking, if this were to fail, how are we going to respond?” says, Hendrickson. “You can’t just go to the garage and swap out parts.”
Not only does the team plan for many possible scenarios, but it also looks back at the response and figures out how it can be improved.
However, most of the time, they don’t have to wait for a system failure to practice contingency plans. For example, in 2017 the team executed a lunar deep space calibration maneuver that turned the satellite to look at deep space, instead of at Earth. “We had to take into account what would happen if the computer were to fail when we were pointed at deep space,” says Hendrickson.
The calibration maneuver was executed successfully and the team never had to conduct their contingency plan. The science gained from calibrating Terra’s data against deep space, allowed the scientists to improve the data collected by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER). ASTER is one of five instruments on Terra. It monitors volcanic eruptions and provides high resolution imagery of locations all over the world.
In addition to ASTER, the instruments on Terra are:
- • The Moderate Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) protects people’s lives and property through operations like MODIS rapid response, which monitors wildfires daily. Additionally, MODIS collects data on land cover, land and sea surface temperatures, and cloud cover changes worldwide.
- • The Multi-angle Imaging Spectroradiometer (MISR) continues to provide data useful for health researchers studying the effects of particulate matter on populations all over the world.
- • Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT) is used to study carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, an indicator of pollution concentrations, also a contributor to global health issues.
- • Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES) provides data on the Earth’s energy budget, helping monitor the incoming and outgoing radiation of Earth.
Terra’s instruments provide one of the longest running satellite climate data records and continue to add valuable data used by researchers and land managers daily. The science teams for each instrument work with the operations and technical teams to ensure that the scientific data provided is accurate and useful to the researchers who access it.
Together these instruments provide both long-term and immediate data about the health of our planet and provide data to help us understand and protect people’s health.
Most recently, for example, scientists analyzed 15 years of pollution data in California, collected by MISR, and discovered that the state’s clean air programs have been successful in reducing particle pollution. More urgently, data from ASTER and MISR provided crucial information about the air quality and land change conditions around Hawaii’s erupting Kilauea volcano, informing critical public health and safety decisions.
The data is free and is valued by people all over the world. Not only can it be accessed daily, there are over 240 direct broadcast sites, where data can be downloaded in near real-time, all over the world. Moyer finds that one of the most rewarding parts of working with Terra is that,” the science data is truly valued by people we don’t even know. People all over the world.”
Learn more about the data Terra has collected over 100,000 orbits from NASA EOSDIS.

Níos mó ná 400 míle os cionn na Talún, tá satailíte de mhéid bus scoile ag fáil a mhíleanna eitilteora minice. Ar 6 Deireadh Fómhair, 2018, chríochnaigh Terra 100,000 órbít timpeall na Talún. Ach díreach mar nach féidir le pláinéad eitilt gan criú, ní fhéadfaí an satailíte Terra an chéim mhíle seo a bhaint amach gan blianta de shaothar tiomanta ag innealtóirí agus eolaithe cumasach.
Ní tharlaíonn sé go bhfuil níos mó ná 2.5 billiún míle eitilte timpeall na Talún curtha i gcrích thar beagnach 19 bliain mura ndéantar satailíte a dhearadh, a thógáil, agus a oibriú leis an gcúram is mó. 'Tá gnéithe éagsúla agus éagsúla sa fhoireann agat chun go n-oibreoidh sé,' a deir Leas-Mheann Stiúrthóir Tionscadail  Teicniúil i Lárionad Eitilte Spáis Goddard NASA, Eric Moyer.
Tá oibríochtaí eitilte, innealtóirí fochórais, saineolaithe ábhair, foirne ionstraimí, agus foirne eolaíochta agat do gach ceann de na hionstraimí. Ar an iomlán, ní mór é a chomhordú, ionas nach mbeidh tionchar diúltach ag gníomhaíocht amháin ar ionstraim eile", a mhíníonn Moyer, a d'oibrigh ar Terra le linn a thógáil agus a bhfuil baint aige le hoibríochtaí an lae inniu.
Tá Terra ag teacht le dornán satailíte chun an chéim mhíle seo a mharcáil, lena n-áirítear an Stáisiún Spáis Idirnáisiúnta, Landsat 5 agus Landsat 7. Tá Terra, a seoladh an 18 Nollaig, 1999, fós ag dul go láidir agus táthar ag súil go leanfaidh sé ag feidhmiú sna 2020idí.
Tugann Dimitrios Mantziaras, Stiúrthóir Misin Terra i Lár na Spláinte Spáis Goddard NASA, achoimre ar a bhfuil ag teastáil: Spóid spáis a tógadh go maith, daoine cumasach ag rith é agus ag déanamh táirgí eolaíochta iontacha, le go leor daoine ag úsáid na sonraí, is é sin a choinnigh sé ag rith na blianta seo go léir.
Ag Déantúsaíocht Píolóim
Bhí Terra uathúil ón tús. Ba é an chéad satailíte é chun eolaíocht an chórais talún a staidéar, ag féachaint ar thalamh, uisce agus an t-atmaisféar. Murab ionann agus go leor satailíte níos lú roimhe seo, ní raibh ardán satailíte seolta roimhe seo ag Terra chun tógáil air. Bhí sé a dhearadh ó scratch.
"Níor mhalairt ar mhisean Landsat, a leanann ag feabhsú ar a dhearadh bunaidh, ní raibh aon rud cosúil le Terra tógtha riamh", a deir Dick Quinn, ionadaí déantúsaíochta spásárthaí Terra ó Lockheed Martin, a oibríonn go páirtaimseartha fós leis an bhfoireann atá freagrach as eitilt leanúnach Terra.
Bhí sé i gceist ag Terra a bheith ar an gcéad cheann i sraith satailítí, ar a dtugtar AM-1, 2, agus 3, agus saol dearadh thart ar 5 bliana ag gach ceann acu. Ina áit sin, chríochnaigh siad ag dearadh satailíte a mhair níos faide ná saol dearadh comhcheangailte 3 ghlúin de satailítí Terra.
Satalóid Dhomhanda a Thógáil agus a Oibriú
Cuireadh an iomarcaíocht agus solúbthacht a bhí i mbéal an satailíte ar thástáil in 2009, nuair a bhuail micreamhéiteoir cill cumhachta, ag laghdú an rialaithe teirmeach don chadhnraí. 'Bhí orainn an bealach a bhainistiú muid an ceallraí a athrú chun é a choinneáil ag feidhmiú go héifeachtach agus é a choinneáil ag an teocht cheart.' a deir Jason Hendrickson, bainisteoir córais eitilte Terra ag Ionad eitilte spáis Goddard, a chuaigh isteach sa fhoireann in 2013. Chun é seo a dhéanamh, d'úsáid an fhoireann timthriall muirir agus dí-mhúnlaithe an chadhnraí féin chun an teas a ghiniúint atá riachtanach chun an chadhnraí a choinneáil ag feidhmiú. Tá siad ag déanamh an tsraith seo go fíneáil ó shin.
Déanann innealtóirí agus eolaithe Terra pleanáil i gcónaí ar na cásanna is measa, ag súil le fadhbanna a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ann riamh. "Táimid i gcónaí ag smaoineamh, dá mbeadh sé seo ag teip, conas a fhreagróimid?" a deir Hendrickson. Ní féidir leat  díreach dul go dtí an garais agus páirteanna a mhalartú.
Ní hamháin go ndéanann an fhoireann pleanáil do go leor cásanna féideartha, ach féachann sé ar ais ar an bhfreagra agus a fháil amach conas is féidir é a fheabhsú.
Ní gá dóibh fanacht le heaspa córais chun pleananna contúirteacha a chleachtadh, áfach, den chuid is mó den am. Mar shampla, in 2017 rinne an fhoireann beart calibrála spáis domhain ghealach a chas an satailíte chun breathnú ar spáis domhain, seachas ar an Domhan. "Bhí orainn a chur san áireamh cad a tharlódh dá mbeadh an ríomhaire ag teip nuair a bhíomar ag díriú ar an spás domhain", a deir Hendrickson.
Rinneadh an beart calibrála go rathúil agus níor ghá don fhoireann a bplean contúirte a sheoladh riamh. Thug an eolaíocht a fuarthas ó shonraí Terrace a chalabrú i gcoinne an spáis domhain, deis do na heolaithe na sonraí a bhailíodh ag an Radiméadar Ardleibhéil Teirmeach Eisiúna agus Athbhunaithe Spáis (ASTER) a fheabhsú. Tá ASTER ar cheann de chúig ionstraim ar Terra. Déanann sé monatóireacht ar easpaí bolcáin agus soláthraíonn sé íomhánna ardréitigh de áiteanna ar fud an domhain.
Chomh maith le ASTER, is iad na hionstraimí ar Terra:
- • Cosnaíonn an Speictraráiméadar Íomháithe Measartha (MODIS) saol agus maoin daoine trí oibríochtaí cosúil le freagairt tapa MODIS, a dhéanann monatóireacht ar theine foraoise go laethúil. Ina theannta sin, bailíonn MODIS sonraí maidir le clúdach talún, teochtaí dromchla talún agus farraige, agus athruithe clúdach scamall ar fud an domhain.
- • Tá an Speictraráiméadar Íomháithe il-uillinn (MISR) ag soláthar sonraí úsáideacha d'fhor-rannsitheoirí sláinte atá ag staidéar ar éifeachtaí na n-ábhar cáithnithe ar dhaonra ar fud an domhain.
- • Úsáidtear tomhais ar thruailliú sa Troposphere (MOPITT) chun staidéar a dhéanamh ar mhonocsaíd charbóin san atmaisféar, táscaire ar thiúchan truaillithe, rud a chuireann le saincheisteanna sláinte domhanda freisin.
- • Soláthraíonn an Córas Fuinnimh Radálach do Throm agus don Domhan (CERES) sonraí ar bhuiséad fuinnimh an Domhan, rud a chabhraíonn le faireachán a dhéanamh ar radaíocht atá ag teacht isteach agus ag imeacht ón Domhan.
Tá na hionstraimí Terras ar cheann de na taifid sonraí aeráide satailíte is faide a bhí ann agus leanann siad ag cur sonraí luachmhara a úsáideann taighdeoirí agus bainisteoirí talún go laethúil leis. Tá na foirne eolaíochta do gach ionstraim ag obair leis na foirne oibríochta agus teicniúla chun a chinntiú go bhfuil na sonraí eolaíocha a chuirtear ar fáil cruinn agus úsáideach do na taighdeoirí a bhfuil rochtain acu orthu.
Le chéile soláthraíonn na hionstraimí seo sonraí fadtéarmacha agus láithreach faoi shláinte ár bplainéad agus soláthraíonn siad sonraí chun cabhrú linn sláinte na ndaoine a thuiscint agus a chosaint.
Le déanaí, mar shampla, rinne eolaithe anailís ar shonraí truaillithe 15 bliana i California, a bhailíodh ag MISR, agus fuair siad amach go raibh cláir aeir ghlan an stáit rathúil i laghdú truaillithe cáithníní. Níos práinne, soláthraigh sonraí ó ASTER agus MISR faisnéis ríthábhachtach faoi cháilíocht an aeir agus coinníollacha athraithe talún timpeall bolcán Kilauea atá ag easpa i Haváí, ag cur le cinntí criticiúla sláinte poiblí agus sábháilteachta.
Tá na sonraí saor in aisce agus tá luach ag daoine ar fud an domhain orthu. Ní hamháin gur féidir rochtain a fháil air go laethúil, tá os cionn 240 suíomh craolacháin dhíreach, áit ar féidir sonraí a íoslódáil i bhfíor-am, ar fud an domhain. Moyer a fhaigheann go bhfuil ceann de na codanna is luachmhar de bheith ag obair le Terra go bhfuil, na sonraí eolaíochta i ndáiríre luach ag daoine nach bhfuil a fhios againn fiú. Daoine ar fud an domhain.
Faigh tuilleadh eolais faoi na sonraí a bhailigh Terra ó níos mó ná 100,000 órbít ó EOSDIS NASA.


The landscapes of the causses are characteristic of the geography of the south of the Massif Central. With a karstic-type geology, they have a plateau profile bordered by deep gorges or canyons. The soils of these mid-mountain territories are generally shallow and covered with natural grasslands. Sheep farming of the pastoral type has established itself here and has contributed to the shaping of the landscapes. The main Causses: Causse Méjean, Causse Noir, Causse de Sauveterre, Causse de Blandas and Causse du Larzac.
The open landscapes, the rich heritage and the authenticity of these territories make them privileged sites for hiking and mountain biking. As for the cliffs of the gorges that border these causses, they are major sites for climbing.

Tá tírdhreacha na gcúisín tréithúil d'fhéagar na tíre ó dheas den Massif Central. Le heolas cineál karstach, tá próifíl plátaí acu atá teoranta ag gorges nó canyons domhain. Tá ithir na gcríoch seo i lár na sléibhte go ginearálta lom agus clúdaithe le féaraí nádúrtha. Tá feirmeoireacht chaorach den chineál pearsantachta bunaithe anseo agus tá sé rannpháirteach i gcruthú na tírdhreacha. Na príomh-Casanna: Causse Méjean, Causse Noir, Causse de Sauveterre, Causse de Blandas agus Causse du Larzac.
Tá na tírdhreacha oscailte, an oidhreacht shaibhir agus fírinneacht na gcríocha seo ina suíomhanna uasal le haghaidh siúlóidí agus rothaíocht bheann. Maidir le cnaipí na gcanóga a shíneann na cúiseanna seo, is suíomhanna móra iad le dreapadh.


Laser cutting machine is the processing of sheet metal parts to significantly improve the productivity of advanced equipment, with the processing of parts of high precision, short processing cycle, as well as processing without the traditional stamping die replacement can be processed any complex parts and other advantages, so more and more switchgear manufacturing enterprises to adopt.
Laser cutting is the use of focusing mirrors to focus the laser beam on the surface of the material to melt the material, while the compressed gas used for the laser beam coaxial blow away the melted material, and make the laser beam and the material along a certain track for relative movement, so as to form a certain shape of the cut. Laser cutting technology is developing rapidly and is increasingly being used as an advanced processing method, especially for cutting steel plates.
The obvious advantages of laser cutting technology over other methods are.
(1) good cutting quality narrow kerf width (generally 0.1-0.5mm), high precision (general hole centre distance error 0.1-0.4mm, contour size error 0.1-0.5mm), good surface roughness of the kerf (generally 12.5-25μm), the kerf generally does not require further processing can be welded.
(2) Fast cutting speed For example, using 2kW laser power, the cutting speed of 8mm thick carbon steel is 1.6m/min; 2mm thick stainless steel cutting speed is 3.5m/min, the heat-affected zone is small and the deformation is extremely small.
(3) Clean, safe, no pollution.
(4) from a technical and economic point of view is not suitable for the manufacture of metal sheet metal parts of the mould, especially the outline shape is complex, the batch is not large, the general thickness of less than 12mm mild steel, less than 6mm thick stainless steel, in order to save the cost of manufacturing moulds and cycle.

Is é an meaisín gearradh léasair próiseáil páirteanna miotail bileog a fheabhsú go suntasach ar an táirgiúlacht trealamh chun cinn, le próiseáil páirteanna ar ard-chruinneas, timthriall próiseála gearr, chomh maith le próiseáil gan an traidisiúnta stampáil bás athsholáthar is féidir a phróiseáil aon páirteanna casta agus buntáistí eile, mar sin níos mó agus níos mó fiontair déantúsaíochta switchgear a ghlacadh.
Is é an gearradh léasair úsáid scátháin fócas a dhíriú ar an léasair píosa ar dhromchla an ábhair a leá an t-ábhar, agus an gáis chómpaithe a úsáidtear don léasair píosa comhchruinnigh buille amach an t-ábhar leá, agus a dhéanamh ar an léasair píosa agus an t-ábhar ar feadh rian áirithe le haghaidh gluaiseacht coibhneasta, ionas go mbeidh cruth áirithe den ghearradh. Tá teicneolaíocht an ghearradh léasair ag forbairt go tapa agus tá sí á úsáid go forleathan mar mhodh próiseála chun cinn, go háirithe chun plátaí cruach a ghearradh.
Tá na buntáistí soiléire a bhaineann le teicneolaíocht gearradh léasair thar modhanna eile.
(1) cáilíocht ghearradh maith le leithead cnotha caol (de ghnáth 0.1-0.5mm), cruinneas ard (earráid fad lár an phoill ghinearálta 0.1-0.4mm, earráid méid contúirte 0.1-0.5mm), garbhú dromchla maith an cnotha (de ghnáth 12.5-25μm), ní gá go ndéanfaí próiseáil bhreise ar an cnotha go ginearálta.
(2) luas gearradh tapa Mar shampla, ag baint úsáide as cumhacht léasair 2kW, is é luas gearradh cruach charbóin 8mm tiubh 1.6m / min; is é luas gearradh cruach dhosmálta 2mm tiubh 3.5m / min, tá an crios a mbíonn tionchar teasa air beag agus tá an dífhoirmiú an-bheag.
(3) Glan, sábháilte, gan truailliú.
(4) ó thaobh teicniúil agus eacnamaíoch de nach bhfuil sé oiriúnach do tháirgeadh páirteanna miotail mhiotail mhiotail an mhúnla, go háirithe tá an cruth forlíonta casta, níl an baisc mór, an tiús ginearálta de níos lú ná 12mm cruach mhaol, níos lú ná 6mm tiús cruach dhosmálta, d'fhonn costas múnlaí agus timthriall déantúsaíochta a shábháil.


Considered: early 1930s
Type: Fighter aircraft (also tested as a Dive Bomber)
Engine: A number of different engines were offered:
- Bristol Jupiter VII
- BMW Hornet
- P&W Wasp
- Jaguar Major GF
- Jaguar S
- Jaguar Major S
- Bristol Jupiter VI
- Siemens Sh20
Max Speed: 300 km/hr (with the BMW engine)
- Length: 8.55 m.
- Wing Span: 12.40 m.
- Height: 2.80 m
Range: 500 km
Maximum Ceiling: 4250 m
- This image is something of a mystery. It depicts a Junkers K.47, German registration number D-2284, with
Latvian Ugunskrusts markings. They are definitely Latvian, as they do not conform to either the Finnish or
German use of this symbol and the symbol appears on the point, as it does on Latvian military aircraft.
- The working hypothesis is that the aircraft was being demonstrated by Junkers in hopes of generating some
sales. Some manufacturers would paint the potential customer's markings on the plane as a sales practice, which
could explain the image. At no time did a Junkers K.47 ever appear on the Latvian Air Force lists.
- My thanks to Paul Bezouska who appears to have solved this mystery:
"Prior the [German] election of 1933 several pilots flew propaganda for the Nazi party with the swastikas on the undersides of
the wings or on one side and the text "Wählt NSDAP" (elect NSDAP) on the other wing underside. This K47 is such
an example, other aircraft known to me had been a Klemm L 25 (or L26) and a Junkers F 13."
- This particular aircraft, D-2284, underwent Dive Bomber trials in Breslau and the knowledge gained in these trials
was subsequenly used in the development of the JU-87 Stuka.
Profile courtesy of Arvo Vercamer
If anyone has access to the Junkers archives or other sources of information about the event depicted in this photo,
I would be very pleased to hear from them. ( Zulis@aol.com )
LATVIANAVIATION.COM contents copyright © 2017 Gunārs Zūlis and heirs. All Rights Reserved.
Contributors of individual materials retain all rights to their collections and creative works.
LATVIANAVIATION.COM is a LATVIANS.COM project.
Design and hosting by [Clear-and-Simple] · Chicago · New York

Breathnaíodh: tús na 1930idí
Cineál: Aerárthach troid (thástáil mar Bhombaire Díbh)
Inneall: Tairgtear roinnt inneall éagsúla:
- Bristol Jupiter VII
- BMW Hornet
- P&W Wasp
- Jaguar Mór GF
- Jaguar S
- Jaguar Mór S
- Bristol Jupiter VI
- Siemens Sh20
Is féidir leis an bpróiseas a dhéanamh ar an gcineál feithicle a bhfuil an t-ábhar aige.
- Fad: 8.55 m.
- Scaip: 12.40 m.
- Ardacht: 2.80 m
Réimse: 500 km
Uasmhéid an uasteorainn: 4250 m
- Tá an íomhá seo rud éigin de mistéar. Léirítear air Junkers K.47, uimhir chlárúcháin na Gearmáine D-2284, le
Léarscáileanna Ugunskrusts na Laitvia. Tá siad go cinnte Laitviach, toisc nach bhfuil siad ag teacht le haon cheann de na
Úsáid na Gearmáine an tsiombail seo agus tá an tsiombail le feiceáil ar an bpointe, mar a dhéanann sé ar eitleán míleata na Laitvia.
- Is é an t-iarratas oibre go raibh an t-aerárthach á léiriú ag Junkers i dóchas go dtógfaí roinnt
díolacháin. Ba mhaith le roinnt déantúsóirí marcálacha an chustaiméara féideartha a phéinteáil ar an eitleán mar chleachtas díolacháin, rud a
D'fhéadfadh a mhíniú an íomhá. Ní raibh Junkers K.47 ar aon am ar liostaí na hAerfhórsa na Laitvia.
- Mo bhuíochas le Paul Bezouska a bhfuil an chuma air go bhfuil an mistéar seo réitithe aige:
"Sular toghadh [an Ghearmáin] i 1933 bhí roinnt píolótaí ag eitilt ag déanamh propaganda don pháirtí Naitsíoch leis na swastikas ar an taobh thíos de
na sciatháin nó ar thaobh amháin agus an téacs "Wählt NSDAP" (NSDAP toghcháin) ar an taobh eile de bhun na sciatháin. Tá an K47 sin
mar shampla, bhí Klemm L 25 (nó L26) agus Junkers F 13 ar eitleáin eile a bhí ar eolas agam. "
- Bhí tástálacha ar an aerárthach seo, D-2284, i mBreslau agus an t-eolas a fuarthas sna tástálacha sin
Baineadh úsáid as an t-eitleán sin ina dhiaidh sin chun an JU-87 Stuka a fhorbairt.
Próifíl de chúirtéis Arvo Vercamer
Má tá rochtain ag duine ar bith ar chartlann Junkers nó foinsí eile faisnéise faoin imeacht atá léirithe sa ghrianghraf seo,
Bheadh an-áthas orm éisteacht leo. (Zulis@aol.com)
LATVIANAVIATION.COM ábhar cóipcheart © 2017 Gunārs Zūlis agus oidhreacha. Gach Ceart Coimeádta.
Coinníonn rannchuiditheoirí ábhair aonair gach ceart dá mbailiúcháin agus dá gcuid oibre cruthaitheacha.
Is tionscadal de chuid LATVIANS.COM é LATVIANAVIATION.COM.
Dearadh agus óstáil ag [Clear-and-Simple] · Chicago · New York


At the heart of this new market was a legally binding commitment by the 37 industrialised member nations to an averaged 5.2% reduction in their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from 1990 levels by 2008-2012. Crucially for the carbon market, the Kyoto agreement also acknowledged that countries that produce more CO2 than their accepted targets would be able to purchase an “absorption ability” from another nation. Hence the birth of the “Carbon Credit” currency. One carbon credit is an allowance to emit one metric tonne of CO2 and is called a CO2e (or CO2 equivalent).
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), allows industrialised countries with GHG reduction commitments to invest in emission-reducing projects in developing countries as an alternative to more costly emission reductions in their own countries. The CDM is managed and run by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
A CDM project issues carbon offsets, also known as CERs (Certified Emission Reductions) every time a UNFCCC registered and audited project prevents one tonne of CO2e being emitted. A good example would be a project replacing coal-fired electricity with clean technology or methane capture from landfill sites. The ultimate objective for issuing CERs is to help developed countries meet their emission targets at relatively affordable costs by investing in cleaner energy projects in developing nations.
Europe was developing its own method to help combat emissions at the same time: the European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS). The EU ‘cap and trade’ plan identified around 12,000 physical installations in six major industrial sectors within the 27 member states that were large emitters of carbon dioxide. All 12,000 sites were obliged by law to submit accurate annual estimates of their carbon emissions to the EU-ETS. Based on the initial 2005 figures, each installation was then given an emission allowance of carbon permits, allowing them to emit a specified, ever decreasing amount of CO2e annually without penalty. These permits are known as EUAs (or EU allowances). Emitters incapable of achieving their emission targets must buy permits on the free market, from their sovereign government or via the recently introduced EU auction forum. Conversely, if emitters are able to reduce their CO2 emissions below the specified allowable amount, they may sell their spare allowances to anybody in the marketplace. Allowance auctions will progressively replace the (controversial) free distribution as the default method of allocating allowances to businesses from 2013. Over half of all allowances are expected to be auctioned by 2013, and thereafter there will be no more free allocation to electricity generators (the major emitters in the EU), apart from a few limited exceptions.
The leading trading platform for the EU carbon market is the European Climate Exchange (ECX), which handles over 95% of the derivative trade on the ETS. There has been a massive increase in volumes since 2005 (the inception of the ETS), with 2009 volumes 20 times greater than those of 2005.
The jargon surrounding the industry can be daunting. A carbon offset is a UN-issued allowance called a CER. A carbon permit is an EU-issued allowance called an EUA. Both permits and offsets are allowances for one metric tonne of CO2, so in theory they carry the same value and could be traded and offset against each other. Many traders are positioned long or short of the EUA-CER spread, a correlation which has spawned its own spread contract on the ECX. Fig.1 shows daily closing prices of the rolling daily CER and EUA futures since early 2009. CERs have always traded at a discount to their EUA counterparts, due to differences in their associated risks: while EUAs are issued by the EU, and might be regarded as a “currency” with no underlying issuer risk, the same cannot be said for CERs.
Each CER is linked to a specific UN-registered project. Whether it is a biomass project in Brazil producing electricity from waste, or a wind farm in South Africa, many CDM projects rely heavily on initial funding by raising capital through the discounted forward-selling of CERs, which may only be certified by the UN up to five years from the date of issuance. The added associated risk of these unregistered CERs at project level can only be quantified by associating a “certainty factor” (similar to the delta of an option) to each project, and applying this factor during portfolio valuation.
Some CERs are ‘cleaner’ than others, and legislative changes can have huge effects on the market. The proposed EU legislation to exclude credits created by the controversial industrial gas projects (HFC-23 etc.) from 2013 is a case in point. These supply issues provide wonderful volatility plays for hedge funds strong in option trading capabilities, and software such as Ozone3 caters for it perfectly by managing all the Greeks of the derivative book as well as including a high-level exposure report on any investments in forward-trading spot CERs.
The EU ETS was activated to help European countries to meet their Kyoto Protocol obligations, and remains the domain of the emitters, energy-traders, and associated speculators.
Market participation has increased rapidly over the years, despite – and in certain cases because of – illegal practices such as the VAT carousel, which increased turnover in the spot market by huge percentages in 2008. Other blows to market confidence have included phishing attacks, the trade in already retired credits, as well as the massive theft in January 2011 of Czech EUAs, which shut down the whole EU spot-trading system for two weeks. The need for a centralised registry is paramount. In 2010 the EU ETS made up 81% of globalcarbon trade, and the fact that a major player like the International Clearing Exchange (ICE), has joined the fray (it bought a majority shareholding in the European Climate Exchange last year), adds gravitas to the market. Today one of the leading London independent emissions brokers describes the broad list of participants like this:
• The 11,000 – 12,000 EU compliance companies who must be involved
• Other small spot market players
• Asset managers
• Private wealth managers
• Pension funds
• Hedge funds
One immediately assumes that these players are EU-based – but they go on to remark that they see a lot of active interest from these types of institutions in the USA as well, and see the area as offering growth potential in the coming year.
There is very little to be gained for a socially responsible fund manager by holding a portfolio of EUAs. CERs are a different game entirely. With asset managers worldwide being asked to hold anything up to 15% of their portfolios in socially-responsible and environmentally friendly assets, we have seen a marked trend towards a two-tier approach of investment. Firstly, investing in the equity of companies making the plant to be used by the UN-approved project, whether it be a wind-turbine manufacturer, or a company manufacturing biomass converters. This is the easy step to take, because the manager normally has access to high quality research about the company, which makes his stock-picking much easier. Secondly, investing in the CDM project itself, which is much harder to do because:
1. Many projects use cutting-edge technology out of the realm of the normal research analyst.
2. Investment is required before the foundations have even been dug, and there are little or no hard figures to back up the decision when facing an investment committee.
3. Most CDM projects are based in developing countries, which makes it hard for a busy fund manager to at least do an on-site inspection of their investment.
4. The lack of suitable portfolio management software to handle the complexities of valuing CERs.
Given the above, investment in physical projects has been slow, but as market knowledge increases, and software products like Ozone3 come on stream, we are already seeing more confidence in direct CDM project investment.
The investment industry’s approach to the carbon market has also been polarised by climate-change “believer/non-believer” syndrome, much of it fuelled by ignorance, and slick PR from companies with vested interests in its failure.
Whether you believe in the theory or not, all one needs to do is stand back, and take a rational look at the amount of pollution we are creating today compared to 100 years ago, to conclude that it must be having an impact on our fragile planet.
The carbon market remains a new market, and it is characterised by illiquid contracts and high volatility. It is still subject to surprise announcements, like the January forced closures of European registries (national custodians of issued, traded and retired carbon credits), and the ban on all spot trade after the theft of an estimated €28m worth of CERs. But the other thing that goes with a nascent market is wide margins, and hedge funds are well placed to take advantage of the wild price swings and broad bid-offer doubles that an illiquid market offers.
Trading strategies include playing – and then ignoring – any correlations with the energy complex, as the two markets couple and then disengage, depending on extraneous events such as an added supply of CERs into the market. (Ozone3 calculates the vanilla beta correlation between these markets at 0.1357% for 2010). Fig.2 does not conclude a strong correlation. It examines the 21 day rolling correlation between the Brent crude near contract against the ICEDEUA daily future.
Each type of participant has a different axe to grind: the compliance companies are always leveraging their internal emission numbers (and the consequent number of credits they must retire) against the EUAs they have been awarded, as well as pricing at the regular auctions. All players are mindful of the fact that the aviation industry will join the cap and trade scheme in 2012, followed by the petrochemicals, ammonia and aluminium industries in 2013. Many players perceive a net increase in demand for credits in the next few years, and are buying in advance of these fundamental changes.
A strong area of growth in the carbon markets has proved to be exchange traded options. Initially constituting a very small percentage of annual trade, the number of options traded in 2010 (415,567 contracts) was very nearly double that traded in 2009, and made up about 14.5% of the total contracts traded on the ECX in 2010.
Hedge fund managers are in the game to make a return for their investors, no matter how warm and fuzzy the investment might look: as CDM projects increase both in number and size we have seen a new industry of financiers helping to package CDM projects to fund managers and private equity players.
The forward selling of CERs to raise initial capital is just one example: many new packages include two-way options which allow both the project-owner and the investor to share in greater-than-forecast profits. All of these sophisticated offerings are helping to make CDM investment more attractive to the fund manager, irrespective of the socially-responsible aspect.
With all of the above in mind, there is a strong future for the carbon markets, especially as the level of both the sophistication of the projects and the way they are financed starts to make good investment sense. This, together with a solid and well-administered trading exchange platform and clearing process will underpin the growth we have seen, and expect to continue to see, in the carbon derivative markets.

I gcroílár an mhargaidh nua seo bhí tiomantas ceangailteach ó thaobh dlí ag na 37 náisiún baill tionsclaithe go laghdófaí a n-astaíochtaí gáis cheaptha teasa (GCE) ar an meán 5.2% ó leibhéil 1990 faoi 2008-2012. Go ríthábhachtach do mhargadh na carbóin, d'admhaigh comhaontú Kyoto freisin go mbeadh tíortha a tháirgeann níos mó CO2 ná a spriocanna inghlactha in ann "cumas ionsú" a cheannach ó náisiún eile. Dá bhrí sin, rugadh an t-airgeadra "Cárta Chabóin". Is éard atá i gcreidmheas carbóin amháin ná ceadúnas chun tonna méadrach CO2 a astaíocht agus tugtar CO2e air (nó CO2 coibhéiseach).
Is éard atá i gceist leis an Sásra um Fhorbairt Glan (CDM) ná go gceadaítear do thíortha tionsclaithe a bhfuil tiomantais laghdaithe GCE acu infheistíocht a dhéanamh i dtionscadail laghdaithe astaíochtaí i dtíortha i mbéal forbartha mar mhalairt ar laghdú astaíochtaí níos costasaí ina dtíortha féin. Tá an CDM á bhainistiú agus á reáchtáil ag Coinbhinsiún Réime na Náisiún Aontaithe ar Athrú Aeráide (UNFCCC).
Is éard atá i gceist le tionscadal CDM ná cúiteamh carbóin a eisiúint, ar a dtugtar CERanna (Lighinne Eisiúna Deimhnithe) freisin, gach uair a chuireann tionscadal atá cláraithe agus arna iniúchadh ag UNFCCC cosc ar tonna CO2e a bheith eisithe. Is sampla maith é tionscadal a chuirfeadh teicneolaíocht glan in ionad leictreachais a thiománaítear le guail nó a ghlacfadh meitéin ó láithreáin líonta talún. Is é an cuspóir deiridh maidir le CERanna a eisiúint ná cabhrú le tíortha forbartha a spriocanna astaíochta a bhaint amach ar chostais réasúnta inacmhainne trí infheistíocht a dhéanamh i dtionscadail fuinnimh níos glaine i dtíortha atá i mbéal forbartha.
Bhí an Eoraip ag forbairt a mhodh féin chun cabhrú le astaíochtaí a chomhrac ag an am céanna: Córas Trádála Astaíochtaí an Aontais Eorpaigh (CETA an AE). Sa phlean AE "cap agus trádáil" sainaithníodh thart ar 12,000 suiteáil fhisiceach i sé phríomh-earnáil tionsclaíocha laistigh de na 27 mBallstát a bhí ina n-astaitheoirí móra dé-ocsaíd charbóin. Bhí dualgas ar na 12,000 láithreán go léir de réir dlí meastacháin bliantúla cruinn a n-astaíochtaí carbóin a chur faoi bhráid an EU-ETS. Bunaithe ar na figiúirí tosaigh don bhliain 2005, tugadh ceadanna astaíochta carbóin do gach suiteáil ansin, rud a cheadaíonn dóibh méid sonraithe, atá ag laghdú i gcónaí de CO2e a astaíocht go bliantúil gan phionós. Tugtar EUAanna (nó allowances AE) ar na ceadúnais seo. Ní mór d'astaitheoirí nach bhfuil in ann a spriocanna astaíochta a bhaint amach ceadanna a cheannach ar an saormhargadh, óna rialtas uachtaránachta nó trí fhóram ceant an AE a tugadh isteach le déanaí. Ar a mhalairt, má tá na hachtóirí in ann a n-astaíochtaí CO2 a laghdú faoi bhun an méid incheadaithe sonraithe, féadfaidh siad a gcuid ceadaithe breise a dhíol le duine ar bith ar an margadh. Beidh ceantanna scaoilte ag malartú go céimnithe in ionad an dáileadh saor in aisce (dathscéalta) mar an modh réamhshocraithe chun ceadaithe a leithdháileadh ar ghnólachtaí ó 2013. Táthar ag súil go gcuirfear os cionn leath de na ceadaithe ar díol faoi 2013, agus ina dhiaidh sin ní bheidh aon leithdháileadh saor in aisce ar aon cheann de na gineadóirí leictreachais (na príomh-astaitheoirí san AE), seachas cúpla eisceacht teoranta.
Is é an t-ardán trádála is mó do mhargadh carbóin an AE an Malartú Eorpach Aeráide (ECX), a láimhseálann níos mó ná 95% den trádáil díorthaigh ar an ETS. Tá méadú ollmhór tagtha ar na méideanna ó 2005 (an tús a chur leis an ETS), agus is é an méid 2009 20 uair níos mó ná méideanna 2005.
Is féidir leis an seargon a bhaineann leis an tionscal a bheith scanrúil. Is éard atá i gcúiteáil charbóin ná liúntas arna eisiúint ag na Náisiúin Aontaithe ar a dtugtar CER. Is ceadúnas a eisíonn an AE é ceadúnas carbóin ar a dtugtar EUA. Is ceadaithe iad ceadúnais agus cúiteamh le haghaidh tonna méadrach CO2 amháin, mar sin go teoiriciúil tá an luach céanna acu agus d'fhéadfaí iad a thrádáil agus a chúiteamh i gcoinne a chéile. Tá go leor trádálaithe i riocht fada nó gearr ar an leithreas EUA-CER, comhghaol a chruthaigh a chonradh leithreas féin ar an ECX. Taispeánann Fig.1 praghsanna dúnta laethúla na dtodhchaí CER agus EUA laethúla rothlúcháin ó thús 2009. Tá CERanna dírithe i gcónaí ar lascaine i gcomparáid lena gcomhghleacaithe EUA, mar gheall ar dhifríochtaí sna rioscaí a bhaineann leo: cé go n-eisíonn an AE AEanna, agus d'fhéadfaí iad a mheas mar "airgeadra" gan aon riosca foinseach d'eisiúnaí, ní féidir an rud céanna a rá maidir le CERanna.
Tá gach CER nasctha le tionscadal sonrach atá cláraithe ag na Náisiúin Aontaithe. Cibé an tionscadal bithmhaise é sa Bhrasaíl a tháirgeann leictreachas ó dhramhaíl, nó páirc gaoithe san Afraic Theas, tá go leor tionscadal CDM ag brath go mór ar mhaoiniú tosaigh trí chaipiteal a bhailiú trí dhíolachán ar thras-dháta CERanna, nach féidir leis na Náisiúin Aontaithe a dheimhniú ach suas le cúig bliana ó dháta eisiúna. Ní féidir an riosca a bhaineann leis na CERanna neamhchláraithe seo a mhéadú ar leibhéal tionscadail ach amháin trí fachtóir cinnteachta (arna chosúil le delta rogha) a chur i gcomparáid le gach tionscadal, agus an fachtóir seo a chur i bhfeidhm le linn luacháil phoirtleóige.
Tá roinnt CERanna 'níos glan' ná cinn eile, agus d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh tionchar mór ag athruithe reachtacha ar an margadh. An reachtaíocht bheartaithe AE chun creidmheasanna a chruthaigh na tionscadail gháis tionsclaíocha conspóideach (HFC-23 etc.) a eisiamh Is cás é an 2013 a bhaineann le cur i bhfeidhm an Rialacháin seo. Soláthraíonn na saincheisteanna soláthair seo imreoirí luaineachta iontach do chistí fáltais atá láidir i gcumas trádála roghanna, agus soláthraíonn bogearraí mar Ozone3 é go foirfe trí bhainistiú a dhéanamh ar na Gréagaigh go léir den leabhar díorthaigh chomh maith le tuarascáil ar phlé ardleibhéil a áireamh ar aon infheistíochtaí i CERanna láthair a thrádáil go ceann ama.
Cuireadh an CÉEanna AE i ngníomh chun cabhrú le tíortha Eorpacha a n-oibleagáidí faoi Phrótacal Kyoto a chomhlíonadh, agus tá sé fós ar cheannas na n-eisiúnaithe, na trádálaithe fuinnimh, agus na spéicleoirí gaolmhara.
Tá méadú tapa tagtha ar an rannpháirtíocht sa mhargadh thar na blianta, in ainneoin  agus i gcásanna áirithe mar gheall ar  cleachtais neamhdhleathacha amhail an carusell CBL, a mhéadaigh an láimhdeachas sa mhargadh láithreach de phreas céatadáin ollmhóra in 2008. I measc na gcúis eile a raibh tionchar ag an gcreideamh sa mhargadh orthu bhí ionsaithe phishing, trádáil i gcreidmheasanna a bhí ar scor cheana féin, chomh maith leis an fiacla ollmhór i mí Eanáir 2011 de AEAs na Seice, a dhún córas iomlán trádála láthair an AE ar feadh dhá sheachtain. Tá an gá le clár lárnach ríthábhachtach. I 2010, bhí 81% de thrádáil dhomhanda carbóin ag an ETS AE, agus tá an fíric go bhfuil imreoir mór cosúil leis an gCumhalartú Comhdhlúite Idirnáisiúnta (ICE), tar éis dul isteach sa chraobh (cheannaigh sé sciar formhór sa Chumhalartú Eorpach Aeráide anuraidh), ag cur gravitas leis an margadh. Inniu, déantar cur síos ar liosta leathan na rannpháirtithe mar seo ag ceann de na bróicéirí neamhspleácha astaíochtaí is mó i Londain:
• Na 11,000  12,000 cuideachta chomhlíonta AE nach mór a bheith rannpháirteach
• Gníomhaithe beaga eile ar an margadh ama
• Bainistithe sócmhainní
• Bainistithe sócmhainní príobháideacha
• Cistí pinsin
• Cistí fáltais
Is dócha go bhfuil na himreoirí sin lonnaithe san AE  ach ansin deir siad go bhfeiceann siad go bhfuil suim ghníomhach ag na cineálacha institiúidí seo sna Stáit Aontaithe freisin, agus go bhfeiceann siad go bhfuil féidearthacht fáis ag an limistéar sa bhliain atá romhainn.
Tá an-bheag le fáil do bhainisteoir ciste atá freagrach go sóisialta trí photefolio de CCEanna a bheith aige. Tá CERanna cluiche difriúil go hiomlán. Agus baintear ag iarraidh ar bhainistitheoirí sócmhainní ar fud an domhain suas le 15% dá bportaifílí a choinneáil i sócmhainní atá freagrach go sóisialta agus atá neamhdhíobhálach don chomhshaol, feicimid treocht shoiléir i dtreo cur chuige dhá thréimhseach maidir le hinfheistíocht. Ar an gcéad dul síos, infheistíocht i scairfiúcht na gcuideachtaí a dhéanann an planda a úsáidfear le haghaidh an tionscadail atá ceadaithe ag na Náisiúin Aontaithe, cibé acu déanann sé monaróir tuirbíní gaoithe nó cuideachta a dhéanann tiontairí bithmhaise. Is é seo an chéim éasca a ghlacadh, toisc go mbíonn rochtain ag an mbainisteoir de ghnáth ar thaighde ardchaighdeáin faoin gcuideachta, rud a fhágann go bhfuil a stoc-roghnaithe i bhfad níos éasca. Ar an dara dul síos, infheistíocht a dhéanamh sa tionscadal MChL féin, rud atá i bhfad níos deacra a dhéanamh toisc:
1. an t-am a bhí ann. Baineann go leor tionscadal úsáid as teicneolaíocht is airde nach féidir le gnáth-anailíséir taighde a dhéanamh.
2. Seachadadh. Tá infheistíocht riachtanach sular cuireadh na bunscoileanna i mbun na foirgnimh, agus níl mórán nó gan aon fhigiúirí daingean ann chun tacú leis an gcinneadh nuair a bhíonn coiste infheistíochta i láthair.
3. Tá an t-am ann. Tá an chuid is mó de thionscadail CDM bunaithe i dtíortha i mbéal forbartha, rud a fhágann go bhfuil sé deacair do bhainisteoir ciste gnóthach iniúchadh ar a n-infheistíocht ar an láthair a dhéanamh ar a laghad.
4. Tá an t-am Níl bogearraí bainistíochta punann oiriúnach chun déileáil le castachtaí luachála CERanna.
Ós rud é go bhfuil an méid thuasluaite, tá infheistíocht i dtionscadail fhisiciúla mall, ach de réir mar a mhéadaíonn eolas an mhargaidh, agus táirgí bogearraí cosúil le Ozone3 a thagann ar an sruth, táimid ag féachaint cheana féin níos mó muiníne i dtionscadal CDM infheistíocht dhíreach.
Tá cur chuige an tionscail infheistíochta i leith an mhargaidh charbóin polaraithe freisin ag siondróm "creidiúnaí/neamhchreidmheach" an athraithe aeráide, rud a spreagtar go mór ag aineolas, agus PR slick ó chuideachtaí a bhfuil leasanna dílse acu ina bhféile.
Cibé an gcreideann tú sa teoiric nó nach gcreideann tú, ní mór duit ach seasamh siar, agus breathnú réasúnach ar an méid truaillithe atá á chruthú againn inniu i gcomparáid le 100 bliain ó shin, chun a thabhairt i gcrích go gcaithfidh sé a bheith ag dul i bhfeidhm ar ár bpláinéad frásaí.
Tá an margadh carbóin fós ina mhargadh nua, agus tá sé tréitheithe ag conarthaí neamh-leachtacha agus le caochlaíocht ard. Tá sé fós faoi réir fógraí iontas, mar an dúnadh éigeantach i mí Eanáir ar chlárlanna Eorpacha (caomhnóirí náisiúnta creidmheasanna carbóin a eisíodh, a thrádáil agus a scor), agus toirmeasc ar gach trádáil láthair tar éis go raibh CERs ar fiú thart ar €28 milliún a ghoid. Ach an rud eile a théann le margadh nascent is mór imill, agus cistí fáltais atá suite go maith chun leas a bhaint as an swingings praghas fiáin agus cuardach-tairiscint leathan dúbailte go bhfuil margadh neamh-leachtach a thairiscint.
I measc straitéisí trádála tá imirt  agus ansin neamhaird a dhéanamh  ar aon chomhghaol leis an gcomhchruinniú fuinnimh, de réir mar a bhíonn an dá mhargadh ag lánúineacht agus ansin ag dícheangal, ag brath ar imeachtaí seachtracha amhail soláthar breise CERanna isteach sa mhargadh. (Rinneann Ozone3 an comhghaol béite vanilla idir na margaí seo ag 0.1357% do 2010). Ní thugann Fig.2 le tuiscint go bhfuil comhghaol láidir ann. Scrúdaíonn sé an comhghaol 21 lá ag gluaiseacht idir an gconradh gar-chruda Brent i gcoinne an todhchaí laethúil ICEDEUA.
Tá cúram difriúil ag gach cineál rannpháirtí: tá na cuideachtaí comhlíonta ag baint leas i gcónaí as a gcuid uimhreacha astaíochta inmheánacha (agus an líon creidmheasanna dá thoradh sin a chaithfidh siad a scor) i gcoinne na CAEanna a thugtar dóibh, chomh maith le praghsanna a shocrú ag na ceantanna rialta. Tá na himreoirí go léir ar an eolas go nglacfaidh tionscal na haeráide leis an scéim ceapa agus trádála in 2012, agus na tionscail peitríochimic, amóinia agus alúmanaim ina dhiaidh sin in 2013. Measann go leor imreoirí go mbeidh méadú glan ar éileamh ar chreidmheasanna sna blianta beaga amach romhainn, agus tá siad ag ceannach roimh na hathruithe bunúsacha seo.
Is é an rud a chruthaigh fás láidir i margaí carbóin ná roghanna a thrádáiltear ar an malartú. I dtús báire bhí céatadán an-bheag den trádáil bhliantúil, bhí líon na roghanna a thrádáil in 2010 (415,567 conradh) beagnach dhá oiread ná an líon a thrádáil in 2009, agus bhí thart ar 14,5% de na conarthaí iomlána a thrádáil ar an ECX in 2010.
Tá bainisteoirí cistí fáltais sa chluiche chun toradh a thabhairt dá n-infheisteoirí, is cuma cé chomh te agus fuzzy a d'fhéadfadh an infheistíocht a bheith: de réir mar a mhéadaíonn tionscadail CDM araon i líon agus i méid, feicimid tionscal nua de mhaoinithe ag cabhrú le tionscadail CDM a phacáistiú do bhainisteoirí cistí agus d'imreoirí cothromais phríobháideacha.
Níl ach sampla amháin de dhíol CERanna ar aghaidh chun caipiteal tosaigh a bhailiú: tá roghanna dhá bhealach i measc go leor pacáiste nua a ligeann do úinéir an tionscadail agus don infheisteoir a bheith páirteach i mbrabúis níos mó ná mar a bhí beartaithe. Tá na tairiscintí sofaisticiúla seo go léir ag cabhrú le hinfheistíocht CDM a dhéanamh níos tarraingtí don bhainisteoir ciste, beag beann ar an ngné atá freagrach go sóisialta.
Agus na rudaí thuasluaite i gcuimhne, tá todhchaí láidir ag na margaí carbóin, go háirithe toisc go bhfuil leibhéal na n-ardchomhtháthaithe na dtionscadal agus an bealach a mhaoinítear iad ag tosú ag déanamh ciall infheistíochta maith. Beidh sé seo, mar aon le hardán trádála agus próiseas imréitigh a bheidh á riaradh go maith, mar bhonn don fhás a chonaic muid, agus a bhfuil súil againn go leanfaidh sé de bheith ann, i margaí díorthaigh carbóin.


In March 2020, almost the entire world stopped due to the threat of a novel virus that would later infect over 6.3 million people and lead to the deaths of more than 376,000 people. Entire countries were shut down, with only essential workers allowed to leave their homes and go to work so that grocery stores, healthcare facilities, and public transportation systems could continue to operate. For societies that centered their cultures and institutions around the basis of socializing and personable interaction, the pandemic came as an extreme shock. In the United States, the pandemic led to millions of people filing for unemployment and companies bracing for significant financial losses. Almost everyone entered unfamiliar circumstances that required a lot of personal adaptation especially to daily life. Without the looming threat of economic collapse and a pandemic, those who come from lower socioeconomic statuses or impoverished areas already experience disadvantages when trying to access proper menstrual hygiene products and relevant resources. Now, a greater number of menstruators are at risk of losing access to essential products due to limited income or lack of supply in their local stores, as many stores have faced product shortages. In addition, many frontline workers were thrown into long working hours with little break time and called for better access to products in their workplaces that they would now be spending more time in. With governments determining which products and services were essential, the most widespread way to ensure menstruators had proper access to the products they needed was through legislation. In the United States, the CARES Act signed on March 27th, 2020 listed all menstrual products as essential and were now covered by Health Savings Accounts and Flexible Spending Accounts. Considering the constant battle between American menstruators and their efforts in repealing the Tampon Tax, many believe this is a step in the right direction. However, it is important to note that CARES is not an adequate solution for people who still cannot afford or find pads, tampons, menstrual cups, soap, and other hygiene goods. Another instance of positive action occurred in Wuhan City where about 40,000 pads were shipped and distributed to female frontline workers. The efforts taken by the United States and China are examples of constructive measures, but other countries continue to face systemic oppression with regard to menstrual rights. As discussed, only essential items on government-curated lists remained in production, so in countries like India where pads, toilet tissue, and soap were not among the specific items, the nation’s supply quickly became scarce. Indian menstruators in migrant or rural populations felt the hardest impact of this shortage as they had to heavily rely on relief groups to obtain what they needed. A few interviews in the cited article discuss the unhygienic means some people have had to take to “stay dry during menstruation.” Some girls biked for miles across their towns to get products while others used cloth scraps to make pads. In parts of the world where menstruation is stigmatized and access to supplies is disproportionate, the COVID-19 crisis presents yet another challenge for people to properly be able to take care of themselves during menstruation. The articles about India are only a few of the hundreds of stories where menstruators are left to fend for themselves while greater institutions continue to overlook their struggles. In fact, as previously mentioned, healthcare workers all over the globe have expressed an overall lack of menstrual hygiene products and minimal action taken by authorities to fulfill their requests. With so much uncertainty ahead in this pandemic, the best we can do is to use our resources and platforms to help others. At the end of this post, I have included some links where you can find information about donating items or money to various organizations that provide menstrual hygiene products either in the Ann Arbor/Ypsilanti area or nationally. Please feel free to repost these organizations on social media or spread the word about their missions to bring more awareness to people who may be able to contribute to this cause in these uncertain times.
-https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html (cited on June 2nd, 2020)

I mí an Mhárta 2020, d'fhág beagnach an domhan ar fad mar gheall ar bhagairt víreas nua a chuirfeadh níos mó ná 6.3 milliún duine i mbaol agus a d'fhág go bhfuair níos mó ná 376,000 duine bás. Dúnadh tíortha iomlána, agus ní raibh cead ag oibrithe riachtanacha ach a dtithe a fhágáil agus dul ag obair ionas gur féidir le siopaí grósaera, áiseanna cúraim sláinte, agus córais iompair phoiblí leanúint ar aghaidh ag feidhmiú. I gcás sochaithe a raibh a gcultúir agus a n-institiúidí dírithe ar bhonn na sochealaithe agus idirghníomhaíochta phearsanta, tháinig an paindéim mar shoc mhór. Sna Stáit Aontaithe, thug an paindéim go ndearna na milliúin duine iarratas ar dífhostaíocht agus chuir cuideachtaí i láthair caillteanais mhóra airgeadais. Tháinig beagnach gach duine i gcúinsí neamhchoitianta a d'éiligh go leor oiriúnaithe pearsanta go háirithe don saol laethúil. Gan bagairt ag teacht ar an gcorp eacnamaíoch agus ar phaindéim, bíonn míbhuntáistí ag na daoine sin a thagann ó stádas sóisia-eacnamaíoch níos ísle nó ó cheantair bhochtaine nuair a bhíonn siad ag iarraidh rochtain a fháil ar tháirgí sláintíochta míosta cuí agus ar acmhainní ábhartha. Anois, tá líon níos mó menstruators i mbaol rochtain a chailleadh ar tháirgí riachtanacha mar gheall ar ioncam teoranta nó easpa soláthair ina siopaí áitiúla, mar go leor siopaí ag tabhairt aghaidh ar easpa táirgí. Ina theannta sin, cuireadh go leor oibrithe ar an líne tosaigh i gcur isteach ar uaireanta fada oibre le beagán ama scoir agus d'iarr siad rochtain níos fearr ar tháirgí ina n-áit oibre a bheadh siad ag caitheamh níos mó ama iontu anois. Agus rialtais ag cinneadh cé na táirgí agus na seirbhísí a bhí riachtanach, ba é an bealach is forleithne chun a chinntiú go raibh rochtain cheart ag menstruators ar na táirgí a theastaíonn uathu trí reachtaíocht. Sna Stáit Aontaithe, liostaíodh le hAcht CARES a síníodh an 27 Márta, 2020 na táirgí céilí go léir mar thábhachtaí agus bhí siad clúdaithe anois ag Cuntais Sábháil Sláinte agus Cuntais Caiteachais Fléasaí. Ag smaoineamh ar an gcath leanúnach idir menstruators Mheiriceá agus a gcuid iarrachtaí a aisghairm an Cánach Tampon, go leor creideann go bhfuil sé seo céim sa treo ceart. Tá sé tábhachtach, áfach, a thabhairt faoi deara nach réiteach leordhóthanach é CARES do dhaoine nach féidir leo páistí, tampóin, cupáin menstrual, gallúnach agus earraí sláintíochta eile a cheannach nó a fháil. Tharla cás eile de ghníomhaíocht dhearfach i gCathair Wuhan áit a ndearnadh thart ar 40,000 pad a sheoladh agus a dháileadh ar oibrithe ban ar an líne tosaigh. Is samplaí de bhearta tógálacha iad na hiarrachtaí a rinne na Stáit Aontaithe agus an tSín, ach tá géarchéim chórasach ag tíortha eile i ndáil le cearta menstrual. Mar a pléadh, níor fhan ach earraí riachtanacha ar liostaí a bhí á gcúráil ag an rialtas i dtáirgeadh, mar sin i dtíortha cosúil le hIndia nach raibh pads, fíocháin theileataí agus gallúnach i measc na n-earraí sonracha, tháinig ganntanas ar sholáthar na tíre go tapa. Bhraith menstruators Indiach i ndaonraí imirceacha nó tuaithe an tionchar is deacra ar an easpa seo mar go raibh orthu brath go mór ar ghrúpaí faoisimh chun a gcuid riachtanas a fháil. Déantar roinnt agallaimh san alt luaite a phlé ar na modhanna neamhshláintiúla a bhí le déanamh ag daoine áirithe chun  fanacht tirim le linn a n-imthriall. Bhí roinnt cailíní ag rothaíocht ar feadh míle ar fud a mbailte chun táirgí a fháil agus d'úsáid daoine eile scraps éadaí chun pads a dhéanamh. I gcodanna den domhan ina bhfuil an menstruacion stigmatized agus rochtain ar soláthairtí tá disproportionate, an COVID-19 géarchéim a chuireann fós dúshlán eile do dhaoine a bheith in ann a bheith i gceart a bheith in ann a ghlacadh cúram de féin le linn menstruacion. Níl sna hailt faoin India ach cúpla ceann de na céadta scéalta ina bhfuil mná céilí fágtha chun iad féin a chosaint agus go leanann institiúidí níos mó ag dul thar a gcroí lena gcuid streachailtí. Go deimhin, mar a luadh roimhe seo, tá oibrithe cúraim sláinte ar fud an domhain tar éis cur in iúl go bhfuil easpa foriomlán táirgí sláine menstrual agus gníomh íosta a rinne na húdaráis chun a n-iarratas a chomhlíonadh. Le an oiread sin éiginnteachta romhainn sa phaindéim seo, is é an rud is fearr is féidir linn a dhéanamh ná ár n-acmhainní agus ár n-ardáin a úsáid chun cabhrú le daoine eile. Ag deireadh an phoist seo, tá roinnt nasc curtha isteach agam áit ar féidir leat faisnéis a fháil faoi earraí nó airgead a bhronnadh ar eagraíochtaí éagsúla a sholáthraíonn táirgí sláinteachais menstrual i gceantar Ann Arbor/Ypsilanti nó go náisiúnta. Bíodh spraoi agat na heagraíochtaí seo a athphostáil ar na meáin shóisialta nó an focal a scaipeadh faoina misean chun níos mó feasachta a thabhairt do dhaoine a d'fhéadfadh a bheith in ann cur leis an gcúis seo sna hamanna éiginnte seo.
-https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html (cited on June 2nd, 2020)