Caution: This post is very long. It runs to 200 pages on the Net. Updated January 17, 2016.
This is a continuation of the earlier post. I split it up into two parts because it had gotten too long.
The post refers to which languages are the hardest for English speakers to learn, though to some extent, the ratings are applicable across languages. Most Chinese speakers would recognize Spanish as being an easy language, despite its alien nature. And even most Chinese, Navajo, Poles or Czechs acknowledge that their languages are hard to learn. To a certain extent, difficulty is independent of linguistic starting point. Some languages are just harder than others, and that’s all there is to it.
Method, Results and Conclusion. See here.
In this case, 73 non-IE languages were examined.
Ratings: Languages are rated 1-6, easiest to hardest. 1 = easiest, 2 = moderately easy to average, 3 = average to moderately difficult, 4 = very difficult, 5 = extremely difficult, 6 = most difficult of all.
Time needed: Time needed to learn the language “reasonably well”: Level 1 languages = 3 months-1 year. Level 2 languages = 6 months-1 year. Level 3 languages = 1-2 years. Level 4 languages = 2 years. Level 5 languages = 3-4 years, but some may take longer.
Northeast Caucasian, Northwest Caucasian and Kartvelian
Of course the Caucasian languages like Tsez, Tabasaran, Georgian, Chechen, Ingush, Abkhaz and Circassian are some of the hardest languages on Earth to learn.
Chechen and Circassian are rated 6, hardest of all.
NE Caucasian languages have the uvulars and ejectives of Georgian in addition to pharyngeals, lateral fricatives, and other strangeness. They have noun classes like the Bantu languages (but usually fewer). Nevertheless, they have noun class agreement markers on verbs on adjectives. One thing NE Caucasian has is lots of case. Some languages have 40+ cases. They are built from the ground up via two forms – one a spatial form such as in, on or around and the other a directional motion form such as to, from, through or at.
Tsez has 64-126 different cases, making it by far the most complex case system on Earth! It is one of the few languages on Earth that has two genitive cases – Genitive 1 (-s) and Genitive 2 (-z). Genitive 1 is used when the genitive’s head noun is in absolutive case and Genitive 2 is used when the genitive’s head noun is in any other case. It also has four noun classes. It is said that even native speakers have a hard time picking up the correct inflection to use sometimes.
In Tsez, you need to know a lot Tsez grammar to communicate at a basic level. The sentence:
English: I like your mother.
Tsez: Дāьр деби энийу йетих. (Dǟr debi eniyu yetix.)
In order to speak that sentence in Tsez, you need to know:
• the words themselves (word order is not as important)
• that the verb -eti- requires the subject to be in the dative/lative case and the object to be in the absolutive
• the noun class for eniyu (class II)
• the dative/lative form of di (I), which is dǟr
• the genitive 1 form of mi (you), which is debi
• the congruence prefix y- that corresponds to the noun class of the absolutive argument of the phrase, in this case mother
• the present tense ending for vowel-final verbs -x
Tsez is rated 6, hardest of all.
Archi has an extremely complex phonology and one of the most complicated grammars on Earth. The extreme fusional aspects and the verbal morphology are what make the grammar so difficult. Every verb root has 1,502,839 possible forms! It is also an ergative language, but there is irregularity in its ergative system.
Some verbs take the typical ergative/absolutive case (absolutive for the subject of an intransitive very and ergative for the subject of a transitive verb – where the direct object would be in absolutive). In others the subject is in dative rather than the expected ergative/absolutive case. These are usually verbs of perception like love/want, hear, see, feel, and be bored. For instance, the verb:
-эти- = to love/want must have its subject in dative case instead of the expected absolutive or ergative case.
Among non-click languages, Archi has one of the largest consonant inventories, with only the extinct Ubykh having more. There are 26 vowels and between 76 and 82 consonants, depending on the analysis. Five of the six vowels can occur in five varieties: short, pharyngealized, high tone, long (with high tone), and pharyngealized with high tone.
It has many unusual phonemes, including contrasts between several voiceless velar lateral fricatives, voiceless and ejective velar lateral affricates and a voiced velar lateral fricative. The voiceless velar lateral fricative ʟ̝̊, the voiced velar lateral fricative ʟ̝, and the corresponding voiceless and ejective affricates k͡ʟ̝̊ and k͡ʟ̝̊ʼ are extremely unusual sounds, as velar fricatives are not typically laterals.
There are 15 cases, 10 regular cases, five spatial cases and five directional cases. The Spatial cases are Inessive (in), Intrative (between), superessive (above), Subessive (below) and Pertingent (against). The directional cases are Essive (as), Elative (out of), Lative (to/into), Allative (onto), Terminative (specifies a limit) and Translative (indicates change).
There are four noun classes:
I Male human
II Female human
III All insects, some animates, and some inanimates
IV Abstracts, some animates, and some inanimates that can only be seen via verbal agreement
Archi is rated 6, hardest of all.
Tabasaran is rated the 3rd most complex grammar in the world, with 48 different noun cases.
Tabasaran is rated 6, hardest of all.
Ingush has a very difficult phonology, an extremely complex grammar, and furthermore, is extremely irregular. Ingush also has a proximate/obviate distinction and is the only language in the region that has this feature. Ingush along with Chechen both have a closed class of verbs, an unusual feature in the world’s languages. New verbs are formed by adding a noun to the verb do:
shoot – do gun
Ingush is rated 6, hardest of all.
One problem with Georgian is the strange alphabet: ქართულია ერთ ერთი რთული ენა. It also has lots of glottal stops that are hard for many foreigners to speak; consonant clusters can be huge – up to eight consonants stuck together (CCCCCCCCVC)- and many consonant sounds are strange. In addition, there are uvulars and ejectives. Georgian is one of the hardest languages on Earth to pronounce. It regularly makes it onto craziest phonologies lists.
Its grammar is exceedingly complex. Georgian is both highly agglutinative and highly irregular, which is the worst of two worlds. Other agglutinative languages such as Turkish and Finnish at least have the benefit of being highly regular. The verbs in particular seem nearly random with no pattern to them at all. The system of argument and tense marking on the verb is exceedingly complex, with tense, aspect, mood on the verb, person and number marking for the subject, and direct and indirect objects.
Although it is an ergative language, the ergative (or active-stative case marking as it is called) oddly enough is only used in the aorist and perfect tenses where the agent in the sentence receives a different case, while the aorist also masquerades as imperative. In the present, there is standard nominative-accusative marking. A single verb can have up to 12 different parts, similar to Polish, and there are six cases and six tenses.
Georgian also features something called polypersonal agreement, a highly complex type of morphological feature that is often associated with polysynthetic languages and to a lesser extent with ergativity.
In a polypersonal language, the verb has agreement morphemes attached to it dealing with one or more of the verbs arguments (usually up to four arguments). In a non polypersonal language like English, the verb either shows no agreement or agrees with only one of its arguments, usually the subject. Whereas in a polypersonal language, the verb agrees with one or more of the subject, the direct object, the indirect object, the beneficiary of the verb, etc. The polypersonal marking may be obligatory or optional.
In Georgian, the polypersonal morphemes appear as either suffixes or prefixes, depending on the verb class and the person, number, aspect and tense of the verb. The affixes also modify each other phonologically when they are next to each other. In the Georgian system, the polypersonal affixes convey subject, direct object, indirect object, genitive, locative and causative meanings.
g-mal-av-en = they hide you
g-i-mal-av-en = they hide it from you
mal (to hide) is the verb, and the other four forms are polypersonal affixes.
In the case below,
xelebi ga-m-i-tsiv-d-a = My hands got cold.
xelebi means hands. The m marker indicates genitive or my. With intransitive verbs, Georgian often omits my before the subject and instead puts the genitive onto the verb to indicate possession.
Georgian verbs of motion focus on deixis, whether the goal of the motion is towards the speaker or the hearer. You use a particle to signify who the motion is heading towards. If it heading towards neither of you, you use no deixis marker. You specify the path taken to reach the goal through the use or prefixes called preverbs, similar to “verbal case.” These come after the deixis marker:
down into cha-
or down da-
up towards me = amo-. The deixis marker is mo- and up is a-
On the plus side, Georgian has borrowed a great deal of Latinate foreign vocabulary, so that will help anyone coming from a Latinate or Latinate-heavy language background.
Georgian is rated 5, extremely difficult.
All NW Caucasian languages are characterized by a very small number of vowels (usually only two or three) combined with a vast consonant inventory, the largest consonant inventories on Earth. Almost any consonant can be plain, labialized or palatalized. This is apparently the result of an historical process whereby many vowels were lost and their various features became assigned to consonants. For instance, palatalized consonants may have come from Ci sequences and labialized consonants may have come from Cu sequences.
The grammars of these languages are complex. Unlike the NE Caucasian languages, they have simple noun systems, usually with only a handful of cases.
However, they have some of the complex verbal systems on Earth. These are some of the most synthetic languages in the Old World. Often the entire syntax of the sentence is contained within the verb. All verbs are marked with ergative, absolutive and direct object morphemes in addition to various applicative affixes.
These are akin to what some might call “verbal case.” For instance, in applicative voice systems, applicatives may take forms such as comitative, locative, instrumental, benefactive and malefactive. These roles are similar to the case system in nouns – even the names are the same. So you can see why some call this “verbal case.”
NW Caucasian verbs can be marked for aspect (whether something is momentous, continuous or habitual), mood (if something is certain, likely, desired, potential, or unreal). Other affixes can shape the verb in an adverbial sense, to express pity, excess or emphasis.
Like NE Caucasian, they are also ergative.
NW Caucasian makes it onto a lot of craziest language lists.
These are some of the strangest sounding languages on Earth. Of all of these languages, Abaza has the most consonants. Here is a video in the Abaza language.
Ubykh, a Caucasian language of Turkey, is now extinct, but there is one second language speaker, a linguist who is said to have taught himself the language. It has more consonants than any non-click language on Earth – 84 consonant sounds in all. Furthermore, the phonemic inventory allows some very strange consonant clusters.
Ubykh has many rare consonant sounds. tʷ is only also found in two of Ubykh’s relatives, Abkhaz and Abaza and in two other languages, both in the Brazilian Amazon. The pharyngealized labiodental voiced fricative vˁ does not exist in any other language. It often makes it onto weirdest phonologies lists. Ubykh also got a very high score on a study of the weirdest languages on Earth.
Combine that with only two vowel sounds and a highly complex grammar, and you have one tough language.
In addition, Ubykh is both agglutinative and polysynthetic, ergative and has polypersonal agreement:
If only you had not been able to make him take it all out from under me again for them…
There are an incredible 16 morphemes in that nine syllable word.
Ubykh has only four case systems on its nouns, but much case function has shifted over to the verb via preverbs and determinants. It is these preverbs and determinants that make Ubykh monstrously complex. The following are some of the directional preverbs:
- above and touching
- above and not touching
- below and touching
- below and not touching
- at the side of
- through a space
- through solid matter
- on a flat horizontal surface
- on a non-horizontal or vertical surface
- in a homogeneous mass
- in an upward direction
- in a downward direction
- into a tubular space
- into an enclosed space
There are also some preverbal forms that indicate deixis:
j- = towards the speaker
Others can indicate ideas that would take up whole phrases in English:
jtɕʷʼaa- = on the Earth, in the Earth
They buried his body. (Lit. They put his body in the earth.)
faa– = out of, into or with regard to a fire.
Amdʒan zatʃətʃaqʲa faastχʷən.
I take a brand out of the fire.
Morphemes may be as small as a single phoneme:
They give you to him.
w – 2nd singular absolutive
a – 3rd singular dative
n – 3rd ergative
tʷ – to give
aa – ergative plural
n – present tense
Adverbial suffixes are attached to words to form meanings that are often formed by aspects or tenses in other languages:
asfəpχa – I need to drink it.
asfəfan – I can drink it.
asfəɡʲan – I drink it all the time.
asfəlan – I am drinking it all up.
asfətɕʷan – I drink it too much.
asfaajən – I drink it again.
Nouns and verbs can transform into each other. Any noun can turn into a stative verb:
məzə – child
I was a child. (Lit. I child-was. child-was is a verb – to be a child.)
By the same token, many verbs can become nouns via the use of a nominal affix:
qʼa – to say
what I say – (Lit. That which I say – my speech, my words, my language, my orders, etc.
Number is marked on the verb via a verbal suffix and is only marked on the noun in the ergative case.
However, it does lack the convoluted case systems of the Caucasian languages next door and there is no grammatical gender.
Ubykh is rated 6, hardest of all.
Abkhaz is an extremely difficult language to learn. Each basic consonant has eight different positions of articulation in the mouth. Imagine how difficult that would be for an Abkhaz child with a speech impediment. Abkhaz seems to put agreement markers on just about everything in the language. Abkhaz makes it onto many craziest language lists, and it recently got a very high score on a weirdest language study.
Abkhaz is rated 6, hardest of all.
Burushaski is often thought to be a language isolate, related to no other languages, however, I think it is Dene-Caucasian. It is spoken in the Himalaya Mountains of far northern Pakistan in an area called the Hunza. It’s verb conjugation is complex, it has a lot of inflections, there are complicated ways of making sentences depending on many factors, and it is an ergative language, which is hard to learn for speakers of non-ergative languages. In addition, there are very few to no cognates for the vocabulary.
Burushaski is rated 6, hardest of all.
American Indian Languages
American Indian languages are also notoriously difficult, though few try to learn them in the US anyway. In the rest of the continent, they are still learned by millions in many different nations. You almost really need to learn these as a kid. It’s going to be quite hard for an adult to get full competence in them.
One problem with these languages is the multiplicity of verb forms. For instance, the standard paradigm for the overwhelming number of regular English verbs is a maximum of five forms:
Many Amerindian languages have over 1,000 forms of each verb in the language.
Yet the Salishans (see below) always considered the neighboring language Kootenai to be too hard to learn. Kootenai also has a distinction between proximate/obviate along with direct/inverse alignment, probably from contact with Algonquian.
However, the Kootenai direct/inverse system is less complex than Algonquian’s, as it is present only in the 3rd person. Kootenai also has a very strange feature in that they have particles that look like subject pronouns, but these go outside of the full noun phrase. This is a very rare feature in the world’s languages. Kootenai scored very high on a weirdest language survey.
Kootenai is an isolate spoken in Idaho by 100 people.
Kootenai is rated 6, hardest of all.
Yuchi is a language isolate spoken in the Southern US. They were originally located in Eastern Tennessee and were part of the Creek Confederacy at one time. Yuchi is nearly extinct, with only five remaining speakers.
Yuchi has noun genders or classes based on three distinctions of position: standing, sitting or lying. All nouns are either standing, sitting or lying. Trees are standing, and rivers are lying, for instance. It it is taller than it is wide, it is standing. It if is wider than it is tall, it is lying.
If it is about as about as wide as it is tall, it is sitting. All nouns are one of these three genders, but you can change the gender for humorous or poetic effect. A linguist once asked a group of female speakers whether a penis was standing, sitting or lying. After lots of giggles, they said the default was sitting, but you could say it was standing or lying for poetic effect.
Also all Yuchi pronouns must make a distinction between age (older or younger than the speaker) and ethnicity (Yuchi or non-Yuchi).
Yuchi gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Tlingit is probably one of the hardest, if not the hardest, language in the world. Tlingit is analyzed as partly synthetic, partly agglutinative, and sometimes polysynthetic. It has not only suffixes and prefixes, but it also has infixes or affixes in the middle of words.
‘eech – to pick
All prefixes must be in proper order for the word to work.
I am usually picking, on purpose, a long object through the hole while standing on a table.
I am usually being forced to pick a long object through the hole while standing on a table.
I am usually being picking the edible long object through the hole while standing on a table.
Tlingit has a pretty unusual phonology. For one thing, it is the only language on Earth with no l. This despite the fact that it has five other laterals: dl (tɬ), tl (tɬʰ), tl’ (tɬʼ), l (ɬ) and l’ (ɬʼ). The tɬʼ and ɬʼ sounds are rare in the world’s languages. ɬʼ is only found in the wild NW Caucasian languages. It also has two labialized glottal consonants, ʔʷ and hw (hʷ).
Tlingit gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Navajo has long, short and nasal vowels, a tone system and a grammar totally unlike anything in Indo-European. A stem of only four letters or so can take enough affixes to fill a whole line of text.
Navajo is a polysynthetic language. In polysynthetic languages, very long words can denote an entire sentence, and it’s quite hard to take the word apart into its parts and figure out exactly what they mean and how they go together. The long words are created because polysynthetic languages have an amazing amount of morphological richness. They put many morpheme together to create a word out of what might be a sentence in a non-polysynthetic language.
Some Navajo dictionaries have thousands of entries of verbs only, with no nouns. Many adjectives have no direct translation into Navajo. Instead, verbs are used as adjectives. A verb has no particular form like in English – to walk. Instead, it assumes various forms depending on whether or not the action is completed, incomplete, in progress, repeated, habitual, one time only, instantaneous, or simply desired. These are called aspects. Navajo must have one of the most complex aspect systems of any language:
The Primary aspects:
Momentaneous – punctually (takes place at one point in time)
Continuative – an indefinite span of time & movement with a specified direction
Durative – over an indefinite span of time, non-locomotive uninterrupted continuum
Repetitive – a continuum of repeated acts or connected series of acts
Conclusive – like durative but in perfective terminates with static sequel
Semelfactive – a single act in a repetitive series of acts
Distributive – a distributive manipulation of objects or performance of actions
Diversative – a movement distributed among things (similar to distributive)
Reversative – results in directional change
Conative – an attempted action
Transitional – a shift from one state to another
Cursive – progression in a line through time/space (only progressive mode)
Completive – an event/action simply takes place (similar to the aorist tense)
Terminative – a stopping of an action
Stative – sequentially durative and static
Inceptive – beginning of an action
Terminal – an inherently terminal action
Prolongative – an arrested beginning or ending of an action
Seriative – an interconnected series of successive separate & distinct acts
Inchoative – a focus on the beginning of a non-locomotion action
Reversionary – a return to a previous state/location
Semeliterative – a single repetition of an event/action
The tense system is almost as wild as the aspectual system.
For instance, the verb ndideesh means to pick up or to lift up. But it varies depending on what you are picking up:
ndideeshtiil – to pick up a slender stiff object (key, pole)
ndideeshleel – to pick up a slender flexible object (branch, rope)
ndideesh’aal – to pick up a roundish or bulky object (bottle, rock)
ndideeshgheel – to pick up a compact and heavy object (bundle, pack)
ndideeshjol – to pick up a non-compact or diffuse object (wool, hay)
ndideeshteel – to pick up something animate (child, dog)
ndideeshnil – to pick up a few small objects (a couple of berries, nuts)
ndideeshjih – to pick up a large number of small objects (a pile of berries, nuts)
ndideeshtsos – to pick up something flexible and flat (blanket, piece of paper)
ndideeshjil – to pick up something I carry on my back
ndideeshkaal – to pick up anything in a vessel
ndideeshtloh – to pick up mushy matter (mud).
But picking up is only one way of handling the 12 different consistencies. One can also bring, take, hang up, keep, carry around, turn over, etc. objects. There are about 28 different verbs one can use for handling objects. If we multiply these verbs by the consistencies, there are over 300 different verbs used just for handling objects.
In Navajo textbooks, there are conjugation tables for inflecting words, but it’s pretty hard to find a pattern there. One of the most frustrating things about Navajo is that every little morpheme you add to a word seems to change everything else around it, even in both directions.
Navajo is said to have a very difficult system for counting numerals.
There is also a noun classifier system with more than a dozen classifiers that affect inflection. This is quite a few classifiers even for a noun classifier language and is similar to African languages like Zulu. In addition, it has the strange direct/inverse system.
To add insult to injury, Navajo is an ergative language.
Navajo also has an honorifics or politeness system similar to Japanese or Korean.
Navajo also has the odd feature where the word niinaa – because can be analyzed as a verb.
X áhóót’įįd biniinaa…
Because X happened…
It broke into pieces because of me.
In the latter sentence, the only way we know that 1st singular was involved in because of the person marking on niinaa.
There are 25 different kinds of pronominal prefixes that can be piled onto one another before a verb base.
Navajo has a very strange feature called animacy, where nouns take certain verbs according to their rank in the hierarchy of animation which is a sort of a ranking based on how alive something is. Humans and lightning are at the top, children and large animals are next and abstractions are at the bottom.
All in all, Navajo, even compared to other polysynthetic languages, has some of the most incredibly complicated polysynthetic morphology of any language. On craziest grammar and craziest language lists, Navajo is typically listed.
It is even said that Navajo children have a hard time learning Navajo as compared to children learning other languages, but Navajo kids definitely learn the language. Similarly with Hopi below, even linguists find even the best Navajo grammars difficult or even impossible to understand.
However, Navajo is quite regular, a common feature in Amerindian languages.
Navajo is rated 6, hardest of all.
Slavey, a Na-Dene language of Canada, is hard to learn. It is similar to Navajo and Apache. Verbs take up to 15 different prefixes. All Athabascan languages have wild verbal systems. It also uses a completely different alphabet, a syllabic one designed for Canadian Indians.
Slavey is rated 6, hardest of all.
Haida is often thought to be a Na-Dene language, but proof of its status is lacking. If it is Na-Dene, it is the most distant member of the family. Haida is in the competition for the most complicated language on Earth, with 70 different suffixes.
Haida is rated 6, hardest of all.
The Salishan languages spoken in the Northwest have a long reputation for being hard to learn, in part because of long strings of consonants, in one case 11 consonants long. Salish languages are the only languages on Earth that allow words without sonorants.
Many of the vowels and consonants are not present in most of the world’s widely spoken languages. The Salish languages are, like Chukchi, polysynthetic. Some translations treat all Salish words are either verbs or phrases. Some say that Salish languages do not contain nouns, though this is controversial. The verbal system of Salish languages is absurdly complex.
All Salishan languages are rated rated 6, hardest of all.
Nuxálk (Bella Coola)
Nuxálk is a notoriously difficult Salishan Amerindian language spoken in British Colombia. It is famous for having some really wild words and even sentences that don’t seem to have any vowels in them at all. For instance:
xłp̓x̣ʷłtłpłłskʷc̓ (xɬpʼχʷɬtʰɬpʰɬːskʷʰt͡sʼ in IPA)
He had a bunchberry plant.
Here are some more odd words and sentences:
Nuyamłamkis timantx tisyuttx ʔułtimnastx.
The father sang the song to his son.
Musis tiʔimmllkītx taq̓lsxʷt̓aχ.
The boy felt that rope.
However, this word is not typically used by speakers and by no means do most words consist of all consonants. The language sounds odd when spoken. It has been described as “whispering while chewing on a granola bar” (see the video sample under Montana Salish below).
These wild consonant clusters are even crazier than the ones in Ubykh and NW Caucasian. In fact, the nutty consonant clusters in Salish and causing a debate in linguistics about whether or not the syllable is even a universal phenomenon in language as some Salish words and phrases appear to lack syllables. Some Berber dialects have raised similar questions about the syllable.
Nuxálk makes it onto lists of the craziest phonologies on Earth.
Nuxálk is rated 6, hardest of all.
Montana Salish is said to be just as hard to learn as Nuxálk . Spokane (Montana Salish) has combining and independent forms with the same meaning:
spim’cn – mouth
-cin – mouth
Montana Salish makes it onto a lot of craziest grammars lists.
This link shows an elder on the Flathead Indian Reservation in Montana, Steven Smallsalmon, speaking Montana Salish. He also leads classes in the language. This is probably one of the strangest sounding languages on Earth.
Montana Salish is rated 6, hardest of all.
Straits Salish has an aspectual distinction between persistent and nonpersistent. Persistent means the activity continues after its inception as a state. The persistent morpheme is -í. The result is similar to English:
figure out – nonpersistent
know – persistent
look at – nonpersistent
watch – persistent
take – nonpersistent
hold – persistent
-í is referred to as a “parasitic morpheme” and only occurs in stem that has an underlying ə which serves as a “host” for the -í morpheme.
The Saanich dialect of Straits Salish is often listed in the rogue’s gallery of craziest grammars on Earth. The writing system is often listed as one of the worst out there. In addition, Saanich makes it onto craziest grammars lists for the parasitic morphemes and for having no distinction between nouns and verbs!
Straits Salish gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Halkomelem, spoken by 570 people around Vancouver, British Colombia, is widely considered to be one of the hardest languages on Earth to learn. In Halkomelem, many verbs have an orientation towards water. You can’t just say, She went home. You have say how she was going home in relation to nearby bodies of water. So depending on where she was walking home in relation to the nearest river, you would say:
She was farther away from the water and going home.
She was coming home in the direction away from the water.
She was walking parallel to the flow of the water downstream.
She was walking parallel to the flow of the water upstream.
Halkomelem gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Lushootseed is said to be just as hard to learn as Nuxálk. Lushootseed is one of the few languages on Earth that has no nasals at all, except in special registers like baby talk and the archaic speech of mythological figures. It also has laryngealized glides and nasals: w ̰ , m̥ ̰ , and n̥ ̰ .
Lushootseed is rated 6, hardest of all.
All Iroquoian languages are extremely difficult, but Athabaskan is probably even harder. Siouan languages may be equal to Iroquoian in difficulty.
Compare the same phrases in Tlingit (Athabaskan) and and Cherokee (Iroquoian).
kutíkusa‘áat – It’s cold outside.
kutíkuta‘áat – It’s cold right now.
In Tlingit, you can add or modify affixes at the beginning as prefixes, in the middle as infixes and at the end as suffixes. In the above example, you changed a part of the word within the clause itself.
doyáditlv uyvtlv – It is cold outside. (Lit. Outside it is cold)
ka uyvtlv – It is cold now. (Lit. Now it is cold.)
As you can see, Cherokee is easier.
Cherokee is very hard to learn. In addition to everything else, it has a completely different alphabet. It’s polysynthetic, to make matters worse. It is possible to write a Cherokee sentence that somehow lacks a verb. There are five categories of verb classifiers. Verbs needing classifiers must use one. Each regular verb can have an incredible 21,262 inflected forms! All verbs contain a verb root, a pronominal prefix, a modal suffix and an aspect suffix. In addition, verbs inflect for singular, plural and also dual. For instance:
You have 126 different forms:
ᎬᏯᎸᎢᎭ gvyalv'iha I tie you up
ᏕᎬᏯᎸᎢᎭ degvyalviha I'm tying you up
ᏥᏯᎸᎢᎭ jiyalv'ha I tie him up
ᎦᎸᎢᎭ I tie it
ᏍᏓᏯᎸᎢᎭ sdayalv'iha I tie you (dual)
ᎢᏨᏯᎢᎭ ijvyalv'iha I tie you (pl)
ᎦᏥᏯᎸᎢᎭ gajiyalv'iha I tie them (animate)
ᏕᎦᎸᎢᎭ I tie them up (inanimate)
ᏍᏆᎸᎢᎭ squahlv'iha You tie me
ᎯᏯᎸᎢᎭ hiyalv'iha You're tying him
ᎭᏢᎢᎭ hatlv'iha You tie it
ᏍᎩᎾᎸᎢᎭ skinalv'iha You're tying me and him
ᎪᎩᎾᏢᎢᎭ goginatlv'iha They tie me and him etc.
Let us look at another form:
I see myself gadagotia
I see you gvgohtia
I see him/ tsigotia
I see it tsigotia
I see you two advgotia
I see you (plural) istvgotia
I see them (live) gatsigotia
I see them (things) detsigotia
You see me sgigotia
You see yourself hadagotia
You see him/her higo(h)tia
You see it higotia
You see another and me sginigotia
You see others and me isgigotia
You see them (living) dehigotia
You see them (living) gahigotia
You see them (things) detsigotia
He/she sees me agigotia
He/she sees you tsagotia
He/she sees you atsigotia
He/she sees him/her agotia
He/she sees himself/herself adagotia
He/she sees you + me ginigotia
He/she sees you two sdigotia
He/she sees another + me oginigotia
He she sees us (them + me) otsigotia
He/she sees you (plural) itsigotia
He/she sees them dagotia
You and I see him/her/it igigotia
You and I see ourselves edadotia
You and I see one another denadagotia/dosdadagotia
You and I see them (living) genigotia
You and I see them (living or not) denigotia
You two see me sgninigotia
You two see him/her/it esdigotia
You two see yourselves sdadagotia
You two see us (another and me) sginigotia
You two see them desdigotia
Another and I see you sdvgotia
Another and I see him/her osdigotia
Another and I see it osdigotia
Another and I see you-two sdvgotia
Another and I see ourselves dosdadagotia
Another and I see you (plural) itsvgotia
Another and I see them dosdigotia
You (plural) see me isgigoti
You (plural) see him/her etsigoti
They see me gvgigotia
They see you getsagotia
They see him/her anigoti
They see you and me geginigoti
They see you two gesdigoti
They see another and me gegigotia/gogenigoti
They see you (plural) getsigoti
They see them danagotia
They see themselves anadagoti
I will see datsigoi
I saw agigohvi
He/she will see dvgohi
Number is marked for inclusive vs. exclusive and there is a dual. 3rd person plural is marked for animate/inanimate. Verbs take different object forms depending on if the object is solid/alive/indefinite shape/flexible. This is similar to the Navajo system.
Cherokee also has lexical tone, with complex rules about how tones may combine with each other. Tone is not marked in the orthography. The phonology is noted for somehow not having any labial consonants.
However, Cherokee is very regular. It has only three irregular verbs. It is just that there are many complex rules.
Cherokee is rated 5.5, close to most difficult of all.
Wyandot, a dormant language that has been extinct for about 50 years, has some unbelievably complex structures. Let us look at one of them. Wyandot is the only language on Earth that allows negative sentences that somehow do not contain a negative morpheme. Wyandot makes it onto craziest grammars lists. (To be continued).
Mississippi Valley-Ohio Valley Siouan
Mississippi Valley Siouan
Lakota and other Siouan languages may well be as convoluted as Iroquoian. In Lakota, all adjectives are expressed as verbs. Something similar is seen in Nahuatl.
Ógle sápe kiŋ mak’ú.
The shirt it is black he gave it to me.
He gave me the black shirt.
In the above, it is black is a stative verb and serves as an adjective.
Ógle kiŋ sabyá mak’ú.
Shirt the blackly he gave it to me.
He gave me the black shirt. (Lit. He gave me the shirt blackly.)
Bkackly is an adverb serving as an adjective above.
Lakota gets a 5.5 rating, hardest of all.
All Algonquian languages have distinctions between animate/inanimate nouns, in addition to having proximate/obviate and direct/inverse distinctions. However, most languages that have proximate/obviate and direct/inverse distinctions are not as difficult as Algonquian.
Proximate/obviative is a way of marking the 3rd person in discourse. It distinguishes between an important 3rd person (proximate) and a more peripheral 3rd person (obviative). Animate nouns and possessor nouns tend to be marked proximate while inanimate nouns and possessed nouns tend to be marked obviative.
Direct/inverse is a way of marking discourse in terms of saliency, topicality or animacy. Whether one noun ranks higher than another in terms of saliency, topicality or animacy means that that nouns ranks higher in terms of person hierarchy. It is used only in transitive clauses. When the subject has a higher ranking than the object, the direct form is used. When the object has a higher ranking than the object, the inverse form is used.
Cree is very hard to learn. It are written in a variety of different ways with different alphabets and syllabic systems, complicating matters even further. The syllabic alphabet has many problems and is often listed as one of the worst scripts out there. They are both polysynthetic and have long, short and nasal vowels and aspirated and unaspirated voiceless consonants. Words are divided into metrical feet, the rules for determining stress placement in words are quite complex and there is lots of irregularity. Vowels fall out a lot, or syncopate, within words.
Cree adds noun classifiers to the mix, and both nouns and verbs are marked as animate or inanimate. In addition, verbs are marked for transitive and intransitive. In addition, verbs get different affixes depending on whether they occur in main or subordinate clauses.
Cree is rated 6, hardest of all.
Ojibwa is said to be about as hard to learn as Cree as it is very similar.
Ojibwa is rated 6, hardest of all.
Cheyenne is well-known for being a hard Amerindian language to learn. Like many polysynthetic languages, it can have very long words.
I truly don’t know Cheyenne very well.
However, Cheyenne is quite regular, but has so many complex rules that it is hard to figure them all out.
Cheyenne is rated 6, hardest of all.
Arapaho has a strange phonology. It lacks phonemic low vowels. The vowel system consists of i, ɨ~,u, ɛ, and ɔ, with no low phonemic vowels. Each vowel also has a corresponding long version. In addition, there are four diphthongs, ei, ou, oe and ie, several triphthongs, eii, oee, and ouu, as well as extended sequences of vowels such as eee with stress on either the first or the last vowel in the combination. Long vowels of various types are common:
I will turn out the lights.
It is raining.
There is a pitch accent system with normal, high and allophonic falling tones. Arapaho words also undergo some very wild sound changes.
Arapaho is rated 6, hardest of all.
Gros Ventre has a similar phonological system and similar elaborate sound changes as Arapaho.
Gros Ventre is rated 5, hardest of all.
Wichita has many strange phonological traits. It has only one nasal. Labials are rare and appear in only two roots. It also may have only three vowels, i, e, and a, with only height as a distinction. Such a restricted vertical vowel distribution is only found in NW Caucasian and the Papuan Ndu languages. There is apparently a three-way contrast in vowel length – regular, long and extra-long.
This is only found in Mixe and Estonian. There are some interesting tenses. Perfect tense means that an act has been carried out. The strange intentive tense means that one hopes or hoped to to carry out an act. The habitual tense means one regularly engages in the activity, not that one is doing so at the moment.
Long consonant clusters are permitted.
There are many cases where a CVɁ sequence has been reduced to CɁ due to loss of the vowel, resulting in odd words such as:
Word order is ordered in accordance with novelty or importance.
Our ancestors God put us on this Earth.
weɁe hira:rɁ tiɁi na:kirih
God put our ancestors on this Earth.
In the sentence above, “our ancestors” is actually the subject, so it makes sense that it comes first.
Wichita has inclusive and exclusive 3rd person plural and has singular, dual and plural. There is an evidential system where if you say you know something, you must say how you know it – whether it is personal knowledge or hearsay.
Wichita gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Huamelutec or Lowland Oaxaca Chantal has the odd glottalized fricatives fʼ, sʼ, ɬʼ and xʼ as its only glottalized consonants. They alternate with plain f, s, l and x. fʼ, ɬʼ and xʼ are extremely rare in the world’s languages, usually only found in 2-3 other languages, often in NW Caucasian. xʼ occurs only in one other language – Tlingit. sʼ is slightly more common, occurring five other languages including Tlingit. In other languages, these odd sounds derived from sequences of consonant + q: Cq -> Cʔ -> glottalized fricative.
Sentence structure is odd:
Hit the ball the man.
Hit the man the ball.
The man hit the ball.
All mean the same thing.
Huamelutec gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Karok is a language isolate spoken by a few dozen people in northern California. The last native speaker recently died, however, there are ~80 who have varying levels of L2 fluency.
In Karok, you can use a suffix for different types of containment – fire, water or a solid.
throw into a fire
throw into water
throw through a solid
The suffixes are unrelated to the words for fire, water and solid.
Karok gets a 5 rating, hardest of all.
Hopi is so difficult that even grammars describing the language are almost impossible to understand. For instance, Hopi has two different words for and depending on whether the noun phrase containing the word and is nominative or accusative.
Hopi is rated 6, hardest of all.
In Nahuatl, most adjectives are simply stative verbs. Hence:
Umntu omde waya eTenochtitlan.
The man he is tall went to Tenochtitlan.
The tall man went to Tenochtitlan.
He is tall is a stative verb in the above.
Nahuatl gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Comanche is legendary for being one of the hardest Indian languages of all to learn. Reasons are unknown, but all Amerindian languages are quite difficult. I doubt if Comanche is harder than other Numic languages.
Bizarrely enough, Comanche has very strange sounds called voiceless vowels, which seems to be an oxymoron, as vowels would seem to be inherently voiced. English has something akin to voiceless vowels in the words particular and peculiar, where the bolded vowels act something akin to a voiceless vowel.
Comanche was used for a while by the codespeakers in World War 2 – not all codespeakers were Navajos. Comanche was specifically chosen because it was hard to figure out. The Japanese were never able to break the Comanche code.
Comanche is rated 6, hardest of all.
Chinantec, an Indian language of southwest Mexico, is very hard for non-Chinantecs to learn. The tone system is maddeningly complex, and the syntax and morphology are very intricate.
Chinantec is rated 6, hardest of all.
Jalapa Mazatec has distinctions between modal, creaky, breathy-voiced vowels along with nasal versions of those three. It also has creaky consonants and voiceless nasals. It has three tones, low, mid and high. Combining the tones results in various contour tones. In addition, it has a 3-way distinction in vowel length. Whistled speech is also possible. It has a phonemic distinction between “ballistic” and “controlled” syllables which is only present on Oto-Manguean.
sū – warm
nīˑntū – slippery
tsǣ – guava
hų̄ – you plural
sūˑ – blue
nīˑntūˑ – needle
tsǣˑ – full
hų̄ˑ – six
Jalapa Mazatec is rated 6, hardest of all.
Tariana is a very difficult language mostly because of the unbelievable amount of information it crams into its morphology and syntax. This is mostly because it is an Arawakan language that has been heavily influenced by neighboring Tucanoan languages, with the result that it has many of the grammatical categories and particles present in both families.
This stems from the widespread bilingualism in the Vaupes Basin of Colombia, where many people grow up bilingual from childhood and often become multilingual by adulthood. Learning up to five different languages is common. Code-switching was frowned upon and anyone using a word from Language Y while speaking Language X would get laughed at. Hence the various languages tended to borrow features from each other quite easily.
For instance, Tariana has both a noun classifier system and a gender system. Noun classifiers and gender are sometimes subsumed under the single category of “noun classifiers.” Yet Tariana has both, presumably from its relationship to two completely different language families. So in Tariana is not unusual to get both demonstratives and verbs marked for both gender and noun classifier. Tariana borrowed such things as serialized perception verbs and the dubitative marker from Tucano.
In addition, Tariana has some very odd sounds, including aspirated nasals mh (mʰ), nh (n̺ʰ) and ñh (ɲʰ) and an aspirated w (wʰ) of all things. They seem to be actually aspirated, not just partially devoiced as many voiceless nasals and liquids are.
Tariana gets 6, hardest of all.
Bora, a Wintotoan language spoken in Peru and Colombia near the border between the two countries, has a mind-boggling 350 different noun classes. The noun classifier system is actually highly productive and is often used to create new nouns. New nouns can be created very easily, and their meanings are often semantically transparent. In some noun classifier systems, classifiers can be stacked one upon the other. In these cases, typically the last one is used for agreement purposes.
Bora also is a tonal language, but it has only two tones. In addition, nearly all consonantal phonemes have phonemic aspirated and palatalized counterparts. The agreement structure in the language is also quite convoluted. The classifier system effectively replaces much derivational morphology on the noun and noun compounding processes that other languages use to expand the meanings of nominals.
Bora gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Tuyuca is a Tucanoan language spoken in by 450 people in the department of Vaupés in Colombia. An article in The Economist magazine concluded that it was the hardest language on Earth to learn.
It has a simple sound system, but it’s agglutinative, and agglutinative languages are pretty hard. For instance, hóabãsiriga means I don’t know how to write. It has two forms of 1st person plural, I and you (inclusive) and I and the others (exclusive). It has between 50-140 noun classes, including strange ones like bark that does not cling closely to a tree, which can be extended to mean baggy trousers or wet plywood that has begun to fall apart.
Like Yamana, a nearly extinct Amerindian language of Chile, Tuyuca marks for evidentiality, that is, how it is that you know something. For instance:
Diga ape-wi. = The boy played soccer. (I saw him playing).
Diga ape-hiyi. = The boy played soccer. (I assume he was playing soccer, though I did not see it firsthand).
Evidential marking is obligatory on all Tuyuca verbs and it forces you to think about how you know whatever it is you know.
Tuyuca definitely gets a 6 rating!
Cubeo, a language spoken in the Vaupes of Colombia, has a small closed class of adjective roots similar to Juǀʼhoan below:
ɨra – big/large
kɨhĩ – small
bãbã – new/young
bɨkɨ – old/great
bẽa – good/beautiful
ãbẽ – bad/ugly
However, verbs can function as adjectives, and the adjective roots can either turn into nouns themselves or they can take the inflections of either nouns or verbs. Wild!
Similar to how the grammar of Tariana has been influenced by Tucano languages, the grammar of Tucanoan Cubeo has been influenced by neighboring Arawakan languages. The grammar has been described as either SOV or OVS. That would mean that the following:
The man the ball hit.
The ball hit the man.
Mean the same things. OVS languages are quite rare.
Morphemes belong to one of four classes:
- Nasal (many roots, as well as suffixes like -xã = associative)
- Oral (many roots, as well as suffixes like -pe = similarity, -du = frustrative)
- Unmarked (only suffixes, e.g. -re = in/direct object)
- Oral/Nasal (some roots and some suffixes) /bãˈkaxa-/(mãˈkaxa-) – to defecate and -kebã = suppose
Just by looking at any given consonant-initial suffix, it is impossible to determine which of the first three categories it belongs to. They must be learned one by one.
Cubeo has nasal assimilation, common to many Amazonian languages. In some of these, nasalization is best analyzed at the syllable level – some syllables are nasal and others are not.
She recently went.
The underlying form dĩ-bI-ko is realized on the surface as nĩmĩko. The ĩ in dĩ-bI-ko nasalizes the d, the b, and the I on either side of it, so nasal spreading works in both directions. However, it is blocked from the third syllable because k is part of a class of non-nasalizable consonants.
Pretty difficult language.
Cuneo gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Hixkaryána is famous for being the only language on Earth to have basic OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) word order.
The sentence Toto yonoye kamara, or The man ate the jaguar, actually means The jaguar ate the man.
Toto yonoye kamara
Lit. The man ate the jaguar.
Gloss: The jaguar ate the man.
Grammatical suffixes attached to the end of the verb mark not only number but also aspect, mood and tense.
Hixkaryána gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
This is actually a series of closely related languages as opposed to one language, but the Southern Nambikwara language is the most well-known of the family, with 1,200 speakers in the Brazilian Amazon.
Phonology is complex. Consonants distinguish between aspirated, plain and glottalized, common in the Americas. There are strange sounds like prestopped nasals glottalized fricatives. There are nasal vowels and three different tones. All vowels except one have both nasal, creaky-voiced and nasal-creaky counterparts, for a total of 19 vowels.
The grammar is polysynthetic with a complex evidential system.
Reportedly, Nambikwara children do not pick up the language fully until age 10 or so, one of the latest recorded ages for full competence. Nambikwara is sometimes said to be the hardest language on Earth to learn, but it has some competition.
Nambikwara definitely gets a 6 rating, hardest of all!
Pirahã is a language isolate spoken in the Brazilian Amazon. Recent writings by Daniel Everett indicate that not only is this one of the hardest languages on Earth to learn, but it is also one of the weirdest languages on Earth. It is monumentally complex in nearly every way imaginable. It is commonly listed on the rogue’s gallery of craziest languages and phonologies on Earth.
It has the smallest phonemic inventory on Earth with only seven consonants, three vowels and either two or three tones. Everett recently wrote a paper about it after spending many years with them. Previous missionaries who had spent time with the Pirahã generally failed to learn the language because it was too hard to learn. It took Everett a very long time, but he finally learned it well.
Many of Everett’s claims about Pirahã are astounding: whistled speech, no system for counting, very few Portuguese loans (they deliberately refuse to use Portuguese loans) evidence for the Sapir-Whorf linguistic relativity hypothesis, and evidence that it violates some of Noam Chomsky’s purported language universals such as embedding. It also has the t͡ʙ̥ sound – a bilabially trilled postdental affricate which is only found in two other languages, both in the Brazilian Amazon – Oro Win and Wari’.
Initially, Everett never heard the sound, but they got to know him better, they started to make it more often. Everett believes that they were ridiculed by other groups when they made the odd sound.
Pirahã has the simplest kinship system in any language – there is only word for both mother and father, and the Pirahã do not have any words for anyone other than direct biological relatives.
Pirahã may have only two numerals, or it may lack a numeral system altogether.
Pirahã does not distinguish between singular and plural person. This is highly unusual. The language may have borrowed its entire pronoun set from the Tupian languages Nheengatu and Tenarim, groups the Pirahã had formerly been in contact with. This may be one of the only attested case of the borrowing of a complete pronoun set.
There are mandatory evidentiality markers that must be used in Pirahã discourse. Speakers must say how they know something, whether they saw it themselves, whether it was hearsay or whether they inferred it circumstantially.
There are various strange moods – the desiderative (desire to perform an action) and two types of frustrative – frustration in starting an action (inchoative/incompletive) and frustration in completing an action (causative/incompletive). There are others: immediate/intentive (you are going to do something now/you intend to do it in the future)
There are many verbal aspects: perfect/imperfect (completed/incomplete) telic/atelic (reaching a goal/not reaching a goal), continuative (continuing), repetitive (iterative), and beginning an action (inchoative).
Each Pirahã verb has 262,144 possible forms, or possibly in the many millions, depending on which analysis you use.
The future tense is divided into future/somewhere and future/elsewhere. The past tense is divided into plain past and immediate past.
Pirahã has a closed class of only 90 verb roots, an incredibly small number. But these roots can be combined together to form compound verbs, a much larger category. Here is one example of three verbs strung together to form a compound verb:
xig ab op
take turn go – bring back, You take something away, you turn around, and you go back to where you got it to return it.
There are no abstract color terms in Pirahã. There are only two words for colors, one for light and one for dark. The only other languages with this restricted of a color sense are in Papua New Guinea. The other color terms are not really color terms, but are more descriptive – red is translated as like blood.
Pirahã can be whistled, hummed or encoded into music. Consonants and vowels can be omitted altogether and meaning conveyed instead via variations in stress, pitch and rhythm. Mothers teach the language to children by repeating musical patterns.
Pirahã may well be one of the hardest languages on Earth to learn.
Pirahã gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Quechua (actually a large group of languages and not a single language at all) is one of the easiest Amerindian languages to learn. Quechua is a classic example of a highly regular grammar with few exceptions. Its agglutinative system is more straightforward than even that of Turkish. The phonology is dead simple.
On the down side, there is a lot of dialectal divergence (these are actually separate languages and not dialects) and a lack of learning materials. Some say that Quechua speakers spend their whole lives learning the language.
Quechua has inconsistent orthographies. There is a fight between those who prefer a Spanish-based orthography and those who prefer a more phonemic one. Also there is an argument over whether to use the Ayacucho language or the Cuzco language as a base.
Quechua has a difficult feature known as evidential marking. This marker indicates the source of the speaker’s knowledge and how sure they are about the statement.
-mi expresses personal knowledge:
Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirmi.
Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver. (I know it for a fact.)
-si expresses hearsay knowledge:
Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirsi.
Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver (or so I’ve heard).
chá expresses strong possibility:
Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirchá.
Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver (most likely).
Quechua is rated 4, very difficult.
Aymara has some of the wildest morphophonology out there. Morpheme-final vowel deletion is present in the language as a morphophonological process, and it is dependent on a set of highly complex phonological, morphological and syntactic rules (Kim 2013).
For instance, there are three types of suffixes: dominant, recessive and a 3rd class is neither dominant nor recessive. If a stem ends in a vowel, dominant suffixes delete the vowel but recessive suffixes allow the vowel to remain. The third class either deletes or retains the vowel on the stem depending on how many vowels are in the stem. If the root has two vowels, the vowel is retained. If it has three vowels, the vowel is deleted.
Although all of this seems quite odd, Finnish has something similar going on, if not a lot worse.
Nevertheless, Aymara is still said to be a very easy language to learn. The Guinness Book of World Records claims it is almost as easy to learn as Esperanto.
Aymara gets a 2 rating, very easy to learn.
Australian Aborigine languages are some of the hardest languages on Earth to learn, like Amerindian or Caucasian languages. Some Australian languages have phonemic contrasts that few other languages have, such as apico-dental, lamino-dental, apico-post-alveolar, and lamino-postalveolar cononals.
Australian languages tend to be mixed ergative. Ordinary nouns are ergative-absolutive, but 1st and 2nd person pronouns are nominative-accusative. One language has a three way agent-patient-experiencer distinction in the 1st person pronoun. Australian pronouns typically have singular, plural and dual forms along with inclusive and exclusive 1st plural. In some sentences, they have what is known as double case agreement which is rare in the world’s languages:
I gave a spear to my father.
I gave a spear mine-to father’s-to.
Both elements of the phrase my father are in both dative and genitive.
However, Aboriginal languages do have the plus of being very regular.
All Australian languages are rated 6, most difficult of all.
Berik is a Tor-Orya language spoken in Indonesian colony of Irian Jaya in New Guinea.
Verbs take many strange endings, in many cases mandatory ones, that indicate what time of day something happened, among other things.
Telbener – He drinks in the evening.
Where a verb takes an object, it will not only be marked for time of day but for the size of the object.
Kitobana – He gives three large objects to a man in the sunlight.
Verbs may also be marked for where the action takes place in reference to the speaker.
Gwerantena – To place a large object in a low place nearby.
Berik is rated 6, hardest of all.
Trans New Guinea
Amele is the world’s most complex language as far as verb forms go, with 69,000 finitive and 860 infinitive forms.
Amele is rated 6, hardest of all.
Valman is a bizarre case where the word and that connects two nouns is actually a verb of all things and is marked with the first noun as subject and the second noun as object.
John (subject) and Mary (object)
John is marked as subject for some reason, and Mary is marked as object, and the and word shows subject agreement with John and object agreement with Mary.
Valman gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Semitic languages such as Arabic and Hebrew are notoriously difficult to learn, and Arabic (especially MSA) tops many language learners’ lists as the hardest language they have ever attempted to learn. Although Semitic verbs are notoriously complex, the verbal system does have some advantages especially as compared to IE languages like Slavic. Unlike Slavic, Semitic verbs are not inflected for mood and there is no perfect or imperfect.
Arabic has some very irregular manners of noun declension, even in the plural. For instance, the word girls changes in an unpredictable way when you say one girl, two girls and three girls, and there are two different ways to say two girls depending on context. Two girls is marked with the dual, but different dual forms can be used. All languages with duals are relatively difficult for most speakers that lack a dual in their native language. However, the dual is predictable from the singular, so one might argue that you only need to learn how to say one girl and three girls.
Further, it is full of irregular plurals similar to octopus and octopi in English, whereas these forms are rare in English. With any given word, there might be 20 different possible ways to pluralize it, and there is no way to know which of the 20 paradigms to use with that word, and further, there is no way to generalize a plural pattern from a singular pattern. In addition, many words have 2-3 ways of pluralizing them. Some messy Arab plurals:
kalb -> kilaab
qalb -> quluub
maktab -> makaatib
taalib -> tullaab
balad -> buldaan
When you say I love you to a man, you say it one way, and when you say it to a woman, you say it another way. On and on.
The Arabic writing system is exceeding difficult and is more of the hardest to use of any on Earth. Soft vowels are omitted. You have to learn where to insert missing vowels, where to double consonants and which vowels to skip in the script. There are 28 different symbols in the alphabet and four different ways to write each symbol depending on its place in the word.
Consonants are written in different ways depending on where they appear in a word. An h is written differently at the beginning of a word than at the end of a word. However, one simple aspect of it is that the medial form is always the same as the initial form. You need to learn not only Arabic words but also the grammar to read Arabic.
Pronouns attach themselves to roots, and there are many different verb conjugation paradigms which simply have to be memorized. For instance, if a verb has a و, a ي, or a ء in its root, you need to memorize the patters of the derivations, and that is a good chunk of the conjugations right there. The system for measuring quantities is extremely confusing.
The grammar has many odd rules that seem senseless. Unfortunately, most rules have exceptions, and it seems that the exceptions are more common than the rules themselves. Many people, including native speakers, complain about Arabic grammar.
Arabic does have case, but the system is rather simple.
The laryngeals, uvulars and glottalized sounds are hard for many foreigners to make and nearly impossible for them to get right. The ha’(ح ), qa (ق ) and غ sounds and the glottal stop in initial position give a lot of learners headaches.
Arabic is at least as idiomatic as French or English, so it order to speak it right you have to learn all of the expressionistic nuances.
One of the worst problems with Arabic is the dialects, which in many cases are separate languages altogether. If you learn Arabic, you often have to learn one of the dialects along with classical Arabic. All Arabic speakers speak both an Arabic dialect and Classical Arabic.
In some Arabic as a foreign language classes, even after 1 1/2 years, not one student could yet make a complete and proper sentence that was not memorized.
Adding weight to the commonly held belief that Arabic is hard to learn is research done in Germany in 2005 which showed that Turkish children learn their language at age 2-3, German children at age 4-5, but Arabic kids did not get Arabic until age 12.
Arabic has complex verbal agreement with the subject, masculine and feminine gender in nouns and adjectives, head-initial syntax and a serious restriction to forming compounds. If you come from a language that has similar nature, Arabic may be easier for you than it is for so many others. Its 3 vowel system makes for easy vowels.
MSA Arabic is rated 5, extremely difficult.
Arabic dialects are often somewhat easier to learn than MSA Arabic. At least in Lebanese and Egyptian Arabic, the very difficult q’ sound has been turned into a hamza or glottal stop which is an easier sound to make. Compared to MSA Arabic, the dialectal words tend to be shorter and easier to pronounce.
To attain anywhere near native speaker competency in Egyptian Arabic, you probably need to live in Egypt for 10 years, but Arabic speakers say that few if any second language learners ever come close to native competency. There is a huge vocabulary, and most words have a wealth of possible meanings.
Egyptian Arabic is rated 4.5, very to extremely difficult.
Moroccan Arabic is said to be particularly difficult, with much vowel elision in triconsonantal stems. In addition, all dialectal Arabic is plagued by irrational writing systems.
Moroccan Arabic is rated 4.5, very to extremely difficult.
Maltese is a strange language, basically a Maghrebi Arabic language (similar to Moroccan or Tunisian Arabic) that has very heavy influence from non-Arabic tongues. It shares the problem of Gaelic that often words look one way and are pronounced another.
It has the common Semitic problem of difficult plurals. Although many plurals use common plural endings (-i, -iet, -ijiet, -at), others simply form the plural by having their last vowel dropped or adding an s (English borrowing). There’s no pattern, and you simply have to memorize which ones act which way. Maltese permits the consonant cluster spt, which is surely hard to pronounce.
On the other hand, Maltese has quite a few IE loans from Italian, Sicilian, Spanish, French and increasingly English. If you have knowledge of Romance languages, Maltese is going to be easier than most Arabic dialects.
Maltese is rated 4, very difficult.
Hebrew is hard to learn according to a number of Israelis. Part of the problem may be the abjad writing system, which often leaves out vowels which must simply be remembered. Also, other than borrowings, the vocabulary is Afroasiatic, hence mostly unknown to speakers of IE languages. There are also difficult consonants as in Arabic such as pharyngeals and uvulars.
The het or glottal h is particularly hard to make. However, most modern Israelis no longer make the het sound or a’ain sounds. Instead, they pronounce the het like the chaf sound and the a’ain like an alef. Almost all Ashkenazi Israeli Jews no longer use the het or a’ain sounds. But most Jews who came from Arab countries (often older people) still use the sound, and some of their children do (Dorani 2013).
Hebrew has complex morphophonological rules. The letters p, b, t, d, k and g change to v, f, dh, th, kh and gh in certain situations. In some environments, pharyngeals change the nature of the vowels around them. The prefix ve-, which means and, is pronounced differently when it precedes certain letters. Hebrew is also quite irregular.
Hebrew has quite a few voices, including active, passive, intensive, intensive passive, etc. It also has a number of tenses such as present, past and the odd juissive.
Hebrew also has two different noun classes. There are also many suffixes and quite a few prefixes that can be attached to verbs and nouns.
Even most native Hebrew speakers do not speak Hebrew correctly by a long shot.
Quite a few say Hebrew is as hard to learn as MSA or perhaps even harder, but this is controversial.
Hebrew gets a 5 rating for extremely difficult.
Berber languages are considered to be very hard to learn. Worse, there are very few language learning resources available.
Tamazight allows doubled consonants at the beginning of a word! How can you possibly make that sound?
Tamazight gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
In Tachelhit , words like this are possible:
You took it off.
You gave it.
In addition, there are words which contain only one or two consonants:
Tachelhit gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Amharic is said to be a very hard language to learn. It is quite complex, and its sentence structures seem strange even to speakers of other Semitic languages. Hebrew speakers say they have a hard time with this language.
There are a multitude of rules which almost seem ridiculous in their complexity, there are numerous conjugation patterns, objects are suffixed to the verb, the alphabet has 274 letters, and the pronunciation seems strange. However, if you already know Hebrew or Arabic, it will be a lot easier. The hardest part of all is the verbal system, as with any Semitic language. It is easier than Arabic.
Amharic gets a 4.5 rating, very hard to extremely hard.
Dahalo is legendary for having some of the wildest consonant phonology on Earth. It has all four airstream mechanisms found in languages: ejectives, implosives, clicks and normal pulmonic sounds. There are both glottal and epiglottal stops and fricatives and laminal and apical stops.
There is also a strange series of nasal clicks and are both glottalized and plain. Some of these clicks are also labialized. It has both voiced and unvoiced prenasalized stops and affricates, and some of the stops are also labialized. There is a weird palatal lateral ejective. There are three different lateral fricatives, including a labialized and palatalized one, and one lateral approximant. It contrasts alveolar and palatal lateral affricates and fricatives, the only language on Earth to do this.
The Dahalo are former elephant hunting hunter gatherers who live in southern Kenya. It is believed that at one time they spoke a language like Sandawe or Hadza, but they switched over to Cushitic at some point. The clicks are thought to be substratum from a time when Dahalo was a Sandawe-Hadza type language.
Dahalo gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Somali has one of the strangest proposition systems on Earth. It actually has no real prepositions at all. Instead it has preverbal particles and possessives that serve as prepositions.
Here is how possessives serve as prepositions:
the night her front
the heat his reason
because of the heat
Here we have the use of a preverbal particle serving as a preposition:
kú ríd shandádda
Into put the suitcase.
Put it into the suitcase.
Somali combines four “prepositions” with four deictic particles to form its prepositions.
There are four basic “prepositions”:
These combine with a four different deictic particles:
toward the speaker
away from the speaker
toward each other
away from each other
Hence you put the “prepositions” and the deictic particles together in various ways. Both tend to go in front of and close to the verb:
Nínkíi bàan cèelka xádhig kagá sóo saaray.
…well-the rope with-from towards-me I-raised.
I pulled the man out of the well with a rope.
Way inoogá warrámi jireen.
They us-to-about news gave.
They used to give us news about it.
Prepositions are the hardest part of the Somali language for the learner.
Somali deals with verbs of motion via deixis in a similar way that Georgian does. One reference point is the speaker and the other is any other entities discussed. Verbs of motion are formed using adverbs. Entities may move:
towards each other wada
away from each other kala
towards the speaker so
away from the speaker si
kala durka separate
si gal go in (away from the speaker)
so gal come in (toward the speaker)
Somali lacks orthographic consistency. There are four different orthographic systems in use – the Wadaad Arabic script, the Osmanya Ethiopic script, the Borama script and the Latin Somali alphabet, the current system.
All of the difficult sounds of Arabic are also present in Somali, another Semitic language – the alef, the ha, the qaf and the kha. There are long and short vowels. There is a retroflex d, the same sound found in South Indian languages. Somali also has 2 tones – high and low. For some reason, Somali tends to make it onto craziest phonologies lists.
Somali pluralization makes no sense and must be memorized. There are seven different plurals, and there is no clue in the singular that tells you what form to use in the plural. See here:
áf (language) -> afaf
hoóyo (mother) -> hoyoóyin
áabbe -> aabayaal
Note the tone shifts in all three of the plurals above.
There are four cases, absolutive, nominative, genitive and vocative. Despite the presences of absolutive and nominative cases, Somali is not an ergative language. Absolutive case is the basic case of the noun, and nominative is the case given to the noun when a verb follows in the sentence. There are different articles depending on whether the noun was mentioned previously or not (similar to the articles a and the in English). The absolutive and nominative are marked not only on the noun but also on the article that precedes it.
In terms of difficulty, Somali is much harder than Persian and probably about as difficult as Arabic.
Somali gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Malayalam, a Dravidian language of India, was has been cited as the hardest language to learn by an language foundation, but the citation is obscure and hard to verify.
Malayalam words are often even hard to look up in a Malayalam dictionary.
For instance, adiyAnkaLAkkikkoNDirikkukayumANello is a word in Malayalam. It means something like I, your servant, am sitting and mixing s.t. (which is why I cannot do what you are asking of me). The part in parentheses is an example of the type of sentence where it might be used.
The above word is composed of many different morphemes, including conjunctions and other affixes, with sandhi going on with some of them so they are eroded away from their basic forms. There doesn’t seem to be any way to look that word up or to write a Malayalam dictionary that lists all the possible forms, including forms like the word above. It would probably be way too huge of a book. However, all agglutinative languages are made up of affixes, and if you know the affixes, it is not particularly hard to parse the word apart.
Malayalam is said to be very hard to pronounce correctly.
Further, few foreigners even try to learn Malayalam, so Malayalam speakers, like the French, might not listen to you and might make fun of you if your Malayalam is not native sounding.
However, Malayalam has the advantage of having many pedagogic materials available for language learning such as audio-visual material and subtitled videos.
Malayalam is rated 5, extremely difficult.
Tamil, a Dravidian language is hard, but probably not as difficult as Malayalam is. Tamil has an incredible 247 characters in its alphabet. Nevertheless, most of those are consonant-vowel combinations, so it is almost more of a syllabary than an alphabet. Going by what would traditionally be considered alphabetic symbols, there are probably only 72 real symbols in the alphabet. Nevertheless, Tamil probably has one of the easier Indic scripts as Tamil has fewer characters than other scripts due to its lack of aspiration. Compare to Devanagari’s over 1,000 characters.
But no Indic script is easy. A problem with Tamil is that all of the characters seem to look alike. It is even worse than Devanagari in that regard. However, the more rounded scripts such as Kannada, Sinhala, Telegu and Malayalam have that problem to a worse degree. Tamil has a few sharp corners in the characters that helps to disambiguate them.
In addition, as with other languages, words are written one way and pronounced another. However, there are claims that the difficulty of Tamil’s diglossia is overrated.
Tamil has two different registers for written and spoken speech, but the differences are not large, so this problem is exaggerated. Both Tamil and Malayalam are spoken very fast and have extremely complicated, nearly impenetrable scripts. If Westerners try to speak a Dravidian language in south India, more often than not the Dravidian speaker will simply address them in English rather than try to accommodate them.
Tamil has the odd evidential mood, similar to Bulgarian.
However, on the plus side, the language does seem to be very logical and regular, almost like German in that regard. In addition, there are a lot of language learning materials for Tamil.
Tamil is rated 4, very difficult.
Most agree that Korean is a hard language to learn.
The alphabet, Hangul at least is reasonable; in fact, it is quite elegant. But there are four different Romanizations- Lukoff, Yale, Horne, and McCune-Reischauer – which is preposterous. It’s best to just blow off the Romanizations and dive straight into Hangul. This way you can learn a Romanization later, and you won’t mess up your Hangul with spelling errors, as can occur if you go from Romanization to Hangul.
Hangul can be learned very quickly, but learning to read Korean books and newspapers fast is another matter altogether because you really need to know the hanja or Chinese character that are used in addition to the Hangul. After World War 2, the Koreas decided to officially get rid of their Chinese characters, but in practice this was not successful. With the use of Chinese characters in Korean, you can be a lot more precise in terms what you are trying to communicate.
Bizarrely, there are two different numeral sets used, but one is derived from Chinese so it should be familiar to Chinese, Japanese or Thai speakers who use similar or identical systems.
Korean has a wealth of homonyms, and this is one of the tricky aspects of the language. Any given combination of a couple of characters can have multiple meanings. Japanese has a similar problem with homonyms, but at least with Japanese you have the benefit of kanji to help you tell the homonyms apart. With Korean Hangul, you get no such advantage.
Similarly, there seem to be many ways to say the same thing in Korean. The learner will feel when people are using all of these different ways of saying the same thing that they are actually saying something different each time, but that is not the case.
One problem is that the b, p, j, ch, t and d are pronounced differently than their English counterparts. The consonants, the pachim system and the morphing consonants at the end of the word that slide into the next word make Korean harder to pronounce than any major European language. Korean has a similar problem with Japanese, that is, if you mess up one vowel in sentence, you render it incomprehensible.
The vocabulary is very difficult for an English speaker who does not have knowledge of either Japanese or Chinese. On the other hand, Japanese or Chinese will help you a lot with Korean.
Korean is agglutinative and has a subject-topic discourse structure, and the logic of these systems is difficult for English speakers to understand. In addition, there are hundreds of ways of conjugating any given verb based on tense, mood, age or seniority. Adjectives also decline and take hundreds of different suffixes.
Meanwhile, Korean has an honorific system that is even wackier than that of Japanese. A single sentence can be said in three different ways depending on the relationship between the speaker and the listener. However, the younger generation is not using the honorifics so much, and a foreigner isn’t expected to know the honorific system anyway.
Maybe 60% of the words are based on Chinese words, but unfortunately, much of this Chinese-based vocabulary intersects with Japanese versions of Chinese words in a confusing way.
Speakers of Korean can learn Japanese fairly easily. Korean seems to be a more difficult language to learn than Japanese. There are maybe twice as many particles as in Japanese, the grammar is dramatically more difficult and the verbs are quite a bit harder. The phonemic inventory in Korean is also larger and includes such oddities as double consonants.
Korean is rated by language professors as being one of the hardest languages to learn.
Korean is rated 5, extremely hard.
Japanese also uses a symbolic alphabet, but the symbols themselves are sometime undecipherable in that even Japanese speakers will sometimes encounter written Japanese and will say that they don’t know how to pronounce it. I don’t mean that they mispronounce it; that would make sense. I mean they don’t have the slightest clue how to say the word! This problem is essentially nonexistent in a language like English.
The Japanese orthography is one of the most difficult to use of any orthography.
There are over 2,000 frequently used characters in three different symbolic alphabets that are frequently mixed together in confusing ways. Due to the large number of frequently used symbols, it’s said that even Japanese adults learn a new symbol a day a ways into adulthood.
The Japanese writing system is probably crazier than the Chinese writing system and it often makes it onto lists of worst orthographies. The very idea of writing an agglutinative language in a combination of two syllabaries and an ideography seems wacky right off the bat. Japanese borrowed Chinese characters. But then they gave each character several pronunciations, and in some cases as many as 24. Next they made two syllabaries using another set of characters, then over the next millennia came up with all sorts of contradictory and often senseless rules about when to use the syllabaries and when to use the character set. Later on they added a Romanization to make things even worse.
Chinese uses 5-6,000 characters regularly, while Japanese only uses around 2,000. But in Chinese, each character has only one or maybe two pronunciations. In Japanese, there are complicated rules about when and how to combine the hiragana with the characters. These rules are so hard that many native speakers still have problems with them. There are also personal and place names (proper nouns) which are given completely arbitrary pronunciations often totally at odds with the usual pronunciation of the character.
There are some writers, typically of literature, who deliberately choose to use kanji that even Japanese people cannot read. For instance, Ryuu Murakami uses the odd symbols 擽る、, 轢く、and 憑ける.
The Japanese system is made up of three different systems: the katakana and hiragana (the kana) and the kanji, similar to the hanzi used in Chinese. Chinese has at least 85,000 hanzi. The number of kanji is much less than that, but kanji often have more than one meaning in contrast to hanzi.
After WW2, Japan decided to simplify its language. They both simplified and reduced the number of Chinese characters used, and they unified the written and spoken language, which previously had been different.
Speaking Japanese is not as difficult as everyone says, and many say it’s fairly easy. However, there is a problem similar to English in that one word can be pronounced in multiple ways, like read and read in English.
A common problem is that a perfectly grammatically correct sentence uttered by a Japanese language learner, while perfectly correct, is still not acceptable by Japanese speakers because “we just don’t say it that way.” The Japanese speaker often cannot tell why the unacceptable sentence you uttered is not ok. On the other hand, this problem may be common to more languages than Japanese.
There is also a class of Japanese called “honorifics” or “keigo” that is quite hard to master. Honorifics are meant to show respect and to indicate one’s place or status in the social hierarchy. These typically effect verbs but can also affect particles and prefixes. They are usually formed by archaic or highly irregular verbs. However, there are both regular and irregular honorific forms. Furthermore, there are five different levels of honorifics. Honorifics vary depending on who you are and who you are talking to. In addition, gender comes into play.
Although it is true the Japanese young people are said to not understand the intricacies of keigo, it is still expected that they know how to speak this well. Consequently, many young Japanese will opt out of certain conversations because they feel that their keigo is not very good. Books explaining how to use keigo properly have been big sellers among young people in Japan in recent years as young people try to appear classy, refined or cultured.
In addition, Japanese born overseas (especially in the US), while often learning Japanese pretty well, typically have a very poor understanding of keigo. Instead of embarrassing themselves by not using keigo or using it wrong, these Japanese speakers often prefer to speak in English to Japanese people rather than bother with keigo-less Japanese. Overcorrection in keigo is also a problem when hypercorrection leads to someone making errors in keigo due to “trying to hard.” This looks like phony or insincere politeness and is often worse than not using keigo at all.
One wild thing about Japanese is counting forms. You actually use different numeral sets depending on what it is you are counting! There are dozens of different ways of counting things which involve the use of a complex numerical noun classifier system.
Japanese grammar is often said to be simple, but that does not appear to be the case on closer examination. Particles are especially vexing. Verbs engage in all sorts of wild behavior, and adverbs often act like verbs. Nouns can act like adjectives and adverbs. Meanwhile, honorifics change the behavior of all words. There are particles like ha and ga that have many different meanings. One problem is that all noun modifiers, even phrases, must precede the nouns they are modifying.
It’s often said that Japanese has no case, but this is not true. Actually, there are seven cases in Japanese. The aforementioned ga is a clitic meaning nominative, made is terminative case, -no is genitive and -o is accusative.
In this sentence:
The plane that was supposed to arrive at midnight, but which had been delayed by bad weather, finally arrived at 1 AM.
Everything underlined must precede the noun plane:
Was supposed to arrive at midnight, but had been delayed by bad weather, the plane finally arrived at 1 AM.
One of the main problems with Japanese grammar is that it is going to seem to so different from the sort of grammar and English speaker is likely to be used to.
Speaking Japanese is one thing, but reading and writing it is a whole new ballgame. It’s perfectly possible to know the meaning of every kanji and the meaning of every word in a sentence, but you still can’t figure out the meaning of the sentence because you can’t figure out how the sentence is stuck together in such a way as to create meaning.
The real problem is that the Japanese you learn in class is one thing, and the Japanese of the street is another. One problem is that in street Japanese, the subject is typically not stated in a sentence. Instead it is inferred through such things as honorific terms or the choice of words you used in the sentence. Probably no one goes crazier on negatives than the Japanese. Particularly in academic writing, triple and quadruple negatives are common, and can be quite confusing.
Yet there are problems with the agglutinative nature of Japanese. It’s a completely different syntactic structure than English. Often if you translate a sentence from Japanese to English it will just look like a meaningless jumble of words.
However, Japanese grammar has the advantage of being quite regular. For instance, there are only four frequently used irregular verbs.
Like Chinese, the nouns are not marked for number or gender. However, while Chinese is forgiving of errors, if you mess up one vowel in a Japanese sentence, you may end up with incomprehension.
Although many Japanese learners feel it’s fairly easy to learn, surveys of language professors continue to rate Japanese as one of the hardest languages to learn. A study by the US Navy concluded that the hardest language the corpsmen had to learn in the course of service was Japanese. However, it’s generally agreed that Japanese is easier to learn than Korean. Japanese speakers are able to learn Korean pretty easily.
Japanese is rated 5, extremely hard.
Classical Japanese is much harder to read than Modern Japanese. Though you can get by with much less kanji when reading the modern language, you will need a minimum knowledge of 3,000 kanji for reading Classical Japanese, and that’s using a dictionary. There are only about 500-1,000 frequently used characters, but there are countless other words that will come up in your reading especially say special words used in the Imperial Court. Many words have more than one meaning, and unless you know this, you will be lost. 東宮(とうぐう) for instance means Eastern Palace. However, it also means Crown Prince because his residence was to the east of the Emperor’s.
The movie The Seven Samurai (set in the late 1500’s) seems to use some sort of Classical Japanese, or at least Classical vocabulary and syntax with modern pronunciation. Japanese language learners say they can’t understand a word of the archaic Japanese used in this movie.
Classical Japanese gets 5.5, nearly hardest of all.
Turkish is often considered to be hard to learn, and it’s rated one of the hardest in surveys of language teachers, however, it’s probably easier than its reputation made it out to be. It is agglutinative, so you can have one long word where in English you might have a sentence of shorter words. One word is
Were you one of those people whom we could not turn into a Czechoslovakian?
Many words have more than one meaning. However, the agglutination is very regular in that each particle of meaning has its own morpheme and falls into an exact place in the word. See here:
göz-lük-çü-lük the business of an optician
Nevertheless, agglutination means that you can always create new words or add new parts to words, and for this reason even a lot of Turkish adults have problems with their language.
There is no verb to be, which is hard for many foreigners. Instead, the concept is wrapped onto the subject of the sentence as a -dim or -im suffix. Turkish is an imagery-heavy language, and if you try to translate straight from a dictionary, it often won’t make sense.
However, the suffixation in Turkish, along with the vowel harmony, are both precise. Nevertheless, many words have irregular vowel harmony. The rules for making plurals are very regular, with no exceptions (the only exceptions are in foreign loans). In Turkish, incredible as it sounds, you can make a plural out of anything, even a word like what, who or blood. However, there is some irregularity in the strengthening of adjectives, and the forms are not predictable and must be memorized.
Turkish is a language of precision in other ways. For instance, there are eight different forms of subjunctive mood that describe various degrees of uncertainty that one has about what one is talking about. This relates to the evidentiality discussed under Tuyuca above, and Turkish has an evidential form similar to Tamil and Bulgarian. On Turkish news, verbs are generally marked with miş, which means that the announcer believes it to be true though he has not seen it firsthand. The particle miş is interesting because this evidential form is coded into the tense system, which is an unusual use of evidentiality.
The Roman alphabet and almost mathematically precise grammar really help out. Turkish lacks gender and has but a single irregular verb – olmak. Nevertheless, there are many verbal forms. However, this is controversial and it depends on how you define grammatical irregularity. There is some strangeness in some of the verb paradigms, but it is argued that these oddities are rule-based. The aorist tense is said to have irregularity.
There is some irregular morphophonology, but not much. The oblique relative clauses have complex morphosyntax. Turkish has two completely different ways of making relative clauses, one of which may have been borrowed from Persian. There are many gerunds for verbs, and these have many different uses. At the end of the day, Turkish grammar is not as regular or as simple as it is made out to be.
Words are pronounced nearly the same as they are written. A suggestion that Turkish may be easier to learn that many think is the research that shows that Turkish children learn attain basic grammatical mastery of Turkish at age 2-3, as compared to 4-5 for German and 12 for Arabic. The research was conducted in Germany in 2005.
In addition, Turkish has a phonetic orthography.
However, Turkish is hard for an English speaker to learn for a variety of reasons. It is agglutinative like Japanese, and all agglutinative languages are difficult for English speakers to learn. As in Japanese, you start your Turkish sentence the way you would end your English sentence. As in the Japanese example above, the subordinate clause must precede the subject, whereas in English, the subordinate clause must follow the subject. The italicized phrase below is a subordinate clause.
In English, we say, “I hope that he will be on time.”
In Turkish, the sentence would read, “That he will be on time I hope.”
Turkish vowels are unusual to speakers of IE languages, and Turkish learners say the vowels are hard to make or even tell apart from one another.
Turkish is rated 3.5, harder than average to learn.
One test of the difficulty of any language is how much of the grammar you must know in order to express yourself on a basic level. On this basis, Finno-Ugric languages are complicated because you need to know quite a bit more grammar to communicate on a basic level in them than in say, German.
Finnish is very hard to learn, and even long-time learners often still have problems with it. Famous polyglot Barry Farber said it was one of the hardest languages he learned. You have to know exactly which grammatical forms to use where in a sentence. In addition, Finnish has 15 cases in the singular and 16 in the plural. This is hard to learn for speakers coming from a language with little or no case.
talo – the house
taloasome of the house
taloksiinto as the house
talossain the house
talostafrom inside the house
talooninto the house
talollaon to the house
taloltafrom beside the house
talolleto the house
taloistafrom the houses
taloissa in the houses
It gets much worse than that. This web page shows that the noun kauppa – shop can have 2,253 forms.
A simple adjective + noun type of noun phrase of two words can be conjugated in up to 100 different ways.
Adjectives and nouns belong to 20 different classes. The rules governing their case declension depend on what class the substantive is in.
As with Hungarian, words can be very long. For instance:
non-commissioned officer cadet learning to be an assistant mechanic for airplane jet engines
Like Turkish, Finnish agglutination is very regular. Each bit of information has its own morpheme and has an exact place in the word.
Like Turkish, Finnish has vowel harmony, but the vowel harmony is very regular like that of Turkish. Unlike Turkish or Hungarian, consonant gradation forms a major part of Finnish morphology. In order to form a sentence in Finnish, you will need to learn about verb types, cases and consonant gradation, and it can take a while to get your mind around those things.
Finnish, oddly enough, always puts the stress on the first syllable. Finnish vowels will be hard to pronounce for most foreigners.
However, Finnish has the advantage of being pronounced precisely as it is written. This is also part of the problem though, because if you don’t say it just right, the meaning changes. So, similarly with Polish, when you mangle their language, you will only achieve incomprehension. Whereas with say English, if a foreigner mangles the language, you can often winnow some sense out of it.
However, despite that fact that written Finnish can be easily pronounced, when learning Finnish, as in Korean, it is as if you must learn two different languages – the written language and the spoken language. A better way to put it is that there is “one language for writing and another for speaking.” You use different forms whether conversing or putting something on paper.
Some pronunciation is difficult. The the contrast between short and long vowels and consonants is particularly troublesome. Check out these minimal pairs:
A problem for the English speaker coming to Finnish would be the vocabulary, which is alien to the speaker of an IE language. Finnish language learners often find themselves looking up over half the words they encounter. Obviously, this slows down reading quite a bit!
In the grammar, the partitive case and potential tense can be difficult. Here is an example of how Finnish verb tenses combine with various cases to form words:
Base form mennä
Active inessive mennessä
Active instructive mennen
Passive inessive mentäessä
Active instructive menemän
Passive instructive mentämän
Verbs in Finnish
Finnish verbs are very regular. The irregular verbs can almost be counted on one hand:
and a few others. In fact, on the plus side, Finnish in general is very regular.
One easy aspect of Finnish is the way you can build many forms from a base root:
kirja – book
kirje – letter
kirjoittaa – to write
kirjailija – writer
As in many Asian languages, there are no masculine or feminine pronouns, and there is no grammatical gender. The numeral system is quite simple compared to other languages. Finnish has a complete lack of consonant clusters. In addition, the phonology is fairly simple.
Finnish is rated 5, extremely hard to learn.
Estonian has similar difficulties as Finnish, since they are closely related. However, Estonian is more irregular than Finnish. In particular, the very regular agglutination system described in Finnish seems to have gone awry in Estonian. Estonian has 14 cases, including strange cases such as the abessive, adessive, elative and inessive. On the other hand, all of these cases can simply be analyzed as the genitive case plus a single unvarying suffix for each case. In addition, there is no gender, so the only things you have to worry about when forming cases are singular and plural.
Estonian has a strange mood form called the quotative, often translated as “reported speech.”
tema on – he/she/it is
tema olevat – it’s rumored that he/she/it is or he/she/it is said to be
This mood is often used in newspaper reporting and is also used for gossip.
Estonian has an astounding 25 diphthongs. It also has three different varieties of vowel length, which is strange in the world’s languages. There are short, vowels and extra-long vowels and consonants.
lina – linen – short n
linna – the town’s – long n, written as nn
`linna – into the town – extra-long n, not written out!
There are differences in the pronunciation of the three forms above, but in rapid speech, they are hard to hear, though native speakers can make them out. Difficulties are further compounded in that extra-long sonorants (m, n, ng, l, and r) and vowels and are not written out. All in all, phonemic length can be a problem in Estonian, and foreigners never seem to get it completely down.
Estonian pronunciation is not very difficult, though the õ sound can cause problems. However, Estonian has completely lost the vowel harmony system it inherited from Finnish, resulting in words that seem very hard to pronounce.
At least in written form, Estonian is not as complex as Finnish. Estonian can be seen as an abbreviated and modernized form of Finnish. The grammar is also like a simplified version of Finnish grammar and may be much easier to learn.
Estonian is rated 4.5, very to extremely difficult.
Skolt Sami‘s Latinization is often listed as one of the worst Latinizations around. The rest of the language is quite similar to, and as difficult as, Finnish.
Skolt Sami gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
It’s widely agreed that Hungarian is one of the hardest languages on Earth to learn. Even language professors agree. The British Diplomatic Corps did a study of the languages that its diplomats commonly had to learn and concluded that Hungarian was the hardest. Hungarian grammar is maddeningly complex, and Hungarian is often listed on craziest grammar lists. For one thing, there are many different forms for a single word via word modification. This enables the speaker to make his intended meaning very precise. Looking at nouns, there are about 257 different forms per noun.
Hungarian is said to have from 24-35 different cases (there are charts available showing 31 cases), but the actual number may only be 18. Nearly everything in Hungarian is inflected, similar to Lithuanian or Czech. Similar to Georgian and Basque, Hungarian has the polypersonal agreement, albeit to a lesser degree than those two languages. There are many irregularities in inflections, and even Hungarians have to learn how to spell all of these in school and have a hard time learning this.
The case distinctions alone can create many different words out of one base form. For the word house, we end up with 31 different words using case forms:
házba – into the house
házban – in the house
házból – from [within] the house
házra – onto the house
házon – on the house
házról – off [from] the house
házhoz – to the house
házíg – until/up to the house
háznál – at the house
háztól – [away] from the house
házzá – Translative case, where the house is the end product of a transformation, such as They turned the cave into a house.
házként – as the house, which could be used if you acted in your capacity as a house or disguised yourself as one. He dressed up as a house for Halloween.
házért – for the house, specifically things done on its behalf or done to get the house. They spent a lot of time fixing things up (for the house).
házul – Essive-modal case. Something like “house-ly” or in the way/manner of a house. The tent served as a house (in a house-ly fashion).
And we do have some basic cases:
ház – Nominative. The house is down the street.
házat – Accusative. The ball hit the house.
háznak – Dative. The man gave the house to Mary.
házzal – Similar to instrumental, but more similar to English with. Refers to both instruments and companions.
The genitive takes 12 different declensions, depending on person and number:
házam – my house
házaim – my houses
házad – your house
házaid – your houses
háza – his/her/its house
házai – his/her/its houses
házunk – our house
házaink – our houses
házatok – your house
házaitok – your house
házuk – their house
házaik – their houses
egyház – church, as in the Catholic Church. (Literally one-house)
In addition, the genitive suffixes to the possession, which is not how the genitive works in IE.
ház – house
a(z) – the
az ember háza – the man’s house (Lit. the man house-his)
a házam – my house (Lit. the house-my)
a házad – your house (Lit. the house-your)
There are also very long words such as this:
for your (you all possessive) repeated pretensions at being impossible to desecrate…
Being an agglutinative language, that word is made up of many small parts of words, or morphemes. That word means something like
The preposition is stuck onto the word in this language, and this will seem strange to speakers of languages with free prepositions.
Hungarian is full of synonyms, similar to English.
For instance, there are 78 different words that mean to move: halad, jár, megy, dülöngél, lépdel, botorkál, kódorog, sétál , andalog, rohan, csörtet, üget, lohol, fut, átvág, vágtat, tipeg, libeg, biceg, poroszkál, vágtázik, somfordál , bóklászik, szedi a lábát, kitér, elszökken, betér , botladozik, őgyeleg, slattyog, bandukol, lófrál, szalad, vánszorog, kószál, kullog, baktat, koslat, kaptat, császkál, totyog, suhan, robog, rohan, kocog, cselleng, csatangol, beslisszol, elinal, elillan, bitangol, lopakodik, sompolyog, lapul, elkotródik, settenkedik, sündörög, eltérül, elódalog, kóborol, lézeng, ődöng, csavarog, lődörög, elvándorol , tekereg, kóvályog, ténfereg, özönlik, tódul, vonul, hömpölyög, ömlik, surran, oson, lépeget, mozog and mozgolódik .
Only about five of those terms are archaic and seldom used, the rest are in current use. However, to be a fair, a Hungarian native speaker might only recognize half of those words.
In addition, while most languages have names for countries that are pretty easy to figure out, in Hungarian even languages of nations are hard because they have changed the names so much. Italy becomes Olazorszag, Germany becomes Nemetzorsag, etc.
As in Russian and Serbo-Croatian, word order is relatively free in Hungarian. It is not completely free as some say but rather is it governed by a set of rules. The problem is that as you reorder the word order in a sentence, you say the same thing but the meaning changes slightly in terms of nuance. Further, there are quite a few dialects in Hungarian. Native speakers can pretty much understand them, but foreigners often have a lot of problems. Accent is very difficult in Hungarian due to the bewildering number of rules used to determine accent. In addition, there are exceptions to all of these rules. Nevertheless, Hungarian is probably more regular than Polish.
Hungarian spelling is also very strange for non-Hungarians, but at least the orthography is phonetic. Nevertheless, the orthography often makes it onto worst orthographies lists.
Hungarian phonetics is also strange. One of the problems with Hungarian phonetics is vowel harmony. Since you stick morphemes together to make a word, the vowels that you have used in the first part of the word will influence the vowels that you will use to make up the morphemes that occur later in the word. The vowel harmony gives Hungarian a “singing effect” when it is spoken. The ty, ny, sz, zs, dzs, dz, ly, cs and gy sounds are hard for many foreigners to make. The á, é, ó, ö, ő, ú, ü, ű, and í vowel sounds are not found in English.
Verbs are marked for object (indefinite, definite and person/number), subject (person and number) tense (past, present and future), mood (indicative, conditional and imperative), and aspect (frequency, potentiality, factitiveness, and reflexiveness.
I could make others save you occasionally (on a disk).
Verbs change depending on whether the object is definite or indefinite.
I read a book. (indefinite object)
Olvasom a könvyet.
I read the book. (definite object)
As noted in the introduction to the Finno-Ugric section, you need to know quite a bit of Hungarian grammar to be able to express yourself on a basic level. For instance, in order to say:
I like your sister.
you will need to understand the following Hungarian forms:
- verb conjugation and definite or indefinite forms
- possessive suffixes
- how to combine possessive suffixes with case
- word order
- explicit pronouns
It’s hard to say, but Hungarian is probably harder to learn than even the hardest Slavic languages like Czech, Serbo-Croatian and Polish. At any rate, it is generally agreed that Hungarian grammar is more complicated than Slavic grammar, which is pretty impressive as Slavic grammar is quite a beast.
Hungarian is rated 5, extremely hard to learn.
It’s fairly easy to learn to speak Mandarin at a basic level, though the tones can be tough. This is because the grammar is very simple – short words, no case, gender, verb inflections or tense. But with Japanese, you can keep learning, and with Chinese, you often tend to hit a wall, often because the syntactic structure is so strangely different from English (isolating).
Actually, the grammar is harder than it seems. At first it seems simple, like a simplified English. No word is capable of declension, and there is no tense, case, and number, nor are there articles. But the simplicity makes it difficult. No tense means there is no easy way to mark time in a sentence. Furthermore, tense is not as easy as it seems. Sure, there are no verb conjugations, but instead you must learn some particles and special word orders that are used to mark tense. Mandarin has 12 different adverbs for which there is no good English translation.
Once you start digging into Chinese, there is a complex layer under all the surface simplicity. There is such things as aspect, serial verbs, a complex classifier system, syntax marked by something called topic-prominence, a strange form called the detrimental passive, preposed relative clauses, use of verbs rather than adverbs to mark direction, and all sorts of strange stuff. Verb complements can be baffling, especially potential and directional complements. The 把, 是 and 的 constructions can be very hard to understand.
The topic-prominence is interesting in that only a few major languages have topic-comment syntax, and most of those are Oriental languages with a lot of Chinese borrowing. Topicalization is not marked morphologically.
There are sentences where the entire meaning changes with the addition of a single character. Chinese sentences are SVO (Subject -Verb – Object) at their base, but that is a bit of an illusion. A sentence that causes you to discuss time duration makes you repeat the verb after the direct object – SVOVT (T= time phrase). In the case of topicalization, sentences can have the structure of OSV (Object – Subject – Verb). Relative clauses and all subordinate clauses come before the noun they modify. In other words:
English: The man who always wore red walked into the room.
Chinese: Who always wore red the man walked into the room.
The relative clause in the sentences above is marked in bold.
In Chinese, the prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb:
English: The man hit the ball into the yard.
Chinese: The man into the yard hit the ball.
The prepositional phrase is bolded in the sentences above.
In Chinese, adjectives are actually stative verbs as in Nahuatl and Lakota.
Nàgè rède cài hěnhǎochī.
The it is hot food is good to eat.
The hot food is delicious.
The 的 symbol turns food hot into food it is hot, an attributive verb. 的 means something like to be.
There are dozens of words called particles which shade the meaning of a sentence ever so slightly.
Chinese phonology is not as easy as some say. There are way too many instances of the zh, ch, sh, j, q, and x sounds in the language such that many of the words seem to sound the same. There is a distinction between aspirated and nonaspirated consonants. There is also the presence of odd retroflex consonants.
Chinese orthography is probably the most hardest orthography of any language. The alphabet uses symbols, so it’s not even a real alphabet. There are at least 85,000 symbols and actually many more, but you only need to know about 3-5,000 of them, and many Chinese don’t even know 1,000. To be highly proficient in Chinese, you need to know 10,000 characters, and probably less than 5% of Chinese know that many.
In addition, the characters have not been changed in 3,000 years, and the alphabet is at least somewhat phonetic, so we run into a serious problem of lack of a spelling reform.
The Communists tried to simplify the system (simplified Mandarin) but instead of making the connections between the phonetic aspects of character more sensible by decreasing their number and increasing their regularity (they did do this somewhat but not enough), they simply decreased the number of strokes needed for each symbol typically without dealing with the phonetic aspect of all. The simplification did not work well, so now you have a mixture of two different types of written Chinese – simplified and traditional.
In addition to all of this, Chinese borrowed a lot from the Japanese symbolic alphabet a full 1,000 years after it had already been developed and had not undergone a spelling reform, adding insult to injury.
Even leaving the characters aside, the stylistic and literary constraints required to write Chinese in an eloquent or formal (literary) manner would make your head swim. And just because you can read Chinese does not mean that you can read Classical Chinese prose. It’s as if it’s written in a different language – actually, it is technically a different language similar to Middle English or Old English. However, few Middle English or Old English texts are read anymore, and Classical Chinese is still widely read.
However, the orthography is at least consistent. 90% of characters have only one reading. Once you learn the character, you generally know the meaning in any context.
Writing the characters is even harder than reading them. One wrong dot or wrong line either completely changes the meaning or turns the symbol into nonsense.
It’s a real problem when you encounter a symbol you don’t know because there is no way to sound out the word. You are really and truly lost and screwed. There is a clue at the right side of the symbol, but it is not always accurate.You need to learn quite a bit of vocabulary just to speak simple sentences.
Similarly, a dictionary is not necessarily helpful when trying to read Chinese. You can have a Chinese sentence in front of you along with a dictionary, and the sentence still might not make sense even after looking it up in the dictionary.
Some Chinese Muslims write Chinese using an Arabic script. This is often considered to be one of the worst orthographies of all.
The tones are often quite difficult for a Westerner to pick up. If you mess up the tones, you have said a completely different word. Often foreigners who know their tones well nevertheless do not say them correctly, and hence, they say one word when they mean another. However, compared to other tone systems around the world, the tonal system in Chinese is comparatively easy.
A major problem with Chinese is homonyms. To some extent, this is true in many tonal languages. Since Chinese uses short words and is disyllabic, there is a limited repertoire of sounds that can be used. At a certain point, all of the sounds are used up, and you are into the realm of homophones.
Tonal distinctions are one way that monosyllabic and disyllabic languages attempt to deal with the homophone problem, but it’s not good enough, since Chinese still has many homophones, and meaning is often discerned by context, stress, rhythm and intonation. Chinese, like French and English, is heavily idiomatic.
It’s little known, but Chinese also uses different forms (classifiers) to count different things, like Japanese.
There is zero common vocabulary between English and Chinese, so you need to learn a whole new set of lexical forms.
In addition, nouns often show relatedness or hierarchy. For instance, in English, you can simply say my brother or my sister, but in Chinese, you cannot do this. You have to indicate whether you are speaking of an older or younger sibling.
mei mei – younger sister
jie jie – older sister
ge ge– older brother
di di – younger brother
Mandarin scored very high on a weirdest languages study.
On the positive side, Chinese grammar is fairly regular and word derivation, compound words are sensible and the meaning can be determined by looking at the word. In other languages, compound words are not necessarily so obvious.
Many agree that Chinese is the hardest to learn of all of the major languages. A recent survey of language professors rated Chinese as the hardest language on Earth to learn.
Mandarin gets a 5.5 rating for nearly hardest of all.
However, Cantonese is even harder to learn than Mandarin. Cantonese has eight tones to Mandarin’s four, and in addition, they continue to use a lot of the older traditional Chinese characters that were superseded when China moved to a simplified script in 1949. Furthermore, since non-Mandarin characters are not standardized, Cantonese cannot be written down as it is spoken.
In addition, Cantonese has verbal aspect, possibly up to 20 different varieties. Modal particles are difficult in Cantonese. Clusters of up to the 3 sentence final particles are very common. 我食咗飯 and 我食咗飯架啦喎 are both grammatical for I have had a meal, but the particles add the meaning of I have already had a meal, answering a question or even to imply I have had a meal, so I don’t need to eat anymore.
Cantonese gets a 5.5 rating, nearly hardest of all.
Min Nan is also said to be harder to learn than Mandarin, as it has a more complex tone system, with five tones on three different levels. Even many Taiwanese natives don’t seem to get it right these days, as it is falling out of favor, and many fewer children are being raised speaking it than before.
Min Nan gets a 5.5 rating, nearly hardest of all.
A recent 15 year survey out of Fudan University utilizing both the departments of Linguistics and Anthropology looked at 579 different languages in 91 linguistic families in order to try to find the most complicated language in the world. The result was that a Wu language dialect (or perhaps a separate language) in the Fengxian district of southern Shanghai (Dônđän Wu) was the most phonologically complex language of all, with 20 separate vowels (Wang 2012). The nearest competitor was Norwegian with 16 vowels.
Dônđän Wu gets a 5.5 rating, nearly hardest of all.
Classical Chinese is still read by many Chinese people and Chinese language learners. Unless you have a very good grasp on modern Chinese, classical Chinese will be completely wasted on you. Classical Chinese is much harder to read than reading modern Chinese.
Classical Chinese covers an era extending over 3,000 years, and to attain a reading fluency in this language, you need to be familiar with all of the characters used during this period along with all of the literature of the period so you can understand all the allusions. Even with a knowledge of Classical Chinese, you need to read it in context. If you are good at Classical Chinese and someone throws you a random section of it, it will take you a good amount of time to figure it out unless you know context.
The language is much more to the point than Modern Chinese, but this is not as good as it sounds. This simplicity leaves a room for ambiguity, and context plays an important role. A joke about some obscure historical or literary anecdote will be lost you unless you know what it refers to. For reading modern Chinese, you will need at least 5,000 characters, but even then, you will still need a dictionary. With Classical Chinese, there are no lower limits on the number of characters you need to know. The sky is the limit.
Classical Chinese gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
In Quiang, a language of Sichuan Province in China, not only are there rhotic vowels, which are present in only 1% of the world’s languages, but there is also rhoticity harmony, where a non-rhotic vowel in a morpheme becomes rhotic when it is followed by a morpheme with a rhotic vowel.
ʀuɑ + kʰe˞ > ʀuɑ˞kʰe˞
me + we˞ ˞> me˞we˞
Rhotic vowels are found in US English – Unstressed ɚ: standard, dinner, Lincolnshire, editor, measure, martyr.
Qiang also has a very bad romanization, so bad that the Qiang will not even use it. Voiced consonants are written by adding a vowel to the symbol for the voiceless consonant. It has long and short vowels, but these are not represented in the system.
Qiang gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Tibetan probably has one of the least rational orthographies of any language. The orthography has not changed in ~1,000 years while the language has gone through all sorts of changes. A langauge learner in Tibet can get by using phonetic spelling. The problem comes when you try to spell using the Classical Alphabet. For instance:
Srong rtsan Sgam po (written)
soŋtsɛn ɡampo (spoken)
While the orthography is etymological and completely outdated, it is quite predictable.
Tibetan gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Dzongka, the official language of Bhutan, has some pretty wild phonology, in addition to having the Tibetan writing system, this time using Bhutanese forms of the Tibetan script.
It contrasts all of the following: s, sʰ, ʰs, ʰsʰ, ts, ʰts, tsʰ, z, ʱz, dz, ʱdz, ⁿsʰ, ᵐtsʰ, ⁿtsʰ, ⁿdz, ᵖts, ᵖtsʰ, ᵖtsʷʰ, and ᶲs, and in addition it has four tones, but there is no single word that is distinguished by tone only. On top of that, there are 22 different vowels.
Dzongka gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Vietnamese is also hard to learn because to an outsider, the tones seem hard to tell apart. Therefore, foreigners often make themselves difficult to understand by not getting the tone precisely correct. It also has “creaky-voiced” tones, which are very hard for foreigners to get a grasp on.
Vietnamese grammar is fairly simple, and reading Vietnamese is pretty easy once you figure out the tone marks. Words are short as in Chinese. However, the simple grammar is relative, as you can have 25 or more forms just for I, the 1st person singular pronoun. In addition, the Latin orthography is said to be quite bad. It was invented by missionaries a few centuries ago, and it has never made much sense.
Vietnamese gets 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Khmer has a reputation for being hard to learn. I understand that it has one of the most complex honorifics systems of any language on Earth. Over a dozen different words mean to carry depending on what one is carrying. There are several different words for slave depending on who owned the slave and what the slave did. There are 28-30 different vowels, including sets of long and short vowels and long and short diphthongs. The vowel system is so complicated that there isn’t even agreement on exactly what it looks like. Khmer learners, especially speakers of IE languages, often have a hard time producing or even distinguishing these vowels.
Speaking it is not so bad, but reading and writing it is pretty difficult. For instance, you can put up to five different symbols together in one complex symbol. The orthographic script is even worse than the Thai one. There are actually rules to this mess, but no one seems to know who they are.
Khmer gets a 4.5 rating, very to extremely hard.
Sedang, a language of Vietnam, has the highest number of vowel sounds of any language on Earth, at 55 distinct vowel sounds.
Sedang gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Hmong is widely spoken in this part of California, but it’s not easy to learn. There are eight tones, and they are not easy to figure out. It’s not obviously related to any other major language but the obscure Mien.
It has some very strange consonants called voiceless nasals. We have them in English as allophones – the m in small is voiceless, but in Hmong, they put them at the front of words – the m in the word Hmong is voiceless. These can be very hard to pronounce.
The romanization is widely criticized for being a lousy one, but the Hmong use it anyway.
Hmong gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Tsou is a Taiwanese aborigine language spoken by about 2,000 people in Taiwan. It has the odd feature whereby the underlying glides y and w turn into or surface as non-syllabic mid vowels e̯ and o̯ in certain contexts:
jo~joskɨ -> e̯oˈe̯oskɨ -= fishes
Tsou is also ergative like most Formosan languages. Tsou is the only language in the world that has no prepositions or anything that looks like a preposition. Instead it uses nouns and verbs in the place of prepositions. Tsou allows more potential consonant clusters than most other languages. About 1/2 of all possible CC clusters are allowed.
Tsou has an inclusive/exclusive distinction in the 1st person plural and a very strange visible and non-visible distinction in the 3rd person singular and plural. Both adjectives and adverbs can turn into verbs and are marked for voice in the same way that verbs are. Verbs are extensively marked for voice. Nouns are marked for a variety of odd cases, often referring to perception, (visible/invisible) person, and place deixis.
‘e – visible and near speaker
si/ta – visible and near hearer
ta – visible but away from speaker
‘o/to – invisible and far away, or newly introduced to discourse
na/no ~ ne – non-identifiable and non-referential (often when scanning a class of elements)
Tsou gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Bahasa Indonesia is an easy language to learn. For one thing, the grammar is dead simple. There are only a handful of prefixes, only two of which might be seen as inflectional. There are also several suffixes. Verbs are not marked for tense at all. And the sound system of these languages, in common with Austronesian in general, is one of the simplest on Earth, with only two dozen phonemes. Bahasa Indonesia has few homonyms, homophones, homographs, or heteronyms. Words in general have only one meaning.
Though the orthography is not completely phonetic, it only has a small number of nonphonetic exceptions. The orthography is one of the easiest on Earth to use.
The system for converting words into either nouns or verbs is regular. To make a plural, you simply repeat a word, so instead of saying pencils, you say pencil pencil.
Bahasa Indonesia gets a 1.5 rating, extremely easy to learn.
Malay is only easy if you learn the standard spoken form or one of the creoles. Learning the literary language is quite a bit more difficult. However, the Jawi script, which is Malay written in Arabic script, is often considered to be perfectly awful.
Malay get a 2 rating for moderately easy.
Greater Central Philippine
However, Tagalog is much harder than Malay or Indonesian. Compared to many European languages, Tagalog syntax, morphology and semantics are often quite different. Also, Tagalog is typically spoken very fast. Unlike Malay, verbs conjugate quite a bit in Tagalog. The main idea of Tagalog grammar is something called focus. Once you figure that out, the language gets pretty easy, but until you understand that concept, you are going to have a hard time.
Everything is affixed in Tagalog.
However, articles and creation of adjectives from nouns is very easy.
ganda – beauty (noun)
maganda – beautiful (adjective)
Tagalog gets a 4 rating, very difficult.
Maori and other Polynesian languages have a reputation for being quite easy to learn. The main problem for English speakers is that the sentence structure is backwards compared to English. In addition, macrons can cause problems.
One problem with Maori is dialects. The dialects are so diverse that this means that there are multiple words for the same thing. Swiss German has a similar issue, with up to 50 words for each common household item (nearly every major dialect has its own word for common objects):
ngongi, noni, koki, wai – water
whiri, rarangi, hiri – to plait, to twist, to weave
pai, maitai – good
tu, tū, tutehu, mātika – to stand
mau, mou – to hold
pau, pou – to be exhausted
ika, tohorā – whale
ika, ngohi – fish
kāwei, kāwai – line
ori, kori, keukeu, koukou, neke, nuku – to move
haere, hara, here, horo, whano – to go, to come
hara, hapa, hē – to be wrong
kōrerorero, wānanga, rūnanga – to discuss
tohunga, tahunga – priest
matikuku, maikuku – finger nail
kanohi, konohi, mata, whatu, kamo, karu – eye, face
Entire Maori sentences can be written with vowels only.
E uu aau?
Are yours firm?
I uaa ai.
It rained as usual.
I ui au ‘i auau aau?’
It will be difficult/hard/heavy!
On the plus side, the pronunciation is simple, and there is no gender. The language is as regular as Japanese. No Polynesian language has more than 16 sounds, and they all lack tones. They all have five vowels, which can be either long or short. A consonant must be followed by a vowel, so there are no consonant clusters. All consonants are easy to pronounce.
Maori gets a 3 rating, average difficulty.
Hawaiian is a pretty easy language to learn. It is easy to pronounce, has a simple alphabet, lacks complex morphology and has a fairly simple syntax.
Hawaiian gets a 2 rating, very easy to learn.
North and Central Vanuatu
Sakao is a very strange langauge spoken by 4,000 people in Vanuatu. It is very strange. It is a polysynthetic Austronesian language, which is very weird. It allows extreme consonant clusters. Sakao has an incredible seven degrees of deixis. The language has an amazing four persons: singular, dual, paucal and plural. The neighboring language Tomoko has singular, dual, trial and plural. The trial form is very odd. Sakao’s paucal derived from Tomato’s trial:
they, from three to ten
the five of them (Literally, they three, five)
All nouns are always in the singular except for kinship forms and demonstratives, which only display the plural:
ðjœɣ – my mother/aunt -> rðjœɣ – my aunts
walðyɣ – my child -> raalðyɣ – my children
It has a number of nouns that are said to be “inalienably possessed”, that is, whenever they occur, they must be possessed by some possessor. These often take highly irregular inflections:
œsɨŋœ-ɣ my mouth
œsɨŋœ-m thy mouth
ɔsɨŋɔ-n his/her/its mouth
œsœŋ-... ...'s mouth
uly-ɣ my hair
uly-m thy hair
ulœ-n his/her/its hair
nøl-... ...'s hair
Here, mouth is either œsɨŋœ-, ɔsɨŋɔ- or œsœŋ-, and hair is either uly-, ulœ- or nøl-
Sakao, strangely enough, may not even have syllables in the way that we normally think of them. If it does have syllables at all, they would appear to be at least a vowel optionally surrounded by any number of consonants.
Having sung and stopped singing thou kept silent.
Sakao has a suffix -in that makes an intransitive verb transitive and makes a transitive verb ditransitive. Ditransitive verbs can take two arguments – a direct object and an instrumental.
Mɨjilɨn amas ara./Mɨjilɨn ara amas.
He kills the pig with the club/He kills with the club the pig.
Sakao polysynthesis allows compound verbs, each one having its own instrument or object:
Mɔssɔnɛshɔβrɨn aða ɛðɛ.
He-shooting-fish-kept-on-walking with-a-bow the-sea.
He walked along the sea shooting the fish with a bow.
Sakao gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Kwaio is an Austronesian language spoken in the Solomon Islands. It has four different forms of number to mark pronouns – not only the usual singular and plural, but also the rarer dual and the very rare paucal. In addition, there is an inclusive/exclusive contrast in the non-singular forms.
1 dual inclusive (you and I)
1 dual exclusive (I and someone else, not you)
1 paucal inclusive (you, I and a few others)
1 paucal exclusive (I and a few others)
1 plural inclusive (I, you and many others)
1 plural exclusive (I and many others)
Kwaio gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Malagasy, the official language of Madagascar, has a reputation for being even easier to learn than Indonesian or Malay.
Malagasy gets a 1 rating, easiest of all to learn.
Thai is a pretty hard language to learn. There are 75 symbols in the strange script, there are no spaces between words in the script, and vowels can come before, after, above or below consonants in any given syllable. There seem to be many different glyphs for every consonant, but the different glyphs for the same consonant will sometimes change the sound of the neighboring vowel. The orthography is as insensible as that of English since centuries have gone by with no spelling reforms, in fact, Thai has not changed its system in 1000 years. The wild card of having tone thrown in adds to the insanity.
Consonant pronunciations vary depending on the location of the syllable in the word – for instance, s can change to t. There are many vowels which are spoken but not written. There are many consonants that are pronounced the same – for instance, there are six different t‘s, not counting the s‘s that turn into t‘s. The Thai script is definitely one of the most difficult phonetic scripts. Nevertheless, the Thai script is easier to learn than the Japanese or Chinese character sets. In spite of all of that, the syntax is simple, like Chinese.
There are five tones, including a neutral tone. Tones are determined by a variety of complex things, including a combination of tone marks, the class of consonants, if the syllable ends in a sonorant or a stop and what the tone of the preceding syllable was. Tone marking in the orthography is quite complex.
The vowels are different than in many languages, and there are some unusual diphthongs: eua, euai, aui and uu. There is a contrast between aspirated and unaspirated consonants.
There is a system of noun classifiers for counting various things, similar to Japanese. In addition, common to many Asian languages, there is a complicated honorifics system.
On the plus side, Thai is a regular language, with few exceptions to the rules. However, the rules are quite complex. The syntax is about as complex as that of Chinese, and the grammar is dead simple.
Thai gets a 5 rating, hardest of all to learn.
Lao is very similar to Thai, in fact it is identical to a Thai language spoken by 16 million people in northeast Thailand called Northeastern Thai. The Lao script is similar to Thai, but it has fewer letters so there is somewhat less confusion.
Lao gets a 4.5 rating, very to extremely hard to learn.
The Kam languages of the Dong people in southwest China were rated by the Fudan University study referenced above under Wu as the 2nd most phonologically complex on Earth (Wang 2012). There are 32 stem initial consonants, including oddities like tɕ, tɕʰ, pʲ, pʲʰ, ɕ, kʷ, kʷʰ, ŋʷ, tʃʰ, tsʰ. Note the many contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated voiceless consonants, including bilabial palatalized stops, labialized velar stops, and alveolar affricates. There are an incredible 64 different syllable finals, and 14 others that occur only in Chinese loans.
There are an astounding 15 different tones, nine in open syllables and six in checked syllables (entering tones). Main tones are high, high rising, high falling, low, low rising, low falling, mid, dipping and peaking. When they speak, it sounds as if they are singing.
Kam gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
According to the Fudan University study quoted above, Buyang in the 3rd most phonologically complex language in the world. Buyang is a cluster of 4 related languages spoken by 1,900 people in Yunnan Province, China. Buyang has a completely wild consonant inventory.
It has a full set of both voiced and voiceless plain and aspirated stops, including voiceless uvulars. The contrast between aspirated and plain voiced stops is peculiar. The stop series also has distinctions between palatalized and rounded stops throughout the series. It has a labialized voiceless palatal fricative and a voiceless dental aspirated lateral, unusual sounds. It has four different voiceless aspirated nasals. It has voiceless y and w, more odd sounds. It also has plain and labialized palatal glides.
That is one heck of a wild phonology.
Buyang gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
The African Bantu language Ga has a bad reputation for being a tough nut to crack. It is spoken in Ghana by about 600,000 people. It has two tones and engages in a strange behavior called tone terracing that is common to many West African languages. There is a phonemic distinction between three different types of vowel length. All vowels have 3 different lengths – short, long and extra long. It also has many sounds that are not in any Western languages.
Ga gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Anyi is a language spoken by 610,000 people in Côte d’Ivoire. It is relatively straightforward as far as African languages go. Probably the hardest part about the language is that it is tonal, and it does have two tones. The phonology does have the unusual +-ATR contrast which will seem very odd. ATR stands for advanced tongue root, so the language has a contrast between vowels with an advanced tongue root and without one. However, the grammar is pretty regular. There are few confusing phonological processes.
Anyi has a simple tense system, with only present, past and future. There is no aspect, mood or voice marking, and it lacks the noun class systems so common in many African languages. It has a plural marker, but it is often optional.
The syntax does have serial verbs, which will seem odd to Westerners. It distinguishes between relative clauses marked with bɔ and subordinate clauses marked with kɛ.
Anyi gets a 4 rating, very hard to learn.
Ndali is a Bantu language with 150,000 speakers spoken in Malawi and Tanzania. It has many strange tense forms. For instance, in the past tense:
Past tense A: He went just now.
Past tense B: He went sometime earlier today.
Past tense C: He went yesterday.
Past tense D: He went sometime before yesterday.
Future tense is marked similarly:
Future tense A: He’s going to go right away.
Future tense B: He’s going to go sometime later today.
Future tense C: He’s going to go tomorrow.
Future tense D: He’s going to go sometime after tomorrow.
Ndali gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Xhosa, a language of South Africa, is quite difficult, with up to nine click sounds. Clicks only exist in one language outside of Africa – the Australian language Damin – and are extremely difficult to learn. Even native speakers mess up the clicks sometimes. Nelson Mandela said he had problems making some of the click sounds in Xhosa. The phonemics in general of Xhosa are pretty wild.
Xhosa gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Zulu and Ndebele also have these impossible click sounds. However, outside of click sounds, the phonology of Nguni languages is straightforward. All Nguni languages are agglutinative. These languages also make plurals by changing the prefix of the noun, and the manner varies according the noun class. If you want to look up a word in the dictionary, first of all you need to discard the prefix. For instance, in Ndebele,
river – umfula
rivers – imifula, but
stone – ilitshe
stones – amatshe, yet
tree – isihlahla
trees – izihlahla
Ndebele gets a 5 rating, hardest of all.
Zulu has pitch accent, tones and clicks. There are nine different pitch accents, four tones and three clicks, but each click can be pronounced in five different ways. However, tones are not marked in writing, so it’s hard to figure out when to use them. Zulu also has depressor consonants, which lower the tone in the vowel in the following syllable. In addition, Zulu has multiple gender – 15 different genders. And some nouns behave like verbs. It also has 12 different noun classes, but 90% of words are part of a group of only three of those classes.
Zulu gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
For unknown reasons, Swahili is generally considered to be an easy language to learn. The US military ranks it 1, with the easiest of all languages to learn. This seems to be the typical perception. Why Swahili is so easy to learn, I am not sure. It’s a trade language, and trade languages are often fairly easy to learn. There’s also a lot of controversy about whether or not Swahili can be considered a creole, but that has not been proven. For the moment, the reasons why Swahili is so easy to learn will have to remain mysterious.
On the down side, Swahili has many noun classes, but they have the benefit of being more or less logical.
Swahili gets a 2 rating, moderately easy.
!Xóõ (Taa), spoken by only 4,200 Bushmen in Botswana and Namibia, is a notoriously difficult Khoisan language replete with the notoriously impossible to comprehend click sounds. Taa has anywhere from 130 to 164 consonants, the largest phonemic inventory of any language. Of this vast wealth of sounds, there are anywhere from 30-64 different click sounds. There are five basic clicks and 17 accompanying ones. Speakers develop a lump on their larynx from making the click sounds.
In addition, there are four types of vowels: plain, pharyngealized, breathy-voiced and strident. On top of that, there are four tones. Taa appears on many lists of the wildest phonologies and craziest languages period on Earth.
Taa gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Ju|’hoan, a Khoisan language spoken by 5,000 people in Botswana, has one of the wildest phonological inventories on Earth. The voiced aspirated consonants – sb͡pʰ, d͡tʰ , d͡tsʰ , d͡tʃʰ , ɡ͡kʰ , and ᶢǃʰ – are particularly odd. Some question whether these segments actually exist and say that they are instead spoken with a “breathy-voice.” However, voiced aspirated consonants do appear to be real. In addition, Ju|’hoan has a closed class of only 17 adjectives since descriptive functions are done by verbs. They are the following:
other (those remaining)
the numbers one through four
Ju|’hoan scored very high on a study of the weirdest languages on Earth.
Ju|’hoan gets a 5 rating, extremely hard to learn.
Inuktitut is extremely hard to learn. Inuktitut is polysynthetic-agglutinative, and roots can take many suffixes, in some cases up to 700. Verbs have 63 forms of the present indicative, and conjugation involves 252 different inflections. Inuktitut has the complicated polypersonal agreement system discussed under Georgian above and Basque below. In a typical long Inuktitut text, 92% of words will occur only once. This is quite different from English and many other languages where certain words occur very frequently or at least frequently. Certain fully inflected verbs can be analyzed both as verbs and as nouns. Words can be very long.
I truly don’t know how to speak Inuktitut very well.
You may need to analyze up to 10 different bits of information in order to figure out a single word. However, the affixation is all via suffixes (there are no prefixes or infixes) and the suffixation is extremely regular.
Inuktitut is also rated one by linguists one of the hardest languages on Earth to pronounce. Inuktitut may be as hard to learn as Navajo.
Inuktitut is rated 6, hardest of all.
Kalaallisut (Western Greenlandic) is very closely related to Inuktitut. Look at this sentence:
However, they will say that he is a great entertainer, but …
That word is composed of 12 separate morphemes. A single word can conceptualize what could be an entire sentence in a non-polysynthetic language.
Kalaallisut is rated 6, hardest of all.
Chukchi is a polysynthetic, agglutinating and incorporating language and is often listed as one of the hardest languages on Earth to learn.
I have a fierce headache.
There are five morphemes in that word, and there are three lexical morphemes (nouns or adjectives) incorporated in that word: meyŋ – great, levt – head, and pəγt – ache.
Chukchi gets a 6 rating, hardest of all.
Basque, of course, is just a wild language altogether. There is an old saying that the Devil tried to learn Basque, but after seven years, he only learned how to say Hello and Goodbye. Many Basques, including some of the most ardent Basque nationalists, tried to learn Basque as adults. Some of them succeeded, but a very large number of them failed. Based on the number that failed, it does seem that Basque is harder for an adult to learn as an L2 than many other languages are. Basque grammar is maddeningly complex and it often makes it onto craziest grammars and craziest language lists.
There are 11 cases, and each one takes four different forms. The verbs are quite complex. This is because it is an ergative language, so verbs vary according to the number of subjects and the number of objects and if any third person is involved.
This is the same polypersonal agreement system that Georgian has above. Basque’s polypersonal system is a polysynthetic system consisting of two verb types – synthetic and analytical. Only a few verbs use the synthetic form.
Three of Basque’s cases – the absolutive (intransitive verb case), the ergative (intransitive verb case) and the dative – can be marked via affixes to the verb. In Basque, only present simple and past simple synthetic tenses take polypersonal affixes.
The analytical forms are composed of more than one word, while the synthetic forms are all one word. The analytic verbs are built via the synthetic verbs izan – be, ukan – have and egin – do.
d-akar-ki-o-gu = We bring it to him/her. The verb is ekarri – bring.
z-erama-zki-gu-te-n = They took them to us. The verb is eraman – take
Ekarriko d-i-o-gu = We’ll bring it to him/her. Literally: We will have-bring it to him/her. The analytic verb is built from ukan – have.
Eraman d-ieza-zki-gu-ke-te = They can take them to us. Literally: They can be taking them to us. The analytic verb is built from izan – be.
Most of the analytic verbs require an auxiliary which carries all sorts of information that is often carried on verbs in other languages – tense, mood, sometimes gender and person for subject, object and indirect object.
I am eating.
I could eat.
We might have given them to you.
In the above, naiz, nintekeen and geniezazkiake are auxiliaries. There are actually 2,640 different forms of these auxiliaries!
A language with ergative morphosyntax in Europe is quite a strange thing, and Basque is the only one of its kind. The ergative itself is quite unusual:
Gizona etorri da. – The man has arrived.
Gizonak mutila ikusi du. – The man saw the boy.
gizon – man
mutil – boy
-a = the
The noun gizon takes a different form whether it is the subject of a transitive or intransitive verb. The first sentence is in absolutive case (unmarked) while the second sentence is in the ergative case (marked by the morpheme -k). If you come from a non-ergative IE language, the concept of ergativity itself is difficult enough to conceptualize, much less trying to actually learn an ergative language. Consequently, any ergative language will automatically be more difficult than a non-ergative one for all speakers of IE languages.
Ergativity also works with pronouns. There are four basic systems:
Nor: verb has subject only
Nor-Nork: " subj. + direct complement
Nor-Nori: " subj. + indirect comp.
Nor-Nori-Nork: " subj. + indir. + dir. comps.
Some call Basque the most consistently ergative language on Earth.
If you don’t grow up speaking Basque, it’s hard to attain native speaker competence. It’s quite a bit easier to write in Basque than to speak it.
Nevertheless, Basque verbs are quite regular. There are only a few irregularities in conjugations and they have phonetic explanations. In fact, the entire language is quite regular. In addition, most words above the intermediate level are borrowings from large languages, so once you reach intermediate Basque, the rest is not that hard. In addition, pronunciation is straightforward.
Basque is rated 5.5, nearly hardest of all.
Dorani, Yakir. Hebrew speaker, Israel. August 2013. Personal communication.
Hewitt, B. G.. 2005. Georgian: A Learner’s Grammar, p. 29.
Kim, Yuni. December 16, 2003. Vowel Elision and the Morphophonology of Dominance in Aymara. UC Berkeley.
Kirk, John William Carnegie. 1905. A Grammar of the Somali Language: With Examples in Prose and Verse and an Account of the Yibir and Midgan Dialects, pp. 73-74.
Rogers, Jean H. 1978. Differential Focusing in Ojibwa Conjunct Verbs: On Circumstances, Participants, and Events. International Journal of American Linguistics 44: 167-179.
Wang, Chuan-Chao et al. 2012. Comment on ”Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa.” Science 335:657.
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Tuairim: Tá an post seo an-fhada. Tá sé 200 leathanach ar an Idirlíon. Nuashonraithe an 17 Eanáir, 2016.
Is é seo leanúint ar aghaidh an phoist roimhe seo. Bhris mé é ina dhá chuid toisc go raibh sé ró-fhada.
Tagraíonn an post do na teangacha is deacra do chainteoirí Béarla a fhoghlaim, cé go bhfuil na rátálacha infheidhme go pointe áirithe ar fud na dteangacha. Aithneoidh an chuid is mó de chainteoirí na Síne go bhfuil an Spáinnis ina theanga éasca, in ainneoin a nádúr coigríche. Agus fiú admhaíonn an chuid is mó de na Síne, na Navaho, na Polainne nó na Seice go bhfuil a dteangacha deacair a fhoghlaim. Go pointe áirithe, tá an deacracht neamhspleách ar an bpointe tosaigh teanga. Tá roinnt teangacha níos deacra ná teangacha eile, agus sin é an rud atá le rá.
Mhodh, Torthaí agus Conclúid. Féach anseo.
Sa chás seo, scrúdaíodh 73 teanga nach IE iad.
Rátaí: Rátaítear teangacha ó 1 go 6, ó na teangacha is éasca go dtí na teangacha is deacra. 1 = is éasca, 2 = go measartha éasca go meán, 3 = meán go meánach deacair, 4 = an-deacair, 5 = an-deacair, 6 = an-deacair ar fad.
Am a theastaíonn: Am a theastaíonn chun an teanga a fhoghlaim  go réasúnta go maith: Teangacha Leibhéal 1 = 3 mhí-1 bhliain. Teangacha Leibhéal 2 = 6 mhí-1 bhliain. Teangacha leibhéal 3 = 1-2 bliana. Teangacha leibhéal 4 = 2 bhliain. Teangacha Leibhéal 5 = 3-4 bliana, ach d'fhéadfadh go dtógfadh cuid acu níos mó ama.
An Chóiré Thuaidh, an Chóiré Thuaidh Thiar agus an Chóiré Chartvelach
Ar ndóigh, tá na teangacha Caucasacha cosúil le Tsez, Tabasaran, Georgia, Chechen, Ingush, Abkhaz agus Circassian ar na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim.
Tá an Chechén agus an Circassian rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach duine.
Tá na uvulars agus na ejectives de na Gearóige i dteangacha an Chuaicéasaigh NE chomh maith le pharyngeals, fricatives taobh, agus aisteach eile. Tá aicmí ainmfhocail acu cosúil leis na teangacha Bantois (ach de ghnáth níos lú). Mar sin féin, tá marcóirí comhaontaithe aicme ainmfhocal acu ar bhriathra ar aidiachtaí. Rud amháin NE Caucasian tá go leor cás. Tá 40+ cás ag roinnt teangacha. Tógtar iad ón talamh suas trí dhá fhoirm  ceann foirm spásúil mar atá i, ar nó timpeall agus an ceann eile foirm gluaiseachta treorach mar atá le, ó, tríd nó ag.
Tá 64-126 cás éagsúil ag Tsez, rud a chiallaíonn gurb é an córas cás is casta ar domhan é! Tá sé ar cheann de na teangacha beaga ar domhan a bhfuil dhá chás géiniteach aige  Genitive 1 (-s) agus Genitive 2 (-z). Úsáidtear Genitive 1 nuair a bhíonn ainmfhocal ceann an genitives i gcás absolutive agus úsáidtear Genitive 2 nuair a bhíonn ainmfhocal ceann an genitives in aon chás eile. Tá ceithre rang ainmníochta ann freisin. Deirtear go mbíonn deacracht ag daoine a labhraíonn an teanga dhúchais féin an t-athrú ceart a úsáid uaireanta.
I Tsez, ní mór duit a fhios a lán Tsez gramadaí a chur in iúl ar leibhéal bunúsach. An abairt:
Béarla: Is maith liom do mháthair.
Tsez: Tá sé an-deas. (Dr debi eniyu yetix.)
Chun an abairt sin a labhairt i Tsez, ní mór duit a bheith ar an eolas:
• na focail féin (ní bhíonn ord na bhfocal chomh tábhachtach)
• go n-éilíonn an briathar -eti- go bhfuil an t-ábhar sa chás dative/lative agus go bhfuil an réad san iomlán
• an rang ainmfhocal le haghaidh eniyu (rang II)
• an fhoirm dative/lative de di (I), is é sin dr
• an fhoirm ghiniúnach 1 de mi (tu), is é sin debi
• an réamhtheideal comhréireachta y- a fhreagraíonn do rang ainmfhocal argóint dhílis an abairt, sa chás seo máthair
• an deireadh aimsire atá ann do bhriathra a chríochnaíonn le huainle -x
Tsez rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá fuaimníocht an-chasta ag Archi agus tá sé ar cheann de na gramadaí is casta ar domhan. Is iad na gnéithe cumascáin iomarcacha agus an mhorfolaíocht bhriathra a dhéanann an gramaic chomh deacair. Tá 1,502,839 foirm féideartha ag gach fréamh fíorais! Is teanga ergatach í freisin, ach tá neamhrialtacht ina chóras ergatach.
Glacann roinnt briathra an cás tipiciúil ergative / absolutive (absolutive do ábhar an-neamhthrasnaitheach agus ergative do ábhar briathar trasnaíoch  áit a mbeadh an réad díreach in absolúideach). I gcásanna eile tá an t-ábhar i dative seachas an cás ergative / absolutive a bhfuiltear ag súil leis. Is gnách go mbíonn briathra seo de thuiscint cosúil le grá / mian, éisteacht, féachaint, mothú, agus a bheith tuirseach. Mar shampla, an briathar:
-эти- = to love/want ní mór a ábhar a bheith i gcás dative in ionad an cás absolutive nó ergative a bhfuiltear ag súil leis.
I measc na dteangacha neamh-chliceála, tá ceann de na suímh chomhcheangail is mó ag Archi, agus níl ach an Ubykh atá imithe as an ngnáth ag a bhfuil níos mó. Tá 26 vocal ann agus idir 76 agus 82 comh-aistriú, ag brath ar an anailís. Is féidir cúig cheann de na sé fhócal a bheith ann i gcúig cineálacha: gearr, pharyngealized, ardton, fada (le ton ard), agus pharyngealized le ton ard.
Tá go leor fóinéis neamhghnách aige, lena n-áirítear contras idir roinnt frithghníomhartha taobh velar gan guth, affricates taobh velar gan guth agus eisiúnacha agus frithghníomhartha taobh velar glactha. Is fuaimeanna an-neamhghnách iad an frithghníomhach velar gan guth ʟ̊, an frithghníomhach velar lateral ʟ̊, agus na frithghníomhacha k͡ʟ̊ agus k͡ʟ̊ʼ gan guth agus eisiúnacha comhfhreagracha, toisc nach minic a bhíonn frithghníomhacha velar ina gcuid de na fuaimeanna taobh.
Tá 15 cás ann, 10 cás rialta, cúig chás spásúil agus cúig chás treoracha. Is iad na cásanna Spáis Inessive (in), Intrative (between), superessive (above), Subessive (below) agus Pertingent (against). Is iad na cásanna treorach ná Essive (as), Elative (out of), Lative (to/into), Allative (onto), Terminative (specifies a limit) agus Translative (indicates change).
Tá ceithre aicme ainmfhocal ann:
I Daoine fireann
II Daoine baineann
III Gach feithidí, cuid acu beo, agus cuid acu neamhbheo
IV Abstractanna, cuid acu beo, agus cuid acu neamhbheo nach féidir a fheiceáil ach trí chomhaontú béil
Tá Archi rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá Tabasaran rátáilte mar an 3ú gramadaí is casta ar domhan, le 48 cás ainmfhocal éagsúla.
Tá Tabasaran rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach.
Tá fuaimíocht an-deacair ag Ingush, gramadaí an-chasta, agus ina theannta sin, tá sé an-neamhrialta. Tá idirdhealú gar-/neamhtha agus is í an t-aon teanga sa réigiún a bhfuil an ghné seo aici. Tá rang dúnta briathra ag Ingush mar aon le Chechen, gné neamhghnách i dteangacha an domhain. Forbraítear briathra nua trí ainmfhocal a chur leis an briathar do:
shoot  gunna a dhéanamh
Ingush rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Is é an fhadhb amháin leis an nGaeilge an aibítir aisteach: ქართულია ერთ ერთი რთული ენა. Tá go leor stadanna glottal ann freisin atá deacair le go leor eachtrannaigh a labhairt; is féidir le cnuasaigh consonant a bheith ollmhór - suas le ocht consonant a bheith ceangailte le chéile (CCCCCCCCVC) - agus tá go leor fuaimeanna consonant aisteach. Ina theannta sin, tá uvulars agus ejectives ann. Tá an Gearóidigh ar cheann de na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhuaimniú. Déantar é go rialta ar liostaí na fonológa is craiceáilte.
Tá a ghramadach thar a bheith casta. Tá an tSeoirsiach an-chomhchruinnithe agus an-neamhrialta, rud atá an ceann is measa de dhá shaol. Tá buntáiste ag teangacha comhcheangailteacha eile mar an Tuirc agus an Fhionlainnis ar a laghad a bheith an-rialta. Is cosúil go bhfuil na briathra go háirithe beagnach randamach gan aon patrún dóibh ar chor ar bith. Tá an córas argóint agus marcála aimsire ar an bhfiarás thar a bheith casta, le aimsir, gné, stádas ar an bhfiarás, duine agus marcáil uimhreacha don ábhar, agus rudaí díreacha agus indíreacha.
Cé gur teanga ergative í, ní úsáidtear an ergative (nó an marcáil cás gníomhach-stative mar a thugtar air) go leor ach amháin sna aimsireacha aorist agus foirfe ina bhfaigheann an gníomhaire sa abairt cás difriúil, agus an aorist chomh maith mascades mar imperative. Sa lá atá inniu ann, tá marcáil ainmnitheach-chasaitheach caighdeánach ann. Is féidir le briathar amháin suas le 12 chuid éagsúla a bheith aige, cosúil leis an bPolainnis, agus tá sé chás agus sé aimsir ann.
Tá rud éigin ar a dtugtar comhaontú ilphearsanta i nGaeilge freisin, cineál morfo-chomhréiteach an-chasta a bhaineann go minic le teangacha il-sintéiseacha agus go pointe níos lú le ergativity.
I dteanga ilphearsanta, tá morphemes comhaontaithe ag an bhfiaróg leis a bhaineann le ceann amháin nó níos mó de na argóintí bhfiaróg (de ghnáth suas le ceithre argóint). I dteanga neamh-phóiliphearsanta mar an Béarla, ní léiríonn an briathar aon chomhaontú nó ní aontaíonn sé ach le ceann amháin dá argóintí, de ghnáth an t-ábhar. Cé go bhfuil i dteanga ilphearsanta, comhaontaíonn an briathar le ceann amháin nó níos mó den ábhar, an réad díreach, an réad indíreach, tairbhí an briathar, etc. Féadfaidh an marcáil ilphearsanta a bheith éigeantach nó roghnach.
I nGaeilge, tá na morphemes ilphearsanta le feiceáil mar fhocail nó mar fhocail, ag brath ar an rang briathar agus ar an duine, ar an líon, ar an ngné agus ar thréimhse an bhriathar. Athraíonn na haifigí a chéile go fóinolaíoch freisin nuair a bhíonn siad in aice lena chéile. Sa chóras Gearmánach, cuireann na affixes ilphearsanta ábhar, réad díreach, réad indíreach, genitive, locative agus cúis.
g-mal-av-en = cuireann siad tú i bhfolach
g-i-mal-av-en = cuireann siad i bhfolach é uait
Is é mal (a cheilt) an briathar, agus is affixes ilphearsanta iad na ceithre fhoirm eile.
Sa chás thíos,
Xelebi ga-m-i-tsiv-d-a = Fuair mo lámha fuar.
ciallaíonn xelebi lámha. Léiríonn an marcóir m genitive nó my. Le briathra neamh-iompartha, is minic a fhágann an Ghearóidigh mo roimh an ábhar agus ina ionad sin cuireann sé an ghiniúnacht ar an briathar chun seilbh a léiriú.
Díríonn briathra gluaiseachta na Seoráide ar deixis, cibé an bhfuil sprioc an ghluaiseachta i dtreo an cainteora nó an éisteora. Úsáid tú coimhlint chun a léiriú cé a bhfuil an tairiscint ag dul i dtreo. Má tá sé ag dul i dtreo aon cheann de tú, ní úsáid tú marcóir deixis. Sonraíonn tú an bealach a ghlacfar chun an sprioc a bhaint amach trí úsáid nó réamhtheagmhálacha ar a dtugtar preverbs, cosúil le  cás briathra. Tagann siad seo tar éis an marcóra deixis:
síos go cha-
nó síos da-
suas i dtreo dom = amo-. Tá an marcóir deixis mo- agus suas is é a-
Ar an taobh dearfach, tá go leor foclóir eachtrach Laidineach i bhfreagra na Gearmáine, mar sin cabhróidh sé sin le duine ar bith a thagann ó chúlra teanga Laidineach nó Laidineach-trom.
Tá Georgánach rátáilte 5, an-deacair.
Tá líon an-bheag vowels (de ghnáth ach dhá nó trí) i dteannta le suímh fhrith-chomhfhocal ollmhór, an suímh fhrithfhocal is mó ar domhan, mar thréith ar gach teangacha Caucasic NW. Is féidir le beagnach aon chomhréir a bheith simplí, labialized nó palatalized. Is cosúil gur toradh é seo ar phróiseas stairiúil inar cailleadh go leor vowels agus a saintréithe éagsúla a tugadh do chomhréir. Mar shampla, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh comhcheangail palatalized tagtha ó shreath Ci agus d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh comhcheangail labialized tagtha ó shreath Cu.
Tá gramaic na dteangacha seo casta. Murab ionann agus na teangacha Caucasacha NE, tá córais ainmníochta simplí acu, de ghnáth le cúpla cás amháin.
Mar sin féin, tá cuid de na córais bhriathra casta acu ar an Domhan. Seo cuid de na teangacha is sintéiseacha sa Sean-Domhnach. Is minic go bhfuil sintéise iomlán an abairt laistigh den bhriathar. Tá gach briathar marcáilte le morphemes ergative, absolutive agus réad díreach chomh maith le hiontrálacha éagsúla iarratais.
Tá siad seo cosúil leis an méid a d'fhéadfadh daoine a ghlaoch ar  cás verbal. Mar shampla, i gcórais guth iarratais, d'fhéadfadh iarratais a bheith i bhfoirmeacha mar comitative, locative, ionstraim, benefactive agus malefactive. Tá na róil seo cosúil leis an gcóras cás i ainmfhocail  tá na hainmneacha mar an gcéanna fiú. Mar sin is féidir leat a fheiceáil cén fáth a glaonn daoine áirithe seo "cás verbal".
Is féidir briathracha Caucasiceacha NW a mharcáil le haghaidh gné (cibé acu an bhfuil rud éigin suntasach, leanúnach nó cleachtúil), giúmar (más rud é go bhfuil rud éigin cinnte, dóchúil, inmhianaithe, féideartha, nó neamhréalta). Is féidir le haifigí eile an briathar a mhúnlú i bhfocail-ord, chun trua, iomarca nó béim a chur in iúl.
Cosúil le NE Caucasian, tá siad ergative freisin.
NW Caucasian é a dhéanamh ar go leor liostaí teanga is craic.
Seo cuid de na teangacha is aisteach ar domhan. De na teangacha seo go léir, is iad na comh-fhocail is mó atá ag Abaza. Seo físeán sa teanga Abaza.
Tá an Ubykh, teanga Caucasiceach na Tuirce, imithe as an saol anois, ach tá duine amháin ann a labhraíonn an dara teanga, teangach a deir go bhfuil sé féin-oide ag an teanga. Tá níos mó comh-aistriúcháin ann ná aon teanga neamh-chliceála ar domhan  84 fuaim chomh-aistriúcháin san iomlán. Ina theannta sin, ceadaíonn an fhilíocht fhónamach roinnt cnuasaigh chomhréir an-aisteach.
Tá go leor fuaimeanna coimhdeacha ann a bhfuil an-annamh orthu. Ní fhaightear tw ach i dhá cheann de na cairde Ubykh, Abkhaz agus Abaza agus i dhá theanga eile, araon san Amazon na Brasaíle. Níl an v frithghníomhach labiodental pharyngealized v ann in aon teanga eile. Is minic a thagann sé ar liostaí na fonológa is aisteach. Fuair Ubykh scór an-ard freisin ar staidéar ar na teangacha is aisteach ar domhan.
Cuir sin le dhá fhuaim bhriathra agus le gramadaí an-chasta, agus tá teanga chrua agat.
Ina theannta sin, tá Ubykh ag an am céanna aglutinative agus polysynthetic, ergative agus tá comhaontú polypersonal aige:
Mura raibh tú in ann a dhéanamh dó a ghlacadh sé go léir amach as mo faoi arís dóibh...
Tá 16 mhorféim dochreidte sa fhocal seo a bhfuil naoi siolla ann.
Níl ach ceithre chóras cás ag Ubykh ar a ainmfhocail, ach tá an chuid is mó de fheidhm na cásanna tar éis bogadh thar an briathar trí réamh-phrionsabal agus cinntithe. Is iad na réamh-chomharthaí agus na cinntithe seo a dhéanann Ubykh chomh casta go hiontach. Seo a leanas cuid de na réamh-chomharthaí treorach:
- os cionn agus ag teagmháil
- os cionn agus gan teagmháil
- thíos agus ag teagmháil
- thíos agus gan teagmháil
- ar thaobh
- trí spás
- trí ábhar soladach
- ar dhromchla cothrománach cothrom
- ar dhromchla nach bhfuil cothrománach ná ingearach
- i mais chomhlána
- i dtreo suas
- i dtreo síos
- isteach i spás tiúbúil
- isteach i spás faoi cheangal
Tá roinnt foirmeacha réamhbhriathra ann freisin a léiríonn deixis:
j- = i dtreo an chainteora
Is féidir le daoine eile smaointe a chur in iúl a ghlacfadh abairtí iomlána i mBéarla:
jtɕwʼaa- = ar an Domhan, sa Domhan
Chuir siad a chorp i bhfolach. (Lit. Chuir siad a chorp sa talamh.)
fa = as, isteach nó i ndáil le tine.
Amdʒan zatʃətʃaqja faastχwən.
Glac mé branda as an tine.
D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh morphemes chomh beag le fóiném amháin:
Tugann siad tú dó.
w  2ú singil iomlán
a  3ú dátaí aonair
n  3ú ergative
t t t t t
aa  ergative iomad
n  aimsir reatha
Cuirtear iar-fhocail leis na focail chun bríanna a fhoirmiú a fhoirmítear go minic ag gnéithe nó aimsir i dteangacha eile:
asfəpχa  Ní mór dom é a ól.
asfəfan  Is féidir liom é a ól.
asfəɡjan  Is minic a ólann mé é.
Tá mé ag ól suas é go léir.
asfətɕwan  Is ró-dhíol mé é.
asfaajən  Ól mé arís é.
Is féidir le hainmneacha agus briathra athrú ina chéile. Is féidir le haon ainmfhocal a bheith ina bhriathar stative:
mac  leanbh
Bhí mé ina leanbh. (Lit. Bhí mé leanbh. Is briathar é  a bheith ina leanbh.)
Ar an gcaoi chéanna, is féidir le go leor briathra a bheith ina n-ainmhithe trí úsáid a bhaint as affix ainmniúil:
qʼa  a rá
cad a deirim  (Lit. An rud a deirim - mo chaint, mo chuid focal, mo theanga, mo chuid orduithe, etc.
Tá uimhir marcáilte ar an bhfiaróg trí fhocal-chomhfhocal agus níl sé marcáilte ach ar an ainmfhocal sa chás ergative.
Mar sin féin, níl córais cásanna iomráite na dteangacha Caucasacha in aice láimhe aige agus níl aon inscne gramadaí ann.
Tá Ubykh rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach.
Is teanga an-deacair í a fhoghlaim. Tá ocht suíomh éagsúla comharthaíochta ag gach comh-aistriú bunúsach sa bhéal. Samhlaigh cé chomh deacair a bheadh sé sin do leanbh Abkhaz a bhfuil bac labhairt aige. Is cosúil go gcuireann Abkhaz marcóirí comhaontaithe ar beagnach gach rud sa teanga. Tá an t-Abkhaz ar go leor liostaí teangacha is craiceáilte, agus fuair sé scór an-ard le déanaí ar staidéar teanga is aisteach.
Tá an t-Abkhaz rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach duine.
Is minic a mheastar gur teanga eisiach í Burushaski, gan aon ghaol le teangacha eile, áfach, sílim gur Dene-Caucasian í. Labhraítear é i Sléibhte Himalaya i dtuaisceart na Pacastáine i gceantar ar a dtugtar an Hunza. Tá an comhghaol fíob ag an teanga casta, tá go leor infleachtaí ann, tá bealaí casta ann chun abairtí a dhéanamh ag brath ar go leor fachtóirí, agus is teanga ergative í, atá deacair a fhoghlaim do chainteoirí teangacha neamh-ergative. Ina theannta sin, níl ach an-bheag nó gan aon cognates don fhocalraic.
Tá Burushaski rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Teangacha Indiach Mheiriceá
Tá sé ar eolas go bhfuil teangacha Indiach Mheiriceá deacair freisin, cé go ndéanann cúpla duine iarracht iad a fhoghlaim sna Stáit Aontaithe ar aon nós. Sa chuid eile den mhór-roinn, tá na milliúin daoine i go leor náisiún éagsúla fós ag foghlaim na teangacha sin. Is beagnach gá duit iad seo a fhoghlaim mar pháiste. Beidh sé deacair go leor do dhuine fásta cumas iomlán a fháil iontu.
Is é ceann de na fadhbanna atá leis na teangacha seo ná go bhfuil go leor foirmeacha briathar ann. Mar shampla, is é an paraidím chaighdeánach don líon mór fíricí rialta Béarla uasmhéid de chúig fhoirm:
Tá os cionn 1,000 foirm de gach briathar sa teanga ag go leor teangacha Amerindian.
Ach bhí an teanga chomharsanachta Kootenai i gcónaí ró-deacair do na Salishans (féach thíos) a fhoghlaim. Tá idirdhealú ag Kootenai freisin idir comhthreomú gar / neamhspleách mar aon le comhthreomú díreach / aisiompartha, is dócha ó theagmháil le Algonquian.
Mar sin féin, tá an córas díreach / inbhéartach Kootenai níos lú casta ná Algonquians, toisc nach bhfuil sé i láthair ach sa 3ú duine. Tá gné an-aisteach ag Kootenai freisin go bhfuil coirpíní acu a bhfuil cuma orthu mar fhéinfhocail ábhar, ach tá siad seo lasmuigh den abairt ainmníochta iomlán. Is gné an-annamh é seo i dteangacha an domhain. Scóráil Kootenai an-ard ar an suirbhé teanga is aisteach.
Is teanga íseal í an Kootenai a labhraíonn 100 duine in Idaho.
Tá Kootenai rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Is teanga leithlithe í Yuchi a labhraítear i ndeisceart na SA. Bhí siad suite ar dtús in Oirthear Tennessee agus bhí siad mar chuid de Chónaidhm Creek ag am amháin. Tá Yuchi beagnach imithe as an saol, agus níl ach cúig chainteoir fágtha.
Tá inscne nó aicmí ainmníochta ag Yuchi bunaithe ar thrí idirdhealú ar shuíomh: seasamh, suí nó luí. Tá gach ainmfhocal ina seasamh, ina suí nó ina luí. Tá crainn ag seasamh, agus na haibhneacha ag luí, mar shampla. Má tá sé níos airde ná mar a tá sé ar fud, tá sé ag seasamh. Má tá sé níos leithne ná mar a bhfuil sé ar airde, tá sé ag luí.
Má tá sé chomh mór agus a bhfuil sé chomh fada, tá sé ina shuí. Tá gach ainmfhocal ar cheann de na trí ghnéas seo, ach is féidir leat an ghnéas a athrú le haghaidh éifeacht greannmhar nó filíochta. D'fhiafraigh teangachóir uair amháin d'fhógrán cainteoirí baineann an raibh bod ina sheasamh, ina suí nó ina luí. Tar éis a lán de giggles, dúirt siad go raibh an réamhshocraithe ina suí, ach d'fhéadfá a rá go raibh sé ina seasamh nó ina luí le haghaidh éifeacht filíochta.
Chomh maith leis sin ní mór do gach pronoun Yuchi idirdhealú a dhéanamh idir aois (níos sine ná níos óige ná an cainteoir) agus eitneachas (Yuchi nó neamh-Yuchi).
Faigheann Yuchi rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Is dócha gurb é an tlingit ceann de na teangacha is deacra, mura bhfuil an teanga is deacra ar domhan. Déantar anailís ar Tlingit mar chuid sintéiseach, go páirteach aglutinative, agus uaireanta polysynthetic. Ní amháin go bhfuil iar-aistritheoirí agus réamh-aistritheoirí ann, ach tá infhixes nó affixes ann i lár na bhfocal freisin.
eech  a roghnú
Caithfidh gach réamhfhocal a bheith in ord ceart chun go n-oibreoidh an focal.
De ghnáth, déanaim rud fada a phiocadh tríd an poll de thoil agus mé ina sheasamh ar an mbord.
De ghnáth, bíonn orm rud fada a phiocadh tríd an poll agus mé ina sheasamh ar an mbord.
Tá mé de ghnáth ag piocadh an earraí fada inite tríd an poll agus mé ag seasamh ar tábla.
Tá fuaimíocht an-aisteach ag an nGaeilge. Ar dtús, is í an t-aon teanga ar domhan gan aon l. Tá sé seo in ainneoin go bhfuil cúig ghné eile aige: dl (tɬ), tl (tɬh), tl (tɬʼ), l (ɬ) agus l (ɬʼ). Tá na fuaimeanna tɬʼ agus ɬʼ annamh i dteangacha an domhain. Ní fhaightear ɬʼ ach i dteangacha fiáine NW Caucasian. Tá dhá chomhcheangal glottal labialized aige freisin, ʔw agus hw (hw).
Tlingit faigheann 6 rátáil, is deacra ar fad.
Tá vowels fada, gearr agus nasal ag Navajo, córas toin agus gramadaí nach bhfuil cosúil le haon rud san Indo-Eorpach. Is féidir le stiall de cheithre litreacha nó mar sin a bheith go leor affixes a líonadh líne iomlán téacs.
Is teanga poilsintéiseach í an Navajo. I dteangacha il-sintéiseacha, is féidir le focail an-fhada abairt iomlán a léiriú, agus tá sé deacair an focal a scriosadh ina chuid agus a fháil amach go díreach cad a chiallaíonn siad agus conas a théann siad le chéile. Cruthaítear na focail fada toisc go bhfuil saibhreas mórfoilíochta iontach ag teangacha il-sintéiseacha. Chuir siad go leor morpheme le chéile chun focal a chruthú as rud a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina abairt i dteanga neamh-polysynthetic.
Tá na mílte iontráil ag roinnt foclóirí Navajo de bhriathraí amháin, gan ainmfhocail. Níl aistriúchán díreach ag go leor aidiachtaí go Navajo. Ina áit sin, úsáidtear briathra mar aidiachtaí. Níl aon fhoirm ar leith ag briathar mar a bhíonn i mBéarla  to walk. Ina áit sin, glacann sé foirmeacha éagsúla ag brath ar cibé an bhfuil an gníomh críochnaithe, neamhiomlán, i mbun oibre, arís agus arís eile, gnách, uair amháin amháin, láithreach, nó ag teastáil go simplí. Tugtar gnéithe orthu seo. Ní mór go mbeadh ceann de na córais ghnéithe is casta de aon teanga ag Navajo:
Na príomhghnéithe:
Amthaobhach  go pointe (tarlaíonn sé ag pointe amháin ama)
Leanúnach  tréimhse ama gan teorainn & gluaiseacht le treo sonraithe
 ar feadh tréimhse ama gan teorainn, leanúnach neamh-locomhníomhach gan bhriseadh
Ath-aithris  leanúnachas gníomhartha ath-aithris nó sraith gníomhartha nasctha
Críochnaitheach  cosúil le fad-bhunaithe ach i gcríochnithe foirfeacha le seicheamh statach
Gníomhach go páirteach  gníomh amháin i sraith athdhéanta gníomhartha
Díolacháin  ionramháil díolacháin ar rudaí nó ar ghníomhartha a dhéanamh
Éagsúil  gluaiseacht a dháileadh i measc rudaí (cosúil le dháileadh)
Tá athrú treo mar thoradh ar  athfhillteach
Conative  iarracht ar ghníomh
Idirthréimhseach  aistriú ó stát amháin go stát eile
Cursive  dul chun cinn i líne trí am / spás (mhodh dul chun cinn amháin)
Críochnaitheach  go dtarlaíonn imeacht/ghníomh go simplí (cosúil leis an aimsir aorist)
Críochnaitheach  stopadh gníomhaíochta
Statach  seictheach fad-sheasmhach agus stáitiúil
Tús  tús le gníomhaíocht
Críochnaitheach  gníomh críochnaitheach de réir a chéile
Fadaíocht  tús nó deireadh a chur le gníomh
Seriative  sraith idirnasctha d'aicmí ar leithligh agus ar leithligh a leanann ar a chéile
Inchoative  díriú ar thús gníomhaíochta neamh-áitritheoireachta
Athghrádú  filleadh ar staid/áit roimhe sin
Semilitératif  athdhéanamh amháin ar imeacht/ghníomh
Tá an córas tense beagnach chomh fiáin leis an gcóras aspéideach.
Mar shampla, ciallaíonn an briathar ndideesh a phiocadh suas nó a ardú. Ach tá sé éagsúil ag brath ar an méid atá á phiocadh agat:
ndideeshtiil  rud crua caol a phiocadh suas (rolla, póta)
ndideashleel  chun rud solúbtha caol a phiocadh suas (gaoth, rópa)
ndideeshaal  rud cruinn nó mórchruinn a phiocadh suas (uigeal, carraig)
ndideeshgheel  rud dlúth agus trom a thógáil (buntáiste, pacáiste)
ndideeshjol  chun rud neamh-dhomhchomhchruinn nó scaipthe a phiocadh suas (fál, féar)
ndideashteel  rud beoga a phiocadh suas (clann, madra)
ndideeshnil  a phiocadh suas cúpla rudaí beaga (péire de berries, cnónna)
ndideeshjih  chun líon mór rudaí beaga a phiocadh (pill de bhéara, cnónna)
ndideeshtsos  rud solúbtha agus cothrom a phiocadh suas (cló, píosa páipéir)
ndideeshjil  rud éigin a phiocadh mé a dhéanamh ar mo chúl
ndideeshkaal  aon rud a phiocadh i soitheach
ndideeshtloh  chun ábhar slamtha (muid) a phiocadh suas.
Ach tá a phiocadh suas ach bealach amháin chun déileáil leis na 12 comhsheasmhacht éagsúla. Is féidir leat a thabhairt, a thógáil, a chur ar bun, a choinneáil, a iompar timpeall, a chasadh, etc. rudaí. Tá thart ar 28 briathra éagsúla is féidir a úsáid chun rudaí a láimhseáil. Má iolraíonn muid na briathra seo leis na comhsheasmhachtaí, tá os cionn 300 briathra éagsúla ann a úsáidtear chun rudaí a láimhseáil.
I leabhair Navajo, tá táblaí comhcheangail ann chun focail a chur in éag, ach tá sé deacair patrún a aimsiú ann. Ceann de na rudaí is frustracha faoi Navajo ná go bhfuil gach morpheme beag a chuireann tú le focal cosúil go bhfuil gach rud eile timpeall air a athrú, fiú sa dá threo.
Deirtear go bhfuil córas an-deacair ag Navajo chun uimhreacha a chomhaireamh.
Tá córas aicmithe ainmníochta ann freisin le níos mó ná dosaen aicmithe a théann i bhfeidhm ar infleacht. Tá an oiread sin aicmitheoirí fiú le haghaidh teanga aicmitheora ainmníochta agus tá sé cosúil le teangacha na hAfraice cosúil le Zulu. Ina theannta sin, tá an córas díreach / inbhéartach aisteach aige.
Chun mí-insint a chur ar an gcion, is teanga ergative í an Navajo.
Tá córas onóir nó cúram ag Navajo freisin cosúil leis an tSeapáinis nó leis an gCóiré.
Tá an ghné neamhghnách ag Navajo freisin nuair is féidir an focal niinaa  toisc a anailísiú mar bhriathar.
X áhóótįd biniinaa...
Toisc go ndeachaigh X...
Bhris sé i bpíosaí mar gheall orm.
Sa dara abairt, an t-aon bhealach a fhios againn go raibh an 1ú singil i gceist mar gheall ar an duine a mharcáil ar niinaa.
Tá 25 cineál éagsúla de réamhchomharthaí pronominal ann is féidir iad a chur ar a chéile roimh bhunús briathar.
Tá gné an-aisteach ag Navajo ar a dtugtar animacy, áit a nglacann ainmfhocail briathra áirithe de réir a n-rang sa rangas an animeachta is cineál rangú bunaithe ar cé chomh beo is atá rud éigin. Tá daoine agus léim ar an mbarr, tá leanaí agus ainmhithe móra ar an gcéad dul síos agus tá easpaí ar an mbarr.
Ar an iomlán, tá cuid de na morphology polysynthetic is casta go hiontach ag Navajo, fiú i gcomparáid le teangacha il-sintéiseacha eile. Ar na liostaí de na teangacha is craiceáilte agus na teangacha is craiceáilte, is gnách go gcuirtear an Návaho ar an liosta.
Deirtear fiú go bhfuil sé deacair ar leanaí Navajo Navajo a fhoghlaim i gcomparáid le páistí ag foghlaim teangacha eile, ach is cinnte go dtuigeann páistí Navajo an teanga. Ar an gcaoi chéanna le Hopi thíos, is deacair nó fiú dodhéanta fiú na gramadaí Navajo is fearr a thuiscint ag fiú na teangacha.
Mar sin féin, tá Navajo réalta go leor, gné choitianta i dteangacha Amerindian.
Tá Navajo rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá sé deacair an teanga Slavey, teanga Na-Dene de chuid Cheanada, a fhoghlaim. Tá sé cosúil le Navajo agus Apache. Tá suas le 15 réamhfhocal éagsúla ag briathra. Tá córais bhriathra fiáin ag gach teanga Athabasca. Úsáidtear aibítir go hiomlán difriúil ann freisin, aibítir siollabach a ceapadh do Indiaigh Cheanada.
Tá Slavey rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Is minic a mheastar gur teanga Na-Dene í Haida, ach níl aon fhianaise ann go bhfuil stádas aici. Má tá sé Na-Dene, tá sé an ball is faide óna theaghlach. Tá Haida san iomaíocht don teanga is casta ar domhan, le 70 iar-chomhfhocal éagsúla.
Tá Haida rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá cáil fhada ag na teangacha Salishan a labhraítear san Iarthuaisceart ar a bheith deacair a fhoghlaim, go páirteach mar gheall ar shraith fhada de chomhréir, i gcás amháin 11 chomhréir ar fhad. Is iad teangacha na Salis na teangacha amháin ar domhan a cheadaíonn focail gan sonorants.
Níl go leor de na vuálaigh agus na comh-uimhir i bhformhór na dteangacha a labhraítear go forleathan ar fud an domhain. Tá na teangacha Salish, cosúil le Chukchi, poilsintéiseach. Déileálann roinnt aistriúcháin le gach focal Salish mar bhriathra nó mar abairtí. Deir cuid acu nach bhfuil ainmfhocail i dteangacha na Salish, cé go bhfuil sé seo conspóideach. Tá córas béil theangacha na Salish an-chasta.
Tá gach teanga Salishan rátáilte ag 6, an ceann is deacra de gach ceann.
Nuxálk (Bella Coola)
Is teanga Salishan Amerindian í Nuxálk, a labhraítear i gColumbia na Breataine. Tá sé cáiliúil as roinnt focail a bheith i ndáiríre fiáin agus fiú abairtí nach bhfuil aon vowels iontu ar chor ar bith. Mar shampla:
xłp̓x̣włtłpłskwc̓ (xɬpʼχwɬthɬphɬːskwht͡sʼ in IPA)
Bhí plandaí bunchberry aige.
Seo roinnt focail agus abairtí níos aisteach:
Nuyamłamkis timantx tisyuttx ʔułtimnastx.
D'fhéach an t-athair an t-amhrán lena mhac.
Musis tiʔimmllkītx taq̓lsxwt̓aχ.
Bhraith an buachaill an rópa sin.
Mar sin féin, ní úsáidtear an focal seo de ghnáth ag cainteoirí agus ní bhíonn na comhcheangail go léir i bhformhór na bhfocal ar chor ar bith. Tá an teanga aisteach nuair a labhraítear í. Tá sé cur síos mar  whispering agus é ag chewing ar granola bar (féach an sampla físeán faoi Montana Salish thíos).
Tá na cnuasaigh comhcheangail fiáin seo níos craiceáilte ná iad siúd in Ubykh agus NW Caucasian. Go deimhin, tá na cnuasaigh comhcheangail nutty i Salish agus ag cruthú díospóireacht i dteangachas faoi cibé an bhfuil an siolla nó nach bhfuil feiniméan uilíoch sa teanga mar is cosúil go bhfuil siollaí ag roinnt focail agus frásaí Salish. Tá ceisteanna den chineál céanna tagtha ar roinnt dialektí Berber faoin siolla.
Tá Nuxálk ar liostaí na fonológa is craiceáilte ar domhan.
Tá Nuxálk rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach.
Deirtear go bhfuil sé chomh deacair an Salish Montana a fhoghlaim agus an Nuxálk . Tá foirmeacha comhcheangailte agus neamhspleácha ag Spokane (Montana Salish) leis an bhrí chéanna:

- i mbéal
Montana Salish a dhéanann sé ar a lán de na craziest liostaí gramadaí.
Taispeánann an nasc seo seanóir ar Chúlchiste Indiach Flathead i Montana, Steven Smallsalmon, ag labhairt Salish Montana. Tá sé ag tabhairt ranganna teanga freisin. Is dócha gurb é seo ceann de na teangacha is aisteach ar domhan.
Montana Salish rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá idirdhealú gnéasach ag Straits Salish idir leanúnach agus neamh-leanúnach. Ciallaíonn leanúnach go leanann an ghníomhaíocht ar aghaidh tar éis a thús mar stát. Is é an morpheme leanúnach -í. Tá an toradh cosúil le Béarla:
Faigh amach  neamh-inbhraite
 leanúnach
Féach ar  neamh-inbhraite
ag faire  leanúnach
 neamh- leanúnach
seilbh  leanúnach
-í a dtugtar mar morpheme parasiteach agus ní tharlaíonn sé ach i gcroí a bhfuil an fho-bhunaithe ag a fheidhmíonn mar óstach don -í morpheme.
Is minic a liostaítear dialekt Saanich de Straits Salish i ngléasra na gramadaí is craicte ar an Domhan. Is minic a liostaítear an córas scríbhneoireachta mar cheann de na cinn is measa atá ar fáil. Ina theannta sin, tá Saanich ar liostaí na gramadaí is measa mar gheall ar na mófarféimí paraisítí agus mar gheall ar aon idirdhealú a bheith aige idir ainmníochtaí agus briathra!
Faigheann Straits Salish rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Meastar go forleathan gurb é Halkomelem, a labhraíonn 570 duine timpeall Vancouver, British Columbia, ceann de na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim. I Halkomelem, tá treoshuíomh ag go leor briathra i dtreo uisce. Ní féidir leat a rá, chuaigh sí abhaile. Tá tú a rá conas a bhí sí ag dul abhaile i ndáil le comhlachtaí in aice láimhe uisce. Mar sin ag brath ar an áit a bhí sí ag siúl abhaile i ndáil leis an abhainn is gaire, ba mhaith leat a rá:
Bhí sí níos faide ó na uisce agus ag dul abhaile.
Bhí sí ag teacht abhaile sa treo ar shiúl ón uisce.
Bhí sí ag siúl i gcomhthreomhar leis an sruth an uisce síos an sruth.
Bhí sí ag siúl i gcomhthreomhar leis an sruth an uisce suas an sruth.
Faigheann Halkomelem rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Deirtear go bhfuil Lushootseed chomh deacair a fhoghlaim agus Nuxálk. Tá Lushootseed ar cheann de na teangacha beaga ar domhan nach bhfuil aon nasals ar chor ar bith, ach amháin i chláir speisialta cosúil le béil béil agus an cainte ársa de fhigiúirí miotaseolaíochta. Tá gluaiséid agus nasals laryngealized aige freisin: w ̰ , m  ̰ , agus n  ̰ .
Tá Lushootseed rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá gach teanga Iroquoian thar a bheith deacair, ach is dócha go bhfuil an Athabaskan níos deacra fós. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh teangacha Siouan comhionann le Iroquoian i deacracht.
Déan comparáid idir na frásaí céanna i dteangacha Tlingit (Athabaskan) agus i dteangacha Cherokee (Iroquoian).
Tá sé fuar amuigh ansin.
Tá sé fuar anois.
I Tlingit, is féidir leat a chur leis nó a mhodhnú affixes ag an tús mar prefixes, sa lár mar infixes agus ag an deireadh mar suffixes. Sa sampla thuas, d'athraigh tú cuid den fhocal laistigh den chlóis féin.
Tá sé fuar amuigh ansin. (Lit. Tá sé fuar amuigh)
Tá sé fuar anois. (Lit. Anois tá sé fuar.)
Mar a fheiceann tú, tá Cherokee níos éasca.
Tá sé an-deacair Cherokee a fhoghlaim. Chomh maith le gach rud eile, tá aibítir go hiomlán difriúil aige. Tá sé poilsintéiseach, chun rudaí a dhéanamh níos measa. Is féidir abairt Cherokee a scríobh nach bhfuil briathar ann ar bhealach éigin. Tá cúig chatagóir de aicmitheoirí briathra ann. Ní mór focail a bhfuil aicmitheoir ag teastáil uathu ceann a úsáid. Is féidir le gach briathar rialta foirmeacha dochreidte 21,262 a bheith aige! Tá fréamh fíric, réamhtheachtaire pronominal, iar-fhocal modal agus iar-fhocal gnéithe ag gach briathar. Ina theannta sin, déantar briathra a fhilleadh le haghaidh singil, ilghnéithe agus dúlach freisin. Mar shampla:
Tá 126 foirm dhifriúla agat:
 gvyalv'iha mé leat a cheangal suas
 degvyalviha Tá mé ag ceangal suas tú
 Jiyalv'ha mé a cheangal suas
 Tá mé é a cheangal
 sdayalv'iha mé ceangal tú (dual)
 ijvyalv'iha I tie you (pl)
 Gajayalv'iha mé a cheangal iad (ainmhithe)
 Tá mé a cheangal suas iad (inanimate)
 squahlv'iha tú cheangal mé
 hiyalv'iha Tá tú ag ceangal air
 hatlv'iha tú é a cheangal
 skinalv'iha Tá tú ag ceangal mé agus é
 goginatlv'iha siad mé agus é a cheangal etc.
Déanaimis breathnú ar fhoirm eile:
Feicim mé féin gadagotia
Feicim tú gvgohtia
Feicim é / tsigotia
Feicim sé tsigotia
Feicim tú dhá advgotia
Feicim tú (plural) istvgotia
Feicim iad (beo) gatsigotia
Feicim iad (rud) detsigotia
Feiceann tú dom sgigotia
Feicfidh tú féin hadagotia
Féach tú air / uirthi higo ((h) tia
Feicfidh tú é higotia
Feiceann tú eile agus mé sginigotia
Feiceann tú daoine eile agus mé isgigotia
Feicfidh tú iad (beo) dehigotia
Feicfidh tú iad (beo) gahigotia
Feicfidh tú iad (rud) detsigotia
Feicfidh mé agigotia
Feicfidh tú tsagotia
Feicfidh tú atsigotia
Feicfidh sé/sí é/í agotia
Feictear dó/di é/í féin ina adagotia
Feicfidh tú mé ginigotia
Feicfidh tú dhá sdigotia
Feicfidh sé / sí eile + mé oginigotia
Sé sí a fheiceann muid (them + dom) otsigotia
Feicfidh sé/sí tú (plural) isigotia
Feicfidh sé/sí iad dagotia
Tú agus mé a fheiceáil dó / di / sé igigotia
Tú agus mé a fheiceáil féin edadotia
Tuigim féin agus tú a chéile denadagotia/dosdadagotia
Tú agus mé a fheiceáil orthu (beo) genigotia
Tú agus mé a fheiceáil iad (bheo nó nach bhfuil) denigotia
Tá tú dhá fheiceáil dom sgninigotia
Tá tú dhá a fheiceáil é / í / sé esdigotia
Feicfidh tú féin dhá sdadagotia
Tá tú dhá a fheiceáil dúinn (another agus mé) sginigotia
Féach tú dhá iad desdigotia
An ceann eile agus feicim tú sdvgotia
Tá mé ag féachaint air / uirthi osdigotia
Tá sé eile agus feicim sé osdigotia
An ceann eile agus feicim tú-dhá sdvgotia
Tá mé agus duine eile a fheiceáil féin dosdadagotia
Tá mé ag féachaint ort (plural) isvgotia
Tá mé eile agus feicim iad dosdigotia
Tú (plural) a fheiceáil dom isgigoti
Tá tú (plúireal) ag féachaint air/uirthi etsigoti
Feicfidh siad mé gvgigotia
Feicfidh siad tú a fháilagotia
Feicfidh siad é/í anigoti
Feicfidh siad tú agus mé geginigoti
Feicfidh siad tú dhá gesdigoti
Feicfidh siad eile agus mé gegigotia / gogenigoti
Feicfidh siad tú (plural) getsigoti
Feicfidh siad iad danagotia
Feicfidh siad iad féin anadagoti
Feicfidh mé datsigoi
Chonaic mé agigohvi
Beidh sé / sí a fheiceáil dvgohi
Tá uimhir marcáilte le haghaidh cuimsitheach vs eisiach agus tá dúbailte ann. Tá an tríú duine iolra marcáilte le haghaidh beoga/neamhbheoga. Glacann briathra foirmeacha réad éagsúla ag brath ar an réad atá soladach / beo / cruth neamhchinnte / solúbtha. Tá sé seo cosúil leis an gcóras Navajo.
Tá ton léasacha ag Cherokee freisin, le rialacha casta maidir le conas is féidir le tonnta a chur le chéile. Níl an t-ádh sa litriú. Tá an fhónalóg faoi deara ar bhealach nach bhfuil aon chomhcheangail labial aige.
Mar sin féin, tá Cherokee an-rialta. Níl ach trí bhriathra neamhrialta ann. Níl ann ach go bhfuil go leor rialacha casta.
Tá Cherokee rátáilte 5.5, gar don chuid is deacra de gach.
Tá struchtúir dochreidte casta ag Wyandot, teanga codlata a d'éag thart ar 50 bliain. Déanaimis féachaint ar cheann acu. Is é Wyandot an t-aon teanga ar domhan a cheadaíonn abairtí diúltacha nach bhfuil morpheme diúltach iontu ar bhealach éigin. Wyandot é a dhéanamh ar liostaí grammars craziest. (Le leanúint).
Gleann Mississippi-Ghleann Ohio Siouan
Siouan Gleann Mississippi
D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh teangacha Lakota agus teangacha Siouan eile chomh casta le Iroquoian. I Lakota, léirítear gach aidiacht mar bhriathra. Tá rud éigin den chineál céanna le feiceáil sa Náhuatl.
Ógle sápe kiŋ makú.
An t-seansail tá sé dubh thug sé é dom.
Thug sé an t-éadaí dubh dom.
Sa mhéid thuas, is briathar stative é dubh agus feidhmíonn sé mar aidiacht.
Ógle kiŋ sabá makú.
Shirt an blackly thug sé é dom.
Thug sé an t-éadaí dubh dom. (Lit. Thug sé dom an t-seisear blackly.)
Is adverb é Bkackly a fheidhmíonn mar aidiacht thuas.
Faigheann Lakota rátáil 5.5 is deacra de gach ceann.
Tá idirdhealú ag gach teanga Algonquian idir ainmfhocail bheo/neamhbheo, chomh maith le idirdhealú gar/neamhtha agus díreach/athshlán. Mar sin féin, níl an chuid is mó de na teangacha a bhfuil idirdhealú gar-/an-eitilte agus díreach/iompartha acu chomh deacair le Algonquian.
Is bealach é an t-aistriúchán chun an tríú duine a mharcáil sa chaint. Déanann sé idirdhealú idir 3ú duine tábhachtach (dlúth) agus 3ú duine níos imeallmhara (soiléire). Is gnách go marcáiltear ainmneacha beoga agus ainmneacha sealbhóirí le bheith gar agus is gnách go marcáiltear ainmneacha gan bheatha agus ainmneacha sealbhóirí le bheith neamhspleách.
Is bealach é Direct/Inverse chun an díospóireacht a mharcáil i dtéarmaí salience, topicality nó animacy. Ciallaíonn sé go bhfuil ainmfhocal amháin níos airde ná ainmfhocal eile i dtéarmaí saliency, topicality nó animacy go bhfuil an t-ainmfhocal sin níos airde i dtéarmaí ordlathas an duine. Ní úsáidtear é ach i gclásail thras-thréimhseacha. Nuair a bhíonn rangú níos airde ag an ábhar ná an réad, úsáidtear an fhoirm dhíreach. Nuair a bhíonn rangú níos airde ag an réad ná an réad, úsáidtear an fhoirm inverse.
Tá sé an-deacair Cree a fhoghlaim. Tá sé scríofa ar bhealaí éagsúla le aibítir agus córais síllabacha éagsúla, rud a chuireann níos mó casta ar an ábhar. Tá go leor fadhbanna ag an aibítir siollabach agus is minic a liostaítear é mar cheann de na scríbhinní is measa atá ar fáil. Tá siad araon polysynthetic agus tá vowels fada, gearr agus nasal agus consonants gan guth aspirated agus unaspirated. Tá focail roinnte ina gcinn méadrach, tá na rialacha chun an t-aistrithe strus a chinneadh i bhfocail casta go leor agus tá go leor neamhrialtachta ann. Is minic a thiteann vowels amach, nó a thagann i gcomhthráth, laistigh de focail.
Cuireann Cree aicmithe ainmfhocal leis an meascán, agus marcáiltear ainmfhocail agus briathra araon mar bheo nó gan bheo. Ina theannta sin, tá briathra marcáilte le haghaidh trasna agus neamhthrasna. Ina theannta sin, faigheann briathra affixes éagsúla ag brath ar cibé an dtarlaíonn siad i bpríomh-chlásail nó i gclásail fho-ordúcháin.
Cree rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Deirtear go bhfuil an Ojibwa chomh deacair a fhoghlaim agus an Cree mar tá sé an-chosúil.
Tá Ojibwa rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá an Cheyenne ar eolas go maith mar theanga Mheiriceánach Indiach a bhfuil sé deacair a fhoghlaim. Cosúil le go leor teangacha poilsintéiseacha, is féidir focail an-fhad a bheith aige.
Níl a fhios agam i ndáiríre Cheyenne an-mhaith.
Mar sin féin, tá Cheyenne réalta go leor, ach tá an oiread sin rialacha casta go bhfuil sé deacair iad go léir a fháil amach.
Cheyenne rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá fuaiméireacht aisteach ag Arapaho. Níl aon fhuaimíní fonéimeacha íseal ann. Is éard atá sa chóras vóilig i, ɨ~, u, ɛ, agus ɔ, gan aon fhóinmíní íseal. Tá leagan fada comhfhreagrach ag gach vowel freisin. Ina theannta sin, tá ceithre dhiphthongs, ei, ou, oe agus ie, roinnt triphthongs, eii, oee, agus ouu, chomh maith le seicheamh leathnaithe vuálaigh mar eee le béim ar an gcéad nó ar an vuálach deireanach sa chomhcheangal. Tá briathra fada de chineálacha éagsúla coitianta:
Beidh mé a chur ar an solas amach.
Tá sé ag báisteach.
Tá córas béimí píosa le tonna titim gnáth, ard agus allophonic. Téann focail Arapaho faoi roinnt athruithe fuaime an-fhiú.
Tá Arapaho rátáil 6, is deacra de gach.
Tá córas fónála den chineál céanna ag Gros Ventre agus athruithe fuaime forleathan den chineál céanna le Arapaho.
Gros Ventre rátáil 5, is deacra ar fad.
Tá go leor tréithe fónála aisteach ag Wichita. Níl ach aon nasal amháin aige. Tá labials annamh agus níl ach dhá fréamh ann. D'fhéadfadh nach mbeadh ach trí fhuaim, i, e, agus a, ann freisin, agus ní raibh ach airde mar idirdhealú. Ní fhaightear dáileadh tiomantais chobhsaitheach srianta den sórt sin ach amháin i dteangacha Caucasian NW agus na Ndu Papuan. Is cosúil go bhfuil trí threocht ag baint le fad na bhfócail  rialta, fada agus ró-fhada.
Níl sé seo ach i mBéarla agus i mBéarla. Tá roinnt aimsir suimiúla ann. Ciallaíonn an aimsir foirfe go bhfuil gníomh déanta. Ciallaíonn an aimsir intinn aisteach go bhfuil súil ag duine nó go raibh súil aige gníomh a dhéanamh. Ciallaíonn an aimsir thraidisiúnta go mbíonn duine ag gabháil go rialta leis an ngníomhaíocht, ní go bhfuil duine ag déanamh amhlaidh faoi láthair.
Ceadaítear cnuasaigh fada comhchruinn.
Tá go leor cásanna ann inar laghdaíodh sraith CV go C mar gheall ar chailliúint an fhuaimín, rud a fhágann go bhfuil focail aisteach mar:
Tá ord na bhfocal ordáilte de réir nuacht nó tábhachta.
Ár sinsear Dia chuir dúinn ar an Domhan seo.
wee hira:r tii na:kirih
Chuir Dia ár sinsear ar an Domhan seo.
Sa abairt thuas, is é 'ár sinsir' an t-ábhar i ndáiríre, mar sin tá sé ciallmhar go dtagann sé ar dtús.
Tá Wichita san áireamh agus san áireamh go heisiach 3ú duine il-fhocal agus tá singil, dúlach agus il-fhocal ann. Tá córas fianaise ann nuair a deir tú go bhfuil a fhios agat rud éigin, ní mór duit a rá conas a bhfuil a fhios agat é - cibé an eolas pearsanta é nó gur ráfla é.
Wichita faigheann 6 rátáil, is deacra ar fad.
Tá na fricatives glottalized neamhghnácha fʼ, sʼ, ɬʼ agus xʼ ag Huamelutec nó Lowland Oaxaca Chantal mar a chuid comh-aigineacha glottalized amháin. Tá siad in éineacht le f, s, l agus x simplí. Tá fʼ, ɬʼ agus xʼ an-annamh i dteangacha an domhain, de ghnáth ní fhaightear iad ach i 2-3 theanga eile, go minic i NW Caucasian. Ní tharlaíonn xʼ ach i dteanga amháin eile  Tlingit. Tá sʼ beagán níos coitianta, ag tarlú i cúig theanga eile lena n-áirítear Tlingit. I dteangacha eile, déantar na fuaimeanna neamhghnácha seo a dhíriú ó shraith de chonsúin + q: Cq -> Cʔ -> frithghníomha glottalized.
Tá struchtúr abairt aisteach:
Buail an liathróid an fear.
Buail an fear an liathróid.
Bhuail an fear an liathróid.
Ciallaíonn gach rud an rud céanna.
Faigheann Huamelutec rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Is teanga iargúlta í Karok a labhraíonn cúpla dosaen duine i dtuaisceart California. Fuair an cainteoir dúchais deireanach bás le déanaí, áfach, tá ~ 80 ann a bhfuil leibhéil éagsúla d'fhuiling L2 acu.
I Karok, is féidir leat a úsáid a suffix do chineálacha éagsúla de chuimsitheacht  tine, uisce nó soladach.
a chaitheamh isteach i tine
a chaitheamh isteach san uisce
a chaitheamh trí sholadach
Níl baint ag na comhlánaithe leis na focail le haghaidh tine, uisce agus soladach.
Faigheann Karok rátáil 5, an ceann is deacra.
Tá an teanga Hopi chomh deacair sin go bhfuil sé beagnach dodhéanta na gramadaí a chuireann síos ar an teanga a thuiscint. Mar shampla, tá dhá fhocal éagsúla ag Hopi le haghaidh agus ag brath ar an bhfocal ainmníochta ina bhfuil an focal agus ainmníochta nó cúisitheach.
Tá Hopi rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
I Náuaitil, ní bhíonn an chuid is mó de na hainmhithe ach focail sheasmhacha. Dá bhrí sin:
Bhí duine ag dul go eTenochtitlan.
An fear atá sé ar airde chuaigh sé go Tenochtitlan.
Chuaigh an fear ard go Tenochtitlan.
Is briathar stative é "is tall" san fhocal thuas.
Faigheann Nahuatl rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Tá an Comanche ina laoch mar go bhfuil sé ar cheann de na teangacha Indiacha is deacra a fhoghlaim. Níl a fhios cén fáth, ach tá gach teanga Indiach go leor deacair. Tá amhras orm an bhfuil an Comanche níos deacra ná teangacha Numic eile.
Go hiontach go leor, tá fuaimeanna an-aisteach ag Comanche ar a dtugtar vowels gan guth, is cosúil gur oxymoron é, mar is cosúil go bhfuil vocals glactha go bunúsach. Tá rud éigin cosúil le vowels gan guth i mBéarla sna focail ar leith agus aisteach, áit a n-oibríonn na vowels bolded rud éigin cosúil le vowel gan guth.
Baineadh úsáid as Comanche ar feadh tamaill ag na codspeakers sa Dara Cogadh Domhanda  ní raibh na Navajos go léir ina codspeakers. Roghnaíodh Comanche go sonrach mar go raibh sé deacair a fháil amach. Níorbh fhéidir leis na Seapáine cód Comanche a bhriseadh.
Comanche rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá sé an-deacair do dhaoine nach bhfuil i dteangacha na Síne a fhoghlaim, an t-eangacha Chinantec, teanga Indiach de dheas-thiarthar Mheicsiceo. Tá an córas ton an-chasta, agus tá an sintéacs agus an mhorfóilimhe an-chasta.
Chinantec rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá idirdhealú ag Jalapa Mazatec idir vuálaigh modúla, creaky, guth breathe-voice mar aon le leaganacha nasal na trí cinn sin. Tá comhghleacaithe creaky agus nasals gan guth ann freisin. Tá trí thonn aige, íseal, lár agus ard. Mar thoradh ar na tonnta a chomhcheangal, bíonn tonnta comhthreomhar éagsúla ann. Ina theannta sin, tá idirdhealú trí bhealach ann i fhad na vuála. Is féidir labhairt le whistled freisin. Tá idirdhealú fónamach aige idir siollacha ballistic agus controlled nach bhfuil i láthair ach ar Oto-Manguean.
 te
nīntū  sleamhnáin
ts  guava
hų̄  tú plúr
  gorm
nīntū  snáthaid
ts  iomlán
hų̄  sé
Tá Jalapa Mazatec rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra.
Is teanga an-deacair í an tTariana den chuid is mó mar gheall ar an méid dochreidte faisnéise a chuimsíonn sí ina mhorfholaíocht agus ina shintase. Tá sé seo den chuid is mó toisc gur teanga Arawakan í a bhfuil tionchar mór aici ó theangacha Tucanoan comharsanacha, agus mar thoradh air sin tá go leor de na catagóirí gramadaí agus de na cáithníní atá i láthair sa dá theaghlach aici.
Tagann sé seo as an dá theangacht forleathan i mBasín Vaupes na Cólamibia, áit a bhfásann go leor daoine suas ina dhá theanga óna óige agus is minic a bhíonn siad ilteangacha ag an aois fásta. Tá sé coitianta go bhfuil suas le cúig theanga éagsúla á foghlaim. Bhí droch-mheas ar an gcód-athrú agus bhí gáire ar dhuine ar bith a d'úsáid focal ó theanga Y agus é ag labhairt theanga X. Dá bhrí sin, bhí claonadh ag na teangacha éagsúla gnéithe a fháil ar iasacht óna chéile go héasca.
Mar shampla, tá córas aicmitheoir ainmfhocal agus córas inscne ag Tariana. Uaireanta cuirtear aicmitheoirí ainmfhocail agus inscne faoi chatagóir amháin de  aicmitheoirí ainmfhocail. Ach tá an dá rud ag Tariana, is dócha óna chaidreamh le dhá theaghlach teanga go hiomlán difriúil. Mar sin, i Tariana ní haon rud neamhghnách an dá léiriú agus briathra a bheith marcáilte do rang agus do rangú ainmníochta araon. D'iarraigh Tariana rudaí mar bhriathra braite sraitheach agus an marcóir dúbthach ó Tucano.
Ina theannta sin, tá roinnt fuaimeanna an-aisteach ag Tariana, lena n-áirítear nasal mh (mh), nh (nh) agus ñh (ɲh) agus w (wh) de gach rud. Is cosúil go bhfuil siad i ndáiríre a bheith aspirated, ní amháin go páirteach devoiced mar go leor nasals gan guth agus leachtacha.
Tarana faigheann 6, is deacra ar fad.
Tá 350 aicme ainmfhocal éagsúla ag Bora, teanga Wintotoan a labhraítear i bPéiru agus sa Cholóim in aice le teorainn idir an dá thír. Tá an córas aicmithe ainmníochta an-táirgiúil i ndáiríre agus is minic a úsáidtear é chun ainmníochtaí nua a chruthú. Is féidir ainmfhocail nua a chruthú go héasca, agus is minic go bhfuil a gcuid bríonna trédhearcach ó thaobh séamaintiúil de. I roinnt córais aicmithe ainmníochta, is féidir aicmithe a chur ar a chéile. I gcásanna den sórt sin, is gnách go n-úsáidtear an ceann deireanach chun críocha comhaontaithe.
Tá teanga tonal i mBora freisin, ach níl ach dhá thonn aici. Ina theannta sin, tá comhghleacaithe fónómacha fónómacha agus palatalized ag beagnach gach fónam comhghleacaithe. Tá struchtúr comhaontaithe an teanga an-chasta freisin. Cuirtear an córas aicmitheora in ionad mórfholaíocht díorthaithe go héifeachtach ar phróisis chomhcheangail ainmfhocal agus ainmfhocal a úsáideann teangacha eile chun bríonna ainmneacha a leathnú.
Bora faigheann 6 rátáil, is deacra de gach.
Is teanga Tucanoach í Tuyuca a labhraíonn 450 duine i roinn Vaupés sa Cholóim. Tháinig alt i iris The Economist chun críche gurbh é an teanga is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim.
Tá córas fuaime simplí aige, ach tá sé aglutinative, agus tá teangacha aglutinative an-deacair. Mar shampla, ciallaíonn hóabãsiriga nach bhfuil a fhios agam conas a scríobh. Tá dhá fhoirm den chéad duine iolrach ann, mé agus tú (lena n-áirítear) agus mé agus na daoine eile (eisiach). Tá idir 50-140 rang ainmníochta ann, lena n-áirítear cinn aisteach cosúil le craiceann nach bhfuil ag greamaíocht go dlúth ar chrann, a d'fhéadfaí a leathnú chun bríonna baggy nó pluaide fliuch a thosú ag titim as a chéile a chiallaíonn.
Cosúil le Yamana, teanga Amerindian beagnach imithe as an saol i Sile, tá Tuyuca ag marcáil le haghaidh fianaise, is é sin, conas a bhíonn a fhios agat rud éigin. Mar shampla:
Diga ap-wi. = Bhí an buachaill ag imirt peile. (Chonaic mé é ag imirt).
Diga ap-hiyi. = Bhí an buachaill ag imirt peile. (Tá mé ag glacadh leis go raibh sé ag imirt peile, cé nach raibh mé a fheiceáil go pearsanta).
Tá sé éigeantach marcáil fianaise a dhéanamh ar gach briathar Tuyuca agus é a chur i bhfeidhm ort smaoineamh ar conas a bhfuil a fhios agat cibé rud atá ar eolas agat.
Tuyuca cinnte faigheann 6 rátáil!
Tá rang beag dúnta fréamhacha aidiachta ag Cubeo, teanga a labhraítear i Vaupes na Colóime, cosúil le Juʼhoan thíos:
ɨra  mór/mhór
kɨhĩ  beag
 nua/óg
bɨkɨ  sean/mhór
be  maith/ álainn
 olc/droch
Mar sin féin, is féidir le briathra feidhmiú mar aidiachtaí, agus is féidir leis na fréamhacha aidiachta dul ina n-ainmeacha iad féin nó is féidir leo infleachtaí ainmneacha nó briathra a ghlacadh. Fiáin!
Cosúil leis an gcaoi a ndeachaigh teangacha Tucano i bhfeidhm ar ghramadach Tariana, tá tionchar ag teangacha Arawakan comharsanacha ar ghramadach Cubeo Tucanoan. Tá an gramaic a tuairiscíodh mar SOV nó OVS. Ciallaíonn sé sin go ndéanfar na nithe seo a leanas:
An fear a bhuail an liathróid.
Bhuail an liathróid an fear.
Ciallaíonn sé na rudaí céanna. Tá teangacha OVS an-annamh.
Baineann morphemes le ceann de cheithre aicme:
- Nasal (go leor fréamhacha, chomh maith le iar-scríbhinní mar -xã = comhlachas)
- Béal (go leor fréamhacha, chomh maith le iar-fhocail mar -pe = cosúlacht, -du = frustrach)
- Gan mharcáil (níl ach fhrith-fhocail, e.g. -re = in/object díreach)
- Oral/Nasal (seoltar fréamhacha agus roinnt iar-fhocail) /bãˈkaxa-/(mãˈkaxa-)  chun defecate agus -kebã = suppose
Ní féidir, ach ag féachaint ar aon fhocal comhréiteach-thosaitheach ar leith, a chinneadh cén ceann de na trí chatagóir is luaithe a bhaineann sé leis. Caithfear iad a fhoghlaim ceann ar cheann.
Tá an t-aigéad nasal ag Cubeo, rud a bhfuil coitianta i go leor teangacha Amazon. I roinnt díobh seo, déantar anailís is fearr ar nasalization ag an leibhéal siollaí  tá roinnt siollaí nasal agus níl cuid eile ann.
Chuaigh sí le déanaí.
Tá an fhoirm bhunúsach dĩ-bI-ko réadú ar an dromchla mar nĩmĩko. An ĩ in dĩ-bI-ko nasalizes an d, an b, agus an I ar gach taobh de, mar sin ag scaipeadh nasal oibríonn i mbeirt threo. Mar sin féin, tá sé bacáilte ón tríú siolla mar go bhfuil k mar chuid de rang de chomhréir nach féidir a nasal.
Teanga an-deacair.
Cuneo faigheann 6 rátáil, is deacra ar fad.
Tá Hixkaryána cáiliúil mar an t-aon teanga ar domhan a bhfuil ord focal OVS (Object-Verb-Subject) bunúsach aige.
Ciallaíonn an abairt Toto yonoye kamara, nó D'ith an fear an jaguar, go deimhin d'ith an jaguar an fear.
Toto yonoye kamara
Lit. D'ith an fear an jaguar.
Gloss: D'ith an jaguar an fear.
Ní hamháin go ndéanann na suffixes gramadaí a ghabhann le deireadh an bhriathar uimhir a chur in iúl ach freisin gné, giúmar agus aimsir.
Faigheann Hixkaryána rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Is sraith teangacha dlúthbhainte é seo i ndáiríre seachas teanga amháin, ach is í an teanga Nambikwara Theas an teanga is cáiliúla den teaghlach, le 1,200 cainteoir san Amazon na Brasaíle.
Tá fónolaíocht casta. Déanann comh-aistriúcháin idirdhealú idir a bhfuil an t-aspiráid, an t-aonad agus an glottalized, coitianta sna Meiriceá. Tá fuaimeanna aisteach cosúil le frithghníomhú glottalized nasal prestopped. Tá vowels nasal agus trí thonn éagsúla. Tá comhghleacaithe nasal, creaky-voiced agus nasal-creaky ag gach vowels ach amháin, ar feadh 19 vowel san iomlán.
Tá an gramaic poilsintéiseach le córas fianaise casta.
De réir tuairiscí, ní ghlacann leanaí Nambikwara an teanga go hiomlán go dtí aois 10 nó mar sin, ceann de na haois is déanaí a thaifeadtar le haghaidh inniúlacht iomlán. Deirtear uaireanta gurb í Nambikwara an teanga is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim, ach tá iomaíocht aici.
Nambikwara cinnte faigheann 6 rátáil, is deacra ar fad!
Is teanga scoite é Pirahã a labhraítear san Amazon na Brasaíle. Léiríonn scríbhinní le déanaí ag Daniel Everett nach amháin go bhfuil sé seo ar cheann de na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim, ach go bhfuil sé ar cheann de na teangacha is aisteach ar domhan freisin. Tá sé an-chasta i mbeagnach gach bealach is féidir a shamhlú. Tá sé liostaithe go coitianta ar ghálaire rogues de na teangacha agus na fónálachtaí is craiceáilte ar an Domhan.
Tá an fhilíocht fhónamach is lú ar domhan aige le seacht gconsúin, trí fhuaim agus dhá nó trí thonn amháin. Scríobh Everett páipéar faoi le déanaí tar éis dó blianta fada a chaitheamh leo. Ní raibh deis ag misinéirí roimhe seo a chaith am leis na Pirahã an teanga a fhoghlaim de ghnáth toisc go raibh sé ró-deacair í a fhoghlaim. Thóg sé Everett am an-fhada, ach d'fhoghlaim sé go maith é sa deireadh.
Tá go leor de na héilimh a dhéanann Everett faoi Pirahã iontach: cainte whistled, aon chóras chun cuntáil, an-bheag iasachtaí Portaingéile (diúltaíonn siad go stuama iasachtaí Portaingéile a úsáid) fianaise le haghaidh hipitéis réalaíoch teanga Sapir-Whorf, agus fianaise go sáróidh sé cuid de na huniversalacha teanga a cheap Noam Chomsky mar shampla cur isteach. Tá an t͡ fuaim aige freisin  a bhfuil postdental affricate trí-bhéal ach amháin i dhá theanga eile, araon san Amazon na Brasaíle  Oro Win agus Wari.
Ar dtús, ní raibh Everett chuala an fhuaim, ach fuair siad a fhios dó níos fearr, thosaigh siad a dhéanamh níos minice. Creideann Everett go raibh grúpaí eile ag magadh orthu nuair a rinne siad an fhuaim aisteach.
Tá an córas gaolmhara is simplí i Pirahã in aon teanga  níl ach focal ann do mháthair agus athair araon, agus níl aon fhocal ag na Pirahã do dhuine ar bith seachas gaolta bitheolaíocha díreacha.
B'fhéidir nach bhfuil ach dhá uimhreacha ag Pirahã, nó b'fhéidir nach bhfuil córas uimhriúil ann ar chor ar bith.
Ní dhéanann Pirahã idirdhealú idir duine singiléir agus iomadúil. Tá sé seo an-neamhghnách. B'fhéidir go ndearna an teanga a sheata pronoun iomlán a fháil ar iasacht ó na teangacha Tupian Nheengatu agus Tenarim, grúpaí a raibh teagmháil ag na Pirahã roimhe seo leo. B'fhéidir gurb é seo ceann de na cásanna amháin a ndearnadh fianaise orthu maidir le sraith pronoun iomlán a fháil ar iasacht.
Tá marcóirí fhianaise éigeantach ann a chaithfear a úsáid i gcaint Pirahã. Ní mór do chainteoirí a rá conas a bhfuil a fhios acu rud éigin, cibé acu a chonaic siad é féin, cibé acu a bhí sé hearsay nó cibé acu a inferred siad é ar bhonn imthosca.
Tá stíl mhaorga éagsúla ann - an t-éileamh (an t-éileamh gníomh a dhéanamh) agus dhá chineál frustrach - frustrachas ag tosú gníomh (inchoative / incomplete) agus frustrachas ag críochnú gníomh (causative / incomplete). Tá cinn eile ann: láithreach/intinn (tá tú chun rud éigin a dhéanamh anois/tá intinn agat é a dhéanamh sa todhchaí)
Tá go leor gnéithe briathracha ann: foirfe / neamhiomlán (comhlánaithe / neamhlánaithe) telic / atelic (tarrtháil sprioc / gan sprioc a bhaint amach), leanúnach (fás), athdhéanta (iterative), agus tús a chur le gníomh (inchoative).
Tá 262,144 foirm féideartha ag gach briathar Pirahã, nó is féidir go bhfuil na milliúin ann, ag brath ar an anailís a úsáideann tú.
Tá an aimsir sa todhchaí roinnte ina todhchaí/ar áit éigin agus sa todhchaí/ar áit eile. Tá an aimsir a bhí caite roinnte ina thréimhse ghlan agus i thréimhse ghlan láithreach.
Níl ach 90 bunfhocal briathar ag Pirahã, líon an-bheag. Ach is féidir na fréamhacha seo a chur le chéile chun briathra comhcheangailte a fhoirmiú, catagóir i bhfad níos mó. Seo sampla amháin de thrí bhriathra a shínítear le chéile chun briathra comhcheangailte a chruthú:
xig ab op
dul dul a thabhairt ar ais, tú rud éigin a chur ar shiúl, tú ar ais, agus tú dul ar ais go dtí an áit a fuair tú é a thabhairt ar ais é.
Níl aon téarmaí dath abstratacha i Pirahã. Níl ach dhá fhocal ann do dathanna, ceann don solas agus ceann don dorchadas. Is i bPapúa Nua-Ghuine atá na teangacha eile amháin a bhfuil an tuiscint seo ar dhath teoranta acu. Níl na téarmaí dathanna eile ina téarmaí dathanna i ndáiríre, ach tá siad níos tuairisciúla  déantar dearg a aistriú mar cosúil le fuil.
Is féidir an Pirahã a fhliuchadh, a mhúineadh nó a chódú i gceol. Is féidir comhchlocha agus vowels a fhágáil ar lár go hiomlán agus brí a chur in iúl ina ionad sin trí athruithe i strus, airde agus rithim. Múineann máithreacha an teanga do leanaí trí múnlaí ceoil a athdhéanamh.
B'fhéidir gurb é an Pirahã ceann de na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim.
Pirahã faigheann 6 rátáil, is deacra de gach.
Tá Quechua (i ndáiríre grúpa mór teangacha agus ní teanga amháin ar chor ar bith) ar cheann de na teangacha Amerindian is éasca a fhoghlaim. Is sampla clasaiceach é an Quechua de ghramadach an-rialta le cúpla eisceacht. Tá a chóras comhcheangailteach níos simplí ná fiú an Tuircis. Tá an fhónálaíocht bás simplí.
Ar an taobh síos, tá go leor difríocht diaicteach (is teangacha ar leith iad seo agus ní diaictí) agus easpa ábhair foghlama. Deir cuid acu go gcaitheann cainteoirí Quechua a saol ar fad ag foghlaim an teanga.
Tá orthography neamhréireach ag Quechua. Tá troid ann idir iad siúd a roghnaíonn orthography bunaithe ar Spáinnis agus iad siúd a roghnaíonn ceann níos fóinéime. Chomh maith leis sin tá argóint ann maidir le cibé an ba chóir an teanga Ayacucho nó an teanga Cuzco a úsáid mar bhonn.
Tá gné deacair ag Quechua ar a dtugtar marcáil fianaise. Léiríonn an marcóir seo foinse eolais an chainteora agus cé chomh cinnte atá siad faoin ráiteas.
-mi léiríonn eolas pearsanta:
Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirmi.
Is tiománaí é an tUasal Huayllacahua. (Tá a fhios agam é le haghaidh fíricí.)
-si léiríonn eolas hearsay:
Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirsi.
Is tiománaí é an tUasal Huayllacahua (nó mar a chuala mé).
Léiríonn chá an fhéidearthacht láidir:
Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirchá.
Is tiománaí é an tUasal Huayllacahua (is dóichí).
Tá an Quechua rátáilte 4, an-deacair.
Tá cuid den mhórfónóilíocht is fial ann i nGaeilge Aymara. Tá scriosadh gluaine morpheme-deiridh i láthair sa teanga mar phróiseas morphophonological, agus tá sé ag brath ar shraith rialacha fónálacha, morphúlacha agus sintasacha an-chasta (Kim 2013).
Mar shampla, tá trí chineál suffix ann: ceannasacha, athghníomhach agus ní bhíonn an 3ú rang ceannasach ná athghníomhach. Má chríochnaíonn bunleagan i bhfuaimneach, scriosann na h-uimhir uachtaracha an fhuaimneach ach ceadaíonn na h-uimhir athghníomhacha an fhuaimneach fanacht. An tríú rang a scriosann nó a choinníonn an vowel ar an stéim ag brath ar cé mhéad vowels atá sa stéim. Má tá dhá fhuaim ag an gcroí, coinnítear an fhuaim. Má tá trí fhuaim ann, scriosfar an fhuaim.
Cé go bhfuil an chuma ar fad seo go leor aisteach, tá rud éigin cosúil ag tarlú sa Fhinnéis, mura bhfuil sé i bhfad níos measa.
Mar sin féin, deirtear go bhfuil an Aymara fós ina theanga an-éasca le foghlaim. Deir Leabhar Guinness na gClártaí Domhanda go bhfuil sé beagnach chomh éasca le foghlaim le Esperanto.
Faigheann Aymara rátáil 2, an-éasca a fhoghlaim.
Tá teangacha Aborigine na hAstráile ar na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim, cosúil le teangacha Amerindian nó Caucasian. Tá contrastachtaí fónamacha ag roinnt teangacha na hAstráile nach bhfuil i mbeagán teangacha eile, mar shampla conónálaí apico-dental, lamino-dental, apico-post-alveolar, agus lamino-postalveolar.
Is gnách go mbíonn teangacha na hAstráile measctha ergative. Tá ainmfhocail gnáth ergative-absolutive, ach tá pronouns 1ú agus 2ú duine ainmníochta-accusative. Tá idirdhealú trí bhealach ag teanga amháin idir gníomhaire-othar-taithí sa pronóm 1ú duine. De ghnáth bíonn foirmeacha singil, ilmhíle agus dhúbailte ag malartuithe na hAstráile chomh maith le 1ú ilmhíle cuimsitheach agus eisiach. I roinnt abairtí, tá an rud a dtugtar comhaontú cás dúbailte acu, rud a bhfuil annamh i dteangacha an domhain:
Thug mé spear a mo athair.
Thug mé spear mianach-go-athair.
Tá an dá ghné den abairt mo athair i dative agus i genitive araon.
Mar sin féin, tá an buntáiste ag teangacha na mborthanach go bhfuil siad an-rialta.
Tá gach teanga Astrálach rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach ceann.
Is teanga Tor-Orya é Berik a labhraítear i gcolún na hIndinéise Irian Jaya i Nua-Ghuine.
Bíonn go leor deireadh aisteach ag briathra, i go leor cásanna cinn éigeantacha, a léiríonn cén uair den lá a tharla rud éigin, i measc rudaí eile.
Telbener  Is é an t-ól sa tráthnóna.
Nuair a ghlacann briathar réad, ní hamháin go marcfar é de réir am an lae ach de réir mhéid an réad.
Kitobana  Tugann sé trí rud mór d'fhear i solas na gréine.
Is féidir briathra a mharcáil freisin le haghaidh áit a dtarlaíonn an gníomh i dtaca leis an cainteoir.
Gwerantena  Rud mór a chur in áit íseal in aice láimhe.
Tá Berik rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Trasna Nua-Ghuine
Is í Amele an teanga is casta ar domhan maidir le foirmeacha briathar, le 69,000 foirm chríochnaithe agus 860 foirm neamhchríochnaithe.
Tá Amele rátáil 6, is deacra ar fad.
Is cás aisteach é Valman ina bhfuil an focal agus a nascann dhá ainmfhocal ina bhfiarán de gach rud agus tá sé marcáilte leis an gcéad ainmfhocal mar ábhar agus an dara ainmfhocal mar réad.
John (ábhar) agus Mary (ábhar)
Tá Eoin marcáilte mar ábhar ar chúis éigin, agus tá Máire marcáilte mar ghné, agus léiríonn an focal agus go bhfuil an t-ábhar ag aontacht le Eoin agus go bhfuil an ghné ag aontacht le Máire.
Faigheann Valman rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Tá sé deacair teangacha Seimiciúla mar Araibis agus Eabhrais a fhoghlaim, agus tá an Araibis (go háirithe MSA) ar cheann liostaí go leor foghlaimeoirí teanga mar an teanga is deacra a rinne siad iarracht a fhoghlaim riamh. Cé go bhfuil briathra Seimitigh an-chasta, tá roinnt buntáistí ag an gcóras briathra go háirithe i gcomparáid le teangacha IE cosúil leis an Slavach. Murab ionann agus na Slavacha, ní bhíonn briathra Seimiciúla ag cur isteach ar stádas agus níl aon rud foirfe nó neamhiomlán ann.
Tá roinnt bealaí an-neamhrialta ag an Araibis maidir le díghrádú ainmfhocal, fiú sa iomad. Mar shampla, athraíonn an focal cailíní ar bhealach nach féidir a thuar nuair a deir tú cailín amháin, beirt cailíní agus trí cailíní, agus tá dhá bhealach éagsúla ann dhá chailín a rá ag brath ar an gcomhthéacs. Tá dhá chailín marcáilte leis an dá cheann, ach is féidir foirmeacha éagsúla dá cheann a úsáid. Tá sé deacair go leor do na cainteoirí nach bhfuil dual i dteanga dhúchais a dteanga a bheith ag labhairt i dteangacha uile a bhfuil dual ann. Mar sin féin, tá an dúbailte intuartha ón singil, mar sin d'fhéadfadh duine a argóint nach gá duit ach a fhoghlaim conas cailín amháin agus trí chailín a rá.
Ina theannta sin, tá sé lán de ilghnéithe neamhrialta cosúil le octopus agus octopi i mBéarla, ach tá na foirmeacha seo annamh i mBéarla. Le haon fhocal, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh 20 bealach éagsúla ann chun é a iolrú, agus níl aon bhealach ann a fhios a bheith agat cén ceann de na 20 paradigm a úsáidfear leis an bhfocal sin, agus dá bharr sin, níl aon bhealach ann chun patrún iolrach a ghinearáil ó patrún singilár. Ina theannta sin, tá 2-3 bhealach ag go leor focail chun iad a iolrú. Cúpla iomadán Arabach míshásta:
kalb -> kilaab
chroí -> chroí
maktab -> makaatib
taalib -> tullaab
balad -> buldaan
Nuair a deir tú is breá liom tú le fear, a deir tú é ar bhealach amháin, agus nuair a deir tú é le bean, a deir tú é ar bhealach eile. Ar agus ar.
Tá an córas scríbhneoireachta Araibis thar a bheith deacair agus tá sé níos mó ná an ceann is deacra a úsáid ar bith ar an Domhan. Tá na vowels bog a fhágtar amach. Ní mór duit foghlaim cá háit a gcuirtear leochailí atá ar iarraidh isteach, cá háit a ndéantar comh-uimhir a dhúbailt agus cé na leochailí a chailleann tú sa script. Tá 28 siombail éagsúla sa aibítir agus ceithre bhealach éagsúla chun gach siombail a scríobh ag brath ar a áit sa focal.
Scríobhtar comh-aistriúcháin ar bhealaí éagsúla ag brath ar an áit a bhfuil siad i bhfocal. Scríobhtar h ar bhealach difriúil ag tús focal ná ag deireadh focal. Is é an gné simplí de, áfach, go bhfuil an fhoirm mheánta mar an gcéanna i gcónaí leis an bhfoirm tosaigh. Ní gá duit ach focail Araibis a fhoghlaim ach freisin an gramaic chun Araibis a léamh.
Pronouns a cheangal iad féin le fréamhacha, agus tá go leor éagsúla briathra conjugacion paradigms a bhfuil ach a bheith memorized. Mar shampla, má tá briathar a bhfuil a, a, nó a i a fréamh, ní mór duit a memorize na patters na díorthaigh, agus go bhfuil an chunk maith de na conjugations ceart ann. Tá an córas chun méideanna a thomhas an-choitianta.
Tá go leor rialacha aisteach sa ghramadach a bhfuil an chuma orthu nach bhfuil ciall leo. Ar an drochuair, tá eisceachtaí ag formhór na rialacha, agus is cosúil go bhfuil na eisceachtaí níos coitianta ná na rialacha féin. Gearánann go leor daoine, lena n-áirítear cainteoirí dúchais, faoi ghramaic na hArabacha.
Tá cás Araibis, ach tá an córas simplí.
Tá sé deacair do go leor eachtrannaigh na fuaimeanna laryngeal, uvular agus glottalized a dhéanamh agus tá sé beagnach dodhéanta dóibh a fháil ceart. Tugann na fuaimeanna ha
Tá an Araibis ar a laghad chomh idiomatic mar Fraincis nó Béarla, mar sin chun labhairt go ceart ní mór duit a fhoghlaim go léir na nuances expressionistic.
Ceann de na fadhbanna is measa le Araibis is ea na diailéic, atá i go leor cásanna teangacha ar leithligh go hiomlán. Má fhoghlaimíonn tú Araibis, is minic a chaithfidh tú ceann de na diailéic a fhoghlaim chomh maith le hAraibis chlasaic. Labhraíonn gach duine a labhraíonn Araibis diailéic Araibis agus Araibis Chlasaiceach araon.
I roinnt ranganna Araibis mar theanga iasachta, fiú tar éis 1 1/2 bliana, ní raibh aon dalta in ann abairt iomlán agus ceart a dhéanamh nach raibh i gcuimhne.
Ag cur le meáchan ar an gcreideamh coitianta go bhfuil an Araibis deacair a fhoghlaim, rinneadh taighde sa Ghearmáin in 2005 a léirigh go bhfuil leanaí Tuircis ag foghlaim a dteanga ag aois 2-3, leanaí Gearmánacha ag aois 4-5, ach ní raibh leanaí Araibis ag foghlaim Araibis go dtí aois 12.
Tá comhaontú verbacha casta ag an nGaeilge leis an ábhar, inscne fireann agus baineann i ainmníochtaí agus aidiachtaí, sintéise tosaigh ceann agus srianta tromchúiseacha ar chomhdhúile a fhoirmiú. Má thagann tú ó theanga a bhfuil nádúr den chineál céanna aici, b'fhéidir go mbeidh an Araibis níos éasca duit ná mar atá sé do go leor daoine eile. Déanann a chóras 3 fhuaimneach fuaimíní éasca.
Tá MSA Araibis rátáil 5, an-deacair.
Is minic go bhfuil diailéicte Araibis beagán níos éasca le foghlaim ná MSA Araibis. Ar a laghad i Liobáineach agus san Araibis Éigipteach, tá an fhuaim q an-deacair curtha ina hamza nó stop glottal atá níos éasca a dhéanamh. I gcomparáid le MSA Araibis, is gnách go mbíonn na focail dialachta níos giorra agus níos éasca a fhuaimniú.
Chun a bhaint amach in áit ar bith in aice le inniúlacht labhartha dúchais i Aigipt Araibis, is dócha go gcaithfidh tú cónaí san Éigipt ar feadh 10 mbliana, ach labhraíonn Araibis a rá go bhfuil cúpla má tá aon dara teanga foghlaimeoirí teacht riamh in aice le inniúlacht dúchais. Tá stór focal ollmhór ann, agus tá saibhreas bríonna féideartha ag formhór na bhfocal.
Tá Araibis na hÉigipte rátáilte 4.5, an-go-i bhfad deacair.
Deirtear go bhfuil an Araibis Mhorcóis go háirithe deacair, le go leor éileamh vowel i stéibheanna triconsonantal. Ina theannta sin, tá córais scríbhneoireachta neamhréasúnach ag gach araibis diailctúil.
Tá Araibis Mhorcó rátáilte 4.5, an-go-i bhfad deacair.
Is teanga aisteach í an Máltais, go bunúsach teanga Arabach Maghrebi (arna chosúlacht le Arabach na Maracó nó na Túinéis) a bhfuil tionchar an-mhór aige ó theangacha neamh-Arabacha. Tá an fhadhb céanna ag an nGaeilge leis sin go minic go bhfuil cuma ar bhealach amháin ar fhocail agus go bhfuil siad á bhfreagrú ar bhealach eile.
Tá an fhadhb choiteann Séimeatach ag an teanga le plúraimí deacra. Cé go n-úsáideann go leor ilghnéithe críochna coitianta ilghnéithe (-i, -iet, -ijiet, -at), cruthaíonn daoine eile an ilghnéithe trína n-uaireanta deiridh a thit nó trí s a chur leis (iasacht Béarla). Níl aon patrún ann, agus ní mór duit ach a mheabhrú cé acu a fheidhmíonn ar an mbealach. Ceadaíonn an Máltais an cluster spt comhfhocal, atá deacair a fhuaimniú.
Ar an láimh eile, tá go leor iasachtaí IE ag Maltese ó Iodáilis, Sisilianach, Spáinnis, Fraincis agus níos mó agus níos mó Béarla. Má tá eolas agat ar theangacha Rómhánacha, beidh an Máltais níos éasca ná an chuid is mó de na diailéicte Araibis.
Tá an Maltese rátáilte 4, an-deacair.
De réir roinnt Iosrael, tá sé deacair an Eabhrais a fhoghlaim. B'fhéidir gurb é cuid den fhadhb an córas scríbhneoireachta abjad, a fhágann go minic le huacailí nach mór a mheabhrú ach amháin. Chomh maith leis sin, seachas iasachtaí, is Afroasiatic an foclóir, agus dá bhrí sin níl a fhios ag cainteoirí teangacha IE den chuid is mó. Tá comh-aigí deacair ann freisin mar atá san Araibis mar pharyngeals agus uvulars.
Tá an h-héite nó glottal go háirithe deacair a dhéanamh. Mar sin féin, ní dhéanann an chuid is mó de na hIosraeligh nua-aimseartha fuaimeanna het nó aain a thuilleadh. Ina áit sin, labhraíonn siad an het mar fhuaim chaf agus an aain mar alef. Ní úsáideann beagnach gach Giúdaigh Iosrael Ashkenazi na fuaimeanna het nó aain a thuilleadh. Ach is iad na Giúdaigh a tháinig ó thíortha Arabacha (go minic daoine níos sine) a úsáideann an fhuaim fós, agus cuid dá gcuid leanaí (Dorani 2013).
Tá rialacha morphophonological casta ag an Eabhrais. Athraíonn na litreacha p, b, t, d, k agus g go v, f, dh, th, kh agus gh i gcásanna áirithe. I roinnt timpeallachtaí, athraíonn pharyngeals nádúr na bhfócail timpeall orthu. Is é an t-iar-fhocal ve-, a chiallaíonn agus, a fhuaimnítear go difriúil nuair a bhíonn sé roimh litreacha áirithe. Tá an Eabhrais go leor neamhrialta freisin.
Tá go leor guthanna sa Eabhrais, lena n-áirítear gníomhach, éagníomhach, dian, dian-éagmhach, srl. Tá roinnt aimsir aige freisin mar an láthair, an t-am atá caite agus an juissive gan chomhionannas.
Tá dhá chatagóir ainmfhocal éagsúla sa Eabhrais freisin. Tá go leor suffixes agus go leor prefixes ann freisin ar féidir iad a chur le briathra agus le hainmneacha.
Ní féidir leis an gcuid is mó de na daoine a labhraíonn an Eabhrais mar theanga dhúchais a labhairt i gceart.
Deir go leor daoine go bhfuil an Eabhrais chomh deacair le MSA nó b'fhéidir níos deacra a fhoghlaim, ach tá sé seo conspóideach.
Faigheann Eabhrais rátáil 5 le haghaidh an-deacair.
Meastar go bhfuil teangacha Berber an-deacair a fhoghlaim. Níos measa fós, níl mórán acmhainní foghlama teanga ar fáil.
Ceadaíonn an Tamazight comhghleacaithe dúbailte ag tús focal! Conas is féidir leat a dhéanamh go bhfuil fuaim?
Faigheann Tamazight rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
I Tachelhit , tá focail mar seo indéanta:
Thóg tú é as.
Thug tú é.
Ina theannta sin, tá focail ann nach bhfuil ach aonad amháin nó dhá chomhchruinn:
Tagann Tachelhit 6 rátáil, an ceann is deacra.
Deirtear go bhfuil an teanga an-deacair a fhoghlaim. Tá sé casta go leor, agus is cosúil go bhfuil a struchtúr abairtí aisteach fiú do chainteoirí teangacha Seimiciúla eile. Deir cainteoirí Eabhrais go bhfuil deacracht acu leis an teanga seo.
Tá go leor rialacha ann a bhfuil an-chastacht orthu, tá go leor patrúin comhcheangail ann, tá rudaí suite leis an bhfiar, tá 274 litir sa aibítir, agus is cosúil go bhfuil an fuaimniú aisteach. Mar sin féin, má tá a fhios agat cheana féin Eabhrais nó Araibis, beidh sé i bhfad níos éasca. Is é an chuid is deacra de gach an córas briathra, mar a tharla le haon teanga Seamánach. Tá sé níos éasca ná Araibis.
Faigheann an Amharcach rátáil 4.5 ó an-deacair go an-deacair.
Tá Dahalo ina réalta as a bheith ar chuid de na fónálaíocht chomhcheangailte is fial ar domhan. Tá na ceithre mheicníocht sruthála aer ann a fhaightear i dteangacha: eisiúnacha, implosives, cliceáil agus fuaimeanna plumacha gnáth. Tá stopadh glótach agus epiglottal araon agus stopadh frithghníomhacha agus laminal agus apical.
Tá sraith aisteach cliceáil nasal ann freisin agus tá siad glottalized agus plain araon. Tá cuid de na cliceálacha seo labialized freisin. Tá stopadh agus africates prenasalized guthaithe agus neamhghuthaithe aige, agus tá cuid de na stopálacha labialized freisin. Tá eisiúint taobh palatal aisteach. Tá trí thriomóid ghnéasach éagsúla ann, lena n-áirítear ceann labialized agus palatalized, agus thart ar cheann ghnéasach. Déanann sé difríocht idir affricates agus fricatives latéracha alveolara agus palatal, an t-aon teanga ar domhan a dhéanann sé seo.
Is sealgairí-bailiúcháin iar-ionsaí elephant iad na Dahalo a chónaíonn i ndeisceart na Ceiné. Creidtear gur labhair siad teanga mar Sandawe nó Hadza ag am éigin, ach gur athraigh siad go Cushitic ag pointe éigin. Meastar go bhfuil na cnaipí ina substrát ó am nuair a bhí Dahalo ina teanga de chineál Sandawe-Hadza.
Dahalo faigheann 6 rátáil, is deacra ar fad.
Tá ceann de na córais tairiscintí is aisteach ar domhan ag Somál. Níl aon réamhráite fíor ann i ndáiríre. Ina áit sin tá páirteanna réamhbhriathra agus seilbh ag an bhfocal a fheidhmíonn mar réamhfhocail.
Seo mar a úsáideann na hairíonna seilbh mar réamhfhocail:
an oíche a aghaidh
an teas a chúis
mar gheall ar an teas
Anseo tá úsáid na coire réamhfhocal ag feidhmiú mar réamhfhocal:
kú ríd shandádda
I a chur ar an mála.
Cuir isteach sa mhála é.
Comhcheanglaíonn Somál ceithre prepositions le ceithre phíosaí déictic chun a chuid prepositions a fhoirmiú.
Tá ceithre bhun-prepositions ann:
Comhcheanglaíonn siad seo le ceithre phíosaí díictíche éagsúla:
i dtreo an chainteora
amach ón cainteoir
i dtreo a chéile
amach óna chéile
Dá bhrí sin, cuirtear na 'prepositions' agus na coisín déictic le chéile ar bhealaí éagsúla. Is gnách go dtéann an dá cheann os comhair an bhriathar agus gar dó:
Ní nínkíi bàan cèelka xádhig kagá sóo saaray.
...well-an rópa le-as i dtreo-a-me I-a ardú.
Tarraing mé an fear amach as an tobar le rópa.
Way inoogá warrámi jireen.
Thug siad dúinn-i-thart ar nuacht.
Bhí siad a thabhairt dúinn nuacht faoi sé.
Is iad na réamhghnéithe an chuid is deacra den teanga Somáile don fhoghlaimeoir.
Déileálann Somál leis na briathra gluaiseachta trí deixis ar bhealach cosúil leis an nGaeilge. Is é an cainteoir pointe tagartha amháin agus is é an pointe tagartha eile aon eintitis eile a pléadh. Déantar briathra gluaiseachta a fhoirmiú trí fhriathra. Féadfaidh eintitis a aistriú:
i dtreo a chéile wada
ar shiúl óna chéile kala
i dtreo an cainteoir mar sin
ar shiúl ón cainteoir si
Kala durka ar leithligh
Si gal dul isteach (ar shiúl ón cainteoir)
mar sin gal teacht isteach (i dtreo an cainteoir)
Níl aon chomhsheasmhacht orthografach ag an Somáilis. Tá ceithre chóras staire éagsúla in úsáid  an script Araibis Wadaad, an script Osmanya Eitiopeach, an script Borama agus an aibítir Laidineach Sómal, an córas reatha.
Tá gach ceann de na fuaimeanna deacra Araibis i láthair i Somáilig, teanga Seimiceach eile  an alef, an ha, an qaf agus an kha. Tá briathra fada agus ghearr ann. Tá d retroflex ann, an fhuaim chéanna a fhaightear i dteangacha na hIndia Theas. Tá 2 thonn ag Somál freisin  ard agus íseal. Ar chúis éigin, is gnách go mbíonn an Somál ar liostaí na fonológa is craiceáilte.
Níl aon chiall ag ilghnéitheacht na Sómalíochta agus ní mór é a mheabhrú. Tá seacht plúrúil éagsúla ann, agus níl aon leideanna sa singiléir a insíonn duit cén fhoirm a úsáid sa plúr. Féach anseo:
áf (teanga) -> afaf
hoóyo (máthair) -> hoyoóyin
áabbe -> aabayaal
Tabhair faoi deara na hathruithe tóna sna trí phlúral thuas.
Tá ceithre chás ann, an cás absolúideach, an cás ainmniúil, an cás géiniúil agus an cás glactha. In ainneoin go bhfuil cásanna absolutive agus ainmnithe ann, ní teanga ergative í an Somál. Is é cás absolutive cás bunúsach an ainmfhocail, agus is é ainmniúcháin an cás a thugtar don ainmfhocal nuair a leanann briathar sa abairt. Tá ailt éagsúla ann ag brath ar an raibh an t-ainmfhocal luaite roimhe seo nó nach raibh (cosúil leis na hailt a agus an i mBéarla). Tá an t-aonfhocal agus an t-ainmfhocal marcáilte ní amháin ar an ainmfhocal ach freisin ar an alt a théann roimh é.
Maidir le deacracht, tá Somalí i bhfad níos deacra ná an Peirsis agus is dócha go bhfuil sé chomh deacair le hAraibis.
Faigheann Somál 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá Malayalam, teanga Dravidian na hIndia, luaite mar an teanga is deacra le foghlaim ag bunús teanga, ach tá an luaitear éagórach agus deacair a fhíorú.
Is minic a bhíonn sé deacair fiú focail Malayalam a lorg i foclóir Malayalam.
Mar shampla, is focal i Malayalam é adiyAnkaLAkkikkoNDirikkukayumANello. Ciallaíonn sé rud éigin cosúil liomsa, do sheirbhíseach, tá mé ag suí agus a mheascadh st. (agus sin an fáth nach féidir liom a dhéanamh cad a iarrann tú dom). Is sampla den chineál abairt é an chuid i bprátais ina bhféadfaí é a úsáid.
Tá an focal thuas comhdhéanta de go leor morphemes éagsúla, lena n-áirítear na comhcheangail agus na h-affixes eile, agus sandhi ag dul ar aghaidh le cuid acu ionas go bhfuil siad ag éadóireacht ar shiúl óna bhfoirmeacha bunúsacha. Ní cosúil go bhfuil aon bhealach ann chun an focal sin a chuardach nó foclóir Malayalam a scríobh a liostálann na foirmeacha is féidir go léir, lena n-áirítear foirmeacha cosúil leis an bhfocal thuas. Is dócha go mbeadh sé i bhfad ró-mhór de leabhar. Mar sin féin, tá na teangacha comhcheangailteacha go léir déanta suas de na haifigí, agus má tá a fhios agat na haifigí, ní bhíonn sé deacair an focal a pharachadh ar leithligh.
Deirtear go bhfuil sé an-deacair Malayalam a fhuaimniú i gceart.
Ina theannta sin, ní bhíonn mórán eachtrannaigh ag iarraidh Malayalam a fhoghlaim, mar sin b'fhéidir nach gcloisfidh cainteoirí Malayalam, cosúil leis na Fraince, leat agus b'fhéidir go ndéanfaidh siad gáire ort mura bhfuil do Malayalam ag fuaimeadh go nádúrtha.
Mar sin féin, tá buntáiste ag Malayalam go bhfuil go leor ábhar oideachais ar fáil chun teanga a fhoghlaim mar ábhar fuaime-amhairc agus físeáin fo-thiotal.
Tá Malayalam rátáilte 5, an-deacair.
Tá an tAtáiliam, teanga Dravidian deacair, ach is dócha nach bhfuil sé chomh deacair le Malayalam. Tá 247 carachtar dochreidte i mbéal a aibítir. Mar sin féin, is cumaisc comhcheangail-fhocail iad formhór na ndaoine sin, agus mar sin is cosúil go bhfuil sé beagnach níos mó de shiollaibéar ná aibítir. Ag dul ag cad a bheadh go traidisiúnta a mheas siombailí aibítir, is dócha nach bhfuil ach 72 fíor siombailí sa aibítir. Mar sin féin, is dócha go bhfuil ceann de na scríbhinní Indic is éasca ag an Tamal mar go bhfuil níos lú carachtair ag an Tamal ná scríbhinní eile mar gheall ar a easpa uaillmhianta. I gcomparáid le Devanagaris os cionn 1,000 carachtar.
Ach níl aon script Indic éasca. Is é an fhadhb le Tamil go bhfuil an chuma ar na carachtair go léir cosúil le chéile. Tá sé níos measa ná Devanagari sa mhéid sin. Mar sin féin, tá an fhadhb sin níos measa sna scripteanna níos cruinn mar Kannada, Sinhala, Telegu agus Malayalam. Tá cúpla coirnéal géar ag an Teamil sna carachtair a chabhraíonn leo iad a dhí-eisiamh.
Ina theannta sin, mar a tharlaíonn i dteangacha eile, scríobhtar focail ar bhealach amháin agus glactar iad ar bhealach eile. Mar sin féin, tá éilimh ann go bhfuil deacracht diglossia Tamil ró-mheasta.
Tá dhá chlár éagsúla ag an Teamil don chaint scríofa agus cainte, ach níl na difríochtaí móra, mar sin tá an fhadhb seo ró-mhínithe. Labhraítear an tAtáiliam agus an Malayalam araon go tapa agus tá scripteanna an-chasta, beagnach do-ghlactha acu. Má dhéanann daoine ón Iarthar iarracht teanga Dravidian a labhairt i ndeisceart na hIndia, is minic nach ndéanfaidh an cainteoir Dravidian ach iad a chur i dteagmháil sa Bhéarla seachas iarracht iad a chur in oiriúint.
Tá an giúmar fianaiseach aisteach ag an Tamall, cosúil leis an mBulgáiris.
Mar sin féin, ar an taobh dearfach, is cosúil go bhfuil an teanga an-loighciúil agus rialta, beagnach cosúil leis an nGearmáinis sa mhéid sin. Ina theannta sin, tá go leor ábhair foghlama teanga ann do theamil.
Tá an tAtáilic rátáilte 4, an-deacair.
Aontaíonn an chuid is mó go bhfuil an teanga Chóiréach deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá an aibítir, Hangul ar a laghad réasúnta; i ndáiríre, tá sé go leor galánta. Ach tá ceithre Rómánú éagsúil ann - Lukoff, Yale, Horne, agus McCune-Reischauer  atá míréasúnta. Is fearr na Rómánúcháin a scriosadh agus dul díreach isteach i Hangul. Ar an mbealach seo is féidir leat Rómánú a fhoghlaim níos déanaí, agus ní dhéanfaidh tú do Hangul a mhilleadh le botúin litriúla, mar is féidir a tharlaíonn má théann tú ó Rómánú go Hangul.
Is féidir Hangul a fhoghlaim go han-tapa, ach is ábhar eile é foghlaim leabhair agus nuachtáin Chóiréacha a léamh go tapa mar go gcaithfidh tú an hanja nó an carachtar Síneach a fhios a bheith agat a úsáidtear chomh maith leis an Hangul. Tar éis an Dara Cogadh Domhanda, shocraigh na Cóiréigh fáil réidh go hoifigiúil lena gcarachtair Síneach, ach i gcleachtas níor éirigh leis seo. Le húsáid carachtair na Síne i gCóiré, is féidir leat a bheith i bhfad níos cruinne i dtéarmaí cad atá tú ag iarraidh a chur in iúl.
Go hiondúil, tá dhá shraith uimhriúla éagsúla a úsáidtear, ach tá ceann acu díorthaithe ó na Síne mar sin ba chóir go mbeadh sé eolach ar chainteoirí na Síne, na Seapáine nó na Téalainne a úsáideann córais chomhchosúla nó comhionann.
Tá saibhreas homonyms ag an gCoréach, agus is é seo ceann de na gnéithe tricky den teanga. Is féidir le haon teaglaim de chúpla carachtar a bheith i gceist le bríonna iomadúla. Tá fadhb den chineál céanna ag an tSeapáinis le homonyms, ach ar a laghad le Seapáinis tá tú an buntáiste de kanji chun cabhrú leat a rá na homonyms ar leithligh. Le Hangul na Cóiré, ní fhaigheann tú an buntáiste sin.
Ar an gcaoi chéanna, is cosúil go bhfuil go leor bealaí ann an rud céanna a rá sa Chóiréach. Beidh an foghlaimeoir a bhraitheann nuair a bhíonn daoine ag baint úsáide as na bealaí éagsúla seo go léir a rá an rud céanna go bhfuil siad ag rá i ndáiríre rud éigin difriúil gach uair, ach nach bhfuil sé sin an cás.
Is é an fhadhb amháin ná go bhfuil na b, p, j, ch, t agus d á bhfocal go difriúil ná a gcomhghleacaithe Béarla. Tá na comh-aigí, an córas pachim agus na comh-aigí morphing ag deireadh an fhocail a shleamhnaíonn isteach sa chéad fhocal eile ag déanamh go bhfuil sé níos deacra Cóiré a fhuaimniú ná aon phríomhtheanga Eorpach. Tá fadhb den chineál céanna ag an gCóiréach leis an tSeapáinis, is é sin, má dhéanann tú botún amháin i ndréamh, déanann tú é a thuiscint.
Tá an foclóir an-deacair do chainteoir Béarla nach bhfuil eolas aige ar an Seapáinis ná ar an tSínis. Ar an láimh eile, cabhróidh Seapáinis nó Sínis go mór leat le Cóiré.
Tá an Cóiré aglutinative agus tá struchtúr díospóireachta ábhar-téama aige, agus tá sé deacair ar laigí na gcóras seo a thuiscint do chainteoirí Béarla. Ina theannta sin, tá na céadta bealaí ann chun briathar ar bith a chur le chéile bunaithe ar thréimhse, giúmar, aois nó sean-aoiseacht. Déantar na hainmneacha a laghdú freisin agus glactar le na céadta suffix éagsúla.
Idir an dá linn, tá córas onóir ag an gCóiréach atá níos craiceáilte ná an tSeapáinis. Is féidir seantán amháin a rá ar thrí bhealach éagsúla ag brath ar an gcaidreamh idir an cainteoir agus an lucht éisteachta. Mar sin féin, ní bhíonn an ghlúin óg ag úsáid na hurraimí chomh minic, agus ní mheastar go mbeadh a fhios ag eachtrannach ar an gcóras hurraimí ar aon nós.
B'fhéidir go bhfuil 60% de na focail bunaithe ar fhocail Shínise, ach ar an drochuair, bíonn cuid mhór den fhocal seo bunaithe ar an tSínis ag trasnú le leaganacha Seapánacha de fhocail Shínise ar bhealach mearbhall.
Is féidir le cainteoirí na Cóiréise Seapáine a fhoghlaim go héasca. Is cosúil gur teanga níos deacra í an Chóiréach ná an tSeapáinis a fhoghlaim. Tá dhá oiread de na deighiltí ann ná mar atá sa tSeapáinis, tá an gramaic i bhfad níos deacra agus tá na briathra beagán níos deacra. Tá an fhilíocht fhónamach sa Chóiréach níos mó freisin agus áirítear ann aisteach mar chomhréir dhúbailte.
Measann múinteoirí teanga go bhfuil an Chóiréach ar cheann de na teangacha is deacra le foghlaim.
Tá an Cóiré rátáil 5, an-deacair.
Úsáideann an tSeapáinis aibítir shiombalach freisin, ach bíonn na siombailí féin neamh-in-dhíghrádú uaireanta sa mhéid go mbíonn fiú cainteoirí Seapáinis ag teacht ar Seapáinis scríofa uaireanta agus go n-aontóidh siad nach bhfuil a fhios acu conas é a fhuaimniú. Nílim ag ciallaíonn go bhfuil siad ag mí-fhocalú é; bheadh sé sin ciallmhar. Ciallaíonn mé nach bhfuil siad an clue slightest conas a rá an focal! Níl an fhadhb seo i ndáiríre i dteanga mar an Béarla.
Tá an léarscáil Iapánach ar cheann de na léarscáileanna is deacra le húsáid.
Tá os cionn 2,000 carachtar a úsáidtear go minic i dtrí aibítir shiombalacha éagsúla a bhíonn measctha go minic le chéile ar bhealaí mearbhall. Mar gheall ar an líon mór siombailí a úsáidtear go minic, deirtear go ndéanann daoine fásta na Seapáine siombail nua a fhoghlaim gach lá go dtí an aois fásta.
Is dócha go bhfuil córas scríbhneoireachta na Seapáine níos craiceáilte ná córas scríbhneoireachta na Síne agus go minic bíonn sé ar liostaí na n-orthographies is measa. Is cosúil go bhfuil an smaoineamh féin teanga chomhcheangailte a scríobh i meascán de dhá shilbhéar agus idéagrafaíocht go hiontach díreach ón mbata. D'éiligh na Seapáine carachtair na Síne. Ach ansin thug siad roinnt fuaimeanna do gach carachtar, agus i gcásanna áirithe, 24 fuaim. Ansin rinne siad dhá shilbhéar ag baint úsáide as sraith eile carachtair, ansin thar na mílte bliain ina dhiaidh sin tháinig sé suas le gach cineál rialacha contrártha agus go minic senseless faoi nuair a úsáid na silabáir agus nuair a úsáid an sraith carachtair. Níos déanaí chuir siad Rómánú leis chun rudaí a dhéanamh níos measa fós.
Úsáideann an tSínis 5-6,000 carachtar go rialta, agus ní úsáideann an tSeapáinis ach thart ar 2,000. Ach sa tSínis, níl ach aon fhocal amháin nó dhá fhocal ag gach carachtar. I nIodáilis, tá rialacha casta ann maidir le cathain agus conas an hiragana a chur le carachtair. Tá na rialacha seo chomh crua sin go bhfuil fadhbanna fós ag go leor cainteoirí dúchais leo. Tá ainmneacha pearsanta agus ainmneacha áiteanna (ainmneacha féin) ann freisin a thugtar fuaimeanna go hiomlán tofa go minic go hiomlán i gcoinne fuaimniú gnáth an charachtair.
Tá roinnt scríbhneoirí ann, go hiondúil litríocht, a roghnaíonn go stuama kanji a úsáid nach féidir le daoine Seapánacha fiú a léamh. Mar shampla, úsáideann Ryuu Murakami na siombailí neamhghnácha る、, く、 agus 憑ける.
Tá córas na Seapáine déanta suas de thrí chóras éagsúil: an katakana agus hiragana (an kana) agus an kanji, cosúil leis an hanzi a úsáidtear sa tSínis. Tá 85,000 hanzi ar a laghad ag na Síne. Tá líon na kanji i bhfad níos lú ná sin, ach is minic a bhíonn níos mó ná brí amháin ag kanji i gcodarsnacht le hanzi.
Tar éis an Dara Cogadh Domhanda, shocraigh an tSeapáin a theanga a shimpliú. Rinne siad an bheirt simplíocht agus laghdaigh siad líon na gcarachtair Síneach a úsáidtear, agus rinne siad an teanga scríofa agus labhartha a aontacht, a bhí difriúil roimhe sin.
Níl sé chomh deacair le Béarla a labhairt agus a deir gach duine, agus deir go leor go bhfuil sé sách éasca. Mar sin féin, tá fadhb cosúil leis an mBéarla ann gur féidir focal amháin a fhuaimniú ar bhealaí éagsúla, cosúil le léamh agus léamh i mBéarla.
Is fadhb choitianta é go bhfuil abairt atá ceart go hiomlán ó thaobh gramadaí de a labhraíonn foghlaimeoir teanga Seapánach, cé go bhfuil sí ceart go hiomlán, fós nach nglactar leis na labhraitheoirí Seapáine toisc nach labhraímid é ar an mbealach sin. Is minic nach féidir leis an labhraí Seapánach a rá cén fáth nach bhfuil an abairt neamhghlactha a labhraíodh tú ceart go leor. Ar an láimh eile, d'fhéadfadh an fhadhb seo a bheith coitianta do níos mó teangacha ná Seapáinis.
Tá rang Seapánach ann freisin ar a dtugtar onorifics nó keigo atá deacair a mháistir. Tá sé i gceist le hurraimí meas a thaispeáint agus áit nó stádas duine sa rangordú sóisialta a léiriú. De ghnáth bíonn tionchar ag na focail seo ar bhriathra ach d'fhéadfadh siad tionchar a bheith acu ar pharaiméadair agus ar réamhráite freisin. De ghnáth, is briathra ársa nó an-neamhrialta a chruthaíonn iad. Mar sin féin, tá foirmeacha onóirithe rialta agus neamhrialta araon ann. Ina theannta sin, tá cúig leibhéal éagsúla onóir. Athraíonn na hurraimí ag brath ar cé tú féin agus ar cé leis atá tú ag caint. Ina theannta sin, tagann inscne i bhfeidhm.
Cé go bhfuil sé fíor go bhfuil sé ráite nach dtuigeann daoine óga na Seapáine intleachtacht na keigo, táthar ag súil go bhfuil a fhios acu conas é seo a labhairt go maith. Dá bhrí sin, ní bheidh go leor de na Seapáinis óga ag dul i mbun comhráite áirithe toisc go mbraitheann siad nach bhfuil a keigo an-mhaith. Leabhair a mhíníonn conas keigo a úsáid i gceart bhí díol mór i measc daoine óga sa tSeapáin le blianta beaga anuas mar a dhéanann daoine óga iarracht a bheith cliste, scagtha nó cultúrtha.
Ina theannta sin, is minic go mbíonn tuiscint an-olc ag Seapáinis a rugadh thar lear (go háirithe sna Stáit Aontaithe), cé go mbíonn siad ag foghlaim Seapáinis go maith, ar keigo. In ionad náire a chur orthu féin trí nach n-úsáidtear keigo nó trína úsáid mícheart, is minic a roghnaíonn na cainteoirí Seapánacha seo labhairt i mBéarla le daoine Seapánacha seachas a bheith ag cur isteach ar Seapáinis gan keigo. Is fadhb í ró-cheartaithe i keigo freisin nuair a bhíonn hipearcheartaithe ag duine a dhéanann earráidí i keigo mar gheall ar  iarracht a dhéanamh go crua. Breathnaíonn sé seo mar phony nó beannacht neamhshimplí agus is minic is measa ná gan keigo a úsáid ar chor ar bith.
Is é an rud amháin a bhíonn ag na Seapáine ná foirmeacha a chomhaireamh. Úsáidtear sraitheanna éagsúla uimhreacha ag brath ar cad atá á comhaireamh agat! Tá mórán bealaí éagsúla ann chun rudaí a chomhaireamh a chuimsíonn úsáid córas casta aicmitheora ainmníochta uimhriúil.
Deirtear go minic go bhfuil gramadaí na Seapáine simplí, ach ní cosúil go bhfuil sé sin fíor má dhéantar scrúdú níos dlúithe air. Tá na cáithníní an-chasta. Bíonn briathra ag gabháil le gach cineál iompair fiáin, agus is minic a fheidhmíonn briathra cosúil le briathra. Is féidir le hainmneacha gníomhú mar aidiachtaí agus adverbs. Idir an dá linn, athraíonn onóirghníomhaí iompar na bhfocal go léir. Tá coinníoll cosúil le ha agus ga a bhfuil go leor bríonna éagsúla. Is é an fhadhb amháin ná go gcaithfidh gach modhnútóir ainmníochta, fiú frásaí, a bheith roimh na hainmneacha atá á mhodhnú acu.
Deirtear go minic nach bhfuil cás ag na Seapáine, ach ní fíor é seo. Go deimhin, tá seacht gcás ann sa tSeapáinis. Is clitic é an ga thuasluaite a chiallaíonn ainmniúcháin, is cás críochnaitheach é, -níl is genitive é agus -o is cúisitheach é.
Sa abairt seo:
Tháinig an eitleán a bhí ceaptha teacht ag meán oíche, ach a bhí moill ar thimpeallacht olc, ag 1 AM ar deireadh.
Ní mór gach rud atá faoi thrácht a bheith roimh an eitleán ainmfhocal:
Bhí sé beartaithe go dtiocfadh sé ag meán oíche, ach bhí moill air mar gheall ar dhroch-aimsir, tháinig an eitleán sa deireadh ag 1 AM.
Ceann de na príomhfhadhbanna le gramadaí na Seapáine ná go bhfuil sé ag dul a bheith chomh difriúil ón gcineál gramadaí agus is dócha go mbeidh cainteoir Béarla cleachtaithe leis.
Is rud amháin é labhairt i nIodáilis, ach is cluiche ball nua go hiomlán é a léamh agus a scríobh. Tá sé go hiomlán indéanta a fhios a bheith agat ar an bhrí gach kanji agus an bhrí gach focal i abairt, ach ní féidir leat a fháil amach fós ar an bhrí an abairt toisc nach féidir leat a fháil amach conas an abairt atá greamaithe le chéile ar bhealach a chruthú ciall.
Is é an fhadhb atá ann ná go bhfuil an tSeapáinis a fhoghlaimíonn tú sa rang rud amháin, agus an tSeapáinis ar an tsráid rud eile. Is fadhb amháin é nach mbíonn an t-ábhar le rá i bhfréamh i nGaeilge sráide. Ina áit sin, déantar é a thuiscint trí rudaí mar théarmaí onóir nó rogha na bhfocal a d'úsáid tú sa abairt. Is dócha nach bhfuil aon duine ag dul níos measa ar dhiúltacha ná na Seapáine. Go háirithe i scríbhneoireacht acadúil, tá diúltachtaí trí- agus ceathrú-mhéadúla coitianta, agus is féidir iad a bheith mearbhall go leor.
Ach tá fadhbanna ann leis an nádúr aglutinative na Seapáine. Tá struchtúr sintasacha go hiomlán difriúil leis an mBéarla. Go minic má aistríonn tú abairt ó na Seapáine go Béarla beidh sé ach cosúil le meabhlú gan chiall de na focail.
Mar sin féin, tá buntáiste ag grámara na Seapáine go bhfuil sé sách rialta. Mar shampla, níl ach ceithre bhriathra neamhrialta a úsáidtear go minic.
Cosúil leis an nGaeilge, ní dhéantar na hainmneacha a mharcáil de réir uimhreacha ná inscne. Ach cé go bhfuil an tSínis ag maitheamh le hearráidí, má dhéanann tú botún amháin i bhriathar na Seapáine, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh mí-thuiscint agat.
Cé go mbraitheann go leor foghlaimeoirí Seapáine go bhfuil sé sách éasca a fhoghlaim, tá suirbhéanna ar ollamh teanga ag leanúint ar aghaidh ag measúnú go bhfuil Seapáinis ar cheann de na teangacha is deacra a fhoghlaim. Tháinig staidéar a rinne Cabhlach na Stát Aontaithe chun críche gurbh é an tSeapáinis an teanga is deacra a bhí le foghlaim ag na cosantóirí le linn na seirbhíse. Mar sin féin, aontaítear go ginearálta go bhfuil an tSeapáinis níos éasca a fhoghlaim ná an Chóiréach. Tá sé éasca go leor do chainteoirí Seapánacha an Cóiré a fhoghlaim.
Tá an tSeapáinis rátáilte 5, an-deacair.
Tá an tSeapáinis Chlasaiceach i bhfad níos deacra le léamh ná an tSeapáinis Nua-aimseartha. Cé gur féidir leat a fháil amach le i bhfad níos lú kanji nuair a léamh an teanga nua-aimseartha, beidh ort eolas ar a laghad de 3,000 kanji a léamh clasaiceach Seapánach, agus go bhfuil ag baint úsáide as foclóir. Níl ach thart ar 500-1,000 carachtar a úsáidtear go minic, ach tá go leor focail eile a thagann suas i do léitheoireacht go háirithe rá focail speisialta a úsáidtear sa Chúirt Impiriúil. Tá níos mó ná aon chiall ag go leor focal, agus mura bhfuil a fhios agat é seo, beidh tú caillte. Is éard is ciall le 東宮 (とうぐう) mar shampla Pálás an Oirthir. Mar sin féin, ciallaíonn sé freisin Prionsa Cróine toisc go raibh a chónaí ar an taobh thoir den Impire.
Is cosúil go n-úsáideann an scannán The Seven Samurai (a leagtar go déanach sna 1500í) cineál éigin Seapáine Clásaíoch, nó focal agus sintéise Clásaíoch ar a laghad le fuaimniú nua-aimseartha. Deir foghlaimeoirí teanga na Seapáine nach féidir leo focal den Seapáinis ársa a úsáidtear sa scannán seo a thuiscint.
Faigheann Seapánach clasaiceach 5.5, beagnach an ceann is deacra de gach duine.
Is minic a mheastar go bhfuil an Tuirc deacair a fhoghlaim, agus tá sé ar cheann de na teangacha is deacra a fhoghlaim i suirbhéanna ar mhúinteoirí teanga, ach is dócha go bhfuil sé níos éasca ná mar a bhíodh a cháil. Tá sé aglutinative, mar sin is féidir leat a bheith le focal fada amháin áit i mBéarla d'fhéadfadh tú a bheith abairt de na focail níos giorra. Is é an focal amháin
An raibh tú ar cheann de na daoine sin nach raibh muid in ann a dhéanamh i Czechoslovakian?
Tá níos mó ná aon chiall ag go leor focal. Mar sin féin, tá an t-aigleogadh an-rialta sa mhéid go bhfuil a mhorféim féin ag gach grinn bhrí agus go dtagann sé isteach i áit cheart sa focal. Féach anseo:
" 'Chun-cath-cath-cath-cath-cath " '
Mar sin féin, ciallaíonn an t-aigleogán gur féidir leat focail nua a chruthú nó codanna nua a chur le focail i gcónaí, agus ar an gcúis seo tá fadhbanna ag a lán daoine fásta na Tuirce fiú lena dteanga.
Níl aon bhriathar ann le bheith, rud atá deacair ar go leor eachtrannaigh. Ina áit sin, déantar an coincheap a fhilleadh ar ábhar an abairt mar fhocail -dim nó -im. Is teanga í an Tuirc a bhfuil go leor íomhánna ann, agus má dhéanann tú iarracht aistriú díreach ó fhoclóir, ní bhíonn aon chiall ann go minic.
Mar sin féin, tá an suffixation sa Tuirc, chomh maith leis an gconradh vowel, araon cruinn. Mar sin féin, tá comhcheangal neamhrialta fuaime ag go leor focal. Tá na rialacha maidir le plúrtha a dhéanamh an-rialta, gan aon eisceachtaí (is iad na heisceachtaí amháin i ndáil le hiasachtaí eachtracha). I dturcach, is cuma cé chomh dochreidte is a fhuaimeann sé, is féidir leat iomad a dhéanamh as rud ar bith, fiú focal mar cad, cé nó fuil. Mar sin féin, tá roinnt neamhrialtachta ann maidir le neartú na n-airíonna, agus ní féidir na foirmeacha a thuar agus ní mór iad a mheabhrú.
Tá an Tuirc ina theanga cruinneas ar bhealaí eile. Mar shampla, tá ocht bhfoirm éagsúla de stíl mhaorga a thuairiscíonn céimeanna éagsúla éiginnteachta a bhfuil duine acu faoi cad atá á labhairt aige. Baineann sé seo leis an fhianaise a pléadh faoi Tuyuca thuas, agus tá foirm fhianaise ag an Tuircis cosúil le Tamil agus Bulgáiris. Ar nuacht na Tuirce, tá briathra de ghnáth marcáilte le miş, rud a chiallaíonn go gcreideann an t-ainseoir go bhfuil sé fíor cé nach bhfaca sé é go díreach. Tá an particle miş suimiúil toisc go bhfuil an fhoirm fhianaise seo códaithe isteach sa chóras aimsire, rud atá ina úsáid neamhghnách de fhianaiseacht.
Cuidíonn an aibítir Rómhánach agus an gramaic beagnach cruinn go matamaiticiúil go mór. Níl inscne sa Tuirc agus níl ach briathar neamhrialta amháin aige  olmak. Mar sin féin, tá go leor foirmeacha béil ann. Mar sin féin, tá sé seo conspóideach agus braitheann sé ar an gcaoi a shainmhíníonn tú neamhrialtacht gramadaí. Tá roinnt strangeness i roinnt de na paradigms briathar, ach tá sé argóint go bhfuil na oddities atá bunaithe ar riail. Deirtear go bhfuil neamhrialtacht ag an aimsir aorist.
Tá roinnt morphophonology neamhrialta, ach ní go leor. Tá morphosyntax casta ag na clásal coibhneasta coibhneasta. Tá dhá bhealach go hiomlán difriúil ag an Tuirc chun clásal coibhneasta a dhéanamh, agus b'fhéidir go ndearnadh ceann acu a fháil ar iasacht ón bhFearsa. Tá go leor gerunds ann do bhriathra, agus tá go leor úsáidí éagsúla acu. Ar deireadh an lae, níl an gramaic Tuircis chomh rialta nó chomh simplí agus a dhéantar é a bheith.
Is beagnach mar an gcéanna a fhuaimnítear focail agus a scríobhtar iad. Is é an t-eolas a léiríonn go bhfuil leanaí na Tuirce ag foghlaim máistreacht bunúsach gramadaí na Tuirce ag aois 2-3 a mholadh go bhféadfadh go mbeadh an Tuirc níos éasca a fhoghlaim, i gcomparáid le 4-5 don Ghearmáinis agus 12 don Araibis. Rinneadh an taighde sa Ghearmáin in 2005.
Ina theannta sin, tá orthography fuaimeach ag an Tuirc.
Mar sin féin, tá sé deacair do chainteoir Béarla Tuirc a fhoghlaim ar chúiseanna éagsúla. Tá sé comhcheangailteach cosúil leis an Seapáinis, agus tá sé deacair do chainteoirí Béarla gach teanga comhcheangailteach a fhoghlaim. Mar sa tSeapáinis, tosaíonn tú do abairt Tuircis ar an mbealach a chríochnófá do abairt Béarla. Mar atá sa sampla Seapánach thuas, ní mór an clásal fo-ord a bheith roimh an ábhar, ach i mBéarla, ní mór an clásal fo-ord a bheith i ndiaidh an ábhair. Is clásal fo-ord é an abairt atá i léarscáil thíos.
I mBéarla, deirimid, "Tá súil agam go mbeidh sé in am".
I dTurcach, léiríodh an abairt, "Tá súil agam go mbeidh sé in am".
Tá briathra Turcach neamhchoitianta do chainteoirí teangacha IE, agus deir foghlaimeoirí na Tuirce go bhfuil na briathra deacair a dhéanamh nó a insint óna chéile.
Tá rátáil 3.5 ar an Tuirc, níos deacra ná an meán a fhoghlaim.
Is é ceann de na tástálacha ar an deacracht atá ag aon teanga ná cé mhéad gramadaí a chaithfidh a bheith ar eolas agat chun tú féin a chur in iúl ar leibhéal bunúsach. Ar an mbonn seo, tá teangacha Finno-Uigric casta toisc go gcaithfidh tú beagán níos mó gramadaí a bheith agat chun cumarsáid a dhéanamh ar leibhéal bunúsach iontu ná mar a deir tú, Gearmáinis.
Tá sé an-deacair an Fhinnéis a fhoghlaim, agus is minic a bhíonn fadhbanna fós ag daoine a d'fhoghlaim an Fhinnéis le fada. Dúirt an poilí-theangach cáiliúil Barry Farber gurbh é sin ceann de na teangacha is deacra a d'fhoghlaim sé. Caithfidh tú a bheith ar an eolas go díreach cé na foirmeacha gramadaí atá le húsáid i gcás ina abairt. Ina theannta sin, tá 15 cás i nGaeilge i singil agus 16 i bhfollan. Tá sé seo deacair a fhoghlaim do chainteoirí a thagann ó theanga a bhfuil beagán nó gan aon chás ann.
talo  an teach
go dtí cuid den teach
taloksiinto mar an teach
talossain an teach
aistrithe ón taobh istigh den teach
dul isteach sa teach
talollaon go dtí an teach
Tógtar ó thaobh an tí
talolleto an teach
Tá sé ar tí dul ó na tithe
taloissa sna tithe
Tá sé i bhfad níos measa ná sin. Taispeánann an leathanach gréasáin seo gur féidir leis an ainmfhocal kauppa  siopa 2,253 foirm a bheith aige.
Is féidir le hairíonna simplí + ainmfhocal de chineál ainmfhocal de dhá fhocal a chur le chéile suas le 100 bhealach éagsúla.
Baineann ainmfhocail agus ainmfhocail le 20 aicme éagsúla. Braitheann na rialacha a rialaíonn a n-imní cás ar an rang a bhfuil an t-ábhar ann.
Cosúil leis an Ungáir, is féidir le focail a bheith an-fhada. Mar shampla:
cadet neamh-oifigeach a fhoghlaim chun a bheith ina mheicnicí cúntóir do innill eitleáin eitleáin
Cosúil leis an Tuirc, tá an t-aigleotúchán sa Fhinnéis an-rialta. Tá a mhorféim féin ag gach píosa faisnéise agus tá áit chuí aige sa focal.
Cosúil leis an Tuirc, tá comhcheangal folláine ag an bhFinne, ach tá an comhcheangal folláine an-rialta cosúil le Tuirc. Murab ionann agus sa Tuirc nó san Ungáir, is cuid mhór de mhórfhoilíocht na Fionlainne é céimíocht na gconsonanta. Chun abairt a fhoirmiú i bhFiniséilis, beidh ort foghlaim faoi chineálacha briathra, cásanna agus céimíocht na comhfhocal, agus d'fhéadfadh sé go dtógfadh sé tamall ort na rudaí sin a thuiscint.
Go hiontach, bíonn an béim i gcónaí ar an gcéad siollach sa Fhinnéis. Beidh sé deacair ar an gcuid is mó de na coigríche briathra na Fionlainne a fhuaimniú.
Tá an buntáiste ag an bhFinne, áfach, go labhraítear an focal go díreach mar a scríobhtar é. Tá sé seo mar chuid den fhadhb freisin, mar mura ndéanann tú é a rá go ceart, athraíonn an bhrí. Mar sin, mar an gcéanna le Polainnis, nuair a mhilleadh tú a dteanga, beidh tú ach a bhaint amach mí-thuiscint. Cé go bhfuil le rá Béarla, má mhíchumas eachtrannach an teanga, is féidir leat go minic a winne roinnt ciall as.
Ach, in ainneoin go bhfuil an Ghaeilge scríofa in ann a fhuaimniú go héasca, nuair a bhíonn an Ghaeilge á fhoghlaim agat, mar atá i gCeanada, is cosúil go gcaithfidh tú dhá theanga éagsúla a fhoghlaim - an teanga scríofa agus an teanga labhartha. Is é an bealach is fearr chun é a chur ná go bhfuil  teanga amháin ann le haghaidh scríbhneoireachta agus teanga eile le haghaidh labhairt. Úsáidtear foirmeacha éagsúla cibé acu ag caint nó ag cur rud éigin ar pháipéar.
Tá sé deacair roinnt focail a fhuaimniú. Tá an difríocht idir fónta agus comhfónta gearr agus fada go háirithe trioblóideach. Seiceáil amach na péirí íosta seo:
Is fadhb don bhéal Béarla a thagann go dtí an Fhinnéis an foclóir, atá coimhthíoch do bhéal teanga IE. Is minic a bhíonn daoine a bhíonn ag foghlaim an bhFinneois ag lorg suas le leath na bhfocal a bhíonn acu. Is léir go gcuireann sé seo moill ar an léitheoireacht go leor!
Sa ghramadach, is féidir go mbeadh an cás rannpháirteach agus an aimsir fhéideartha deacair. Seo sampla de conas a chomhcheanglaítear amanna briathar na Fionlainne le cásanna éagsúla chun focail a fhoirmiú:
Foirm bhunúsach mennä
Leas-mhéid inessive gníomhach
Meán teagaisc ghníomhach
Mentäessä neamhghníomhach neamhghníomhach
Teachtaí teagaisc ghníomhacha
Mentämän teagaisc éagórach
Fíoráin sa Fhinnéis
Tá briathra an-rialta sa Fhinnéis. Is féidir na briathra neamhrialta a chomhaireamh ar láimh amháin:
agus cúpla eile. Go deimhin, ar an taobh dearfach, tá an Fhinnéis go ginearálta an-réalta.
Is gné éasca de na Fionlainne an bealach is féidir leat go leor foirmeacha a thógáil ó bhunfhoinse:
leabhar
litir
scríobh  scríobh
kirjailija  scríbhneoir
Cosúil le go leor teangacha san Áise, níl aon fhriotain fireann nó baineann ann, agus níl aon inscne gramadaí ann. Tá an córas uimhriúil simplí go leor i gcomparáid le teangacha eile. Níl aon ghreamáin chomhlánacha sa Fhinnéis. Ina theannta sin, tá an fhónalóg sách simplí.
Tá an Fhionlainnis rátáilte 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá deacrachtaí den chineál céanna ag an Eistineach agus ag an bhFinne, ós rud é go bhfuil dlúthbhaint acu. Tá an Ghaeilge níos neamhrialta ná an Ghaeilge. Go háirithe, is cosúil gur thit an córas comhghlúdaithe an-réidh a thuairiscítear sa Fhinnéis as an mbéal in Eistéin. Tá 14 cás ag an Eastóinis, lena n-áirítear cásanna aisteach mar an abessive, an adessive, an elative agus an inessive. Ar an láimh eile, is féidir na cásanna seo go léir a anailísiú mar chás ghineiteach móide iar-chomhcheangal amháin neamh-athraitheach do gach cás. Ina theannta sin, níl aon inscne ann, mar sin is iad na rudaí amháin a chaithfidh tú a bheith buartha faoi nuair a bhíonn cásanna á bhfoirmiú ná singiléir agus il-phlúr.
Tá foirm mhothúcháin aisteach ag an Eistineach ar a dtugtar an cotative, a aistrítear go minic mar cainte tuairiscithe.
téama ar  he/she/it is
tema olevat  tá sé ráite go bhfuil sé/sí/sí nó go bhfuil sé/sí/sí
Úsáidtear an giúmar seo go minic i dtuarascáil nuachtáin agus úsáidtear é freisin le haghaidh ráflaí.
Tá 25 diftongh iontach ag an Eistineach. Tá trí chineál éagsúla fad vuála ann freisin, rud a bhfuil aisteach i dteangacha an domhain. Tá briathra gearr, briathra agus briathra agus comh-aistriúcháin an-fhada ann.
liúnán  línéadach  gearr
linna  the towns  long n, scríofa mar nn
`linna  isteach sa bhaile  n-easca ró-fhada, nach scríofa amach!
Tá difríochtaí ann i bhfreagra na dtrí fhoirm thuas, ach i gcaint tapa, tá sé deacair iad a chloisteáil, cé gur féidir le cainteoirí dúchais iad a dhéanamh amach. Tá deacrachtaí níos mó i sonorants breise-fhada (m, n, ng, l, agus r) agus vowels agus ní scríobhtar amach iad. Ar an iomlán, is féidir le fad fónamach a bheith ina fhadhb san Eistéin, agus is cosúil nach bhfaigheann eachtrannaigh é go hiomlán.
Níl sé deacair an fhocal a fhuaimniú i stáit an Aontais Eorpaigh, cé go bhféadfadh fadhbanna a bheith ag baint leis an fhuaim õ. Mar sin féin, tá an córas comhcheangail vowel a d'fhág an Fhionlainnis ina dhiaidh sin, rud a fhágann go bhfuil focail a bhfuil sé an-deacair a fhuaimniú.
Ní chomh casta agus an Fhionlainnis í an Ghaeilge i bhfoirm scríofa ar a laghad. Is féidir an Eistinneach a fheiceáil mar fhoirm ghearrthógtha agus nua-aimseartha den Fhinnéis. Tá an gramadaí cosúil le leagan simplithe de ghrámadaí na Fionlainne agus d'fhéadfadh sé a bheith i bhfad níos éasca a fhoghlaim.
Tá an t-eastóinis rátáilte 4.5, an-go-iontach deacair.
Is minic a liostaítear Laidineachú Skolt Sami mar cheann de na Laidineachú is measa ar fud na tíre. Tá an chuid eile den teanga cosúil go leor leis an bhFinis, agus chomh deacair leis an bhFinis.
Faigheann Skolt Sami rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá a lán daoine ag aontacht go bhfuil an Ungáir ar cheann de na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim. Aontaíonn fiú múinteoirí teanga leis. Rinne Corps Taidhleoireachta na Breataine staidéar ar na teangacha a bhí le foghlaim ag a taidhleoirí go coitianta agus tháinig siad ar an gconclúid gurb é an Ungáir an ceann is deacra. Tá gramadaí na hUngáire an-chasta, agus is minic a liostaítear an HUngáire ar na liostaí gramadaí is measa. Ar dtús, tá go leor foirmeacha éagsúla ann do fhocal amháin trí mhodhnú focal. Cuireann sé seo ar chumas an labhraí a bhrí atá beartaithe a chur in iúl go beacht. Ag féachaint ar ainmfhocail, tá thart ar 257 foirm éagsúla in aghaidh ainmfhocal.
Deirtear go bhfuil 24-35 cás éagsúil ag an Ungáir (tá cairteanna ar fáil a léiríonn 31 cás), ach b'fhéidir nach bhfuil an líon iarbhír ach 18. Tá beagnach gach rud sa Ungáir ag cur isteach, cosúil leis an Liotuáinis nó leis an Seiceach. Cosúil leis an nGaeilge agus leis an mBascach, tá an comhaontú ilphearsanta ag an Ungáir, cé go bhfuil sé níos lú ná na dhá theanga sin. Tá go leor neamhrialtachtaí i gcúis, agus fiú na hUngáireacha a bheith ag foghlaim conas a litriú go léir de na sa scoil agus a bhfuil am deacair ag foghlaim seo.
Is féidir leis na difríochtaí cás amháin go leor focail éagsúla a chruthú as foirm bhunúsach amháin. Maidir leis an bhfocal teach, tá 31 focal éagsúla againn ag baint úsáide as foirmeacha cás:
házba  isteach sa teach
háisbán  sa teach
házból  ón teach
házra  ar an teach
házon  ar an teach
házról  amach [as] an teach
házhoz  go dtí an teach
házíg  go dtí/suas go dtí an teach
háznál  sa teach
háztól  [i bhfad] ó theach
házzá  Cás aistriúcháin, áit a bhfuil an teach mar thoradh ar athrú, mar shampla D'athraigh siad an uaimh ina theach.
házként  mar an teach, a d'fhéadfaí a úsáid dá mbeadh tú ag gníomhú i do cháil mar theach nó má bhí tú ag dul i bhfolach mar cheann. Ghlac sé suas mar theach le haghaidh Oíche Shamhna.
házért  don teach, go sonrach rudaí a dhéantar thar a cheann nó a dhéantar chun an teach a fháil. Chaith siad a lán ama ag socrú rudaí (don teach).
házul  Cás modála éasmhach. Rud éigin cosúil le "house-ly" nó ar bhealach/mhodh tí. Bhí an teampall ina theach (ar nós theach).
Agus tá roinnt cásanna bunúsacha againn:
ház  Nominative. Tá an teach ar an tsráid.
házat  Accusative. Bhuail an liathróid an teach.
háznak  Dative. Thug an fear an teach do Mháry.
házzal  Cosúil le hionstraim, ach níos cosúla leis an mBéarla le. Tagraíonn sé do na hionstraimí agus do na comhpháirtithe araon.
Tógann an gníomhair 12 díghrádú éagsúil, ag brath ar dhuine agus ar líon:
házam  mo theach
házaim  mo thaighean
háisad  do theach
házaid  do theachanna
háza  a theach
házai  a theach/a theach/a theach
háisunk  ár dteach
házaink  ár dtithe
házatok  do theach
Táim ag cur  do theach
házuk  a dteach
házaik  a dtithe
eaglais  eaglais, mar atá sa Eaglais Chaitliceach. (Go litriúil aon-tithe)
Ina theannta sin, an genitive suffixes an seilbh, nach bhfuil conas a oibríonn an genitive i IE.
háis  teach
a(z)  an
az ember háza  teach an duine (Lit. an fear a theach)
a házam  mo theach (Lit. an teach-mo)
a házad  do theach (Lit. an teach-atá)
Tá focail an-fhada ann freisin mar seo:
do do (tugaimid go léir possessive) pretensions athdhéanta ar a bheith dodhéanta a desecrate ...
Ós rud é gur teanga chomhcheangailteach í, tá an focal sin déanta suas de go leor codanna beaga focail, nó mófarféamaí. Ciallaíonn an focal rud éigin cosúil le
Tá an réamhfhocal greamaithe ar an bhfocal sa teanga seo, agus is cosúil go bhfuil sé seo aisteach do chainteoirí teangacha a bhfuil réamhfhocail saor acu.
Tá an Ungáir lán de chomhfhocail, cosúil leis an mBéarla.
Mar shampla, tá 78 focal éagsúla ann a chiallaíonn bogadh: halad, jár, megy, dülöngél, lépdel, botorkál, kódorog, sétál , andalog, rohan, csörtet, üget, lohol, fut, átvág, vágtat, tipeg, libeg, biceg, poroszkál, vágtázik, somfordál , bóklászik, szedi a lábát, kitér, elszökken, betér , botladozik, őgyeleg, slattyog, bandukol, lófrál, szalad, vánsorog, kószál, kullog, baktat, koslat, kaptat, császkál, totyog, suhan, robhan, rohan, kocog, cselleng, csatangol, beslisszol, elllan, elizol, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal, lopal,
Níl ach thart ar chúig de na téarmaí sin sean-úsáidte agus a úsáidtear go seasta, tá an chuid eile in úsáid faoi láthair. Ach, chun a bheith cothrom, d'fhéadfadh go mbeadh an chuid is mó de na focail sin aithnithe ag cainteoir dúchais na hUngáire.
Ina theannta sin, cé go bhfuil ainmneacha ag formhór na dteangacha do thíortha atá éasca go leor a fháil amach, sa Ungáir is deacair fiú teangacha náisiún a fháil amach toisc gur athraigh siad na hainmneacha go mór. Tá an Iodáil ag éirí mar Olazorszag, an Ghearmáin ag éirí mar Nemetzorsag, etc.
Cosúil leis an Rúisis agus leis an Seirb-Choratach, tá ord focal réasúnta saor in aisce sa Ungáir. Níl sé saor go hiomlán mar a deir cuid acu ach go bhfuil sé rialaithe ag sraith rialacha. Is é an fhadhb ná nuair a athordóidh tú ord na bhfocal i bhriathar, deir tú an rud céanna ach athraíonn an bhrí beagán i dtéarmaí nuance. Ina theannta sin, tá go leor diailéic sa Ungáir. Is féidir le cainteoirí dúchais iad a thuiscint go leor, ach is minic a bhíonn go leor fadhbanna ag eachtrannaigh. Tá sé an-deacair béim a chur ar an Ungáiris mar gheall ar an líon amaideach rialacha a úsáidtear chun béim a chinneadh. Ina theannta sin, tá eisceachtaí ar na rialacha seo go léir. Mar sin féin, is dócha go bhfuil an Ungáir níos rialta ná an Pholainnis.
Tá litriú na hUngáire an-aisteach do dhaoine nach hUngáireacha iad freisin, ach ar a laghad tá an orthography fónéadach. Mar sin féin, is minic a bhíonn an litriú ar liostaí na litriú is measa.
Tá fuaimníocht na hUngáire aisteach freisin. Ceann de na fadhbanna le fóinéis na hUngáire ná comharsanacht na bhfóinéis. Ós rud é go gcuirtear mófarféimí le chéile chun focal a dhéanamh, beidh tionchar ag na huacail a d'úsáid tú sa chéad chuid den fhocal ar na huacail a úsáidfidh tú chun na mófarféimí a thagann chun cinn níos déanaí sa focal a dhéanamh suas. Tugann an comhcheangal fógála singing effect don Ungáir nuair a labhraítear é. Tá sé deacair ar go leor eachtrannaigh na fuaimeanna ty, ny, sz, zs, dzs, dz, ly, cs agus gy a dhéanamh. Níl na fuaimeanna vowel á, é, ó, ö, ő, ú, ü, ű, agus í le fáil i mBéarla.
Tá briathra marcáilte le haghaidh réad (neamhchinnte, cinnte agus duine / uimhir), ábhar (daoine agus uimhir) aimsir (ar a bhfuil, atá ann cheana agus sa todhchaí), stíl (táscach, coinníollach agus ríthábhachtach), agus gné ( minicíocht, féidearthacht, fírinneacht, agus reflexivity).
D'fhéadfainn daoine eile a shábháil ó am go ham (ar diosca).
Athraíonn briathra ag brath ar an ábhar atá sainithe nó neamhchinnteach.
Léigh mé leabhar. (suíomh neamhchinnteach)
Olvasom a könvyet.
Léigh mé an leabhar. (cuspóir sainithe)
Mar a luaitear i d'iontráil ar an rannán Fionlaigh-Uigreach, ní mór duit beagán gramadaí na hUngáire a bheith agat chun tú féin a chur in iúl ar leibhéal bunúsach. Mar shampla, chun a rá:
Is maith liom do dheirfiúr.
Ní mór duit na foirmeacha seo a leanas san Ungáir a thuiscint:
- comhghabháil briathra agus foirmeacha socraithe nó neamhshocraithe
- iar-fhocail shealbhóireachta
- conas a chomhcheangal suffixes possessive le cás
- ord focal
- maoineacha soiléir
Tá sé deacair a rá, ach is dócha go bhfuil an Ungáir níos deacra a fhoghlaim ná fiú na teangacha Slavacha is deacra mar an Seiceach, an tSeirb-Choratach agus an Pholainnis. Ar aon chuma, aontaítear go ginearálta go bhfuil gramadaí na hUngáire níos casta ná gramadaí na Slavaine, rud atá an-iontach mar go bhfuil gramadaí na Slavaine go leor fiáin.
Tá an Ungáir ar an 5ú leibhéal, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá sé éasca go leor Mandarin a fhoghlaim ag leibhéal bunúsach, cé go bhféadfadh na tonna a bheith deacair. Tá sé seo toisc go bhfuil an grámara an-simplí  focail ghearr, gan cás, inscne, infleachtaí briathar nó aimsir. Ach leis an Seapáinis, is féidir leat leanúint ag foghlaim, agus leis an tSínis, is minic a bhíonn claonadh agat bualadh le balla, go minic toisc go bhfuil an struchtúr sintasacha chomh difriúil ó na Béarla (a leithéidí).
Go deimhin, tá an grámhar níos deacra ná mar a fheiceann sé. Ar dtús is cosúil go bhfuil sé simplí, cosúil le Béarla simplithe. Níl aon fhocal in ann a bheith ag titim, agus níl aon aimsir, cás, agus uimhir ann, ná níl aon airteagail ann. Ach déanann an simplíocht é a dhéanamh deacair. Ciallaíonn gan aimsir nach bhfuil aon bhealach éasca ann am a mharcáil i bprionsabal. Ina theannta sin, ní bhíonn an t-éagmais chomh éasca agus is cosúil. Cinnte, níl aon chomhlánaíocht briathra ann, ach ina ionad sin ní mór duit roinnt deighiltí agus ordú speisialta focal a fhoghlaim a úsáidtear chun an aimsir a chomharú. Tá 12 adverb éagsúil ag an mBéarla ar nach bhfuil aistriúchán maith Béarla ann dóibh.
Nuair a thosaíonn tú ag scaipeadh i nGaeilge, tá sraith casta faoi gach simplíocht dromchla. Tá rudaí mar ghné, briathra sraitheacha, córas aicmithe casta, sintéacs a bhfuil sé marcáilte le rud éigin ar a dtugtar ábhar-príomh, foirm aisteach ar a dtugtar an passive díobhálach, clásal gaolmhara réamhshocraithe, úsáid briathra seachas adverbs chun treo a mharcáil, agus gach cineál rudaí aisteach. Is féidir le comhlántais briathra a bheith mícheart, go háirithe comhlántais féideartha agus treoracha. Is féidir go mbeadh sé an-deacair na tógálacha 把, 是 agus 的 a thuiscint.
Tá an t-ábhar-príomhchúis suimiúil go bhfuil ach cúpla mór teangacha a bhfuil ábhar-chomharc sintéacs, agus is iad an chuid is mó de na teangacha Oirthear le go leor de na Síneach iasachtaí. Níl an t-áit a bheith ar an gcúis marcáilte go morfo-eolaíoch.
Tá seantanna ann ina n-athraíonn an bhrí iomlán le carachtar amháin a chur leis. Tá abairtí Síneach SVO (Subject -Verb  Object) ag a mbonn, ach is beag illúis é sin. I gcás abairt a chuireann ort plé a dhéanamh ar fhad ama cuireann sé an briathar arís tar éis an réad díreach  SVOVT (T = frása ama). I gcás topicalisation, is féidir le hairíonna struchtúr OSV a bheith acu (Object  Subject  Verb). Tagann clásal coibhneasta agus gach clásal fo-ghnéithe roimh an ainmfhocal a mhodhnaíonn siad. I bhfocail eile:
Béarla: Chuaigh an fear a bhí ag caitheamh dearg i gcónaí isteach sa seomra.
Síneach: a bhí i gcónaí ag caitheamh dearg an fear a chuaigh isteach sa seomra.
Tá an clásal coibhneasta sna habairtí thuas marcáilte i ndath.
Sa tSínis, tagann an frása réamhfhocail idir an t-ábhar agus an briathar:
Béarla: Bhuail an fear an liathróid isteach sa chúlchóir.
Chinese: Bhuail an fear isteach sa chúlchúrsa an liathróid.
Tá an frása réamhfhocail i ndlúthdhiosca sna habairtí thuas.
I nGaeilge, is briathra stative iad na hairíonna i ndáiríre mar atá i Nahuatl agus Lakota.
Nágè rède cài hěnhǎochī.
Tá sé bia te go maith a ithe.
Tá an bia te delicious.
Déanann an siombail 的 bia te a thiontú ina bia tá sé te, briathar tréithneach. Ciallaíonn rud éigin cosúil le bheith.
Tá na dúinneanna de na focail ar a dtugtar cáithníní a shade an bhrí de abairt riamh chomh beag.
Níl fónalóg na Síne chomh éasca agus a deir cuid acu. Tá an iomarca cásanna de na fuaimeanna zh, ch, sh, j, q, agus x sa teanga ar nós go bhfuil an chuma ar go leor de na focail go bhfuil an fuaim chéanna acu. Tá idirdhealú ann idir comh-aigneacha a bhfuil dúil iontu agus a bhfuil dúil iontu. Tá comh-aigí retroflex neamhghnácha ann freisin.
Is dócha gurb é litearthacht na Síne an litearthacht is deacra de gach teanga. Úsáideann an aibítir siombailí, mar sin ní aibítir fíor é. Tá ar a laghad 85,000 siombail agus i ndáiríre go leor eile, ach ní gá duit ach 3-5,000 a fhios acu, agus ní fios ag go leor Sínigh fiú 1,000. Chun a bheith an-chomhfhiosach sa tSínis, ní mór duit 10,000 carachtar a bheith agat, agus is dócha go bhfuil níos lú ná 5% de na Síneoirí a bhfuil an oiread sin acu.
Ina theannta sin, ní athraíodh na carachtair le 3,000 bliain, agus tá an aibítir ar a laghad beagán fuaimeach, mar sin tá fadhb mhór againn maidir le easpa athchóirithe litriúla.
Rinne na cumannaithe iarracht an córas a shimpliú (Mandarin shimpliú) ach in ionad naisc idir gnéithe fóntacha carachtair a dhéanamh níos ciallúla trína líon a laghdú agus a rialtacht a mhéadú (dhírigh siad é seo go pointe áirithe ach ní go leor), laghdaigh siad líon na strócanna a theastaíonn do gach siombail de ghnáth gan déileáil le gné fóntacha gach ceann. Ní raibh an simplithe ag obair go maith, mar sin anois tá meascán de dhá chineál éagsúla scríofa na Síne agat  simplithe agus traidisiúnta.
Ina theannta sin, ghlac na Síne go leor de na hAlfabéid Siombalacha Seapánacha 1,000 bliain tar éis dóibh a bheith forbartha cheana féin agus gan athchóiriú litriúil a dhéanamh orthu, rud a chuir mí-oireamh ar an gcion.
Fiú amháin má fhágann tú na carachtair ar leataobh, bheadh na srianta stílisteacha agus liteartha a theastaíonn chun an tSínis a scríobh ar bhealach béarla nó foirmiúil (litriúil) ag déanamh do cheann snámh. Agus ní chiallaíonn an rud go bhfuil tú in ann léitheoireacht na Síne a dhéanamh go bhfuil tú in ann prósa na Síne Clasaiceach a léamh. Tá sé cosúil go bhfuil sé scríofa i dteanga difriúil, i ndáiríre, is teanga dhifriúil í go teicniúil cosúil le Meán Béarla nó Sean Béarla. Mar sin féin, ní léitear mórán téacsanna Béarla Mheán nó Béarla Dhá níos mó, agus léitear an tSean-Ghaeilge go forleathan fós.
Mar sin féin, tá an orthography ar a laghad comhsheasmhach. Ní bhíonn ach léamh amháin ag 90% de na carachtair. Nuair a fhoghlaimíonn tú an carachtar, is gnách go bhfuil a chiall ar eolas agat in aon chomhthéacs.
Tá sé níos deacra na carachtair a scríobh ná iad a léamh. Athraíonn pointe nó líne mícheart amháin an bhrí go hiomlán nó déanann sé an siombail a bheith gan chiall.
Is fíor-fhadhb é nuair a bhíonn siombail nach bhfuil ar eolas agat agat toisc nach bhfuil aon bhealach ann an focal a fhuaimniú. Tá tú i ndáiríre agus go fírinneach caillte agus fucked. Tá leideanna ar thaobh na láimhe deise den tsiombail, ach ní bhíonn siad cruinn i gcónaí. Ní mór duit go leor focal a fhoghlaim chun ráite simplí a labhairt.
Ar an gcaoi chéanna, ní gá go mbeadh foclóir ina chabhair nuair a bhíonn tú ag iarraidh an tSínis a léamh. D'fhéadfadh go mbeadh abairt Síneach os do chomhair in éineacht le foclóir, agus d'fhéadfadh nach mbeadh ciall ag an abairt fiú tar éis féachaint air sa foclóir.
Scríobhann roinnt Moslamach Síneach an tSínis ag baint úsáide as scríbhneoireacht Araibis. Is minic a mheastar gurb é seo ceann de na huirlisí is measa ar fad.
Is minic a bhíonn sé deacair go leor do dhuine ón Iarthar na tonna a phiocadh suas. Má dhéanann tú botún ar na toin, tá focal go hiomlán difriúil ráite agat. Is minic nach ndéanann eachtrannaigh a bhfuil a n-tonnaí ar eolas acu go maith iad a rá i gceart, agus dá bhrí sin, deir siad focal amháin nuair a chiallaíonn siad ceann eile. Mar sin féin, i gcomparáid le córais ton eile ar fud an domhain, tá an córas ton i nGaeilge réasúnta éasca.
Is é an fhadhb is mó le Sínis ná homonyms. Go pointe áirithe, tá sé seo fíor i go leor teangacha toin. Ós rud é go n-úsáideann an tSínis focail ghearr agus go bhfuil sé dí-sillabach, tá repertoire teoranta fuaimeanna ann is féidir a úsáid. Ag pointe áirithe, tá na fuaimeanna go léir caite, agus tá tú isteach i réimse na n-homophones.
Is bealach amháin é idirdhealú toin a dhéanann teangacha monosyllabic agus disyllabic chun déileáil leis an bhfadhb homophone, ach níl sé go leor, ós rud é go bhfuil go leor homophones ag an tSínis fós, agus is minic a bhraitheann an bhrí trí chomhthéacs, strus, rithim agus intinn. Tá an tSínis, cosúil leis an bhFraincis agus an Béarla, go mór idiomatic.
Níl mórán eolais air, ach úsáideann na Síne foirmeacha éagsúla (aicmitheoirí) freisin chun rudaí éagsúla a chomhaireamh, cosúil leis an Seapáinis.
Níl aon fhocal coitianta idir Béarla agus Sínis, mar sin ní mór duit sraith iomlán nua foirmeacha léasacha a fhoghlaim.
Ina theannta sin, is minic a léiríonn ainmfhocail gaol nó ordlathas. Mar shampla, i mBéarla, is féidir leat a rá go simplí mo dheartháir nó mo dheirfiúr, ach sa tSínis, ní féidir leat é seo a dhéanamh. Caithfidh tú a chur in iúl an bhfuil tú ag caint faoi dheartháir nó deirfiúr níos sine nó níos óige.
mei mei  deirfiúr níos óige
jie jie  deirfiúr níos sine
ge ge deartháir níos sine
di di  deartháir níos óige
Scóráil an Mhandaráin an-ard ar staidéar ar na teangacha is aisteach.
Ar an taobh dearfach, tá gramadaí na Síne réasúnta rialta agus tá díorthaíocht focail, focail chomhcheangailte ciallmhar agus is féidir an bhrí a chinneadh trí bhreathnú ar an bhfocal. I dteangacha eile, ní gá go mbeadh focail chomhcheangailte chomh soiléir sin.
Aontaíonn go leor gurbh í an tSínis an teanga is deacra a fhoghlaim de na teangacha móra go léir. D'athbhreithnigh suirbhé le déanaí ar ollamh teanga na Síne mar an teanga is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim.
Faigheann Mandarin rátáil 5.5 mar an ceann is deacra.
Mar sin féin, tá sé níos deacra Cantonese a fhoghlaim ná Mandarin. Tá ocht ton ag an gCantóinis i gcomparáid le ceithre ton ag an Mhandaráinis, agus ina theannta sin, leanann siad ag úsáid a lán de na carachtair thraidisiúnta Síneach níos sine a cuireadh in ionad nuair a bhog an tSín go dtí scríbhneoireacht shimplí i 1949. Ina theannta sin, ós rud é nach bhfuil carachtair neamh-Mandarin caighdeánaithe, ní féidir an Cantonese a scríobh síos mar a labhraítear é.
Ina theannta sin, tá gné bhéal ag an gCantóinis, b'fhéidir go bhfuil suas le 20 cineálacha éagsúla ann. Tá deighiltí módail deacair sa Chantainis. Tá cnuasaigh de 3 phreas deireanach de na cáithníní an-choitianta. Tá mé ag ithe bia agus tá mé ag ithe bia ar an bhfréamh, ach cuireann na cáithníní an bhrí a bhí agam cheana féin bia, ag freagairt ceist nó fiú a chur in iúl go raibh mé ag ithe bia, mar sin ní gá dom a ithe níos mó.
Faigheann Cantonese rátáil 5.5, beagnach an ceann is deacra de gach.
Deirtear freisin go bhfuil Min Nan níos deacra a fhoghlaim ná Mandarin, toisc go bhfuil córas tonn níos casta aige, le cúig fhuaim ar thrí leibhéal éagsúla. Is cosúil nach bhfuil fiú go leor dúchasach Taiwanese ag labhairt go ceart na laethanta seo, mar tá sé ag titim as fabhraí, agus tá i bhfad níos lú páistí á bhfás suas ag labhairt é ná mar a bhí roimhe.
Faigheann Min Nan rátáil 5.5, beagnach an ceann is deacra.
D'fhéach suirbhé 15 bliana le déanaí ó Ollscoil Fudan ag baint úsáide as na ranna Teangachas agus Daonchultúr ag breathnú ar 579 teanga éagsúla i 91 teaghlach teanga chun iarracht a dhéanamh an teanga is casta ar domhan a fháil. Ba é an toradh ná go raibh dialekt teanga Wu (nó b'fhéidir teanga ar leithligh) i gceantar Fengxian de dheas Shanghai (Dônđän Wu) an teanga is casta ó thaobh fónála de, le 20 vocal ar leithligh (Wang 2012). Ba é an iomaitheoir is gaire ná an Iorua le 16 vocal.
Faigheann Dônđän Wu rátáil 5.5 , beagnach an ceann is deacra de gach duine.
Léann go leor daoine Sínis agus foghlaimeoirí teanga na Síne an tSean-Chínis fós. Mura bhfuil greim an-mhaith agat ar an tSínis nua-aimseartha, beidh an tSínis clasaiceach go hiomlán caillte ort. Tá an tSean-Chineach clasaiceach i bhfad níos deacra a léamh ná an tSean-Chineach nua-aimseartha a léamh.
Clúdaíonn an tSínis Chlasaiceach ré a shíneann thar 3,000 bliain, agus chun a bheith réidh ag léamh sa teanga seo, ní mór duit a bheith eolach ar na carachtair go léir a úsáideadh le linn na tréimhse seo chomh maith le litríocht na tréimhse sin ionas gur féidir leat na hintinn go léir a thuiscint. Fiú má tá eolas agat ar an tSínis Chlasaiceach, ní mór duit é a léamh i gcomhthéacs. Má tá tú go maith i nGaeilge Chlasaiceach agus go gcaitheann duine éigin rannán randamach de, glacfaidh sé go leor ama ort é a fháil amach mura bhfuil an comhthéacs ar eolas agat.
Tá an teanga i bhfad níos mó i gceist ná an tSínis Nua-aimseartha, ach níl sé seo chomh maith agus a fhuaimeann sé. Fágann an simplíocht seo spás do dhúinn, agus tá ról tábhachtach ag an gcomhthéacs. Ní bheidh greann ar an scéal faoi roinnt anicdot stairiúil nó liteartha obscure agat mura bhfuil a fhios agat cad a bhaineann sé leis. Chun an tSínis nua-aimseartha a léamh, beidh 5,000 carachtar ar a laghad ag teastáil uait, ach fiú ansin, beidh foclóir ag teastáil uait. Le Sínis Chlasaiceach, níl aon teorainn íseal ar líon na gcarachtair a chaithfidh tú a bheith ar an eolas. Is é an spéir an teorainn.
Faigheann an tSean-Chineach clasaiceach rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra de na cinn go léir.
I Quiang, teanga de Choimisiún Sichuan sa tSín, ní hamháin go bhfuil vowels rhotic, atá i láthair i ach 1% de theangacha an domhain, ach tá chomh maith le comhchuibheas rhoticity, áit a bhfuil neamh-rhotic vowel i morpheme a thiocfaidh chun bheith rhotic nuair a leanann sé ag morpheme le vowel rhotic.
ʀuɑ + khe > ʀuɑkhe
me + we > mewe
Tá briathra róthacha le fáil i mBéarla na Stát Aontaithe  Gan strus : caighdeánach, dinnéar, Lincolnshire, eagarthóir, tomhas, mairtire.
Tá rómánú an-olc ag Qiang freisin, chomh dona sin nach n-úsáidfidh an Qiang é fiú. Scríobhtar comhcheangail fhuaimnithe trí fhuaimnín a chur leis an tsiombail don chomhcheangail gan ghuth. Tá briathra fada agus ghearr ann, ach níl siad seo ionadaithe sa chóras.
Qiang faigheann 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Is dócha go bhfuil ceann de na huirlisí is lú réasúnach ag an Tibéidis de gach teanga. Níor athraigh an litriú i ~ 1,000 bliain cé go bhfuil an teanga tar éis dul trí gach cineál athruithe. Is féidir le foghlaimeoir teanga sa Tíobóid a fháil trí litreáil fhóntachta a úsáid. Tagann an fhadhb nuair a dhéanann tú iarracht a litriú ag baint úsáide as an Alphabet Clásúil. Mar shampla:
Srong rtsan Sgam po (leabhair)
soŋtsɛn ɡampo (labhartha)
Cé go bhfuil an eiteagrafíocht eitimeolaíoch agus go hiomlán as dáta, tá sé intuartha go leor.
Faigheann Tibéidis rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá fuaimníocht an-fhiáin ag Dzongka, teanga oifigiúil Bhutan, chomh maith leis an gcóras scríbhneoireachta Tibéidis, an uair seo ag baint úsáide as foirmeacha Bhutanese den script Tibéidis.
Tá an t-amhrán seo a leanas i gcodarsnacht leis: s, sh, hs, hsh, ts, hts, tsh, z, ɦz, dz, ɦdz, nsh, mtsh, ntsh, ndz, pts, ptsh, ptswh, agus s, agus ina theannta sin tá ceithre thonn aige, ach níl aon fhocal amháin ann a bhfuil idirdhealú ann trí thonn amháin. Ar a bharr sin, tá 22 vowels éagsúla ann.
Faigheann Dzongka rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá Vítneam deacair a fhoghlaim freisin toisc go bhfuil sé deacair do dhuine lasmuigh na tonna a insint óna chéile. Dá bhrí sin, is minic a bhíonn sé deacair a thuiscint ó dhaoine eachtracha toisc nach dtuigeann siad an t-uimhir ceart. Tá tonanna "creaky-voiced" ann freisin, atá an-deacair do choigríche tuiscint a fháil orthu.
Tá gramadaí Vítneam simplí go leor, agus tá léitheoireacht Vítneam go leor éasca nuair a thuigeann tú na marcanna tona. Tá focail ghearr mar atá sa tSínis. Mar sin féin, tá an gramaic shimplí coibhneasta, mar is féidir leat 25 fhoirm nó níos mó a bheith agat ach amháin le haghaidh I, an pronoun singiléir 1ú duine. Ina theannta sin, deirtear go bhfuil an litriú Laidineach go leor dona. Bhí sé a chumadh ag misinéirí cúpla céad bliain ó shin, agus tá sé riamh a bhí i bhfad ciallmhar.
Faigheann Vítneam 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá cáil ar an gcumarsáid Khmer go bhfuil sé deacair í a fhoghlaim. Tuigim go bhfuil ceann de na córais onóirithe is casta aige de gach teanga ar domhan. Ciallaíonn breis agus dosaen focal éagsúla iompar ag brath ar an méid atá á iompar ag duine. Tá roinnt focail éagsúla ann le haghaidh sclábhaí ag brath ar cé a bhí ina úinéir ar an sclábhaí agus ar an méid a rinne an sclábhaí. Tá 28-30 vocail éagsúla ann, lena n-áirítear tacair de vocail fhada agus ghearr agus diftongs fada agus ghearr. Tá an córas vowel chomh casta nach bhfuil comhaontú ann fiú ar an gcaoi a bhfuil sé i ndáiríre. Is minic a bhíonn sé deacair ar fhoghlaimeoirí Khmer, go háirithe cainteoirí teangacha IE, na vuálaigh seo a tháirgeadh nó a idirdhealú fiú.
Níl sé chomh dona é a labhairt, ach tá sé deacair é a léamh agus a scríobh. Mar shampla, is féidir leat suas le cúig shiombail éagsúla a chur le chéile i siombail chasta amháin. Tá an script orthographic níos measa ná an ceann Thai. Tá rialacha ann i ndáiríre don chaos seo, ach is cosúil nach bhfuil a fhios ag aon duine cé hiad.
Faigheann Khmer rátáil 4.5, an-deacair go han-deacair.
Tá an líon is mó fuaimeanna vowel ag Sedang, teanga de Vítneam, de gach teanga ar domhan, ag 55 fuaim vowel ar leith.
Faigheann Sedang rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Is é Hmong a labhraítear go forleathan sa chuid seo de California, ach ní éasca é a fhoghlaim. Tá ocht gcineál ann, agus níl siad éasca a thuiscint. Níl sé ceangailte le haon phríomh-theanga eile ach leis an mBéarla éagórach.
Tá roinnt comh-aistriúcháin an-aisteach ann ar a dtugtar nasal gan guth. Tá siad againn i mBéarla mar allophones  tá an m i bpáiste gan guth, ach i Hmong, cuirtear iad i láthair na bhfocal  tá an m sa fhocal Hmong gan guth. Is féidir leo seo a bheith an-deacair a fhuaimniú.
Tá an rómánaíocht faoi cháin go forleathan mar go bhfuil sé mí-mhaith, ach úsáideann na Hmong é ar aon nós.
Hmong faigheann 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Is teanga aborigine Taiwanese í Tsou a labhraíonn thart ar 2,000 duine i Taiwan. Tá an ghné aisteach aige de réir a bhfuil na gluaiseachtaí bunúsacha y agus w ag casadh isteach nó ag teacht chun cinn mar fhuaimíní lárnach neamh-síleabacha e̯ agus o̯ i gcomhthéacsanna áirithe:
jo~joskɨ -> e̯oˈe̯oskɨ -= iasc
Tá Tsou ergative freisin cosúil leis an chuid is mó de theangacha Formosan. Is é Tsou an t-aon teanga ar domhan nach bhfuil aon réamhfhocail nó aon rud a bhfuil cuma réamhfhocail air. Ina áit sin úsáideann sé ainmfhocail agus briathra in áit na réamhfhocail. Ceadaíonn Tsou níos mó cnuasaigh comhchruinnithe féideartha ná an chuid is mó de na teangacha eile. Ceadaítear thart ar 1/2 de na cnuasaigh CC is féidir.
Tá idirdhealú cuimsitheach / eisiach ag Tsou sa 1ú duine ilghnéithe agus idirdhealú an-aisteach le feiceáil agus neamhfhaicsin sa 3ú duine singilíneach agus ilghnéithe. Is féidir le hairíonna agus adverbs araon a bheith ina bhriathra agus tá siad marcáilte le haghaidh guth ar an mbealach céanna a bhíonn briathra ann. Tá briathra marcáilte go forleathan le haghaidh guth. Tá ainmfhocail marcáilte le haghaidh cásanna neamhghnácha éagsúla, a thagraíonn go minic do thuairim, duine (féach / neamhfhaisnéise), agus deixis áit.
e  in amharc agus in aice le cainteoir
si/ta  éisteoir atá le feiceáil agus in aice
ta  le feiceáil ach i bhfad ó chainteoir
o/to  neamhfhaisnéise agus i bhfad i gcéin, nó a tugadh isteach go nua sa díospóireacht
na/no ~ ne  neamh-inaitheanta agus neamh-thárla (go minic nuair a bhíonn rang eilimintí á scanadh)
Faigheann Tsou rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Is teanga éasca í Bahasa Indonesia a fhoghlaim. Ar dtús, tá an gramaic an-simplí. Níl ach cúpla réamhrá ann, agus ní fhéadfaí ach dhá cheann acu a fheiceáil mar inflectional. Tá roinnt iar-aistritheoirí ann freisin. Ní marcáiltear briathra ar an aimsir ar chor ar bith. Agus tá córas fuaime na dteangacha seo, i gcoitinne le hOstairnéiseach i gcoitinne, ar cheann de na cinn is simplí ar domhan, le dhá dhuslach fuaime amháin. Tá cúpla homonym, homophones, homographs, nó heteronyms ag Bahasa Indonesia. Go ginearálta, ní chiallaíonn focail ach aon chiall amháin.
Cé nach bhfuil an ceartliosta go hiomlán fónéadach, níl ach líon beag eisceachtaí neamhfónéadacha aige. Tá an spléachadh ar cheann de na cinn is éasca ar domhan a úsáid.
Tá an córas chun focail a thiontú ina ainmfhocail nó ina bhriathra rialta. Chun iomad a dhéanamh, ní gá ach focal a athdhéanamh, mar sin in ionad péinteanna a rá, deirtear péinteán péinteán.
Faigheann Bahasa Indonesia rátáil 1.5, an-éasca a fhoghlaim.
Ní bhíonn an Ghaeilge éasca ach amháin má fhoghlaimíonn tú an fhoirm chaighdeánach labhartha nó ceann de na criollacha. Tá sé i bhfad níos deacra an teanga liteartha a fhoghlaim. Mar sin féin, is minic a mheastar go bhfuil an script Jawi, atá scríofa i scríbhinn Arabach, go hiomlán uafásach.
Faigheann Malaeis rátáil 2 le haghaidh go measartha éasca.
An Pholainn Mhór Lárnach
Mar sin féin, tá an Tagalog i bhfad níos deacra ná an Malaeis nó an Indinéisis. I gcomparáid le go leor teangacha Eorpacha, is minic a bhíonn sintéacs, morphology agus séimintíocht Tagalog go leor difriúil. Chomh maith leis sin, is gnách go labhraítear an Tagalog go han-tapa. Murab ionann agus sa Mhálaeis, bíonn an-chuid briathra i dteanga Tagalog. Is é príomh-smaoineamh na gramadaí Tagalog rud éigin ar a dtugtar fócas. Nuair a thuigeann tú é, bíonn an teanga éasca go leor, ach go dtí go dtuigeann tú an coincheap, beidh am deacair agat.
Tá gach rud i Tagalog.
Mar sin féin, tá sé an-éasca airteagail agus aidiachtaí a chruthú ó ainmfhocail.
ganda  áilleacht (ainmfhocal)
maganda  álainn (aineolas)
Tagalog faigheann rátáil 4, an-deacair.
Tá cáil ar na Maorí agus ar theangacha Poilíneisiacha eile go bhfuil siad an-éasca a fhoghlaim. Is é an phríomhfhadhb do chainteoirí Béarla go bhfuil an struchtúr abairt ar ais i gcomparáid le Béarla. Ina theannta sin, d'fhéadfadh macrons fadhbanna a chur ar bun.
Is é an fhadhb amháin le Maorí ná diailéic. Tá na diailéicte chomh éagsúil sin go gciallaíonn sé seo go bhfuil go leor focail ann don rud céanna. Tá saincheist den chineál céanna ag an Ghearmáinis Shise, le suas le 50 focal do gach earra tí coitianta (tá focal féin ag beagnach gach dialekt mór d'earraí coitianta):
ngongi, noni, koki, wai  uisce
whiri, rarangi, hiri  a phléist, a thriall, a threal
pai, maitai  maith
tu, tū, tutehu, mātika  seasamh
mau, mou  chun a shealbhú
pau, pou  a bheith caite
ika, tohorā  baile
ika, ngohi  iasc
líne kāwei, kāwai
ori, kori, keukeu, koukou, neke, nuku  chun bogadh
haere, hara, here, horo, whano  chun dul, chun teacht
hara, hapa, hē  a bheith mícheart
kōrerorero, wānanga, rūnanga  chun plé a dhéanamh
tohunga, tahunga  sagart
matikuku, maikuku  ingne
kanohi, konohi, mata, whatu, kamo, karu  súile, aghaidh
Ní féidir seantanna maori iomlána a scríobh ach le vuálaigh.
An bhfuil sé ag teacht?
An bhfuil do chuid féin daingean?
Tá mé ag iarraidh é.
Thit sé mar is gnách.
I ui au i auau aau
Beidh sé deacair / crua / trom!
Ar an taobh dearfach, tá an fuaimniú simplí, agus níl aon inscne ann. Tá an teanga chomh rialta le Seapáinis. Níl níos mó ná 16 fuaim ag aon teanga Pholainéiseach, agus níl tonna ag gach ceann acu. Tá cúig fhuaim ag gach ceann acu, agus is féidir iad a bheith fada nó gearr. Ní mór go mbeadh vowel ag teacht i ndiaidh comhghuaillín, mar sin níl aon chnuasach comhghuaillín ann. Tá gach comh-aistriú éasca a fhuaimniú.
Faigheann Maori rátáil 3, deacracht meán.
Is teanga an-éasca í Haváí a fhoghlaim. Tá sé éasca a fhuaimniú, tá aibítir shimplí aige, níl morfolaíocht chasta aige agus tá sintéacs simplí go leor aige.
Faigheann Haváí rátáil 2, an-éasca a fhoghlaim.
Vanuatu Thuaidh agus Lár
Is teanga an-aisteach í an Sakao a labhraíonn 4,000 duine i Vanuatu. Tá sé an-aisteach. Is teanga poilsintéiseach Austronesian í, rud atá an-aisteach. Ceadaíonn sé cnuasaigh choimhlint mhór. Sakao Tá sé de na céimeanna dochreidte de deixis. Tá ceithre dhuine iontach ag an teanga: singil, dúlach, paucalach agus il. Tá an teanga chomharsanachta Tomoko singil, dhúbailte, triail agus il. Tá an fhoirm trialach an-aisteach. Sakao's paucal a tháinig ó thriail Tomato's:
iad, ó thrí go deich
na cúig acu (Go litriúil, tá siad trí, cúig)
Tá na hainmneacha go léir i gcónaí san aonfhocal ach amháin le haghaidh foirmeacha gaolmhara agus taispeántais, nach léiríonn ach an iomad:
 mo mháthair/aintín ->  mo sheantuismitheoirí
walðyɣ  mo leanbh -> raalðyɣ  mo leanaí
Tá roinnt ainmfhocail aige a deirtear go bhfuil siad "in-ghlactha" (inalienably possessed), is é sin, nuair a tharlaíonn siad, ní mór go mbeadh sealbhóir éigin acu. Is minic a bhíonn infleachtaí an-neamhrialta ag na cinn seo:
Mo bhéal
"Sɨŋœ-m do bhéal"
ɔsɨŋɔ-n a bhéal
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a bhéal
uly-ɣ mo chuid gruaige
uly-m do chuid gruaige
a chuid gruaige
Ní... ... a chuid gruaige
Anseo, tá béal nó œsɨŋœ-, ɔsɨŋɔ- nó œsœŋ-, agus tá gruaig nó uly-, ulœ- nó nøl-
Sakao, aisteach go leor, ní féidir fiú a bheith siollacha sa bhealach a cheapann muid de ghnáth iad. Má tá siollacha ann ar chor ar bith, is cosúil go bhfuil sé ar a laghad mar fhuaimín atá timpeallaithe ag aon líon comh-aistriúcháin.
Tar éis canadh agus stopadh ag canadh tú i gcónaí ciúin.
Tá an t-aistriúchán -in ag Sakao a dhéanann briathar neamh-iompartha a bheith idirthréimhseach agus a dhéanann briathar idirthréimhseach a bheith dí-iompartha. Is féidir le briathra dí-thrasnachta dhá argóint a ghlacadh  réad díreach agus uirlisí.
Tá grá agam duit. / Tá grá agam duit.
Marú an muc leis an gclub / Marú an muc leis an gclub.
Ligeann polysynthesis Sakao briathra comhcheangailte, a bhfuil a uirlis nó a chuspóir féin ag gach ceann acu:
Ní mór dó a bheith ann.
He-shooting-fish-kept-on-walking with-a-bow the-sea. Bhí sé ag-scaoileadh-iasc-agus-ag-coimeád-an-siúlóid le-a-b-a-b-a-mhuir.
Chuaigh sé ar feadh na farraige ag lámhach na n-iasc le bogha.
Sakao faigheann 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Is teanga Austronesian í Kwaio a labhraítear in Oileáin Shlóman. Tá ceithre fhoirm éagsúla uimhir aige chun pronouns a mharcáil  ní amháin an ghnáth singil agus il, ach an dáileog níos annamh agus an paucal an-annamh freisin. Ina theannta sin, tá difríocht chuimsitheach/eisiach sna foirmeacha neamh-singular.
1 dúbailte san áireamh (tá tú agus mé)
1 dúbailte eisiach (mé féin agus duine eile, ní tú)
1 pacaal san áireamh (tá tú, mé agus cúpla duine eile)
1 pacáistheachán (mé féin agus cúpla duine eile)
1 iomad san áireamh (mé, tú agus go leor eile)
1 iomad go heisiach (I agus go leor eile)
Faigheann Kwaio rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá cáil ar an Malagás, teanga oifigiúil na Madagásire, go bhfuil sé níos éasca í a fhoghlaim ná an tIndinéisis nó an Malaeis.
Faigheann an Malagásc rátáil 1, is é an ceann is éasca a fhoghlaim.
Is teanga an-deacair í an Téalainnis a fhoghlaim. Tá 75 siombail sa scríbhneoireacht aisteach, níl aon spásanna idir focail sa scríbhneoireacht, agus is féidir le huacailí teacht roimh, tar éis, os cionn nó faoi bhun comh-uimhir i ngach siolla. Is cosúil go bhfuil go leor gliifí éagsúla ann do gach comh-aistriú, ach déanfaidh na gliifí éagsúla don chomh-aistriú céanna fuaim an fhuaimigh chomharsanacha a athrú uaireanta. Tá an ceart-aistriúchán chomh neamh-éagsúil le Béarla ó tharla go bhfuil na céadta bliain imithe gan aon athchóirithe litriúcháin, i ndáiríre, níor athraigh an Téalainnis a chóras i 1000 bliain. An wild cárta a bhfuil ton thrown i cuireann sé leis an insanity.
Athraíonn fuaimníocht na comhghuaillithe ag brath ar shuíomh an tsléibhe sa fhocal  mar shampla, is féidir le s athrú go t. Tá go leor vowels ann a labhraítear ach nach scríobhtar. Tá go leor comh-aigineacha ann a fhuaimnítear mar an gcéanna  mar shampla, tá sé t éagsúla ann, gan na s a chomhaireamh a thiocfaidh chun bheith ina ts. Is cinnte gurb é an scripte Thai ceann de na scripteacha fónetacha is deacra. Mar sin féin, tá sé níos éasca an script Téalainnis a fhoghlaim ná na comharthaí Seapáine nó na Síne. In ainneoin sin go léir, tá an sintéacs simplí, cosúil le Sínis.
Tá cúig thonn ann, lena n-áirítear ton neodrach. Déantar tonna a chinneadh ag rudaí casta éagsúla, lena n-áirítear comhcheangal de shonraí tonna, an rang comhcheangail, má chríochnaíonn an siollach i sonorant nó stop agus cad é ton an siollaig roimhe seo. Tá marcáil ton sa eagarthóireacht casta go leor.
Tá na huacailí difriúil ná mar atá i go leor teangacha, agus tá roinnt diftongs neamhghnácha ann: eua, euai, aui agus uu. Tá difríocht idir comhcheangail a bhfuil an t-aspiráid orthu agus a bhfuil an t-aspiráid orthu.
Tá córas aicmithe ainmfhocal ann chun rudaí éagsúla a chomhaireamh, cosúil leis an Seapáinis. Ina theannta sin, tá córas casta onóirlínte ann, atá coitianta i go leor teangacha san Áise.
Ar an taobh dearfach, is teanga rialta í an Téalainnis, agus níl mórán eisceachtaí de na rialacha. Mar sin féin, tá na rialacha casta go leor. Tá an sintéacs chomh casta le sin sa tSínis, agus tá an gramaic an-simplí.
Faigheann an Téalainnis rátáil 5, is é an ceann is deacra a fhoghlaim.
Tá Lao an-chosúil le Thai, i ndáiríre tá sé comhionann le teanga Thai a labhraíonn 16 milliún duine in oirthear na Téalainne ar a dtugtar Thai an Oirthuaiscirt. Tá an script Lao cosúil le Thai, ach tá níos lú litreacha ann agus mar sin tá beagán níos lú mearbhall ann.
Faigheann Lao rátáil 4.5, an-deacair go han-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Rinneadh an dara teanga is casta go fonolaíoch ar an Domhan (Wang 2012) de réir staidéir Ollscoil Fudan a luaitear thuas faoi Wu. Tá 32 comh-aistriú tosaigh bun, lena n-áirítear oddities cosúil le tɕ, tɕh, pj, pjh, ɕ, kw, kwh, ŋw, tʃh, tsh. Tabhair faoi deara na difríochtaí éagsúla idir comhcheangail gan guth a bhfuil an ghuthán ag dul isteach agus gan a bheith ag dul isteach, lena n-áirítear stadanna palatalized bilabial, stadanna velar labialized, agus affricates alveolar. Tá 64 deireadh siollacha éagsúla, agus 14 cinn eile nach bhfuil ach i iasachtaí Síneach.
Tá 15 ton difriúil, naoi i siollaibí oscailte agus sé i siollaibí ceaptha (tonnaí iontrála). Is iad na príomh-tonnacha ard, ard ag ardú, ard ag titim, íseal, ardú íseal, titim íseal, lár, dipping agus buaic. Nuair a labhraíonn siad, is cosúil go bhfuil siad ag canadh.
Faigheann Kam rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
De réir staidéir Ollscoil Fudan a luadh thuas, tá Buyang ar an 3ú teanga is casta ó thaobh fuaime de ar domhan. Is grúpa 4 theanga gaolmhara é Buyang a labhraíonn 1,900 duine i gCúige Yunnan, an tSín. Tá suímh chomhlánacha fiáin go hiomlán ag Buyang.
Tá sraith iomlán de stopadh pláin agus spreagtha, lena n-áirítear uvulars gan guth, ann. Tá an difríocht idir stadanna a chuirtear le hais agus stadanna a chuirtear le guth simplí aisteach. Tá idirdhealú ag an tsraith stop freisin idir stadanna palatalized agus cruinnithe ar fud na sraithe. Tá frithghníomhach palatal gan guth laibíolaithe aige agus fuaimeanna neamhghnácha taobh, a chuirtear i ngníomh gan guth. Tá ceithre nasalúis éagsúla gan guth ann. Tá sé gan guth y agus w, fuaimeanna níos aisteach. Tá gluaiséid palatal plain agus labialized aige freisin.
Is é sin an ceann amháin heck de fónalóige fiáin.
Buyang faigheann 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá drochcháil ag Ga, teanga Bantu na hAfraice, mar náisiúin diana. Labhraíonn thart ar 600,000 duine é sa Ghána. Tá dhá thonn aige agus bíonn iompar aisteach aige ar a dtugtar téarnachas ton a bhfuil coitianta i go leor teangacha san Afraic Thiar. Tá idirdhealú fónamach idir trí chineál éagsúla fad fonnála. Tá 3 fhad éagsúil ag gach vocal  gearr, fada agus an-fhada. Tá go leor fuaimeanna ann freisin nach bhfuil in aon teangacha san Iarthar.
Faigheann Ga rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Is teanga í Anyi a labhraíonn 610,000 duine sa Chosta Eabhuaire. Tá sé réasúnta díreach chomh fada agus a théann teangacha na hAfraice. Is dócha gurb é an chuid is deacra faoin teanga ná go bhfuil sé tonal, agus go bhfuil dhá thonn aige. Tá an t-idirdhealú +-ATR neamhghnách ag an fhónolaíocht a bhfuil an-aisteach air. Is é ATR an t-ainm atá ar bun le haghaidh fréamhraotán teanga feabhsaithe, mar sin tá difríocht ag an teanga idir vuálaigh a bhfuil fréamhraotán teanga feabhsaithe acu agus iad a bhfuil aon cheann acu. Mar sin féin, tá an gramaic réalta go leor. Tá cúpla próiseas fónála a chuireann mearbhall ar dhaoine.
Tá córas téime simplí ag Anyi, gan ach láthair, am atá caite agus todhchaí. Níl aon ghné, stíl nó marcáil gutha ann, agus níl na córais aicme ainmníochta chomh coitianta i go leor teangacha Afracacha ann. Tá marcóir ilmhéadrach ann, ach is minic go bhfuil sé roghnach.
Tá briathra sraitheacha sa sintéacs, rud a bhfuil aisteach ag daoine ón Iarthar. Déanann sé idirdhealú idir clásal gaolmhara atá marcáilte le bɔ agus clásal fo-ordú atá marcáilte le kɛ.
Fuaireann Anyi rátáil 4, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Is teanga Banú é Ndali le 150,000 cainteoir sa Mhalaoi agus sa Tansáin. Tá go leor foirmeacha stranges aige. Mar shampla, sa aimsir atá caite:
Past tense A: D'imigh sé díreach anois.
Past tense B: D'imigh sé tráth éigin níos luaithe inniu.
Past tense C: D'imigh sé inné.
Past tense D: D'imigh sé am éigin roimh an lá dar gcionn.
Tá an comhartha céanna ag an am atá le teacht:
Future tense A: Hes going to go right away.
Future tense B: He is going to go sometime later today.
Future tense C: Hes going to go tomorrow.
Future tense D: He is going to go sometime after tomorrow.
Faigheann Ndali rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá Xhosa, teanga na hAfraice Theas, deacair go leor, agus suas le naoi gcliocadh. Níl ach teanga amháin lasmuigh d'Afraic ag baint le cliceáil  an teanga Astrálach Damin  agus tá sé thar a bheith deacair iad a fhoghlaim. Fiú amháin labhraíonn dúchasacha mess an cliceáil uaireanta. Dúirt Nelson Mandela go raibh fadhbanna aige ag déanamh cuid de na fuaimeanna cliceáil i Xhosa. Tá na fóinimice i gcoitinne i nGaeilge an-fhiú.
Faigheann Xhosa rátáil 5, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá na fuaimeanna cliceáil dochreidte seo ag na Zúluigh agus ag na Ndebele freisin. Ach, lasmuigh de na fuaimeanna cliceáil, tá fuaimíocht theangacha Nguni díreach. Tá gach teanga Nguni aglutinative. Déanann na teangacha seo plúireálacha freisin trí réamhfhocal an ainmfhocail a athrú, agus athraíonn an modh de réir an aicme ainmfhocail. Más mian leat focal a chuardach sa foclóir, ní mór duit an t-iar-chomhfhocal a dhiúscairt ar dtús. Mar shampla, i Ndebele,
abhainn  umfula
na h-aibhneacha  imifula, ach
cloch  ilitshe
clocha  amatshe, fós
crann  isihlahla
crainn  izihlahla
Faigheann Ndebele rátáil 5, an ceann is deacra.
Tá béim, ton agus cliceáil ag Zulu. Tá naoi gcineál éagsúla béim, ceithre thonn agus trí chliceáil, ach is féidir gach cliceáil a fhuaimniú ar chúig bhealach éagsúla. Mar sin féin, ní dhéantar tonna a mharcáil i scríbhinn, agus mar sin tá sé deacair a fháil amach cathain a úsáidtear iad. Tá comh-aigéara depressor ag Zulú freisin, a laghdaíonn an ton sa fhuacal sa siollach seo a leanas. Ina theannta sin, tá gnéas il-ghnéasach ag Zulu  15 gnéas éagsúla. Agus bíonn roinnt ainmfhocail cosúil le briathra. Tá 12 aicme ainmfhocal éagsúla ann freisin, ach tá 90% de na focail mar chuid de ghrúpa de thrí cinn de na aicmeacha sin.
Zulu faigheann 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Ar chúiseanna nach bhfuil ar eolas acu, meastar go ginearálta go bhfuil an teanga Swahili éasca le foghlaim. Rangaíonn arm na Stát Aontaithe é 1, leis an teanga is éasca a fhoghlaim. Is cosúil gurb é seo an tuiscint tipiciúil. Níl mé cinnte cén fáth go bhfuil an Suailí chomh éasca a fhoghlaim. Is teanga trádála í, agus is minic go bhfuil teangacha trádála an-éasca le foghlaim. Tá go leor conspóide ann freisin maidir le cibé an féidir leis an Suailí a mheas mar chréolas nó nach féidir, ach níor cruthaíodh é sin. Go dtí seo, ní mór dúinn a bheith i d'fhada cén fáth go bhfuil an Suailí chomh éasca a fhoghlaim.
Ar an taobh dhúshlánach, tá go leor aicmí ainmníochta i nGaeilge, ach tá an buntáiste acu go bhfuil siad níos mó nó níos lú loighciúil.
Faigheann an Suailí rátáil 2, go measartha éasca.
Is teanga Khoisan í !Xóõ (Taa), nach labhraíonn ach 4,200 Bushman i mBotswana agus sa tNamibia, agus is teanga deacair go mór í, atá lán de na fuaimeanna cliceáil nach féidir a thuiscint go mór. Tá idir 130 agus 164 comhcheangal ag Taa, an fardal fuaime is mó de gach teanga. Sa saibhreas mór fuaimeanna seo, tá idir 30 agus 64 fuaim chlic éagsúla ann. Tá cúig chliceáil bhunúsacha ann agus 17 cinn a ghabhann leo. Forbraíonn cainteoirí cnap ar a larynx as na fuaimeanna cliceáil a dhéanamh.
Ina theannta sin, tá ceithre chineál vuála ann: plain, pharyngealized, breathy-voiced agus strident. Ar a bharr sin, tá ceithre thonn ann. Tá Taa ar go leor liostaí de na fóinéiceanna is fial agus na dteangacha is craicte ar domhan.
Tá 5 ag Taa, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá ceann de na suímh fónála is fial ar domhan ag Juicyhoan, teanga Khoisan a labhraíonn 5,000 duine i mBotswana. Tá na comh-aigí a bhfuil an t-uaslódáil orthu  sb͡ph, d͡th, d͡tsh, d͡tʃh, ɡ͡kh, agus ɡh  go háirithe aisteach. Ceisteanna a chur ar roinnt cibé an bhfuil na codanna seo i ndáiríre agus a rá go bhfuil siad a labhraítear ina ionad le breathy-ghuth. Mar sin féin, is cosúil go bhfuil consonants aspirated voiced fíor. Ina theannta sin, níl ach 17 aidiacht sa rang dúnta de Ju Satria ny briathra no aondrana an t-ionadramhint. Is iad seo a leanas iad:
eile (na cinn atá fágtha)
na huimhreacha ón gceann go dtí an ceathrar
Scóráil JuicyHoaan an-ard ar staidéar ar na teangacha is aisteach ar an Domhan.
JuicyShohoahann faigheann 5 rátáil, an-deacair a fhoghlaim.
Tá sé thar a bheith deacair Inuktitut a fhoghlaim. Tá Inuktitut poilsintéiseach-aglutinative, agus is féidir le fréamhacha go leor iar-aistritheoirí a ghlacadh, i gcásanna áirithe suas le 700. Tá 63 fhoirm den táscach reatha ag briathra, agus baineann an comhcheangal le 252 infleacht éagsúil. Tá an córas comhaontaithe ilphearsanta casta ag Inuktitut a pléadh faoi Ghearóidigh thuas agus Bascach thíos. I dtéacs tipiciúil fada Inuktitut, ní bheidh 92% de na focail ag tarlú ach uair amháin. Tá sé seo difriúil go leor ón mBéarla agus ó go leor teangacha eile ina bhfuil focail áirithe ag tarlú go minic nó go minic ar a laghad. Is féidir briathra áirithe a bhfuil an t-iomláine acu a anailísiú mar bhriathra agus mar ainmfhocail araon. Is féidir le focail a bheith an-fhada.
Níl a fhios agam go fírinneach conas Inuktitut a labhairt go maith.
D'fhéadfadh sé go mbeadh ort suas le 10 píosa faisnéise éagsúla a anailísiú d'fhonn focal amháin a fháil amach. Mar sin féin, is trí fho-iarsmaí a chuirtear an t-iarsmaí go léir (níl réamh-iarsmaí ná infhixes ann) agus tá an fho-iarsmaíocht thar a bheith rialta.
Tá Inuktitut rátáilte freisin ag teangacha ar cheann de na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhuaimniú. B'fhéidir go bhfuil sé chomh deacair Inuktitut a fhoghlaim agus Navajo.
Tá Inuktitut rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach ceann.
Tá Kalaallisut (Grainlainnis Thiar) an-dlúthbhainte le Inuktitut. Féach ar an abairt seo:
Mar sin féin, beidh siad a rá go bhfuil sé ina lucht siamsaíochta mór, ach ...
Tá an focal sin comhdhéanta de 12 mhorféim ar leithligh. Is féidir le focal amháin a choincheapadh cad a d'fhéadfadh a bheith ina abairt iomlán i dteanga neamh-polysynthetic.
Tá Kalaallisut rátáilte 6, an ceann is deacra de gach.
Is teanga il-sintéiseach, comhcheangailte agus ionchorpraithe í an Chukchi agus is minic a liostaítear í mar cheann de na teangacha is deacra ar domhan a fhoghlaim.
Tá tinneas ceann fiáin agam.
Tá cúig mhorféim sa fhocal sin, agus tá trí mhorféim léasacha (ainmhí nó aidiacht) ionchorpraithe sa fhocal sin: meyŋ  mór, levt  ceann, agus pəγt  ach.
Faigheann Chukchi rátáil 6, an ceann is deacra.
Is teanga fiáine í an Bascach, ar ndóigh. Tá seanfhocal ann go ndearna an Diabhal iarracht Bascach a fhoghlaim, ach tar éis seacht mbliana, níor fhoghlaim sé ach conas Hello agus Goodbye a rá. Rinne go leor Bascaí, lena n-áirítear cuid de na náisiúnaithe Bascacha is ard, iarracht Bascach a fhoghlaim mar dhaoine fásta. D'éirigh le cuid acu, ach d'fhás líon mór díobh. Bunaithe ar an líon a theip, is cosúil go bhfuil sé níos deacra don Bascach a fhoghlaim mar L2 do dhuine fásta ná mar a bhíonn i go leor teangacha eile. Tá gramadaí na Bascachta an-chasta agus is minic a thagann sé ar na gramadaí is craiceáilte agus ar na liostaí teanga is craiceáilte.
Tá 11 cás ann, agus bíonn ceithre fhoirm éagsúla ag gach ceann acu. Tá na briathra casta go leor. Tá sé seo toisc gur teanga ergative í, mar sin tá briathra éagsúil de réir líon na n-ábhar agus líon na n-ábhar agus má tá tríú duine páirteach.
Is é seo an córas comhaontaithe ilphearsanta céanna atá ag an nGaeilge thuas. Is córas poili-phearsanta é an Bascach, córas poilisintéiseach ina bhfuil dhá chineál briathar  sintéiseach agus anailíseach. Níl ach cúpla briathar a úsáideann an fhoirm shintéiseach.
Is féidir trí cheann de chásanna Bascach  an absolutive (cás fíorais neamhrithsheachanta), an ergative (cás fíorais neamhrithsheachanta) agus an dative  a mharcáil trí affixes ar an bhriathar. I mBascach, ní ghlacann ach na tréimhsí sintéiseacha simplí agus simplí atá i láthair le h-affixes ilphearsanta.
Tá na foirmeacha anailíseacha comhdhéanta de níos mó ná focal amháin, agus is focal amháin iad na foirmeacha sintéiseacha. Déantar na briathra anailíseacha a thógáil trí na briathra sintéiseacha izan  be, ukan  have agus egin  do.
d-akar-ki-o-gu = Tabharfaimid é dó / di. Is é an briathar ekarri  bring.
z-erama-zki-gu-te-n = Thug siad iad chugainn. Is é an briathar eraman  take
Ekarriko d-i-o-gu = Tabharfaimid é dó / di. Go litriúil: Beidh muid a-a thabhairt dó / di. Tá an briathar anailíseach tógtha ó ukan  have.
Eraman d-ieza-zki-gu-ke-te = Is féidir leo iad a thabhairt chugainn. Go litriúil: D'fhéadfadh siad a bheith ag tabhairt dóibh dúinn. Tá an briathar anailíseach tógtha ó izan  be.
Éilíonn formhór na bhfiaráin anailíseacha cúntóir a iompraíonn gach cineál faisnéise a iompraítear go minic ar bhfiaráin i dteangacha eile  tense, mood, uaireanta inscne agus duine le haghaidh ábhar, réad agus réad indíreach.
Tá mé ag ithe.
D'fhéadfainn ithe.
D'fhéadfadh muid a bheith tugtha dóibh duit.
Sa mhéid thuas, is cúntóirí iad naiz, nintekeen agus geniezazkiake. Go deimhin tá 2,640 foirm dhifriúla de na cúnta seo!
Is rud an-aisteach teanga a bhfuil morphosyntax ergative aici san Eoraip, agus is í an Bascach an t-aon cheann dá chineál. Tá an ergative féin an-neamhghnách:
Gizona etorri da.  Tá an fear tagtha.
Gizonak mutila ikusi du.  Chonaic an fear an buachaill.
fear  fear
mutil  buachaill
-a = an
Bíonn foirm dhifriúil ag an ainmfhocal gizon cibé an ábhar é do bhriathar trasnaitheach nó neamhthrasnaitheach. Tá an chéad abairt i gcás absolúideach (gan marc) agus tá an dara abairt sa chás ergative (marcáilte ag an morpheme -k). Má thagann tú ó theanga IE neamh-ergative, tá an coincheap ergativity féin deacair go leor a concéide, i bhfad níos lú ag iarraidh a fhoghlaim teanga ergative i ndáiríre. Dá bhrí sin, beidh aon teanga ergative níos deacra go huathoibríoch ná teanga neamh-ergative do gach cainteoir teanga IE.
Oibríonn ergativity le pronouns freisin. Tá ceithre chóras bunúsach ann:
Nor: níl ach ábhar ag an bhfiarál
Nor-Nork: " subj. + comhlán díreach
Nor-Nori: " subj. + comp indíreach.
Ní-Nó-Nó-Nó: " subj. + ind. + dir. comps.
Deir cuid acu gurb í an Bascach an teanga ergative is comhsheasmhaí ar domhan.
Mura bhfás tú suas ag labhairt Bascach, tá sé deacair inniúlacht teanga dhúchais a bhaint amach. Tá sé i bhfad níos éasca Bascach a scríobh ná é a labhairt.
Mar sin féin, tá briathra Bascach an-rialta. Níl ach cúpla neamhrialtacht i gcomhcheangail agus tá míniú fónéadach acu. Go deimhin, tá an teanga iomlán go leor rialta. Ina theannta sin, tá an chuid is mó de na focail os cionn an leibhéal idirmheánach ar iasacht ó theangacha móra, mar sin nuair a shroich tú Bascach idirmheánach, ní bhíonn an chuid eile chomh deacair sin. Ina theannta sin, tá sé simplí a fhuaimniú.
Tá an Bascach rátáilte 5.5, beagnach an ceann is deacra de gach ceann.
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Wang, Chuan-Chao et al. 2012. Tá sé seo go maith. Comhrá ar Tacaíonn Éagsúlacht Fhonemic le Samhail Eifeacht Bunaitheoir Serial de Leathnú Teanga ón Afraic. Eolaíocht 335:657.
Tógann an taighde seo go leor ama, agus ní íocfar aon rud dom as. Má cheapann tú go bhfuil an suíomh Gréasáin seo luachmhar duit, déan cuidiú le tuilleadh taighde luachmhar a dhéanamh.