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Nosebleeds are common. They may be scary, but they rarely indicate a serious medical problem. The nose contains many blood vessels, which are located close to the surface in the front and back of the nose. They’re very fragile and bleed easily. Nosebleeds are common in adults and children between the ages of 3 and 10.
There are two kinds of nosebleeds. An anterior nosebleed occurs when the blood vessels in the front of the nose break and bleed.
A posterior nosebleed occurs in the back or the deepest part of the nose. In this case, blood flows down the back of the throat. Posterior nosebleeds can be dangerous.
There are many causes of nosebleeds. A sudden or infrequent nosebleed is rarely serious. If you have frequent nosebleeds, you could have a more serious problem.
Dry air is the most common cause of nosebleeds. Living in a dry climate and using a central heating system can dry out the nasal membranes, which are tissues inside the nose.
This dryness causes crusting inside the nose. Crusting may itch or become irritated. If your nose is scratched or picked, it can bleed.
Other common causes of nosebleeds include:
- foreign object stuck in the nose
- chemical irritants
- allergic reaction
- injury to the nose
- repeated sneezing
- picking the nose
- cold air
- upper respiratory infection
- large doses of aspirin
Other causes of nosebleeds include:
Most nosebleeds don’t require medical attention. However, you should seek medical attention if your nosebleed lasts longer than 20 minutes, or if it occurs after an injury. This may be a sign of a posterior nosebleed, which is more serious.
If you seek medical attention for a nosebleed, your doctor will conduct a physical examination to determine a cause. They’ll check your nose for signs of a foreign object. They’ll also ask questions about your medical history and current medications.
Tell your doctor about any other symptoms you’ve and any recent injuries. There’s no single test to determine the cause of a nosebleed. However, your doctor might use diagnostic tests to find the cause. These tests include:
Treatment for nosebleeds will vary depending on the type and cause of the nosebleed. Read on to find out about treatments for different nosebleeds.
If you have an anterior nosebleed, you bleed from the front of your nose, usually a nostril. You can try to treat an anterior nosebleed at home. While sitting up, squeeze the soft part of your nose.
Make sure that your nostrils are fully closed. Keep your nostrils closed for 10 minutes, lean forward slightly, and breathe through your mouth.
Don’t lie down when trying to stop a nosebleed. Lying down can result in swallowing blood and can irritate your stomach. Release your nostrils after 10 minutes and check to see if the bleeding has stopped. Repeat these steps if bleeding continues.
See your doctor immediately if you’re unable to stop a nosebleed on your own. You might have a posterior nosebleed that requires more invasive treatment.
If you have a posterior nosebleed, you bleed from the back of your nose. The blood also tends to flow from the back of your nose down your throat. Posterior nosebleeds are less common and often more serious than anterior nosebleeds.
Posterior nosebleeds shouldn’t be treated at home. Contact your doctor immediately or go to the emergency room (ER) if you think you have a posterior nosebleed.
Nosebleeds caused by foreign objects
If a foreign object is the cause, your doctor can remove the object.
A medical technique called cauterization can also stop persistent or frequent nosebleeds. This involves your doctor burning the blood vessels in your nose with either a heating device or silver nitrate, a compound used to remove tissue.
Your doctor may pack your nose with cotton, gauze, or foam. They may also use a balloon catheter to apply pressure to your blood vessels and stop the bleeding.
There are several ways to prevent nosebleeds.
- Use a humidifier in your house to keep the air moist.
- Avoid picking your nose.
- Limit your intake of aspirin, which can thin your blood and contribute to nosebleeds. Discuss this with your doctor first because the benefits of taking aspirin might outweigh the risks.
- Use antihistamines and decongestants in moderation. These can dry out the nose.
- Use a saline spray or gel to keep the nasal passages moist.
Nosebleeds are common and not usually serious. Most are anterior nosebleeds and can often be treated at home. These usually occur suddenly and don’t last long.
They result from many causes, especially dry air and repeated scratching or picking of the nose. If you can’t stop the bleeding from your anterior nosebleed, you should call your doctor immediately.
A posterior nosebleed can be more serious. If you think you might have a posterior nosebleed, contact your doctor immediately or go to the ER.
Keeping the air humidified in your home, avoiding picking your nose, and using nasal mists to keep your nasal passages moist are good ways to help prevent nosebleeds.

Cuirimid táirgí san áireamh a cheapann muid a bheith úsáideach dár léitheoirí. Má cheannaíonn tú trí naisc ar an leathanach seo, d'fhéadfadh go bhfaighfimid coimisiún beag. Seo ár bpróiseas.
Tá fuil na srón coitianta. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh eagla orthu, ach is annamh a léiríonn siad fadhb mhór leighis. Tá go leor soithigh fola sa srón, atá suite gar don dromchla ar thaobh tosaigh agus chúl na srón. Tá siad an-chroite agus fuilíonn siad go héasca. Tá fuil na srón coitianta i measc daoine fásta agus leanaí idir 3 agus 10 mbliana d'aois.
Tá dhá chineál fuil ón srón ann. Tarlaíonn fuil ón srón tosaigh nuair a bhriseann na soithigh fola i bhfront an srón agus a fhuilíonn.
Tarlaíonn fuil srón chúlra i gcúl nó sa chuid is doimhne den srón. Sa chás seo, sreabhann fuil síos cúl an throat. Is féidir le fuil ón srón a bheith contúirteach.
Tá go leor cúiseanna le fuil na srón. Ní bhíonn fuil na srón tobann nó neamhchoitianta tromchúiseach. Má bhíonn fuil ó do shrón go minic agat, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh fadhb níos tromchúisí agat.
Is é an t-aer tirim an chúis is coitianta le fuil na srón. Is féidir le maireachtáil i gcluaise tirim agus córas téimh lárnach a úsáid na membráin nasal a thriomú, is fíocháin iad taobh istigh den srón.
Tá an triomú seo ina chúis le crústa taobh istigh den srón. D'fhéadfadh an crústa a bheith itchy nó irritated. Má scratchann nó piccann tú do shrón, d'fhéadfadh sé fuil a fháil.
I measc na gcúiseanna coitianta eile le fuil ó srón tá:
- rud coimhthíoch a bheith i do shrón
- irritants ceimiceacha
- frithghníomh ailléirgeach
- díobháil ar an srón
- sneaking athfhillteach
- an srón a phlé
- aer fuar
- ionfhabhtú ar an gcosán anailíse
- dáileoga móra aspirin
I measc na gcúiseanna eile le fuil ó srón tá:
Ní gá aire leighis a thabhairt do chuid is mó de na fuilín. Ba chóir duit, áfach, aire leighis a lorg má mhaireann do chuid fuil ó bhéal níos faide ná 20 nóiméad, nó má tharlaíonn sé tar éis gorta. D'fhéadfadh sé seo a bheith ina chomhartha ar fhuilín naschúl chúl, atá níos tromchúisí.
Má iarrann tú aire leighis le haghaidh fuil ó srón, déanfaidh do dhochtúir scrúdú fisiceach chun cúis a chinneadh. Seiceáilfidh siad do shrón ar shonraí faoi rud coimhthíoch. Beidh siad ag cur ceisteanna ort freisin faoi do stair leighis agus faoi na cógais atá á n-úsáid agat faoi láthair.
Inis do dhochtúir faoi aon chomharthaí eile atá agat agus faoi aon ghortú a bhí agat le déanaí. Níl aon tástáil amháin ann chun cúis na fuil ón srón a chinneadh. D'fhéadfadh do dhochtúir tástálacha diagnóiseacha a úsáid chun an chúis a fháil. Áirítear leis na tástálacha seo:
Beidh cóireáil le haghaidh fuil ó na srón ag athrú ag brath ar an gcineál agus an chúis a bhaineann leis an fuil ó na srón. Léigh ar aghaidh chun a fháil amach faoi chóireálacha le haghaidh fuil na srón éagsúla.
Má tá fuil ó bhéal tosaigh agat, bíonn fuil agat ó thaobh tosaigh do bhéal, de ghnáth ó shrón. Is féidir leat iarracht a dhéanamh fuil ón srón tosaigh a chóireáil sa bhaile. Agus tú ina suí suas, brúigh an chuid bog de do shrón.
Déan cinnte go bhfuil do shrón dúnta go hiomlán. Coinnigh do shrón dúnta ar feadh 10 nóiméad, léig ar aghaidh go héasca, agus anailís trí do bhéal.
Ná luigh síos nuair a bhíonn tú ag iarraidh fuil ó srón a stopadh. D'fhéadfadh sé go nglódh tú fola agus go gcuirfeadh sé suaitheadh ar do bholg má luíonn tú síos. Scaoileadh do nostrils tar éis 10 nóiméad agus seiceáil a fheiceáil má tá an fhuil a stopadh. Déan na céimeanna seo a athdhéanamh má leanann an fuil.
Déan teagmháil le do dhochtúir láithreach mura bhfuil tú in ann fuil ón srón a stopadh leat féin. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh fuil ón srón taobh thiar agat a theastaíonn cóireáil níos ionrach uaidh.
Má tá fuil ar chúl do shrón agat, bíonn fuil agat ó chúl do shrón. Tá an fhuil ag sruthú ó chúl do shrón síos do throat. Tá fuil ón srón chúl níos coitianta agus is minic a bhíonn sé níos tromchúisí ná fuil ón srón tosaigh.
Níor chóir fuil ón srón a chóireáil sa bhaile. Déan teagmháil le do dhochtúir láithreach nó téigh go dtí an seomra éigeandála (ER) má cheapann tú go bhfuil fuil ón srón taobh thiar agat.
fuil ó na srón a tharlaíonn de bharr rudaí coimhthíocha
Má tá rud coigríche mar chúis leis, is féidir le do dhochtúir an rud a bhaint.
Is féidir le teicníc leighis ar a dtugtar cauterization stop a chur le fuil na srón a bhíonn ag tarlú go leanúnach nó go minic. Baineann sé seo le do dhochtúir na soithigh fola i do shrón a dhó le feiste téimh nó le nítreach airgid, cumaisc a úsáidtear chun fíochán a bhaint.
Féadfaidh do dhochtúir do shrón a phumpáil le cadás, le gais, nó le scamh. Féadfaidh siad catheter balún a úsáid freisin chun brú a chur ar do shoithigh fola agus an fuil a stopadh.
Tá roinnt bealaí ann chun fuil ón srón a chosc.
- Úsáid humidifier i do theach chun an t-aer a choinneáil taise.
- Seachain do shrón a phlé.
- Srian a chur le hioncam aspirin, rud a d'fhéadfadh do fhuil a thinntiú agus a bheith ina chúis le fuil ó shrón. Déan plé leis an dochtúir ar dtús mar d'fhéadfadh na buntáistí a bhaineann le aspirin a ghlacadh a bheith níos mó ná na rioscaí.
- Úsáid frith- histamineacha agus decongestants go measartha. Is féidir leis seo an srón a thriomú.
- Úsáid sprae salann nó géil chun na hailt nasal a choinneáil taise.
Tá fuil na srón coitianta agus ní bhíonn sé tromchúiseach de ghnáth. Is fuil na srón tosaigh iad an chuid is mó agus is féidir iad a chóireáil sa bhaile go minic. De ghnáth bíonn siad seo go tobann agus ní mhaireann siad fada.
Tá go leor cúiseanna ann, go háirithe an t-aer tirim agus an sruthadh nó an pingin arís agus arís eile ar an srón. Mura féidir leat an fhuil ó do fhuil ón srón tosaigh a stopadh, ba cheart duit glaoch ar do dhochtúir láithreach.
D'fhéadfadh sé a bheith níos tromchúisí fuil ó shrón chúl. Má cheapann tú go bhféadfadh fuil ón srón a bheith agat, déan teagmháil le do dhochtúir láithreach nó téigh go dtí an ER.
Is bealaí maithe chun fuil ón srón a chosc ná go gcoinníonn tú an t-aer a bhfuil taise aige i do theach, go seachnóidh tú do shrón a phlé, agus go n-úsáideann tú néalóg nasal chun do shrón a choinneáil taise.


The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from the W3C.
Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as simple strings. It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so this usage is not yet documented.
|DOMImplementation||8.6.2||Interface to the underlying implementation.|
|Node||8.6.2||Base interface for most objects in a document.|
|NodeList||8.6.2||Interface for a sequence of nodes.|
|DocumentType||8.6.2||Information about the declarations needed to process a document.|
|Document||8.6.2||Object which represents an entire document.|
|Element||8.6.2||Element nodes in the document hierarchy.|
|Attr||8.6.2||Attribute value nodes on element nodes.|
|Comment||8.6.2||Representation of comments in the source document.|
|Text||8.6.2||Nodes containing textual content from the document.|
|ProcessingInstruction||8.6.2||Processing instruction representation.|
An additional section describes the exceptions defined for working with the DOM in Python.

Is é an sonraíocht DOM ón W3C an doiciméadú críochnaitheach don DOM.
Tabhair faoi deara gur féidir tréithe DOM a ionramháil mar nóid seachas mar shreangáin shimplí. Tá sé an-annamh go gcaithfidh tú é seo a dhéanamh, áfach, mar sin níl an úsáid seo cláraithe go fóill.
DOMImplementation Cad atá le déanamh8.6.2 Cad atá le déanamhInterface leis an gcur i bhfeidhm bunúsach.
☐ Ní mór duit a bheith ar an eolas faoi na sonraí a bhaineann le do chuid sonraí pearsanta.
Is é NodeList an t-idirlíon do shraith nóid.
☐Cód na n-eispéiris a bhaineann le doiciméid a phróiseáil
☐Cód doiciméad 8.6.2 ☐Cód doiciméad Object a léiríonn doiciméad iomlán.
Element 8.6.2 Element nodees in the document hierarchy.
 Attr dara dara 8.6.2 dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara dara
☐ Comhráite i doiciméad foinse.
☐Códanna a bhfuil ábhar téacsúil sa doiciméad iontu.
│ProcessingInstructionadgadgadgad8.6.2adgadgadgadProcessing instructionrepresentation.adgadgadgad
Déanann rannán breise cur síos ar na heisceachtaí a shainmhínítear chun oibriú leis an DOM i Python.


July 30, 2009
The World Health Organization determined in 2005 it has the authority to dissolve sovereign governments and take control should there be a Ã¢â‚¬Å“pandemicÃ¢â‚¬Â. This applies to any country signed onto WHOÃ¢â‚¬Â¦.which of course we are. The WHO just raised this non-existent pandemic to level 4 (PLEASE SEE BOTTOM OF ARTICLE FOR VacTRUTH Author’s Note).
From the WHO 2005 declaration: (excerpted) Ã¢â‚¬Å“ Under special pandemic plans enacted around the world including the USA, in 2005, national governments are to be dissolved in the event of a pandemic emergency and replaced by special crisis committees, which take charge of the health and security infrastructure of a country, and which are answerable to the WHO and EU in Europe and to the WHO and UN in North America.
If the Model Emergency Health Powers Act is implemented on the instructions of WHI, it will be a criminal offence for Americans to refuse the vaccine. Police are allowed to use deadly force against Ã¢â‚¬Å“criminalÃ¢â‚¬Â suspects. Here are ten key points associated with MSEHPA:
Under the Model State Emergency Health Powers Act, upon the declaration of a Ã¢â‚¬Å“public health emergency,Ã¢â‚¬Â governors and public health officials would be empowered to:
Force individuals suspected of harboring an Ã¢â‚¬Å“infectious diseaseÃ¢â‚¬Â to undergo medical examinations.
Track and share an individualÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s personal health information, including genetic information.
Force persons to be vaccinated, treated, or quarantined for infectious diseases.
Mandate that all health care providers report all cases of persons who harbor any illness or health condition that may be caused by an epidemic or an infectious agent and might pose a Ã¢â‚¬Å“substantial riskÃ¢â‚¬Â to a Ã¢â‚¬Å“significant number of people or cause a long-term disability.Ã¢â‚¬Â (Note: Neither Ã¢â‚¬Å“substantial riskÃ¢â‚¬Â nor Ã¢â‚¬Å“significant numberÃ¢â‚¬Â are defined in the draft.)
Force pharmacists to report any unusual or any increased prescription rates that may be caused by epidemic diseases.
Preempt existing state laws, rules and regulations, including those relating to privacy, medical licensure, andÃ¢â‚¬”this is keyÃ¢â‚¬”property rights.
Control public and private property during a public health emergency, including pharmaceutical manufacturing plants, nursing homes, other health care facilities, and communications devices.
Mobilize all or any part of the Ã¢â‚¬Å“organized militia into service to the state to help enforce the stateÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s orders.Ã¢â‚¬Â Ration firearms, explosives, food, fuel and alcoholic beverages, among other commodities.
Impose fines and penalties to enforce their orders.
So there you have it. You are now officially to be declared a criminal if you refuse the vaccine and deadly force can be used against you if you resist. And to think, not only did our federal government agree to this abomination, it was also successful in getting the same laws passed in most states. I will be revisiting this list of powers in a subsequent article as it relates to the coming Ã¢â‚¬Å“healthcare reformÃ¢â‚¬Â, and other odious pieces of legislation being devised.
Read the Full Article Here.
VacTRUTH Author’s note:
2. Watch the 1976 Swine Flu CBS documentary which was shown to the American people only one time. This documentary exposes the fact that the whole vaccine campaign was a farse.

30 Iúil, 2009
Chinn an Eagraíocht Dhomhanda Sláinte in 2005 go bhfuil sé an t-údarás a dhíscaoileadh rialtais uachtaránachta agus a ghlacadh smacht má tá a "pandemic". Baineann sé seo le haon tír a shínigh isteach ar WHO... . . rud atá againn ar ndóigh. Tá an WHO tar éis an paindéim neamh-fhorleathan seo a ardú go leibhéal 4 (FÉACH AN TÍOMHÁIN AR ARTAIGIL I NÓS VACTRUTH Nóta an Údair).
Ó dhearbhú WHO 2005: (aistrithe) Ã¢â€¬Å Faoi phleananna speisialta paindéime a d'eisigh an domhan ar fud an domhain lena n-áirítear na Stáit Aontaithe, i 2005, tá rialtais náisiúnta le sciúradh i gcás éigeandála paindéime agus iad a chur in ionad coistí géarchéime speisialta, a ghlacann cúram de bhonneagar sláinte agus slándála tíre, agus atá freagrach don WHO agus don AE san Eoraip agus don WHO agus na Náisiún Aontaithe i Meiriceá Thuaidh.
Má tá an tAcht um Cumhachtaí Sláinte Éigeandála Múnla curtha i bhfeidhm ar theorainneacha WHI, beidh sé ina chion coiriúil do Mheiriceánaigh an vacsaín a dhiúltú. Tá cead ag na póilíní fórsa mharfach a úsáid i gcoinne daoine atá faoi amhras faoi choireacht. Seo deich bpríomhphointe a bhaineann le MSEHPA:
Faoi an tAcht um Cumhachtaí Sláinte Éigeandála Stáit, nuair a dhearbhaítear éigeandáil sláinte phoiblí, bheadh cumhacht ag rialóirí agus oifigeach sláinte poiblí:
Éilíonn sé ar dhaoine a bhfuil amhras orthu go bhfuil galar gabhálach acu dul faoi scrúduithe leighis.
Déan faisnéis phearsanta sláinte duine aonair a rianú agus a roinnt, lena n-áirítear faisnéis ghéiniteach.
Daoine a chur iallach chun a vacsaínithe, a chóireáil, nó a chur i gcarantainis le haghaidh galair ionfhabhtaithe.
Éilíonn sé ar na soláthraithe cúraim sláinte go léir gach cás de dhaoine a bhfuil aon tinneas nó riocht sláinte acu a d'fhéadfadh a bheith mar thoradh ar eipidéim nó gníomhairí ionfhabhtaithe agus a d'fhéadfadh riosca "suntasach" a chur i láthair d'uimhir shuntasach daoine nó a d'fhéadfadh míchumais fhadtéarma a chur i bhfeidhm a thuairisciú. (Nóta: Ní shainmhínítear "suntasach" riosca ná "suntasach" líon sa dréacht.)
Éilíonn sé ar chógaiseoirí aon rátaí oideas neamhghnácha nó méadaithe a thuairisciú a d'fhéadfadh a bheith mar thoradh ar ghalair eipidéimeacha.
Ní bheidh sé ag dul thar dlíthe, rialacha agus rialacháin stáit atá ann cheana, lena n-áirítear iad siúd a bhaineann le príobháideacht, ceadúnais leighis, agus is é seo na cearta maoine.
Rialaigh maoin phoiblí agus phríobháideach le linn éigeandála sláinte poiblí, lena n-áirítear gléasraí déantúsaíochta cógaisíochta, tithe altranais, saoráidí cúraim sláinte eile, agus feistí cumarsáide.
Cuir na mílíseacha eagraithe go léir nó cuid acu ar fáil chun freastal ar an stát chun cuidiú le horduithe an stáit a fhorfheidhmiú. Arm tine, pléascáin, bia, breosla agus deochanna alcóil a ráimniú, i measc earraí eile.
Fíneálacha agus pionóis a fhorchur chun a n-orduithe a fhorfheidhmiú.
Mar sin tá sé agat. Tá tú anois go hoifigiúil a bheith dearbhaithe mar choiriúil má dhiúltaíonn tú an vacsaín agus is féidir fórsa marbhtach a úsáid i do choinne má tá tú ag cur in aghaidh. Agus a cheapann, ní hamháin go bhfuil ár rialtas cónaidhme aontaigh leis an abomination, bhí sé chomh maith rathúil i a fháil ar na dlíthe céanna a rith i bhformhór na stáit. Beidh mé ag athbhreithniú an liosta cumhachtaí i alt ina dhiaidh sin mar go mbaineann sé leis an athchóiriú cúram sláinte atá le teacht, agus píosaí oidious eile reachtaíochta atá á n-oibreacht.
Léigh an t-alt iomlán anseo.
Nóta an údair:
2. Seachadadh. Féach ar an 1976 Grianghraif Muc CBS cáipéisíocht a thaispeántar do mhuintir na Meiriceánach ach uair amháin. Léiríonn an clár faisnéise seo gur bréag an fheachtas vacsaínithe ar fad.


Exploring Babylon Chapter 23
Although just published (May 2018), Barracoon: The Story of the Last “Black Cargo” was completed in 1931, based on work begun in the 1920s. Zora Neale Hurston’s Barracoon relates the story of a West African and his experience, before, during, and after U.S. slavery. Some of the content, as well as story of its publication, shed light on #ExploringBabylon.
Oluale Kossola (Cudjo Lewis) was born in Benin, West Africa, around 1841. He was captured by Dahomian warriors and temporarily held in a barracoon, before being sold to slavers. He was then transported to the U.S. on the Clotilda, the last known trans-Atlantic slave ship. At age 86, Kossola granted Hurston interviews that became Barracoon. The long trail from Hurston’s work to publication is related in the current volume by its editor, Deborah G. Plant.
One reason the publication did not appear back in the 1930s was Hurston’s refusal to rewrite Kossola’s vernacular speech in more standard English. I find that listening to Hurston’s voice helps set the scene and prepare the reader for her rendering of Kossola’s speech:
Kossula ceased speaking and looked pointedly at his melon rind. There was still lots of good red meat and a quart or two of juice. I looked at mine. I had more meat left than Kossula had. Nothing was left of the first installment, but a pleasant memory. So we lifted the half-rinds to our knees and started all over again. The sun was still hot so we did the job leisurely.
Watermelon halves having ends like everything else, and a thorough watermelon eating being what it is, a long over-stuffed silence fell on us.
— Hurston, Barracoon, p.40-41
Songs and Names in a Strange Land
Oluale Kossola (Cudjo Lewis) explains the naming of his children:
“In de Afficky we gottee one name, but in dis place dey tell us we needee two names. One for de son, you unnerstand me, and den one for the father. Derefo’ I put de name of my father O-lo-loo-ay to my name. But it too long for people to call it. It too crooked lak Kossula. So dey call me Cudjo Lewis.
“So you unnerstand me, we give our chillun two names. One name because we not furgit our home; den another name for de Americky soil so it won’t be too crooked to call.”
— Kossola, Barracoon, p.72-73
Kossola describes for Hurston the funeral of the first of his children to die:
“We Christian people now, so we put our baby in de coffin and dey take her in de church, and everybody come look down in her face. Dey sing, ‘Shall We Meet Beyond De River’. I been a member of de church a long time now, and I know de words of de song wid my mouth, but my heart it doan know dat. Derefo’ I sing inside me, ‘O todo ah wah n-law yah-lee, owrran k-nee ra ra k-nee ro ro.’ [not translated].”
— Kossola, Barracoon, p.74
Exiles in Babylon believed they would one day return home, meanwhile pining: “How shall we sing the LORD’S song in a foreign land?” (Ps. 137:4). Kossola seems to ask, instead: Can we ever sing our own songs in this land from which there seems no escape?
Strange, Familiar, Tales
This parable, among several Kossola shared, was told after the death of his wife:
“’You see Ole Charlie dere. S’pose he stop here on de way to church. He got de parasol ’cause he think it gwine rain when he leave de house. But he look at de sky and ‘cide hit ain’ gwine rain so he set it dere by the door an’ go on to church. After de preachin’ he go on home ’cause he think de parasol at Cudjo house. It safe. He say, “I git it nexy time I go dat way.” When he come home he say to one de chillun, “Go to Cudjo house and tellee him I say sendee me my parasol.”
“’De parasol is pretty. I likee keep dat one.’ But I astee dem all, ‘Is it right to keep de parasol?’ Dey all say, ‘No it belong to Charlie.’
“’Well,’ I say, ‘my wife, she b’long to God. He lef’ her by my door’
— from Kossola’s parables, Barracoon, p.92
This tale comes from a medieval collection of midrash:
[Rabbi Meir is at the house of study, and Beruriah is at home, when their two sons both die suddenly on the Sabbath. After Meir returns home and the Sabbath comes to a close…]
“Rabbi,” she then said, “some time ago a deposit was left with me for safe-keeping, and now the owner has come to claim it. Must I return it?”
“Can there be any question about the return of property to its owner?” said R. Meïr, half astonished and half indignant that his wife should entertain a doubt.
“I did not care to let it go out of my possession without your knowledge,” replied Beruriah, seemingly in excuse, and, taking him by the hand, led him into the room in which the bodies of their two sons were lying on the bed. When she withdrew the cover, R. Meïr broke out in tears and plaints. Gently Beruriah reminded him of his answer to her question about the return of a treasure entrusted to one for safe-keeping, adding the verse from Job (i. 21): “The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord.”
— from Proverbs 964, Yalkut Shimoni
as quoted in the Jewish Encyclopedia
I would be very interested to learn if Christian lore includes stories similar to the tale about Beruriah and Meir (2nd Century CE) and Kossola’s early 20th Century parable.
Strangeness in the Story
One more note from Deborah G. Plant’s comments:
In face of Kossola’s recollections, the social constructions of “My People” and “Africans” were deconstructed by the reality of ethnic identifications, which not only distinguished tribes and clans but also generated the narrative distance and the ideological difference that rendered one ethnic group capable of regarding another as “stranger” or “enemy,” and allowed that group to offer up the “Other” to “the Trans-Atlantic trade.”
“One thing impressed me strongly from this three months of association with Cudjo Lewis,” Hurston writes. “The white people had held my people in slavery in America. They had brought us, it is true and exploited us. But the inescapable fact that stuck in my craw, was: my people had sold me and the white people had bought me. That did away with the folklore I had been brought up on – that the white people had gone to Africa, waved a red handkerchief at the Africans and lured them aboard the ship and sailed away.” [footnote]
— Plant, editor, Barracoon, p.124-125
Hurston’s struggle, comparing what she learned from Kossola with what she’d been previously taught, is reminiscent in some ways of David W. Stowe’s comparison of the Exodus story with that of Babylonian Exile.
Zora Neal Hurston (1891-1960)
Barracoon: The Story of the Last “Black Cargo.”
Foreword: Alice Walker. Editor: Deborah G. Plant
NY: Amistad (HarperCollins), 2018.
Interviews were conducted in 1927. Book was completed in 1931.
More on this volume from HarperCollins
Short, clear background piece.
NPR story about the publication
Footnote in Barracoon cites Zora Neale Hurston, Dust Tracks on a Road: An Autobiography. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press , 1984. p. 200

Ag Taighde Babilon Caibidil 23
Cé gur foilsíodh é díreach (Mháire 2018), Barracoon: The Story of the Last Black Cargo críochnaithe i 1931, bunaithe ar obair a thosaigh sna 1920idí. Insíonn Barracoon Zora Neale Hurston scéal na hAfraice Thiar agus a thaithí, roimh, le linn, agus tar éis sclábhaíocht na Stát Aontaithe. Tugann cuid den ábhar, chomh maith le scéal a fhoilsiú, léargas ar #ExploringBabylon.
Rugadh Oluale Kossola (Cudjo Lewis) i mBéin, san Afraic Thiar, timpeall 1841. Ghlac na cogairí Dahomian é agus coinníodh go sealadach é i barracoon, sula ndíoladh é le sclábhaithe. Chuireadh chuig na Stáit Aontaithe é ansin ar an Clotilda, an long sclábhaí trasatlantach deireanach a bhí ar eolas aige. Ag aois 86, thug Kossola agallaimh do Hurston a tháinig chun bheith ina Barracoon. Tá an bealach fada ó obair Hurston go foilseachán a bhaineann leis an méid reatha ag a eagarthóir, Deborah G. Plant.
Ceann de na cúiseanna nár nocht an foilseachán ar ais sna 1930idí ná diúltú Hurston labhairt na Gaeilge a scríobh Kossola i mBéarla níos caighdeánaí. Fuair mé go gcuireann éisteacht le guth Hurston leis an radharc a shocrú agus an léitheoir a ullmhú don léiriú a dhéanann sí ar chaint Kossola:
Kossula scor ag labhairt agus d'fhéach sé go géar ar a peil melon. Bhí go leor fós feoil dearg maith agus litr nó dhó de sú. D'fhéach mé ar mo chuid féin. Bhí mé níos mó feola fágtha ná a bhí ag Kossula. Níor fhan aon rud den chéad tráthchuid, ach cuimhní suimiúil. Mar sin, thóg muid an leath-cinn ar ár gcneasa agus thosaigh gach rud arís. Bhí an ghrian fós te mar sin rinneamar an obair leisciúil.
Watermelon leathanna a bhfuil foircinn cosúil le gach rud eile, agus go hiomlán watermelon ithe a bheith ar cad é, thit an-stuffed mutua fada orainn.
 Hurston, Barracoon, pp.40-41
Ainmneacha agus Ainmneacha i dTír Eile
Míníonn Oluale Kossola (Cudjo Lewis) ainmniú a leanaí:
In de Afficky fuair muid ainm amháin, ach sa áit seo deir siad dúinn go dteastaíonn dhá ainm uainn. Ceann do de mhac, tú unnerstand dom, agus den ceann don athair. Derefo Chuir mé de ainm mo athair O-lo-loo-ay ar mo ainm. Ach tá sé ró-fhada do dhaoine a ghlaoch air. Tá sé ró-croite lac Kossula. Mar sin dey glaoch orm Cudjo Lewis.
 Mar sin, má tá tú unnerstand dom, a thabhairt dúinn ár chillun dhá ainm. Ainm amháin toisc nach bhfuil muid furgit ár dteach; den ainm eile do de Americky ithir mar sin ní bheidh sé ró-croite a ghlaoch.
 Kossola, Barracoon, l.72-73
Déanann Kossola cur síos do Hurston ar an adhlacadh ar an gcéad duine dá leanaí a fuair bás:
We daoine Críostaí anois, mar sin táimid a chur ar ár leanbh i de coffin agus deannaigh í i de eaglais, agus gach duine teacht breathnú síos i a aghaidh. Dey sing, "Shall We Meet Beyond De River". Tá mé ina bhall den eaglais le fada anois, agus tá a fhios agam na focail de an t-amhrán wid mo bhéal, ach mo chroí nach bhfuil sé a fhios dat. Derefo Sílim go bhfuil mé ag canadh istigh i mo, O todo ah wah n-law yah-lee, owrran k-nee ra ra k-nee ro ro. [ní aistrithe].
 Kossola, Barracoon, l.74
Bhí creideamh ag na dílleachtaigh i mBabylon go dtiocfadh siad abhaile lá amháin, agus iad ag caoineadh: 'Conas a chanfaimid amhrán an TIGHEARNA i dtír choigríche?' (Salm. 137:4) Tá an t-am ag teacht. Is cosúil go bhfuil Kossola ag iarraidh, ina ionad sin: An féidir linn ár n-amhráin féin a chanadh riamh sa tír seo as nach bhfuil aon éalú ann?
Weird, Familiar, Tales
Cuireadh an parabal seo, i measc roinnt de na parabalta a roinn Kossola, tar éis bháis a mhná:
Féach tú Ole Charlie dere. Má stopann sé anseo ar a bhealach go dtí an eaglais. Fuair sé an parasol toisc go gceapann sé go bhfuil sé ag báisteach nuair a fhágann sé an teach. Ach d'fhéach sé ar an spéir agus bhuail sé an báisteach agus chuir sé é ag an doras agus chuaigh sé go dtí an eaglais. Tar éis an preaching sé dul ar bhaile toisc go bhfuil sé ag smaoineamh ar parasol ag Cudjo teach. Tá sé sábháilte. Deir sé, "Gabhfaidh mé é an chéad uair eile a rachaidh mé ar an mbealach sin". Nuair a thagann sé abhaile deir sé le duine de chillun, "Téigh go teach Cudjo agus inis dó a deirim, seol mo shárla dom".
 Tá an parasol deas. Ba mhaith liom a choinneáil ar an ceann.  Ach iarr mé orthu go léir,  Is ceart a choinneáil ar de parasol?  Deir siad go léir,  Níl sé de chuid Charlie.
"Bhuel", a deirim, "mo bhean chéile, tá sí blong le Dia. He left her by my door  D'fhág sé í ag mo dhoras
 ó parabal Kosolas, Barracoon, p.92
Tagann an scéal seo ó bhailiúchán meánaoiseach midrash:
[Tá an Rabí Meir sa teach staidéir, agus tá Beruriah sa bhaile, nuair a bháis a beirt mhac go tobann ar an Sabbath. Tar éis Meir filleadh abhaile agus an Sabbath a thagann go dtí an deireadh...]
"A Rabhái", a dúirt sí ansin, "bhí taisce curtha i mo sheilbh le roinnt ama ó shin chun a choinneáil slán, agus anois tá an t-úinéir tagtha chun é a éileamh. An gá dom é a thabhairt ar ais?
"An féidir aon cheist a bheith ann maidir le maoin a thabhairt ar ais dá úinéir?" a dúirt R. Meïr, leath iontas agus leath indignant go mbeadh amhras ag a bhean chéile.
"Níor thug mé cúram dó dul as mo sheilbh gan do fhios", a d'fhreagair Beruriah, is cosúil go raibh sé ina leithscéal, agus, ag glacadh leis ar láimh, thug sé isteach sa seomra ina raibh comhlachtaí a mbeirt mhac ina luí ar an leaba. Nuair a tharraing sí an clúdach, thit R. Meïr i bpláinéad agus i gcúis. Go suaimhneach chuir Beruriah i gcuimhne dó a fhreagra ar a cheist faoi aisghabháil stór a cuireadh i gceann le coinneáil slán, ag cur an véarsa ó Job (i. 21): An Tiarna a thug, agus an Tiarna a thóg; beannaithe a bheith ainm an Tiarna.
 ó Eagnacha 964, Yalkut Shimoni
mar a luaitear sa Jewish Encyclopedia
Bheadh an-spéis agam a fháil amach an bhfuil scéalta cosúil leis an scéal faoi Beruriah agus Meir (an 2ú haois CE) agus parabal Kossola ag tús an 20ú haois san áireamh i léitheoireacht Chríostaí.
An t-eagmais sa Scéal
Nóta amháin eile ó thuairimí Deborah G. Plant:
I bhfianaise cuimhneamh Kossola, rinneadh deconstructions sóisialta "Mo Dhaoine" agus "Afraice" a dhíchóiriú le fírinne na n-aitheantais eitneacha, a d'éirigh le treibheanna agus clans a idirdhealú ach a chruthaigh an fad scéalaíochta agus an difríocht idé-eolaíoch a rinne grúpa eitneach amháin in ann a mheas mar "eachtrannach" nó "neamh-ghleacaigh", agus a cheadaigh don ghrúpa sin an "Eile" a thairiscint don "thrácht tras-Atlantach".
Rinne rud amháin an-tóir orm as an gcaidreamh trí mhí seo le Cudjo Lewis,a scríobh Hurston.  Bhí daoine bána ag mo mhuintir i sclábhaíocht i Meiriceá. Bhí siad a thug dúinn, tá sé fíor agus úsáid dúinn. Ach an fíric nach féidir a sheachaint a d'fhan i mo chroí, bhí: mo mhuintir a dhíol mé agus na daoine bán a cheannaigh mé. Chuir sé sin deireadh leis an bpearsa a bhí mé tar éis a bheith ag fás suas  go raibh na daoine bána imithe go hAfraice, ag cur sciathán dearg ar na hAfraiceanna agus iad a mhealladh ar bord na loinge agus a sheol amach.
 Plant, eagarthóir, Barracoon, p.124-125
Tá streachailt Hurston, ag comparáid na rudaí a d'fhoghlaim sí ó Kossola leis na rudaí a bhí foghlamtha di roimhe seo, i gcuimhne ar bhealaí áirithe de David W. Stowe comparáid a dhéanamh idir scéal Exodus agus an Exile Babylon.
Zora Neal Hurston (1891-1960)
Barracoon: Scéal an Cargáige Dubh Deireanach.
Tús: Alice Walker. Editor: Deborah G. Plant
NY: Amistad (HarperCollins), 2018.
Rinneadh agallaimh i 1927. Cuireadh deireadh le leabhar i 1931.
Tuilleadh ar an toirt seo ó HarperCollins
Píosa cúlra gearr, soiléir.
Scéal NPR faoin bhfoilseachán
Tugann nóta thíos i Barracoon Zora Neale Hurston, Dust Tracks on a Road: An Autobiography. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press , 1984. l. 200


Spring blooming native perennials provide a profusion of blue and yellow flowers. Many of these plants are ephemeral — emerging to bloom in spring and going into dormancy for the rest of the year. While selecting plants that give you at least three seasons of interest makes the most sense to me, these three seem worth the effort even though they only appear in spring. Spring is a great time to look around to see whether these are of interest and also the time when they are most available for purchase. All like some shade and prefer moister rather than drier soils. These are great for planting beneath a large tree.
Virginia bluebells (Mertensia virginica) seem to be the most exuberant of these three. They emerge so quickly once spring arrives, the buds are purple and quickly turn to blue as the plants grow to 2′ in height and they will disappear just as quickly once finished blooming. If you have a dappled sun or shady spot with average to moist soil, and you want cheery spring blue flowers, Virginia bluebells are a great choice. They also self seed though new plants take several years to grow before they bloom.
Celandine poppy (Stylophorum diphyllum), the native woodland poppy in the Chesapeake watershed, is another easy to grow, prolific blooming plant in spring. Cheery yellow flowers last for about a month and, in moist areas, the fern like foliage will last through much of summer. This perennial also self sows, but not crazily, which is nice if you want to fill in an area. Woodland poppy is also a good choice if you are looking for the native alternative to daffodils.
Trillium, also called wood lilies, are shade loving plants that are unusual looking. Pictured above right is the yellow flowered trillium (Trillium luteum). The white (Trillium grandiflorum) and red trilliums (Trillium sessile) are also native. Trilliums are slower growing than the first two and really are best suited to shady woodland gardens.
All of these early blooming plants make pollinators and birds happy. Wishing you peaceful gardening.

Tá go leor bláthanna gorma agus buí ag na plandaí daingean a bhíonn ag bláthadh sa earrach. Tá go leor de na plandaí seo efemér  ag teacht chun cinn chun bláthanna a chur sa earrach agus ag dul isteach i gcúis codlata don chuid eile den bhliain. Cé go bhfuil an ciall is mó dom plandaí a roghnú a thugann trí shéasúr spéise duit ar a laghad, is cosúil go bhfuil na trí cinn seo fiú an iarracht cé nach dtarlaíonn siad ach san earrach. Is é an earrach an t-am iontach chun féachaint timpeall chun a fheiceáil an bhfuil suim acu agus an t-am freisin nuair a bhíonn siad ar fáil chun iad a cheannach. Is maith leo go léir scáth agus is fearr leo ithir taise ná ithir níos tirim. Tá siad seo iontach le haghaidh plandáil faoi chrann mór.
Is cosúil gurb iad na bluebells Virginia (Mertensia virginica) an ceann is exuberant de na trí cinn. Tá na cnapanna purpúrtha agus casann siad go gorm go tapa nuair a fhásann na plandaí go 2 ' ar airde agus imíonn siad chomh tapa céanna nuair a bhíonn siad críochnaithe ag bláthú. Má tá tú ag a bhfuil spotted ghrian nó áit scáthúil le meán a ithir taise, agus is mian leat bláthanna blao earrach cheerful, Virginia bluebells is rogha iontach. Tá siad féin-sithe freisin cé go dtógann plandaí nua roinnt blianta chun fás sula bhfásann siad.
Is plandaí éasca le fás eile é an ceelandine poppy (Stylophorum diphyllum), an poppy foraoise dúchasach i dtráthchríoch Chesapeake, atá ag bláthú go prósúil san earrach. Maireann bláthanna buí gealacha geal ar feadh thart ar mhí agus, i gceantair taise, maireann an fern cosúil le duilleoga ar feadh cuid mhaith den samhradh. Tá an plandúil seo féin-séadaíonn freisin, ach ní crazyly, a bhfuil deas más mian leat a líonadh i limistéar. Is rogha maith é an poppy Woodland freisin má tá tú ag lorg rogha eile dúchasach do na daffodils.
Is plandaí neamhghnách iad na trillium, ar a dtugtar lilisí adhmaid freisin, a bhfuil grá acu don scáth. Sa phictiúr thuas ar dheis tá an trillium buí bláthmhar (Trillium luteum). Tá an trillium bán (Trillium grandiflorum) agus an trillium dearg (Trillium sessile) dúchasach freisin. Tá trilliums ag fás níos moille ná an chéad dá agus i ndáiríre is fearr a oiriúnaítear do ghairdín foraoise shady.
Déanann na plandaí seo go léir a bhíonn ag bláthadh go luath pollinatóirí agus éin áthas. Ag súil leat gairdíníocht shíochánta.


Water Management-Water Cycling
|As part of a SARE-funded project at the University of Arizona, grower Craig Collins raised olive trees irrigated from his shrimp pond. |
Photo by Kevin Fitzsimmons
Some farmers and ranchers seeking to maximize every drop of precipitation are creating systems that double the benefits of a water source by applying it to two enterprises. Many of them pair crops with aquaculture, which not only recycles water but also provides nutrients from fish waste. Worldwide, aquaculture is expected to grow at about 7.3 percent annually, from $66 billion in 2003 to more than $93 billion in 2008 in response to market demand.
University of Arizona researchers funded by SARE integrated shrimp ponds with olive trees on a Gila Bend, Ariz., farm to test the benefits of running irrigation water through two systems. Researchers designed a plot of 120 trees, irrigated them from the shrimp pond, and compared canopy height and trunk circumference to a set of trees watered from a well. Watering trees from the shrimp ponds also supplied saplings with 1.6 to 5.6 kilograms of nitrogen per row from the shrimp waste. In the second year, they met the full nitrogen recommendation for olive trees.
“We wanted to show how to pair crops with aquaculture, running water through fish or shrimp first, then putting it on their crops,” said project leader Kevin Fitzsimmons, a soil, water and environmental researcher. “The trees grew significantly better with the effluent than the trees that were on well water.”
Fitzsimmons also tested shrimp pond sludge – shrimp waste that settles to the bottom – on tomato plots at the university’s Environmental Research Lab. The tomatoes amended with sludge in Fitzsimmons’ project produced significantly more fruit than the tomatoes in the control plot with unamended soil: 141 grams of fruit per plant compared to 39 grams in the control plants. “A major point is that we’re using the N and P in the waste from the shrimp to replace the N and P fertilizers that farmers would otherwise have to buy,” Fitzsimmons said.
Through field days, Fitzsimmons’ team publicized their results and, since then, close to a dozen Arizona crop farmers are trying to integrate fish and shrimp farming into their systems.
The climate on the U.S. Virgin Islands is also semi-arid, and Islanders view water as a valuable resource. To help the small, high-value market crop farmers on
St. John, researchers at the University of the Virgin Islands explored ways to use tank-grown tilapia to add fertility and recycle water.
Project leader Don Bailey hopes to raise the standard of living by introducing a marketable new product in a territory that imports more than 80 percent of its seafood and 90 percent of its fruit and vegetables.
“Fish is an alternative crop for farmers to diversify their income beyond field crops,” said Bailey, who tested tank-raised fish on a St. John farm growing organic greens, using dried fish sludge as a soil amendment. Tilapia can bring up to $3 a pound and costs just $1.25 a pound to produce.

Bainistíocht Uisce-Rathrú Uisce
Mar chuid de thionscadal a mhaoiníonn SARE in Ollscoil Arizona, d'fhás an feirmeoir Craig Collins crainn olóige a bhí á uisceáil as a chladach creimire. Tá sé seo.
Grianghraf ag Kevin Fitzsimmons
Tá roinnt feirmeoirí agus feirmeoirí ag iarraidh an méid is mó a bhaint as gach titim báistí agus tá siad ag cruthú córais a dhéantar chun na buntáistí a bhaineann le foinse uisce a dhúbailt trína chur i bhfeidhm ar dhá ghnólachtaí. Tá go leor acu ag cur na barraí i gcomhar le dobharshaothraithe, rud a dhéanann ní amháin uisce a athchúrsáil ach a sholáthraíonn cothaithigh ó dhramhaíl éisc freisin. Táthar ag súil go dtiocfaidh méadú thart ar 7.3 faoin gcéad ar an uisce-chultúr ar fud an domhain gach bliain, ó $66 billiún in 2003 go níos mó ná $93 billiún in 2008 mar fhreagra ar éileamh an mhargaidh.
Rinne taighdeoirí Ollscoil Arizona, arna maoiniú ag SARE, poill creimíní a chomhtháthú le crainn olóige ar fheirm i Gila Bend, Arizona, chun na buntáistí a bhaineann le huisce uisciúcháin a reáchtáil trí dhá chóras a thástáil. Rinne taighdeoirí plota de 120 crann a dhearadh, iad a uisceáil ón loch creimíní, agus méadú an chnoic agus imlíne an troma a chur i gcomparáid le sraith de chrainn a raibh uisce á cur orthu ó phota. Bhí 1.6 go 5.6 cileagram nítrigine in aghaidh an tsraith ó dhramhaíl na gcarraig ag na crainn a bhí á uisce ó na locha garraíodóireachta. Sa dara bliain, chomhlíon siad an moladh iomlán nítrigine do chrainn olóige.
'Ba mhaith linn a thaispeáint conas barraí a lánú le dobharshaothraithe, ag rith uisce trí iasc nó creimíní ar dtús, ansin é a chur ar a gcuid barraí,' a dúirt ceannaire an tionscadail Kevin Fitzsimmons, taighdeoir ithreach, uisce agus comhshaoil. D'fhás na crainn go suntasach níos fearr leis an effluent ná na crainn a bhí ar uisce tobar.
Rinne Fitzsimmons tástáil freisin ar slam locha creiméid - dramhaíl creiméid a shuíonn go bun - ar phláinéid tamáiste ag an Ollscoil's Environmental Research Lab. Bhí torthaí i bhfad níos mó ag na trátaí a ndearnadh modhnú orthu le salainn i dtionscadal Fitzsimmons ná na trátaí sa phláta rialaithe le talamh neamhmhodhnúta: 141 gram torthaí in aghaidh an phlanda i gcomparáid le 39 gram sna planntraí rialaithe. "Is pointe tábhachtach é go bhfuilimid ag úsáid an N agus an P i dramhaíl na creimíní chun na leasacháin N agus P a bheadh ar fheirmeoirí a cheannach a chur in ionad", a dúirt Fitzsimmons.
Trí laethanta sa réimse, d'fhoilsigh foireann Fitzsimmons a gcuid torthaí agus, ó shin i leith, tá beagnach dosaen feirmeoir barra Arizona ag iarraidh feirmeoireacht iasc agus creimíní a chomhtháthú ina gcórais.
Tá aeráid na hOileáin Mhaighdeana Mheiriceá leath-triomach freisin, agus measaíonn Oileáinigh uisce mar acmhainn luachmhar. Chun cabhrú le feirmeoirí beaga, ardluachmhargaidh ar thalmhaíocht
John, d'fhorbraíodh taighdeoirí in Ollscoil na nOileáin Mhaighdean bealaí chun tilapia a fhásann i tanc a úsáid chun torthúlacht a chur leis agus uisce a athchúrsáil.
Tá súil ag Don Bailey, ceannaire an tionscadail, go dtógfaidh sé an caighdeán maireachtála trí tháirge nua a chur ar fáil i gcríoch a allmhairíonn níos mó ná 80 faoin gcéad dá bhia mara agus 90 faoin gcéad dá thorthaí agus de ghlasraí.
"Is toradh malartach é an t-iasc do fheirmeoirí chun a n-ioncam a éagsúlú thar thorthaí feirme", a dúirt Bailey, a rinne tástáil ar iasc a ardú i tancaí i bhfeirm i St. John ag fás glasraí orgánacha, ag úsáid salainn éisc thriomaithe mar leasú talún. Is féidir le tilapia suas le $ 3 an chileagram a thabhairt agus ní chosnaíonn sé ach $ 1.25 an chileagram a tháirgeadh.


The Consumer Financial and Protection Bureau (CFPB) is an independent federal agency created in 2011, that holds primary responsibility for regulating consumer protection with regard to financial products and services in the U.S. They’re working toward reforming the mortgage markets.
Their Know Before You Owe (KBYO): Mortgages project resulted in finalized mortgage forms on November 20, 2013. They improve consumer understanding, aid comparison shopping, and help prevent surprises.
The new rules and forms go into effect on August 1, 2015. The final rule applies to most closed-end consumer mortgage loans (including refinances) but not to home equity lines of credit, reverse mortgages, or mortgage loans secured by a mobile home or by a dwelling that is not attached to real property. It also does not apply to loans made by a creditor who makes 5 or fewer mortgages in a year (e.g. seller-financing).
The CFPB is serious about clearing up the communication process between mortgage lenders and mortgage borrowers. Their KBYO: Mortgages fact sheet states:
“In the lead up to the financial crisis, many consumers took on loans they could not afford: When shopping for a mortgage loan, most consumers are concerned about the interest rate and their monthly payment.
This focus on short-term costs while underestimating long-term costs may result in consumers taking out mortgage loans that are more costly than they realize.” (emphasis added)
In their Detailed Summary of the Rule, the CFPB explains the history of the soon-to-be-replaced forms:
“For more than 30 years, federal law has required lenders to provide two different disclosure forms to consumers applying for a mortgage. The law also has generally required two different forms at or shortly before closing on the loan. Two different federal agencies developed these forms separately, under two federal statutes: the Truth in Lending Act (TILA) and the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act of 1974 (RESPA). The information on these forms is overlapping and the language is inconsistent. Not surprisingly, consumers often find the forms confusing. It is also not surprising that lenders and settlement agents find the forms burdensome to provide and explain.” (emphasis added)
The Loan Estimate
The Loan Estimate will replace the Truth in Lending disclosure and the Good Faith Estimate and will be provided within 3 business days after submitting a loan application. It’s intended to make comparison shopping of both costs and features easier for consumers.
The Closing Disclosure
The Closing Disclosure will replace the final Truth in Lending Statement and the HUD-1 uniform settlement statement. It will be provided to consumers 3 business days before closing on a loan, and it will provide a detailed accounting of their transaction.
There are 3 triggers for restarting a new 3 day waiting period: a 1/8 change in APR, a change in loan product, or the addition of a prepayment fee.
The CFPB is also including Spanish-language versions of the Loan Estimate and the Closing Disclosure. They will provide important benefits to industry in communicating with Spanish-speaking consumers.
Comparing the disclosure forms, I expect the forms will be appreciated by mortgage borrowers because they will make it simpler to understand the financials of a mortgage and the accounting of closing costs. Both of these improvements help improve our industry.
At the same time, I wish the forms would have been more communicative that low cost (quantitative factor) is not the only important comparison factor.
As anyone who has had bank accounts at two or more banks knows, not all access to money costs the same. The features and benefits (qualitative factors) vary widely among lenders and closing companies. Even at similar cost, differences may include: availability of supplementary products, customer service and communication, and overall experience.
Put plainly, you may dread the tellers, limited locations, hefty ATM fees, and lack of online statements from Bank X‘s free checking account, but you’re happy to pay a monthly fee to Bank Y for your assigned personal banker, generous payment timeframes, “accident forgiveness” fee policies, and comfortable lounges.
Having a simple and effective cost comparison is an extremely important step in the right direction, of which the CFPB has done an excellent job. Working with knowledgable, trusted, and “on your team” real estate advisors, like those at End Zone Realty, is very important too.
We’re happy to help buyers with all aspects of their home purchase, including clarifying the process, assisting with offers, negotiating contracts, explaining costs, and providing reputable contacts.

Is gníomhaireacht pholaitiúil neamhspleách é an Biúró um Chosaint Airgeadais agus Tomhaltóirí (CFPB) a cruthaíodh i 2011, a bhfuil freagracht phríomhúil aige as cosaint tomhaltóirí a rialáil maidir le táirgí agus seirbhísí airgeadais sna Stáit Aontaithe. Tá siad ag obair i dtreo athchóiriú na margaí morgáiste.
A n-Aithint Sula bhfuil Tú ag Oibleagáid (KBYO): D'éirigh le tionscadal morgáistí foirmeacha morgáiste críochnaithe a chríochnú ar 20 Samhain, 2013. Feabhsaíonn siad tuiscint an tomhaltóra, cuireann siad le comparáid siopadóireachta agus cuireann siad le haon ionadh a sheachaint.
Tiocfaidh na rialacha agus na foirmeacha nua i bhfeidhm an 1 Lúnasa, 2015. Baineann an riail dheireanach leis an chuid is mó de na hiasachtaí morgáiste tomhaltóirí dúnta (lena n-áirítear athmhaoiniú) ach ní le línte creidmheasa cothromais tí, morgáistí aisiontacha, nó iasachtaí morgáiste faoi chúnacht ag teach soghluaiste nó ag tithíocht nach bhfuil ceangailte le maoin réadach. Ní bhaineann sé freisin le hiasachtaí a dhéanann creidiúnaí a dhéanann 5 mhorgáiste nó níos lú i mbliana (m.sh. maoiniú díoltóra).
Tá CFPB dáiríre maidir le próiseas cumarsáide a shoiléiriú idir iasachtóirí morgáiste agus iasachtóirí morgáiste. Deir a gcuid KBYO: Fíricí fíricí morgáiste:
An chéad uair a tháinig an ghéarchéim airgeadais, ghlac go leor tomhaltóirí iasachtaí nach raibh ar a gcumas iad a íoc: Nuair a bhíonn siad ag ceannach iasacht mhorgáiste, bíonn imní ar an gcuid is mó de na tomhaltóirí faoin ráta úis agus faoin íocaíocht mhíosail.
D'fhéadfadh sé go dtógfadh tomhaltóirí iasachtaí morgáiste a bheadh níos costasaí ná mar a thuigtear, de bharr an díriú sin ar chostais ghearrthéarmach agus íomhá a chur ar chostais fhadtéarmacha. (béim curtha leis)
Ina achoimre mionsonraithe ar an riail, míníonn an CFPB stair na bhfoirmeacha a bheidh le haistriú go luath:
Le breis agus 30 bliain, tá dlí cónaidhme ag éileamh ar iasachtóirí dhá fhoirm nochtadh éagsúla a chur ar fáil do thomhaltóirí a dhéanann iarratas ar mhorgáiste. Tá dhá fhoirm dhifriúla ag teastáil go ginearálta ag an dlí freisin ag an lá nó go gairid roimh an iasacht a dhúnadh. D'fhorbair dhá ghníomhaireacht fhéidearálach éagsúla na foirmeacha seo ar leithligh, faoi dhá reachtas cónaidhme: an tAcht um Fírinne i nIasacht (TILA) agus an tAcht um Nósanna Imeachtaí Socraíochta eastáit réadaigh 1974 (RESPA). Tá an fhaisnéis ar na foirmeacha seo ag dul in éineacht agus tá an teanga neamhréireach. Ní haon ionadh go mbíonn na foirmeacha seo mí-chomhthosca do thomhaltóirí go minic. Ní haon ionadh freisin go bhfaigheann iasachtóirí agus gníomhaithe socraíochta na foirmeacha a bheith tromchúiseach a sholáthar agus a mhíniú. (aighneacht curtha leis)
Measúnú an Iasachta
Beidh an Meastachán Iasachta in ionad nochtadh Fírinne i nIasachtú agus Meastachán Dea-Chreidmheasa agus cuirfear ar fáil é laistigh de 3 lá oibre tar éis iarratas ar iasacht a chur isteach. Tá sé i gceist é a dhéanamh comparáid siopadóireachta de chostais agus gnéithe níos éasca do thomhaltóirí.
An Fógra Chríochnaithe
Beidh an t-Aifreann Chríochnaitheach in ionad an Bhfírinne deiridh i Ráiteas Iasachta agus ráiteas socraíochta aonfhoirmeach HUD-1. Cuirfear ar fáil é do thomhaltóirí 3 lá oibre roimh dhúnadh ar iasacht, agus cuirfidh sé cuntas mionsonraithe ar a n-idirbheart ar fáil.
Tá 3 thrigger ann chun tréimhse feithimh nua 3 lá a thosú: athrú 1/8 ar an APR, athrú ar tháirge iasachta, nó táille réamhíocaíochta a chur leis.
Tá an CFPB ag cur le leaganacha i mBéarla an Mheastacháin iasachta agus an Fhaisnéis Chríochnaithe. Tabharfaidh siad buntáistí tábhachtacha don tionscal maidir le cumarsáid a dhéanamh le tomhaltóirí a labhraíonn Spáinnis.
Ag comparáid na bhfoirmeacha nochtadh, tá súil agam go mbeidh na foirmeacha a mheas ag iasachtóirí morgáiste toisc go mbeidh siad a dhéanamh níos simplí chun tuiscint a fháil ar na airgeadais morgáiste agus an cuntasaíocht na gcostais deiridh. Cuidíonn an dá fheabhas seo le feabhas a chur ar ár dtionscal.
Ag an am céanna, b'fhearr liom go mbeadh na foirmeacha níos cumarsáideach nach í an costas íseal (fachtóir cainníochtúil) an t-aon fhachtóir comparáide tábhachtach.
Mar a fhios ag aon duine a bhí cuntas bainc aige in dhá bhanc nó níos mó, ní chosnaíonn gach rochtain ar airgead mar an gcéanna. Tá na gnéithe agus na buntáistí (fachtóirí cáilíochtúla) éagsúil go mór ó iasachtóirí agus ó chuideachtaí atá ag dúnadh. Fiú amháin ar chostas den chineál céanna, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh difríochtaí i: infhaighteacht táirgí forlíontacha, seirbhís do chustaiméirí agus cumarsáid, agus taithí foriomlán.
Go simplí, b'fhéidir go bhfuil eagla ort ar na cistí, ar áiteanna teoranta, ar mhuirir mhóra ATM, agus ar easpa ráitis ar líne ó chuntas seiceála saor in aisce Banc X, ach tá tú sásta táille míosúil a íoc le Banc Y as do bhancóir pearsanta sannta, amanna íocaíochta folláin, beartais táille "maithiúnas timpiste", agus seomraí compordacha.
Is céim thar a bheith tábhachtach sa treo ceart é cóimeas simplí agus éifeachtach costais a bheith ann, agus tá obair den scoth déanta ag an CFPB maidir leis sin. Tá sé an-tábhachtach freisin oibriú le comhairleoirí eastáit réadaigh atá eolach, iontaofa agus "ar do fhoireann", cosúil leo siúd ag End Zone Realty.
Tá áthas orainn cabhrú le ceannaitheoirí le gach gné dá gceannach tí, lena n-áirítear an próiseas a shoiléiriú, cuidiú le tairiscintí, conarthaí a chaibidliú, costais a mhíniú, agus teagmhálacha measúla a sholáthar.


Students have more choices than ever. My cabinet is overflowing with teacher made games, games I bought from catalogues, and games that have been given to me. We have computer and web-based games. Add iPads and a plethora of apps into the equation and the result could be confusion for students.
We do reader’s workshop in my classroom. As a result, I try to “guide” students as they make choices. My goal is for them to reflect upon themselves as a reader and choose the literacy activities that will help them achieve their goals. We track progress together and we also celebrate when goals are mastered.
I found, however, after integrating iPads into my literacy block for word work, students began to lose sight of their goals. The range of abilities is vast in my room and so I purposefully chose apps that will meet the needs of all students. There are apps for sight word practice, apps for vocabulary, and apps for grammar. Some apps are meant to reinforce the foundational skills beginning readers need while others are meant to broaden a fluent reader’s vocabulary. I do not want each student using the same apps. They are meant to promote growth. (Not to keep students busy.)
As a result, I took time to develop a word work planning sheet. The sheet has the various research based word work/spelling activities that students need to grow as readers. Students use the sheet over the course of a week and cross out an activity as it is completed. Most students will make appropriate choices. Others, however, need a little more guidance and so we discuss the plan together and highlight an appropriate choice for that day.
You might be wondering what impact the plan sheet had on my class. I am very pleased. Students make deliberate choices during our literacy block and enjoy purposeful learning as a result.

Tá níos mó roghanna ag mic léinn ná riamh. Tá mo cháblaí lán le cluichí a rinne múinteoirí, cluichí a cheannaigh mé ó chatalóga, agus cluichí a tugadh dom. Tá cluichí ríomhaireachta agus gréasáin againn. Cuir iPads agus plethora apps isteach sa chothromóid agus d'fhéadfadh an toradh a bheith mearbhall do mhic léinn.
Déanaimid ceardlann léitheora i mo sheomra ranga. Mar thoradh air sin, déanaim iarracht "treoir" a thabhairt do mhic léinn agus iad ag déanamh roghanna. Is é mo sprioc dóibh machnamh a dhéanamh orthu féin mar léitheoir agus na gníomhaíochtaí litearthachta a roghnú a chabhróidh leo a gcuspóirí a bhaint amach. Déanaimid dul chun cinn a rianú le chéile agus ceiliúrann muid freisin nuair a dhéantar na spriocanna a bhaint amach.
Fuair mé amach, áfach, tar éis iPads a chomhtháthú le mo bhloc litearthachta le haghaidh obair fhocail, go raibh na mic léinn ag tosú a gcuspóirí a chailleadh. Tá raon na gcumas ollmhór i mo sheomra agus mar sin roghnaigh mé apps go ciallmhar a fhreastalaíonn ar riachtanais na mac léinn go léir. Tá aipeanna ann le haghaidh cleachtadh focal amhairc, aipeanna le haghaidh foclóir, agus aipeanna le haghaidh gramadaí. Tá sé i gceist ag roinnt apps na scileanna bunúsacha a theastaíonn ó léitheoirí tosaigh a threisiú agus tá sé i gceist ag apps eile focal-riail léitheoir sreabhach a leathnú. Nílim ag iarraidh go n-úsáidfeadh gach mac léinn na feidhmchláir chéanna. Tá sé i gceist leo fás a chur chun cinn. (Ní chun na mic léinn a choinneáil gnóthach.)
Mar thoradh air sin, thóg mé am chun bileog pleanála oibre focal a fhorbairt. Tá na gníomhaíochtaí éagsúla oibre focal/litreála bunaithe ar thaighde sa bileog a theastaíonn ó dhaltaí fás mar léitheoirí. Úsáidfidh mic léinn an bileog i rith na seachtaine agus déanfaidh siad gníomhaíocht a scriosadh de réir mar a bheidh sí críochnaithe. Déanfaidh formhór na mac léinn roghanna cuí. Ach tá roinnt daoine eile a bhfuil gá le beagán níos mó treoir agus mar sin pléann muid an plean le chéile agus leagann muid béim ar rogha oiriúnach don lá sin.
B'fhéidir go bhfuil tú ag smaoineamh ar an tionchar a bhí ag an bhileog phlean ar mo rang. Tá mé an-sásta. Déantar roghanna intinne ag mic léinn le linn ár ngrúpa litearthachta agus is féidir leo foghlaim a bheith acu mar thoradh air sin.


(computer science) written programs or procedures or rules and associated documentation...
(computer science) a line of code written as part of a computer program.
(computer science) the code that identifies where a piece of information is stored.
- American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(computer science) a code for information exchange...
(computer science) coded instructions that are stored permanently in read-only memory.
- error correction code
(telecommunication) a coding system that incorporates extra parity bits in...
- object code
The machine-language output of a compiler that is ready for execution on a particular...
- operation code
The portion of a set of operation descriptions that specifies the operation to be...
- binary code
Code using a string of 8 binary digits to represent characters.
- machine code
A set of instructions coded so that the computer can use it directly without further...

(eolaíocht ríomhaireachta) cláir scríofa nó nósanna imeachta nó rialacha agus doiciméadú gaolmhar...
(eolaíocht ríomhaireachta) líne cód a scríobhadh mar chuid de chlár ríomhaire.
(eolaíocht ríomhaireachta) an cód a aithníonn áit ina stóráiltear píosa faisnéise.
- Cód Chaighdeánach Mheiriceá le haghaidh Idirmheasanna Faisnéise
(eolaíocht ríomhaireachta) cód le haghaidh malartú faisnéise...
(eolaíocht ríomhaireachta) treoracha códaithe a stóráiltear go buan i gcuimhne léithe amháin.
- cód ceartaithe earráide
(teiccomunicáil) córas códaithe a chuimsíonn píosaí páirteachais breise i...
- cód réad
Tá aschur teanga meaisín de chomhlánaitheoir atá réidh le feidhmiú ar...
- cód oibríochta
An chuid de shraith tuairiscí oibríochta a shonraíonn an oibríocht atá le...
- cód dhúbailte
Cód ag baint úsáide as sreang de 8 dhigit dhánacha chun carachtair a léiriú.
- cód meaisín
Tá sraith treoracha códaithe ionas gur féidir leis an ríomhaire é a úsáid go díreach gan tuilleadh...


Science is a method to reduce insecurity, by getting to know more about the world (and Universe) around you. Sometimes the knowledge that was gathered in a scientific manner is itself called science.
Science describes the world with theories. In daily life, something is a theory if there is little or no evidence for it. In science, a theory is an explanation for how something works, whether there is little, or a lot, or no evidence at all for it. You can make predictions with a theory. If a theory is good, then you can make good predictions with it.
Suppose you have a theory about the weather. How can you convince even scientists that the theory is correct? That's simple, if the theory is in fact correct. Use the theory to make a large number of weather predictions that are clear and precise, about things that can be measured accurately (such as the temperature and pressure and the amount of rain that falls in a certain area on a certain day). Write down the theory and the predictions and publish them well in advance where many people can read them, in a publication with the date on it. Invite everybody to look for themselves if the predictions come true. If the predictions do not come true, then your theory is apparently not good after all, and then you must reject it. If the predictions do come true, then the theory seems to be correct, and then scientists should become interested in it (if they weren't already).
In this way you cannot cheat. Anyone can see that you made the predictions beforehand and not afterwards. Anyone can see for themselves if the predictions come true, and you have no influence over all of those people. Anyone can use your theory to make new predictions and see if they come true. And if someone claims that he and not you invented that wonderful theory, then you can point at the publication with your name and the date on it that many people had already read before the predictions came true.
In science, essentially the same method is used to determine which theories describe the world the best.
To be more certain about some subject means that you can better predict what will happen to it. The better your predictions are, the more certainty you have.
Measurements of something that you want to be able to predict (such as the maximum outside temperature) always show a certain spread around an average value. Once you have determined what the average value and the spread are, you can predict that future measurements will find values equal to the average, with a possible error that is less than the spread that you measured earlier. That prediction has a good chance of coming true, but is not very useful.
I predict for every day of the coming year that the maximum temperature where you are will be between −200 and +100 degrees Celsius (Centigrade) and that between 0 millimeters and 20 meters (0 and 720 inches) of rain will fall. I have great confidence that 100 percent of my predictions will come true. Yet, this perfect prediction score will not get me a job with the Meteorological Office or the National Weather Service, because my predictions do not exclude anything for the future that has been seen in the past. You cannot figure out from such a prediction whether you'll need your winter coat tomorrow, or your umbrella, or whether you'll need to water your plants a bit more.
A prediction is only useful if it excludes a large share of the natural spread (for the conditions and period for which the prediction is made).
To be able to predict well you must learn which clues are the most important. You can find those only by looking at many examples of the subject (i.e., by taking many measurements) and seeking patterns in the behavior.
If you recognize a pattern in the behavior of the subject, then you can assume that that pattern describes the most important part of your subject. A scientist calls such a pattern a model or theory for the subject.
You can tell how good a theory is by checking how many of its predictions come true, and how many do not.
Usually you can see more than one pattern, and can invent more than one theory, which often each predict a different outcome. You can tell which theory is wrong by checking which theory's predictions do not come true.
Not all predictions are the same. You can find out more quickly whether a theory is wrong if you test a clear and precise prediction than if you test a vague or more permissive prediction, so a clear and precise prediction is more valuable.
To prove that a theory is wrong (so it does not provide a good description of the subject) you need find only a single case for which the theory provides wrong predictions. To prove that a theory is correct you must show that it is correct in all cases. It is easier to prove a theory wrong than it is to prove a theory right. And that a prediction comes true does not necessarily mean that the theory is correct.
A theory cannot cover everything in the Universe to the smallest detail. The things or details that are not in the theory but that are in the Universe can make a prediction fail even though the theory is good (except for the missing details). So, a failing prediction does not necessarily mean that the theory is wrong.
If a theory cannot provide predictions of which it can be checked whether they come true or not, then that theory is not interesting to science. Scientists say that a theory must be falsifiable.
If the theory is clear and precise, then the predictions can be, too. Scientists often describe a theory with mathematical formulas, because those are clear and precise.
A measurement is never exact. A scientist must estimate for each measurement how uncertain tbe result of that measurement was. From this, one can calculate what the chance is that the measurement had an error of a certain size. A scientific measurement is often written as a value plus or minus an uncertainty, for example 6.3 ± 0.2 for a value that is probably between 6.1 and 6.5.
A theory is often based on measured things, which are not precisely known. Predictions made from such a theory are then also not exact.
If you compare a measurement with a prediction from a theory, then there is a chance, because of the uncertainty in the measurement and in the prediction, that the theory is judged wrongly, that it is rejected when it was in fact correct, or accepted when it was in fact wrong.
One can calculate how probable it is that the theory is wrong, given the measurements and their uncertainties. In practice, one often works with a threshold of 5 percent. If the chance that a theory is wrong is more than 5 percent, then the theory is rejected.
If you want more certainty about the theory, then you can just make more predictions and take more measurements. If the theory is wrong, then the chance that you will discover this increases when you take more measurements and compare them with the predictions from the theory. Conversely, your trust in a theory increases with every good prediction that it provides.
A good theory is a summary of knowledge. For example, you can calculate the positions of the planets with great accuracy for thousands of years into the past and the future, with just the right theory and a couple of initial values (the masses, and the positions and velocities at one moment). The theory and the initial values together are a summary of all of those positions together.
In this way, science has provided a network of theories about the different parts of the world. All of those theories must fit together.
You can sometimes find patterns even in a collection of good theories, and from those patterns you can make new theories that summarize even more knowledge. There is, for example, the Law of Conservation of Energy, which states that energy (defined in a certain specific way) cannot just disappear and cannot appear out of nothing. This law (which is what scientists call a theory for which there is so much evidence that none doubt it) plays a part in very many situations, and severely restricts what is possible.
The restrictions that a scientific law imposes are of a different kind than the restrictions that a judicial law imposes. A judicial law says what (according to the law makers) is not allowed, but a scientific law says what is not possible. You can change or break a judicial law, but you cannot change or break a scientific law (if it is correct).
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Last updated: 2020-07-18

Is modh é an eolaíocht chun neamhshlándáil a laghdú, trí níos mó a fháil amach faoin domhan (agus an Cruinne) timpeall ort. Uaireanta tugtar eolaíocht ar an eolas a bhailíodh ar bhealach eolaíoch.
Déanann an eolaíocht cur síos ar an domhan le teoiricí. Sa saol laethúil, is teoiric é rud éigin má tá beagán nó gan aon fhianaise ann dó. Sa eolaíocht, is é teoiric míniú ar conas a oibríonn rud éigin, cibé an bhfuil beagán, nó go leor, nó aon fhianaise ar chor ar bith ann. Is féidir leat réamhaisnéisí a dhéanamh le teoiric. Má tá teoiric maith, ansin is féidir leat a dhéanamh tuar maith leis.
Meas tú go bhfuil teoiric agat faoin aimsir. Conas is féidir leat a chur ina luí ar eolaithe fiú go bhfuil an teoiric ceart? Tá sé sin simplí, má tá an teoiric i ndáiríre ceart. Úsáid an teoiric chun líon mór réamhaisnéisí aimsire a dhéanamh atá soiléir agus cruinn, faoi rudaí is féidir a thomhas go cruinn (mar an teocht agus an brú agus an méid báistí a thiteann i gceantar áirithe ar lá áirithe). Scríobh síos an teoiric agus na tuar agus foilsí iad go maith roimh ré áit a bhfuil go leor daoine in ann iad a léamh, i bhfoilseachán leis an dáta air. Iarr ar gach duine féachaint dóibh féin má tharlaíonn na tuar. Mura bhfuil na tuar ann, is léir nach bhfuil do theoirí maith, agus ansin ní mór duit di a dhiúltú. Má tharlaíonn na tuar, is cosúil go bhfuil an teoiric ceart, agus ansin ba cheart go mbeadh suim ag eolaithe ann (más rud é nach raibh siad ann cheana féin).
Ar an mbealach seo ní féidir leat cheat. Is féidir le duine ar bith a fheiceáil gur rinne tú na réamhaisnéisí roimh ré agus ní ina dhiaidh sin. Is féidir le duine ar bith a fheiceáil dóibh féin má thagann na réamhaisnéisí i gcrích, agus níl aon tionchar agat ar na daoine sin go léir. Is féidir le duine ar bith do théorie a úsáid chun tuar nua a dhéanamh agus a fheiceáil an dtiocfaidh siad i gcrích. Agus má mhaíonn duine go ndearna sé, agus ní tú, an teoiric iontach sin a chumadh, ansin is féidir leat a thaispeáint ar an bhfoilseachán lena ainm agus an dáta air a bhí á léamh ag go leor daoine cheana féin sula raibh na tuar ann.
Sa eolaíocht, úsáidtear an modh céanna go bunúsach chun a chinneadh cé na teoiricí a chuireann síos ar an domhan is fearr.
Ciallaíonn níos mó cinnteachta faoi ábhar éigin gur féidir leat a thuar cad a tharlóidh dó a thuar níos fearr. An níos fearr do thuaráidí, an níos mó cinnteacht a bhfuil tú.
Léiríonn tomhais rud éigin ar mhaith leat a bheith in ann a thuar (mar shampla an t-uas-teochta lasmuigh) scaipeadh áirithe timpeall ar mheánluach i gcónaí. Nuair a bheidh an meánluach agus an scaipeadh socraithe agat, is féidir leat a thuar go bhfaighidh tomhais sa todhchaí luachanna atá comhionann leis an meán, le botún féideartha atá níos lú ná an scaipeadh a thomhas tú roimhe seo. Tá seans maith ag an réamhaisnéis sin teacht i gcrích, ach níl sé an-úsáideach.
Tá mé ag tuar go mbeidh an teocht uasta i do láthair idir -200 agus +100 céim Celsius (Centigrade) agus go mbeidh 0 miliméadar agus 20 méadar (0 agus 720 orlach) de bháisteach ag titim. Tá muinín mhór agam go dtiocfaidh 100 faoin gcéad de mo thuargas i gcrích. Ach, ní bheidh an scór réamh-mheasta foirfe seo ag fáil post dom leis an Oifig Meitéareolaíoch nó leis an tSeirbhís Náisiúnta Aimsire, toisc nach gcuireann mo thuargas aon rud ar fáil don todhchaí a fheictear san am atá caite. Ní féidir leat a fháil amach ó thuarastal den sórt sin an mbeidh do chúntas geimhridh ag teastáil uait amárach, nó do mhála, nó an mbeidh ort do phlandaí a uisce beagán níos mó.
Ní bheidh feidhm ag réamhaisnéis ach amháin má eisiann sí sciar mór den scaipeadh nádúrtha (do na coinníollacha agus don tréimhse a ndéantar an réamhaisnéis ina leith).
Chun a bheith in ann tuar go maith ní mór duit a fhoghlaim cad iad na leideanna is tábhachtaí. Ní féidir leat iad sin a fháil ach trí bhreathnú ar go leor samplaí den ábhar (i.e., trí go leor tomhais a dhéanamh) agus patrún a lorg sa iompar.
Má aithníonn tú patrún i ngníomh an ábhair, ansin is féidir leat a mheas go bhfuil an patrún a thuairisciú an chuid is tábhachtaí de do ábhar. Glaonn eolaí ar an bpatrún sin múnla nó teoiric don ábhar.
Is féidir leat a rá cé chomh maith is atá teoiric trí seiceáil cé mhéad dá réamhaisnéisí a thagann fíor, agus cé mhéad nach bhfuil.
De ghnáth is féidir leat níos mó ná patrún amháin a fheiceáil, agus is féidir leat níos mó ná teoiric amháin a chruthú, a thuar go minic go bhfuil toradh difriúil ag gach ceann acu. Is féidir leat a rá cé acu teoiric atá mícheart trí sheiceáil cé acu teoiric na réamhaisnéisí nach bhfuil fíor.
Ní bhíonn na tuar go léir mar an gcéanna. Is féidir leat a fháil amach níos tapúla an bhfuil teoiric mícheart má thástáil tú réamhaisnéis shoiléir agus beacht ná má thástáil tú réamhaisnéis éagóra nó níos ceadúla, mar sin tá réamhaisnéis shoiléir agus beacht níos luachmhaire.
Chun a chruthú go bhfuil teoiric mícheart (mar sin ní sholáthraíonn sé cur síos maith ar an ábhar) ní gá duit ach cás amháin a fháil a sholáthraíonn an teoiric réamhaisnéisí mícheart ina leith. Chun a chruthú go bhfuil teoiric ceart ní mór duit a thaispeáint go bhfuil sé ceart i ngach cás. Tá sé níos éasca teoiric a chruthú mícheart ná a chruthú ceart. Agus ní gá go gciallódh sé go bhfuil an teoiric ceart toisc go dtagann tuar fíor.
Ní féidir le teoiric gach rud sa Cruinne a chlúdach go dtí an mionsonraí is lú. Is féidir leis na rudaí nó na mionsonraí nach bhfuil sa teoiric ach atá sa Cruinne réamhaisnéis a theip a dhéanamh cé go bhfuil an teoiric go maith (seachas na mionsonraí atá ar iarraidh). Mar sin, ní chiallaíonn réamhaisnéis a theip go bhfuil an teoiric mícheart.
Mura féidir le teoiric réamh-mheastacháin a sholáthar ar féidir a sheiceáil an bhfuil siad fíor nó nach bhfuil, ansin níl an teoiric sin suimiúil don eolaíocht. Deir eolaithe go gcaithfidh teoiric a bheith bréagach.
Má tá an teoiric soiléir agus cruinn, ansin is féidir na réamhaisnéisí a bheith, freisin. Is minic a chuireann eolaithe teoiric in iúl le foirmlí matamaiticiúla, toisc go bhfuil siad soiléir agus beacht.
Ní bhíonn tomhas cruinn riamh. Ní mór do shaineolaí meastachán a dhéanamh do gach tomhas maidir le cé chomh neamhchinnte a bhí toradh an tomhais sin. Ón méid seo, is féidir le duine a ríomh cad é an seans go raibh earráid de mhéid áirithe ag an tomhas. Is minic a scríobhtar tomhas eolaíoch mar luach móide nó lúide neamhchinnteacht, mar shampla 6.3 ± 0.2 le haghaidh luach a bhfuil sé is dócha idir 6.1 agus 6.5.
Is minic a bhíonn teoiric bunaithe ar rudaí tomhaiste, nach bhfuil ar eolas go beacht. Ní bhíonn tuar a dhéantar ó theoiric den sórt sin cruinn freisin.
Má tá tú comparáid a dhéanamh idir tomhas le réamhaisnéis ó teoiric, ansin tá seans ann, mar gheall ar an éiginnteacht sa tomhas agus sa réamhaisnéis, go bhfuil an teoiric a mheas go mícheart, go bhfuil sé diúltú nuair a bhí sé i ndáiríre ceart, nó glacadh nuair a bhí sé i ndáiríre mícheart.
Is féidir le duine a ríomh cé chomh dóchúil is atá sé go bhfuil an teoiric mícheart, ag tabhairt na tomhais agus a n-easnamh. I gcleachtas, is minic a oibríonn duine le tairseach de 5 faoin gcéad. Má tá seans níos mó ná 5 faoin gcéad go bhfuil teoiric mícheart, ansin diúltaítear don teoiric.
Más mian leat níos mó cinnteachta faoi an teoiric, ansin is féidir leat ach a dhéanamh níos mó tuar agus a ghlacadh níos mó tomhais. Má tá an teoiric mícheart, ansin méadaíonn an seans go bhfaighidh tú amach é seo nuair a thógann tú níos mó tomhais agus iad a chur i gcomparáid leis na réamhaisnéisí ón teoiric. Ar a mhalairt, méadaíonn do muinín i teoiric le gach tuar maith a sholáthraíonn sé.
Is achoimre ar eolas é teoiric mhaith. Mar shampla, is féidir leat a ríomh na suíomhanna na pláinéid le cruinneas mór ar feadh na mílte bliain isteach sa am atá caite agus sa todhchaí, ach an teoiric ceart agus cúpla luachanna tosaigh (an mais, agus na suíomhanna agus luasanna ag nóiméad amháin). Is é an teoiric agus na luachanna tosaigh le chéile achoimre ar na suíomhanna go léir le chéile.
Ar an mbealach seo, tá líonra teoiricí curtha ar fáil ag an eolaíocht faoi na codanna éagsúla den domhan. Caithfidh na teoiricí sin go léir a bheith ag teacht le chéile.
Is féidir leat patrún a aimsiú uaireanta fiú i mbailiúchán teoiricí maithe, agus ó na patrún sin is féidir leat teoiricí nua a dhéanamh a thugann achoimre ar níos mó eolais. Tá, mar shampla, an Dlí Coimirce Fuinnimh, a deir nach féidir le fuinneamh (a shainmhínítear ar bhealach áirithe ar leith) dul in éag agus nach féidir a bheith ag teacht amach as aon rud. Tá ról ag an dlí seo (ar a dtugtar teoiric ar eolaithe a bhfuil an oiread sin fianaise ann nach bhfuil aon amhras ann) i go leor cásanna, agus cuireann sé srian mór ar an méid is féidir.
Tá na srianta a fhorchuireann dlí eolaíoch de chineál difriúil ná na srianta a fhorchuireann dlí breithiúnach. Deir dlí breithiúnach cad nach bhfuil ceadaithe (de réir lucht déanta an dlí), ach deir dlí eolaíoch cad nach féidir. Is féidir leat dlí breithiúnach a athrú nó a bhriseadh, ach ní féidir leat dlí eolaíoch a athrú nó a bhriseadh (más ceart é).
teangacha: [en] [nl]
Nuashonrú deireanach: 2020-07-18


Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis)
|Synonyms:||Dendraspis angusticeps, Dendraspis antinorii|
|Size||Length: up to 4.3 m (2) (3)|
|Weight||1.6 kg (2)|
- The black mamba is Africa’s largest venomous snake.
- Interestingly, the black mamba is a brown to grey colour, and is instead named for its blue-black mouth lining.
- One of the fastest snakes in the world, the black mamba is an agile species that actively hunts warm-blooded prey.
- Although widely feared for its lethal venom, the black mamba generally prefers to avoid contact with humans.
The black mamba is classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1).
The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is Africa’s largest venomous snake (2) and also one of its most feared (4) (5). This species is also one of the fastest snakes in the world and can slither at speeds of up to about 20 kilometres per hour (2).
The black mamba is an olive-brown to grey colour, with a blue-black colouration on the inside of its mouth which gives this species its common name (2) (3) (4) (5). The underside of the body is usually light grey (3) (5). Like other members of the Elapidae family, the black mamba has short, fixed fangs at the front of its mouth (5).
Although it can potentially reach up to 4.3 metres in length, the black mamba more commonly reaches around 2.5 metres (2) (3). Its body is long and slender, with smooth scales (3) (5), and it has a narrow, coffin-shaped head (3) (4). Two subspecies of the black mamba have been described, Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis and Dendroaspis polylepis antinori (6).
The black mamba is extremely widespread across sub-Saharan Africa, with individuals sighted as far north and west as Senegal, and as far south as north-eastern South Africa (1). Most reports of this species come from eastern and southern Africa (2) (4). In certain areas there are relatively low numbers of recorded sightings, but this is more likely to be due to under-collection of data rather than a low abundance of individuals (1).
The black mamba occurs in a variety of different habitats, including well-wooded savannah and riverine forest, particularly in areas with an abundance of rocky hills and large trees. It also inhabits coastal bush, moist and dry savannah and woodland (1).
Although the black mamba is mostly found on the ground, it is also occasionally arboreal (1) (4) (7).
The black mamba is lethally venomous, and without treatment its bite can kill a human within 20 minutes. If cornered, the black mamba may adopt a defensive posture, raising its head, spreading its neck like a cobra, displaying its black mouth lining and hissing. If further provoked, it will strike repeatedly, injecting its attacker with large amounts of deadly neurotoxins and cardiotoxins, which affect the nerves and heart (2) (3) (4). The neurotoxins in the black mamba’s venom cause muscle paralysis, eventually killing the victim through respiratory failure (3). However, the black mamba is a shy creature and generally seeks to escape when confronted (2).
The diet of the black mamba consists of warm-blooded prey such as bushbabies, rock hyraxes, bats and other small mammals, as well as birds (3) (7). This snake is a fast and agile hunter with excellent vision, and actively pursues its prey, striking rapidly to inject its venom (3) (4). The adult black mamba has few natural predators apart from birds of prey, but juveniles are occasionally predated by other snakes (7).
The black mamba is active during the day (4) (8), often basking in the branches of a tree in the early morning before it goes hunting (4). This species usually occupies a favoured refuge such as a hole, hollow log, rock crevice or termite nest, to which it returns at night (4) (8).
The black mamba usually breeds between October and November (7), when the males compete for females by entwining their bodies and attempting to force their opponent to the ground (3) (4). The female black mamba lays a clutch of up to 17 white, elongated eggs (3) (4) (7), often inside a termite mound, and the eggs hatch after 80 to 90 days (3). In some studies, young black mambas have rarely been observed, possibly because they grow rapidly and can reach almost two metres in length in their first year (3) (8), and because they are likely to be more arboreal than the adults (8).
A relatively long-lived species, the black mamba may live for 11 years or more in the wild (2), or for up to 20 years in captivity (3).
There are currently no major threats to the black mamba that extend across its full range, and this large snake is believed to be common in suitable habitats. However, human population expansion and encroachment on the black mamba’s habitat may cause increased human interaction with the species, and as it is considered to be a shy species that avoids human contact this may have detrimental impacts on its populations in the future (1). Increased contact with humans may also lead to more conflict with this potentially dangerous snake (2).
The black mamba has a large range and is not believed to be undergoing population declines, so there are no specific measures currently in place concerning the conservation of this species. However, it may receive some indirect protection where it occurs in a number of protected areas (1).
There are gaps within the black mamba’s known distribution in areas of West Africa such as Chad, Nigeria, Mali and the Central African Republic, probably due to a lack of research. The lack of knowledge on this species in these areas could potentially lead to misdiagnosis and erroneous treatment of snake bites (9).
Find out more about the black mamba and other snakes:
BBC Nature - Black mamba:
The Reptile Database :
This information is awaiting authentication by a species expert, and will be updated as soon as possible. If you are able to help please contact:
- Arboreal: an animal which lives or spends a large amount of time in trees.
- Subspecies: a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species, but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species.
IUCN Red List (October, 2013)
National Geographic - Black mamba (October, 2013)
- Branch, B. (1998) Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
- O’Shea, M. (2008) Venomous Snakes of the World. New Holland Publishers, London.
- Richardson, A.D. (2004) Mambas. Capstone Press, Mankato, Minnesota.
The Reptile Database (October, 2013)
- Haagner, G.V. and Morgan, D.R. (1993) The maintenance and propagation of the black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis at the Manyeleti Reptile Centre, Eastern Transvaal. International Zoo Yearbook, 32: 191-196.
- Phelps, T. (2002) A study of the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, with particular reference to long-term-refugia. Herpetological Bulletin, 80: 7-19.
- Håkansson, T. and Madsen, T. (1983) On the distribution of the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) in West Africa. Journal of Herpetology, 17(2): 186-189.

Mamba dubh (Dendroaspis polylepis)
 Synonyms:
Size Length: suas le 4.3 m (2)
♬Weight: 1.6 kg (2) ♬
- Is é an mamba dubh an nathair cheithmhianach is mó san Afraic.
- Suimiúil go leor, tá an mamba dubh dath donn go liath, agus ainmnítear é mar gheall ar a liathróid bhlaosc gorm.
- Ceann de na nathanna is tapúla ar domhan, is é an mamba dubh speiceas áisiúil a shealbhaíonn preas fuil te go gníomhach.
- Cé go bhfuil eagla ar an mórchuid as a nimh mharfach, is fearr leis an mamba dubh teagmháil le daoine a sheachaint de ghnáth.
Tá an mamba dubh aicmithe mar a bhfuil an imní is lú (LC) air ar Liosta Dearg an IUCN (1).
Is é an mamba dubh (Dendroaspis polylepis) an nathair cheithne is mó san Afraic (2) agus ceann de na nathair is mó eagla air (4) (5). Tá an speiceas seo ar cheann de na nathracha is tapúla ar domhan freisin agus is féidir leis luas suas le thart ar 20 ciliméadar san uair a bheith aige (2).
Tá an mamba dubh d'uibheacha óbhraon go liath, le dath gorm-dubh ar an taobh istigh dá bhéal a thugann an t-ainm coiteann don speiceas seo (2) (3) (4) (5). De ghnáth bíonn an taobh thíos den chorp liath éadrom (3) (5). Cosúil le baill eile den teaghlach Elapidae, tá clainneacha gearr, seasta ag an mamba dubh ar aghaidh a bhéal (5).
Cé go bhféadfadh sé a bheith suas le 4.3 méadar ar fhad, is gnách go sroicheann an mamba dubh thart ar 2.5 méadar (2) (3). Tá a chorp fada agus tanaí, le scamaill shleachta (3) (5), agus tá ceann caol, coffin-chruthach aige (3) (4). Tá dhá fho-chineál den mamba dubh tuairiscithe, Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis agus Dendroaspis polylepis antinori (6).
Tá an mamba dubh an-sórthaite ar fud Afraic theas ó Sahara, agus feictear daoine aonair chomh fada ó thuaidh agus ó thuaidh le Seneagál, agus chomh fada ó dheas le hiar-oirthear na hAfraice Theas (1). Tá an chuid is mó de na tuairiscí ar an speiceas seo ag teacht ó oirthear agus ó dheas na hAfraice (2) (4). I réimsí áirithe tá líon réasúnta íseal de radharcanna taifeadta, ach is dóichí go bhfuil sé seo mar gheall ar dhroch-ghruinniú sonraí seachas ar líon íseal daoine aonair (1).
Tá an mamba dubh le feiceáil i réimse leathan gnáthóga éagsúla, lena n-áirítear savannah dea-chruthaithe agus foraoise abhainn, go háirithe i gceantair a bhfuil go leor cnoic charraigeacha agus crainn mhóra iontu. Tá sé ina chónaí freisin i gcrann cósta, saibhne taise agus tirim agus i bhforaoisí (1).
Cé go bhfuil an mamba dubh le fáil den chuid is mó ar an talamh, bíonn sé arboreal uaireanta freisin (1) (4) (7).
Tá an mamba dubh nimhiúil go mór, agus gan cóireáil is féidir a cheile a mharú laistigh de 20 nóiméad. Má bhíonn an mamba dubh i gcúinne, d'fhéadfadh sé seasamh cosanta a ghlacadh, a cheann a ardú, a mhuineál a leathnú mar cobra, a bhéal dubh a thaispeáint agus a shéanadh. Má spreagtar é tuilleadh, buailfidh sé arís agus arís eile, ag instealladh a ionsaitheoir le méideanna móra neurotoxins agus cardiotoxins marfach, a théann i bhfeidhm ar na néaróga agus ar an gcroí (2) (3) (4). Is é an t-ionad neurotoxins i ndún an mamba dubh ná paraiséis muscle a chur ar an ngéarghníomhach, agus mar thoradh air sin, marú a chur ar an ngéarghníomhach trí mhainneachtain an anailís (3). Mar sin féin, is créatúr cúthail é an mamba dubh agus de ghnáth déanann sé iarracht éalú nuair a bhíonn sé i ngleic leis (2).
Is é bia an mamba dubh ná preas te-fhuil mar bhuschababies, hyraxes carraige, sleamhnáin agus mamaigh bheaga eile, chomh maith le héin (3) (7). Is sealgaire tapa agus cliste é an nathair seo a bhfuil radharc den scoth aige, agus leanann sé a ghabháil go gníomhach, ag bualadh go tapa chun a nimhe a instealladh (3) (4). Tá cúpla dílseoir nádúrtha ag an mamba dubh fásta seachas éan creimthe, ach bíonn na nathracha eile ag dílseáil na n-éan óg ó am go ham (7).
Tá an mamba dubh gníomhach i rith an lae (4) (8), agus is minic a bhíonn sé ag cócaireacht i nglaonna crainn go luath ar maidin sula dtéann sé ag fiach (4). Is gnách go nglacann an speiceas seo dídeanaithe fabhracha amhail poll, lóga folctha, creathadh carraige nó nead termití, a n-aisíonn sé san oíche (4) (8).
De ghnáth bíonn an mamba dubh ag breeding idir Deireadh Fómhair agus Samhain (7), nuair a bhíonn na fir ag dul i gcomórtas as mná trína gcorp a dhéanamh agus iarracht a dhéanamh a n-ionsaí a chur ar an talamh (3) (4). Cuireann an mamba dubh baineann suas le 17 uibheacha bán, fada (3) (4) (7) i gcló, go minic taobh istigh de thírmhíle, agus eascaíonn na huibheacha tar éis 80 go 90 lá (3). Tá an t-am ar fad le haghaidh an t-am a bheidh an t-am ar a mbeidh an t-am ar fad ag an mbád a bheith ag obair.
Is speiceas réasúnta fadbhliant é an mamba dubh, agus d'fhéadfadh sé maireachtáil ar feadh 11 bliana nó níos mó sa fhiáin (2), nó ar feadh suas le 20 bliain i ngábháil (3).
Faoi láthair níl aon bhagairtí móra ar an mamba dubh a leathnaíonn ar fud a raon iomlán, agus creidtear go bhfuil an nathair mhór seo coitianta i gnáthóga oiriúnacha. Mar sin féin, d'fhéadfadh méadú daonra an duine agus ionradh ar ghnáthóg an mamba dubh a bheith ina chúis le hidirghníomhaíocht mhéadaithe an duine leis an speiceas, agus ós rud é go meastar gur speiceas cúthail é a sheachain teagmháil dhaonna d'fhéadfadh tionchair díobhálacha a bheith aige ar a chuid daonra sa todhchaí (1). D'fhéadfadh go dtiocfadh níos mó teagmhála leis an nathair atá contúirteach go bhféadfadh sé seo a bheith ina chúis le níos mó coinbhleachta leis an nathair seo (2).
Tá raon leathan ag an mamba dubh agus ní chreidtear go bhfuil laghdú ar a líon, mar sin níl aon bhearta sonracha i bhfeidhm faoi láthair maidir le caomhnú na speiceas seo. D'fhéadfadh sé, áfach, go bhfaigheadh sé roinnt cosanta indíreach nuair a tharlaíonn sé i roinnt limistéar cosanta (1).
Tá bearnaí laistigh de scaipeadh ar eolas na mamba dubh i gceantair san Afraic Thiar amhail an tChad, an Nigéir, an Mháili agus Poblacht na hAfraice Láir, is dócha mar gheall ar easpa taighde. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh easpa eolais ar an speiceas seo sna ceantair seo mar thoradh ar mheabhianscéal agus cóireáil earráideach i gcás cnáibhiota (9).
Faigh amach níos mó faoin mamba dubh agus sna snaithíní eile:
BBC Nature - Mamba Dubh:
An Stáisiún Sonraí Réptílí:
Tá an fhaisnéis seo ag fanacht le fíorú ag saineolaí speiceas, agus déanfar í a nuashonrú a luaithe is féidir. Más féidir leat cabhrú, déan teagmháil le:
- Arboreal: ainmhí a chónaíonn nó a chaitheann méid mór ama sna crainn.
- Fo-chineál: pobal a bhíonn teoranta de ghnáth i limistéar geografach a bhíonn difriúil ó phobail eile den speiceas céanna, ach ní chomh mór go nglactar leis mar speiceas ar leithligh.
Liosta Dearg IUCN (Deireadh Fómhair, 2013)
National Geographic - Mamba Dubh (Deireadh Fómhair, 2013)
- Brainse, B. (1998) Treoir Réimseach do Snakes agus Réptílí Eile i dTharth na hAfraice. Foilsitheoirí Struik, Cape Town.
- OShea, M. (2008) Snake Venomous of the World. Foilsitheoirí Nua Holland, Londain.
- Richardson, A.D. (2004) Mambas. Capstone Press, Mankato, Minnesota.
An Stáisiún Sonraí um Réptílí (Deireadh Fómhair, 2013)
- Haagner, G.V. agus Morgan, D.R. (1993) Cothabháil agus leathadh an mamba dubh Dendroaspis polylepis ag Ionad Reptile Manyeleti, Oirthear Transvaal. Bliainleabhar Idirnáisiúnta an Zú, 32: 191-196.
- Phelps, T. (2002) Staidéar ar an mamba dubh (Dendroaspis polylepis) i KwaZulu-Natal, an Afraic Theas, le tagairt ar leith do thearmann fadtéarmach. Builleachán Eipitíoch, 80: 7-19.
- Håkansson, T. agus Madsen, T. (1983) Ar scaipeadh an mamba dubh (Dendroaspis polylepis) san Afraic Thiar. Journal of Herpetology, 17 ((2): 186-189.


A Dutch startup has teamed up with a group of engineering students to develop a prototype for a new electric bike that charges itself using solar cells on its front wheel, so you’ll never need to plug it in.
“This is a product that is capable of recharging itself during daytime or when you are cycling,” said Marc Peters, CEO, Solar Applications.
Green & Healthy Transport: First solar-bike is Dutch TUeindhoven CicloviaPanama URBANOS2 https://t.co/ZyDKb2x0JC pic.twitter.com/xDYtaFFwNA
— Netherlands Embassy (NLinPanama) February 23, 2016
The first solar bikes came onto the market in the late 1980’s, but they had a bulky trailer to carry solar panels. Thanks to new technology, they’re becoming much sleeker. All the power this new model needs comes from solar panels covering the front wheel, and from the rider’s pedaling. It can also make up for low-light conditions, for instance on a rainy day. But for now it’s just a prototype, and it’s expected to cost around 2,500 euros when it’s released in 2018.
Cycling has historically been very popular in the Netherlands, where a quarter of all travel is done by bike. And various initiatives are helping riders improve their experience by making cycling safer, easier and even greener. Among them is a bike path that generates power through solar cells embedded in the concrete. It opened a year ago and so far has produced more energy than expected.
This Dutch solar-panel bike lane works really well https://t.co/YU5M2RtdYj pic.twitter.com/4YwLS0Pr4G— CityLab (@CityLab) November 19, 2015

Tá tús-ghníomhaíocht ó na hÍsiltíre tar éis comhoibriú le grúpa mac léinn innealtóireachta chun próta-amhrán a fhorbairt do rothar leictreach nua a ghearrann sé féin trí chill ghrian ar a roth tosaigh, ionas nach mbeidh ort é a chur i gcló.
'Is táirge é seo atá in ann é féin a athchúrsáil i rith an lae nó nuair a bhíonn tú ag rothaíocht,' a dúirt Marc Peters, POF, Solar Applications.
Iompar Glas & Shláintiúil: Is é an chéad rothar gréine ná TUeindhoven CicloviaPanama URBANOS2 https://t.co/ZyDKb2x0JC pic.twitter.com/xDYtaFFwNA
 Ambasáid na hÍsiltíre (NLinPanama) 23 Feabhra, 2016
Tháinig na chéad rothar gréine ar an margadh ag deireadh na 1980idí, ach bhí trealaimh mhóra acu chun painéil gréine a iompar. A bhuíochas leis an teicneolaíocht nua, tá siad ag éirí i bhfad níos sleamhain. Tagann an chumhacht go léir a theastaíonn ón tsamhail nua seo ó phainéil ghrian a chlúdaíonn an roth tosaigh, agus ó phéideáil an rothair. Is féidir leis a mhaolú freisin i gcásanna éadroma, mar shampla, ar lá báistí. Ach ar an am seo níl ann ach próta-amhail, agus táthar ag súil go mbeidh costas thart ar 2,500 euro air nuair a scaoiltear é in 2018.
Tá an-tóir ar rothaíocht ó am go ham san Ísiltír, áit a ndéantar ceathrú cuid de na turais go léir ar rothar. Agus tá tionscnaimh éagsúla ag cabhrú le rothaithe a dtaithí a fheabhsú trí rothaíocht a dhéanamh níos sábháilte, níos éasca agus níos glaine. I measc na n-oibreacha sin tá cosán rothaíochta a ghineann cumhachta trí chill ghrian atá suite sa chonraim. Osclaíodh é bliain ó shin agus go dtí seo tá níos mó fuinnimh déanta aige ná mar a bhíothas ag súil leis.
Oibríonn an tslí rothar painéal gréine na hÍsiltíre seo go han-mhaith https://t.co/YU5M2RtdYj pic.twitter.com/4YwLS0Pr4G CityLab (@CityLab) 19 Samhain, 2015