by: Peyman Yousefi, Chair for Laserphysics,
Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany
Photonics-based laser accelerators are enticing candidates for future particle accelerators. They could reduce the size of current large radio-frequency accelerators by one to two orders of magnitude. This could essentially lead to compact high-energy electron sources for a variety of applications in medicine and high-energy physics. Our research centers on demonstrating the required steps towards this new kind of laser-powered accelerator.
To demonstrate such a concept, we use silicon as the substrate material and use a top-down approach to fabricate our desired structures. The fabrication process consists of two major steps, namely electron beam lithography as a high-resolution patterning technique and inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etching (ICP-RIE) as an anisotropic etching technique to transfer the written patterns into the substrate. We write the patterns on a negative tone resist with a reasonable etching durability.
After developing the resist, we then etch the silicon substrates by a PlasmaPro 100 RIE Oxford Instruments etcher, using SF6 and O2 as the etching components. A good control over the ratio of the two gases is essential to have a perfect anisotropic etching with a high selectivity. The etching starts by igniting a stable plasma in the chamber.
Once the plasma is formed, the radicals start to accelerate towards the substrate. Fluorine and oxygen radicals interact chemically with the silicon substrate forming a passive layer of SiOxFy. This prevents lateral etching throughout the process. However an optimized ratio of SF6 and O2 is essential to keep the passivation rate and the etching rate in balance. We have developed an etching process with an etch rate of 32 nm/s for a perfect anisotropic etching and smooth sidewalls. Our silicon structures are 3 μm tall with an aspect ratio of 20, making them ideal to perform our experiments around photonics-based particle acceleration.
Figure 1 shows a two-stage silicon dual pillar accelerator equipped with Bragg reflectors, which is comprised of four solid walls left of the dual pillar photonics accelerator structure in the upper right. This device is capable of delivering accelerated electrons with attosecond pulse
durations. An aperture in front is etched for alignment purposes. This device structure together with the attosecond electron bunch generation represent a major breakthrough towards an on-chip laser-driven particle accelerator[1, 2]. See achip.fau.de for more details.
Figure 1. A two-stage silicon accelerator device fabricated by electron beam lithography and inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etching (ICP-RIE).

le: Peyman Yousefi, Cathaoirleach Laserphysics,
Ollscoil Friedrich-Alexander in Erlangen-Nuremberg, an Ghearmáin
Tá luasairí léasair fotóinicse bunaithe ar iarrthóirí tarraingteach d'luasairí cáithníní sa todhchaí. D'fhéadfadh siad méid na luasairí mór-raidió-mhinicíochta reatha a laghdú trí ordú amháin nó dhá ordú. D'fhéadfadh sé seo a bheith ina chúis le foinsí leictreonacha ardfhuinnimh dlúth le haghaidh feidhmchláir éagsúla i leigheas agus i fisice ardfhuinnimh. Tá ár gcuid taighde dírithe ar na céimeanna riachtanacha a thaispeáint i dtreo an chineál nua luasaire le cumhacht léasair seo.
Chun coincheap den sórt sin a léiriú, bainimid úsáid as síleacóin mar ábhar substrata agus úsáidimid cur chuige ó thuas go dtí síos chun ár struchtúir inmhianaithe a mhonarú. Tá an próiseas déantúsaíochta comhdhéanta de dhá phríomhchéim, is é sin litagrafaíocht píosa leictreona mar theicníc patrúinithe ard-réitigh agus eitcháil ion imoibrithe plaisimeach (ICP-RIE) mar theicníc eitchála anisotropic chun na patrúin scríofa a aistriú isteach sa tsubstaint. Scríobhann muid na patrúin ar ton diúltach resist le durability etching réasúnta.
Tar éis an resist a fhorbairt, déanaimid an t-aighneacht síleacóin a éadaí le héadaí PlasmaPro 100 RIE Oxford Instruments, ag baint úsáide as SF6 agus O2 mar chomhpháirteanna éadaí. Tá sé riachtanach rialú maith a dhéanamh ar an gcaidreamh idir an dá ghás chun eitch anisotropic foirfe a bheith agat le roghnúcháin ard. Tosaíonn an t-eitching trí phlasma cobhsaí a lasadh sa seomra.
Nuair a bhíonn an plasma déanta, tosaíonn na radaicí ag luathachadh i dtreo an tsubstairt. Déantar idirghníomhú ceimiceach idir radacailí flúiríne agus ocsaigine leis an substrát silicon agus déantar ciseal éighníomhach de SiOxFy. Cuireann sé seo cosc ar eisiúint thráthúil i rith an phróisis. Mar sin féin, tá cóimheas oiriúnach SF6 agus O2 riachtanach chun an ráta passivation agus an ráta eitch a choinneáil i gcothroime. Tá próiseas eitchithe forbartha againn le ráta eitchithe de 32 nm / s le haghaidh eitchithe anisotropic foirfe agus taobhbhealaí réidh. Tá ár struchtúir siliceam 3 μm ar airde le cóimheas gné 20, rud a fhágann go bhfuil siad oiriúnach chun ár dturgnaimh a dhéanamh timpeall luasghéarú cáithníní fotóinicse-bhunaithe.
Léiríonn Fíor 1 luasaire colún dúbailte síleacain dhá chéim atá feistithe le braiteoirí Bragg, atá comhdhéanta de cheithre bhalla soladach ar chlé de struchtúr luasaire fótaine dúbailte colún sa chúinne thuas ar dheis. Tá an gléas seo in ann a sheachadadh leictreoin luathaithe le puls attosecond
tréimhsí. Tá oscailt os comhair eiteáilte chun críocha ailíniúcháin. Léiríonn struchtúr an fheiste seo mar aon leis an ghlúin bunch leictreon attosecond go bhfuil teacht chun cinn mór i dtreo luasaire cáithníní ar-chips a thiomáint le léasair [1, 2]. Féach ar achip.fau.de le haghaidh tuilleadh sonraí.
Figiúr 1. Feiste luathaithe siliam dhá chéim a dhéantar trí liotagrafaíocht píosa leictreona agus eisiúint ion athghníomhach plaisimeach láncheangailte go hinchinneach (ICP-RIE).


Apart from being a memorial, it is usually intended as a reminder to passing motorists to share the road. Ghost bikes are usually junk bicycles painted white, sometimes with a placard attached, and locked to a suitable object close to the scene of the accident. They are also sometimes stripped of their tires, to deter theft.
According to The Guardian, the first recorded ghost bike was in St. Louis, Missouri, in 2003. A witness to a collision between a cyclist and a car placed a painted bike at the location with a message that read: "Cyclist struck here.
The original idea of painting bikes white reportedly goes back to the city of Amsterdam in the 1960s as an anarchist project to liberate two-wheel transport—white bikes were free, help yourself and then leave it for someone else.
The ghost bike idea in the United States may have originated with a project by San Francisco artist Jo Slota, begun in April 2002. This was a purely artistic endeavor. Slota was intrigued by the abandoned bicycles that he found around the city, locked up but stripped of useful parts. He began painting them white, and posted photographs on his website, ghostbike.net. As the idea was taken up for different purposes, Slota faced a dilemma. San Francisco is one of the safer U.S. cities for bicyclists, but memorial ghost bikes sprang up there as elsewhere, changing perceptions of his project.
A ghost bike memorial project was started in St. Louis in October 2003. After observing a motorist strike a bicyclist in a bike lane on Holly Hills Boulevard, Patrick Van Der Tuin placed a white-painted bicycle on the spot with a hand-painted sign reading "Cyclist Struck Here". Noticing the effect that this had on motorists in the area, Van Der Tuin then enlisted the help of friends to place 15 more "ghost bikes" in prominent spots in the St. Louis area where cyclists had recently been hit by automobiles. They used damaged bikes, in some cases deliberately damaged to create the desired mangled effect.
Similar projects began in Pittsburgh in 2004, New York City, Seattle in 2005, Albuquerque,  and Toronto in 2006. In August 2005, nearly 40 ghost bikes were placed throughout Seattle to draw awareness to locations of accidents, near-misses, and poor road conditions. A ghost bike in Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C., commemorating a rider killed by a garbage truck in 2008, remained for a full year. When it was removed by city employees, friends of the rider replaced it with 22 ghost bikes, one on every lamppost. London Ghostcycle was active in 2005 and 2006. There have been similar projects in dozens of other cities worldwide.A bike memorial project was recently started Durham, North Carolina to commemorate the death of two prominent cyclist and bicycle safety advocates In Late 2013 and early 2014 The Houston Ghost Bike Group has placed 47 ghost bikes to raise awareness during an especially deadly string of cycling accidents involving automobiles taking place in Houston, many of them hit and run. As of this posting, they are working on 13 more bikes to bring the list of deaths in recent years up to date.
- Harper, Tom White 'ghost bikes' pay tribute to dead riders in danger spots across Britain Daily Mail, 1 October 2008
- Sanders, Jacob Quinn (1 December 2010), "Ghost Bikes: Rough memorials honor cyclists killed while riding", post-gazette, retrieved 1 December 2010
- Walker, Peter (10 November 2011). "Ghost bikes: memorials to road victims blamed for putting people off cycling". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
- Furness, Zack (2010). One Less Car: Bicycling and the Politics of Automobility. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 55–59. ISBN 978-1-59213-613-1.
- Terry Lowe. "Ghost Bikes". Momentum Planet. Archived from the original on 12 June 2009. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
- "Jo Slota's website". Ghostbike.net. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- Fagan, Mark Friends seek ghost bike memorial for hit-and-run victim Lawrence Journal-World 25 October 2009
- Roadside displays focus on plight of bicyclists, Greg Jonsson, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 17 November 2003; re-posted on Missouri Bicycle Federation website, 29 October 2007.
- Twarowski, Christopher. "Ghostly bikes commemorate fallen cyclists, article at Columbia News Service". Jscms.jrn.columbia.edu. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- "Pittsburgh ghost bikes". Pittsburgh.indymedia.org. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- "New York Ghost Bikes". Ghostbikes.org. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- 'Ghost bikes' offer eerie reminder to share the road, Seattle Post-Intelligencer 3 August 2005.
- Created by gleejb View Groups. "Albuquerque ghost bikes". Dukecityfix.com. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- O'Connor, Josh (26 September 2011). "Information Booth: Where did those ghostly white bikes come from?". National Post. Toronto. Archived from the original on 2015-07-06. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- Ashley Halsey III (11 September 2009). "Their Love Cannot Be Unchained: After 'Ghost Bike' Removal, Cyclists' Memorial Effort Intensifies". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- "London Ghost Bikes". Ghostbikes.org. 9 January 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
- http://www.newsobserver.com/2013/07/13/3027977/ghost-bike-memorial.html News & Observer Retrieved 14 July 2013
- http://www.wral.com/bicyclist-killed-in-durham-hit-and-run/12639104/ Retrieved 13 July 2013
- http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/article/Silsbee-cyclist-takes-on-mission-to-spread-ghost-5439365.php https://www.facebook.com/groups/HTXGhostBike/?fref=nf https://mapsengine.google.com/map/edit?mid=zSZ5jdlg3FEI.k1Elhip2Ncj0
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ghost bicycles.|

Seachas a bheith ina chuimhneachán, is gnách go bhfuil sé mar mheabhrúchán do mhótarfheithiclí a théann thart an bóthar a roinnt. Is gnách go mbíonn rothair gháis ina rothair bhréagach péinteáilte go bán, uaireanta le plácar ceangailte, agus faoi ghlas ar ghné oiriúnach gar do láthair na timpiste. Uaireanta, déantar a mbreataí a bhaint acu freisin, chun go gcuirfí cosc ar ghoid.
De réir The Guardian, ba é an chéad rothar taibhse a taifeadadh i St. Louis, Missouri, i 2003. Chuir duine a chonaic bualadh idir rothair agus carr rothar péinteáilte ar an láthair le teachtaireacht a bhí á léamh: "Thit rothair anseo.
Deirtear go bhfuil an smaoineamh bunaidh rothair a phéinteáil bán ag dul ar ais go dtí cathair Amstardam sna 1960idí mar thionscadal anárcach chun iompar dhá roth a shaoradh - bhí rothair bhána saor in aisce, tabhair duit féin agus ansin fág é do dhuine eile.
D'fhéadfadh go raibh an smaoineamh rothar taibhse sna Stáit Aontaithe a tháinig le tionscadal ag ealaíontóir San Francisco Jo Slota, a thosaigh i mí Aibreáin 2002. Ba é seo iarracht ealaíne íon. Bhí spéis ag Slota sna rothair thréigthe a fuair sé timpeall na cathrach, faoi ghlas ach gan páirteanna úsáideacha. Thosaigh sé ag péintáil iad bán, agus grianghraif a phostáil ar a shuíomh Gréasáin, ghostbike.net. De réir mar a tógadh an smaoineamh chun críocha éagsúla, bhí dilema ag Slota. Tá San Francisco ar cheann de na cathracha is sábháilte sna Stáit Aontaithe do rothaitheoirí, ach tháinig rothair spiorad chuimhneacháin suas ann mar áit eile, ag athrú tuairimí faoina thionscadal.
Cuireadh tionscadal cuimhneacháin rothar taibhse ar bun i St. Louis i mí Dheireadh Fómhair 2003. Tar éis dó breathnú ar mhótarfheithicil a bhuail rothair i rian rothair ar Holly Hills Boulevard, chuir Patrick Van Der Tuin rothar péinteáilte bán ar an láthair le comhartha péinteáilte le lámh ag léamh "Rothar Struck Here". Ag tabhairt faoi deara an éifeacht a bhí ag an méid seo ar mhótarfheithiclí sa cheantar, d'iarr Van Der Tuin cabhair ó chairde chun 15 "baicéad spioradálta" eile a chur in áiteanna suntasacha i gceantar St. Louis áit a raibh rothair ag rothaíocht le déanaí. D'úsáid siad rothair damáiste, i gcásanna áirithe damáiste d'aon ghnó chun an éifeacht mhíchumhal a bhí ag teastáil a chruthú.
Cuireadh tionscadail den chineál céanna i bhfeidhm i gcathair Pittsburgh i 2004, i gCathair Nua Eabhrac, i Seattle i 2005, i mBaile Átha Cliath, agus i Toronto i 2006. I mí Lúnasa 2005, cuireadh beagnach 40 rothar taibhse ar fud Seattle chun feasacht a tharraingt ar áiteanna timpistí, beagnach-mhill, agus drochchoinníollacha bóthair. Bhí rothar taibhse i Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C., chun cuimhneamh ar rothaire a maraíodh ag trucail dramhaíola i 2008, ar feadh bliana iomlán. Nuair a bhí sé a bhaint ag fostaithe na cathrach, cairde an rothair athsholáthar é le 22 rothar taibhse, ceann ar gach post lampa. Bhí Ghostcycle Londain gníomhach i 2005 agus 2006. Bhí tionscadail den chineál céanna i mórán cathracha eile ar fud an domhain. Tosaíodh tionscadal cuimhneacháin rothar le déanaí i Durham, Carolina Thuaidh chun bás dhá abhcóide rothair agus sábháilteachta rothar a chomóradh In 2013 déanach agus go luath i 2014 Chuir Grúpa Ghost Bike Houston 47 rothar spiorad chun feasacht a ardú le linn sraith tubaistí rothaíochta a bhí ina n-áirítear gluaisteáin a bhí ag tarlú i Houston, go leor acu buailte agus rith. Ós rud é go bhfuil an post seo á chur ar fáil, tá siad ag obair ar 13 rothar eile chun an liosta de na báis le blianta beaga anuas a thabhairt suas chun dáta.
- Harper, Tom White 'baicéid ghost' ómós a thabhairt do rothaithe marbh i bpáirtithe contúirteacha ar fud na Breataine Daily Mail, 1 Deireadh Fómhair 2008
- Sanders, Jacob Quinn (1 Nollaig 2010), "Ghost Bikes: Rough memorials honor cyclists killed while riding", post-gazette, retrieved 1 Nollaig 2010
- Walker, Peter (10 Samhain 2011). "Baicéid gháis: cuimhní cinn do mharaigh bóithre a bhfuil an chúis leo daoine a chur as rothaíocht". An Caomhnóir. Faighte ar 24 Samhain 2011.
- Furness, Zack (2010). Carr amháin níos lú: Baicéalaíocht agus Polaitíocht na hOimhiotail. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 5559. ISBN 978-1-59213-613-1.
- Terry Lowe. - Tá sé. "Baicíní Ghost". Pláinéid Impulse. Archaithe ón bhunaidh ar 12 Meitheamh 2009. Faighte ar 23 Bealtaine 2011.
- "Lá Jo Slota ar an suíomh Gréasáin". Ghostbike.net. Arna óstáil ar an 25 Aibreán 2012.
- Fagan, Mark Friends lorg cuimhneachán rothar taibhse do bhuail-agus-ruith íospartach Lawrence Journal-World 25 Deireadh Fómhair 2009
- Díreoidh taispeántais ar thaobh na bóthair ar dhúshlán rothaithe, Greg Jonsson, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 17 Samhain 2003; ath-phostáilte ar shuíomh Gréasáin Chónaidhm rothaíochta Missouri, 29 Deireadh Fómhair 2007.
- Twarowski, Christopher. - Tá sé ar an mbord. "Baineann rothair ghostly le comóradh rothaithe a thit, alt ag Seirbhís Nuacht Columbia". Jscms.jrn.columbia.edu. Arna óstáil ar an 25 Aibreán 2012.
- "Baicéid Ghost Pittsburgh". Pittsburgh.indymedia.org. Arna óstáil ar an 25 Aibreán 2012.
- "Baicéad Ghost Nua Eabhrac". Ghostbikes.org. Arna óstáil ar an 25 Aibreán 2012.
- 'Baineann rothair gháis' le cuimhní grinn chun an bóthar a roinnt, Seattle Post-Intelligencer 3 Lúnasa 2005.
- Cruthaithe ag Gleejb View Groups. "Baicéid spiorad Albuquerque". Dukecityfix.com. Arna óstáil ar an 25 Aibreán 2012.
- O'Connor, Josh (26 Meán Fómhair 2011). "Booth Faisnéise: Cá as a tháinig na rothair bhána ghostly sin?". Post Náisiúnta. Toronto. Archaithe ón bhunaidh ar 2015-07-06. Arna óstáil ar an 25 Aibreán 2012.
- Ashley Halsey III (11 Meán Fómhair 2009). "Ní Féidir a n-Ghrá a Scaoileadh: Tar éis 'Baicéad Ghost' a bhaint, Déantar iarracht Cuimhneacháin na mBíosaicléirí a Dhéanamh". An Washington Post. Faighte 11 Meán Fómhair 2009.
- "Baicéid Ghost Londain". Ghostbikes.org. 9 Eanáir 2012. Arna óstáil ar an 25 Aibreán 2012.
- http://www.newsobserver.com/2013/07/13/3027977/ghost-bike-memorial.html Nuacht & Observer Aighneofar 14 Iúil 2013
- http://www.wral.com/bicyclist-killed-in-durham-hit-and-run/12639104/ Ar ais 13 Iúil 2013
- http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/article/Silsbee-cyclist-takes-on-mission-to-spread-ghost-5439365.php https://www.facebook.com/groups/HTXGhostBike/?fref=nf https://mapsengine.google.com/map/edit?mid=zSZ5jdlg3FEI.k1Elhip2Ncj0
Tá meáin ag Wikimedia Commons a bhaineann le Ghost bicycles.


Hawaii is making moves to help protect the future of its coral reefs. Gov. David Ige is expected to sign a bill that passed last week that would ban the sale of certain sunscreens that may damage coral.
And in Australia, the government is pledging nearly $380 million to help save the Great Barrier Reef, which has been badly damaged by warming waters.
Some scientists say it might be too late to save the reef. Others say there's still hope.
"This bleaching event has been devastating, and people who have been working on reefs around the world have just been heartbroken by what's occurred," he tells Here & Now's Jeremy Hobson. "But I haven't given up on coral reefs yet."
On how the Great Barrier Reef is doing at this moment
"It's had a couple of bad years. We had huge marine heat waves that hit in 2016 and 2017. In 2016, the Great Barrier Reef lost about 29 percent of its corals, and in 2017, another 22 percent. All of this was a part of a global bleaching event that lasted for three years from, 2014 to 2017, and, as I say, reached all around the world. Climate change has increased water temperatures, and you add to that climate events like El Niños and La Niñas, and the high temperatures are causing the corals to bleach and die."
"Bleaching actually is when the corals eject the microscopic algae that live inside their tissues. Corals are animals, vegetables and minerals, and these algae that live inside their tissues give them most of their food. And when high temperature stresses them, they object the algae into the water column. It leaves them injured, starving and clear-looking. And so you're actually seeing right through the tissue into the skeletons — that's bleaching. If it lasts long enough, if it's severe enough, the corals will die."
On bringing coral back
"It's not so much how do you bring them back, it's how do they bring themselves back. If it's a mild event, short-lived, the corals will actually — they have some algae still in their tissues and those algae will be able to reproduce and repopulate and you get the color back. Unfortunately, the coral is still injured, it's weaker and it's more susceptible to disease, as well. So sometimes they recover, and then they die. And, of course, the question is how do they come back after they die. Well, they're dead. It's just a matter of having the reef come back, and that takes at least 10 to 15 years for even the fast-growing corals to come back."
"This bleaching event has been devastating, and people who have been working on reefs around the world have just been heartbroken by what's occurred. But I haven't given up on coral reefs yet."Mark Eakin
On how the Australian government will try to save the Great Barrier Reef
"That's a good question. I've heard different things. The majority of what they're looking at are efforts to improve water quality, and that's great because water quality does cause problems to reefs. But unless we can control climate change, just doing water-quality adjustments alone are not going to be enough.
"The crown-of-thorns starfish is a predator that been naturally occurring on reefs, but there's some evidence that under situations where there are more nutrients, you actually have more starfish. And, you know, right now the reef's in bad enough shape that any of these waves of starfish coming through are going to cause real problems. So, yes, that's another good thing, and going through and getting rid of the starfish as much as they can will help the reef. But, again, that's just a piece of the problem."
On the global phenomenon
"The Great Barrier Reef is just one of the reefs around the world that is really being affected by climate change at this point. This global bleaching event — and that's why it's important to keep it in mind, that what happened in Australia was part of a global event. We had severe bleaching in Florida in 2014 and 2015. We had severe bleaching in Hawaii in 2014 and 2015. We had bleaching in Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, both U.S. territories, that have actually happened four of the last five years. So it's all of our coral reefs. And these are amazing places that, you have a billion people around the world relying on them for fish, they protect shoreline from storms and tsunamis and they're very important economically. And so it's not just the Great Barrier Reef that we're talking about."
On taking action to address the future of the Great Barrier Reef and other reefs
"The important thing, though, is for the last decade we've been saying that the two things we have to do is, No. 1, we have to get climate change under control. And that's a matter of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere — not just reducing emissions, but reducing carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases.
"No. 2, we need to reduce those local stresses, and this is where their work on nutrients and other pollutants is very important, where the crown-of-thorns starfish is important. Dealing with overfishing, habitat destruction — all really important. But now we've waited so long to really do anything about these, people are looking at very dramatic, radical conservation steps. Trying to selectively breed corals to put out on the reef. There's even talk of genetic engineering. There's talk of geoengineering, cooling the reef on large scales, either with water pumps or even making low-level clouds in areas. You're not talking about it for all the reefs, but for sections of the reef. There are other projects, one of which I'm a part of, called 50 Reefs, where we're trying to identify those reefs around the world most likely to survive during climate change and be able to reseed nearby reefs after climate change is under control. And then those become very important places to look at protecting. So, it's a big job, and we need to get on it fast. But I haven't given up hope, and I don't want anyone else to either."
This segment aired on May 9, 2018.
- Australia Investing $377 Million To Protect Great Barrier Reef
- Climate Change Is Killing Coral On The Great Barrier Reef
- Once Dying And Bleached, A Pacific Coral Reef Is Blooming Again
- Hawaii Approves Bill Banning Sunscreen Believed To Kill Coral Reefs
- NOAA: Global Bleaching Event Threatens World's Coral Reefs
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Tá Hawaii ag déanamh gluaiseachtaí chun cabhrú le todhchaí a chuid criosanna corail a chosaint. Gob. Táthar ag súil go síneoidh David Ige bille a ritheadh an tseachtain seo caite a chuirfeadh cosc ar dhíol scátháin ghréasáin áirithe a d'fhéadfadh damáiste a dhéanamh do chorrál.
Agus san Astráil, tá an rialtas ag gealladh beagnach $380 milliún chun cuidiú leis an gCarraig Mhór a shábháil, a ndearnadh damáiste mór dó de bharr uisce atá ag téamh.
Deir roinnt eolaithe go bhféadfadh sé a bheith ró-dhéanach an ríf a shábháil. Deir daoine eile go bhfuil dóchas ann fós.
"Tá an t-imeacht bleaching seo tar éis a bheith tubaisteach, agus tá daoine a bhí ag obair ar charraigí ar fud an domhain díreach tar éis a chroí a bhriseadh leis an méid a tharla", a deir sé Jeremy Hobson de Here & Now. "Ach ní dhearna mé suas ar chraobhanna corail go fóill".
Ar conas a bhfuil an Great Barrier Reef ag déanamh ag an nóiméad seo
"Tá sé a bhí cúpla bliain olc. Bhí tonnta te mara ollmhór againn a bhuail i 2016 agus 2017. Sa bhliain 2016, chaill an Great Barrier Reef thart ar 29 faoin gcéad dá chorráin, agus sa bhliain 2017, 22 faoin gcéad eile. Bhí sé seo go léir mar chuid d'imeacht bleaching domhanda a mhair ar feadh trí bliana, ó 2014 go 2017, agus, mar a deirim, a shroich an domhan ar fad. Tá athrú aeráide tar éis teocht an uisce a mhéadú, agus má chuirtear leis sin imeachtaí aeráide mar El Niños agus La Niñas, agus tá na teochtaí ard ag cur na corail a bhleith agus a bháis".
"Is é an bleaching i ndáiríre nuair a scaipeann na corail na algaí micreascópúla a chónaíonn taobh istigh dá bhfíocháin. Is ainmhithe, glasraí agus mianraí iad na corail, agus tugann na glóine seo a chónaíonn taobh istigh dá bhfíocháin an chuid is mó dá n-aiste dóibh. Agus nuair a bhíonn teochta ard ag cur brú orthu, déanann siad na algaí a chur isteach sa cholún uisce. Fágann sé iad gortaithe, ag fulaingt agus soiléir-ag féachaint. Agus mar sin tá tú ag féachaint i ndáiríre díreach tríd an fíochán isteach sna cnámha - sin bleaching. Má mhaireann sé fada go leor, má tá sé tromchúiseach go leor, básfaidh na corail. "
Ar coral a thabhairt ar ais
"Níl sé chomh mór sin conas a thabhairt dóibh ar ais, tá sé conas a thabhairt iad féin ar ais. Má tá sé ina ócáid éadrom, gearr-bheatha, beidh na corail i ndáiríre  tá siad roinnt algaí fós ina gcuid fíocháin agus beidh na algaí a bheith in ann a atáirgeadh agus ath-chló agus a fháil ar ais an dath. Ar an drochuair, tá an corail fós gortaithe, tá sé níos laige agus tá sé níos so-ghabhálach do ghalair, chomh maith. Mar sin uaireanta téann siad ar ais, agus ansin bás. Agus, ar ndóigh, is é an cheist conas a thagann siad ar ais tar éis a mbás. Bhuel, tá siad marbh. Ní gá ach an crios a athbhunú, agus tógann sé 10 go 15 bliain ar a laghad chun na corail atá ag fás go tapa a athbhunú".
"Tá an t-imeacht bleaching seo devastating, agus tá daoine a bhí ag obair ar reefs ar fud an domhain díreach a bhí briseadh croí ag an méid a tharla. Ach níor thug mé suas ar chraobhanna corail go fóill. "Mark Eakin
Ar an gcaoi a ndéanfaidh rialtas na hAstráile iarracht an Charraig Mhór a shábháil
"Is ceist mhaith í sin. Chuala mé rudaí éagsúla. Is é an chuid is mó de na rudaí a bhfuil siad ag féachaint orthu ná iarrachtaí chun cáilíocht an uisce a fheabhsú, agus tá sé sin iontach mar go gcuireann cáilíocht an uisce fadhbanna le hailtíní. Ach mura féidir linn athrú aeráide a rialú, ní bheidh sé go leor ach oiriúnú cáilíochta uisce a dhéanamh.
"Is éard atá sa rás-chroí-thorns ná rabhadóir a tharlaíonn go nádúrtha ar na hiomáin, ach tá roinnt fianaise ann go bhfuil níos mó rás-chroí i gcásanna ina bhfuil níos mó cothaithigh agat. Agus, tá a fhios agat, anois an crios-chraobh i gcruth dona go leor go bhfuil aon cheann de na tonnta de réaltaí mara ag teacht trí ag dul a chur faoi deara fadhbanna fíor. Mar sin, tá, sin rud maith eile, agus ag dul trí agus fáil réidh leis an réaltaí mara an oiread agus is féidir leo cabhróidh sé an reef. Ach, arís, ní hé sin ach cuid den fhadhb".
Maidir leis an bhfeiniméan domhanda
"Ní hé an Great Barrier Reef ach ceann de na cnáibí ar fud an domhain atá i ndáiríre ag fulaingt ó athrú aeráide ag an bpointe seo. Seo ócáid bleaching domhanda  agus sin an fáth go bhfuil sé tábhachtach a choinneáil i gcuimhne, go raibh an méid a tharla san Astráil mar chuid d'eispéireas domhanda. Bhí bleaching tromchúiseach againn i Florida in 2014 agus 2015. Bhí bleaching tromchúiseach againn i Haváí in 2014 agus 2015. Bhí bleaching againn i Guam agus i gComhchoitinn Oileáin Mhuiríana Thuaidh, an dá chríoch de chuid na Stát Aontaithe, a tharla i ndáiríre ceithre bliana de na cúig bliana anuas. Mar sin tá sé go léir ár n-aislingí corail. Agus is áiteanna iontacha iad seo, tá billiún duine ar fud an domhain ag brath orthu le haghaidh iasc, cosnaíonn siad cósta ó stoirmeacha agus tsunamis agus tá siad an-tábhachtach go heacnamaíoch. Agus mar sin ní amháin an Great Barrier Reef atá á labhairt againn".
Maidir le gníomh a ghlacadh chun aghaidh a thabhairt ar thodhchaí an Chraobh Mór Bhairric agus na gcraobhchraobh eile
"Ach is é an rud tábhachtach, le deich mbliana anuas, go bhfuil muid ag rá go bhfuil an dá rud a chaithfimid a dhéanamh, Níl. 1, ní mór dúinn athrú aeráide a fháil faoi smacht. Agus is ceist í sin méid na dé-ocsaide carbóin san atmaisféar a laghdú - ní hamháin astaíochtaí a laghdú, ach dé-ocsaide carbóin agus gáis eile a chaitheann teas a laghdú.
"Níl. 2, ní mór dúinn na strusanna áitiúla sin a laghdú, agus is é seo an áit a bhfuil a gcuid oibre ar chothaithigh agus truailleoirí eile an-tábhachtach, áit a bhfuil an crown-of-thorns starfish tábhachtach. Déileáil le ró-iascaireacht, scrios gnáthóg  go léir an-tábhachtach. Ach anois tá muid ag fanacht chomh fada le rud éigin a dhéanamh faoi seo, tá daoine ag féachaint ar chéimeanna caomhnaithe an-drámatúla, radacach. Ag iarraidh corail a ghiniúint go roghnach chun iad a chur ar an gcarraig. Tá fiú labhairt de innealtóireacht ghéiniteach. Tá cainte ann faoi ghéar-innealtóireacht, an crios-chraobh a fhuaraithe ar scála mór, le caidéil uisce nó fiú scamaill ísealleibhéil a dhéanamh i gceantair. Ní bhaineann sé leis na criosanna go léir, ach le codanna den chrios. Tá tionscadail eile ann, ceann acu ina bhfuil mé mar chuid, ar a dtugtar 50 Rith, áit a bhfuil muid ag iarraidh na rith ar fud an domhain a aithint a bhfuil an seans is mó acu maireachtáil le linn athrú aeráide agus a bheith in ann ríthe in aice láimhe a athshéanadh tar éis athrú aeráide a bheith faoi smacht. Agus ansin bíonn na háiteanna sin an-tábhachtach chun iad a chosaint. Mar sin, tá sé ina phost mór, agus ní mór dúinn a fháil ar sé go tapa. Ach ní chaill mé dóchas, agus nílim ag iarraidh go gcaillfeadh duine ar bith eile dóchas".
Seoladh an t-earra seo ar 9 Bealtaine, 2018.
- Tá an Astráil ag infheistiú $377 milliún chun an Chraobh Mór Cothroime a chosaint
- Tá Athrú Aeráide ag Murt Coral ar an Réamhchraobh Mór
- A bhí ag bás agus ag bleachtaithe uair amháin, tá crios corail an Aigéin Chiúin ag bláthadh arís
- Hawaii Approves Bill to Ban Sunscreen Creidtear go bhfuil sé ag Maraíocht Réithe Coral
- NOAA: Tá an t-eagrán bleaching domhanda ag bagairt ar chraobhanna corail an domhain
Tacaigh leis an nuacht
Tacaigh leis an nuacht


Questions and Answers
- Why is ESA running a public consultation?
- How will public opinion be taken into account in ESA's long-term planning?
- Why do you not mention crewed missions or sending humans to other planets and moons in the Solar System?
- I will complete my studies in space science/astronomy soon. Should I respond to the public survey or to the professional consultation?
- There is no survey in my native language. Can I reply in my language to one of the other surveys?
- Why is ESA planning now for missions that will be operating in 30 years time?
- Why do you need another X-ray/infrared/microwave mission when there have already been several?
- I don't live in/am not a citizen of an ESA Member State. Do you want my opinion?
- I have an idea for a mission for the Science Programme. Where can I send it?
- I cannot use a computer but I want to share my views on the future science programme. Can I submit my responses on paper?
ESA's Science Directorate is responsible for developing the long-term plan for space science missions at ESA. Since the mid 1980s this plan has been developed in consultation with the scientific community in Europe. The Director of Science, Günther Hasinger, is responsible for preparing Voyage 2050 the next long-term plan. This will cover the period from about 2035 to 2050. In addition to consulting the scientific community, the Director is inviting the public to share their views about the big science questions that should be addressed by space missions during that time period. By providing an opportunity to participate in the formation of Voyage 2050, ESA wishes to foster a sense of ownership and involvement in the missions, as well as creating a transparent and open process.
The views expressed by the public during this consultation will be presented to the Director and decision-makers in the Science Directorate, as well as to the scientists from the community who have been tasked with devising the future programme.
Why do you not mention crewed missions or sending humans to other planets and moons in the Solar System?
ESA's Science Programme falls under the responsibility of the Directorate of Science and is focused on the investigation of astrophysical phenomena and natural bodies in outer space using spacecraft or scientific probes for remote and/or in-situ physical measurements. Crewed missions and human exploration beyond Earth fall under the responsibility of the Directorate of Human and Robotic Exploration Programmes and do not form part of the long-term Science Programme.
I will complete my studies in space science/astronomy soon. Should I respond to the public survey or to the professional consultation?
If you are not yet active in the field you are welcome to respond to the public consultation. If you are already an active space scientist/astronomer we encourage you to participate in the consultation with the professional community, details of this are available here.
We can only support the survey in these languages: Dutch, English, Estonian, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, and Spanish. You are welcome to submit your replies, in your native language, via any of the forms.
The missions in ESA's Science Programme form the building blocks of a long-term space science plan that has been devised to answer big science questions, such as:
- What are the conditions for planetary formation and the emergence of life?
- How does the Solar System work?
- What are the physical fundamental laws of the Universe?
- How did the Universe originate and what is it made of?
The existence of a long-term plan has led to ground-breaking missions such as:
- Huygens, the probe that landed on Saturn's moon, Titan, in 2005;
- Rosetta, the spacecraft that accompanied a comet during its closest approach to the Sun and, in 2014, deployed a lander to the comet's surface;
- Gaia, which since 2014 has been mapping the positions and motions of more than 1 billion stars in our Milky Way and beyond;
and many more.
Missions like these take decades to come to fruition, requiring a long period of preparation and technological development before construction can begin. The existence of a long-term plan for the Science Programme provides the confidence for scientists, engineers, industry, and funding agencies that their sustained efforts for decades are not in vain.
Each new generation of spacecraft and instruments takes advantage of developments in technology and builds on the knowledge that has already been gained to choose new questions that can be fruitfully tackled with the available tools.
We welcome your opinion, even if you are not resident in an ESA Member State.
Specific ideas for missions can be submitted under the Call for White Papers; for further details, see this web page.
I cannot use a computer but I want to share my views on the future science programme. Can I submit my responses on paper?
If you cannot respond to the survey online we will accept responses on paper. Please post your response to:
Discovering our Universe – public consultation
European Space Research & Technology Centre
2200 AG Noordwijk

Ceisteanna agus Freagraí
- Cén fáth a bhfuil an ESA ag seoladh comhairliúcháin phoiblí?
- Conas a dhéanfar tuairim an phobail a chur san áireamh i bpleanáil fhadtéarmach ESA?
- Cén fáth nach luaitear misin criú nó daoine a sheoladh chuig pláinéid eile agus míonna sa Chóras Sólar?
- Beidh mé ag críochnú mo chuid staidéir i spáis eolaíocht / réalteolaíocht go luath. An cheart dom freagairt don suirbhé poiblí nó don chomhairliúchán gairmiúil?
- Níl aon suirbhé i mo theanga dhúchais. An féidir liom freagra a thabhairt i mo theanga ar cheann de na suirbhéanna eile?
- Cén fáth go bhfuil ESA ag pleanáil anois le haghaidh misean a bheidh ag feidhmiú i gceann 30 bliain?
- Cén fáth a bhfuil tú ag teastáil eile X-ray / infridhearg / micreathonn misean nuair a bhí cheana féin roinnt?
- Ní mhairim/ní saoránach mé de Bhallstát de chuid ESA. An bhfuil tú ag iarraidh mo thuairim?
- Tá smaoineamh agam le haghaidh misean don Chlár Eolaíochta. Cá háit is féidir liom é a sheoladh?
- Ní féidir liom ríomhaire a úsáid ach ba mhaith liom mo thuairimí a roinnt ar an gclár eolaíochta sa todhchaí. An féidir liom mo fhreagraí a chur isteach ar pháipéar?
Tá Stiúrthóireacht Eolaíochta ESA freagrach as an plean fadtéarmach a fhorbairt do mhisean eolaíochta spáis ag ESA. Ó lár na 1980idí, tá an plean seo á fhorbairt i gcomhairle leis an bpobal eolaíoch san Eoraip. Tá an Stiúrthóir Eolaíochta, Günther Hasinger, freagrach as an Voyage 2050 a ullmhú, an chéad phlean fadtéarmach eile. Clúdóidh sé seo an tréimhse ó 2035 go 2050 thart. Chomh maith le dul i gcomhairle leis an bpobal eolaíoch, tá an Stiúrthóir ag tabhairt cuireadh don phobal a gcuid tuairimí a roinnt faoi na ceisteanna eolaíochta móra ar cheart aghaidh a thabhairt orthu le misin spáis le linn na tréimhse ama sin. Trí deis a chur ar fáil chun páirt a ghlacadh i bhfoirmiú Voyage 2050, ba mhaith leis an ESA mothú úinéireachta agus rannpháirtíochta sna misin a chothú, chomh maith le próiseas trédhearcach agus oscailte a chruthú.
Cuirfear na tuairimí a chuir an pobal in iúl le linn na comhairliúcháin seo i láthair an Stiúrthóra agus lucht cinnteoireachta sa Stiúrthóireacht Eolaíochta, chomh maith leis na heolaithe ón bpobal a bhfuil sé de chúram orthu an clár sa todhchaí a cheapadh.
Cén fáth nach luaitear misin criú nó daoine a sheoladh chuig pláinéid agus ghealach eile sa Chóras Sólar?
Tá Clár Eolaíochta ESA faoi fhreagracht na Stiúrthóireachta Eolaíochta agus dírithe ar imscrúdú ar fheiniméin réalteolaíochta agus comhlachtaí nádúrtha sa spás amuigh ag baint úsáide as spásárthaí nó sondes eolaíocha le haghaidh tomhais fhisiceacha iargúlta agus/nó in-situ. Tá misin le criú agus iniúchadh daonna thar an Domhan faoi fhreagracht na Stiúrthóireachta um Chláir Iniúchta Daonna agus Róbataí agus ní cuid den Chlár Eolaíochta fadtéarmach iad.
Críochnóidh mé mo chuid staidéir i eolaíocht spáis / réalteolaíocht go luath. An cheart dom freagairt don suirbhé poiblí nó don chomhairliúchán gairmiúil?
Má tá tú nach bhfuil gníomhach fós sa réimse, tá fáilte romhat freagra a thabhairt ar an gcomhairliúchán poiblí. Má tá tú cheana féin ina eolaí/réalteolaí spáis gníomhach, molaimid duit páirt a ghlacadh sa chomhairliúchán leis an bpobal gairmiúil, tá sonraí faoi seo ar fáil anseo.
Ní féidir linn tacú leis an suirbhé ach sna teangacha seo: an Ollainnis, an Béarla, an Eistinneach, an Fraincis, an Ghearmáinis, an Ungáiris, an Iodáilis agus an Spáinnis. Tá fáilte romhat a gcuid freagraí a chur isteach, i do theanga dhúchais, trí aon cheann de na foirmeacha.
Is iad na misin atá i gClár Eolaíochta ESA na bloic thógála a bhaineann le plean eolaíochta spáis fadtéarmach a ceapadh chun ceisteanna móra eolaíochta a fhreagairt, amhail:
- Cad iad na coinníollacha le haghaidh foirmiú pláinéid agus teacht chun cinn na beatha?
- Conas a oibríonn an Córas Sólar?
- Cad iad na dlíthe bunúsacha fisiceach an Cruinne?
- Conas a tháinig an Cruinne agus cad é a dhéantar as?
Tá an plean fadtéarmach seo tar éis misean réabhlóideach a chruthú, amhail:
- Huygens, an sond a tháinig i dtír ar ghealach Satarn, Titan, i 2005;
- Rosetta, an spásárthach a bhí ag gabháil le coimhéad le linn a chur chuige is gaire don Ghrian agus, in 2014, a chuir lander ar an dromchla coimhéadach;
- Gaia, a bhfuil, ó 2014, ag mapsáil suíomhanna agus gluaiseachtaí níos mó ná 1 billiún réalta inár mBóthar Bainne agus níos faide uainn;
agus go leor eile.
Tógann misean den sórt sin blianta fada chun torthaí a bhaint amach, rud a éilíonn tréimhse fada ullmhúcháin agus forbartha teicneolaíochta sula bhféadfar tús a chur leis an tógáil. Tugann plean fadtéarmach don Chlár Eolaíochta muinín do eolaithe, do innealtóirí, d'fhiontair agus d'eagraíochtaí cistiúcháin nach bhfuil a gcuid iarrachtaí leanúnacha le blianta fada ar neamhní.
Baineann gach glúin nua de na spásárthaí agus de na hionstraimí leas as forbairtí sa teicneolaíocht agus tógann sé ar an eolas a fuarthas cheana féin chun ceisteanna nua a roghnú ar féidir dul i ngleic leo go torthaích leis na huirlisí atá ar fáil.
Tá fáilte roimh do thuairim, fiú mura bhfuil cónaí ort i mBallstát de chuid ESA.
Is féidir smaointe sonracha le haghaidh misin a chur isteach faoin gCarraig do Leabhair Bán; le haghaidh tuilleadh sonraí, féach an leathanach gréasáin seo.
Ní féidir liom ríomhaire a úsáid ach ba mhaith liom mo thuairimí a roinnt ar an gclár eolaíochta sa todhchaí. An féidir liom mo fhreagraí a chur isteach ar pháipéar?
Mura féidir leat an suirbhé a fhreagairt ar líne glacfaimid le freagraí ar pháipéar. Cuir do fhreagra ar aghaidh chuig:
Ag Fionnachtain ár nDomhnach  comhairliúchán poiblí
Ionad Eorpach Taighde agus Teicneolaíochta Spáis
2200 AG Noordwijk


|The Salting Salamander|
Europe, Sixteenth Century
The Victoria & Albert Museum
A large Baroque pearl forms the body of this salamander. Jewelers have always appreciated the irregularity of the baroque pearl which affords a chance to be creative. Renaissance jewelers especially enjoyed the challenge of taking the natural shape of the pearl and forcing it into the very controlled compositions of the era.
Made in the Sixteenth Century, this European pendant, known as the Salting Salamander, was treasured not only for its beauty, but also for its symbolic meaning. Since antiquity, salamanders were thought to be impervious to fire. Aristotle and Pliny actually claimed that a salamander had the power to extinguish flames. Within time, the salamander became a symbol of fire itself and was often used to communicate ardent passion. It’s likely this pendant served as a token of affection.
The pendant, hung with a pearl, is meant to be viewed from all sides and represents a salamander in three dimensions. A table-cut emerald is set at the creature's head and the whole is adorned with fine enamel work.
Its last owner, George Salting, bequeathed the piece to the V&A in 1910.

An Salamander Salting
An Eoraip, an Séú haois déag
An Músaem Victoria & Albert
Tá péarla mór Barócach ar chorp an salamandra seo. Tá meas ag seodraithe i gcónaí ar neamhrialtacht na bpéire barócacha a thugann deis a bheith cruthaitheach. Bhí spéis ag seodraithe an Renaissance go háirithe sa dúshlán a bhí ann cruth nádúrtha na bpéarla a ghlacadh agus é a chur i gcomhdhéanamh an-rialta na ré.
Déanta sa Séú haois déag, bhí luach ar an mbonn Eorpach seo, ar a dtugtar an Salamander Salting, ní hamháin as a áilleacht, ach freisin as a chiall shiombalach. Ó shin, meastar go raibh salamanders neamh-inbhéartach don tine. D'éiligh Aistritheoil agus Plíine go raibh cumhacht ag salamander lasadh lasadh. Le tamall, tháinig an salamander ina siombail den tine féin agus baineadh úsáid as go minic chun paisean ard a chur in iúl. Is dócha gur comhartha grámhar é an pendant seo.
Tá an pendant, a bhfuil péarla crochta air, ceaptha le feiceáil ó gach taobh agus léiríonn sé salamander i dtrí thrí. Tá smaraide deartha ag an mbord curtha ag ceann an chreatúir agus tá an t-iomláine adorned le obair smálach fíneáil.
D'fhág a úinéir dheireanach, George Salting, an píosa don V&A i 1910.


Turning steam into power
New Zealand’s geothermal power stations produce electricity using the following process:
- Geothermal fluid – a naturally occurring mineralised mixture of pressurised water and steam heated to between 200º and 300ºC – is drawn from a geothermal field by production wells at depths of 1–3 kilometres. Temperatures as high as 326ºC have been recorded at Mōkai, which is thought to be New Zealand’s hottest geothermal field.
- The high-pressure hot water is separated into steam and water, and the dry steam is used to spin turbines. The spinning of the turbines generates electricity.
- Modern geothermal power plants such as Rotokawa, commissioned in 1997, have secondary (binary) turbines. Low-pressure exhaust steam heats pentane (a hydrocarbon with the low boiling point of 34ºC), producing the gas that spins the binary turbines.
- All waste fluids are injected back into the geothermal field to help replenish it and to avoid contaminating surface waters with dissolved chemicals.
Geothermal energy potential
Despite the success of the Wairākei project, which has proved to be a cost-effective and reliable contributor to New Zealand’s electricity supply system, it was not until the late 1980s that further geothermal power stations were built, at Ōhākī and Kawerau. The pioneering zeal of the 1950s and 1960s was followed by a lull during the 1970s and 1980s, when attention turned to the large Māui natural-gas field. However, this is expected to run out before 2010, and interest in geothermal power, along with other renewable sources such as wind and solar energy, has been revived.
There was a rapid growth in the production of electricity between 1995 and 2000 in response to the 1993 deregulation of electricity supply and generation. In 2002 New Zealand had seven geothermal power stations. Six were in the Taupō Volcanic Zone, and one at Ngāwhā in Northland. Geothermally generated electricity provided about 7% of New Zealand’s total electricity.
New Zealand’s geothermal energy potential is considered large in comparison to other renewable energy sources, and could supply a third of our total electricity needs if fully developed. However, there are significant costs to the environment.

Ag casadh gaile go cumhachta
Táirgeann stáisiúin chumhachta geotermacha na Seilge Nua leictreachas trí úsáid a bhaint as an bpróiseas seo a leanas:
- Tá sreabhach geotermaí  meascán mianraíithe de ghnáth de uisce brúite agus gaile téite go 200o agus 300oC  á tharraingt ó réimse geotermaí trí bhoscaí táirgeachta ag doimhneacht 13 ciliméadar. Taifeadadh teocht chomh hard le 326oC ag Mōkai, a mheastar a bheith ina réimse geothermal is teo sa Nua-Shéalainn.
- Déantar an t-uisce te ardbhrú a scaradh i bpá agus uisce, agus úsáidtear an bpá tirim chun turbinaí a rothlú. Tá an t-eitiltire ag a bheith ag casadh agus tá leictreachas á ghiniúint aige.
- Tá turbíní (dhéagrúch) tánaisteacha ag gléasraí geothermacha nua-aimseartha mar Rotokawa, a cuireadh i mbun oibre i 1997. Teasann gaile aschuir íseal-bhrú pentane (hiodrocarbóin a bhfuil pointe boilg íseal de 34oC) agus déantar an gáis a tháirgeann na turbinaí déthaobhacha a thiomáint.
- Instealladh gach sreabhach dramhaíola ar ais isteach sa réimse geothermacha chun cuidiú leis an réimse a athshlánú agus chun truailliú uisce dromchla a sheachaint le ceimiceáin tuaslagtha.
D'fhéadfadh an t-eagóir fuinnimh geotermaí
In ainneoin rath an tionscadail Wairākei, a chruthaigh go raibh sé ina ranníocóir costéifeachtach agus iontaofa do chóras soláthair leictreachais na Nua-Shéalainne, ní raibh sé go dtí deireadh na 1980idí gur tógadh stáisiúin cumhachta geotermacha eile, ag Ōhākī agus Kawerau. Lean díograis na mbreitheála sna 1950idí agus sna 1960idí le cúl le linn na 1970idí agus na 1980idí, nuair a d'fhéach aird ar réimse mór gáis nádúrtha Māui. Táthar ag súil go mbeidh sé seo caite roimh 2010, áfach, agus tá spéis ar ais ag an gcumhacht gheoiteirmeach, mar aon le foinsí in-athnuaite eile amhail fuinneamh gaoithe agus gréine.
Bhí fás tapa ar tháirgeadh leictreachais idir 1995 agus 2000 mar fhreagra ar dhíreagrú soláthair agus giniúna leictreachais 1993. Sa bhliain 2002, bhí seacht gcathair cumhachta geothermaí ag an Nua-Shéalainn. Bhí sé sa Chrios Volcán Taupō, agus ceann amháin ag Ngāwhā i dTuaisceart. Soláthraíonn leictreachas a ghineann geothermal thart ar 7% de ghinearáil iomlán na Nua-Shéalainne.
Meastar go bhfuil acmhainneacht fuinnimh geotermaí na Nua-Shéalainne mór i gcomparáid le foinsí eile fuinnimh in-athnuaite, agus d'fhéadfadh sé a sholáthar ar an tríú cuid dár ngá leictreachais iomlán má fhorbraítear go hiomlán é. Mar sin féin, tá costais shuntasacha ann don chomhshaol.


Today, I read a magazine along with my morning tea and came across the word “ubiquitous.” Unknowingly my eyebrows went up with a doubt hitting my vocabulary list. Then I found out that it is one of my most commonly used words omnipresent through Google. Nowadays, it has evolved into something more than a search engine. Technically there are many search engines. And there is no rocket science involved in it. Search engines keep track of their customers’ surfing activities and share that data with marketers and other interested parties.
What is Elastic search?
Elasticsearch was created as an output of the third version of the compass by Shay Banon. He developed “a distributed solution from the ground up” and employed a standard interface, JSON via HTTP, that could be used by programs written in languages other than Java. Elasticsearch was launched in February 2010. It is a software that enables you to store, search easily, and analyse large amounts of data in near real-time, with responses arriving in milliseconds.
How does it work?
The best way to understand what is elasticsearch and how it works is to know the basic concept in what way it organizes the data and its back-end components. The basic or logical components are documents, indices, and inverted indexes. Documents are the basic units, and index is the collection of documents that are logically related. In Elasticsearch, an index is an inverted index, which is how all search engines operate. It’s a data structure that stores a mapping between information (such as words or integers) and their places in a document or series of documents.
On the other hand, backend components are clusters, nodes, shards, and replicas. Elasticsearch cluster is what gives it its power. A node is a storage device that also participates in the cluster’s indexing and search functions. Elasticsearch allows you to split the index into shards, which are smaller portions of the index. Replicas provide redundant copies of your data to defend against hardware failure and boost capacity to satisfy read demands such as document searches and retrieval.
Why is Elasticsearch preferable?
Elasticsearch is the most prominent and popular search engine. It uses the Lucene library as its foundation. It’s a full-text search engine with a distributed, multitenant capability, an HTTP web interface, and schema-free JSON documents. It is written in Java and is dual-licensed under the open-source Server-Side Public License and the Elastic license. Some sections are under the Elastic commercial license (source-available) L’elastique.
Elasticsearch is an important search engine that focuses on documents. It searches an index rather than the text directly, and it is possible to provide quick search results. It can be used in several use cases like search for an application, a website, or a company, Logging and Analysis of logs, Container monitoring and infrastructure metrics, Monitoring the performance of an application, Analysis and display of geospatial data, Analytical security, and Analytical business. It has made web services rapid and more effective, especially in business and information technology. The potential is increasing day by day, and so the productivity. Elasticsearch is super fast because it’s built on top of Lucane, it works amazingly at full-text-search, a document is indexed within a short time period sometimes within one second, I know it’s crazy!
Elasticsearch is super fast because it’s built on top of Lucane, it works amazingly at full-text-search, a document is indexed within a short time period sometimes within one second, I know it’s crazy!

Sa lá atá inniu ann, léigh mé iris chomh maith le mo tae maidin agus tháinig mé ar an bhfocal ubiquitous. Gan fhios agam d'ardaigh mo bhróga le amhras ag bualadh ar mo liosta focal. Ansin fuair mé amach go bhfuil sé ar cheann de mo chuid is mó a úsáidtear go coitianta focail omnipresent trí Google. Sa lá atá inniu ann, tá sé tar éis éabhlóid a dhéanamh i rud éigin níos mó ná inneall cuardaigh. Go teicniúil tá go leor innill chuardaigh ann. Agus níl aon eolaíocht roicéad i gceist leis. Déanann innill chuardaigh rian ar ghníomhaíochtaí surfála a gcustaiméirí agus roinntear na sonraí sin le margaitheoirí agus páirtithe leasmhara eile.
Cad é cuardach Éalastach?
Cruthaíodh Elasticsearch mar aschur den tríú leagan den champas ag Shay Banon. D'fhorbair sé "réiteach dáileadh ó bhun go barr" agus d'fhostaigh sé comhéadan caighdeánach, JSON trí HTTP, a d'fhéadfadh cláir a scríobh i dteangacha seachas Java a úsáid. Seoladh Elasticsearch i mí Feabhra 2010. Is bogearraí é a chuireann ar do chumas méideanna móra sonraí a stóráil, a chuardach go héasca, agus a anailísiú i bhfíor-am, agus freagraí ag teacht i míleatiméadair.
Conas a oibríonn sé?
Is é an bealach is fearr chun tuiscint a fháil ar cad é an cuardach éalais agus conas a oibríonn sé ná an bunchoincheap a fhios a bheith agat ar an mbealach a eagraíonn sé na sonraí agus a chomhpháirteanna cúlra. Is iad na comhpháirteanna bunúsacha nó loighciúla doiciméid, innéacsanna agus innéacsanna inbhéartaithe. Is iad doiciméid na haonaid bhunúsacha, agus is é innéacs an bailiúchán doiciméid atá gaolmhar go loighciúil. I Elasticsearch, is innéacs inbhéartaithe é innéacs, is é sin an chaoi a n-oibríonn gach innill chuardaigh. Is struchtúr sonraí é a stórálann mhapáil idir faisnéis (mar fhocail nó líon iomlán) agus a n-áiteanna i ndoiciméad nó i sraith doiciméid.
Ar an láimh eile, is iad comhpháirteanna cúlra na cnuasaigh, na nóid, na sracáin agus na hathscríbhinní. Is é an clústeoir Elasticsearch a thugann a chumhacht dó. Is gléas stórála é nód a ghlacann páirt freisin i bhfeidhmeanna innéacsaithe agus cuardaigh an chlústéir. Ligeann Elasticsearch duit an t-innéacs a roinnt ina chuid is lú den innéacs. Soláthraíonn máilí cóipeanna as cuimsí de do chuid sonraí chun cosaint a chur i gcoinne easpa crua-earraí agus cumas a mhéadú chun éilimh léitheoireachta a shásamh amhail cuardach agus aisghabháil doiciméid.
Cén fáth go bhfuil Elasticsearch níos fearr?
Is é Elasticsearch an t-inneall cuardaigh is suntasaí agus is mó a bhfuil tóir air. Úsáideann sé leabharlann Lucene mar bhunús. Is inneall cuardaigh iomlán téacs é le cumas dáileadh, il-chomhthánaithe, comhéadan gréasáin HTTP, agus doiciméid JSON saor ó scéim. Tá sé scríofa i Java agus tá sé faoi cheadúnas dúbailte faoin gceadúnas poiblí server-side foinse oscailte agus an cheadúnas Elastic. Tá roinnt rannáin faoi cheadúnas tráchtála Elastic (foinse-infhaighte) Lelastique.
Is inneall cuardaigh tábhachtach é Elasticsearch a dhíríonn ar dhoiciméid. Cuardaíonn sé innéacs seachas an téacs go díreach, agus is féidir torthaí cuardaigh tapa a sholáthar. Is féidir é a úsáid i roinnt cásanna úsáide mar chuardach ar iarratas, ar shuíomh Gréasáin, nó ar chuideachta, Logáil agus anailís ar chláir, Monatóireacht coimeádáin agus tomhais bonneagair, Monatóireacht a dhéanamh ar fheidhmíocht iarratais, Anailís agus taispeáint sonraí geospáis, slándáil anailíseach, agus gnó anailíseach. Tá sé tar éis seirbhísí gréasáin a dhéanamh níos tapúla agus níos éifeachtaí, go háirithe i ngnó agus i dteicneolaíocht faisnéise. Tá an acmhainn ag méadú ó lá go lá, agus mar sin tá an táirgiúlacht. Tá Elasticsearch an-tapa toisc go bhfuil sé tógtha ar bharr Lucane, oibríonn sé go hiontach ag cuardach téacs iomlán, tá doiciméad innéacsaithe laistigh de thréimhse ghearr ama uaireanta laistigh de shé nóiméad, tá a fhios agam go bhfuil sé crazy!
Tá Elasticsearch an-tapa toisc go bhfuil sé tógtha ar bharr Lucane, oibríonn sé go hiontach ag cuardach téacs iomlán, tá doiciméad innéacsaithe laistigh de thréimhse ghearr ama uaireanta laistigh de shé nóiméad, tá a fhios agam go bhfuil sé crazy!


(Last Updated on : 25/04/2014)
Rajapalayam is an important municipal city in Virudunagar district of Tamil Nadu
. It is situated 85 kilometer south west of Madurai. Its main attraction is Ayyanar falls and the town of Srivilliputur. It is also known for its Rajapalayam breed of dogs.
Rajapalayam gets its name from the name of the community that is dominant here - Rajas or Rajus a Telugu speaking community that had migrated from Andhra Pradesh centuries ago. The word 'palayam' is frequently used in many Tamil cities as a suffix and it translates roughly as a 'fort'. The origin of Rajapalayam dates back to 1700 AD. The exact timing of the settling of Raju people in this specific area is not established, but believed to have happened as a consequence of collapse of Vijayanagara empire and the arrival of Rajus as administrators or commanders to this region.
Initially, Rajapalyam developed as an agricultural community and most people had farming as their source of livelihood. In the mid 1900s, the small town of Rajapalayam gradually evolved into a thriving business community. Due to the enterprising and hard working nature of its people, commerce developed quickly in the region and several industries, particularly cotton based flourished. Hence it got the name "Cotton city". Today Rajapalayam is one of the most industrialized cities in southern Tamil Nadu and people of all communities and religions live and contribute for its growth.
Rajapalayam city acquired the total area of 11 sq kms. It is located 9° 12' to 9° 47' N latitude and 77° 20' to 78° 26' E longitude. The climate of the city is Semi- arid -tropical monsoon type. It has a high mean temperature and a low degree of humidity. In summer the maximum temperature is 37.1°C and minimum is 25.4°C. In winter the maximum temperature is 29.2°C and minimum is 20.4°C. The maximum rainfall of the city is 792 mm.
The economy of the city is based on the manufacture of textiles, and there are mills for spinning and weaving cotton, as well as a large cotton market.
The major industries of Rajapalayam are-
Rajapalayam Mills Ltd- Manufacturer of cotton yarn
Rajapalaiyam Spintext- Manufacturer of cotton yarn
Rajapalaiyam Textiles- Manufacturer of cotton yarn
Sri Ramco Spinners- Manufacturer of cotton yarn
Sri Vishnu Shankar Mill Ltd- Manufacturer of cotton yarn
Ramaraju Surgical Cotton Mills- Manufacturer of surgical bandages & cloth
Sandhya Spinning Mills Ltd- Spinning mill, part of Ramco Group
Geetha Krishna Spinning Mill Pvt. Ltd.- A quality cotton yarn manufacturer
Sree Karpagambal Mills Ltd.- Large yarn spinning and fabric weaving mill since 1956
Sethuram Spinners Pvt. Ltd.- Leading spinning mill in Rajapalayam. Manufacturers and exporters of open end yarn, 100% cotton open end (OE) yarn used for making of denim, terry towel, bottom weights, industrial fabrics and furnishings etc
Polyspin Export ltd- manufacturer and exporter of p.p.bags and jumbo bags
Sterling Techno(P) Ltd- Manufacturer of cotton yarn
Madras Chip Boards- Manufacturer of flush doors
Limenaph Chemicals (P) Ltd is Manufacturers of cement paints (colours), adhesives, lime powder, paints, distemper and alloied products.
Ramaraju Surgicals Surgical dressings, cotton wool, grey, gauze, absorbent gauze and bandages from the Ramaraju Surgical Cotton Mills have been manufactured to international quality standards for almost 60 years now.
Raju Spinning Mills (P) Ltd-Manufacturer of cotton yarn
Nachiar Spinning Mills. - The largest and number one exporters of cotton yarns and cloths from Rajapalayam to all the Europe and African countries
Shri Padmavathi Cotton Mills- Manufacturer of cotton Yarn.
The nearest airport to Rajapalayam is Madurai.
Rajapalayam has a railway station that connects it with Tirunelvel
i, Sivakasi, Srivilliputur and other towns and cities of the state.
Rajapalayam is well connected by road with the neighbouring towns and cities of the state.
As per 2001 Census of India, Rajapalayam had a population of 121,982. Males constitute 50% and females 50% of the population . 9% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Rajapalayam has an average literacy rate of 73%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 80%, and female literacy is 66%.
The major languages used in Rajapalayam are Tamil, Telugu and English.
Most important festival of Rajapalayam is the sacred wedding ceremony of Goddess Meenakshi and Lord Sundareswarar. This festival is held during March -April. During this festival the city displays a colourful and joyous mood. Images of the divine couple are taken around the city in a tastefully decorated chariot, amidst the presence of a huge gathering of devotees. The notes of Nadaswaram and drums further aggravate the festive ambience. The annual float festival marks the images of Meenakshi and her consort floating on the Mariamman tank on an illuminated raft bedecked with flowers. As such there are festivals throughout the year in Rajapalayam. All most 11 big annual festivals are celebrated, which are spread through the year with exception of the monsoon months. There are several libraries, theaters and town halls for entertainment in the city.
The Rajapalayam breed dog was used for hunting long back in Rajapalayam. It is a hound dog, white in colour with good height. Its nose is generally light in colour-pink.
Ayyanar Koil (Ayyanar Falls):
Ayyanar Falls is located on the slope of Western Ghats, It has lot of waterfalls and a temple. It provides good opportunity for woodland mountain climbing. Dam is situated on the way to Ayyanar Falls which is providing water for the whole city.
Sanjeevi Hills is situated in Rajapalayam on the way to Chatrapatti. The calm and serene ambience makes it a favorite spot for tourists. Tradition recounts that in order to save the unconscious Lakshmana, Hanuman, the monkey god carried the entire Sanjeevi Hill with the herbal plants to Sri Lanka and threw it away afterwards. It is said that the thrown down hill is the Sanjeevi Hills.
Sri Andal's Temple is located in Srivilliputtur . Andal was a great devotee of Lord Krishna. The tower at the entrance gate (Main Gopuram) is the second highest in Tamil Nadu. And the tower is the symbol of Tamilnadu Government.
Shenbagathope Grizzled Squirrel Sanctuary:
The forests are found on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats. Only 6.3% of the total geographical area is under forests. Many rare and endemic varieties of flora and fauna are found along the mountain slopes. A wildlife sanctuary, spread over 480 square kilometres was established in 1989 at Shenbagathopu in Srivilliputtur taluk..
This sanctuary is contiguous with the Periyar tiger reserve on the south-western side and the Megamalai reserve forest on the north-western side. The altitude varies from 100 to 2010 m above sea level. The sanctuary is home to the endangered, arboreal grizzled giant squirrel 'Ratufa macrora'. This greyish brown squirrel weighs 1 to 1.8 kg. and is the size of a small cat. It measures about 735 mm. from nose to tail with the tail being 360 to 400 mm. long. They construct drays at forked branches where the crowns of neighbouring trees meet. This enables the squirrel to move away from the site by jumping from tree to tree when threatened. The home range of an individual is between 1,970 and 6,110 square metres.
Rajapalayam has many higher secondary and high schools, which provide quality education. Most of the schools are established due to the vision and philanthropy of wealthy Rajus.
Notable schools in town are-
S.S.Govt. Higher Secondary School
P. A. Chinnaiah Raja Memorial School
P.A.C Ramasamy Raja Matriculation Higher Secondary School,
A.K.D. Dharmaraja School,
N.A. Annappa Raja Higher Secondary school
Nadar Hr. Secondary School.
N.A. Ramachandra Raja Gurukulam.
In recent years, there has been some progress in women education beyond high school and many have become accomplished doctors, engineers and professionals.
Higher education which was once the preserve of wealthy people of this town has become possible to its ordinary people with the beginning of a separate women's college in the town.
A Gurukulam (old style institute teaching Sanskrit and Vedic literature) has also been set up recently.
PACR Polytechnic College
N.A.Manjammal Polytechnic College
Rajapalayam Raju's College
AKD Dharma Raja Women's college.

(Uasdátú deireanach ar: 25/04/2014)
Is cathair uilíoch tábhachtach í Rajapalayam i gcathair Virudunagar i Tamil Nadu.
. . go deo . Tá sé suite 85 ciliméadar siar ó dheas ó Madurai. Is iad na príomh-ionad tarraingthe ann ná titim Ayyanar agus baile Srivilliputur. Tá sé ar eolas freisin mar gheall ar a bhraon madraí Rajapalayam.
Faigheann Rajapalayam a ainm ó ainm an phobail atá i réim anseo - Rajas nó Rajus, pobal a labhraíonn Telugu a imirceadh ó Andhra Pradesh na céadta bliain ó shin. Úsáidtear an focal 'palayam' go minic i go leor cathracha Tamil mar fho-iarscríbhinn agus aistrítear go garbh é mar 'fort'. Tosaíonn bunús Rajapalayam siar go 1700 AD. Níl an t-am cruinn a socraíodh do dhaoine Raju sa cheantar sonrach seo bunaithe, ach creidtear gur tharla sé mar thoradh ar thuiteam impireacht Vijayanagara agus teacht Rajus mar riarthóirí nó ceannairí sa réigiún seo.
Ar dtús, d'fhorbair Rajapalyam mar phobal talmhaíochta agus bhí feirmeoireacht ag formhór na ndaoine mar fhoinse maireachtála. I lár na 1900idí, d'fhorbair baile beag Rajapalayam go mall ina phobal gnó rathúil. Mar gheall ar nádúr fiontraíoch agus diongbháilte a mhuintir, d'fhorbair tráchtáil go tapa sa réigiún agus d'fhás roinnt tionscail, go háirithe a bhí bunaithe ar chotan. Dá bhrí sin fuair sé an t-ainm "Cathán-chathair". Sa lá atá inniu ann tá Rajapalayam ar cheann de na cathracha is tionsclaithe i ndeisceart Tamil Nadu agus tá daoine de gach pobal agus reiligiún ina gcónaí agus ag cur lena bhfás.
Fuair cathair Rajapalayam an limistéar iomlán de 11 ciliméadar cearnach. Tá sé suite 9° 12' go 9° 47' Leithid N agus 77° 20' go 78° 26' Leithid E. Tá aeráid an bhaile ar chineál monsoon leath-arid-trópaiceach. Tá teocht mheán ard agus leibhéal íseal taise aici. Sa samhradh is é an teocht uasta 37.1°C agus is é an teocht íosta 25.4°C. Sa gheimhreadh is é an teocht uasta 29.2°C agus is í an teocht íosta 20.4°C. Is é an báisteach uasta sa chathair ná 792 mm.
Tá geilleagar na cathrach bunaithe ar mhonarú teicstíle, agus tá muilneanna ann chun cotton a threal agus a fhéachaint, chomh maith le margadh mór cotton.
Is iad na príomhghnóthais i Rajapalayam-
Rajapalayam Mills Ltd- Déantóir snáithín cadáis
Rajapalaiyam Spintext- Déantóir snáithín cadáis
Rajapalaiyam Textiles- Déantóir snáithín cadáis
Sri Ramco Spinners- Déantóir snáithín cadáis
Sri Vishnu Shankar Mill Ltd- Déantóir snáithín cadáis
Mills Cotton Ramaraju - Déantóir bandais agus éadach máinliachta
Sandhya Spinning Mills Ltd- Mhiontair Spinning, cuid de Ghrúpa Ramco
Geetha Krishna Spinning Mill Pvt. Ltd.- Déantóir snáithín cotton ardchaighdeáin
Sree Karpagambal Mills Ltd.- Mhiotal mór fiacla agus fíochán ó 1956
Sethuram Spinners Pvt. Ltd.- Mhiotal fiach tosaigh i Rajapalayam. Déantúsóirí agus onnmhaireoirí snáithe oscailte, snáithe oscailte 100% cadáis (OE) a úsáidtear chun denim, tuáille terry, meáchain bun, fíocháin thionsclaíocha agus troscáin a dhéanamh srl.
Polyspin Export ltd- déantóir agus onnmhaireoir málaí p.p. agus málaí jumbo
Sterling Techno (((P) Ltd- Déantóir snáithín cadáis
Madras Chip Boards- Déantóir doirse srutháin
Tá Limenaph Chemicals (P) Ltd ina mhonaróirí péinteanna (datháin) ceimeanta, greamaigh, púdar chime, péinteanna, distemper agus táirgí cóimhiotail.
Ramaraju Surgicals Tá dressingí máinliachta, uachtar cadáis, liath, gauze, gauze suathach agus bandages ó Mills Cotton Máinliachta Ramaraju á ndéanamh de réir caighdeáin cháilíochta idirnáisiúnta le beagnach 60 bliain anois.
Raju Spinning Mills (P) Ltd-Déantóir snáithín cadáis
Mills Spinning Nachiar. - An t-onnmhaireoir is mó agus is mó de na snáitheanna agus de na gclúdaigh cadáis ó Rajapalayam chuig na tíortha Eorpacha agus na hAfraice go léir
Mills Cotton Shri Padmavathi - Déantóir Uisce Cotton Yarn.
Is é an t-aerfort is gaire do Rajapalayam Madurai.
Tá stáisiún iarnróid ag Rajapalayam a nascann é le Tirunelvel
i, Sivakasi, Srivilliputur agus bailte agus cathracha eile an stáit.
Tá Rajapalayam ceangailte go maith le bóithre le bailte agus cathracha comharsanacha an stáit.
De réir Daonáireamh na hIndia 2001 , bhí daonra 121,982 ag Rajapalayam. Is iad fir 50% agus mná 50% den daonra . Tá 9% den daonra faoi bhun 6 bliana d'aois.
Tá ráta litearthachta meán 73% ag Rajapalayam, níos airde ná an meán náisiúnta de 59.5%: is é litearthacht na bhfear 80%, agus is é litearthacht na mban 66%.
Is iad na príomh-theangacha a úsáidtear i Rajapalayam ná an Tamil, an Telugu agus an Béarla.
Is é an fhéile is tábhachtaí de Rajapalayam ná searmanas pósadh naofa Déithe Meenakshi agus an Tiarna Sundareswarar. Déantar an fhéile seo i mí an Mhárta - Aibreán. Le linn na féile seo taispeánann an chathair stádas dathach agus aoibhneach. Tógtar íomhánna den lánúin dhiviúil timpeall na cathrach i gcarr a bhí maisiúil, i measc chruinniú ollmhór dílis. Cuireann nótaí Nadaswaram agus drumaí an timpeallacht féile níos measa. Is é an fhéile snámha bliantúil íomhánna Meenakshi agus a comhghleacaí ag snámh ar an tanc Mariamman ar raft soilsithe adorned le bláthanna. Mar sin tá féilte ann i rith na bliana i Rajapalayam. Ceiliúrtar an chuid is mó de na 11 fhéile mhóra bliantúla, a scaiptear tríd an mbliain ach amháin i míonna na monsoon. Tá roinnt leabharlanna, amharclanna agus hallaí baile ann chun siamsaíocht a chur ar fáil sa chathair.
Baineadh úsáid as madra cine Rajapalayam chun fiach a dhéanamh i bhfad ar ais i Rajapalayam. Is madra sealga é, bán de dhath agus go maith ar airde. Tá a shrón de ghnáth bándearg-dath éadrom.
Ayyanar Koil (Ayyanar Falls):
Tá Ayyanar Falls suite ar shliabh na Ghats Thiar, tá go leor waterfalls agus teampall ann. Soláthraíonn sé deis mhaith le haghaidh dreapadóireachta sléibhe foraoise. Tá dam suite ar an mbealach go Ayyanar Falls atá ag soláthar uisce don chathair ar fad.
Tá Sánjeevi Hills suite i Rajapalayam ar an mbealach go Chatrapatti. Is áit a bhfuil an-tóir ar thurasóirí é mar gheall ar an timpeallacht shíochánta agus socair atá ann. Insíonn an traidisiún go raibh an dé maoine chun an Lakshmana, Hanuman, a bhí gan choinsias a shábháil, ag iompar Cnoc Sanjeevi ar fad leis na plandaí luibhe go dtí an tSrí Lánca agus é a chaitheamh amach ina dhiaidh sin. Deirtear gurb iad na Cnoc Sanjeevi na cnocanna a chuirtear síos.
Tá Teampall Sri Andal suite i Srivilliputtur. Bhí Andal ina dhearbhuí mór ar an Tiarna Krishna. Is é an túr ag an geata iontrála (Main Gopuram) an dara ceann is airde i Tamil Nadu. Agus tá an túr an siombail de Rialtas Tamilnadu.
Shenbagathope Grizzled Squirrel Sanctuary:
Tá na foraoisí ar shléibhte thoir na Ghats Thiar. Níl ach 6.3% den limistéar geografach iomlán faoi fhoraois. Tá go leor cineálacha neamhchoitianta agus endemic de fhlóra agus ainmhithe le fáil ar feadh na mbóithre sléibhe. Bunaíodh ionad coiscthe fiadhúlra, atá scaipthe ar feadh 480 ciliméadar cearnach i 1989 ag Shenbagathopu i taluk Srivilliputtur.
Tá an tearmann seo in aice leis an gcoscáil tíogair Periyar ar an taobh thiar theas agus foraoise chúlchiste Megamalai ar an taobh thiar thuaidh. Athraíonn an airde ó 100 go 2010 m os cionn leibhéal na farraige. Tá an tearmann ina bhaile don sciathán mór grizzled arbórach atá i mbaol 'Ratufa macrora'. Meáchan an sciathán donn-grá seo 1 go 1.8 kg. agus tá sé chomh mór le cat beag. Tá sé thart ar 735 mm ar thomhas. ó shrón go crann, agus an crann 360 go 400 mm. fada. Tógann siad drays ag brainsí forcáilte áit a mbuaileann coróin na gcrann comharsanacha. Cuireann sé seo ar chumas an sciatháin bogadh ar shiúl ón suíomh trí léim ó chrainn go crann nuair a bhíonn bagairt air. Tá raon baile an duine aonair idir 1,970 agus 6,110 méadar cearnach.
Tá go leor scoileanna meánscoile agus ardscoileanna ag Rajapalayam, a sholáthraíonn oideachas ardchaighdeáin. Bunaítear an chuid is mó de na scoileanna mar gheall ar fhís agus filantróip Rajus saibhir.
Is iad na scoileanna suntasacha sa bhaile-
SS.Govt. Scoil Mheánleibhéil
Scoil Chuimhneacháin P. A. Chinnaiah Raja
P.A.C Ramasamy Raja Matriculation Ard-Séimeartha Scoil,
A.K.D. Scoil Dharmaraja,
Gan ainm Annappa Raja Ard-Scoile
Nadar Hr. Scoil Mheánmhéide.
Gan ainm Ramachandra Raja Gurukulam.
Le blianta beaga anuas, tá dul chun cinn déanta i dtaca le hoideachas na mban thar an scoil ard agus tá go leor acu ina dochtúirí, ina n-innealtóirí agus ina ngairmithe.
Tá an t-oideachas arda a bhí ar fáil uair amháin do dhaoine saibhre an bhaile seo, ar fáil do dhaoine coitianta le bun coláiste mná ar leithligh sa bhaile.
Bunaíodh Gurukulam (institiúid sean-stíle ag múineadh Sanskrit agus litríocht Véideach) le déanaí freisin.
Coláiste Politeicniúil PACR
Coláiste Politeicniúil N.A. Manjammal
Coláiste Rajapalayam Raju
Coláiste na mBan AKD Dharma Raja.


When you are studying in college or university, you have to write a research paper because it is an integral part of the curriculum. Generally, while preparing this academic work, you will do research on the various technical, scientific or social aspects of some phenomenon and then organize the obtained information. It is not easy. If you have never faced this type of academic writing before, the task may seem complicated or even impractical. What makes it difficult?
There are many pitfalls that make the process harder and in fact, the majority get stuck on the first stage – choosing the right research paper topics. Others simply can’t write the work on their own. Luckily, there is a simple solution for the second issue as there’re many different professional services that will help you with your paper all you need is to ask to “write my research paper”. It can be a good choice for some of you. However, this task is not as difficult as it looks like if you know what it is all about! You can easily accomplish writing a research paper on your own by following the tips that we provide on our website.
There are a few types of research articles. However, the objectives of this task are always similar – it is a piece, scientific in nature that is related to scientific research. Experiments aimed at improving and acquiring new knowledge, testing scientific hypotheses, the establishment of laws that are manifested in nature and in society, scientific generalizations, and scientific confirmation of projects.
What does it consist of? The whole paper is based on your own experience and thoughts that you write using the analysis of the topic you knew before and the data that you acquired. Students tend to not like such types of papers. It requires spending much time on researching, making reports, and analyzing data. It’s a very important type of the paper because it teaches students how to do research properly and helps them gain some vital skills.
There are a few main types of research papers. Each of them requires a special approach that you should mark while preparing to write it. We will try to walk you through every single type of research paper in order to help you better understand them and the differences between them.
Above we provided the seven main categories of research papers. You could also find some brief information about each of them. We hope this information was useful for you and can help you cope with your assignments because accomplishing this kind of project is important for your overall academic success! It can appear like a complex task. There are too many nuances to keep in mind and apart from following the requirements of a particular project type, you also have to follow the right structure and format. Therefore, if you still think that it’s quite hard to cope with this task on your own, we recommend you consider hiring a term papers writing service that will complete the work for you.

Nuair a bhíonn tú ag staidéar i gcoláiste nó in ollscoil, ní mór duit páipéar taighde a scríobh toisc go bhfuil sé ina chuid lárnach den churaclam. De ghnáth, agus an obair acadúil seo á ullmhú agat, déanfaidh tú taighde ar ghnéithe teicniúla, eolaíocha nó sóisialta éagsúla de phléinmneacha áirithe agus ansin eagraíonn tú an fhaisnéis a fhaightear. Níl sé éasca. Mura ndearna tú an cineál seo scríbhneoireachta acadúil riamh roimhe seo, d'fhéadfadh an tasc a bheith casta nó fiú neamhrialach. Cad a dhéanann sé deacair?
Tá go leor cúlra ann a dhéanann an próiseas níos deacra agus, i ndáiríre, bíonn an chuid is mó acu i mbun an chéad chéim  ag roghnú na n-ábhar páipéir taighde ceart. Ní féidir le daoine eile an t-oibre a scríobh ar a gcuid féin. Ar an dea-shástacht, tá réiteach simplí ann don dara ceist mar go bhfuil go leor seirbhísí gairmiúla éagsúla ann a chabhróidh leat le do pháipéar, ní gá duit ach a iarraidh "mo pháipéar taighde a scríobh". D'fhéadfadh sé a bheith ina rogha maith do chuid agaibh. Mar sin féin, ní bhíonn an tasc seo chomh deacair agus a fheiceann sé má tá a fhios agat cad é an rud atá i gceist leis! Is féidir leat a dhéanamh go héasca ag scríobh páipéar taighde ar do chuid féin trí na leideanna a chuirimid ar fáil ar ár suíomh Gréasáin a leanúint.
Tá cúpla cineál alt taighde ann. Mar sin féin, tá cuspóirí an tasc seo i gcónaí cosúil - is píosa eolaíoch í de chineál atá bainteach le taighde eolaíoch. Taighde a bhfuil sé mar aidhm acu feabhas a chur ar eolas nua agus eolas nua a fháil, tuairimí eolaíocha a thástáil, dlíthe a bhunú a léirítear sa nádúr agus sa tsochaí, ginearálta eolaíochta, agus dearcadh eolaíoch ar thionscadail.
Cad é a chuimsíonn sé? Tá an páipéar iomlán bunaithe ar do thaithí féin agus ar smaointe a scríobhann tú ag baint úsáide as anailís ar an ábhar a raibh a fhios agat roimhe seo agus na sonraí a fuair tú. Ní maith le mic léinn na cineálacha páipéir sin. Éilíonn sé go gcaithfear go leor ama ag déanamh taighde, ag déanamh tuairiscí, agus ag anailísiú sonraí. Is cineál páipéar an-tábhachtach é toisc go múineann sé do mhic léinn conas taighde a dhéanamh i gceart agus go gcabhróidh sé leo roinnt scileanna ríthábhachtacha a fháil.
Tá cúpla príomhchineál páipéir taighde ann. Éilíonn gach ceann acu cur chuige speisialta ar chóir duit a chur in iúl agus tú ag ullmhú chun é a scríobh. Déanaimid iarracht tú a thabhairt trí gach cineál páipéir taighde chun cabhrú leat iad a thuiscint níos fearr agus na difríochtaí eatarthu.
Ar na príomhchatagóirí seacht bpáipéar taighde a chuir muid ar fáil thuas. D'fhéadfá eolas gairid a fháil freisin faoi gach ceann acu. Tá súil againn go raibh an t-eolas seo úsáideach duit agus go gcabhróidh sé leat dul i ngleic le do chuid tascanna toisc go bhfuil sé tábhachtach an cineál tionscadail seo a chur i gcrích chun do rath acadúil foriomlán a bhaint amach! D'fhéadfadh sé gur tasc casta é. Tá an iomarca nuans ann le coinneáil i gcuimhne agus seachas riachtanais chineál áirithe tionscadail a leanúint, ní mór duit an struchtúr agus an fhormáid cheart a leanúint freisin. Dá bhrí sin, má cheapann tú go bhfuil sé deacair go leor an tasc seo a dhéanamh leat féin, molaimid duit smaoineamh ar sheirbhís scríbhneoireachta páipéir téarma a fhostú a chríochnóidh an obair ar do shon.


Focal Point: CSS-Framework Scales Down Images In Responsive Designs Intelligently
Responsive webdesign aims to present websites in the best possible way, even if viewed on mobile devices. Images are usually simply scaled down in that approach. If you use images with a high grade of details pictures soon become too small. The new CSS framework Focal Point cares for shifting the focus to the most important part of the image before scaling down. That way smaller resolutions only see part of the image but larger.
You know it. The center of an image is not always in the center of the image. Which means that the most important part does not necessarily show up in the middle of a photo. With Focal Point you can define an area, that represents the parts you do not want to miss out on smaller resolutions. Parts covered by Focal Point stay visible no matter how far down you scale.
How To Define The Focal Point
The principle of Focal Point is simple: a grid is put upon each picture. The grid consists of 12 by 12 units. Using CSS we now define one unit of the grid as the Focal point, the area that will always stay visible. Imagine that picture of Uncle Hugo. Define his head as Focal Point. Even though Uncle Hugo’s face resides on the right side of the photo, it will stay in focus when being scaled down to smaller resolutions. I don’t think Uncle Hugo would have accepted any other solution on his own website…
To define the Focal Point, we assign two classes to the image. These classes position the Focal Point inside the grid horizontally and vertically. We start counting from the center of the grid. That way we have six classes altogether, counting up, down, left and right.

In this example the Focal Point is defined to be three grid units from the center to the left and then two units up. The class
focal-point is as mandatory as the surrounding
div around the image.
By default the frameworks cuts down the image as soon as the browser window gets resized to sizes smaller than 767 pixels. You can easily adjust this value in the accompanying style sheet.
How Focal Point Works
Focal Point’s mode of operation is easily understandable: Different CSS classes cut the image using negative
margin values. The unit for the value is
em. Use images with a 4:3 proportion for best results, add the additional class
portrait for 3:4 proportions.
Conclusion: Focal Point follows an interesting approach to optimize the presentation of images at smaller resolutions. With only one single file to embed and customize there is no tedious learning curve to work along. So, start using it now…

Pointe fócais: CSS-Framework scaipeann íomhánna i ndearadh freagartha go cliste
Tá sé mar aidhm ag dearadh gréasáin fhreagrach suíomhanna gréasáin a chur i láthair ar an mbealach is fearr is féidir, fiú má fheictear iad ar fheistí soghluaiste. De ghnáth ní dhéantar ach na híomhánna a scálaithe síos sa chur chuige sin. Má úsáideann tú íomhánna le grád ard mionsonraithe, bíonn na pictiúir ró-bheag go luath. Is é an creat CSS nua Focal Point a thugann aire do dhíriú a aistriú chuig an chuid is tábhachtaí den íomhá sula ndéantar scála síos. Ar an mbealach sin ní fheiceann rúin níos lú ach cuid den íomhá ach níos mó.
Tá a fhios agat é. Ní bhíonn lár na híomhá i gcónaí i lár na híomhá. Ciallaíonn sé sin nach gá go léirítear an chuid is tábhachtaí i lár na grianghraf. Le Focal Point is féidir leat limistéar a shainiú, a léiríonn na codanna nach dteastaíonn uait a chailleadh ar réitigh níos lú. Fanann codanna atá clúdaithe ag Focal Point le feiceáil is cuma cé chomh fada síos is a scálaíonn tú.
Conas an Phríomhphointe a Shainmhíniú
Tá prionsabal Focal Point simplí: cuirtear roth ar gach pictiúr. Tá an gráid comhdhéanta de 12 ar 12 aonad. Ag baint úsáide as CSS sainmhínímid anois aonad amháin den ghréasán mar an pointe fócais, an limistéar a bheidh i gcónaí le feiceáil. Samhlaigh go pictiúr de Uncail Hugo. Sainmhínigh a cheann mar Phointe Focal. Cé go bhfuil aghaidh uncail Hugo ar thaobh na láimhe deise den ghrianghraf, fanfaidh sé i bhfócas nuair a dhéantar é a scálaithe go réitigh níos lú. Ní dóigh liom go nglacfadh uncail Hugo le haon réiteach eile ar a shuíomh Gréasáin féin...
Chun an Phríomhphointe a shainiú, cuirimid dhá rang leis an íomhá. Suíonn na ranganna seo an Phríomhphointe taobh istigh den ghréasán go cothrománach agus go ingearach. Tosaímid ag comhaireamh ó lár an ghréasáin. Ar an mbealach sin tá sé ranganna againn go léir, ag comhaireamh suas, síos, ar chlé agus ar dheis.

Sa sampla seo sainmhínítear an Phríomhphointe mar thrí aonad gríde ón lár go dtí an taobh clé agus ansin dhá aonad suas. An rang
Tá an t-ábhar a bhfuil an t-ábhar i gceist aige chomh tábhachtach leis an ábhar atá timpeall air.
div timpeall an íomhá.
De réir réamhshocraithe, laghdaíonn na frámaí an íomhá a luaithe a dhéantar uasmhéid an fhuinneog brabhsálaí a athrú go méideanna níos lú ná 767 píosail. Is féidir leat an luach seo a choigeartú go héasca sa bhileog stíl a ghabhann leis an alt.
Conas a Oibríonn an Phríomhphointe
Tá modh oibriú Focal Point éasca le tuiscint: Clasanna CSS éagsúla a ghearradh an íomhá ag baint úsáide as diúltach
luachanna máirseála. Is é an t-aonad don luach
em. Úsáid íomhánna le cóimheas 4: 3 le haghaidh na torthaí is fearr, cuir an rang breise
pictiúr i gcomhréireacht 3:4.
Conclúid: Tá cur chuige suimiúil ag Focal Point chun cur i láthair íomhánna a bharrfheabhsú ag réitigh níos lú. Le comhad amháin amháin le cur isteach agus le saincheaptha ní bheidh aon chúrsa foghlama tedious le bheith ag obair ar feadh. Mar sin, tosú ag baint úsáide as anois...


Previous studies have demonstrated regional variation in mortality rates, this reducing for younger but not older individuals. However, it has not been clear from such studies whether or not the overall findings can or cannot be attributed to particular regions that may have abnormal patterns of change over time. We analyse mortality rates by region using data from the census years from 1931 until 1991 for adults. Age period cohort models, based on the local 'curvatures', are used to describe the changes in the rates. We also use estimable contrasts to compare the later periods with the earlier periods and to compare pre- and post-war cohorts. There is strong evidence that the changes in the mortality rates are associated with non-linear period and cohort effects. There is no evidence that these curvatures vary over regions. There is evidence that the curvatures are not the same among men and women. Among women there is evidence that there is a change in trend in the periods from 1961 to 1991 compared with the trend in the earlier periods from 1931 to 1951, such that the reduction in the mortality rates with time are slowing down for women. Among men who had higher mortality rates, there is not so much evidence of a slowing down of the reduction. Post-war cohorts of women from 1941 onwards are enjoying a reduction in mortality compared with the cohorts from 1901 to 31, while among men there is no evidence of a change in mortality trends among younger cohorts. Changes in the mortality rates over regions have come about from different long-term temporal trends in the regions rather than abrupt changes taking place at different times in different regions. The general convergence of mortality rates over regions over time with a consequent reduction in regional variance is masked by two regions, Scotland and East Anglia. These regions appear to differ from the regions as a whole in the relationship of mortality to age at a given period and in the reduction of mortality over time (drift), Scotland having a higher mortality, especially at younger ages, and lower downward trend, and East Anglia vice versa.
- mortality rates

Léirigh staidéir roimhe seo éagsúlacht réigiúnach i rátaí báis, ag laghdú seo do dhaoine níos óige ach ní do dhaoine níos sine. Mar sin féin, ní raibh sé soiléir ó staidéir den sórt sin an féidir na torthaí foriomlán a chur i leith réigiúin ar leith a d'fhéadfadh patrún neamhghnácha athraithe a bheith acu le himeacht ama. Déanaimid anailís ar rátaí báis de réir réigiúin ag baint úsáide as sonraí ó na blianta daonáirimh ó 1931 go 1991 d'aosaigh. Úsáidtear samhlacha cohorta tréimhsí aoise, bunaithe ar na 'curbhúirí' áitiúla, chun na hathruithe sna rátaí a thuairisciú. Bainimid úsáid as an gcodarsnacht a mheasfar freisin chun na tréimhsí níos déanaí a chur i gcomparáid leis na tréimhsí níos luaithe agus chun cohorts roimh agus i ndiaidh an chogaidh a chur i gcomparáid. Tá fianaise láidir ann go bhfuil na hathruithe i rátaí báis bainteach le héifeachtaí tréimhse agus cohorta neamhlíneacha. Níl aon fhianaise ann go bhfuil na coirceanna seo éagsúil ó réigiún go réigiún. Tá fianaise ann nach bhfuil na cromáin mar an gcéanna i measc fir agus mná. I measc na mban, tá fianaise ann go bhfuil athrú ar an treocht sna tréimhsí ó 1961 go 1991 i gcomparáid leis an treocht sna tréimhsí roimhe sin ó 1931 go 1951, ar bhealach go bhfuil an laghdú ar na rátaí báis ag mallú le himeacht ama do mhná. I measc na bhfear a raibh rátaí báis níos airde acu, níl mórán fianaise ann go bhfuil an laghdú ag mallú. Tá laghdú ar bháis ag baint le cohorts mná i ndiaidh an chogaidh ó 1941 ar aghaidh i gcomparáid leis na cohorts ó 1901 go 31, agus i measc na bhfear níl aon fhianaise ann go bhfuil athrú ar threochtaí báis i measc cohorts níos óige. Tá athruithe i rátaí báis thar réigiúin tagtha as treochtaí ama fadtéarmacha éagsúla sna réigiúin seachas athruithe tobann a tharlaíonn ag amanna éagsúla i réigiúin éagsúla. Tá an comhtháthú ginearálta i rátaí báis thar réigiúin thar am le laghdú dá thoradh ar an difríocht réigiúnach mascáilte ag dhá réigiún, Albain agus Oirthear na Breataine. Is cosúil go bhfuil difríocht idir na réigiúin seo agus na réigiúin ina n-iomláine i gcaidreamh an bháis le haois ag tréimhse áirithe agus i laghdú an bháis thar am (drift), agus an Albain ag a bhfuil básmhaireacht níos airde, go háirithe ag aois níos óige, agus treocht ísle, agus East Anglia a mhalairt.
- rátaí báis