Population, percent change, 1990 to 2000
Resident population and net change
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of Population, Public Law 94-171 Redistricting Data File. Updated every 10 years. http://factfinder.census.gov.
In Census 2000, people were counted at their "usual residence", a principle followed in each census since 1790. Usual residence has been defined as the place where the person lives and sleeps most of the time. This place is not necessarily the same as the person's voting residence or legal residence.
Noncitizens who are living in the United States are included, regardless of their immigration status.
Persons temporarily away from their usual residence, such as on vacation or on a business trip on Census Day, were counted at their usual residence. People who live at more than one residence during the week, month, or year were counted at the place where they live most of the year. People without a usual residence, however, were counted where they were staying on Census Day.
Scope and Methodology:
Place of residence was derived from answers to questions that were asked of all people in Census 2000.
Population percent change, 1990 to 2000, is derived by dividing the difference between the population in 2000 and 1990 by the 1990 population.

Daonra, athrú faoin gcéad, 1990 go 2000
Daonra cónaitheach agus glanathrú
Foinse: Biúró Daonáirimh na Stát Aontaithe, Daonáirimh Daonra 2000, Dlí Poiblí 94-171 Athdháileadh Faisnéisí Comhad. Athnuaite gach 10 mbliana. Tá an t-alt seo ar fáil go huathoibríoch ar an suíomh gréasáin www.factsfinder.census.gov.
I Daonáireamh 2000, bhí daoine á gclúdach ag a "gnáthchónaí", prionsabal a leanadh i ngach daonáireamh ó 1790. Sainmhínítear an gnáthchónaí mar an áit ina bhfuil an duine ina chónaí agus ina chodladh an chuid is mó den am. Ní gá go mbeadh an áit seo mar an áit chónaithe vótála nó mar an áit chónaithe dlíthiúil.
Cuimsítear daoine nach saoránaigh iad atá ina gcónaí sna Stáit Aontaithe, is cuma cén stádas inimirce atá acu.
Rinneadh daoine a bhí ar shiúl go sealadach óna gnáthchónaí, mar shampla ar saoire nó ar thuras gnó ar Lá an Daonáirimh, a áireamh ina gnáthchónaí. Rinneadh daoine a chónaíonn in níos mó ná áit chónaithe amháin le linn na seachtaine, na míosa nó na bliana a áireamh sa áit ina bhfuil siad ina gcónaí den chuid is mó den bhliain. Cuireadh daoine gan gnáthchónaí, áfach, san áireamh sa áit a raibh siad ag fanacht ar Lá an Daonáireamh.
Scóip agus Mhodheolaíocht:
Baineadh áit chónaithe as freagraí ar cheisteanna a cuireadh do gach duine i dTeonamh 2000.
Déantar athrú céatadáin daonra, 1990 go 2000, a dhíorthaítear trí an difríocht idir an daonra i 2000 agus 1990 a roinnt ar an daonra i 1990.


At Plymouth Meeting Friends School, language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies are core subjects around which a rich interdisciplinary and multicultural curriculum is built.
Plymouth teachers work together to integrate different aspects of the curriculum into classroom themes. Visual and performing arts instruction -- including painting, drawing, sculpture, drama, and music education - complements literature, history, geography, mathematics, and other academic subjects. The physical education curriculum incorporates physical development goals in play, games, and sports activities that are fun and age-appropriate.
Children learn by doing. At PMFS, games and experiments, journals and creative projects, and a wide variety of educational activities keep learning innovative, interesting, and fun. The woods, playground, and fields of our nine-acre campus serve as a living laboratory for exploration and creative discovery in all aspects of the curriculum.

Ag Scoil Chairde Cruinniú Plymouth, is príomh-ábhar iad ealaíon teanga, matamaitice, eolaíocht agus staidéir shóisialta a bhfuil curaclam ildhisciplíneach agus ilchultúrtha saibhir tógtha timpeall orthu.
Oibríonn múinteoirí Plymouth le chéile chun gnéithe éagsúla den chúrsa a chomhtháthú i dtéamaí an tseomra ranga. Cuireann teagasc ealaíon amhairc agus taibhiú - lena n-áirítear péintéireacht, líníocht, dealbhóireacht, drámaíocht, agus oideachas ceoil - le litríocht, stair, tíreolaíocht, matamaitice, agus ábhair acadúla eile. Cuimsíonn an curaclam oideachais choirp spriocanna forbartha coirp i gcluiche, i gcluichí agus i ngníomhaíochtaí spóirt atá spraoi agus oiriúnach d'aois.
Foghlaimíonn leanaí trí dhéanamh. Ag PMFS, cuireann cluichí agus turgnaimh, irisí agus tionscadail chruthaitheacha, agus réimse leathan gníomhaíochtaí oideachais, foghlaim nuálach, suimiúil agus spraoi. Tá na coillte, an pháirc súgartha, agus na réimsí ar ár gcampas naoi acra mar saotharlann beo chun iniúchadh agus fionnachtana cruthaitheacha a dhéanamh i ngach gné den chúrsa.


The Appleton Area School District and the staff of McKinley Elementary are committed to
providing a safe, secure, and healthy environment that allows all students to maximize their
learning potential. The Board of Education and staff consider bullying to be detrimental to the
health and safety of students and disruptive to the educational process.
What is bullying?
Bullying includes aggressive and hostile behavior that is intentional and involves an imbalance
of power between the bully and the bullied. This behavior may include but is not limited to
physical and verbal assaults, nonverbal or emotional threats or intimidation, social exclusion
and isolation, extortion, and the use of computer or telecommunications to send messages or
images that are embarrassing, slanderous, threatening, or intimidating. Bullying may also
include teasing, put-downs, name calling, rumors, false accusations, and hazing.
What are students learning about bullying and prevention?
The elementary curriculum provides students guidelines for school wide expectations and social
responsibility outside the classroom. Students are taught the Stop/Walk/Talk response to
disrespectful behavior and practice the skills through role play. Stop/Walk/Talk is a three step
response students use to eliminate disrespectful behavior themselves and seek help from an
adult if necessary. Students are also taught how to appropriately respond when they are a
bystander or the aggressor and practice these skills in groups. The groups address the issues
involved with gossiping, inappropriate remarks, and cyber-bullying in each of the roles. The
middle school curriculum also provides guidelines for school wide expectations and social
responsibility outside the classroom but places more emphasis on addressing cyber-bulling.
Are staff members trained?
Staff members have participated in Bullying Prevention training. This training focuses on pre-
correction of inappropriate behavior, rewarding the use of the three step response, and
responding to reports of disrespectful behavior. It is well known that schools are successful
when they help children grow academically, socially, and emotionally. For this to happen, it is
imperative that we have a safe environment that is supportive and conducive to growth. By
setting forth clear social and behavioral expectations, it is our goal to create an atmosphere for
learning. Lessons taught have also been infused within the Positive Behavioral Intervention and
Support (PBIS) framework that is part of the school’s character education program.
What can parents do?
To be most effective, bullying prevention efforts are the shared responsibility of parents, staff,
and community. Parental pride and involvement in the school sets a positive example for
children. As adults, we can:
Discuss the seriousness and negative effects of bullying behaviors.
Work together with your child’s school to develop a consistent approach to bullying
Set a good example. Children learn more by actions than from words.
What activities are staff and students doing at (insert school name) to learn more about anti-
The Appleton Area School District will recognize and support anti-bullying efforts by
participating in Celebrate Bullying Awareness Day ~ Wednesday, September 28, 2011. At
McKinley we have centered our focus all month on bullying awareness through our weekly
social skills. Our family involvement night on September 29th will focus on informing parents
and providing them with tools about the STOP, WALK, TALK Response.
What is the AASD’s policy on bullying?
Click on -- Series 400: Students and go to Policy 443.71, Bullying and Harassment
McKinley staff members are committed to creating an emotionally, socially and physically safe
environment while fostering positive relationships with staff, students and families.

Tá an Ceantar Scoile Áitiúil Appleton agus foireann Bhunscoile McKinley tiomanta do
timpeallacht shábháilte, slán agus sláintiúil a chur ar fáil a ligeann do gach mac léinn a gcuid
acmhainneacht foghlama. Measann an Bord Oideachais agus foireann go bhfuil bullying díobhálach don
sláinte agus sábháilteacht na mac léinn agus a chuireann isteach ar an bpróiseas oideachais.
Cad é bullying?
I measc na mbrúiteora tá iompar ionsaitheach agus naimhdeach atá beartaithe agus a bhaineann le míchothromaíocht
an chumhacht idir an bully agus an bullied. Féadfaidh an iompar seo a bheith i gceist ach ní theoranta é
ionsaí fisiciúla agus bhriathra, bagairtí nó bagairtí neamhbhriathra nó mothúchánach, eisiamh sóisialta
agus aonrú, éagóir, agus úsáid ríomhaire nó teileachumarsáide chun teachtaireachtaí a sheoladh nó
íomhánna atá náire, slander, bagairt, nó intimidating. Is féidir leis an mbrú a bheith
Cuimsíonn sé seo teasing, putting síos, ainmneacha, ráflaí, cúisimh bhréagacha, agus haunting.
Cad atá á fhoghlaim ag mic léinn faoi threorú agus cosc a chur air?
Tá an clár teagaisc bunscoile ag soláthar treoirlínte do mhic léinn maidir le hionchais ar fud na scoile agus le hionchais shóisialta.
freagracht lasmuigh den seomra ranga. Múintear do dhaltaí an freagra Stop/Walk/Talk ar
iompar mí-urramach agus na scileanna a chleachtadh trí chluiche ról. Stop / Walk / Talk is trí chéim
freagra a úsáideann mic léinn chun iompar mí-urramach a dhíchur féin agus cabhair a lorg ó
duine fásta más gá. Tá an t-eolas seo á chur ar fáil do mhic léinn ar fud na hEorpa.
an duine a bhí ag faire nó an duine a rinne an ionsaí agus na scileanna seo a chleachtadh i ngrúpaí. Déileálann na grúpaí leis na saincheisteanna
a bhí páirteach i gcluasaíocht, i bhriathra míchuí, agus i mbrú ar líne i ngach ceann de na róil. An
Tá an t-eolas ar fáil i gcúrsa na scoile ar fad.
Tá an t-eolas seo ag cur le daoine a bhfuil an-spéis acu sa chúrsa, ach tá sé níos mó béime ar aghaidh a thabhairt ar chibearbhuileáil.
An bhfuil oiliúint ag baill foirne?
Tá baill foirne tar éis páirt a ghlacadh i oiliúint maidir le Cosc a chur ar Bhullíocht. Tá an oiliúint seo dírithe ar réamh-
an iompar míchuí a cheartú, ag luacháil an fhreagra trí chéim a úsáid, agus
freagra a thabhairt ar thuairiscí maidir le hiompar mí-urramach. Tá sé ar eolas go maith go bhfuil scoileanna rathúla
nuair a chabhraíonn siad le páistí fás go acadúil, go sóisialta, agus go mothúchánach. Chun go dtarlóidh sé seo, tá sé
Tá sé ríthábhachtach go mbeidh timpeallacht shábháilte againn a thacaíonn agus a chuireann le fás. Trí
Tá sé mar aidhm againn atmaisféar a chruthú do dhaoine a bhfuil an-spéis acu i gcúrsaí sóisialta agus i gcúrsaí iompair.
foghlaim. Tá na ceachtanna a mhúintear curtha isteach freisin laistigh den Ionstraim um Iompraíocht Dheacair Iompraíochta agus
Tá an t-eolas ar fáil i gcúrsaí tacaíochta (PBIS) atá mar chuid de chlár oideachais charachtar na scoile.
Cad is féidir le tuismitheoirí a dhéanamh?
Chun a bheith an-éifeachtach, is é an t-iarrachtaí chun bullying a chosc freagracht chomhroinnte tuismitheoirí, foirne,
agus an phobal. Tá bród agus rannpháirtíocht na dtuismitheoirí sa scoil ina sampla dearfach do
leanaí. Mar dhaoine fásta, is féidir linn:
Déan plé ar an tromchúis agus ar na héifeachtaí diúltacha a bhaineann le hiompar bullying.
Bíodh do pháiste i dteagmháil le scoil chun cur chuige comhsheasmhach a fhorbairt maidir le bullying
Tabhair sampla maith. Foghlaimíonn leanaí níos mó trí ghníomhartha ná trí bhriathra.
Cad iad na gníomhaíochtaí a dhéanann foirne agus mic léinn ag (ainm na scoile a chur isteach) chun tuilleadh eolais a fháil faoi na
Beidh an Ceantar Scoile Áras Appleton ag aithint agus ag tacú le hiarrachtaí frith-bhulaíochta ag
ag glacadh páirt i Lá Feasachta Bhullaíochta a Cheiliúradh ~ Dé Céadaoin, 28 Meán Fómhair, 2011. Ag
McKinley táimid dírithe ar ár fócas an mhí ar fad ar fhasacht bullying trí ár seachtainiúil
scileanna sóisialta. Beidh ár oíche rannpháirtíochta teaghlaigh ar 29 Meán Fómhair dírithe ar thuismitheoirí a chur ar an eolas
agus uirlisí a chur ar fáil dóibh maidir leis an bhfreagra Stop, Siúlóid, Labhair.
Cad é beartas an AASD maidir le bullying?
Cliceáil ar -- Sraith 400: Ollscoileanna agus téigh go Polasaí 443.71, Builleáil agus Éagóir
Tá foireann McKinley tiomanta do chúrsaí sábháilte a chruthú go mothúchánach, go sóisialta agus go fisiciúil
Tá sé tábhachtach go mbeadh an t-eolas ar fáil do na páistí agus do na páistí.


Technology is unarguably an invention that made and opened numerous possibilities in our world day, and the Internet is just one of its notable contributions to mankind. Through the Internet, communication is made easy.
Comes with it is the endless sharing and distribution of various information. Almost every business organization and government agency nowadays can be reached through the Internet. These allow them to connect and market to their target consumers or audiences efficiently.
The Internet and technology itself are dominating the community, and comes with that is a greater disaster. Just this year, about 14,200 HIV patients’ records from the Ministry of Health (SG) was illegally disclosed online.
Toyota Motor Corporation was also affected by data breaching from Japan that affected around 3.1 million customers. And just this June, one of the laboratories of NASA was hacked. The thing is, nowadays, preventing these unfortunate situations from happening can be possible.
What is a File Replication Software?
A file replication software is a system that allows you to replicate one or multiple data between different hardware, operating systems, and geographic sites.
Since data breaches and online hacking are rampant these days, many business organizations, government agencies, universities, law firms, and telecoms are upgrading their security systems.
Thankfully, it is now possible to share, back-up, secure, and protect your data all at once, using just a mere software.
Why Should You Get a File Replication Software?
Data Replication Can Be Done Remotely
There are file replication software applications, which allow users to replicate and process data from different storage, servers, operating systems, clouds, sites, or virtual machines (VM). On top of that, advanced systems allow users to mirror data within states or even from country to country. Data can be replicated in unidirectional, bi-directional, or multi-directional fashion.
Data Distribution is Made Easy
Since data can be replicated remotely, distributing files within the organization can be made easy and efficient. Replicated data can be shared and sent, either automatically or manually, in different sites or applications used by the organization.
It Costs Less
Replicating data and distributing it within the organization through a file replication system can cost less than doing those manually or personally. Using software can minimize cost, time, and labor all at once.
Allow Users to Back-Up Data
Natural or man-made disasters can happen at any time. Replicating data provides back-up copies and records in case of emergencies. Not only that, but backing-up data allows you to track progress since it replicates any changes from the data as well.
Data Are Secured & Protected
Backing-up data is one way of securing and protecting all the sensitive and confidential data that organizations have.
To avoid data breaches, make sure to get a file replication software specially designed with extra security and protection.
The Internet and technology itself are getting bigger and powerful. While that sounds promising, cyber-attacks and data-stealing are frequently happening as well.
Regardless of how you use the Internet and technology, it is crucial to make sure that your sensitive and confidential data are secured and protected. Disasters can happen at any time of the year, so better take action as early as you can.

Is é an teicneolaíocht gan amhras ina fhionnachtana a rinne agus a d'oscail go leor féidearthachtaí sa domhan ár lá, agus is é an tIdirlíon ach ceann amháin de na ranníocaíochtaí suntasacha a rinne sé leis an chine daonna. Trí an Idirlíon, déantar cumarsáid a dhéanamh go héasca.
Is é an rud a thagann leis an roinnt agus an dáileadh gan deireadh faisnéise éagsúla. Is féidir teacht ar beagnach gach eagraíocht ghnó agus ar gach gníomhaireacht rialtais inniu tríd an Idirlíon. Ligeann siad seo dóibh nasc a dhéanamh agus margaíocht a dhéanamh dá spriocthomhaltóirí nó dá lucht féachana go héifeachtach.
Tá an tIdirlíon agus an teicneolaíocht féin ag smachtú ar an bpobal, agus is tubaiste níos mó a thagann leis sin. An bhliain seo chugainn amháin, nochtadh taifid 14,200 othar VEID ó Aireacht Sláinte (SG) go neamhdhleathach ar líne.
Bhí tionchar ag sárú sonraí ó Shórt Toyota Motor freisin ón tSeapáin a raibh tionchar aige ar thart ar 3.1 milliún custaiméir. Agus díreach i mí an Mheithimh seo, bhí ceann de na saotharlanna de NASA hacked. Is é an rud, sa lá atá inniu ann, is féidir na cásanna míshásta seo a chosc ó tharla.
Cad é Bogearraí Athdhéanamh Comhad?
Is córas é bogearraí athdhéanamh comhaid a ligeann duit sonraí amháin nó il a athdhéanamh idir crua-earraí, córais oibriúcháin agus suíomhanna geografacha éagsúla.
Ós rud é go bhfuil sáruithe sonraí agus hacking ar líne ag dul i méid na laethanta seo, tá go leor eagraíochtaí gnó, gníomhaireachtaí rialtais, ollscoileanna, gnólachtaí dlí, agus teileachumarsáide ag uasghrádú a gcóras slándála.
Go raibh maith agat, is féidir anois do chuid sonraí a roinnt, a chúltaca, a chosaint agus a chosaint go léir ag an am céanna, gan ach bogearraí a úsáid.
Cén fáth ar chóir duit bogearraí athdhéanamh comhaid a fháil?
Is Féidir Athchóirithe Sonraí a Dhéanamh ó Farraige
Tá feidhmchláir bogearraí athdhéanamh comhaid ann, a ligeann d'úsáideoirí sonraí a athdhéanamh agus a phróiseáil ó stóráil, freastalaithe, córais oibriúcháin, scamall, suíomhanna, nó meaisíní fíorúla (VM) éagsúla. Ar a bharr sin, ceadaíonn córais chun cinn d'úsáideoirí sonraí a léiriú laistigh de stáit nó fiú ó thír go tír. Is féidir sonraí a athdhéanamh ar bhealach aon-threo, dhá-threo nó il-threo.
Déantar Dáta a Dháilíocht go Éasca
Ós rud é gur féidir sonraí a athdhéanamh go cianda, is féidir comhaid a dháileadh laistigh den eagraíocht a dhéanamh éasca agus éifeachtach. Is féidir sonraí atáirgeadh a roinnt agus a sheoladh, go huathoibríoch nó go lámhleabhar, i suíomhanna nó i bhfeidhmchlár éagsúla a úsáideann an eagraíocht.
Cosnaíonn sé níos lú
Is féidir le sonraí a athdhéanamh agus iad a dháileadh laistigh den eagraíocht trí chóras athdhéanamh comhaid a bheith níos saoire ná iad a dhéanamh de láimh nó go pearsanta. Is féidir le bogearraí a úsáid costais, am agus saothar a íoslaghdú go léir ag an am céanna.
Lig d'úsáideoirí sonraí a chúltaca
Is féidir le tubaistí nádúrtha nó tubaistí de dhéantús an duine tarlú ag am ar bith. Soláthraíonn sonraí atáirgeadh cóipeanna cúltaca agus taifid i gcás éigeandála. Ní hamháin sin, ach ligfidh sonraí cúltaca duit dul chun cinn a rianú ós rud é go ndéanann sé aon athruithe ó na sonraí a athdhéanamh freisin.
Tá Sonraí Sábháilte agus Cosanta
Is bealach amháin é sonraí cúltaca a dhéanamh chun na sonraí íogaire agus rúnda go léir atá ag eagraíochtaí a slándáil agus a chosaint.
Chun sáruithe sonraí a sheachaint, déan cinnte go bhfaighidh tú bogearraí athdhéanamh comhad atá deartha go speisialta le slándáil agus cosaint bhreise.
Tá an tIdirlíon agus an teicneolaíocht féin ag éirí níos mó agus níos cumhachtaí. Cé go bhfuil an chuma sin geallta, tá cyber-ionsaithe agus goid sonraí ag tarlú go minic freisin.
Is cuma cén chaoi a n-úsáideann tú an Idirlíon agus an teicneolaíocht, tá sé ríthábhachtach a chinntiú go bhfuil do chuid sonraí íogaire agus rúnda slán agus faoi chosaint. Is féidir le tubaistí tarlú ag am ar bith den bhliain, mar sin is fearr gníomhú chomh luath agus is féidir leat.


Helping kids be 'CHAMP's with constraint therapy
University of Michigan Health System
Rehab program helps kids with brain injuries improve arm, hand strength
It was about a year before Sherry Ramsdell realized her son, Bailey, was not developing normally. He didn't begin to crawl or talk and missed other developmental milestones. Doctors ran tests and diagnosed Bailey with cerebral palsy.
The condition affects Bailey's left side and the toddler, now age 2, did not use his left arm or hand.
But a program offered at the University of Michigan Health System has Bailey and other children with brain injuries using weakened or underdeveloped upper extremities.
As part of the Comprehensive Hand-Arm Movement Program, or CHAMP, children wear a cast or splint on their good arm to force them to use the other arm. For three weeks, the child wears a removeable cast for up to 16 hours a day. Group and individual therapy helps the children learn techniques for using their weaker hand and arm.
"CHAMP works by a combination of the children learning new techniques for using their arm and actual changes that occur in the brain," says Edward Hurvitz, M.D., a pediatric physiatrist at UMHS. "Studies have shown us that if somebody doesn't use a part of their body, that part of the brain actually shrinks. Other brain functions replace it. So they have less function in that part of the body."
The concept is similar to children who have lazy eye syndrome and wear a patch over their stronger eye.
After two weeks in the program, Ramsdell says Bailey is already making "amazing" progress.
"He's using his hand to do things he didn't do before. He's opening it up where he almost couldn't open it before because the tone was so tight. Pushing toys or a stroller, he can use both hands now, where he didn't do that before. He walked with a lot of limp and his arm would just hang at his side. Now he's actually moving it and using it more functionally," Ramsdell says.
Hurvitz and his team measure progress by timing the children doing different tasks at the start of the program and again at the end. He says both scientifically and anecdotally the children are showing more function after the therapy.
"We're very excited about this program because it's a new intervention that seems to be working very well. It doesn't involve giving the kids any shots or pills and we're getting great results from it," says Hurvitz, associate professor of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at the U-M Medical School.
CHAMP began at UMHS about two years ago and is aimed at children with some injury to the brain, such as cerebral palsy, a traumatic brain injury from an accident, or stroke. Often with those injuries only one side of the brain is affected. The therapy helps that effected part of the brain to be more functional and to use the hand and arm better. At the same time, the children learn through physical therapy techniques to use what function they have in a better way. The program was originally developed at the University of Alabama in the 1990s.
"The kind of therapy that we use will depend on the age of the children. With younger children, play therapy is the most important thing. When we have older children, we might do more regular activities or exercises," Hurvitz says. "But play therapy is an important part of pediatric rehabilitation, so even with older kids we might have them do games that involve the hand quite a bit. For teenage groups, we might take them out bowling – something that forces them to use that involved hand."
The program at UMHS involves physical therapists, occupational therapists, psychologists and social workers to provide comprehensive support to the families. This multidisciplinary approach helps families carry out the therapy at home.
Interviews with kids as far out as six months after the therapy have found they are still using their affected hand and arm in ways they did not before the program. Hurvitz warns, though, that the change cannot be considered permanent. The children must continue to work at using their arm to maintain function.
Ramsdell has great hopes that CHAMP will help Bailey become a champ.
"My dream when I adopted Bailey was to watch him play basketball," Ramsdell says. "So I'm hoping that eventually his left side will be functional enough that he'll be able to participate in athletics. And one day we'll get to be sitting in the stands watching him and being proud of him."
To participate in CHAMP, children must meet these criteria:
Children must first be evaluated for the program by one of the UMHS pediatric physiatrists. Call (734) 936-7175 to make an appointment.
For more information, or to contact University of Michigan Health System, see their website at: www.med.umich.edu
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Ag cuidiú le páistí a bheith 'CHAMP' le teiripe srianta
Córas Sláinte Ollscoil Michigan
Cabhraíonn clár athshlánúcháin le páistí a bhfuil díobhálacha inchinne acu neart lámh, lámh a fheabhsú
Bhí sé thart ar bhliain sula Sherry Ramsdell thuig a mac, Bailey, Ní raibh forbairt go gnáth. Níor thosaigh sé ag crawling nó ag caint agus chaill sé míleataí forbartha eile. Rinne na dochtúirí tástálacha agus dhearbhaigh siad go raibh pailís inchinn ag Bailey.
Bíonn tionchar ag an riocht ar thaobh chlé Bailey agus ní raibh an leanbh beag, atá 2 bliana d'aois anois, ag úsáid a lámh chlé nó a lámh chlé.
Ach tá clár a thairgtear i gCóras Sláinte Ollscoil Michigan ag Bailey agus páistí eile le díobhálacha inchinne ag baint úsáide as foircinn uachtaracha lag nó neamhfhorbartha.
Mar chuid den Chlár Cuimsitheach um Ghluaiseacht Lámh-Arm, nó CHAMP, bíonn giosta nó spléine ag leanaí ar a lámh mhaith chun a chur i bhfeidhm orthu an lámh eile a úsáid. Le trí seachtaine, caitheann an leanbh giosta in-athnuaite ar feadh suas le 16 uair sa lá. Cabhraíonn teiripe grúpa agus aonair leis na páistí teicnící a fhoghlaim chun a lámh agus a lámh níos laige a úsáid.
"Oibríonn CHAMP trí chomhcheangal de na páistí ag foghlaim teicnící nua chun a gcuid lámh a úsáid agus athruithe iarbhír a tharlaíonn sa inchinn", a deir Edward Hurvitz, M.D., fisiatric páistí ag UMHS. "Tá sé léirithe ag staidéir dúinn mura n-úsáideann duine cuid dá chorp, go n-iompraíonn an chuid sin den inchinn. Glacann feidhmeanna eile na hinchinne a ionad. Mar sin, ní bhíonn níos lú feidhm acu sa chuid sin den chorp".
Tá an coincheap cosúil le páistí a bhfuil siondróm súl leisciúil acu agus a bhfuil pláta acu thar a n-súil níos láidre.
Tar éis dhá sheachtain sa chlár, deir Ramsdell go bhfuil dul chun cinn "iontas" á dhéanamh ag Bailey cheana féin.
"Tá sé ag úsáid a lámh chun rudaí nach raibh sé a dhéanamh roimh. Tá sé ag oscailt suas nuair a bhí sé beagnach ní raibh sé in ann a oscailt roimh toisc go raibh an t-othar chomh daingean. Ag brúimí bréagáin nó carr, is féidir leis an dá lámh a úsáid anois, áit nach raibh sé ag déanamh sin roimhe. Chuaigh sé le go leor de limp agus a lámh bheadh ach a chrochadh ar a thaobh. Anois tá sé ag bogadh é agus ag úsáid é níos feidhmiúla, "a deir Ramsdell.
Déanann Hurvitz agus a fhoireann dul chun cinn a thomhas trí am a chur ar na páistí tascanna éagsúla a dhéanamh ag tús an chláir agus arís ag deireadh. Deir sé go bhfuil na páistí ag feidhmiú níos fearr tar éis na teiripe, go heolaíoch agus go heagránach.
"Táimid an-sásta leis an gclár seo toisc gur idirghabháil nua é agus is cosúil go bhfuil sé ag obair go han-mhaith. Ní gá do na páistí aon shots nó pills a thabhairt dó agus tá torthaí iontacha á fháil againn as, "a deir Hurvitz, ollamh comhlánaithe i Meicsice Fisiceach agus Athshlánú in Scoil Leighis U-M.
Thosaigh CHAMP ag UMHS thart ar dhá bhliain ó shin agus tá sé dírithe ar leanaí a bhfuil damáiste éigin acu don inchinn, mar shampla palsaíocht inchinn, damáiste traumatic inchinn ó thimpiste, nó stróc. Go minic, ní dhéantar ach le taobh amháin den inchinn a ionsaí le díobhálacha den sórt sin. Cabhraíonn an teiripe leis an gcuid de na hinchinne a ndearnadh difear a bheith níos feidhmiúla agus an lámh agus an lámh a úsáid níos fearr. Ag an am céanna, foghlaimíonn na páistí trí theicnící fisiceolaíocha an fheidhm atá acu a úsáid ar bhealach níos fearr. Forbraíodh an clár ar dtús in Ollscoil Alabama sna 1990idí.
"Bheidh an cineál teiripe a úsáidfimid ag brath ar aois na leanaí. Le páistí níos óige, tá teiripe cluiche an rud is tábhachtaí. Nuair a bheidh leanaí níos sine againn, b'fhéidir go ndéanfaimid gníomhaíochtaí nó cleachtaí níos rialta, "a deir Hurvitz. "Ach is cuid thábhachtach den athshlánú péidiatrach é teiripe an chluiche, mar sin d'fhéadfadh muid fiú le páistí níos sine a chur ar an gcluiche a bhaineann go leor leis an lámh. I gcás grúpaí déagóirí, d'fhéadfaimis iad a thabhairt amach chun boladh  rud éigin a chuireann iallach orthu an lámh atá i gceist sin a úsáid".
I measc na gclár ag UMHS tá fisiceolaithe, teiripeoirí saothair, síceolaithe agus oibrithe sóisialta chun tacaíocht chuimsitheach a chur ar fáil do na teaghlaigh. Cuidíonn an cur chuige ildhisciplíneach seo leis na teaghlaigh an teiripe a dhéanamh sa bhaile.
Tá a fhios ag daoine go bhfuil an t-am ag dul in olcas, agus go bhfuil an t-am ag dul in olcas, agus go bhfuil an t-am ag dul in olcas. Cuireann Hurvitz in iúl, áfach, nach féidir an t-athrú a mheas mar mhairbhéalach. Ní mór do na páistí leanúint ar aghaidh ag obair ar a lámh a úsáid chun feidhmiú a choinneáil.
Tá dóchas mór ag Ramsdell go gcabhróidh CHAMP le Bailey a bheith ina champ.
"Ba é mo bhrionglóid nuair a ghlac mé Bailey a bheith ag féachaint air ag imirt cispheile", a deir Ramsdell. "Mar sin tá súil agam go mbeidh a thaobh clé in ann a bheith feidhmiúil go leor go mbeidh sé in ann páirt a ghlacadh i lúthchleasaíocht. Agus lá amháin beidh muid ag suí sna seastáin ag féachaint air agus a bheith bródúil as. "
Chun páirt a ghlacadh i CHAMP, ní mór do leanaí na critéir seo a chomhlíonadh:
Ní mór do leanaí a mheasúnú ar dtús don chlár ag ceann de na fisiatraithe páistí UMHS. Glaoigh ar (734) 936-7175 chun coinne a dhéanamh.
Le haghaidh tuilleadh eolais, nó chun teagmháil a dhéanamh le hOllscoil Chóras Sláinte Michigan, féach ar a láithreán gréasáin ag: www.med.umich.edu
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Land and Man
Certain types of landforms are beneficial to society in many ways. For example, how a river can help the economy depends on its stage of development. A young river is usually not safe for transport or navigation but has great potential for generating power. A well-situated dam or hydraulic power pipe can greatly help the economy of that region. Hydropower is used for irrigation and for the operation of various mechanical devices, such as watermills, sawmills, textile mills, dock cranes, domestic lifts, powerhouses and in paint making.
Similarly, a mature river does not have the force to generate electricity without incurring heavy cost for such energy, but does have the speed to allow navigation and transport. It also enables agricultural activities by making the soil more fertile. This allows for trade and commerce that greatly expands market activities and incomes together. Without the river Nile, the Egyptian civilization could not have flourished. The Nile brought vegetation, transport and agriculture upon which the Egyptians built their civilization. The Indus Valley Civilization was founded on the banks of many rivers - Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Satluj and Beas. The Chinese Yellow River Valley Civilization (4000BC) also grew around the Huange He river, which enabled agriculture.
Temperature changes are also an important factor that influences economic activity. There is a vast amount of literature that claims that hot areas have lesser economic activity and development. A recent study claims that in the poor countries, about 1 degree rise in temperature on an average causes about 1.3% fall in economic activity. Temperature changes can also lower agricultural and industrial output and indirectly impact political stability. The latitude, altitude and the relative distance to water bodies and landforms determine the climate of an area. In turn, the climate of an area determines the population and demography.
Even in today’s world, the Indian economy is sometimes called the ‘Monsoon Economy’ since it depends heavily on the seasonal winds that blow from the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea that bring heavy rains. This heavy rain in June and September has huge effect on the agriculture of India. The impact is such that if the monsoon is delayed by over a week then the Indian GDP growth slows down. Every year the country hopes for timely monsoons and a favourable weather.
|Indian kids pray for rain|
The rock formation of the land is also has a major influence on the economic activity. Rocks are broadly categorised into igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Each category has further divisions and sub-divisions, and only some forms of rocks have economic value. Soils that originate from sedimentary rocks are generally more fertile and in particular if the soil is derived from limestone. There is a saying, 'A limestone country is a rich country'. In today's times ownership of large oil reserves can help the country become prosperous (or bring civil war!) for instance Canada or Syria.
To try and understand how distances have played a large part in our evolution, we can take a look at the industrial revolution. Prior to this revolution, the most advanced civilizations of the world were in Asia. But once the industrial revolution set in, the West took over in innovation and production. This was characterized by two prominent features:
First, the incredible rise in average productivity and the outstanding leap into more efficient methods of production. As newer methods of producing goods and services sprang up, the productivity of the western world increased forty times in just a hundred years. The Cotton Gin, Sewing Machine, Diesel Engine and the famous Assembly Line made it much easier for the industries to be set up.
Second, the cost of transportation fell to almost a tenth of what it was. The invention of the steam engine and the aeroplane brought places and people much closer. The invention of the telegram made communication a thousand times faster than before. The area where goods were produced did not have to be close to people's homes anymore. Factories and industries came up further from the city where production multiplied rapidly. This tells us that transportation is extremely important for economic activity.
Emergence of Cities
Imagine a circular city in a featureless plain. All employment is in a central business district (CBD), which we take to be a point at the city’s centre. All the workers live around the CBD and go to work every day. The further they live from the city, the costlier it will be to travel to work every day. However, the further they live from the city, the cheaper it is to get a place to stay. Each worker also purchases other goods and services that are important to them. In effect, the income the worker receives from the CBD is used in three ways,
· Rent for housing services
· Transport to the CBD and back
· Purchase of other goods & services
This model claims that workers want to try and obtain as much housing services and other goods & services. And if the income obtained from the CBD is fixed, the worker must try and choose a home that is far enough to be cheap but at the same time close enough to the CBD to have low transport costs. The question that this model answers is ‘how far from the CBD does the worker choose to stay?’
The model also proceeds to answering the following questions, does the worker’s choice of residence change if: -
1) The housing rents per unit distance from the CBD change?
2) The income obtained from the CBD changes?
3) If the costs of other goods and services change?
4) If there are frequent traffic jams in the city?
5) If the travel costs change?
This city goes on to become even more complicated and tries to provide an explanation as to why cities expand and come up in the first place. Monocentric city models gave way to Polycentric city models. Cities are very complex things and we still have a lot to understand about them.
This theory tries to understand how firms set up shops. It was developed under Harold Hotelling and tries to understand how the market arises. Sellers try to position themselves as far away from other sellers and as close to the buyers. We can see interesting patterns and designs in the way sellers behave. The theory incorporates a lot of ideas from Game Theory since the sellers use competitive strategies to try and maximize profit. We take the help of a simple illustration to explain Spatial Competition.
Hotelling’s Beach: Imagine a beautiful day at a beach. One can observe many people sitting in the sand, just relaxing. It’s a hot day and everyone really wants to have an ice cream. But, since the sand is really hot, no one really wants to walk a lot. They'd all prefer if the ice cream seller comes near them.
Along comes an ice cream seller and since she is early, she is the only seller in the market. Once she gets here, she has a problem. Where will she set up shop? The answer is that she will set up shop right in the centre, where people have less discomfort in getting up and reaching for the ice cream. This is the place where she can maximise her profits.
Now the interesting change occurs when another seller joins her. Now in order to maximize profits they must adjust their locations so that they reach out to as many people as they can, within the competitive environment. The best possible scenario is when they divide the market share equally and adjust their locations to cater to two groups of consumers.
The theory goes on to explain what happens in situation when there are more and more sellers in a larger region. This theory is very evident in real life, especially in India where small shops are in plenty. From the locations of panipuri stalls to paan shops, we observe spatial competition.
The Economic Space
In most contemporary economic thought, geographical distances have been largely ignored. Transport costs have not been given much weightage and most economic theories consider transport costs to be zero. When the classical economists studied the economy, they considered the distances between cities, countries and people themselves to be irreverent. This is quite clear when the famous economist David Riccardo constructed his theory of ‘comparative advantage’ by first assuming that there was perfect mobility within countries. In a perfectly mobile environment, factors of production like labor and capital can move freely without difficulty. Most of the economists like Smith and Riccardo grew up in the British Empire. And since Britain had already established trade routes all over the world, they and their followers tended to ignore transport costs over the sea. Hence, most classical economic theories consider the world to be “upon the tip of a needle” as they all do not pay attention to space. Only a handful of mainstream economic theories such as Hotelling's Competition and Urban Economics, take the entire distances into consideration.
The only spaces that economists regarded well were the national borders. Apart from this minor division of the world, economic theories did not look at the differences in landscape and terrain. And as once Samuelson said,
‘Spatial problems have been so neglected in economic theory that the field is of interest for its own sake.’
The concept of the economic space is needed because the prices of goods and services, the incentives of people and the decisions of firms depend on distances. As Debreu once said,
‘A good at a certain location and the same good at another location are different economic objects, and the specification of the location at which it will be available is essential.’
A good economic theory must always consider the economic space.
Although Economic Geography is still very young compared to Macroeconomics or other mainstream economic theories, it has provided us with very valuable insights. These insights come from a study of the economic space in a scientific manner.
- Transportation Costs play a major role even in today's fast moving world. Globalisation has brought in a feeling that the world has become flat, but the truth is different. Physically, culturally and economically the world is still round. Distances and locations play a very important role in the modern economy.
- Factor Mobility or how easily labor and capital are moved to a desired location, is very important for the economy. Not only international mobility, but also national mobility matters. Economic Geography tells us that there is a growing divide between some people and others. This disparity of national mobility could pose a problem.
Geography is one of the most interesting subjects I ever encountered. I loved to study about glaciers, rock faces, erosion, deserts and vegetation. From the formation of stalactites and stalagmites to the corrosion caused by waves, the subject manages to capture one’s attention. It’s a very beautiful subject that made me imagine a lot. Economics on the other hand, focuses more on the human species. It studies the effects of consumption and saving. It tries to understand the meaning of money. And even though it may seem a bit drab, it has its elusive beauty.
It is a pleasure to incorporate the beauty of the earth and the complexity of human beings and study Economic Geography. This field has gained traction over the last few decades. The importance of transport costs and increasing returns has begun to invade modern economic thought in an entirely new way. We cannot hope to understand economic activity without understanding the economic space it exists in. It is a necessity to incorporate the geographical conditions when we want to apply economic models to real life, since real life has real differences in landscape. There is much more to be done in this field and a lot to break through.
Economics is for everyone!
Geography is for everyone!

Talamh agus Daoine
Tá cineálacha áirithe d'fhoirmeacha talún tairbheach don tsochaí ar go leor bealaí. Mar shampla, braitheann an chaoi a bhféadfadh abhainn cabhrú leis an ngeilleagar ar a chéim forbartha. De ghnáth ní bhíonn abhainn óg sábháilte le haghaidh iompair nó loingseoireachta ach tá acmhainn mhór aige chumhacht a ghiniúint. Is féidir le dam nó píopa cumhachta hidréalaigh atá suite go maith cabhrú go mór le geilleagar na réigiúin sin. Úsáidtear fuinneamh uisce le haghaidh uisciúcháin agus le haghaidh feistí meicniúla éagsúla a oibriú, mar shampla muilte uisce, muilte píosa, muilte teicstíle, crannaí calafoirt, liftaí tí, cumhachta agus i ndéanamh péinte.
Ar an gcaoi chéanna, ní bhíonn an chumhacht ag abhainn aibí leictreachas a ghiniúint gan costas mór a bheith aige ar an fuinneamh sin, ach tá an luas aige chun loingseoireacht agus iompar a cheadú. Cuireann sé gníomhaíochtaí talmhaíochta ar fáil freisin trí an ithir a dhéanamh níos torthúla. Ligeann sé seo trádáil agus tráchtáil a leathnaíonn gníomhaíochtaí margaidh agus ioncam go mór le chéile. Gan abhainn na Níle, ní fhéadfadh an sibhialtacht Éigipteach a bheith rathúil. Thug an Níle plandaíocht, iompar agus talmhaíocht ar a bhfuil na hÉigiptigh a gcuid sibhialtachta a thógáil. Bunaíodh an tSiobháltas Gleann Indus ar bhruach na n-aibhneacha - Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Satluj agus Beas. D'fhás an tSínis Yellow River Valley Civilization (4000BC) timpeall na Huange He abhainn, a chuir cumas talmhaíochta ar fáil.
Is fachtóir tábhachtach é athruithe teocht a mbíonn tionchar acu ar ghníomhaíocht eacnamaíoch freisin. Tá go leor litríocht ann a mhaígh go bhfuil níos lú gníomhaíochta eacnamaíoch agus forbartha ag limistéir theas. Deir staidéar le déanaí go mbíonn laghdú 1.3% ar ghníomhaíocht eacnamaíoch mar thoradh ar ardú 1 céim ar an teocht ar an meán sna tíortha bochta. Is féidir le hathruithe teochta táirgeadh talmhaíochta agus tionsclaíoch a laghdú freisin agus tionchar indíreach a bheith acu ar chobhsaíocht pholaitiúil. Cinntíonn an léim, an airde agus an fad coibhneasta ó chomhlachtaí uisce agus ó thírfhoirmeacha aeráide limistéar. Ina dhiaidh sin, cinntíonn aeráid limistéar daonra agus déimeagrafaíocht.
Fiú sa domhan inniu, tugtar "Eacnamaíocht an Mhunsún" ar gheilleagar na hIndia uaireanta toisc go bhfuil sé ag brath go mór ar na gaotha séasúracha a bhuilleann ón Aigéan Indiach agus ón Mhuir Arebia a thugann báistí tromchúiseacha. Tá tionchar mór ag an bháisteach mór seo i mí an Mheithimh agus i mí Mheán Fómhair ar fheirmeoireacht na hIndia. Tá an tionchar den sórt sin má tá an monsoon moill ag níos mó ná seachtain ansin fás OTI na hIndia a luatha. Gach bliain tá súil ag an tír go mbeidh monsoons tráthúil agus aimsir bhréagach.
Tá páistí Indiach ag guí le haghaidh báistí
Tá tionchar mór ag foirmiú carraige an talún ar an ngníomhaíocht eacnamaíoch freisin. Déantar carraigeacha a chatagóirithe go forleathan ina carraigeacha igneacha, metamorfacha agus sedimentary. Tá ranníonna agus fo-ranníonna breise ag gach catagóir, agus níl luach eacnamaíoch ag ach roinnt cineálacha carraigeacha. Tá ithir a thagann ó charraigí díleá níos torthúla de ghnáth agus go háirithe má thagann an ithir ó charraigí cnámh. Tá ráiteas ann, 'Tá tír chléite ina tír shaibhir'. Sa lá atá inniu ann, is féidir le úinéireacht stóras ola mór cabhrú leis an tír a bheith rathúil (nó cogadh cathartha a thabhairt!) mar shampla Ceanada nó an tSiria.
Chun iarracht a dhéanamh a thuiscint conas a bhí ról mór ag fad i d'eabhlóid, is féidir linn breathnú ar an réabhlóid thionsclaíoch. Roimh an réabhlóid seo, bhí na sibhialtachtaí is airde ar domhan san Áise. Ach nuair a tháinig an réabhlóid thionsclaíoch, ghlac an Iarthar an ceannas i nuálaíocht agus i dtáirgeadh. Bhí dhá ghné shuntasach mar thréith air seo:
Ar dtús, an méadú dochreidte ar tháirgiúlacht mheánmhéide agus an léim iontach i dtreo modhanna táirgthe níos éifeachtúla. De réir mar a tháinig modhanna nua chun earraí agus seirbhísí a tháirgeadh, mhéadaigh táirgiúlacht an domhain thiar de cheithre fhichead uair i gceann céad bliain amháin. Rinne an Cotton Gin, an Máistir Fuaime, an t-inneall díosail agus an Líne Fheistithe cáiliúil go leor níos éasca do na tionscail a bhunú.
Ar an dara dul síos, thit costas an iompair go beagnach an deichiú cuid de a bhí ann. Chuir an innill gaile agus an t-aerárthach áiteanna agus daoine i bhfad níos dlúithe. Rinne an t-eagraim an teilifís cumarsáid a dhéanamh míle uair níos tapúla ná mar a bhí roimhe. Ní raibh an limistéar ina ndearnadh earraí a tháirgeadh in aice le tithe daoine a thuilleadh. Tháinig monarchana agus tionscail níos faide ón gcathair áit a raibh táirgeadh ag méadú go tapa. Deir sé seo go bhfuil an iompar thar a bheith tábhachtach do ghníomhaíocht eacnamaíoch.
Fás na gCathracha
Samhlaigh cathair chiorclach i gclann gan ghnéithe. Tá an fhostaíocht go léir i gcathair ghnó lárnach (CBD), a glacaimid le pointe i lár na cathrach. Tá na hoibrithe go léir ina gcónaí timpeall an CBD agus téann siad ag obair gach lá. An níos faide a chónaíonn siad ón gcathair, is mó a bheidh sé costasach taisteal go dtí an obair gach lá. Ach, is é an níos faide a chónaíonn siad ón gcathair, is é an níos saoire a fháil áit chun fanacht. Ceannaíonn gach oibrí earraí agus seirbhísí eile atá tábhachtach dóibh freisin. Go deimhin, úsáidtear an t-ioncam a fhaigheann an oibrí ón CBT ar thrí bhealach:
· Cíos le haghaidh seirbhísí tithíochta
· Iompar go dtí an CBD agus ar ais
· Ceannach earraí agus seirbhísí eile
Deir an tsamhail seo go bhfuil oibrithe ag iarraidh iarracht a dhéanamh agus an oiread seirbhísí tithíochta agus earraí agus seirbhísí eile a fháil. Agus má tá an t-ioncam a fhaightear ón CBD seasta, ní mór don oibrí iarracht a dhéanamh teach a roghnú atá i bhfad go leor chun a bheith saor ach ag an am céanna gar go leor don CBD chun costais iompair íseal a bheith aige. Is é an cheist a fhreagraíonn an tsamhail seo ná Cén fad ón CBD a roghnaíonn an t-oibrí fanacht?
Leanann an tsamhail ag freagairt na gceisteanna seo a leanas freisin, an athraíonn rogha cónaithe an oibrí má: -
1) An bhfuil na cíosanna tithíochta in aghaidh an aonaid i bhfad ó CBD ag athrú?
2) An t-ioncam a fuarthas ó na hathruithe CBD?
3) Má athraíonn costais earraí agus seirbhísí eile?
4) Má bhíonn plódaithe tráchta ann go minic sa chathair?
5) Má athraíonn na costais taistil?
Téann an chathair seo ar aghaidh chun a bheith níos casta agus déanann sé iarracht míniú a thabhairt ar an gcúis a méadaíonn cathracha agus a thagann suas ar an gcéad dul síos. Thug samhlacha cathrach Monocentric bealach do samhlacha cathrach Polycentric. Tá cathracha an-chasta agus tá go leor le tuiscint againn fós.
Déanann an teoiric seo iarracht a thuiscint conas a bhunaíonn gnólachtaí siopaí. Forbraíodh é faoi Harold Hotelling agus déanann sé iarracht a thuiscint conas a thagann an margadh chun cinn. Déanann díoltóirí iarracht iad féin a chur chomh fada ó dhíoltóirí eile agus chomh gar do na ceannaitheoirí. Is féidir linn patrúin agus dearadh suimiúil a fheiceáil sa tslí a n-iompar díoltóirí. Áirítear go leor smaointe ó Theoiric an Ghréasáin leis an teoiric seo ós rud é go n-úsáideann na díoltóirí straitéisí iomaíocha chun iarracht a dhéanamh an brabús a uasmhéadú. Tógfaimid cabhair ó léaráid shimplí chun an Iomaíocht Spáis a mhíniú.
Hotelling's Beach: Smaoinigh ar lá álainn ar an trá. Is féidir le duine a fheiceáil go leor daoine ina suí sa ghaineamh, ag scíth a ligean. Tá sé lá te agus gach duine i ndáiríre ag iarraidh a bheith le uachtar reoite. Ach, ós rud é go bhfuil an gaineamh an-te, ní mian le duine ar bith i ndáiríre siúl go leor. Ba mhaith leo go léir go mbeadh an díoltóir uachtar reoite ag teacht in aice leo.
Tar éis an tsaoil, tá an t-earraí a dhíoltar ag an siopa. Nuair a thagann sí anseo, tá fadhb aici. Cá háit a bhunaíonn sí siopa? Is é an freagra go bhfreastalaíonn sí ar an siopa i lár na cathrach, áit nach mbíonn an oiread míchompord ag daoine ag éirí as a gcos agus ag dul chun na hioscaram a fháil. Is é seo an áit ina féidir léi a chuid brabúis a uasmhéadú.
Anois, tarlaíonn an t-athrú suimiúil nuair a thagann díoltóir eile léi. Anois d'fhonn a mhéadú brabús ní mór dóibh a n-áit a choigeartú ionas go sroichfidh siad amach mar go leor daoine mar is féidir leo, laistigh den timpeallacht iomaíoch. Is é an cás is fearr is féidir nuair a roinnfidh siad an sciar margaidh go cothrom agus a n-áit áitiúla a choigeartú chun freastal ar dhá ghrúpa tomhaltóirí.
Leanann an teoiric ag míniú cad a tharlaíonn i gcás go bhfuil níos mó agus níos mó díoltóirí i réigiún níos mó. Tá an teoiric seo an-soiléir sa saol fíor, go háirithe san India áit a bhfuil siopaí beaga go leor. Ó shuíomhanna stallaí panipuri go siopaí paan, breathnaímid ar iomaíocht spásúil.
An Spás Eacnamaíoch
Sa chuid is mó den smaointe eacnamaíochta comhaimseartha, tá neamhaird déanta ar fad ar fad ar fad geografach. Ní thugtar mórán tábhachta do chostais iompair agus meastar go bhfuil na costais iompair ag an gcuid is mó de na teoiricí eacnamaíocha a bheith ag nialas. Nuair a rinne na heacnamaithe clasaiceacha staidéar ar an ngeilleagar, mheas siad nach raibh aon urraim ag na fadanna idir cathracha, tíortha agus daoine féin. Tá sé seo soiléir go leor nuair a d'fhorbair an eacnamaí cáiliúil David Riccardo a theoiric ar "buntáiste comparáideach" trína glacadh leis ar dtús go raibh soghluaisteacht foirfe laistigh de thíortha. I dtimpeallacht atá soghluaiste go hiomlán, is féidir le tosca táirgthe cosúil le saothair agus caipiteal gluaiseacht go saor gan deacracht. D'fhás an chuid is mó de na heacnamaithe cosúil le Smith agus Riccardo suas sa Impireacht na Breataine. Agus ós rud é go raibh na Breataine tar éis bealaí trádála a bhunú ar fud an domhain cheana féin, bhí claonadh ag na Breataine agus ag a gcuid leanúna neamhaird a dhéanamh ar chostais iompair ar muir. Dá bhrí sin, measaíonn an chuid is mó de na teoiricí eacnamaíocha clasaiceacha go bhfuil an domhan ar barr an úlla toisc nach dtugann siad aird ar an spás. Níl ach cúpla teoiric eacnamaíoch príomhshrutha, mar shampla Iomaíocht Hotelling agus Eacnamaíocht Bhaile, ag cur na fadanna go léir san áireamh.
Ba iad na teorainneacha náisiúnta an t-aon spás a raibh meas maith ag eacnamaithe air. Seachas an roinn bheag seo den domhan, níor fhéach teoiricí eacnamaíocha ar na difríochtaí i tírdhreach agus i dtalamh. Agus mar a dúirt Samuelson uair amháin,
Tá fadhbanna spásúla curtha i bhfad ar ceal sa teoiric eacnamaíoch go bhfuil an réimse ar spéis dó féin.
Tá gá le coincheap an spás eacnamaíoch toisc go bhfuil praghsanna earraí agus seirbhísí, dreasachtaí daoine agus cinntí gnólachtaí ag brath ar achar. Mar a dúirt Debreu uair amháin,
Is réada eacnamaíocha éagsúla earraí ar leith in áit áirithe agus na hearraí céanna in áit eile, agus tá sé ríthábhachtach an áit a bheidh siad ar fáil a shonrú.
Ní mór do théoiric eacnamaíoch maith an spás eacnamaíoch a chur san áireamh i gcónaí.
Cé go bhfuil an Geo-eacnamaíocht Eacnamaíoch an-óg fós i gcomparáid le Maicreacnamaíocht nó le teoiricí eacnamaíocha príomhshrutha eile, thug sé léargas an-luachmhar dúinn. Tagann na léargas seo ó staidéar a dhéanamh ar an spás eacnamaíoch ar bhealach eolaíoch.
- Tá ról mór ag costais iompair fiú i saol tapa atá ag gluaiseacht inniu. Tá an domhandacht tar éis an mothú a thabhairt isteach go bhfuil an domhan tar éis éirí cothrom, ach tá an fhírinne difriúil. Go fisiciúil, go cultúrtha agus go heacnamaíoch tá an domhan cruinn fós. Tá ról an-tábhachtach ag fad agus áiteanna sa gheilleagar nua-aimseartha.
- Tá Factor Mobility nó cé chomh héasca agus a ghluaiseann saothair agus caipiteal chuig suíomh inmhianaithe, an-tábhachtach don gheilleagar. Ní hamháin go bhfuil an soghluaisteacht idirnáisiúnta, ach tagann an soghluaisteacht náisiúnta freisin. Deir an Geo-eacnamaíocht go bhfuil an bhearna ag fás idir daoine áirithe agus daoine eile. D'fhéadfadh an difríocht seo i soghluaisteacht náisiúnta a bheith ina fhadhb.
Tá tíreolaíocht ar cheann de na hábhair is suimiúla a bhuail mé riamh. Bhí grá agam staidéar a dhéanamh ar ghléasanna, ar bhruachchchláir, ar éadóisiú, ar fhásaigh agus ar fhás. Ón fhoirmiú stalactítí agus stalagmití go dtí an creimeadh a dhéanann tonnta, éiríonn leis an ábhar aird a ghabháil. Is ábhar an-álainn é a thug dom a lán samhlaíochta a dhéanamh. Ar an láimh eile, díreofar ar an ngeilleagar níos mó ar an speiceas daonna. Déanann sé staidéar ar éifeachtaí tomhaltais agus coigiltis. Tá sé ag iarraidh tuiscint a fháil ar bhrí an airgid. Agus cé go bhféadfadh sé a bheith rud beag drab, tá a áilleacht éagórach ann.
Is taitnimh é áilleacht na talún agus castacht na ndaoine a ionchorprú agus Geografaíocht Eacnamaíoch a staidéar. Tá an réimse seo tar éis tarraingt a fháil le cúpla bliain anuas. Tá tábhacht na gcostas iompair agus na n-aisíocaíochtaí méadaithe tar éis dul isteach ar smaointeoireacht eacnamaíoch nua-aimseartha ar bhealach go hiomlán nua. Ní féidir linn a bheith ag súil go dtuigeann muid gníomhaíocht eacnamaíoch gan tuiscint a fháil ar an spás eacnamaíoch ina bhfuil sí. Tá sé riachtanach na coinníollacha geografacha a ionchorprú nuair is mian linn samhlacha eacnamaíocha a chur i bhfeidhm ar an saol fíor, ós rud é go bhfuil difríochtaí fíor sa tírdhreach sa saol fíor. Tá go leor le déanamh sa réimse seo agus go leor le briseadh tríd.
Is é an eacnamaíocht do gach duine!
Is é an gheografaíocht do gach duine!