source_sentence,target_sentence
"Lillian Diana Gish (October 14, 1893 – February 27, 1993) was an American actress, director and screenwriter.","ⵍⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⴳⵉⵛ (14 ⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕ, 1893 - 27 ⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ, 1993) ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵙⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ."
"Gish was a prominent film star from 1912 into the 1920s, being particularly associated with the films of director D. W. Griffith.","ⴳⵉⵛ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ 1912 ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1920, ⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⵓⴳ ⴷ. ⵡ. ⴳⵔⵉⴼⵉⵜ."
"She also did considerable television work from the early 1950s into the 1980s, and closed her career playing opposite Bette Davis in the 1987 film The Whales of August.","ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵍⵅⴷⵎⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1950 ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980, ⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⴷⵉⵢⴼⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⵣ ⵓⴼ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ 1987."
The first several generations of Gishes were Dunkard ministers.,ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵉⵜ ⴳⵉⵛ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉ.
"Their mother opened the Majestic Candy Kitchen, and the girls helped sell popcorn and candy to patrons of the old Majestic Theater, located next door.","ⵜⵔⵣⴻⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵊⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽ ⴽⴰⵏⴷⵢ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵅⵉⵏ ⵄⴰⵡⵏⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵣⵣⵏⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴼⴰⵏⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴷⴱⵓ ⵍⵎⵙⵔⴰⵃ ⵎⴰⵊⴻⵙⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"The seventeen-year-old Lillian traveled to Shawnee, Oklahoma, where James's brother Alfred Grant Gish and his wife, Maude, lived.","ⵍⵉⵖ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵍⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵛⴰⵡⵏⵉ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵀoⵎⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵖ ⴳⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴳⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵉⵛ ⴷ, ⵎⵓⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Her father died in Norman, Oklahoma, in 1912, but she had returned to Ohio a few months before this.","ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵉⴱⴱⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵀoⵎⴰ, ⴳ 1912, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⵓⵔⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵀⴰⵢⵓ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ."
"When Lillian and Dorothy were old enough they joined the theatre, often traveling separately in different productions.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵔⵓⵜⵉ ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ, ⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵣⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵃⵉⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵣⵍⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"Gish continued to perform on the stage, and in 1913, during a run of A Good Little Devil, she collapsed from anemia.","ⴳⵉⵛ ⵜⵎⴹⴼⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ 1913, ⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰ ⴳⵓⴷ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵍ, ⵜⵓⵙⵅⵉ ⵙ ⴼⴰⵇⵔ ⴷⴷⴰⵎ."
Her performance in these frigid conditions gave her lasting nerve damage in several fingers.,ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵏⵉⵙ ⵖ ⴷⴷⵓⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵀⵔⵛⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵇⵓⵛⵛⵃ ⵖ ⵉⴹⵓⴹⴰⵏ.
"He utilized her expressive talents to the fullest, developing her into a suffering yet strong heroine.",ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵀⵉⴱ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵃⵍⴻⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵃⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⴰⵢⵜ.
"She directed her sister Dorothy in one film, Remodeling Her Husband (1920), when D. W. Griffith took his unit on location.","ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵓⵍⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⵓⵔⵓⵜⵉ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⵔⴻⵎⵓⴷⵍⵉⵏ ⵀⵉⵔ ⵀⴰⵣⴱⴰⵏⴷ (1920), ⵍⵉⵖ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ. ⵡ. ⴳⵔⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ."
"She turned down the money, requesting a more modest wage and a percentage so that the studio could use the funds to increase the quality of her films — hiring the best actors, screenwriters, etc.",ⵜⵓⴳⵉ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵚⵚⴰⵍⵉⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴽⵛⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵉ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎⵏⵙ — ⵉⵜⵙⵙⵅⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓ.
"Many of the silent era's leading ladies, such as Gish and Pickford, had been wholesome and innocent, but by the early 1930s (after the full adoption of sound and before the Motion Picture Production Code was enforced) these roles were perceived as outdated.","ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵃⵉⵇⴱⵜ ⵉⵃⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴳⵉⵛ ⴷ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⴷⴳⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵖ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 1930 (ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ) ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵉⴽ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ."
"""Louis Mayer wanted to stage a scandal (""""knock her off her pedestal"""") to garner public sympathy for Gish, but Lillian didn't want to act both on screen and off, and returned to her first love, the theater.""","""ⵉⵔⴰ ⵍⵓⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⵔ ⴰⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵢⴰ ⵓⴷⴰⵛⴰⴼ (""""ⵏⵓⴽ ⵀⴻⵔ ⵓⴼⴼ ⵀⴻⵔ ⴱⴻⴷⴻⵙⵜⵍⵍ"""") ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵢⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⵉ ⴳⵉⵛ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵍⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵉ ⴰⵜⵍⵄⴱ ⵖ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉⵏⵙ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ."
"Returning to movies, Gish was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1946 for Duel in the Sun.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵓⵔⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ, ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴳⵉⵛ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵖ 1946 ⵉ ⴷⵓⵍ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵚⵚⴰⵏ."
"She was considered for various roles in Gone with the Wind ranging from Ellen O'Hara, Scarlett's mother (which went to Barbara O'Neil), to prostitute Belle Watling (which went to Ona Munson).","ⵜⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵖ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵖ ⴳⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ oⵀⴰⵔⴰ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵍⵉⵜ (ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⴰ oⵏⵉⵍ), ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⵉⵍⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⵜⵉⵏⴳ (ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵙⵓⵏ)."
She appeared as Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in the short-lived 1965 Broadway musical Anya.,ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵯⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴰ ⴼⵢⵓⴷⵓⵔⵓⴼⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷoⵡⴰⴳⴻⵔ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵖ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ 1965 ⴰⵏⵢⴰ.
She was interviewed in the television documentary series Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film (1980).,ⵜⵎⵙⵇⵙⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ: ⴰ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⴱⵔⵉⵛⵏ ⵓⴼ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴰⵢⵍⵏⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ (1980).
She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1720 Vine Street.,ⵜⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵖ ⵡⴰⵍⴽ oⴼ ⴼⵉⵎ ⵖ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⵖ 1720 ⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵜ.
"At the Cannes festival, Gish won a 10-minute standing ovation from the audience.","ⵖ ⵓⵍⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ, ⴳⵉⵛ ⵜⵔⴱⵃ ⴰⵙⴱⵉⴷ ⵏ 10-ⵏⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
"""The episode """"Marry for Murder"""" was broadcast on September 9, 1943.""","""ⵜⵣⵓⵙⵙⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵔⵜ """"ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴼⵓⵔ ⵎⵓⵔⴷⵔ"""" ⵖ 9 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ, 1943."""
"She was awarded an Academy Honorary Award in 1971, and in 1984 she received an AFI Life Achievement Award.","ⵓⵛⵛⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵍⵓⵎⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵖ 1971, ⵖ 1984 ⵓⵛⵛⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ ⴰⵜⵛⵉⴼⵎⵏⵜ."
The University awarded Gish the honorary degree of Doctor of Performing Arts the next day.,ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵛ ⵉ ⴳⵉⵛ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵍⵓⵎⵎⵜ ⵖ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵡⴰⵔ.
"Following Gish's 1993 death, the University raised funds to enlarge its gallery to display memorabilia received from Gish's estate.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳⵉⵛ ⵖ 1993, ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵏⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵉⵛ."
"The association between herself and D. W. Griffith was so close that some suspected a romantic connection, an issue never acknowledged by Gish, although several of their associates were certain they were at least briefly involved.","ⴰⵛⵔⴰⴽ ⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ D. W. ⴳⵔⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵇⵕⴱ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵢⵍⵉⵖ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵖⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵊⵊⵓ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⴳⵉⵛ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⴱⵏ ⴰⵡⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴻⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"In the 1920s, Gish's association with Duell became something of a tabloid scandal when he sued her and made the details of their relationship public.","ⵖⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1920, ⴰⵛⵔⴰⴽ ⵏ ⴳⵉⵛ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⵍ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴽⴰⵛⴰⴼ ⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵉⴹⴼⵕ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴱⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⴼⵓⵖ ⴻⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵛⵔⴰⴽⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
George Jean Nathan praised Gish's acting glowingly—comparing her to Eleonora Duse.,ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⵊⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏⵙ —ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴻⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵉoⵏoⵔⴰ ⴷⵓⵙ.
"During the period of political turmoil in the US that lasted from the outbreak of World War II in Europe until the attack on Pearl Harbor, she maintained an outspoken non-interventionist stance.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵖ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵖ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵖ ⵍⵓⵔⵓⵒ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴻⵔⵍ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⴻⵔ, ⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵏⵥⴰⵢⵜ."
"Joseph Frank Keaton (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966), known professionally as Buster Keaton, was an American actor, comedian, film director, producer, screenwriter, and stunt performer.","ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ (4 ⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕ, 1895 – 1 ⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ, 1966), ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢ, ⴰⵎⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ, ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ, ⴰⵏⴰⵙⵔⴰⵢ ⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉ."
His career declined when he signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and lost his artistic independence.,ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵍⵅⴷⵎⵜⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵜⵔⵓ-ⴳⵓⵍⴷⵡⵢⵏ-ⵎⴰⵢⴻⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵄⴷⴷⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏⵙ.
"Many of Keaton's films from the 1920s remain highly regarded, such as Sherlock Jr. (1924), The General (1926), and The Cameraman (1928).","ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵖ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1920 ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵀⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⴳ ⵛⵉⵔⵍⵓⴽ ⵊⵔ. (1924), ⴷⴰ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉⵔⴰⵍ (1926), ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴽⵉⴼⵎⴰⵏ (1928)."
"""His father was Joseph Hallie """"Joe"""" Keaton, who owned a traveling show with Harry Houdini called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company, or the Keaton Houdini Medicine Show Company, which performed on stage and sold patent medicine on the side.""","""ⵉⴱⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵊoⵣⵉⴼ ⵀⴰⵍⵍⵉ """"ⵊⵓ"""" ⴽⴻⵜⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⵀⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ ⵖ ⵓⴼⵕⵕⵊⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵎⵓⵀⴰⴽ ⵉⵏⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴽⴻⵜⵓⵏ ⵀⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵛⵉⵏ ⵛⵓ ⴽoⵎⴱⴰⵏⵉ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵊ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵏⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ."""
"In Keaton's retelling, he was six months old when the incident occurred, and Harry Houdini gave him the nickname.","ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵙⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⴰⵙ ⵀⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⵙ."
The act was mainly a comedy sketch.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⴽⵉⵜⵛ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⴰ.
A suitcase handle was sewn into Keaton's clothing to aid with the constant tossing.,ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴼⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⵏⴰ ⵖ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵄⴰⵡⵏ ⵖ ⴰⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ.
"However, Buster was always able to show the authorities that he had no bruises or broken bones.","ⵎⴰⵛ, ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⴼ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
Several times I'd have been killed if I hadn't been able to land like a cat.,ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵖ ⵍⵉⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴳⴳⵯⵉⵣⵖ ⵣⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵛ.
"Noticing that this caused the audience to laugh less, he adopted his famous deadpan expression when performing.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⵣⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵍ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷⵚⵚⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⴰⵄⵔⵉⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴰⵢⵜⵜⵍⵄⴰⴱ."
"Despite tangles with the law and a disastrous tour of music halls in the United Kingdom, Keaton was a rising star in the theater.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼ ⴷ ⵍⵊⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵄⴷⵔⵉⵇ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵖ ⴱⵔⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ."
"""In February 1917, he met Roscoe """"Fatty"""" Arbuckle at the Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle was under contract to Joseph M. Schenck.""","""ⵖ ⴱⵔⴰⵢⵔ ⵏ 1917, ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓ """"ⴼⴰⵜⵜⵉ"""" ⴰⵔⴱⵓⴽⵍ ⵖ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵉⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵊ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵢⵓⵔⴽ, ⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵔⴱⵓⴽⵍ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵅⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⵎ. ⵛⵉⵏⴽ."""
"Buster was such a natural in his first film, The Butcher Boy, he was hired on the spot.","ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏⵙ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴱⵉⵜⵛⵔ ⴱⵓⵢ, ⵉⵅⴷⵎ ⵏⵉⵛⴰⵏ."
Keaton later claimed that he was soon Arbuckle's second director and his entire gag department.,ⴰⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⵢⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴱⵓⴽⵍ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏⵙ.
"It was based on a successful play, The New Henrietta, which had already been filmed once, under the title The Lamb, with Douglas Fairbanks playing the lead.","ⵉⵜⵓⴽⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵢⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉⵢⵉⵜⵜⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵢⴰⴼⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵍⴰⵎⴱ, ⴷ ⴷⵓⴳⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏⴽⵙ ⵉⵄⵢⵢⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴹ."
"He made a series of two-reel comedies, including One Week (1920), The Playhouse (1921), Cops (1922), and The Electric House (1922).","ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⴽ (1920), ⴷⴰ ⵒⵍⵉⵀⴰⵡⵙ (1921), ⴽⵓⴱⵙ (1922), ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⵀⴰⵡⵙ (1922)."
"""Comedy director Leo McCarey, recalling the freewheeling days of making slapstick comedies, said, """"All of us tried to steal each other's gagmen.""","""ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵍⵢⵓ ⵎⴽⴽⴰⵔⵉ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵙⵢⵢⵉⵃⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ, """"ⴽⵓⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴷⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⴽⵯⵔ ⵉⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⴼⴼⴰⵍⵙ."""
"During the railroad water-tank scene in Sherlock Jr., Keaton broke his neck when a torrent of water fell on him from a water tower, but he did not realize it until years afterward.","ⵖ ⵍⵓⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵛⵛⴰⵔⵉⵊ ⵖ ⵛⵉⵔⵍⵓⴽ, ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵔⴷ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵡⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵔⴽⵉⵖ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Keaton's character emerged unscathed, due to a single open window.",ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰ ⵓⴱⵄⵉⵊ ⵉⵔⵣⵎⵏ.
"Aside from Steamboat Bill, Jr. (1928), Keaton's most enduring feature-length films include Our Hospitality (1923), The Navigator (1924), Sherlock Jr. (1924), Seven Chances (1925), The Cameraman (1928), and The General (1926).","ⵉⵍⵎⵎ ⵙ ⵙⵜⵉⵎⴱⵓⵜ ⴱⵉⵍⵍ ⵊⵔ. (1928), ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵖ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⵔ ⵀⵓⵙⴱⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉ (1923), ⴷⴰ ⵏⴰⴼⵉⴳⴰⵜⵓⵔ (1924), ⵛⵉⵔⵍⵓⴽ ⵊⵔ. (1924), ⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵏⵙⵉⵣ (1925), ⴷⴰ ⴽⵉⴼⵎⴰⵏ (1928), ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵊⵉⵏⵉⵔⴰⵍ (1926)."
"Though it would come to be regarded as Keaton's greatest achievement, the film received mixed reviews at the time.","ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵢⵓⵎⵣ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵖ ⵉⵏⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ."
"His distributor, United Artists, insisted on a production manager who monitored expenses and interfered with certain story elements.","ⴰⵏⴱⴹⵓⵏⵙ, ⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵜⵉⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵙⵜⵙ, ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⴼ ⵢⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⴱⵍⵏ ⴰⵇⵇⴰⵔⵕⵉⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵛⴽⵛⵓⵎ ⵖ ⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵃⴰⵊⵉⵜ."
The actors would phonetically memorize the foreign-language scripts a few lines at a time and shoot immediately after.,ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⵙⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⵍⴼⵏ.
"The director was usually Jules White, whose emphasis on slapstick and farce made most of these films resemble White's famous Three Stooges shorts.","ⵉⵏⵙⵉ ⵊⵓⵍⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵢⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ, ⵜⵓⴼⴼⴰⵢⵜⵏⵙ ⵖ ⵙⵢⵢⵃ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⴷ ⵜⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵓⵊⴻⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵉⵜ."
"However, director White's insistence on blunt, violent gags resulted in the Columbia shorts being the least inventive comedies he made.","ⵎⴰⵛ ⴰⵖⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵢⵢⵃⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⴽⵓⴹⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴳⵯⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵏ ⵖ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎⵏⵙ."
"He made his last starring feature El Moderno Barba Azul (1946) in Mexico; the film was a low-budget production, and it may not have been seen in the United States until its release on VHS in the 1980s, under the title Boom in the Moon.","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵍ ⵎⵓⴷⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰ ⴰⵣⵓⵍ (1946) ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ, ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵔⴰ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴼⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵖ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ1980, ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵎ ⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵎⵓⵏ."
"In In the Good Old Summertime, Keaton personally directed the stars Judy Garland and Van Johnson in their first scene together, where they bump into each other on the street.","ⵖ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵓⴷ ⵓⵍⴷ ⵙⴰⵎⵔⵜⴰⵢⵎ, ⴻⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵊⵓⴷⵉ ⴳⴰⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵏ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉⵜⵏⵙⵏ ⴻⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵎⵎⵉⴳⴳⵉⵕⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙ."
"Reaction was strong enough for a local Los Angeles station to offer Keaton his own show, also broadcast live, in 1950.","ⵉⵃⵎⵍⵜ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵖ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵉⵙ ⵉ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵙⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴷⵏ, ⵖ 1950."
Buster Keaton's wife Eleanor also was seen in the series (notably as Juliet to Buster's Romeo in a little-theater vignette).,ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉ (ⵜⴳⴰ ⵊⵓⵍⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⵢⵓ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵔ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⵎⵜ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ).
Keaton's periodic television appearances during the 1950s and 1960s helped to revive interest in his silent films.,ⵉⵍⵡⵉ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵖ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1950 ⴷ 1960 ⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵎⵣ ⵓⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎⵏⵙ ⵉⵃⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ.
"Well into his fifties, Keaton successfully recreated his old routines, including one stunt in which he propped one foot onto a table, then swung the second foot up next to it and held the awkward position in midair for a moment before crashing to the stage floor.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴽⵯⵛⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵉⵙⵅⵅⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵏⵉⵄⵏⵙ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ, ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⵢⵢⵃ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵡ ⴰⴹⴰⵕ ⵖ ⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴹ ⴰⴹⴰⵕ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵉⴷ ⵖⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵓⴹⵓ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⵉⴳⵏⵓⴳⵉ ⵖ ⵜⵙⴼⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ."
"""Keaton had prints of the features Three Ages, Sherlock Jr., Steamboat Bill, Jr., and College (missing one reel), and the shorts """"The Boat"""" and """"My Wife's Relations"""", which Keaton and Rohauer then transferred to Cellulose acetate film from deteriorating nitrate film stock.""","ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵜⵔⵉ ⵉⵊⵉⵣ, ⵛⵉⵔⵍⵓⴽ ⵊⵔ., ⵙⵜⵉⵎⴱⵓⵜⴱⵉⵍⵍ, ⵊⵔ. ⴰⵏⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵉⵊ (ⵜⵃⵔⵎⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵕⵕⴰⵕⵜ), ⴷ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⴽⵓⴹⴰⴹⵏ """"ⴷⴰ ⴱⵓⵜ"""" ⴷ """"ⵎⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵢⴼⵙ ⵔⵉⵍⴰⵢⵛⵏⵣ"""", ⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵀⴰⵡⵔ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵍⵍⵓⵍⵓⵣ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵜ ⵣⵖ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵄⴷⵎⵏ."
"In a series of silent television commercials for Simon Pure Beer made in 1962 by Jim Mohr in Buffalo, New York, Keaton revisited some of the gags from his silent film days.","ⵖ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵍⴱⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵢⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵢⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙoⴼⵖ ⵊⵉⵎ ⵎⵓⵀⵔ ⵖ ⴱⵓⴼⴰⵍⵓ, ⵏⵢⵓ ⵢⵓⵔⵏ, ⵖ 1962, ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵢⵢⵃⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵖ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⵃⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵙ."
"""In December 1958, Keaton was a guest star in the episode """"A Very Merry Christmas"""" of The Donna Reed Show on ABC.""","""ⵖ ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1958, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵓⵊⵉ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴷⵔⵜ """"ⴰ ⴼⵉⵔⵉ ⵎⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵎⴰⵙ"""" ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵏⴰ ⵔⵉⴷ ⵖ ⴰⴱⵛ."
"In 1960, he returned to MGM for the final time, playing a lion tamer in a 1960 adaptation of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.","ⵖ 1960, ⵢⵓⵔⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵎⴳⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵃⵕⵕⴱ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵣⴰⵎ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵖ 1960 ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴽ ⵜⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴷⴼⵏⵜⵓⵔⵣ ⵓⴼ ⵀⴰⴽⵍⴱⵉⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ."
"""He worked with comedian Ernie Kovacs on a television pilot tentatively titled """"Medicine Man,"""" shooting scenes for it on January 12, 1962—the day before Kovacs died in a car crash. """"""","ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⴰⵏ ⴻⵔⵏⵉ ⴽⵓⴼⴰⴽⵙ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⵍ """"ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ"""", ⵙⵓⵍⴼⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏⵏⵙ ⵖ 12 ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ, 1962—ⵢⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⴼⴰⴽⵙ ⵖ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ."
"He traveled from one end of Canada to the other on a motorized handcar, wearing his traditional pork pie hat and performing gags similar to those in films that he made 50 years before.","ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ, ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵛⵎⵔⵉⵔ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵙⵢⵢⵃ ⵣⵓⴷ ⵖⵯⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ 50 ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ."
"Also in 1965, he traveled to Italy to play a role in Due Marines e un Generale, co-starring Franco Franchi and Ciccio Ingrassia.","ⴷⴰⵖ ⵖ 1965, ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵢ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵖ ⴷⵓ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵛⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵙⵢⴰ."
"One of his most biting parodies is The Frozen North (1922), a satirical take on William S. Hart's Western melodramas, like Hell's Hinges (1916) and The Narrow Trail (1917).","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵖ ⵉⵖⵔⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵀⵔⵛⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴼⵔⵓⵣⴻⵏ ⵏⵓⵔⵜ (1922), ⵙⵢⵢⵃ ⵏ ⴹⴹⵔⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵔⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵉⴰⵎ ⵙ. ⵀⴰⵔⵜ, ⵣⵓⴷ ⵀⵉⵍⵍⵣ ⵀⵉⵏⴳⴻⵣ (1916) ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵏⴰⵕⵕⵓ ⵜⵔⴰⵢⵍ 1917)."
Audiences of the 1920s recognized the parody and thought the film hysterically funny.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1920 ⵙⵢⵢⵃⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵚⵚⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ.
The short also featured the impression of a performing monkey which was likely derived from a co-biller's act (called Peter the Great).,ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴽⵓⴹⴰⴹ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵡ ⵣⵄⴹⵓⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ (ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵙ ⴱⵉⵜⴻⵔ ⴷⴰ ⴳⵔⵉⵜ).
"""Note: Source misspells Keaton's frequent appellation as """"Great Stoneface"""".""","""ⴰⵎQⵢⵢⴷ: ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵏⵣⵔⵉ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ """"ⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵢⵙ""""."""
Keaton dated actress Dorothy Sebastian beginning in the 1920s and Kathleen Key in the early 1930s.,ⵉⴷⴷⵓⴽⵍ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴷⵓⵔⵓⵜⵉ ⵙⵉⴱⴰⵙⵜⵢⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1920 ⴷ ⴽⴰⵜⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1930.
He escaped a straitjacket with tricks learned from Harry Houdini.,ⵉⵏⵊⵎ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴱⵔⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵖ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵀⴰⵔⵉ ⵀⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉ.
"She filed for divorce in 1935 after finding Keaton with Leah Clampitt Sewell, the wife of millionaire Barton Sewell, in a hotel in Santa Barbara.","ⵜⴹⴰⵍⴱ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴰⵜⵜⵏⵙ ⵖ 1935 ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵢⴰ ⴽⵍⴰⵎⴱⵉⵜ ⵙⵉⵡⴻⵍ, ⵜⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵍⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵔ ⴱⴰⵔⵜⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵡⴻⵍ, ⵖ ⵢⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓ ⵖ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⴰ."
He stopped drinking for five years.,ⵉⴱⴱⵉ ⵛⵛⵔⴰⴱ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.
The marriage lasted until his death.,ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵀⴰⵍⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ.
"Confined to a hospital during his final days, Keaton was restless and paced the room endlessly, desiring to return home.","ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵥ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵏⴳⴰⴼ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵙ ⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵡⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵜⵜⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵛⵀⴽⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵃⴰⵏⵓ, ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉⵏⵙ."
"The screenplay, by Sidney Sheldon, who also directed the film, was loosely based on Keaton's life but contained many factual errors and merged his three wives into one character.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⵏ ⵙⵉⴷⵏⵉ ⵛⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ, ⵖ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵛ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵄⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵖ ⵢⴰ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ."
"Dedicated to bringing greater public attention to Keaton's life and work, the membership includes many individuals from the television and film industry: actors, producers, authors, artists, graphic novelists, musicians, and designers, as well as those who simply admire the magic of Buster Keaton.","ⵉⵍⵜⴰⵖ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ, ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ: ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵢⵓⴼⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵙⴽⵍⵜ, ⵉⵎⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵄⵊⴰⴱⵏ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ."
"""Hirschfeld said that modern film stars were more difficult to depict, that silent film comedians such as Laurel and Hardy and Keaton """"looked like their caricatures"""".""","“ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵀⵓⵔⵛⴼⵉⵍⴷ ⵎⴰⴼ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵖⴰⵚⵚⴰⴷ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴼⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⵃⵉⵙⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⴷ ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴷⵉ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ “”ⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵖⵏⵙⵏ””.”"
"""Film critic Roger Ebert stated, """"The greatest of the silent clowns is Buster Keaton, not only because of what he did, but because of how he did it.""","""ⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵔⴻⵊⵉ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ, """"ⴰⵎⵙⵢⵢⵃ ⴰⵃⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵏ, ⵓⵔⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⵙⴽⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵔ."""
"""Filmmaker Mel Brooks has credited Buster Keaton as a major influence, saying: """"I owe (Buster) a lot on two levels: One for being such a great teacher for me as a filmmaker myself, and the other just as a human being watching this gifted person doing these amazing things.""","“ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵄⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵎⵉⵍ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵔ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, “”ⴷⴼⴰⵔⵖ (ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵔ) ⵎⵏⵛⴽ ⵖ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ: ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵣⵓⴷ ⵏⴽⴽⵉ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵍⵎⴰⵡⵀⵉⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵄⴷⵍⵏⵉⵏ.”"
Actor and stunt performer Johnny Knoxville cites Keaton as an inspiration when coming up with ideas for Jackass projects.,ⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵢⵢⵃ ⵊⵓⵏⵢ ⵏⵓⴽⵙⴼⵉⵍ ⴼ ⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵇ ⵉⴳⴰ tufrayt ⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵊⴰⴽⴰⵙⵙ.
Lewis was particularly moved by the fact that Eleanor said his eyes looked like Keaton's.,ⵉⵃⵎⵍ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏⵏⵙ ⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵅⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⴽⵉⵜⵓⵏ.
"""In 1964, he told an interviewer that in making """"this particular pork pie"""", he """"started with a good Stetson and cut it down"""", stiffening the brim with sugar water.""","“ⵖ 1964, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵉⵉⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ “”ⴰⵛⵎⵔⵉⵔⴰⴷ””, ‘’’ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰ ⵓⵛⵎⵔⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⵉⵜ””, ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵃⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.”"
His paternal great-grandparents were Welsh.,ⴰⵢⴷⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵣ.
Lloyd began collaborating with Roach who had formed his own studio in 1913.,ⵉⵅⴷⵎ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵜⵛ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵔⵣⵎⵏ ⵙⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓⵏⵙ ⵖ 1913.
"In 1919, she left Lloyd to pursue her dramatic aspirations.","ⵖ 1919, ⵜⴼⵍ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵜⵜⴹⴼⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴳⵓⵎⵏⵙ ⵖ ⴹⴹⵕⴰⵎⴰ."
"Reportedly, the more Lloyd watched Davis the more he liked her.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⵖⵓⵏⵛⴽ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵢⵜⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⵙ ⵖⵓⵏⵛⴽ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵜⵜⵉⵕⵉ."
"Harold Lloyd would move away from tragicomic personas, and portray an everyman with unwavering confidence and optimism.","ⵉⴳⴳⵯⵊ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵖ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵊⵉⴷⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ."
"""To create his new character Lloyd donned a pair of lensless horn-rimmed glasses but wore normal clothing; previously, he had worn a fake mustache and ill-fitting clothes as the Chaplinesque """"Lonesome Luke"""". """"""","“ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵢⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵉ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴰⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ; ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵛⵍⵖⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵥⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵛⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏⵉⵙⴽ “”ⵍⵓⵏⵙⵓⵎ ⵍⵓⴽ””.””"
"""They were natural and the romance could be believable.""""""","""""ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ."""""
"On Sunday, August 24, 1919, while posing for some promotional still photographs in the Los Angeles Witzel Photography Studio, he picked up what he thought was a prop bomb and lit it with a cigarette.","ⵖ ⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰⵙ, ⵡⵓⵙⵙ 24 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ, 1919, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵖ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵜⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ, ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵓⵇⵇⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵖⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵍⴳⴰⵕⵕⵓ."
"Lloyd was in the act of lighting a cigarette from the fuse of the bomb when it exploded, also badly burning his face and chest and injuring his eye.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴷ ⵍⴳⴰⵔⵔⵓ ⵖ ⵉⵎⵉⵛⵛ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵇⵇⵏⴱⵓⵍⵜ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵇⵇⵉ, ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵙ ⵍⵄⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵖⵓⵖⵙⵏ ⵖ ⵓⴷⵎⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵔⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵙⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⵏⵙ."
"Lloyd and Roach parted ways in 1924, and Lloyd became the independent producer of his own films.","ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵛ ⵎⵔⵔⵓⵣⵣⴳⵏ ⵖ 1924, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵢⵓⴼⵖ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎⵏⵙ ⵡⴰⵃⴷⵓⵜ."
"All of these films were enormously successful and profitable, and Lloyd would eventually become the highest paid film performer of the 1920s.","ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1920."
"However, his go-getting screen character was out of touch with Great Depression movie audiences of the 1930s.","ⵎⴰⵛ, ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1930."
"On March 23, 1937, Lloyd sold the land of his studio, Harold Lloyd Motion Picture Company, to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.","ⵖ ⵡⵓⵙⵙ 23 ⵎⴰⵕⵚ, 1937, ⵉⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓⵏⵙ, ⵀⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵎⵓⵛⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⵜⵛⵔ, ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴶⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵊⵉⵙⵓⵙ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵜ ⵓⴼ ⵍⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴰⵢⵏⵜⵙ."
"He returned for an additional starring appearance in The Sin of Harold Diddlebock, an ill-fated homage to Lloyd's career, directed by Preston Sturges and financed by Howard Hughes.","ⵢⵓⵔⵔⵉⴷ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵍⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴼ ⵀⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵍⴱⵓⴽ, ⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵅⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵜ ⴱⵉⵜⵔⵙⴻⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⵊⴻⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵅⵍⵍⵚⵜ ⵀⵓⴰⵔⴷ ⵀⵢⵓⵣ."
"""Lloyd and Sturges had different conceptions of the material and fought frequently during the shoot; Lloyd was particularly concerned that while Sturges had spent three to four months on the script of the first third of the film, """"the last two-thirds of it he wrote in a week or less"""".""","“ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⴳⴻⵙ ⵎⵎⴰⵖⵏ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴼ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵕⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴰⵜⵜⵚⵡⵡⴰⵕⵏ; ⵉⵅⵎⵎⵉⵎ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵕⴰ ⴼ ⵎⴰⴼ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵕⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵙⴽⵔⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ, “”ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜⴰⵢⵍ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ””.”"
"Some saw The Old Gold Comedy Theater as being a lighter version of Lux Radio Theater, and it featured some of the best-known film and radio personalities of the day, including Fred Allen, June Allyson, Lucille Ball, Ralph Bellamy, Linda Darnell, Susan Hayward, Herbert Marshall, Dick Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Jane Wyman, and Alan Young.","ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵣⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵓⵍⴷ ⴳⵓⵍⴷ ⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵎⴰⴼ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓ, ⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵖⴰⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵍⵓⵙⵉⵍ ⴱⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵔⴰⵍⴼ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵏⵉ, ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵏⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵙⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵢⵡⴰⵔⴷ, ⴷ ⵀⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⴷⵉⴽ ⴱⴰⵡⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴳ. ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵊⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵏⴳ."
"Many years later, acetate discs of 29 of the shows were discovered in Lloyd's home, and they now circulate among old-time radio collectors.","ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ 29 ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵊⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ, ⵖⵉⵍⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵖⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴷⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ."
"He was a Past Potentate of Al-Malaikah Shrine in Los Angeles, and was eventually selected as Imperial Potentate of the Shriners of North America for the year 1949–50.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵇⴷⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍ-ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⴽⴰ ⵖ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⴳ ⴰⵍⴱⴰⴹ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵖ ⵉⵎⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵖ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1949-50."
"Lloyd was invested with the Rank and Decoration of Knight Commander Court of Honour in 1955 and coroneted an Inspector General Honorary, 33°, in 1965.","ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵣⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⴼ ⵓⵏⵓⵔ ⵖ 1955 ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴱⵉⵜⵓⵔ ⵊⵉⵏⵉⵔⴰⵍ, 33°, ⵖ 1965."
"It said, as first step, Lloyd will write the story of his life for Simon and Schuster.","ⵏⵏⴰⵏ, ⵖ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵙⴰⵢⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵓⵙⵜⵔ."
"He became known for his nude photographs of models, such as Bettie Page and stripper Dixie Evans, for a number of men's magazines.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏⵏⵙ ⵄⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵄⴰⵔⵉⴷⴰⵜ, ⵣⵓⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⵃⴰⵢⵊ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⴼⴰⵏⵣ, ⵉ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ."
"""We never intended them to be played with pianos.""""""","""ⵓⵔ ⵊⵊⵓ ⵏⵎⵎⴻⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵢⴰⵏⵓ."""""""
"""They've come close to it, but they haven't come all the way up"""".""","""ⵇⵔⵔⴱⵏⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵓⵔ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ""""."""
"In the early 1960s, Lloyd produced two compilation films, featuring scenes from his old comedies, Harold Lloyd's World of Comedy and The Funny Side of Life.","ⵖ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 1960, ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ, ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⴷⵉⵎⵏ, ⵀⴰⵔⵍⴷ ⵍⵓⵢⴷⵙ ⵡⵓⵔⵍⴷ ⵓⴼ ⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴼⴰⵏⵏⵉ ⵙⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⴼ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ."
"Time-Life released several of the feature films more or less intact, also using some of Scharf's scores which had been commissioned by Lloyd.","ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵔⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵎ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ, ⵜⵙⵎⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵣⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ."
"The Brownlow and Gill documentary was shown as part of the PBS series American Masters, and created a renewed interest in Lloyd's work in the United States, but the films were largely unavailable.","ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵎⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵍⵓ ⴷ ⴳⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴹⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ PBS ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵜⵔⵣ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ."
"""They also adopted Gloria Freeman (1924–1986) in September 1930, whom they renamed Marjorie Elizabeth Lloyd but was known as """"Peggy"""" for most of her life.""","“ⵙⵙⴳⵎⵏ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳⵍⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⴼⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ (1924 - 1986) ⵖ ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1930, ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵊⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ “”ⴱⵉⴳⴳⵉ”” ⵖ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜⵏⵙ.”"
"Davis died from a heart attack in 1969, two years before Lloyd's death.","ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵙⵜ ⵏⵓⵍⵍ ⵖ 1969, ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⵎⵎⵜ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ."
"In 1925, at the height of his movie career, Lloyd entered into Freemasonry at the Alexander Hamilton Lodge No.","ⵖ 1925, ⵖ ⵓⵅⵛⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⵉⵜⵏⵙ, ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵖ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⵀⴰⵎⵉⵍⵜⵓⵏ ⵍⵓⴷⵊ."
"In 1926, he became a 32° Scottish Rite Mason in the Valley of Los Angeles, California.","ⵖ 1926, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵏ 32° ⵖ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵉⵍⵉⵙ, ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ."
A portion of Lloyd's personal inventory of his silent films (then estimated to be worth $2 million) was destroyed in August 1943 when his film vault caught fire.,ⵔⴷⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵖ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⵃⵉⵙⵙⵉⵢⵏ (ⵉⵇⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵙ 2 ⵎⵍⵜⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ) ⵖ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1943 ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵓⵎⵣ ⴰⴼⴰ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵣⵇⵇⴰⵏⵙ.
The fire spared the main house and outbuildings.,ⵜⵣⵣⵓⵣⵔ ⴰⴼⴰ ⵖ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵍⵊⵏⵙ.
Lloyd was honored in 1960 for his contribution to motion pictures with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 1503 Vine Street.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵍⵓⵢⴷ ⵖ 1960 ⴼ ⵜⴰⴱⵣⴰⵔⵜⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵖ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴽ ⵓⴼ ⴼⵉⵢⵎ ⵖ 1503 ⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵜ.
"The second citation was a snub to Chaplin, who at that point had fallen foul of McCarthyism and had his entry visa to the United States revoked.","ⴰⴱⴷⴰⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴹⵏⴰⵥ ⵉ ⵛⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵊⵎⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵉⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⵍ ⴼⵉⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ."
"Gladys Marie Smith (April 8, 1892 – May 29, 1979), known professionally as Mary Pickford, was a Canadian-American film actress and producer with a career that spanned five decades.","ⴳⵍⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⵉ ⵙⵎⵉⵜ (ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 8 ⵉⴱⵔⵉⵔ, 1892 – ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 29 ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ, 1979), ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴼⴰⵢⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Her father, John Charles Smith was the son of English Methodist immigrants, and worked a variety of odd jobs.","ⵉⵅⴷⵎ ⵉⴱⴱⴰⵙ, ⵊoⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⵍⵉⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵓⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖ ⵉⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"To please her husband's relatives, Pickford's mother baptized her children as Methodists, the religion of their father.","ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵜⵜⴽⵔ ⵍⵅⴰⵟⵕ ⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏⵙ, ⵜⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰⵏⵙ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜoⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⵇⴳⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⴰⵜⵙⵏ."
"Gladys, her mother and two younger siblings toured the United States by rail, performing in third-rate companies and plays.","ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵣⵣ ⴳⴰⵍⴷⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵖ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢ, ⵉⵔⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵙⵙ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ."
"Gladys finally landed a supporting role in a 1907 Broadway play, The Warrens of Virginia.","ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⴳⵍⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ 1907 ⵖ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⵉⵏⵣ ⵓⴼ ⴼⵉⵔⴳⵉⵏⵉⴰ."
"After completing the Broadway run and touring the play, however, Pickford was again out of work.","ⵎⴰⵛ, ⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⴽⵀⴷⵎⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⴽⵎⵎ ⵖ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ."
She quickly grasped that movie acting was simpler than the stylized stage acting of the day.,ⵜⵔⵎⵙ ⴷⴳⵢⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵢⵓⴼ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ.
"As Pickford said of her success at Biograph:I played scrubwomen and secretaries and women of all nationalities ... I decided that if I could get into as many pictures as possible, I'd become known, and there would be a demand for my work.","ⵣⵓⴷ ⵎⴰⵖ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏⵙ: ⵉⵔⴰⵔⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴰⵕ... ⵖⵜⵜⵉⵙⵖ ⵉⵖ ⵙⴽⵔⵖ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⵉⵙⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓ."
"In January 1910, Pickford traveled with a Biograph crew to Los Angeles.","ⵖ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ ⵏ 1910, ⵜⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⵙ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵉⵙ."
Actors were not listed in the credits in Griffith's company.,ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⴱⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵙⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵉⴼⵉⵜ.
Pickford left Biograph in December 1910.,ⵉⴼⵍ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴱⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⵖ ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1910.
She returned to Broadway in the David Belasco production of A Good Little Devil (1912).,ⵜⵓⵔⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴰⵙⴽⵓ ⴰ ⴳⵓⴷ ⵍⵉⵜⵍ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵍ (1912).
"In 1913, she decided to work exclusively in film.","ⵖ 1913, ⵜⵖⵜⵉⵙ ⴰⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⴽⴰ."
Pickford left the stage to join Zukor's roster of stars.,ⵉⴼⵍ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵓⴽⵓⵔ.
"Comedy-dramas, such as In the Bishop's Carriage (1913), Caprice (1913), and especially Hearts Adrift (1914), made her irresistible to moviegoers.","ⵉⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴰⵜⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴷⵔⴰⵎⴰ ⵣⵓⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⴱⵉⵛⵓⴱ ⴽⴰⵔⵢⴰⵊ (1913), ⴽⴰⴱⵔⵉⵛ (1913), ⴷ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵀⴰⵔⵜⵙ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⴼⵜ (1914)."
Tess of the Storm Country was released five weeks later.,ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵓⴼ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵓⵔⵎ ⴽⵓⵏⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵏ.
"Only Charlie Chaplin, who slightly surpassed Pickford's popularity in 1916, had a similarly spellbinding pull with critics and the audience.","ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵉ ⵛⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵃⴷⵓⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⴳⴳⵯⵔⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵖ ⵓⵏⴳⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵖ 1916, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ."
She also became vice-president of Pickford Film Corporation.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴽⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⵉⵛⵏ.
"Due to her lack of a normal childhood, she enjoyed making these pictures.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵟⵓⴼⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵃⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⵔⴽⵙ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ."
"In August 1918, Pickford's contract expired and, when refusing Zukor's terms for a renewal, she was offered $250,000 to leave the motion picture business.","ⵖ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1918, ⵜⵙⵇⴹⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⵍⵍⵉF ⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵓⴽⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ $250,000 ⴱⴰⵛ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ."
"Through United Artists, Pickford continued to produce and perform in her own movies; she could also distribute them as she chose.","ⵖ ⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵜⵉⴷ ⴰⵕⵜⵉⵙⵜⵙ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍⴷ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵖ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎⵏⵙ; ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⵜⵏ ⵜⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵙⴳⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵕⴰ."
"""During this period, she also made Little Annie Rooney (1925), another film in which Pickford played a child, Sparrows (1926), which blended the Dickensian with newly minted German expressionist style, and My Best Girl (1927), a romantic comedy featuring her future husband Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers.""","“ⵖ ⵓⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⵙⵓⵎⴼⵓⵖⴷ ⵜⵙⵍⵍⵡⵉⴷ ⵍⵉⵜⵍ ⴰⵏⵉ ⵔⵓⵏⵉ (1925), ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵙⵉⵔⵜ, ⵙⴱⴰⵔⵔⵓⵣ (1926), ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵄⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢ ⴱⵉⵙⵜ ⴳⵔⵍ (1927), ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ “”ⴱⵓⴷⵉ”” ⵔⵄⴳⵔⵣ.”"
"She played a reckless socialite in Coquette (1929), her first talkie, a role for which her famous ringlets were cut into a 1920s' bob.","ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵉⵛⵓⵃⵜ ⵖ ⴽⵓⴽⵉⵜ (1929), ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⴱⴱⵉ ⵉⴱⴱⵄⵓⵢⵏⵙ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵜⵍⴰⵍⵜⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏ 1920."
The public failed to respond to her in the more sophisticated roles.,ⵓⵔⵜⵜⵉⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵀⵢⴰⵔⵏ.
Established Hollywood actors were panicked by the impending arrival of the talkies.,ⵎⵏⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵡⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴼⵍⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ.
She retired from film acting in 1933 following three costly failures with her last film appearance being Secrets.,ⵜⵜⵡⵡⵃⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵖ 1933 ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵚⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⴽⵔⵉⵜⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵍⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ.
"During World War I she promoted the sale of Liberty Bonds, making an intensive series of fund-raising speeches, beginning in Washington, D.C., where she sold bonds alongside Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Theda Bara, and Marie Dressler.","ⴳ ⴰⵎⴽⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵛⵛⵍⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵜⵣⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵛⵉⵏⵟⵓⵏ, ⴷ. ⵙ. ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵜⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵛⵛⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵉ ⵛⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴷⵓⴳⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏⴽⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰ ⴱⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴷⵔⵉⵙⵍⵔ."
"In a single speech in Chicago, she sold an estimated five million dollars' worth of bonds.","ⵜⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵛⵛⵍⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡ."
"At the end of World War I, Pickford conceived of the Motion Picture Relief Fund, an organization to help financially needy actors.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⴽⵎⵎⵍ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕ ⴰⴼⵏⵉⵇ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴳⴷⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵅⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵕⴼ."
"As a result, in 1940, the Fund was able to purchase land and build the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital, in Woodland Hills, California.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1940, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⵏⵉⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵀⵉⵍⵍ, ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ."
"She demanded (and received) these powers in 1916, when she was under contract to Zukor's Famous Players in Famous Plays (later Paramount).","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔ (ⵜⴰⵎⵥ) ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1916, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⵏⴰⵄ ⵏ ⵣⵓⴽⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵏⴰⵄ (ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵡⵏⵜ)."
The Mary Pickford Corporation was briefly Pickford's motion-picture production company.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵉ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⴽⵓⵔⴱⵓⵔⴰⵜⵢⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ.
Distributors (also part of the studios) arranged for company productions to be shown in the company's movie venues.,ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ( ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵇⵛⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ) ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ.
"It was solely a distribution company, offering independent film producers access to its own screens as well as the rental of temporarily unbooked cinemas owned by other companies.","ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴽⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"As a co-founder, as well as the producer and star of her own films, Pickford became the most powerful woman who has ever worked in Hollywood.","ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ."
She and Chaplin remained partners in the company for decades.,ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵛⴰⴱⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.
It is rumored she became pregnant by Moore in the early 1910s and had a miscarriage or an abortion.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵎⵓⵕ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ 1910 ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵉ.
The couple lived together on-and-off for several years.,ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.
"Around this time, Pickford also suffered from the flu during the 1918 flu pandemic.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵢⵓⴹⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵓⵡⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵓⵡⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1918."
They went to Europe for their honeymoon; fans in London and in Paris caused riots trying to get to the famous couple.,ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵎⵜ; ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ.
Pickford continued to epitomize the virtuous but fiery girl next door.,ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵎ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⴹⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ.
"Foreign heads of state and dignitaries who visited the White House often asked if they could also visit Pickfair, the couple's mansion in Beverly Hills.","ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⴽⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⴰⵢⵔ, ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵉⴼⵉⵔⵍⵢ ⵀⴰⵢⵍⵣ."
"Other guests included George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, H. G. Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler, Amelia Earhart, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Noël Coward, Max Reinhardt, Baron Nishi, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, Sir Harry Lauder, and Meher Baba, among others.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴱⴳⵉⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴱⵉⵕⵏⴰⵔ ⵛⵓ, ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵓⵕ ⵊⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⵍⵕ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵛ ⵊⵉ ⵡⵉⵍⵥ, ⴷ ⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⵎⴰⵡⵏⵜⴱⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⵜⵣ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵍⵉⵔ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵉⵔⵉⵀⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴼ ⵙⴽⵓⵜ ⴼⵉⵜⵣ ⵊⵉⵕⴰⵍⴷ, ⴷ ⵏⵡⵉⵍ ⴽⵡⴰⵕⴷ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⴽⵙ ⵔⵉⵏⵀⴰⵕⵜⴷ, ⴷ ⴱⴰⵕⵓⵏ ⵏⵉⵛⵉ, ⴷ ⴼⵍⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⵏⵉⵎⵉⵕⵓⴼⵉⵜⵛ ⴷⴰⵏⵜⵛⵉⵏⴽⵓ, ⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵉⵕ ⴰⵕⵜⵔ ⴽⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⵡⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵎⴱⵕⵍⵉⵏ , ⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵉⵔ ⵀⴰⵕⵉ ⵍⵓⵕⴷ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵀⵉⵕ ⴱⴰⴱⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"They were also constantly on display as America's unofficial ambassadors to the world, leading parades, cutting ribbons, and making speeches.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵇⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵉⴼⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"They divorced January 10, 1936.",ⵎⵢⴰⵕⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ 10 ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 1936.
"She criticized their physical imperfections, including Ronnie's small stature and Roxanne's crooked teeth.","ⵜⵓⵥⵎ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵏⵉ ⵉⵍⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵖⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵕⵓⴽⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵏⴹⵏ."
"Her siblings, Lottie and Jack, both died of alcohol-related causes in 1936 and 1933, respectively.","ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ,ⵍⵓⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵊⴰⴽ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1936 ⴷ 1933 ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ."
"Pickford withdrew and gradually became a recluse, remaining almost entirely at Pickfair and allowing visits only from Lillian Gish, her stepson Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and few other people.","ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴷⴷⵉⵔⵣ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⵜⵃⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴳ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⴰⵢⵕ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵊⵉ ⵉⵔⴼⴰⵣⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵍⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵛ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵓⴳⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏⴽⵙ ⵊⵓⵏⵢⵓⵕ., ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"She appeared in court in 1959, in a matter pertaining to her co-ownership of North Carolina TV station WSJS-TV.","ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1959, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵣⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵓⵍⵉⵏⴰ WSJS-TV."
"""Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers often gave guests tours of Pickfair, including views of a genuine western bar Pickford had bought for Douglas Fairbanks, and a portrait of Pickford in the drawing room.""","ⵛⴰⵕⵍ """"Buddy"""" ⵕⵓⵊⵉⵕ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⴰⵉⵕ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴱⴳⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵃⴰⵏⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉ ⴷⵓⴳⵍⴰⵙ ⴼⴰⵢⵕⴱⴰⵏⴽⵙ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ."
"She also owned a house in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.","ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⵏⵜⵓ, ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ, ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ."
"Her handprints and footprints are displayed at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵜⵕ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ, ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ."
The Mary Pickford Theater at the James Madison Memorial Building of the Library of Congress is named in her honor.,ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵉ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵏⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"A first-run movie theatre in Cathedral City, California is called The Mary Pickford Theatre, which was established on May 25, 2001.","ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ, ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵉ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⴳ 25 ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 2001."
"Among them are a rare and spectacular beaded gown she wore in the film Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (1924) designed by Mitchell Leisen, her special Oscar, and a jewelry box.","ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⴱⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵍⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (1924) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⴳⴳⵯⵙ ⵎⵉⵜⵛⵉⵍ ⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵏⵉⵇ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵓⵣⴰⴼ."
"The family home had been demolished in 1943, and many of the bricks delivered to Pickford in California.","ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1943, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ."
"In 1993, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to her.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1993, ⵙⵔⵉⵣⵣⴼⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵎ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⴳ."
"From January 2011 until July 2011, the Toronto International Film Festival exhibited a collection of Mary Pickford memorabilia in the Canadian Film Gallery of the TIFF Bell LightBox building.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2011 ⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓⵣ 2011, ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⵏⵜⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵉ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ TIFF Bell LightBox."
It was donated to Keene State College and is currently undergoing restoration by the Library of Congress for exhibition.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵏⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴼⵙⵔⵏ.
"The Google Doodle of April 8, 2017 commemorated Mary Pickford's 125th birthday.",ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵓⴳⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ 8 ⵉⴱⵔⵉⵔ 2017 ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵉ ⴱⵉⴽⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 125.
"Gloria Josephine May Swanson (March 27, 1899 – April 4, 1983) was an American actress, producer, and businesswoman.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⴳⵍⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⵊⵉⵣⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵢ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ( 27 ⵎⴰⵕⵚ 1899 - 4 ⵉⴱⵔⵉⵔ 1983) ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
Her schoolgirl crush on Essanay Studios actor Francis X. Bushman led to her aunt taking her to tour the actor's Chicago studio.,ⵜⵎⵣⵉ ⵜⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ X. ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴱⵓⵛⵎⴰⵏ ⵄⵜⵜⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵛⵉⴽⴰⴳⵓ.
"Her sound film debut performance in the 1929 The Trespasser, earned her a second Academy Award nomination.",ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ The Trespasser ⴳ 1929 ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.
"Her father was a Swedish American and her mother was of German, French, and Polish ancestry.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⵜⴳ ⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢ.
"In either version, she was soon hired as an extra.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢⵜ."
"Her first role was a brief walk-on with actress Gerda Holmes, that paid an enormous (in those days) $3.25.","ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵊⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵀⵓⵍⵎⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵎ (ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ) “3.25 ⵏⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ."
"In 1915, she co-starred in Sweedie Goes to College with her future first husband Wallace Beery.","ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1915, ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵚ ⴱⵉⵔⵉ."
Vernon and Swanson projected a great screen chemistry that proved popular with audiences.,ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴼⵉⵔⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵏ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ.
Badger was sufficiently impressed by Swanson to recommend her to the director Jack Conway for Her Decision and You Can't Believe Everything in 1918.,ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎ ⴱⴰⴷⵊⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⵍⴼ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵊⴰⴽ ⴽⵓⵏⵡⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴳⵍⵓⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵛⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1918.
"1920), Something to Think About (1920), and The Affairs of Anatol (1921) soon followed.","(1920), ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ (1920), ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴷⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵟⵓⵍ (1921)."
"He had become a star in 1921 for his appearance in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, but Swanson had known him since his days as an aspiring actor getting small parts, with no seeming hope for his professional future.","ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1921 ⵙ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵔⴳⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵔⵓⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏ."
Filming was allowed for the first time at many of the historic sites relating to Napoleon.,ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵢⵓⵏ.
"At the time, Swanson was considered the most bankable star of her era.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"The production was a disaster, with Parker being indecisive and the actors not experienced enough to deliver the performances she wanted.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜ, ⵉⴷⵖ ⵜⵔⴽⴻⴽ ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵔⴰ."
"The members took further steps by registering their discontent with Will H. Hays, Chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America.",ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵍⵍ H. ⵀⴰⵢⵙ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.
"Hays was enthusiastic about the basic story, but did have specific issues that were dealt with before the film's release.","ⵉⵚⵚⵓⴱ ⵀⴰⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵖ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ."
He proposed to personally bankroll her next picture and conducted a thorough examination of her financial records.,ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵏ.
"Kennedy, however, advised her to hire Erich von Stroheim to direct another silent film, The Swamp, subsequently retitled Queen Kelly.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵉⵙⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵜⵜ ⴽⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⴼⵓⵏ ⵙⵜⵕⵓⵀⴰⵢⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⵎⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ ⴽⵉⵍⵉ."
Stroheim worked for several months on writing the basic script.,ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵕⵓⵀⴰⵢⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵕⵢⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.
"Shooting was shut down in January, and Stroheim fired, after complaints by Swanson about him and about the general direction the film was taking.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ, ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵙⵜⵕⵓⵀⴰⵢⵎ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵏⵓⵔⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ."
"The Trespasser in 1929 was a sound production, and garnered Swanson her second Oscar nomination.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ The Trespasser ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1929, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
"The world premiere was held in London, the first American sound production to do so.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵕⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ."
"Perfect Understanding, a 1933 sound production comedy, was the only film produced by this company.","ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴹⵚⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵕⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1933, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ."
She began appearing in stage productions and starred in The Gloria Swanson Hour on WPIX-TV in 1948.,ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵍⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ WPIX-TV ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1948.
"The storyline of the film follows a faded silent movie actress Norma Desmond (Swanson), in love with a failed screenwriter Joe Gillis (William Holden).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⴽⴼⵜ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰ ⴷⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⴷ (ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ), ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵓⴼ ⵊⵓ ⴳⵉⵍⵉⵙ (ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵀⵓⵍⴷⵏ)."
"""Norma plays a card game of bridge with a group of actors also known as """"the Waxworks"""".""","ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴳⴳⵯⵉⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ """"ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵇⵇⵉⵙ""""."""
"Norma dreams of a comeback are subverted, and when Gillis tries to break up with her, she threatens to kill herself, but instead kills him.","ⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵔⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵜⴱⴹⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⵉⴷⴷⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰ."
"Although Swanson had objected to enduring a screen test for the film, she had been glad to be making much more money than she had been in television and on stage.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⴳⵉ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵎⴷⵣ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ."
"Swanson later hosted Crown Theatre with Gloria Swanson, a television anthology series in which she occasionally acted.","ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵓⵡⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴳⵍⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
"""She was the """"mystery guest"""" on What's My Line.""","""ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ """" ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴳⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⵏⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ"""" ⵡⴰⵜⵣ ⵎⴰⵢ ⵍⴰⵢⵏ."""
"She made a notable appearance in a 1966 episode of The Beverly Hillbillies, in which she plays herself.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵓⴼⵔⵍⵢ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1966, ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Actor and playwright Harold J. Kennedy, who had learned the ropes at Yale and with Orson Wells' Mercury Theatre, suggested Swanson do a road tour of """"Reflected Glory"""", a comedy that had run on the Broadway stage with Tallulah Bankhead as its star.""","""ⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵕⵓⵍⴷ ⵊ. ⴽⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵙⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⵓⵔⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⴳ """"ⵔⵉⴼⵍⵉⴽⵜ ⴳⵍⵓⵕⵉ"""", ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⴽⵀⵉⴷ. """
"After her success with Sunset Boulevard, she starred on Broadway in a revival of Twentieth Century with José Ferrer, and in Nina with David Niven.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵓⵡⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵣⵉ ⴼⵉⵔⵔⵉⵔ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵏⵉⵏⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵖⵉⴷ ⵏⵉⴼⵏ."
As a Republican she supported the 1940 and 1944 campaigns for president of Wendell Willkie and the 1964 presidential campaign of Barry Goldwater.,"ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ 1940 ⴷ 1944 ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⴹⵍ ⵡⵉⵏⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴱⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⴳⵓⵍⴷⵡⴰⵜⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964."
"Taking medication given to her by Beery, purported to be for morning sickness, she aborted the fetus and was taken unconscious to the hospital.","ⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵜⵙⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ."
"In 1923, she adopted 1-year-old Sonny Smith, whom she renamed Joseph Patrick Swanson after her father.","ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1923, ⵜⵓⵙⵉ ⵚⵓⵏⵉ ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ 1 ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⴱⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ."
"She had conceived a child with him before her divorce from Somborn was final, a situation that would have led to a public scandal and possible end of her film career.","ⵜⵓⵙⵉ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵎⴱⵓⵔⵏ, ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ."
"Following a four-month recuperation from her abortion, they returned to the United States as European nobility.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵟⵕⵕⵃⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
He became a film executive representing Pathé (USA) in France.,ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵉ (USA) ⴳ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵚⴰ.
"""Swanson described herself as a """"mental vampire"""", someone with a searching curiosity about how things worked, and who pursued the possibilities of turning those ideas into reality.""","""ⵜⴳⵍⵎ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ"""", ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵡⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ."
They met by chance in Paris when Swanson was being fitted by Coco Chanel for her 1931 film Tonight or Never.,ⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵙⴰ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⴽⵓ ⵛⴰⵏⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴹ ⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1931.
"Her friends, some of whom openly disliked him, thought she was making a mistake.","ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵃⵎⵉⵍⵏ, ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ."
"Swanson had initially thought she was going to be able to retire from acting, but the marriage was troubled by Davey's alcoholism from the start.","ⵜⵖⴰⵍ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵡⵍ ⵉⵔⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⴼⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"He was the co-author (ghostwriter) of Billie Holiday's autobiography Lady Sings the Blues, the author of Sugar Blues, a 1975 best-selling health book still in print, and the author of the English version of Georges Ohsawa's You Are All Sanpaku.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ (ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔ) ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵍⵉ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⴷⴰⵢⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⴷⵉ ⵙⵉⵏⴳⵣ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵍⵓⵣ, ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵛⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⴱⵍⵓⵣ, ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵣⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ 1975 ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴼⴼⵖ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⴱⴰⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰ."
Swanson and her husband first got to know John Lennon and Yoko Ono because they were fans of Dufty's work.,ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴽⵓ ⵓⵏⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵓⴼⵜⵉ.
"She was cremated and her ashes interred at the Episcopal Church of the Heavenly Rest on Fifth Avenue in New York City, attended by only a small circle of family.","ⵙⵖⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵀⵀⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⴽ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"In 1974, Swanson was one of the honorees of the first Telluride Film Festival.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⵍⵓⵕⴰⵢⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ."
"Due to the erotic nature of her performances, Nielsen's films were censored in the United States, and her work remained relatively obscure to American audiences.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵄⴰⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵙⵍⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ."
Nielsen's family moved several times during her childhood while her father sought employment.,ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
Nielsen's father died when she was fourteen years old.,ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
"In 1901, 21-year-old Nielsen became pregnant and gave birth to a daughter, Jesta.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1901, ⵜⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ 21 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⴰⵜ, ⵊⵉⵙⵜⴰ."
Nielsen graduated from the Theater school in 1902.,ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1902.
Nielsen's minimalist acting style was evidenced in her successful portrayal of a naive young woman lured into a tragic life.,ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵊⴰⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴹⵎⵄⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵅⵓⴱ.
"Nielsen and Gad married, then made four more films together.","ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⴷ, ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
I realised that the age of short film was past.,ⵙⵙⵏⵖ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⴰⵍ.
It was international film sales that provided Union with eight Nielsen films per year.,ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
"""I used every available means – and devised many new ones – in order to bring the Asta Nielsen films to the world.""""""","""ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵖ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ – ⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ – ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵖ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."""""""
"In a Russian popularity poll of 1911, Nielsen was voted the world's top female movie star, behind Linder and ahead of her Danish compatriot Valdemar Psilander.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1911, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⵔ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴼⴰⵍⴷⵉⵎⴰⵔ ⴱⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⵔ."
"In 1921, Nielsen, through her own film distribution company of Asta Films, appeared in the Svend Gade and Heinz Schall directed Hamlet.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1921, ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⵟⴰ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵣ, ⵜⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵙⵉⴼⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏⵣ ⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵙⵙⴷⵔⵓ ⵀⴰⵎⵍⵜ."
"However, scholarly works such as the authoritative filmography published by Filmarchiv Austria in 2010 make no mention of such a film.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⴰⵔⵛⵉⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⴳ 2010 ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴷ."
She worked in German films until the start of sound movies.,ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵕⴹⴰⵏⵏ.
"Thereafter, Nielsen acted only on stage.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ."
"Understanding the implications, Nielsen declined and left Germany in 1936.","ⴳ ⵜⵔⵎⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⵓⴳⵉ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⵢⴼⴼⵖ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1936."
They were divorced by 1919 when Nielsen married the Swedish shipbuilder Freddy Windgårdh.,ⵎⵢⴰⵕⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1919 ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⴰⵀⵍ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵚⴽⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓⵜⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⴷⴳⴰⵕⴷ.
They began a long-term common-law marriage that lasted from 1923 until the late 1930s.,ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵍ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵙⴳ 1923 ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 1930.
"Fred Astaire (born Frederick Austerlitz; May 10, 1899 – June 22, 1987) was an American dancer, actor, singer, choreographer, and television presenter.","ⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ (ⵉⵍⵓⵍ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵓⵙⵜⵉⵔⵍⵉⵜⵣ; 10 ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 1899 – 22 ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 1987) ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ, ⴰⵙⴽⴱⴰⵕ, ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵊ, ⴰⴽⵓⵕⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ."
"He starred in more than 10 Broadway and West End musicals, made 31 musical films, four television specials, and numerous recordings.","ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 10 ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵏⴷ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ 31 ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵢⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⵉⵎⵏ."
Astaire's mother was born in the US to Lutheran German immigrants from East Prussia and Alsace.,ⵜⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴳ US ⵙⴳ ⵍⵓⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵚ.
"Fritz was seeking work in the brewing trade and moved to Omaha, Nebraska, where he was employed by the Storz Brewing Company.","ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⴼⵔⵉⵜⵣ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵀⴰ, ⵏⵉⴱⵔⴰⵙⴽⴰ, ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵕⵣ ⴱⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""Johanna planned a """"brother and sister act"""", common in vaudeville at the time, for her two children.""","""ⵜⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵊⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉ """"ⵓⴳⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵍⵜⵎⴰ"""", ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵓⴷⴼⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ."
They began training at the Alviene Master School of the Theatre and Academy of Cultural Arts.,ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵍⴼⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵜⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"They were taught dance, speaking, and singing in preparation for developing an act.",ⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔⴽⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵏⵏⵊ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⴱⵕ.
"In an interview, Astaire's daughter, Ava Astaire McKenzie, observed that they often put Fred in a top hat to make him look taller.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⴰⵢ, ⵜⴰⵔⴱⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔⵣ, ⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵣⵉ, ⵜⵖⴹⴼ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵛⴰⵛⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵣⵉⴼ."
"As a result of their father's salesmanship, Fred and Adele landed a major contract and played the Orpheum Circuit in the Midwest, Western and some Southern cities in the US.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵏⵣ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴼⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵎⵉⴷⵡⵉⵙⵜ, ⵡⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ US."
"In 1912, Fred became an Episcopalian.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1912, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"From vaudeville dancer Aurelio Coccia, they learned the tango, waltz, and other ballroom dances popularized by Vernon and Irene Castle.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴷⴼⵉⵍ ⵓⵕⵉⵍⵢⵓ ⴽⵓⴽⵉⵢⴰ, ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵉⵕⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⴳⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵕⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵍ."
"He first met George Gershwin, who was working as a song plugger for Jerome H. Remick's music publishing company, in 1916.","ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴳⵉⵔⵛⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵏⵏⵊ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵊⵉⵕⵓⵎ H. ⵔⵉⵎⵉⴽⵙ, ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1916."
"""Of their work in The Passing Show of 1918, Heywood Broun wrote: """"In an evening in which there was an abundance of good dancing, Fred Astaire stood out ... He and his partner, Adele Astaire, made the show pause early in the evening with a beautiful loose-limbed dance.""""""","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴷⵓ ⴱⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵡ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1918, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵀⵉⵢⵡⵓⴷ ⴱⵕⵓⵏ: """"ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ... ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ, ⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴳⵯⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
"But by this time, Astaire's dancing skill was beginning to outshine his sister's.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⵓⵍⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴹ."
Astaire's tap dancing was recognized by then as among the best.,ⵇⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏ.
"After the close of Funny Face, the Astaires went to Hollywood for a screen test (now lost) at Paramount Pictures, but Paramount deemed them unsuitable for films.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴼⴰⵏⵉ ⴼⴰⵢⵙ, ⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ (ⵉⵊⵍⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ) ⴳ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴱⵉⴽⵜⵛⵓⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ."
The end of the partnership was traumatic for Astaire but stimulated him to expand his range.,ⵓⵔ ⵜⵃⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⴽⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
They lent him for a few days to MGM in 1933 for his significant Hollywood debut in the successful musical film Dancing Lady.,ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ MGM ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1933 ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵢⴷⵉ.
"""He wrote his agent, """"I don't mind making another picture with her, but as for this 'team' idea, it's 'out!'""","ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, """"ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵢⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷⵉⴷⵙ, ⵉⵎⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ 'ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ', ⵜⴳⴰ 'ⵓⴼⵓⵖ!'"""
"The partnership, and the choreography of Astaire and Hermes Pan, helped make dancing an important element of the Hollywood film musical.","ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵕⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵔⵎⵙ ⴱⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵔⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
Six out of the nine Astaire–Rogers musicals became the biggest moneymakers for RKO; all of the films brought a certain prestige and artistry that all studios coveted at the time.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ–ⵕⵓⵊⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉ RKO; ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
This gave the illusion of an almost stationary camera filming an entire dance in a single shot.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ.
Astaire's style of dance sequences allowed the viewer to follow the dancers and choreography in their entirety.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵉⵎⵕⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵕⴽⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ.
Astaire's second innovation involved the context of the dance; he was adamant that all song and dance routines be integral to the plotlines of the film.,ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵡⵓ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⴹ; ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ.
"""One would be a solo performance by Astaire, which he termed his """"sock solo.""""""","""ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ, ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ """"ⵙⵓⴽ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ."""""""
I think Ginger Rogers was.,ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵊⵉⵏⵊⵔ ⵕⵓⵊⵉⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵖⵉⴽⴰⵏⵏ.
She faked it an awful lot.,ⵜⵔⵡⵉ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵕⴽⴰⴹ.
"In 1976, British talk-show host Sir Michael Parkinson asked Astaire who his favorite dancing partner was on Parkinson.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976, ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵏⵙⵓⵏ."
"Despite their success, Astaire was unwilling to have his career tied exclusively to any partnership.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ."
"Throughout this period, Astaire continued to value the input of choreographic collaborators.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵓⵔⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ."
"""They starred in Broadway Melody of 1940, in which they performed a celebrated extended dance routine to Cole Porter's """"Begin the Beguine.""""""","""ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⵎⵉⵍⵓⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1940, ⴳ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵔⵣ ⴳ """"ⴱⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵉⴳⵉⵏ."""""""
He played alongside Bing Crosby in Holiday Inn (1942) and later Blue Skies (1946).,ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⴳ ⴽⵔⵓⵙⴱⵉ ⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ (1942) ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⵙ ⴱⵍⵓ ⵙⴽⵉⵙ (1946).
"""The latter film featured """"Puttin' On the Ritz"""", an innovative song-and-dance routine indelibly associated with him.""","ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ """"ⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵓ ⵔⴰⵢⵜⵣ"""", ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ."
"The first film, You'll Never Get Rich (1941), catapulted Hayworth to stardom.","ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ (1941), ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵀⴰⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ."
"""It featured a duet to Kern's """"I'm Old Fashioned,"""" which became the centerpiece of Jerome Robbins's 1983 New York City Ballet tribute to Astaire.""","ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵔⵏ """"ⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴷⴼⴰⵛⵢⵓⵏⵉⴷ,"""" ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵕⵓⵎ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵣ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓ ⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵙⵉⵜⵢ ⴱⴰⵍⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1983."
Astaire choreographed this film alone and achieved modest box office success.,ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ.
The fantasy Yolanda and the Thief (1945) featured an avant-garde surrealistic ballet.,ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵅⵅⴰⵔ (1945) ⵉⵙⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵓⴳⵔⴰ.
"Always insecure and believing his career was beginning to falter, Astaire surprised his audiences by announcing his retirement during the production of his next film Blue Skies (1946).","ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵄⴱ ⴰⵢⴷⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⵔⵃ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵍⵓ ⵙⴽⵉⵙ (1946)."
Both of these films revived Astaire's popularity and in 1950 he starred in two musicals.,ⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1950 ⵢⴰⵔⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"While Three Little Words did quite well at the box office, Let's Dance was a financial disappointment.","ⵣⵣⵉⵖ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵉⵜⵙ ⴷⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ."
"But because of its high cost, it failed to make a profit on its first release.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
"Then, his wife Phyllis became ill and suddenly died of lung cancer.",ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⵙⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ.
Daddy Long Legs only did moderately well at the box office.,ⵜⵖⵓⴷⴰ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵜⴼⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ.
"Similarly, Astaire's next project – his final musical at MGM, Silk Stockings (1957), in which he co-starred with Cyd Charisse, also lost money at the box office.","ⵓⵍⴰ, ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ – ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⴳ MGM, ⵙⵉⵍⴽ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵉⵏⴳ (1957), ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵢⴷ ⵛⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⵉⵕⵥⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"""The first of these programs, 1958's An Evening with Fred Astaire, won nine Emmy Awards, including """"Best Single Performance by an Actor"""" and """"Most Outstanding Single Program of the Year.""""""","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ ⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴳ 1958, ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ """"ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ"""" ⴷ """"ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ."""""
"""The choice had a controversial backlash because many believed his dancing in the special was not the type of """"acting"""" for which the award was designed.""","""ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⴽⵕⵉⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵄⴰⴱⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ."""
"They restored the original videotape, transferring its contents to a modern format and filling in gaps where the tape had deteriorated with kinescope footage.","ⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⴷⵢⵓ ⴰⵥⵖⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ."
Astaire appeared in non-dancing roles in three other films and several television series from 1957 to 1969.,ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⴽⴽⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1957 ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1969.
"Astaire's dance partner was Petula Clark, who played his character's skeptical daughter.","ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴱⵉⵜⵓⵍⴰ ⴽⵍⴰⵔⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵛⴽⴰⴽⵜ."
Astaire continued to act in the 1970s.,ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ 1970s.
"In the second compilation, aged seventy-six, he performed brief dance linking sequences with Kelly, his last dance performances in a musical film.","ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵙⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵉ, ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
"In 1978, he co-starred with Helen Hayes in a well received television film A Family Upside Down in which they played an elderly couple coping with failing health.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1978, ⵉⴷⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵀⴰⵢⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰ ⴼⴰⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴱⵙⴰⵢⴷ ⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ."
Astaire asked his agent to obtain a role for him on Galactica because of his grandchildren's interest in the series and the producers were delighted at the opportunity to create an entire episode to feature him.,ⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵍⴰⴽⵜⵉⴽⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⴷⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⵢⵓⵙⵙⵏⵏ.
"""Long after the photography for the solo dance number """"I Want to Be a Dancin' Man"""" was completed for the 1952 feature The Belle of New York, it was decided that Astaire's humble costume and the threadbare stage set were inadequate and the entire sequence was reshot.""","""ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ """"ⵔⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵖ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵕⴽⴰⴹ"""" ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ 1952 ⵜⵉⵎⵃⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵜⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⵣⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵃⵓⵍⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."""
"Frame for frame, the two performances are identical, down to the subtlest gesture.","ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ, ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
His was a uniquely recognizable dance style that greatly influenced the American Smooth style of ballroom dance and set standards against which subsequent film dance musicals would be judged.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵜⵜⵅⵣⵙⵙⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⵎⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.
He notes Astaire's dance style was consistent in subsequent films made with or without the assistance of Pan.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⵖ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"""However, this was almost always confined to the area of extended fantasy sequences, or """"dream ballets"""".""","""ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ """"ⴱⴰⵍⵉ ⴷⵔⵉⵎ""""."""
"""Later in life, he admitted, """"I had to do most of it myself.""""""","""ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ """"""ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵖ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⵓ."""""""
"""Many dance routines were built around a """"gimmick,"""" like dancing on the walls in Royal Wedding or dancing with his shadows in Swing Time.""","""ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⵅⴼ """"ⴳⵉⵎⵎⵉⴽ,"""" ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵕⴽⴽⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵖⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵄⵍⵓⵍⵍ."""
They would work with a rehearsal pianist (often the composer Hal Borne) who in turn would communicate modifications to the musical orchestrators.,ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⵏⵊ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵀⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵕⵏ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ.
"With all the preparation completed, the actual shooting would go quickly, conserving costs.","ⵉⴳ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ."
"""He will not even go to see his rushes... He always thinks he is no good.""""""","""ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵕ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ... ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ."""""""
"Michael Kidd, Astaire's co-choreographer on the 1953 film The Band Wagon, found that his own concern about the emotional motivation behind the dance was not shared by Astaire.","ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴽⵉⴷ, ⴰⵎⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵕⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1953, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⴷⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ."
"""Let's add the looks later.' """"""","""ⴰⴷⵊⴰⵜ ⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⵏ.' """""""
"""Irving Berlin considered Astaire the equal of any male interpreter of his songs—""""as good as Jolson, Crosby or Sinatra, not necessarily because of his voice, but for his conception of projecting a song.""","""ⵉⵙⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵔⴼⵉⵏⴳ ⴱⵉⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ—""""ⵙ ⵜⵕⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵍⵙⵓⵏ, ⴽⵕⵓⵙⴱⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊ."""
"In his heyday, Astaire was referenced in lyrics of songwriters Cole Porter, Lorenz Hart and Eric Maschwitz and continues to inspire modern songwriters.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵔ, ⵍⵓⵕⵏⵣ ⵀⴰⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵛⵡⵉⵜⵣ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ."
"During 1952, Astaire recorded The Astaire Story, a four-volume album with a quintet led by Oscar Peterson.","ⴳ 1952, ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔ,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴱⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⴷⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕ ⵃⵉⵜⵉⵔⵙⵓⵏ."
"Bogart began acting in Broadway shows, beginning his career in motion pictures with Up the River (1930) for Fox and appeared in supporting roles for the next decade, sometimes portraying gangsters.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵢ (1930) ⵉ ⴼⵓⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵔⵜⵜⴰⵍⵏ."
"Bogart's private detectives, Sam Spade (in The Maltese Falcon) and Phillip Marlowe (in 1946's The Big Sleep), became the models for detectives in other noir films.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜⵙ, ⵙⴰⵎ ⵙⴱⴱⵉⴷ (ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵍⴱⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵜⵉⵢ) ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵎⴰⵍⵓⵡ (ⵉⴹⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ 1946), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵢⵕ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Soon after the principal photography for The Big Sleep (1946, their second film together), he filed for divorce from his third wife and married Bacall.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ (ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, 1946), ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵢⴰⵡⵍ ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"He reprised those unsettled, unstable characters as a World War II naval-vessel commander in The Caine Mutiny (1954), which was a critical and commercial hit and earned him another Best Actor nomination.","ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵥⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ II ⴳ ⴰⵖⵡⵡⵖ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵢⵏ (1954), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ."
"""The name """"Bogart"""" derives from the Dutch surname, """"Bogaert"""".""","""ⵉⵙⵎ """"ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ"""" ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵓⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵜ """"ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ""""."""
"Maud was an Episcopalian of English heritage, and a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵀⵀⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴼⵍⵄⵡⵉⵔ ⴱⴰⵙⴰⵏⵊⵉⵔ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⵓⵡⵍⴰⵏⴷ.
"""Clifford McCarty wrote that Warner Bros. publicity department had altered it to January 23, 1900 """"to foster the view that a man born on Christmas Day couldn't really be as villainous as he appeared to be on screen"""".""","ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⵎⴰⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⵙ. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵖⵔ 23 ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ, 1900 """"ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵄⵉⵙⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ""""."""
"Lauren Bacall wrote in her autobiography that Bogart's birthday was always celebrated on Christmas Day, saying that he joked about being cheated out of a present every year.","ⵜⴰⵔⵓ ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵄⵉⵙⴰ, ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵚⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵏⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵣⵣⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"Maud was a commercial illustrator who received her art training in New York and France, including study with James Abbott McNeill Whistler.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎⴽⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⵉⵙⵜⵍⵕ."
"She earned over $50,000 a year at the peak of her career – a very large sum of money at the time, and considerably more than her husband's $20,000.","ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ $50,000 ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ – ⴷ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ $20,000 ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""He had two younger sisters: Frances (""""Pat"""") and Catherine Elizabeth (""""Kay"""").""","""ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ: ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ (""""ⴱⴰⵜ"""") ⴷ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⵉⵜ (""""ⴽⴰⵢ"""")."""
"A kiss, in our family, was an event.","ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏⵏⵖ, ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ."
"He inherited a tendency to needle, a fondness for fishing, a lifelong love of boating, and an attraction to strong-willed women from his father.","ⵉⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⵙⴳ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⴰⵃⴰⵕⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵎⵉ, ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
"Bogart later attended Phillips Academy, a boarding school to which he was admitted based on family connections.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵢⵓⴷⴼ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"Several reasons have been given; according to one, he was expelled for throwing the headmaster (or a groundskeeper) into Rabbit Pond on campus.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ; ⵏⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ, ⵥⵥⵄⵏ ⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⴹⴰⴼ) ⵙ ⴰⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ."
"He then volunteered for the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve in 1944, patrolling the California coastline in his yacht, the Santana.","ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵉⵎⵅⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴹⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵉⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1944, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⴰⵎⴰⵏⵟⴰ."
"In one, his lip was cut by shrapnel when his ship (the ) was shelled.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵓⵛ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵟⵟⵉⵡⵊ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜ ⵓⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"While changing trains in Boston, the handcuffed prisoner reportedly asked Bogart for a cigarette.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵙⵟⵓⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵃⴱⴰⵙ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵉⵕⵕⵓ ⵉ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ."
"By the time Bogart was treated by a doctor, a scar had formed.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵊⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵍ."
"""Instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up.""""""","""ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⴳⵏⵓ, ⵉⵙⵅⵙⵔ ⵜ."""""""
"His character and values developed separately from his family during his navy days, and he began to rebel.","ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵖⵡⵡⵖ."
"Bogart resumed his friendship with Bill Brady Jr. (whose father had show-business connections), and obtained an office job with William A. Brady's new World Films company.","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵓⴽⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵍ ⴱⵕⴰⴷⵉ ⵊⵓⵏⵢⵓⵕ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ), ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ A. ⴱⵕⴰⴷⵉⵙ."
"He made his stage debut a few months later as a Japanese butler in Alice's 1921 play Drifting (nervously delivering one line of dialogue), and appeared in several of her subsequent plays.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵅⴷⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⴷⵔⵉⴼⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1921 (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵄⴰⴼ), ⵜⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"A barroom brawl at this time was also a purported cause of Bogart's lip damage, dovetailing with Louise Brooks' account.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵅⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵓⵛ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⵙ."
"""Bogart disliked his trivial, effeminate early-career parts, calling them """"White Pants Willie"""" roles.""","""ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵎⵉⵍ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵊⴱⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵃⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ """"ⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴱⴰⵏⵜ ⵡⵉⵍⵉ."""""""
"Menken said in her divorce filing that Bogart valued his career more than marriage, citing neglect and abuse.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰ ⵎⵉⵏⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ, ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵏⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⴽⵓ."
"There he met Spencer Tracy, a Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and they became close friends and drinking companions.","ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵙⵔ ⵜⵔⴰⵢⵙⵉ, ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵃⵍⵓ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ, ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵉ."
"Tracy received top billing, but Bogart appeared on the film's posters.","ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵔⴰⵢⵙⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ."
"A quarter of a century later, the two men planned to make The Desperate Hours together.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵔⵔⴱⵄ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜ, ⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵅⵓⴱ."
"Bogart shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and the New York stage from 1930 to 1935, out of work for long periods.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1930 ⴰⵔ 1935, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"""Although Leslie Howard was the star, The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson said that the play was """"a peach ... a roaring Western melodrama ... Humphrey Bogart does the best work of his career as an actor.""""""","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵍⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⵀⵄⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⴰⵅⵓⵅ ... ⴰⵎⵉⵍⵓⴷⵔⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵢⵢⵓⵏ ... ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵀⵓⵎⴼⵔⵉ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
Warner Bros. bought the screen rights to The Petrified Forest in 1935.,ⵜⵙⵖⴰ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1935.
"Howard, who held the production rights, made it clear that he wanted Bogart to star with him.","ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵔⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ."
"When Warner Bros. saw that Howard would not budge, they gave in and cast Bogart.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵔⵣ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵖ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵔⴷ, ⵔⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴳⵔⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ."
"""According to Variety, """"Bogart's menace leaves nothing wanting"""".""","""ⵏⵉⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⵢⵉⵜⵉ, """"ⴰⵙⴷⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵔⵉ""""."""
"There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face—something that antagonizes everybody.","ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ ⵉⵏⵓ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⴳⵕ—ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
"In spite of his success, Warner Bros. had no interest in raising Bogart's profile.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ, ⵡⴰⵔⵏⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵔⵣ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ."
"Bogart used these years to begin developing his film persona: a wounded, stoical, cynical, charming, vulnerable, self-mocking loner with a code of honor.","ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴷ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ: ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵙ, ⴰⵔⵉⵡⴰⵇⵉⵢ, ⴰⵎⵟⵏⴰⵥ, ⴰⴳⵣⵣⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ, ⵉⵟⵟⵏⴰⵥ ⴳ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ."
His disputes with Warner Bros. over roles and money were similar to those waged by the studio with more established and less malleable stars such as Bette Davis and James Cagney.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵔⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴱⵉⵜⵜ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ.
"His only leading role during this period was in Dead End (1937, on loan to Samuel Goldwyn), as a gangster modeled after Baby Face Nelson.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴷⵉⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⴷ (1937, ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⵕ ⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ ⴳⵓⵍⴷⵡⵉⵏ), ⴰⵎ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵢⴱⵉ ⴼⴰⵢⵙ ⵏⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ."
"""In Black Legion (1937), a movie Graham Greene described as """"intelligent and exciting, if rather earnest"""", he played a good man who was caught up with (and destroyed by) a racist organization.""","ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴱⵍⴰⴽ ⵍⵉⴳⵢⵓⵏ (1937), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴳⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎ ⴳⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ """"ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⴳ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵍⴰⵢ"""", ⵢⴰⵔⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⵥⵏ (ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴷ ⵙ) ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ."
"""The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie.""""""","ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵊⵊⵓ."""""""
"On August 21, 1938, Bogart entered a turbulent third marriage to actress Mayo Methot, a lively, friendly woman when sober but paranoid and aggressive when drunk.","ⴳ 21 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1938, ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵡⵍ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⴳⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵢⵓ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵜ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⵜⵃⵏⵓⵏⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵕⵣⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵜⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵔⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵙⵡⴰ."
"She set their house afire, stabbed him with a knife, and slashed her wrists several times.","ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵜⵓⵜⵜ ⵙ ⵍⵎⵓⵙⵙ, ⵜⴱⴱⵉ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ."
"""According to their friend, Julius Epstein, """"The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the Civil War"""".""","ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⴽⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵊⵓⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⴱⵙⵜⵉⵏ, ""ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ""""."""
"Methot's influence was increasingly destructive, however, and Bogart also continued to drink.","ⴽⵓⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⴰⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⵍⵍⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ."
"When he thought an actor, director or studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up publicly about it.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney and Robinson turned down the lead role, giving Bogart the opportunity to play a character with some depth.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴱⵓⵍ ⵎⵓⵏⵉ, ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⵕⴰⴼⵜ, ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵏⴼⵓ."
"He worked well with Ida Lupino, sparking jealousy from Mayo Methot.","ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴰ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵉ ⴰⴽⴰⵢⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵓ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵜ."
"He could quote Plato, Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson and over a thousand lines of Shakespeare, and subscribed to the Harvard Law Review.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ, ⴱⵓⴱ, ⵕⴰⵍⴼ ⵡⴰⵍⴷⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴽⵙⴱⵉⵔ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵀⴰⵔⴼⴰⵔⴷ."
"Based on the Dashiell Hammett novel, it was first serialized in the pulp magazine Black Mask in 1929 and was the basis of two earlier film versions; the second was Satan Met a Lady (1936), starring Bette Davis.","ⴰⵙⵙⵏⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵛⵢⵉⵍ ⵀⴰⵎⵎⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴱⵍⴰⴽ ⵎⴰⵙⴽ ⴳ 1929 ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ; ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵛⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ (1936), ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ⴱⵉⵜⵜ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ."
Huston then eagerly accepted Bogart as his Sam Spade.,ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵀⴰⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴷⴷⵔⴰⴼ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴰⵎ ⵙⵎⵉⴷ.
"The film, directed by Michael Curtiz and produced by Hal Wallis, featured Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson.","ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴽⵉⵔⵜⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⵉⵙ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⴳⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⵔⵉⵢⵏⵙ, ⵙⵉⴷⵏⵉ ⴳⵔⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⴱⵓⵍ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉⴷ, ⴽⵓⵏⵔⴰⴷ ⴼⵉⴷⵜ, ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⵍⵓⵕⵉ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵡⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ."
"Bogart is reported to have been responsible for the notion that Rick Blaine should be portrayed as a chess player, a metaphor for the relationships he maintained with friends, enemies, and allies.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴽ ⴱⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵟⵕⴰⵏⵊ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵡⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵏⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏ."
"Bogart was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost to Paul Lukas for his performance in Watch on the Rhine.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵜ ⴱⵓⵍ ⵍⵓⴽⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵕⴰⵢⵏ."
"Bogart went on United Service Organizations and War Bond tours with Methot in 1943 and 1944, making arduous trips to Italy and North Africa (including Casablanca).","ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵕ ⴱⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵜ ⴳ 1943 ⴷ 1944, ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵉⵇⵢⴰ (ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⴽⴰⵣⴰⴱⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ)."
"""When they met, Bacall was 19 and Bogart 44; he nicknamed her """"Baby.""""""","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ 19 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ 44; ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵖ ⴰⵙ """"ⴱⴰⵢⴱⵉ."""""""
"""We'll have a lot of fun together"""".""","""ⵇⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵕⵛⵇ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵖ""""."""
"By Myself and Then Some, HarperCollins, New York, 2005.","ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵉⵏⵓ ⵄⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵎ, ⵀⴰⵕⴱⵕⴽⵓⵍⵉⵏⵙ, ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ, 2005."
"He considered himself Bacall's protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵅⵙⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"""Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt.""""""","ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵇⴱⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵃⵇⵇⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⵔⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"The dialogue, especially in the added scenes supplied by Hawks, was full of sexual innuendo, and Bogart is convincing as private detective Philip Marlowe.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵀⵓⴽⵙ, ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵥⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴷⴻⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵡ."
"The marriage was a happy one, with tensions due to their differences.","ⵉⵎⴷⵣ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ."
"""According to Bogart's biographer, Stefan Kanfer, it was """"a production line film noir with no particular distinction"""".""","ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵎⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ, ⵙⵜⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴼⵔ, """"ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵓⵢⵕ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ""""."""
"Lacking a love interest or a happy ending, it was considered a risky project.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⴷⵣⵏ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ."
"""James Agee wrote, """"Bogart does a wonderful job with this character ... miles ahead of the very good work he has done before.""""""","ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⴰⵊⵉ, """"ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴷ ... ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵍⵉ."""""""
"Bogart appeared in his final films for Warners, Chain Lightning (1950) and The Enforcer (1951).","ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔⵣ, ⵛⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⴰⵢⵜⵏⵉⵏⴳ (1950) ⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⵓⵕⵙⵔ (1951)."
Santana also made two films without him: And Baby Makes Three (1949) and The Family Secret (1951).,ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜ: ⴱⴰⵢⴱⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵙ ⵜⵔⵉ (1949) ⴷ ⴷⵓ ⴼⴰⵎⵉⵍⵢ ⵙⵓⴽⵔⵉⵜ (1951).
"Several Bogart biographers, and actress-writer Louise Brooks, have felt that this role is closest to the real Bogart.","ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵍⵡⵉⵣ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⵙ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ."
"A parody of sorts of The Maltese Falcon, Beat the Devil was the final film for Bogart and John Huston.","ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⵓ ⴷⵓⴼⵉⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵟⵏⴰⵥ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵟⵉⵢ."
"Huston's love of adventure, his deep, longstanding friendship (and success) with Bogart, and the chance to work with Hepburn convinced the actor to leave Hollywood for a difficult shoot on location in the Belgian Congo.","ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵙⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ (ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ) ⴷ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵀⵉⴱⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵍ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⵊⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ."
"Bacall came for the over-four-month duration, leaving their young son in Los Angeles.","ⵉⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⴼⵍ ⵏⵏ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵓⵙ."
"""She Luxed my undies in darkest Africa.""""""","""ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵉⵙⴳⴱⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵉⵇⵢⴰ."""""""
"Hepburn (a teetotaler) fared worse in the difficult conditions, losing weight and at one point becoming very ill.","ⵀⵉⴱⴱⵓⵕⵏ (ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵥⵓⵎⵜ) ⵜⴽⵔⴼⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴹⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ."
"Despite the discomfort of jumping from the boat into swamps, rivers and marshes, The African Queen apparently rekindled Bogart's early love of boats; when he returned to California, he bought a classic mahogany Hacker-Craft runabout which he kept until his death.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴹⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵜⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴽⵉⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓⵜⵏ; ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵖⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵀⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵀⴰⴽⵕ-ⴽⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ."
"""When Bogart won, however, he said: """"It's a long way from the Belgian Congo to the stage of this theatre.""","""ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ: """"ⵉⵄⵔⵇⵇ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⵊⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ."""
"As in tennis, you need a good opponent or partner to bring out the best in you.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵙ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰⴽ ⵓⵏⴹⵍⵉⴱ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"Though he retained some of his old bitterness about having to do so, he delivered a strong performance in the lead; he received his final Oscar nomination and was the subject of a June 7, 1954 Time magazine cover story.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵃⴹⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵕⵥⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ; ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵎ ⴳ 7 ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 1954."
He is the type of director I don't like to work with ... the picture is a crock of crap.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵔⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵖ ... ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⵛⵓⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵜⴼ.
"""Despite the acrimony, the film was successful; according to a review in The New York Times, Bogart was """"incredibly adroit ... the skill with which this old rock-ribbed actor blends the gags and such duplicities with a manly manner of melting is one of the incalculable joys of the show"""".""","""ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵉⵔⵜ, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ; ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⵣ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ """"ⴰⵎⴷⴷⵏⴽⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⵉ ... ⴰⴼⵓⴽⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⵄⵎⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ""""."""
"He was uneasy with Ava Gardner in the female lead; she had just broken up with his Rat Pack buddy Frank Sinatra, and Bogart was annoyed by her inexperienced performance.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰ ⵀⴰⵕⴷⵏⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ; ⴱⵃⵕⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⴽⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ, ⵉⴳⵔⵓⵔⵙ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵥⴰⵢⵜ."
"When Bacall found them together, she extracted an expensive shopping spree from her husband; the three traveled together after the shooting.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵏ; ⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ."
"He also appeared on The Jack Benny Show, where a surviving kinescope of the live telecast captures him in his only TV sketch-comedy performance (October 25, 1953).","ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵓ ⵊⴰⴽ ⴱⵉⵏⵉ ⵛⵓⵡ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⴹⵚⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ (25 ⴽⵜⵓⴱⵔ 1953)."
Stephen became an author and biographer and hosted a television special about his father on Turner Classic Movies.,ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⵔ ⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽ ⵎⵓⴼⵉ.
"In the wake of Santana, Bogart had formed a new company and had plans for a film (Melville Goodwin, U.S.A.) in which he would play a general and Bacall a press magnate.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰ, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ (ⵎⵉⵍⴼⵉⵍ ⴳⵓⴷⵡⵉⵏ, U.S.A.) ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵔⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵎⵉⵙⵜ."
He did not talk about his health and visited a doctor in January 1956 after considerable persuasion from Bacall.,ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴽⴽ ⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 1956 ⴳ ⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵥⵉ ⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"He had additional surgery in November 1956, when the cancer had metastasized.","ⵉⵜⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1956, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵓⴽⵓⵏⵙⵉⵕ."
"""On it was inscribed, """"If you want anything, just whistle.""""""","""ⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ, """"ⵉⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ, ⵖⴰⵙ ⵚⵉⵏⵚⴳ."""""""
"Having studied with Stella Adler in the 1940s, he is credited with being one of the first actors to bring the Stanislavski system of acting and method acting, derived from the Stanislavski system, to mainstream audiences.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵔ ⴳ 1940, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⴼⵙⴽⵉ, ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⴼⵙⴽⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ."
"He directed and starred in the cult western One-Eyed Jacks, a critical and commercial flop, after which he delivered a series of notable box-office failures, beginning with Mutiny on the Bounty (1962).","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵜ ⵡⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⴷ ⵊⴰⴽⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⴱⴻⴱ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵜⵢ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵉ (1962)."
He refused the award due to alleged mistreatment and misportrayal of Native Americans by Hollywood.,ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ.
"According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Brando was paid a record $3.7 million ($ million in inflation-adjusted dollars) and 11.75% of the gross profits for 13 days' work on Superman.","ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴳⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴱⵕⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ 3.7 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ (ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⴱⵣⵣⵓⴳ) ⴷ 11.75% ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ 13 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ."
"His ancestry was mostly German, Dutch, English, and Irish.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵚⵉⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵜ."
Brando was raised a Christian Scientist.,ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⴷ ⴱⵕⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢ.
"However, she was an alcoholic and often had to be brought home from bars in Chicago by her husband.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴱⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵅⵙⵙⵓ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵛⵉⴽⴰⴳⵓ."
"""Brando harbored far more enmity for his father, stating, """"I was his namesake, but nothing I did ever pleased or even interested him.""","""ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵎⵉⵍ ⴱⵕⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ """"ⵓⵙⵉⵖ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵢ ⵍⵀⵎⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵖ."""
"Around 1930, Brando's parents moved to Evanston, Illinois, when his father's work took him to Chicago, but separated in 1935 when Brando was 11 years old.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1930, ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵏⵙⵜⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵡⵉⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜ ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵛⵉⴽⴰⴳⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1935 ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ 11 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵕⴰⵏⴷⵓ."
"""Brando, whose childhood nickname was """"Bud"""", was a mimic from his youth.""","""ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵉ """"ⴱⵓⴷ"""", ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵄⵓⵔⵔⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."""
"In the 2007 TCM biopic Brando: The Documentary, childhood friend George Englund recalls Brando's earliest acting as imitating the cows and horses on the family farm as a way to distract his mother from drinking.","ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ: ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ ⵉ TCM ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2007, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵉ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴼⵓⵏⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵥⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵀⵓ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴰ."
Brando's sister Frances left college in California to study art in New York.,ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⵓⵍⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ.
Brando excelled at theater and did well in the school.,ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ.
"The faculty voted to expel him, though he was supported by the students, who thought expulsion was too harsh.","ⵜⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵜⵀⵕⴹ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵢ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"""In a 1988 documentary, Marlon Brando: The Wild One, Brando's sister Jocelyn remembered, """"He was in a school play and enjoyed it ... So he decided he would go to New York and study acting because that was the only thing he had enjoyed.""","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⴳ 1988, ⵎⴰⵕⵍⵓⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ: ⴷⵓ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴷ ⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴽⵜⵉ ⵊⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, """"ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎ ⵜ ... ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵅⴼ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵏ."""
"For a time he lived with Roy Somlyo, who later became a four time Emmy winning Broadway producer.","ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵕⵓⵢ ⵙⵓⵎⵍⵢⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵉ ⴽⴽⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
Brando's remarkable insight and sense of realism were evident early on.,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.
"According to Dustin Hoffman in his online Masterclass, Brando would often talk to camera men and fellow actors about their weekend even after the director would call action.","ⵏⵉⵍ ⴷⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵀⵓⴼⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ."
"His behavior had him kicked out of the cast of the New School's production in Sayville, but he was soon afterwards discovered in a locally produced play there.","ⵉⵥⵥⵍ ⵜ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵙⴰⵢⴼⵉⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵜ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
Cornell also cast him as the Messenger in her production of Jean Anouilh's Antigone that same year.,ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵜ ⴽⵓⵔⵏⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵡⵉⵍⵃ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
"Bankhead had turned down the role of Blanche Dubois in A Streetcar Named Desire, which Williams had written for her, to tour the play for the 1946–1947 season.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴱⴰⵏⴽⵀⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵛ ⴷⵓⴱⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎⵣ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⵏ 1946–1947."
"""Wilson was largely tolerant of Brando's behavior, but he reached his limit when Brando mumbled through a dress rehearsal shortly before the November 28, 1946, opening. """"""","""ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵓⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵎⵜⵎ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵄⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ 28 ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1946."""""""
"""It was marvelous,"""" a cast member recalled. """"""","""ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ, """"ⵉⵥⵉⵍ. """""""
"Critics were not as kind, however.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ.
"""He received better reviews at subsequent tour stops, but what his colleagues recalled was only occasional indications of the talent he would later demonstrate. """"""","""ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ."""""""
Brando displayed his apathy for the production by demonstrating some shocking onstage manners.,ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⴽⵓⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴱⵀⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ.
"After several weeks on the road, they reached Boston, by which time Bankhead was ready to dismiss him.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ, ⵉⵡⴹⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵊⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴽⵀⵉⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Pierpont writes that John Garfield was first choice for the role, but """"made impossible demands.""""""","""ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⴱⵓⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴳⴰⵔⴼⵉⵍⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ """"ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵎⵏ."""""""
"""It humanizes the character of Stanley in that it becomes the brutality and callousness of youth rather than a vicious old man ... A new value came out of Brando's reading which was by far the best reading I have ever heard.""""""","""ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴼⴳⵏ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴳ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵥⵉⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵄⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴼⵍⵍⵙ ... ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵙⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."""""""
"""He said, """"The curtain went up and on the stage is that son of a bitch from the gym, and he's playing me.""""""","""ⵉⵏⵏⴰ, """"ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ."""""""
Brando's first screen role was a bitter paraplegic veteran in The Men (1950).,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⵃⵔⴽⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵛⵎ ⵉⵃⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴷⵓ ⵎⵉⵏ (1950).
"By Brando's own account, it may have been because of this film that his draft status was changed from 4-F to 1-A. He had had surgery on his trick knee, and it was no longer physically debilitating enough to incur exclusion from the draft.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ 4-F ⵖⵔ 1-A. ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵏⴰⴷⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵃⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵍⵜ."
"Coincidentally, the psychiatrist knew a doctor friend of Brando.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵎⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴱⵙⵉⴽⵢⴰⵜⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⴽⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ."
The role is regarded as one of Brando's greatest.,ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ.
The film was directed by Elia Kazan and co-starred Anthony Quinn.,ⵉⵍⵉⵢⴰ ⴽⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵉ ⴽⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"During our scenes together, I sensed a bitterness toward me, and if I suggested a drink after work, he either turned me down or else was sullen and said little.","ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴼⵔⴽⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵕⵥⴳⵜ ⵙⵉⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⵔⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵓ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ."
"After achieving the desired effect, Kazan never told Quinn that he had misled him.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴽⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰ."
"Gielgud was so impressed that he offered Brando a full season at the Hammersmith Theatre, an offer he declined.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵙⵎ ⴳⵉⵍⴳⵓⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵅⴼ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⵉⴽⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵎⵔⵙⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵢⵓⴳⵉ."
It was like a furnace door opening—the heat came off the screen.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⵜⵕⵥⵎⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵕⵕⴰⵏ—ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ.
"""By all accounts, Brando was upset by his mentor's decision, but he worked with him again in On The Waterfront. """"""","""ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴽⴽⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⴷⵓ ⵡⴰⵜⵔⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ."""""""
"Triumph's importers were ambivalent at the exposure, as the subject matter was rowdy motorcycle gangs taking over a small town.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵛⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵢⵓⵎⴼⵣ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⵏⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵟⵓⵕⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ."
"When initially offered the role, Brando—still stung by Kazan's testimony to HUAC—demurred and the part of Terry Malloy nearly went to Frank Sinatra.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ—ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ HUAC—ⵢⵓⴳⵉ ⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵇⵛⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵍⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ."
Brando won the Oscar for his role as Irish-American stevedore Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⵓ ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢ-ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵍⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵓ ⵡⴰⵜⵔⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ.
"""In his July 29, 1954, review, The New York Times critic A. H. Weiler praised the film, calling it """"an uncommonly powerful, exciting, and imaginative use of the screen by gifted professionals.""""""","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 29 ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓⵣ 1954, ⵢⵓⵍⵖ ⵓⵎⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⵣ A. H. ⵡⵉⵍⵉⵔ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜ """"ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⴰⵏⴱⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ."""""""
He portrayed Napoleon in the 1954 film Désirée.,ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ 1954.
Brando was especially contemptuous of director Henry Koster.,ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵃⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵀⴻⵏⵔⵉ ⴽⵓⵙⵜⵔ.
"""Relations between Brando and costar Frank Sinatra were also frosty, with Stefan Kanfer observing: """"The two men were diametrical opposites: Marlon required multiple takes; Frank detested repeating himself.""""""","""ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵙⵜⴰⵔ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ ⵇⵔⴼⵏ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴼⵔ: """"ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ: ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ; ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵃⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ."""""""
"""Frank Sinatra called Brando """"the world's most overrated actor"""", and referred to him as """"mumbles"""".""","""ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽ ⵙⵉⵏⴰⵜⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ """"ⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ"""", ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵖ ⴰⵙ """"ⵎⵓⵎⴱⵍⵣ""""."""
"""Pauline Kael was not particularly impressed by the movie, but noted """"Marlon Brando starved himself to play the pixie interpreter Sakini, and he looks as if he's enjoying the stunt—talking with a mad accent, grinning boyishly, bending forward, and doing tricky movements with his legs.""","""ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⴰⵢⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵓⴽⵣ """"ⵜⵙⵍⵍⵓⵥ ⵎⴰⵕⵍⵓⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵙⴰⴽⵉⵏⵉ, ⴷ ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵜ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕ—ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⵚⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⵏⵏⵓ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⴼⴰⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍ."""
"""Newsweek found the film a """"dull tale of the meeting of the twain"""", but it was nevertheless a box-office success.""","""ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵡⵉⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ """"ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ"""", ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ."""
The film went on to win four Academy Awards.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕ.
"""By all accounts, Brando was devastated by her death, with biographer Peter Manso telling A&E's Biography, """"She was the one who could give him approval like no one else could and, after his mother died, it seems that Marlon stops caring.""""""","""ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵉⴼⵜⵜⵙ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⴷⵖ ⵉⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⵙⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ A&E's, """"ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵎⴰⵕⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⴰⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ."""""""
The Young Lions also features Brando's only appearance in a film with friend and rival Montgomery Clift (although they shared no scenes together).,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷⵓ ⵢⵓⵏⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⴽⵍ ⴷ ⵔⵉⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴳⵓⵎⵔⵉ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⵜ (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ).
"""Brando portrays the lead character Rio, and Karl Malden plays his partner """"Dad"""" Longworth.""","""ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⵢⵓ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵎⴰⵍⴷⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ """"ⴷⴰⴷ"""" ⵍⵓⵏⴳⵡⵓⵕⵜ."""
Brando's inexperience as an editor also delayed postproduction and Paramount eventually took control of the film.,ⴰⵔⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⴹ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ.
"""By then, I was bored with the whole project and walked away from it.""""""","""ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵇⵏⴹⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴼⴽⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵙⴰⵄ."""""""
"Brando's revulsion with the film industry reportedly boiled over on the set of his next film, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's remake of Mutiny on the Bounty, which was filmed in Tahiti.","ⴰⴳⵔⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵎⵉⵜⵔⵓ-ⵎⴰⵢⵕⵣ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⵉⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵜⵉ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵜⵉ."
"""Mutiny director Lewis Milestone claimed that the executives """"deserve what they get when they give a ham actor, a petulant child, complete control over an expensive picture.""""""","""ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵜⵉ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ """"ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵍⵍⵓⴼ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔⴱⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵏ."""""""
The Ugly American (1963) was the first of these films.,ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ (1963) ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"All of Brando's other Universal films during this period, including Bedtime Story (1964), The Appaloosa (1966), A Countess from Hong Kong (1967) and The Night of the Following Day (1969), were also critical and commercial flops.","ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵙ (1964), ⴷⵓ ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵍⵓⵓⵣⴰ (1966), ⴽⵓⵏⵜⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵀⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⴳ (1967) ⴷ ⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ (1969), ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵏ."
"Brando had also appeared in the spy thriller Morituri in 1965; that, too, failed to attract an audience.",ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵖⵍⵉ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1965; ⵏⵏⴰ; ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ.
"Candy was especially appalling for many; a 1968 sex farce film directed by Christian Marquand and based on the 1958 novel by Terry Southern, the film satirizes pornographic stories through the adventures of its naive heroine, Candy, played by Ewa Aulin.","ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴷⵉ; ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵚⴹⵚⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1968 ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵡⴰⵏⴷ ⵢⵓⵜⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⵙⴰⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ 1958, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵚⴰ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵉⴼⵍⵍⵙⵏ, ⴽⴰⵏⴷⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵓⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
"""In the March 1966 issue of The Atlantic, Pauline Kael wrote that in his rebellious days, Brando """"was antisocial because he knew society was crap; he was a hero to youth because he was strong enough not to take the crap"""", but now Brando and others like him had become """"buffoons, shamelessly, pathetically mocking their public reputations.""""""","""ⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵙ 1966 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵟⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⴰⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⵡⵡⵖⵏ, ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ """"ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵜⵓⴼⵏ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴹ ⵉ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴷⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵉⵃⵎⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵜⵓⴼⵏ"""", ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ """"ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵍⵃⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴹⵚⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ."""""""
"""I was very convincing in my pose of indifference, but I was very sensitive and it hurt a lot.""""""","""ⵏⵥⵉⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵃⵏⵓⵏⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵎⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."""""""
The film overall received mixed reviews.,ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
"Brando dedicated a full chapter to the film in his memoir, stating that the director, Gillo Pontecorvo, was the best director he had ever worked with next to Kazan and Bernardo Bertolucci.","ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ, ⴳⵉⵍⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵉⴽⵓⵔⴼⵓ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵏⴰⵕⴷⵓ ⴱⵉⵔⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜⵛⵉ."
"In 1971, Michael Winner directed him in the British horror film The Nightcomers with Stephanie Beacham, Thora Hird, Harry Andrews and Anna Palk.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1971, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵡⵉⵏⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⴷⴰ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢⴷⵓ ⵏⵉⵢⵜⴽⵓⵎⵔⵣ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⴰⵏⵉ ⴱⵉⵜⵛⴰⵎ, ⵜⵓⵕⴰ ⵀⴰⵢⵔⴷ, ⵀⴰⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵓⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵍⴽ."
He bested Brando at the 1972 New York Film Critics Circle Awards.),ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⴽⵔⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵙⴰⵢⵔⴽⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1972.)
"Brando also had One-Eyed Jacks working against him, a troubled production that lost money for Paramount when it was released in 1961.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵡⴰⵏ-ⴰⵢⴷ ⵊⴰⴽⵙ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1961."
"""Coppola convinced Brando to a videotaped """"make-up"""" test, in which Brando did his own makeup (he used cotton balls to simulate the character's puffed cheeks).""","""ⴽⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵏⵥⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ """"ⵍⵄⵏⴰⵢⵜ"""" ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⴷⵢⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵍⵄⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ (ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴷⵓⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵏ)."""
"""Brando had doubts himself, stating in his autobiography, """"I had never played an Italian before, and I didn't think I could do it successfully.""""""","""ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵛⴽⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, """"ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵖ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵖ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ."""""""
"Brando was signed for a low fee of $50,000, but in his contract, he was given a percentage of the gross on a sliding scale: 1% of the gross for each $10 million over a $10 million threshold, up to 5% if the picture exceeded $60 million.","ⵉⵙⵏⵢⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ $50,000, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ: 1% ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴽⵓ 10 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⴰⴷⵓ ⵏ 10 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ, ⴰⵔ 5% ⵉⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ 60 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ."
"""In a 1994 interview that can be found on the Academy of Achievement website, Coppola insisted, """"The Godfather was a very unappreciated movie when we were making it.""","""ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1994 ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ, ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⴽⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⴰ, """"ⴷⵓ ⴳⵓⴷⴼⴰⴷⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ."""
They didn't like the way I was shooting it.,ⵓⵔ ⵃⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵖ.
"In a 2010 television interview with Larry King, Al Pacino also talked about how Brando's support helped him keep the role of Michael Corleone in the movie—despite the fact Coppola wanted to fire him.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵔⵉ ⴽⵉⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵜⵛⵉⵏⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵜ ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴽⵓⵕⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ—ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴽⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵥⵥⵍ."
"""He broke the ice by toasting the group with a glass of wine."""" '""","“ⵉⴱⴱⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵍⴽⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⴼ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."""" '"""
"""Caan adds, 'The first day we met Brando everybody was in awe.'""""""","""ⵢⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⴰⴰⵏ, 'ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵏⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴽⵓⵍⵛⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⴰⵢⵢⴰ.'"""""""
"""Also, because he had so much power and unquestioned authority, I thought it would be an interesting contrast to play him as a gentle man, unlike Al Capone, who beat up people with baseball bats.""""""","ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ, ⵖⴰⵍⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵄⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵍ ⴽⴰⴱⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵄⵕⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⵣⴱⵓⵍ."""""""
There was really no beginning.,ⵣⵣⵉⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ.
"He boycotted the award ceremony, instead sending indigenous American rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather, who appeared in full Apache attire, to state Brando's reasons, which were based on his objection to the depiction of indigenous Americans by Hollywood and television.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴰⵛⵉⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵍⴼⴰⵢⴷⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵜⵛⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⵉ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵍⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴹⵍⵉⵢⵏ."
"As with previous films, Brando refused to memorize his lines for many scenes; instead, he wrote his lines on cue cards and posted them around the set for easy reference, leaving Bertolucci with the problem of keeping them out of the picture frame.","ⴰⵎ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵓ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ; ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ, ⵢⴰⴷⵊ ⴱⵉⵔⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵟⵟⴼ ⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ."
His gross participation deal earned him $3 million.,ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴰⵙ 3 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ.
"""Pauline Kael, in The New Yorker review, wrote """"The movie breakthrough has finally come.""","""ⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⴰⵢⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽⵔ, """"ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ."""
"In 1973, Brando was devastated by the death of his childhood best friend Wally Cox.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵎ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⴽⵙ."
"Absent for the first hour of the movie, Clayton enters on horseback, dangling upside down, caparisoned in white buckskin, Littlefeather-style.","ⵉⵄⵟⵟⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵏⵏ ⴽⵍⴰⵢⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵉⵙ, ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⵍⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵜ,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ-ⵍⵉⵜⵍⴷⴰⵢⴷⵔ."
"""Penn, who believed in letting actors do their thing, indulged Marlon all the way.""""""","""ⴱⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵃⵉⵏⵏⵉⴱ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ."""""""
"In 1978, Brando narrated the English version of Raoni, a French-Belgian documentary film directed by Jean-Pierre Dutilleux and Luiz Carlos Saldanha that focused on the life of Raoni Metuktire and issues surrounding the survival of the indigenous Indian tribes of north central Brazil.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1978, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵔⴰⵡⵏⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵢ-ⴰⴱⵍⵊⵉⴽⵉⵢⴱ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵊⴰⵏ-ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴷⵓⵜⵓⵍⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵍⵡⵉⵣ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⵓⵙ ⵙⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏⵀⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵔⴰⵡⵏⵉ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵜⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵇⴱⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ."
"In 1979, he made a rare television appearance in the miniseries Roots: The Next Generations, portraying George Lincoln Rockwell; he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for his performance.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1979, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ: ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⵍⴼ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵍⵉⵏⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵕⵓⴽⵡⵉⵍ; ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⵎ ⵉⵎⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Brando was paid $1 million a week for 3 weeks work.,ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ 1 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ 3 ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
"In the documentary, Coppola talks about how astonished he was when an overweight Brando turned up for his scenes and, feeling desperate, decided to portray Kurtz, who appears emaciated in the original story, as a man who had indulged every aspect of himself.","ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵕⵄⴰⴱ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵥⵕ, ⵉⵖⵢⵢⵔ, ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴽⵓ!ⵔⵜⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵙ."
"However, he returned in 1989 in A Dry White Season, based on André Brink's 1979 anti-apartheid novel.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1989 ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵓ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1979 ⵎⴳⴰⵍ-ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵜⴰⵢⴷ."
"Brando received praise for his performance, earning an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor and winning the Best Actor Award at the Tokyo Film Festival.","ⵓⵜⵜⵡⴰⵍⵖ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ."
"""Variety also praised Brando's performance as Sabatini and noted, """"Marlon Brando's sublime comedy performance elevates The Freshman from screwball comedy to a quirky niche in film history.""""""","""ⵜⵓⵍⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⴰⴱⴰⵜⵉⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ """"ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵍⵓⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵓⵎⵉⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ."""""""
"The Island of Dr. Moreau screenwriter Ron Hutchinson would later say in his memoir, Clinging to the Iceberg: Writing for a Living on the Stage and in Hollywood (2017), that Brando sabotaged the film's production by feuding and refusing to cooperate with his colleagues and the film crew.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵕ ⵎⵓⵕⵓ, ⵔⵓⵏ ⵀⵓⵜⵛⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵙ ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ: ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ (2017), ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵅⵙⵔ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ."
This was his last role and his only role as a female character.,ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ.
"""The actor's son, Miko, was Jackson's bodyguard and assistant for several years, and was a friend of the singer. """"""","""ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵎⵉⴽⵓ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⴹⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵊⴰⴽⵙⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⵉⴳⴰⵔⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⵊ. """""""
"Dad had a hard time breathing in his final days, and he was on oxygen much of the time.","ⵉⴽⵕⴼⵙ ⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵡⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
So Michael got Dad a golf cart with a portable oxygen tank so he could go around and enjoy Neverland.,ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴳⵓⵍⴼ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴱⵖⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵏⵉⴼⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷ.
He also suffered from diabetes and liver cancer.,ⵢⵓⴹⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵙⵙⴽⵕ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵏⵚⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ.
His single recorded line was included within the final game as a tribute to the actor.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ.
A distressed Brando told Malden he kept falling over.,ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵍⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵕ.
"Shortly before his death, he had apparently refused permission for tubes carrying oxygen to be inserted into his lungs, which, he was told, was the only way to prolong his life.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵣⵉⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""In 1976, he told a French journalist, """"Homosexuality is so much in fashion, it no longer makes news.""","""ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ, """"ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵓⵏⵔⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⴹⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ."""
"He also claimed numerous other romances, although he did not discuss his marriages, his wives, or his children in his autobiography.","ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Brando met actress Rita Moreno in 1954, and they began a love affair.","ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⵢⴰⵜ ⵔⵉⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1954, ⵜⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ."
"Years after they broke up, Moreno played his love interest in the film The Night of the Following Day.","ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"She is said to have been the daughter of a Welsh steel worker of Irish descent, William O'Callaghan, who had been superintendent on the Indian State railways.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵡⵉⵍⵥⵉⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ, ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵓⴽⴰⵍⴰⵊⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ."
"Brando and Kashfi had a son, Christian Brando, on May 11, 1958; they divorced in 1959.","ⵢⵓⵔⵓ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵛⴼⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ, ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵢⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⴳ 11 ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 1958; ⵎⵕⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ 1959."
They had two children together: Miko Castaneda Brando (born 1961) and Rebecca Brando (born 1966).,ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ: ⵎⵉⴽⵓ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⵉⴷⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ 1961) ⴷ ⵔⵉⴱⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ 1966).
"Because Teriipaia was a native French speaker, Brando became fluent in the language and gave numerous interviews in French.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵔⵉⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵉⵢⵜ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ."
Brando and Teriipaia divorced in July 1972.,ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓⵣ 1972.
"Brando had a long-term relationship with his housekeeper Maria Cristina Ruiz, with whom he had three children: Ninna Priscilla Brando (born May 13, 1989), Myles Jonathan Brando (born January 16, 1992), and Timothy Gahan Brando (born January 6, 1994).","ⵉⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⵍ ⴱⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⵕⵓⵢⵣ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⴷⵉⴷⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ: ⵏⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵔⵉⵙⴽⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ 13 ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 1989), ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙ ⵊⵓⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ 16 ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 1992), ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵉ ⴳⴰⵀⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ (ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ 6 ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 1994)."
"His numerous grandchildren also include Prudence Brando and Shane Brando, children of Miko C. Brando; the children of Rebecca Brando; and the three children of Teihotu Brando among others.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵏⵙ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴽⵓ C. ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ; ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⵉⴽⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ; ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵀⵓⵜⵓ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵢⴰⴹ."
His behavior during the filming of Mutiny on the Bounty (1962) seemed to bolster his reputation as a difficult star.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵜⵉ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵉ (1962) ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ.
"Galella had followed Brando, who was accompanied by talk show host Dick Cavett, after a taping of The Dick Cavett Show in New York City.","ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷⵉⴽ ⴽⴰⴼⵉⵜⵜ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴽ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ."
"The filming of Mutiny on the Bounty affected Brando's life in a profound way, as he fell in love with Tahiti and its people.","ⴰⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵜⵉ ⵓⵏ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵉ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴹⵕ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵅⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ."
The 1983 hurricane destroyed many of the structures including his resort.,ⵜⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵖⵔⴱⵍⵜ ⵏ 1983 ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
He was listed in the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) records as Martin Brandeaux to preserve his privacy.,ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢⵏ (FCC) ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴹⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳⵜ.
He attended some fundraisers for John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election.,ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵕⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵊⵓⵏ F. ⴽⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ 1960.
"In autumn of 1967, Brando visited Helsinki, Finland at a charity party organized by UNICEF at the Helsinki City Theatre.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1967, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⵀⵉⵍⵙⵉⵏⴽⵓⵉ, ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵙⵉⵏⴽⵢ."
He spoke in favor of children’s rights and development aid in developing countries.,ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"""I felt I'd better go find out where it is; what it is to be black in this country; what this rage is all about,"""" Brando said on the late-night ABC-TV talk show Joey Bishop Show.""","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵊⵓⵡ ⴱⵉⵛⵓⴱ ⵛⵓⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ABC-TV: ""ⴼⵔⴽⵖ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵣⵓⵖ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵃⴱⵛⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵣⵣⵄⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ""""."
"""It was one of the most incredible acts of courage I ever saw, and it meant a lot and did a lot.""""""","""ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵥⵕⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵏⵓ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."""""""
"""In 1964 Brando was arrested at a """"fish-in"""" held to protest a broken treaty that had promised Native Americans fishing rights in Puget Sound.""","""ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵎⵥ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴳ """"ⴼⵉⵛ-ⵉⵏ"""" ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⵓⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵎⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙⴰⵡⵏⴷ."""
"""Brando ended his financial support for the group over his perception of its increasing radicalization, specifically a passage in a Panther pamphlet put out by Eldridge Cleaver advocating indiscriminate violence, """"for the Revolution.""""""","""ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵡⵡⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵉⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵢⴼⵖ ⵉⵍⴷⵔⵉⴷⵊ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ """"ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ."""""""
Sacheen Littlefeather represented him at the ceremony.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵜ ⵙⴰⵛⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵍⴼⴰⵢⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ.
The event grabbed the attention of the US and the world media.,ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ.
He was also an activist against apartheid.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵟⵟⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.
He is listed by the American Film Institute as the fourth greatest male star whose screen debut occurred before or during 1950 (it occurred in 1950).,ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵉⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1950 (ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ 1950).
"""Retrieved August 19, 2009.Encyclopedia Britannica describes him as """"the most celebrated of the method actors, and his slurred, mumbling delivery marked his rejection of classical dramatic training.""","""ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴳ 19 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2009, ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵜ ⵜⵥⴰⵢⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ """"ⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵖⵎⵖⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢ."""
He was a development from the gangster leader and the outlaw.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵜⵜⴰⵄⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ.
"His portrayal of the gang leader Johnny Strabler in The Wild One has become an iconic image, used both as a symbol of rebelliousness and a fashion accessory that includes a Perfecto style motorcycle jacket, a tilted cap, jeans and sunglasses.","ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵜⵜⴰⵄⵏ ⵊⵓⵏⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⴱⵍⵉⵔ ⴳ ⴷⵓ ⵡⵉⵍⴷ ⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵡⵡⵖ ⴷ ⵍⵄⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴽⴱⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⴼⵉⴽⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵛⴰⵛⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ."
"""The """"I coulda been a contender"""" scene from On the Waterfront, according to the author of Brooklyn Boomer, Martin H. Levinson, is """"one of the most famous scenes in motion picture history, and the line itself has become part of America's cultural lexicon.""""""","""ⴰⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ """"ⵖⵉⵢⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵖ ⴰⵏⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ"""" ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵔⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵓⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⵓⵎⵔ, ⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ H. ⵍⵉⴼⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ."""""""
"""You have to make 'em believe that you are dying ... Try to think of the most intimate moment you've ever had in your life.""""""","""ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵊⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵜⴰⵜⴷ ... ⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵣⵣⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴽ."""""""
In 1999 the American Film Institute ranked him eighth among its list of greatest male stars of the Golden Age of Hollywood.,ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1999 ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ.
"He spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian, until he got his first major acting part in 1925.","ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵓⴷⵉⴼⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵕⴽⴰⴹ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵚⴹⵚⴰⵢ,ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1925."
"After rave reviews, Warner Bros. signed him for an initial $400-a-week, three-week contract; when the executives at the studio saw the first dailies for the film, Cagney's contract was immediately extended.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵚⵚⴰⴱⵏ, ⵜⵙⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵔⵣ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ 400 ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ; ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⴰⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ, ⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
He was nominated a third time in 1955 for Love Me or Leave Me with Doris Day.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1955 ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵢⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷⵊⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⵉⵙ.
"Cagney walked out on Warner Bros. several times over the course of his career, each time returning on much improved personal and artistic terms.","ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵏⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵔⵣ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
"He worked for an independent film company for a year while the suit was being settled, establishing his own production company, Cagney Productions, in 1942 before returning to Warner seven years later.","ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵅⴹⵉⵢⵜ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1942 ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Cagney was the second of seven children, two of whom died within months of their births.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⵎⵜⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"The family moved twice while he was still young, first to East 79th Street, and then to East 96th Street.","ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ, ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⴽⵜ 79, ⵙ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⴽⵜ 96."
I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it.,ⵉⵙⵙⵇⵏⴹⵉ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵡⵀⵏⵏ.
"He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, when necessary.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴽⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵕⵉ, ⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ."
"He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House (one of the first settlement houses in the nation) where his brother Harry performed and Florence James directed.","ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵏⵓⴽⵙ ⵀⵉⵍⵍ ⵏⵉⵖⴱⵓⵔⵀⵓⴷ ⵀⴰⵡⵙ (ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵙ ⵀⴰⵕⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵍⵓⵕⴰⵏⵙ ⵊⴰⵢⵎⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ."
The show began Cagney's 10-year association with vaudeville and Broadway.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ 10 ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵓⴷⴼⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵡⴰⵢ.
"Eventually, they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee, enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵕⴹⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵙⵍⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⴽⴰⴳⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵡⵓⴽⵉ, ⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵅⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ."
"As with Pitter Patter, Cagney went to the audition with little confidence he would get the part.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⴱⴰⵜⵜⵔ, ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵍⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ."
This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney; apart from the logistical difficulties this presented—the couple's luggage was in the hold of the ship and they had given up their apartment.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵄⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ; ⵉⴳ ⵏⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵊⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ—ⵉⵃⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"""He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else.""""""","""ⵉⵖⵜⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."""""""
"Cagney also established a dance school for professionals, and then landed a part in the play Women Go On Forever, directed by John Cromwell, which ran for four months.","ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴽⴰⴹ, ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⵓⵎⵡⵉⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ."
The show received rave reviews and was followed by Grand Street Follies of 1929.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵉⵜ ⴼⵓⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1929.
"Retitled Sinners' Holiday, the film was released in 1930.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵙⵉⵏⵏⵉⵔ ⵀⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴳ 1930."
"However, the contract allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40-week period, effectively guaranteeing him only 40 weeks’ income at a time.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⵎⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴹⵕ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ 40 ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ 40 ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ."
"Due to the strong reviews he had received in his short film career, Cagney was cast as nice-guy Matt Doyle, opposite Edward Woods as Tom Powers.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜ ⴷⵓⵢⵍ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵍⵏ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎ ⴱⴰⵡⵔⵣ."
"Producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference; Wellman said the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot; and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed it was based on the real life of gangster Hymie Weiss, who threw an omelette into his girlfriend's face.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷⴰⵔⵔⵉⵍ ⵣⴰⵏⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ; ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵏⵎⴱⵍⵓⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ; ⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⵍⴰⵙⵎⵄⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵟⵟⴰⵄⵏ ⵀⴰⵢⵎⵉ ⵡⴰⵢⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵇⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴳⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ.
"""He saw the film repeatedly just to see that scene, and was often shushed by angry patrons when his delighted laughter got too loud.""""""","""ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵥⵕ ⴰⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕ, ⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵙⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵣⵄⴼⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴹⵚⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."""""""
Warner Bros. was quick to team its two rising gangster stars—Edward G. Robinson and Cagney—for the 1931 film Smart Money.,ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵔⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵟⵟⴰⵄⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ—ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ G. ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ—ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵙⵎⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1931.
"As he completed filming, The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all-night showings.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⴰⵙⵡⵍⴼ, ⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴽ ⵉⵏⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⴰⵏ."
"The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films, even ones he was not in, which he opposed.","ⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⴷⵢⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴽⴰⴳⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴳⵉ."
The success of The Public Enemy and Blonde Crazy forced Warner Bros.' hand.,ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵉⴽ ⵉⵏⵎⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵍⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵓⵛⵛⵍ ⵡⴰⵕⵏⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⴷⵔⵣ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ.
The film was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Take All.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵓ ⴽⵔⵓⵡⴷ ⵔⵓⴰⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⵔ ⵜⴰⴽ ⴰⵍⵍ.
"Historians also debate the nature of history as an end in itself, as well as its usefulness to give perspective on the problems of the present.","ⵙⴳⴷⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"However, ancient cultural influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"""Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the """"father of history"""" in the Western tradition, although he has also been criticized as the """"father of lies"""".""","""ⵀⵉⵔⵓⴷⵓⵜ, ⴰⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ 5 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵄⵉⵙⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, """"ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ"""" ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜ ⴷ """"ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⴽⴰⵙ""""."""
"""In Middle English, the meaning of history was """"story"""" in general.""","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ """"ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ"""" ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"""In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both """"history"""" and """"story"""".""","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴹⵉⵚ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ """"ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ"""" ⴷ """"ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ""""."""
"""In the words of Benedetto Croce, """"All history is contemporary history"""".""","""ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⵜⵜⵓ ⴽⵕⵓⵙ, """"ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ""""."""
"""Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the """"true past"""").""","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ( ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ """"ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ"""")."""
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵇⵛⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵇⵛⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴼⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⴷⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵊⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
"In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ: ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵡⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ."
"Archaeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing its discoveries.","ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵎⴷⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏⵏ."
"""For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA, has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents idealizing """"liberty"""" and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total historical environment.""","""ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵔⴰ ⵎⴰⵕⴽ ⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵢⵓⵙ, ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ, USA, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ """"ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ"""" ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⵙⵉ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ."""
"It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ."
"Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the philosophy of history.","ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵖⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ: ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
By whom was it produced (authorship)?,ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ (ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ)?
What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?,ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ (ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ)?
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ.
"Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself).","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵀⵉⵔⵓⴷⵓⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵉⴷⵉⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵀⵉⵔⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ)."
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ.
"Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.","ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵛⵉⵊⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ ⵉ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ."
"Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1800, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵡⵉⵍⵀⵍⵎ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵄⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
"The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past.","ⵜⴰⵥⵖⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵏⵓ ⵅⴰⵍⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵥⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ, ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
"""His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,H. Mowlana (2001). """"""","""ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ,H. ⵎⵓⵡⵍⴰⵏⴰ (2001). """""""
"""Dr. S.W. Akhtar (1997). """"""","""ⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔ S.W. ⴰⵅⵜⴰⵔ (1997). """""""
"For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵕⴰⵏⴽⵉ, ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
"In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⵍⵓⵚⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ."
Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴷⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ.
So far only one theory of history came from the pen of a professional Historian.,ⴰⵔ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵖⴰⵏⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏ.
"Intellectual historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas in history.","ⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⴱⵓⵜⵜⵔⴼⵉⵍⴷ, ⵉⵔⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵉⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵎⵓⵙⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
"Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.","ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵣⴰⵜ, ⵉⵢⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⵔⵛⵓ ⴷ ⴷⵉⵜⵍⵉⴼ ⴱⵓⴽⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵣⵉⵢⵜ."
"Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in the past.","ⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵛ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ, ⵛⵓⴷⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵓⵏⵣ, ⵏⴰⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⵣⵎⵓⵎ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⵙ, ⵛⵉⵍⴰ ⵔⵓⵡⴱⵓⵜⵀⴰⵎ, ⴳⵉⵙⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⴽ, ⴳⵉⵔⴷⴰ ⵍⵉⵔⵏⵔ, ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴼⵓⴽⵙ-ⵊⵉⵏⵓⴼⵙ, ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵏ ⵀⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
"Another defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.","ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴰⵡⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢ ⴽⵉⵜ ⵡⵉⵏⴷⵛⵜⵜⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1994, ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
Historical omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical records.,ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏ.
Ancient history: the study from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.,ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ: ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ.
Comparative history: historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.,ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ: ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⵉⴼⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.,ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ: ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ.
Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time.,ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.
"Modern history: the study of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.","ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ: ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ."
Palaeography: study of ancient texts.,ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.
Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.,ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ: ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏ.
Women's history: the history of female human beings.,ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ: ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ.
"To do this, historians often turn to geography.","ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ."
"For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⵏ."
"History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.","ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⴰⴽⴰⵕⴰⵢⵉⴱ."
"History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.",ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⵢⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵣ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ 7000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
"History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⵓⵍⴼⵏ: ⴰⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ."
History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.,ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ.
History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.,ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕ.
"""The """"old"""" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were """"social"""" in the sense of being outside the elite system.""","""ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ """"ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ"""" ⴷⴰⵜ 1960 ⴰⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳⴰⵏ """"ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ"""" ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ."""
"It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people.",ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ.
This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time.,ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.
"It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.",ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ 1980 ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ.
"Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
"At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.","ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵕⴷ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵊ, ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ."
The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War.,ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⴽⴰⵕ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ.
"In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Many view the field from both perspectives.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ.
"In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.","ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ."
"Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ."
"A civilization (or civilisation) is a complex society that is characterized by urban development, social stratification, a form of government, and symbolic systems of communication (such as writing).",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ) ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍⴰⵏⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ).
"In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies or hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves.","ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵍⴽ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵇⴱⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵙⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ; ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"The fundamental treatise is Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵕⴱⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵢⴰⵙ (1939), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ."
"""Related words like """"civility"""" developed in the mid-16th century.""","""ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ """"ⴰⵖⵖⵓⵔⵎⵓ"""" ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16."""
"""In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution, """"civilization"""" was used in the singular, never in the plural, and meant the progress of humanity as a whole.""","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ 1700 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ 1800, ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ """"ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ"""" ⴳⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴼ, ⵎⴰⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."""
"""Only in this generalized sense does it become possible to speak of a """"medieval civilization"""", which in Elias's sense would have been an oxymoron.""","""ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ """"ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ"""", ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵢⴰⵙ."""
"""Here, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with human nature, and """"human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original discursive or prerational natural unity"""" (see noble savage).""","""ⵖⵉⴷ, ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴷⴰⵀⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ """"ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"""" (ⵥⵕ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ ⵙⵓⴼⴰⵊ)."""
"Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy and other cultural traits.","ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵚⴼⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended upon maritime resources.","ⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⴽⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⴱⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ."
Grain surpluses have been especially important because grain can be stored for a long time.,ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⵛⴰⵢⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ.
"However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ-ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⴰⵛⴰⵢⴹ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵉⵕⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵔⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⴼⵢⴰⵏ."
"""The word """"civilization"""" is sometimes simply defined as """"'living in cities'"""".""","""ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ """"ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ"""" ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ '""""ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ'""""."""
State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes.,ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ; ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ.
"Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.","ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵓⵙⵓⴷⵏⵙ."
"Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴳⵎⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"By the early Iron Age, contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⴰⵡⴰⴷ."
These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵏ ⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.
The transition from simpler to more complex economies does not necessarily mean an improvement in the living standards of the populace.,ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
"The average stature of a population is a good measurement of the adequacy of its access to necessities, especially food.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⵏ, ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
"Like money, the writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ."
"These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology.","ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ."
"""These cultures are called by some """"primitive"""", a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. """"""","""ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ """"ⵜⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ"""", ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵃⵇⵇⵔ. """""""
"""Anthropologists today use the term """"non-literate"""" to describe these peoples.""","""ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ """"ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵉⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ"""" ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ."""
"But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ.
"Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state-based decision making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ."
The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.,ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⵖ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
"The aim is to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity and also the cultural identity, especially in the case of war and armed conflict.","ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ."
"""Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler,Spengler, Oswald, Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History (1919) uses the German word Kultur, """"culture"""", for what many call a """"civilization"""".""","""ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⴰⵍⴷ ⵛⴱⵏⴳⵍⵔ, ⵛⴱⵏⴳⵍⵔ, ⵓⵙⵡⴰⵍⴷ, ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵓⵣⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ: ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ (1919) ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵜⵓⵔ, """"ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ"""", ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ """"ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ""""."""
"""Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as """"the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable"""".""","""ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵛⴱⵏⴳⵍⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵣⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ """"ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴽⵯⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ""""."""
"""Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a """"creative minority"""", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes.""","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⴷ ⴹⵕⵏⵜ, ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵡⵉⵎⴱⵉ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴳⵣⵓ ⵏ """"ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ"""", ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵛⵡⵡⵕ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ."
"For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⵥⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ."
"During the Uruk period, Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴽ, ⵉⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵢⵢⵉⵔⵎⵓ ⴰⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵖⴰⵏⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ."
"Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways.",ⵜⵓⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ.
"Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century.","ⵜⵏⵏⵖⵍ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⵏⵏⵖⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⵥⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ."
"This encouraged a secondary products revolution in which people used domesticated animals not just for meat, but also for milk, wool, manure and pulling ploughs and carts – a development that spread through the Eurasian Oecumene.","ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵇⴱ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵎ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴽⴼⴼⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵍⵖⴱⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵖⵕⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ – ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵡⵕⴰⵙⵉⵢⵏ."
"""This area has been identified as having """"inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of the cursive script"""".""","""ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴼⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵡⵉⴹⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵖⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ""""."""
"This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilizations.","ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ-ⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentism, the domestication of grains and animals, the permanence of settlements and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors.","ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵖⵖⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵚⵕⵚⵓ, ⴰⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵛⴰⵢⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
"Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ."
"""For Gibbon, """"The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness.""","""ⵖⵓⵔ ⵊⵉⴱⵓⵏ, """"ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵣⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵟⵟⵉⵚ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰⵏ."""
"""Theodor Mommsen in his History of Rome suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of """"genesis"""", """"growth"""", """"senescence"""", """"collapse"""" and """"decay"""".""","ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵕ ⵎⵓⵙⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵕ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 476 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢ ⵏ """"ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ"""", """"ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ"""", """"ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ"""", """"ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ"""", """"ⴰⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ""""."""
"Arnold J. Toynbee in his A Study of History suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen.","ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⴰⵕⵏⵓⵍⴷ J. ⵜⵓⵢⵏⴱⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵙⵏ."
"During the intermediate phase, the increasing population growth leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state.","ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵓⴷⴰⴼ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ."
Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends.,ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵄⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴼⴹⵏ.
"The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire.","ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴷⴰⴼ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵡⵡⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⵖⵔ ⵓⵛⵔⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ."
He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵣⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ.
The energy expended to energy yield ratio is central to limiting the survival of civilizations.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵅⵙⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"Koneczny claimed that civilizations cannot be mixed into hybrids, an inferior civilization when given equal rights within a highly developed civilization will overcome it.","ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵏⵉⴽⵣⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵛⵔⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵔⵏⵓ."
"Cultural Historian Morris Berman suggests in Dark Ages America: the End of Empire that in the corporate consumerist United States, the very factors that once propelled it to greatness―extreme individualism, territorial and economic expansion, and the pursuit of material wealth―have pushed the United States across a critical threshold where collapse is inevitable.","ⴰⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ: ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵖⵔⵜ―ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵟⵟⴰⵕⴼⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ―ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ."
"The corrosion of these pillars, Jacobs argues, is linked to societal ills such as environmental crisis, racism and the growing gulf between rich and poor.",ⵉⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵜⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵟⵕⵕⵃⵏ.
"This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources.",ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵡⵉⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ.
"""In the graphic, Ma means """"million years ago"""".)""","""ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵖⴰ, Ma ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ"""".)"""
Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism.,ⵜⴼⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵕⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ.
"Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period on the geological scale.","ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ 2 ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
"It is estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion, have gone extinct.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵇⴷⴷⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ 99 ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ, ⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ."
"The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance.","ⵉⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵇⵛⴱⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ."
The Moon is formed around this time probably due to a protoplanet's collision into Earth.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
The atmosphere is composed of volcanic and greenhouse gases.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵚⴼⵉⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵔⵖⴰⵏⵏ.
"Bacteria begin producing oxygen, shaping the third and current of Earth's atmospheres.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"The early continents of Columbia, Rodinia and Pannotia, in that order, may have existed in this eon.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵕⵓⴷⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⵓⵜⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴷ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ."
"""Gradually, life expands to land and familiar forms of plants, animals and fungi begin appearing, including annelids, insects and reptiles, hence the eon's name, which means """"visible life"""".""","""ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴳⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ """"ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ""""."""
It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⴼ ⴹⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ 13.8 Ga (ⵙⴳ ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ) ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
"As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity, and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵡⵜⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⴱⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵏⴽⵓⵎⵎⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ T ⵟⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ."
Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵍⵖ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 4.54 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ (ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵛⵛⴽ 1%) ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ 10–20 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ.
"The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals.",ⵉⴳⵎⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵔⵖⴰ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵏⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ.
"From crater counts on other celestial bodies, it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite impacts, called the Late Heavy Bombardment, began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at the end of the Hadean.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵃⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵅⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵥⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 4.1 Ga, ⵜⵙⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 3.8 Ga, ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵀⴰⴷⵢⴰⵏ."
"By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵔⴽⵢⴰⵏⵉ, ⵉⵇⵕⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵏ."
"New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, ⵏⵖⴷ 70–110 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ."
The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent Chicxulub impact that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.,ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵙ 100ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵛⵅⵓⵍⵓⴱ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵏⴰⵚⵓⵕⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ.
"The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material, explaining its abnormal composition.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵍⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵇⵛⴱⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵜⴰⵛⵛⴽ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵀⴰⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ."
These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.,ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵛⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰ.
Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of terranes.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⴰⵜⵓⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴷⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍⵏ.
"For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵥⵓ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵕⴽⵉⵢ."
Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵔⵓⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ.
"Planetesimals at a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU), the distance of the Earth from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long.","ⵉⴽⵓⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ 1 ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵚⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⴽ (AU), ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⴱⵍⴰⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵔⵖⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵡⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵛⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"Recent evidence suggests the oceans may have begun forming as early as 4.4 Ga. By the start of the Archean eon, they already covered much of the Earth.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⵙⵏⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ 4.4 Ga. ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵔⴽⵢⵓⵏⵉ, ⵜⵖⵎⵙ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Thus, the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ 30% ⴳ 4.5 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
"There are many models, but little consensus, on how life emerged from non-living chemicals; chemical systems created in the laboratory fall well short of the minimum complexity for a living organism.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ; ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ."
"Although atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵅⵓⵍⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵍⵍⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵉ, ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⵇⵛⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ."
"RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ RNA ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵚⴽⵓ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ."
A difficulty with the metabolism-first scenario is finding a way for organisms to evolve.,ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵕⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.
"""Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of fatty acids into """"bubbles"""", and that the bubbles could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay.""","""ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003 ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵍⵎⵓⵏⵜⵎⵓⵕⵉⵍⵄⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵥⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ """"ⵉⵍⵓⴼⴼⵏ"""", ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴼⴼⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ RNA ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴷⵇⵇⵉ."""
This LUA cell is the ancestor of all life on Earth today.,ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ LUA ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ.
The change to an oxygen-rich atmosphere was a crucial development.,ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⴳⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙ.
"They used fermentation, the breakdown of more complex compounds into less complex compounds with less energy, and used the energy so liberated to grow and reproduce.","ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵜⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ."
Most of the life that covers the surface of the Earth depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.
"To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product.","ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵥⴰⵢⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⵓⴹ."
"The simpler anoxygenic form arose about 3.8 Ga, not long after the appearance of life.","ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 3.8 Ga, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
"At first, the released oxygen was bound up with limestone, iron, and other minerals.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⵉⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵏ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⴽⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ."
"As a result, the Earth began to receive more heat from the Sun in the Proterozoic eon.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⴽ."
"Glacial deposits found in South Africa date back to 2.2 Ga, at which time, based on paleomagnetic evidence, they must have been located near the equator.","ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ 2.2 Ga, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"The Huronian ice age might have been caused by the increased oxygen concentration in the atmosphere, which caused the decrease of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵀⵓⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⵏ (CH4) ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ."
"However, the term Snowball Earth is more commonly used to describe later extreme ice ages during the Cryogenian period.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⵏⵓⵡⴱⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵟⵟⵓⵕⵕⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏⵢⴰⵏ."
"Carbon dioxide combines with rain to weather rocks to form carbonic acid, which is then washed out to sea, thus extracting the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵣⵣⵡⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏⵉⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⵖⵖⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵃⵚⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ."
"The Bacteria domain probably first split off from the other forms of life (sometimes called Neomura), but this supposition is controversial.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵏⵢⵓⵎⵓⵕⴰ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴷⵎⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏ."
"The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2.4 ago; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵍⵢⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵔⵓⵣⵡⵉⴽ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 2.4; ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎⵓⵙ."
Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses).,ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵛ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ (ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴳⵎⵔ).
"Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell's waste products and derived more energy.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵕⵕⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ."
"Soon, a stable symbiosis developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it.",ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵉⴱⵉⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
A similar event occurred with photosynthetic cyanobacteria entering large heterotrophic cells and becoming chloroplasts.,ⵉⵊⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ.
"Besides the well-established endosymbiotic theory of the cellular origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, there are theories that cells led to peroxisomes, spirochetes led to cilia and flagella, and that perhaps a DNA virus led to the cell nucleus, though none of them are widely accepted.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵎⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵔ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵓⴽⵙⵉⵎⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⵉⵔⵓⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵔⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ."
"Around 1.1 Ga, the supercontinent Rodinia was assembling.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.1 Ga, ⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵕⵓⴷⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ."
"Although the division between a colony with specialized cells and a multicellular organism is not always clear, around 1 billion years ago, the first multicellular plants emerged, probably green algae.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵎ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⴳⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ."
"Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as orogenic belts, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⵍⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏⵢⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⴽⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"About 1000 to 830 Ma, most continental mass was united in the supercontinent Rodinia.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1000ⴰⵔ 830 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⵢⴰ."
The hypothetical supercontinent is sometimes referred to as Pannotia or Vendia.,ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵢⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴼⵉⵏⴷⵢⴰ.
The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.,ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.
"Because CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ CO2 ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵇⵔⴰⴼ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵕⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵓⴷⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.
"The new forms of life, called Ediacara biota, were larger and more diverse than ever.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵉⴷⵢⴰⴽⴰⵕⴰ ⴱⵢⵓⵜⴰ, ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"It consists of three eras: The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ: ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵙ."
This causes the sea level to rise.,ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍ.
Traces of glaciation from this period are only found on former Gondwana.,ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴳⵓⵏⴷⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ.
"The continents Laurentia and Baltica collided between 450 and 400 Ma, during the Caledonian Orogeny, to form Laurussia (also known as Euramerica).","ⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏ ⵍⵓⵕⵓⵏⵜⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⵜⵉⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 450 ⴷ 400 Ma, ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴷⵓⵏⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵕⵓⵙⵢⴰ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰ)."
"The collision of Siberia with Laurussia caused the Uralian Orogeny, the collision of Gondwana with Laurussia is called the Variscan or Hercynian Orogeny in Europe or the Alleghenian Orogeny in North America.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵏⴷⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴼⴰⵕⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵀⵓⵔⵙⵉⵏⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴳⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"Whereas the Ediacaran life forms appear yet primitive and not easy to put in any modern group, at the end of the Cambrian most modern phyla were already present.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵢⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴳⵎⴱⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
Some of these Cambrian groups appear complex but are seemingly quite different from modern life; examples are Anomalocaris and Haikouichthys.,"ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔⵉ ⵣⵓⵏ ⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⴽⵡⵉⵛⵜⵉⵙ."
"A creature that could have been the ancestor of the fishes, or was probably closely related to it, was Pikaia.","ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⴷⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴱⵉⴽⴰⵢⴰ."
"Fish, the earliest vertebrates, evolved in the oceans around 530 Ma.","ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵎ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ, ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 530 Ma."
"The oldest fossils of land fungi and plants date to 480–460 Ma, though molecular evidence suggests the fungi may have colonized the land as early as 1000 Ma and the plants 700 Ma.","ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ 480–460 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ 1000 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ 700 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
Fins evolved to become limbs that the first tetrapods used to lift their heads out of the water to breathe air.,ⴱⵓⵖⵔⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵛⵛⴼⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ.
"Eventually, some of them became so well adapted to terrestrial life that they spent their adult lives on land, although they hatched in the water and returned to lay their eggs.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵄⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵚⴹⵕⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴰⵢ."
"Plants evolved seeds, which dramatically accelerated their spread on land, around this time (by approximately 360 Ma).","ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ (ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 360 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ)."
Another 30 million years (310 Ma) saw the divergence of the synapsids (including mammals) from the sauropsids (including birds and reptiles).,30 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ (310 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ) ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵄⵔⴰⵇ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⴱⵙⵉⴷⵏ (ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ) ⵙⴳ ⵉⵚⵓⵕⵓⴱⵙⵉⴷⵏ (ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ).
"The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates.","ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵓⵅⵙⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵜⵔⵉⵢⴰⵙⵉⴽ–ⴰⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉⴽ ⴳ 200ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰⵚⵓⵕⵏ, ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ."
60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.,60% ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ 25% ⴳ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ.
"The third mass extinction was the Permian-Triassic, or the Great Dying, event was possibly caused by some combination of the Siberian Traps volcanic event, an asteroid impact, methane hydrate gasification, sea level fluctuations, and a major anoxic event.","ⴰⵅⵙⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⵉⵔⵎⵉ-ⴰⵜⵔⵉⵢⴰⵙⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴽⴽⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵔⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵙ, ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵀⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵟⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"This was by far the deadliest extinction ever, with about 57% of all families and 83% of all genera killed.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵅⵙⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⴷⴰⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 57% ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ 83% ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
"By the early Paleocene the earth recovered from the extinction, and mammalian diversity increased.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⴰⵍⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢ, ⵉⵊⵊⵉ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵅⵙⵙⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵢⴰⵍⵢ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ."
"Grassless savanna began to predominate much of the landscape, and mammals such as Andrewsarchus rose up to become the largest known terrestrial predatory mammal ever, and early whales like Basilosaurus took control of the seas.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⵙⴰⴼⴰⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵡⵙⴰⵔⵛⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵏⵙⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⴱⵄⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵏⴱⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ."
Giant ungulates like Paraceratherium and Deinotherium evolved to rule the grasslands.,ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵉⴼⵏⵣⴰ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵔⴰⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴷⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵥ ⵉⴳⵯⴷⴰⵍⵏ.
The Tethys Sea was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.,ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵔⴳⴰⵍ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ.
"The land bridge allowed the isolated creatures of South America to migrate over to North America, and vice versa.","ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⵍⴳⴳⵯⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ."
The ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion.,ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along Beringia which is why, today, there are camels (which evolved and became extinct in North America), horses (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans.","ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏⵊⵉⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵅⴼ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵅⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ), ⴷ ⵉⵢⵢⵙⴰⵏ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵅⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ."
"Brain size increased rapidly, and by 2 Ma, the first animals classified in the genus Homo had appeared.","ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⴳ ⵜⵓⵡⴷ 2 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"The ability to control fire probably began in Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster), probably at least 790,000 years ago but perhaps as early as 1.5 Ma.","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵀⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵙⵜⵔ), ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ 790,000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴰⵔ 1.5 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
It is more difficult to establish the origin of language; it is unclear whether Homo erectus could speak or if that capability had not begun until Homo sapiens.,"ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵣⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵎⵓⵙⴰⴱⵢⴰⵏ."
"Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate.","ⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"The first humans to show signs of spirituality are the Neanderthals (usually classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often with no sign of food or tools.","ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵢⴰⵔⴷⵔⵜⴰⵍ (ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ); ⵓⴷⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ."
"As language became more complex, the ability to remember and communicate information resulted, according to a theory proposed by Richard Dawkins, in a new replicator: the meme.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⴽⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵏⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⵡⴽⵉⵏⵣ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ: ⴷⵓ ⵎⵉⵎ."
"Between 8500 and 7000 BC, humans in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals: agriculture.","ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 8500 ⴷ 7000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵓ ⴼⵉⵔⵜⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ: ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵣⴰ."
"However, among those civilizations that did adopt agriculture, the relative stability and increased productivity provided by farming allowed the population to expand.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⵣⵏ, ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵍⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ."
"This led to Earth's first civilization at Sumer in the Middle East, between 4000 and 3000 BC.","ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 4000 ⴷ 3000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"Humans no longer had to spend all their time working for survival, enabling the first specialized occupations (e.g. craftsmen, merchants, priests, etc.).","ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ, ⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ, ⵉⴽⵀⵀⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ.)."
"By around 500 BC, there were advanced civilizations in the Middle East, Iran, India, China, and Greece, at times expanding, at times entering into decline.","ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵣⴷⵔ."
"This civilization developed in warfare, arts, science, mathematics and in architect.",ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ.
The Roman Empire was Christianized by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century and declined by the end of the 5th.,ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⵙⵃ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵇⵙⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 4 ⴷ ⵜⴳⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 5.
"The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵏⵥⴻⵥⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵄⴱⴱⴰⵙⵉ ⴱⵖⴷⴰⴷ, ⵍⵄⵉⵕⴰⵇ."
"In the 14th century, the Renaissance began in Italy with advances in religion, art, and science.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 14, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵟⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"European civilization began to change beginning in 1500, leading to the scientific and industrial revolutions.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1500, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴰⵡⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"From 1914 to 1918 and 1939 to 1945, nations around the world were embroiled in world wars.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1914 ⴰⵔ 1918 ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1939 ⴰⵔ 1945, ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ."
"After the war, many new states were formed, declaring or being granted independence in a period of decolonization.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⴱⵔⵔⵃ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ."
"Technological developments include nuclear weapons, computers, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology.",ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵏⵓ.
"Major concerns and problems such as disease, war, poverty, violent radicalism, and recently, human-caused climate change have risen as the world population increases.","ⵓⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⵚⵚⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵡⵡⵖ ⵓⴽⵚⵉⴹ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
"Human history, or recorded history, is the narrative of humanity's past.","ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"The Neolithic saw the Agricultural Revolution begin, between 10,000 and 5000 BCE, in the Near East's Fertile Crescent.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 10,000 ⴷ 5000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵔⵜⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ."
"As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons.","ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ."
Hinduism developed in the late Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent.,ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⵕⵓⵏⵣⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ.
"""Post-classical history (the """"Middle Ages,"""" c. 500–1500 CE,) witnessed the rise of Christianity, the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE – c. 1258 CE), and the Timurid and Italian Renaissances (from around 1300 CE).""","""ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ (""""ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ,"""" ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 500–1500) ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ (750–1258), ⴷ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ (ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1300 )."""
"By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution and began the late modern period, which started around 1800 and has continued through the present.","ⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18, ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵣⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1800 ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ."
"Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 300,000 years ago, and achieved behavioral modernity about 50,000 years ago.","ⵉⴳⵎⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵟⵓⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 300,000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 50,000."
"Perhaps as early as 1.8 million years ago, but certainly by 500,000 years ago, humans began to use fire for heat and cooking.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ 1.8 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵛⵛⴽ ⴷⴰⵜ 500,000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵡⵉ."
"Paleolithic humans lived as hunter-gatherers, and were generally nomadic.","ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ."
The rapid expansion of humankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent ice age.,ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵇⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ.
"The Yellow River valley in China cultivated millet and other cereal crops by about 7000 BCE; the Yangtze valley domesticated rice earlier, by at least 8000 BCE.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 7000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ; ⴷ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵏ ⵕⵕⵓⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏⴳⴰⵜⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 8000."
"Metalworking, was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6000 BCE.",ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵃⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ 6000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ.
"Cities were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power.",ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.
The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of civilization.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ.
"These cultures variously invented the wheel, mathematics, bronze-working, sailing boats, the potter's wheel, woven cloth, construction of monumental buildings, and writing.","ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵕⵡⵉⴹⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵏⵃⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷ ⵔⵡⵉⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵙⵜ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ."
Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship anthropomorphic deities.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵄⴱⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵄⴷⴰⵍⵏ.
"These settlements were concentrated in fertile river valleys: the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in China.","ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵔⵙⵏ: ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵊⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵍⴼⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏⴳⵜⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ."
"Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs, whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract.","ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵎⴰⵕ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas.,ⵉⵙⵙⵡⵀⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ—ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ.
These developments led to the rise of territorial states and empires.,ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
In Crete the Minoan civilization had entered the Bronze Age by 2700 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.,"ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵜ, ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵃⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 2700 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
"Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world.","ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
"In India, this era was the Vedic period (1750-600 BCE), which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE.","ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⴷⵉⴽ (1750-600 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴰ ⵀⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 6 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"During the formative stage in Mesoamerica (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru.","ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ 500 ⵙⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴱⴱⵉⵔⵓ."
"Karl Jaspers' Axial-Age theory also includes Persian Zoroastrianism, but other scholars dispute his timeline for Zoroastrianism.)","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵙⴳⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵊⴰⵙⴱⵔⵣ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⴰⵕⴰⴷⵉⵜⵛⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵛⵛⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵥⴰⵕⴰⴷⵉⵜⵛⵉⵢⵜ.)"
"These were Taoism, Legalism, and Confucianism.","ⵜⵉⴷ ⴰⵢⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵣⵎ, ⵍⵉⴳⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎ."
The great empires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres.,ⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴳⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ.
There were a number of regional empires during this period.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ.
"The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian empires, including the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE), and the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE).","ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⵎⵉⵏⵜ (550–330 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⵜⵉⵢⵜ (247 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ–224 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ (224–651 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ)."
"Later, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), of Macedon, founded an empire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece to present-day India.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵇⴷⵓⵏⵉⵢ (356–323 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⴽ ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"From the 3rd century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 3 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵊⵓⴱⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ."
The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of Hindu culture in the 4th and 5th centuries.,ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵖⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ 4 ⴷ 5.
"By the time of Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE), the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵓⵡⴹ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ (63 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ – 14 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⵣⵓⵛⵛⵍ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
"The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under Odoacer.","ⵜⴹⵕ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ, ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 476ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⴽⵔ."
The Han dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵔⵉⵔ.
"As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ, ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ 2500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ."
"The great Mayan city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the Yucatán and surrounding areas.","ⵓⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ-ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵓⴽⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ"
"There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ."
"China's Han dynasty fell into civil war in 220 CE, beginning the Three Kingdoms period, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the Crisis of the Third Century.","ⵉⴹⵕ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⴰⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 220 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ."
The development of the stirrup and the breeding of horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations.,ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⴽⴱ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⵡⵓⴷⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵡⵉⵜ.
"The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the Byzantine Empire.",ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢⵜ.
"The era is commonly dated from the 5th-century fall of the Western Roman Empire, which fragmented into many separate kingdoms, some of which would later be confederated under the Holy Roman Empire.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 5, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴹⵕ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰⵎⵜ."
"South Asia saw a series of middle kingdoms of India, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India.","ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ, ⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ."
"This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture.","ⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ, ⵖⵔ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"This was also a cultural battle, with the Byzantine Hellenistic and Christian culture competing against the Persian Iranian traditions and Zoroastrian religion.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵍⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⴷⵉⵜⵛⵉⵢ."
"From their centre on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the early Postclassical Era.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵄⵔⴰⴱⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ."
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵣⴷⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵊⵉⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ.
The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous.,ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵜ-ⵜⴰⵄⵔⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵄⵔⴰⴱⵜ-ⵜⴰⵙⵢⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ.
"Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, European leaders launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the Holy Land.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵔⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴽ, ⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⴷⵙ."
"Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia.","ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵄⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 11 ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵊⵓⵇⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵔⴽⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⴽⵢⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ."
The region will later be called the Barbary Coast and will host pirates and privateers who will use several North African ports for their raids against the coastal towns of several European countries in search of slaves to be sold in North African markets as part of the Barbary slave trade.,"ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴱⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵔⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴱⵔⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ."
"In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 8, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵍⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ."
"After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by a successor state, Chagatai Khanate.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⴽⵉⵣ ⵅⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1227, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵏ, ⵛⴰⴳⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵅⴰⵏⴰⵜ."
The region then became divided into a series of smaller khanates that were created by the Uzbeks.,ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵅⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵣⴱⵉⴽ.
The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire.,ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴱⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ.
"Christianity expanded in western Europe, and monasteries were founded.","ⵜⵏⵏⵖⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵍ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔⵜ."
"Manorialism, the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labour service to nobles, and feudalism, a political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors, were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the High Middle Ages.","ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴽⵔⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵢⵎⵟⵕⵕⵃⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵣⵎ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵟⵕⵕⵃⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ."
Italian merchants imported slaves to work in households or in sugar processing.,ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵕ.
"Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of western Europe.","ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ, ⴷ ⵟⵟⴰⵄⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ."
They eventually gave way to the Zagwe dynasty who are famed for their rock cut architecture at Lalibela.,ⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵥⴰⴳⵡⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵕⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵍⴰ.
"They controlled the trans-Saharan trade in gold, ivory, salt and slaves.","ⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ, ⵍⵄⴰⵊ, ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵔⵉ."
"Central Africa saw the birth of several states, including the Kingdom of Kongo.","ⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ."
"They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Khami, capital of Kingdom of Butua, and Danangombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the Rozvi Empire.","ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵔⵓ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵅⴰⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵓⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⴷⴰⵏⴰⵏⴳⵓⵎⴱⵉ (ⴷⵍⵓ-ⴷⵍⵓ), ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴼⵉ."
"The ninth century saw a Tripartite Struggle for control of northern India, among the Pratihara Empire, the Pala Empire, and the Rashtrakuta Empire.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⴰⵜⵉⵀⴰⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵕⴰⵛⵜⵔⴰⴽⵓⵜⴰ."
"""The Tang dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after half a century of turmoil the Song dynasty reunified China, when it was, according to William McNeill, the """"richest, most skilled, and most populous country on earth"""".""","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳ, ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴳ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⴽⵏⵉⵍ, """"ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵟⵕⵕⵃⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴳ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ""""."""
"After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty (1368).","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴳⵓⵍ ⵢⵓⵡⴰⵏ, ⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴳ (1368)."
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age.,ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 8 ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ.
"The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional lords (daimyos) and the military rule of warlords (shoguns) such as the Ashikaga shogunate and Tokugawa shogunate, stretched from 1185 to 1868.","ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵊⴰⴱⴱⵓⵏⵉⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⵍⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ (ⴷⴰⵢⵎⵢⵓⵙ) ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ (ⵛⵓⴳⵓⵏⵙ) ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵛⵉⴽⴰⴳⴰ ⵛⵓⴳⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⵓⴳⴰⵡⴰ ⵛⵓⴳⵓⵏⴰⵜ, ⵙⴳ 1185 ⴰⵔ 1868."
"Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the Northern and Southern States period (남북국시대), with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north.","ⵛⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴱⴰⵢⴽⵊⵉ ⴳ 660, ⴷ ⴳⵓⵊⵓⵔⵢⵓ ⴳ 668, ⵜⵙⵙⵍⵖⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ (남북국시대), ⴷ ⵛⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⵀⴰⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵊⵓⵊⵓⵕⵢⵓ, ⴳ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"Starting in the 9th century, the Bagan Kingdom rose to prominence in modern Myanmar.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 9, ⵜⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵕ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
"The Ancestral Puebloans and their predecessors (9th – 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.","ⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵉⴱⵍⵓⵡⴰⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, (ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ 9 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 13) ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵕⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19."
"In South America, the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Inca.","ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵜⵓⵍⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ 14 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 15."
"The Scientific Revolution received impetus from Johannes Gutenberg's introduction to Europe of printing, using movable type, and from the invention of the telescope and microscope.","ⵜⵓⴹⴼ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵀⴰⵏⵙ ⴳⵓⵜⵏⴱⵓⵔⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⴳⴳⵣ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱ."
"The late modern period continues either to the end of World War II, in 1945, or to the present.","ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1945, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ."
"The early Modern period was characterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics, and the nation state.","ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜ."
"During the early modern period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes.","ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ, ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ."
It had developed an advanced monetary economy by 1000 CE.,ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1000 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ.
"It enjoyed a technological advantage and had a monopoly in cast iron production, piston bellows, suspension bridge construction, printing, and the compass.","ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵡⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ, ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴳⴳⵯⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⴳⴳⵣ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⵉⵍⵜ."
One theory of Europe's rise holds that Europe's geography played an important role in its success.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ.
This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders.,ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ.
The Golden Age of Islam was ended by the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258.,ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴱⵖⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1258.
Geography contributed to important geopolitical differences.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ.
"By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ."
Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their environments.,ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
Technological advance and the wealth generated by trade gradually brought about a widening of possibilities.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵄⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ.
"Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly—given the continent's geography—was largely the work of its Atlantic states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵙⵔⵄⴱ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ—ⵉⴳ ⵏⵥⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ—ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵟⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⴽⵏ: ⴱⵕⵟⵇⵉⵣ, ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ."
"In North Africa, the Saadi Sultanate remained as an independent Berber state until 1659.","ⴳ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵄⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1659."
The Swahili coast declined after coming under the Portuguese Empire and later the Omani Empire.,ⵜⵛⵡⵡⵕ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵃⵉⵍⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵜⵇⵉⵣⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵎⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.
"The South African Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smaller kingdoms such as Mutapa, Butua, and Rozvi.",ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵜⵓⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵕⵓⵣⴼⵉ.
Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period.,ⵓⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ.
"Japan experienced its Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1603), followed by the Edo period (1603–1868).","ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵜⵛⵉ–ⵎⵓⵎⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰ (1568–1603), ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓ (1603–1868)."
"The Johor Sultanate, centred on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵍⵟⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵀⵓⵕ, ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ."
"Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784, and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812.","ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵎⴹ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1784, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵉⵢ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1812."
"The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously required.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ—ⴰⵙⴰⴽⵯⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ—ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ."
"After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, imperial activities turned to the lands of Asia and Oceania.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵡⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵇⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙⵢⴰ."
"The British also colonized Australia, New Zealand and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.",ⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of nation states, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy.","ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏⵜ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ."
"Meanwhile, industrial pollution and environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⵓⵍⵢ ⵜⵎⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ."
Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan.,ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ: ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ.
"World War I led to the collapse of four empires – Austria-Hungary, the German Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire – and weakened the United Kingdom and France.","ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴹⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ – ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ-ⵀⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵓⵜⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ – ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵃⴼⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
"Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II.","ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ."
"The Cold War ended peacefully in 1991 after the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent fall of the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall, and the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the Warsaw Pact.","ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1991, ⴹⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵡⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⵙⵓ."
"In the early postwar decades, the colonies in Asia and Africa of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French, and other west European empires won their formal independence.","ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ, ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⵊⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ."
"The European Union's effectiveness was handicapped by the immaturity of its common economic and political institutions, somewhat comparable to the inadequacy of United States institutions under the Articles of Confederation prior to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States that came into force in 1789.","ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵥⴳⴳⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1789."
"In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel, artificial satellites with innumerable applications including the Global Positioning System (GPS), and the Internet.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓⵙⵉⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓ!ⵣⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ (GPS), ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ."
"Worldwide competition for natural resources has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China, and Brazil.","ⵢⵓⵍⵢ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ."
An archive is an accumulation of historical records – in any media – or the physical facility in which they are located.,ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ – ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ – ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ.
"""They have been metaphorically defined as """"the secretions of an organism"""", and are distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity.""","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵍⵡⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ """"ⵉⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ"""", ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can often be found within library buildings.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵅⵓⵍⴼ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ."
"Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds (and sometime thousands) of clay tablets going back to the third and second millennia BC in sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusas, Ugarit, and Pylos.","ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴼⴹⵉⵡⵏ) ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵢⵉⴼⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴰ, ⵎⴰⵕⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵏⴰ, ⵀⴰⵜⵓⵙⴰⵙ, ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵜⵉ, ⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⵓⵙ."
"However, they have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus and paper deteriorated at a faster pace, unlike their stone tablet counterparts.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴽⵓⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ ⴳⴳⵣⵏⵜ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ."
England after 1066 developed archives and archival research methods.,ⴹⴰⵕⵜ 1066 ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"While there are many kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types: academic, business (for profit), government, non-profit, and other.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⵃⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ: ⵜⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵉⵏ (ⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔ), ⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓ, ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries.,"ⵉⵡⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵃⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵏ."
"Examples of prominent business archives in the United States include Coca-Cola (which also owns the separate museum World of Coca-Cola), Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Services and Archives, and Levi Strauss & Co. These corporate archives maintain historic documents and items related to the history and administration of their companies.","ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴽⵓⴽⴰ-ⴽⵓⵍⴰ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵉⵣⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵕⵍⴷ ⵓⴼ ⴽⵓⴽⴰ-ⴽⵓⵍⴰ), ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⴽⵜⵔ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵉⴼⵙ, ⵎⵓⵟⵓⵕⵓⵍⴰ ⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜⴰⵊ ⵙⵉⵔⴼⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⵉⴼⵙ, ⴷ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ ⵙⵜⵕⵓⵙ & Co. ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Workers in these types of archives may have any combination of training and degrees, from either a history or library background.","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ."
"In the United States, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) maintains central archival facilities in the District of Columbia and College Park, Maryland, with regional facilities distributed throughout the United States.","ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵃⴱⴱⵓ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ (NARA) ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵉⵊ ⴱⴰⵕⴽ, ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
"In the UK, the National Archives (formerly known as the Public Record Office) is the government archive for England and Wales.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ) ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵥ."
"Put together, the total volume of archives under the supervision of the French Archives Administration is the largest in the world.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ, ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
"Archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes also have archives in the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches.","ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵛⵉⴷⵢⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵉⵛⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵊⵍⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
Often these institutions rely on grant funding from the government as well as the private funds.,ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴼⵏⵉⵇⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
Many museums keep archives in order to prove the provenance of their pieces.,ⵃⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵔⵣ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
This was a separate figure from the 1.3% that identified themselves as self-employed.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ 1.3% ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
"The archive's mission is to gather stories from women who want to express themselves, and want their stories heard.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⵅⴼ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵍⴷ."
"The archives of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain other types of records, such as administrative files, business records, memos, official correspondence, and meeting minutes.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ) ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵀⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"Many of these donations have yet to be cataloged, but are currently in the process of being digitally preserved and made available to the public online.","ⴰⵔ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⴱⵉⵔⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ."
International partners for archives are UNESCO and Blue Shield International in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999.,ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴷ ⴱⵍⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⵏⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⴰⵛⵢⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵀⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1954 ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ 2 ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1999.
"""Page, Morgan M. """"One from the Vaults: Gossip, Access, and Trans History-Telling.""""""","""ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ, ⵎⵓⵕⴳⴰⵏ M. """"ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵏⵉⵇⵏ: ⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰ, ⴰⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."""""""
"An example of this is Morgan M. Page’s description of disseminating transgender history directly to trans people through various social media and networking platforms like tumblr, Twitter, and Instagram, as well as via podcast.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵕⴳⴰⵏ M. ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵕⴰⵏⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴱⵍⵔ, ⵜⵡⵉⵜⵜⵔ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⵙⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵎ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⴱⵓⴷⴽⴰⵙⵜ."
"""With the options available through counter-archiving, there is the potential to """"challenge traditional conceptions of history"""" as they are perceived within contemporary archives, which creates space for narratives that are often not present in many archival materials.""","""ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ-ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵕⵜ ⵏ """"ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ"""" ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ."""
"A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life.","ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"Biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life.","ⵙ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"""Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is De vita Caesarum (""""On the Lives of the Caesars"""") by Suetonius, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor Hadrian.""","""ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⴷⵓ ⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⴽⴰⵢⵙⵔⵓⵎ (""""ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵙⴰⵔⵣ"""") ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏⵢⵓⵙ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 121 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵔ ⵀⴰⴷⵔⵢⴰⵏ."""
"Hermits, monks, and priests used this historic period to write biographies.","ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⵏⴽⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴽⵀⵀⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
One significant secular example of a biography from this period is the life of Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⵏⵀⴰⵔⴷ.
They contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period.,ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
"By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and tyrants began to appear.","ⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⴳⴰⵣⵏ."
"Following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.","ⴹⴰⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵓⵔⵉ, ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵄⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵇⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the printing press in the 15th century and the gradual increase in literacy.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ: ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 15 ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⵍⴼ.
"Influential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.","ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵕⴰⵜⵏ, ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵉⵔⴰⵜ (1724), ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵙ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
Carlyle asserted that the lives of great human beings were essential to understanding society and its institutions.,ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⵉⵢⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Boswell's work was unique in its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of Johnson's life and character – a formula which serves as the basis of biographical literature to this day.","ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵡⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵎⵎⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵓⵏ – ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"However, the number of biographies in print experienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading public.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
Periodicals began publishing a sequence of biographical sketches.,ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ.
"""Sociological"""" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality.""","""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ """"ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ"""" ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷⵜ."""
The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality.,ⵢⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵃⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ.
"""Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been """"as familiar as the cortège of the undertaker"""", and wore the same air of """"slow, funereal barbarism.""""""","ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⵜⵕⴰⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ """"ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵃⴰⵔⵔⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵔⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ"""", ⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ """"ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ."""""""
"The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.","ⵢⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⵏⴼⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵍⵊⵕⵉⵢⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ."
"""Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of """"debunking biographies.""""""","ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⵕⵓⴱⵔⵜ ⴳⵔⵉⴼⵣ (ⵏⴽ, ⴽⵍⵓⴷⵢⵓⵙ, 1934) ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵕⴰⵛⵉⵙ ⴳ """"ⵓⴼⴹⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ."""""""
"By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular.","ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵎ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Along with documentary biographical films, Hollywood produced numerous commercial films based on the lives of famous people.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵎⵜ, ⵜⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵀⵓⵍⵉⵡⵓⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵡⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
"Unlike books and films, they often do not tell a chronological narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete media elements related to an individual person, including video clips, photographs, and text articles.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏ: ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵕⴰⴹⵏ."
"""General """"life writing"""" techniques are a subject of scholarly study.""","ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ """"ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ"""" ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."""
"""The information can come from """"oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography” or """"diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials"""".""","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ """"ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ” ⵏⵖⴷ """"ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ""""."""
"European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes.","ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ 9 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 10, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⵓⵍⵏⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ."
"Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⴼⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵙⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 12 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ 13, ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ."
"These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences, such as Roman forts.","ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⵙⴳⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⵉⴽⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
"Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵍⴱⴰⵕⵓⴹ ⵙ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 14, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 15, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵓⵙ ⵓⵟⴱⵊⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵕⵥⵥⴰ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ."
"Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for military service and the expectation of loyalty, the lord would grant the vassal land.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⵕ."
"Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, and domestic.","ⵙⵏⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ, ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵀⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ."
"As William the Conqueror advanced through England, he fortified key positions to secure the land he had taken.","ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵕⵥⵓⵎ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⵉⴼⵔⴳ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ."
A castle could act as a stronghold and prison but was also a place where a knight or lord could entertain his peers.,"ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵏⵉⵇ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"In different areas of the world, analogous structures shared features of fortification and other defining characteristics associated with the concept of a castle, though they originated in different periods and circumstances and experienced differing evolutions and influences.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ."
"By the 16th century, when Japanese and European cultures met, fortification in Europe had moved beyond castles and relied on innovations such as the Italian trace italienne and star forts.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵡⴹ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⴳ ⵎⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"The excavation of earth to make the mound left a ditch around the motte, called a moat (which could be either wet or dry).","ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵄⵔⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵅⴱⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴱⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵔⵔⴰⵙ, (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵡⵉⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵣⵡⴰ)."
"It was a common feature of castles, and most had at least one.","ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴱⵄⴷⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ."
Water was supplied by a well or cistern.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵛⵛⴰⵔⵉⵊ.
"Although often associated with the motte-and-bailey type of castle, baileys could also be found as independent defensive structures.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵎⵓⵜⵜ-ⴷ-ⴱⵉⵍⵉ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
"""Keep"""" was not a term used in the medieval period – the term was applied from the 16th century onwards – instead """"donjon"""" was used to refer to great towers, or turris in Latin.""","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ""ⵃⴷⵓ"""" ⵉⵔⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ – ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16 ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ – ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ """"ⴷⵓⵏⵊⵓⵏ"""" ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵍⴱⵔⵓⵊ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ."""
"Although often the strongest part of a castle and a last place of refuge if the outer defences fell, the keep was not left empty in case of attack but was used as a residence by the lord who owned the castle, or his guests or representatives.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵃⵕⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⴳ ⴹⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵉⵅⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴳⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Walkways along the tops of the curtain walls allowed defenders to rain missiles on enemies below, and battlements gave them further protection.","ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⴳⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵛⵏⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ."
"The front of the gateway was a blind spot and to overcome this, projecting towers were added on each side of the gate in a style similar to that developed by the Romans.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵊ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵕⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏ."
The passage through the gatehouse was lengthened to increase the amount of time an assailant had to spend under fire in a confined space and unable to retaliate.,ⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ.
"They were most likely used to drop objects on attackers, or to allow water to be poured on fires to extinguish them.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴹⴰⵕ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⴳⵉⵜⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵅⵙⵉⵏ."
A smaller horizontal opening could be added to give an archer a better view for aiming.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵅⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⴷ.
"The earliest fortifications originated in the Fertile Crescent, the Indus Valley, Egypt, and China where settlements were protected by large walls.","ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⴷⵓ ⴼⵉⵔⵜⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"Many earthworks survive today, along with evidence of palisades to accompany the ditches.","ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵔⴰⵙⵏ."
"Although primitive, they were often effective, and were only overcome by the extensive use of siege engines and other siege warfare techniques, such as at the Battle of Alesia.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵕⵡⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴳⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵢⴰ."
"Discussions have typically attributed the rise of the castle to a reaction to attacks by Magyars, Muslims, and Vikings and a need for private defence.",ⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵊⴰⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ.
"Some high concentrations of castles occur in secure places, while some border regions had relatively few castles.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ."
Building the hall in stone did not necessarily make it immune to fire as it still had windows and a wooden door.,ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⴼⵔⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ.
Castles were not just defensive sites but also enhanced a lord's control over his lands.,"ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"In 864 the King of West Francia, Charles the Bald, prohibited the construction of castella without his permission and ordered them all to be destroyed.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 864 ⵉⵙⴳⴷⵍ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴰⵎⵊⵊⵓⴹ, ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵅⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
"Switzerland is an extreme case of there being no state control over who built castles, and as a result there were 4,000 in the country.","ⵙⵡⵉⵙⵕⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵟⵟⴰⵕⴼⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ 4,000 ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ."
"In 950 Provence was home to 12 castles, by 1000 this figure had risen to 30, and by 1030 it was over 100.","ⴳ 950 ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵕⵓⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ 12 ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵢⵓⵍⵢ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ 30 ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1000, ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1030 ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 100."
"In the early 11th century, the motte and keep – an artificial mound with a palisade and tower on top – was the most common form of castle in Europe, everywhere except Scandinavia.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 11, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⵓⵜⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴱ – ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴱⵕⵊ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ – ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉⵏⴷⵉⵏⴰⴼⵉⵏ."
"Although stone construction would later become common elsewhere, from the 11th century onwards it was the primary building material for Christian castles in Spain, while at the same time timber was still the dominant building material in north-west Europe.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 11 ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Before the 12th century castles were as uncommon in Denmark as they had been in England before the Norman Conquest.,"ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 12, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵕⴽ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢ."
"Their decoration emulated Romanesque architecture, and sometimes incorporated double windows similar to those found in church bell towers.","ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵓⴷⵇⵇⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴱⵔⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⵓⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵏ."
"Although superseded by their stone successors, timber and earthwork castles were by no means useless.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴹⵕⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
"Until the late 12th century castles generally had few towers; a gateway with few defensive features such as arrowslits or a portcullis; a great keep or donjon, usually square and without arrowslits; and the shape would have been dictated by the lay of the land (the result was often irregular or curvilinear structures).","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 12, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵊ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵅⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴱⵓⵕⵜⵛⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙ; ⴰⵇⵔⴱⵓⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⵓⵏⵊⵓⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵣ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵅⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ; ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵜⴰ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ)."
The towers would have protruded from the walls and featured arrowslits on each level to allow archers to target anyone nearing or at the curtain wall.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⵖⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵊ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵅⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵊⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ.
"Where keeps did exist, they were no longer square but polygonal or cylindrical.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵍ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵣⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ."
"Probably developed in the 12th century, the towers provided flanking fire.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵊ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 12, ⴳ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰ."
It seemed that the Crusaders had learned much about fortification from their conflicts with the Saracens and exposure to Byzantine architecture.,ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵉⵚⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢⵜ.
"Legends were discredited, and in the case of James of Saint George it was proven that he came from Saint-Georges-d'Espéranche, in France.","ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⵔⵣ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴷⵉⵙⴱⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜⵛ, ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
"""The castle builders of Western Europe were aware of and influenced by Roman design; late Roman coastal forts on the English """"Saxon Shore"""" were reused and in Spain the wall around the city of Ávila imitated Roman architecture when it was built in 1091.""","""ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚⵏ ⵉⵙⵙ; ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ """"ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⴽⵙⵓⵏⵉⵢ"""" ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢ ⴷ ⴳ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1091."""
An example of this approach is Kerak.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⵕⴰⴽ.
The castles they founded to secure their acquisitions were designed mostly by Syrian master-masons.,ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵄⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵚⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ.
"While castles were used to hold a site and control movement of armies, in the Holy Land some key strategic positions were left unfortified.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵄⵣⵣⴰⵏ, ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴳⵓⵏⴼⴰⵏ."
"Design varied not just between orders, but between individual castles, though it was common for those founded in this period to have concentric defences.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
If assailants made it past the first line of defence they would be caught in the killing ground between the inner and outer walls and have to assault the second wall.,"ⵉⴳ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵙⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ."
"For instance, it was common in Crusader castles to have the main gate in the side of a tower and for there to be two turns in the passageway, lengthening the time it took for someone to reach the outer enclosure.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵊ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ."
"Although there were hundreds of wooden castles in Prussia and Livonia, the use of bricks and mortar was unknown in the region before the Crusaders.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵚⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵢⵏ."
"Arrowslits did not compromise the wall's strength, but it was not until Edward I's programme of castle building that they were widely adopted in Europe.","ⵓⵔ ⵟⵟⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ."
"Although machicolations performed the same purpose as the wooden galleries, they were probably an Eastern invention rather than an evolution of the wooden form.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵍⵎⴰⵛⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ."
"Conflict and interaction between the two groups led to an exchange of architectural ideas, and Spanish Christians adopted the use of detached towers.","ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵓ, ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵊ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"""French historian François Gebelin wrote: """"The great revival in military architecture was led, as one would naturally expect, by the powerful kings and princes of the time; by the sons of William the Conqueror and their descendants, the Plantagenets, when they became dukes of Normandy.""","""ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⵊⵉⴱⵍⵉⵏ: """"ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵜⵉⵃ ⴰⵎⵕⵥⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰⵊⵏⵜⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵇⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ."""
"The new castles were generally of a lighter build than earlier structures and presented few innovations, although strong sites were still created such as that of Raglan in Wales.","ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵕⴰⵊⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵍⵥ."
"These guns were too heavy for a man to carry and fire, but if he supported the butt end and rested the muzzle on the edge of the gun port he could fire the weapon.","ⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵜⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⴼⵜ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⴱⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ."
"This adaptation is found across Europe, and although the timber rarely survives, there is an intact example at Castle Doornenburg in the Netherlands.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴹⵓⵔⵏⴻⵏⴱⵓⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ."
"Other types of port, though less common, were horizontal slits – allowing only lateral movement – and large square openings, which allowed greater movement.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏⵜ, ⵜⵉⵅⴱⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ – ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ – ⴷ ⵜⵅⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ."
"Ham is an example of the trend for new castles to dispense with earlier features such as machicolations, tall towers, and crenellations.","ⵀⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵖⵏ, ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵊ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵍⵖⵉⵏ."
"In an effort to make them more effective, guns were made ever bigger, although this hampered their ability to reach remote castles.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔⵏⵜ ⵊⵊⵡⵉⵊⴰⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵣⵎⵉⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ."
"While this sufficed for new castles, pre-existing structures had to find a way to cope with being battered by cannon.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴷⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵟⴱⵊⵉ."
A solution to this was to pull down the top of a tower and to fill the lower part with the rubble to provide a surface for the guns to fire from.,ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵅⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵊ ⴷ ⵓⵜⴽⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴳⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴱⵊⵉ.
"From this evolved star forts, also known as trace italienne.",ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵉⵜⵔ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⴰⵏ.
The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵓⵢⵉⵙⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵏⵄ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵎⴷⴰⴼⵉⵄ.
Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies.,ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.
"Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴱⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴳⵯ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵊⴷⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵟ 17 ⴷⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵡⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ.
"The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner.",ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⴰⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵀⴰⵢⵎ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⵓ ⵏⵍ ⴱⴰⵢⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵇⵏⴰⵜ.
"Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use.",ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵓⴱⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ 16 ⵙⵓⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
In other cases they still had a role in defence.,ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵖⵄⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵔⵉ.
"In later conflicts, such as the English Civil War (1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently slighted to prevent them from being used again.",ⴳⵯ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⴳⵯⵍⵉⵣ (1641-1651) ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⵙⵃⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵄⵔ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⵯⴰⵏ.
"Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture.","ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵄⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰ."
This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵇⵇⵕⴼⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
"Follies were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built.","ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵉⵄⴷⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵅⵔⴱⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce.","ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴱⵓⵜ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴷⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material.,ⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"In the middle were castles such as Orford, which was built in the late 12th century for UK£1,400, and at the upper end were those such as Dover, which cost about UK£7,000 between 1181 and 1191.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⴼⵓⵕⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 12 ⵙ 1,400 £ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⵢⴰⵍ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴷⵓⴼⵕ, ⵜⵉⴷ ⵛⵛⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 7,000 £ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1181 ⴷ 1191."
"The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from UK£1,000 to UK£10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances.","ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ (ⴳ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙⴳ 1,000 £ ⴰⵔ 10,000 £ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ) ⵙⴳ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ."
"Medieval machines and inventions, such as the treadwheel crane, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden scaffolding were improved upon from Antiquity.","ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵍⴰⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ."
"Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ, ⵖⴰⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵕⴽ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ."
"For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1430 ⴷ 1450, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⴽⵕⵓⵎⵡⵉⵍⵍ, ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ."
"He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡⴰⵙ, ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ."
"This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ."
"Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious.","ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵕⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⵢⴰⵍⵏ."
As social centres castles were important places for display.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵓⵢⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ.
"Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
Courtly love was the eroticisation of love between the nobility.,ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵣⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ.
The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.
The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵖⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet.","ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ."
"For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
"Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⴷⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 11 ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ."
"Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain.","ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵛⵛⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵉⵣⴷⴳ."
The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe.,ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⴼⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
"Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures occupying the desired site.","ⴳ ⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"When the Normans invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵕⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵙⴰ 11 ⴷ 12, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ."
"This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society.","ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"Another example is that of the 14th-century Bodiam Castle, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⵢⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 14, ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⴰⵛⴱⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵍⵢ."
Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important.,ⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉ ⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ.
"In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1403, ⵜⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ 37 ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵢⴰⵕⵏⴰⵕⴼⵓⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵡⵡⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⵍⵢⵏⴷⵡⵔⵣ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵛⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class.,"ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ."
"It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵙ ⵍⴰⵥ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵖ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ."
"A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵡⵓ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⴰⵛⵏⴳⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers.","ⴰⵔ ⵎⴽ ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴽⵯⴰⵢⵏ."
"The trebuchet, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons.","ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴱⵓⵛⵉⵜ, ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 13, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ."
Ballistas or springalds were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows.,ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵎⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⴳⴰⵍⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵍⵢ ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵓⵙⵙⴱⵓⵡ.
They were more commonly used against the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
"A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned.","ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⴱ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⵙ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⵉⵔⵔⴷⵍ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ."
"A counter-mine could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴼⵓⵔⴰⴳ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵔⴷⴷⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a siege tower, sometimes called a belfry.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵓⵣ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴱⵉⵍⴼⵔⵉ."
"The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵏⴷⵓⵎ (ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ) ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ."
"The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).","ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ), ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ)."
"""In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with """"commons"""" as the second estate.""","“ⴳ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴳ ““ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ”” ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ.”"
"""In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or """"burghers"""" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class.""","“ⴳ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵅⵖⴰⵏ (ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ), ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ (ⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ), ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵛⴰⵢⵔ, """"ⵉⴱⵓⵔⴳⵔⵏ"""" (ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ), ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ.”"
"Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation.","ⵙ ⵡⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ."
"Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47).","ⵀⵢⵓⵣⵉⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (1919, 1924:47)."
Commoners were universally considered the lowest order.,ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ.
In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.,ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⵍ.
"The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect.","ⵉⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ; ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴽⵉⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ."
"The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous.","ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵉⴽⵔⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ."
"In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring.","ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ, ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵓⵃⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it.,ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ.
"In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 1776, ⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⴳⵓⵜ, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ."
"When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation.","ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵏⵢⴰⵏ ‘ⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ’ ⵢⴰⵏⴼ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ XVI ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⴳⵢ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵎⵃ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons.","ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵊⴷⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ."
"""As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium """"great council"""" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots).""","“ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵉⵕⵕⴰ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵎ ⴽⵓⵏⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ """"ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ"""" ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ (ⴽⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⵔⵉⵊⵉⵙ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵟⵏ (ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵜⵏ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵓⵙⵏ (ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ).”"
"In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1297, ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵔ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ)."
"Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates.","ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵖⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵟⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 18, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ."
"However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢ ⴰ, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴼⵓ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1863."
"Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1400, ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1561 ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵕⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1625 ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵍⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles.,ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ.
This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ.
"In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰ."
"Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds.","ⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵡⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵍⴰ."
"In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights.","ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵏ."
"Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵅⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district.,"ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵣⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ."
They had no political rights and could not vote.,ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ.
"In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property.","ⴳ ⵙⵙⵡⵉⴷ, ⵔⵔⵉⴽⵙⴷⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵔⵔⵉⴽⵙⴷⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1866, ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ."
"In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772.","ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵢⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1906, ⵉⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵡⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1772."
"Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system.","ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ, ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ."
Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled.,ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 15 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 16 ⴱⵔⵓⴽⵙⵉⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
"As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands.","ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵅⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1579 ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱⴱ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵚⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ."
It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands.,ⵙⵢⵉⴼⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵛⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ.
"In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632.","ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵀⴰⴱⵙⴱⵓⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ 1600 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ 1632."
"It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution.","ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ : ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1798."
"In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1815, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵍⵊⵉⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵓⵎⴱⵓⵔⴳ, ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ: ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
"From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1848 ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ; ⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1919), ⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ."
"The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries.",ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜⵏ.
"Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵉ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⵜⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵜ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ."
"The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein.","ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ : ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ,, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities.","ⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ), ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴱⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"""Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted """"the bourgeoisie"""".""","“ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜⵏ (ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⴱ), ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵡⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ““ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ””.”"
"Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed.",ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ (ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ) ⴷ ⵉⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ.
They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵢ ⵏⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ.
"The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history.","ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ."
"These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time.","ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎ ⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⴳⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴼⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ."
"In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵏ ⵀⵉⵜⵍⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⵅⴼⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴽ."
"""Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie """"know nothing except their profit. '""",“ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵀⵉⵜⵍⵔ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ””ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ.””
The utility of these things was inherent in their practical functions.,ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"Belle de Jour (Beauty of the day, 1967) tells the story of a bourgeois wife who is bored with her marriage and decides to prostitute herself.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⴱⵉⵍ ⴷⵓ ⵊⵓⵔ (ⵜⴰⵃⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ, 1967) ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵔⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵎⵉⵥⵜ."
"In Europe, the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of Western Europe.","ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ."
"In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation.",ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⴰⵙⵎⵍ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴹⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"Their status was officially recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1514, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1547."
"Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the Kings of Persia and others, are often considered as the equivalent.","ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵉⴼ."
Empire became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.,ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵏⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⵙ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 18.
"""Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex (""""king""""), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule.""","“ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⵎⵓⵣⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴽⵙ (“”ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ””), ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ.”"
"Augustus, considered the first Roman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man.","ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜⵓⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ, ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ."
"""However, it was the informal descriptive of Imperator (""""commander"""") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors.""","“ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ (““ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ””) ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.”"
This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of Caesar Augustus to Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria's removal from the throne in 1946.,ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ: ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵇⴰⵢⵚⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵇⴰⵢⵚⴰⵕ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜⵓⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵇⴰⵢⵚⴰⵕ ⵙⵉⵎⵢⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⵖⴰⵕⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1946.
"Exceptions include the title of the Augustan History, a semi-historical collection of Emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century.","ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 2 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 3."
"Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning Emperors would receive it.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ."
"In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, Imperator was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the Roman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable to field marshal (head or commander of the entire army).","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵉ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵕⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵕⵛⴰⵍ (ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ)."
"The succeeding Nervan-Antonian Dynasty, ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the Empire.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 2."
"Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire, the Britannic Empire, and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used rex more regularly.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵖⵓⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ: ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵍⵎⵉⵔⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵔⵉⴽⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
"At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the imperium (see: Tetrarchy).","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵜⵏ (ⵥⵕ: ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵛⵉ)."
The city is more commonly called Constantinople and is today named Istanbul).,ⵜⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵟⴰⵎⴱⵓⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⵙⵟⴰⵏⴱⵓⵍ).
"""These Later Roman """"Byzantine"""" Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as an absolute monarch.""",“ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ “” ⵉⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜⵏ”” ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴳⵏⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ.”
"""Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word """"autokrator"""", meaning """"one who rules himself"""", or """"monarch"""", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin dictator.""","“ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜ ““ⵓⴷⵓⴽⵜⴰⵜⵓⵜ””, ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ““ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ”” ⵏⵖ ⴷ ““ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ””, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵜⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ.”"
"In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.",ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ (ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ) ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ.
"""Following the tragedy of the horrific sacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new """"Empire of Romania"""", known to historians as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, installing Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, as Emperor.""","“ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵇⴷⴷⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵢⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⵙⵙⴰⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵍⵖⵓ ““ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ”” ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵔⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⵚⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏⵜ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴱⴰⵍⴷⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵥⴰ. ⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵍⴰⵏⴷⵔⵣ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ.”"
"From the time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴼⴼⵉ ⴰⵙ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵟⵓⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ."
This junior King then bore the title of Roman King (King of the Romans).,ⵉⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉ (ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵏ).
The Holy Roman Emperor was considered the first among those in power.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⴳ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ.
Geography is often defined in terms of two branches: human geography and physical geography.,ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ: ⵜⴰⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ.
"Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names.","ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ, ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ."
"Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵊⵖⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵜⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"The former largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ, ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ."
"It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, like the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵙⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.
"Regional science: In the 1950s, the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs.","ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ: ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵓⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ 1950, ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵡⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵜⵕ ⵉⵣⴰⵕⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜⵏ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ."
Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.,ⵉⴳⵎⴰ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴹⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ.
"In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems.","ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵓⴼⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ."
"Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵍⵓⵊⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵜ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍ, ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ, ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵍⵓⵊⵉⵙⵢⵜⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ."
"""The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a """"bitter river"""" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.""","“ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⵟⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⵀⴰⵕⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵅⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢ ““ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵎⵕⵥⴰⴳ”” (ⵓⵙⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙ), ⴷ ⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ.”"
"In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵉ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 9 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔⵙⵙ ⵎⴰⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⴳ."
Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses.,ⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ.
"There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵎⵎⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰ ⴱⴰⵕⵎⵉⵏⵉⴷⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ."
One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵕⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵉⵙ.
"The meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes).","ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵅⴼ 360°, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ 60 (ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ)."
"He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.","ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⴱⴰⵕⵛⵓⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ 56.5 ⵎⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ."
"During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵜⵉⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵖⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎ."
"Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.",ⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵙⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵖⴷⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ.
Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.,ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⴰⴱⵓ ⵔⵉⵃⴰⵏ ⴱⵉⵕⵓⵏⵉ (976–1048) ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
"He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵄⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ."
The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location.,ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉ.
"The 18th and the 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin).","ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵜⵢ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ (ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵍⵉⵏ)."
"Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools.","ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ."
"Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow.","ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴰⵕⵏⵓⵍⴷ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⴳⵓⵢⵓⵜ (1807–1884) – ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵔⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ."
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.,ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵕⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵙ (1850–1934) – ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵖⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵢⵉⵛⵛ.
Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the Association of American Geographers.,ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵔⵛⵉⵍ ⵙⵉⵎⴱⵍ (1863–1932) – ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ.
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.,ⵡⴰⴽⵜⵕ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵔ (1893–1969) – ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.
"David Harvey (born 1935) – Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.","ⴷⵉⴼⵉⴷ ⵀⴰⵕⴼⵉ (ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ 1935) – ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⴷ."
"In some cases, a distinction is made between the official (constitutional) capital and the seat of government, which is in another place.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ (ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
"Examples are ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, ancient Athens, Rome, Bratislava, Budapest, Constantinople, Chang'an, ancient Cusco, Kyiv, Madrid, Paris, Podgorica, London, Beijing, Prague, Tallinn, Tokyo, Lisbon, Riga, Vilnius, and Warsaw.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ, ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⵄⴱⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⴱⵖⴷⴰⴷ, ⴰⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⵕⵓⵎⴰ, ⴱⵕⴰⵜⵉⵙⵍⴰⴼⴰ, ⴱⵓⴷⴰⴱⵙⵜ, ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵙⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏⵜ, ⵜⵛⴰⵏⴳⴰⵏ, ⴽⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⴽⵢⵉⴼ, ⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⴷ, ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⴱⵓⴷⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵙⴰ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ, ⴱⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ, ⴱⵔⴰⴳ, ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏⵏ, ⵟⵓⴽⵢⵓ, ⵍⵉⵛⴱⵓⵏⴰ, ⵔⵉⴳⴰ, ⴼⵉⵍⵏⵢⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵙⴰⵡ."
"In some countries, the capital has been changed for geopolitical reasons; Finland's first city, Turku, which had served as the country's capital since the Middle Ages under the Swedish rule, lost its right during the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1812, when Helsinki was made the current capital of Finland by the Russian Empire.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ; ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵜⵓⵕⴽⵓ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵡⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⴳ ⴷⵓⵇⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1812, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵀⵉⵍⵙⵉⵏⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ."
"In Canada, there is a federal capital, while the ten provinces and three territories each have capital cities.","ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵜ, ⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"""In Australia, the term """"capital cities"""" is regularly used to refer to those six state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra, and Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory.""","“ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵟⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ““ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ”” ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴹⵉⵚⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵕⴰⵍⵜ ⴽⴰⵏⴱⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹⵜ.”"
"Unlike in federations, there is usually not a separate national capital, but rather the capital city of one constituent nation will also be the capital of the state overall, such as London, which is the capital of England and of the United Kingdom.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵜⵉⵢⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵏⴹⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
The national capitals of Germany and Russia (the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the federal city of Moscow) are also constituent states of both countries in their own right.,ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ (ⵙⵜⴰⴷⵙⵜⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴽⵓ) ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ.
"Frankfort, Kentucky, midway between Louisville and Lexington.","ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⴼⵓⵕⵜ, ⴽⵉⵏⵟⴰⴽⵉ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵡⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵍⵡⵉⵙⴼⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴽⵙⵉⵏⴳⵜⵓⵏ."
"Tallahassee, Florida, chosen as the midpoint between Pensacola and St. Augustine, Florida – then the two largest cities in Florida.","ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵀⴰⵙⵙⵉ, ⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⴹⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵙⴰⴽⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ, ⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⴹⴰ – ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⴹⴰ."
Changes in a nation's political regime sometimes result in the designation of a new capital.,ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵢⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.
"When the Canary Islands became an autonomous community in 1982, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria were both given capital status.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1982, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴽⵔⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵙ ⵃⴰⵍⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ."
Estonia: the Supreme Court and the Ministry of Education and Research are located in Tartu.,ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏⵢⴰ : ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵓ.
"In case of emergency, the seat of the constitutional powers can be transferred to another town, in order for the Houses of Parliament to sit in the same location as the President and Cabinet.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵜⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ."
The entire state machinery shifts from one city to another every six months.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⴽⵓ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ.
"Dharamshala, which is also the headquarters of the Central Tibetan Administration, is the second winter capital of the state.","ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵎⵛⴰⵍⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⴱⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵙⵜ."
The city itself is administered as a Union territory.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ.
"Uttarakhand: Dehradun is the administrative and legislative capital, while the high court is located in Nainital.","ⵓⵜⴰⵕⴰⵅⴰⵏⴷ: ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⵉⵀⵕⴰⴷⵓⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵙⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵏⴰⵢⵏⵉⵜⴰⵍ."
Its construction started in 1960 and was completed in 1966.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1960 ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1966.
The presidential palace (Malacanang Palace) and the Supreme Court are located within the capital city but the two houses of Congress are located in separate suburbs.,"ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵜ (ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⴽⴰⵏⴰⵏⴳ) ⴷ ⵜⵙⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵏⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ."
"""Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is designated the administrative capital and the location of the parliament, while the former capital, Colombo, is now designated as the """"commercial capital"""".""","“ⵙⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ: ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵊⴰⵢⴰⵡⴰⵔⴷⵉⵏⵉⴱⵓⵔⴰ ⴽⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ““ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ””.”"
"South Africa: The administrative capital is Pretoria, the legislative capital is Cape Town, and the judicial capital is Bloemfontein.","ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ: ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⵔⵉⵟⵓⵔⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴽⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴱⵍⵓⵎⴼⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏ."
Switzerland: Bern is the Federal City of Switzerland and functions as de facto capital.,ⵙⵡⵉⵙⵕⴰ: ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵡⵉⵙⵕⴰ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Also similar to Illinois and New York State, most statewide elected officials and officers who are based in Southeast Pennsylvania (City of Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery County, Delaware County, and Chester County) prefer working mostly in Philadelphia.","ⴰⵎ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⴱⵏⵙⵉⵍⴼⴰⵏⵢⴰ(ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⴰⴷⵉⵍⴼⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴽⵙ, ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴳⵓⵎⵔⵉ, ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵙⵜⵔ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵍⴰⴷⵍⵉⴼⵢⴰ"
Israel and Palestine: Both the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital.,ⵉⵙⵕⵢⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴷⵉⵍⵉⵙⵟⵉⵏ: ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⴷⵙ.
A symbolic relocation of a capital city to a geographically or demographically peripheral location may be for either economic or strategic reasons (sometimes known as a forward capital or spearhead capital).,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵣⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ).
The Ming emperors moved their capital to Beijing from the more central Nanjing to help supervise the border with the Mongols.,ⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴱⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵏⴰⵏⵊⵉⵏⴳ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ.
"Delhi finally became the colonial capital after the Coronation Durbar of King-Emperor George V in 1911, continuing as independent India's capital from 1947.","ⵜⴷⵡⵍ ⴷⵉⵍⵀⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵜ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵕⴱⴰⵕ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵉ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵣⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1911, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1947."
"Sometimes, the location of a new capital city was chosen to terminate actual or potential squabbling between various entities, such as in the cases of Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington and Managua.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⴱⵉⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵜⴰⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵛⵉⵏⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵉⵏⴳⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⴳⵓⵡⴰ."
"In the Three Kingdoms period, both Shu and Wu fell when their respective capitals of Chengdu and Jianye fell.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵛⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵓ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴹⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵏⴳⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵊⵢⴰⵏⵉ."
"After the Qing dynasty's collapse, decentralization of authority and improved transportation and communication technologies allowed both the Chinese Nationalists and Chinese Communists to rapidly relocate capitals and keep their leadership structures intact during the great crisis of Japanese invasion.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵛⵉⵏⴳ, ⵜⵙⴰⵎⵃ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵊⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉ."
It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴼⴽ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ.
"Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵔⵎ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming and global health.","ⵉⴹⵉⵕ ⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴰⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵕⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴰⵏⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change.","ⵙ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ."
"For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴱⵉⴽⵉⵏ, ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ, ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ, ⵎⵓⵙⴽⵓ, ⵏⴰⵢⵔⵓⴱⵉ, ⵏⵢⵓⴷⵉⵍⵀⵉ, ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⵕⵓⵎⴰ, ⴰⵜⵉⵏⴰ, ⵙⵢⵓⵍ, ⵟⵓⴽⵢⵓ, ⵡⴰⵛⵉⵏⵟⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ."
"The city may be looked on as a story, a pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵜ."
"National censuses use a variety of definitions - invoking factors such as population, population density, number of dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure - to classify populations as urban.",ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴹⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ - ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ - ⵉ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
"The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ: ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵀⴰ."
"As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence.","ⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴱⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵀⵔⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⵉⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ."
Physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ.
And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ.
"This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵥⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ."
"In cities such as Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⴽⵓ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ."
"Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion.",ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵅⵏⵜⴼⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ.
China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
"These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵀⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ."
"In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵏⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵍⵜⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (coloniae), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.","ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ (ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰ), ⴳ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.,ⵜⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏⵓⵕⵜ ⵛⵉⴽⵓ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 30 ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵕⵜ ⵛⵉⴽⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ.
"The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba.",ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵇⵓⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵖⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵇⴰⵀⵉⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵇⵓⵕⵟⵓⴱⴰ.
"By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵡⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⴷⵡⵍⵏⵜ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ, ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade.,ⵙⵙⴱⵖⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⵍⵓⵏⴹⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ) ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵟ.
England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing.,ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵍⵓⵏⴹⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ.
"Entrepreneurial leadership became manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations.","ⵜⴷⵡⵍ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⴷⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵙⴰⵕⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵖⵎⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"""The results were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entertainment, museums, and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and waterfront development.""""""",““ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ; ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ; ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴷ ⵡⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵔⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ; ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.””
"Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 18, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⴰⵡⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ."
The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents.,ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴷⴷⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵓⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.
"Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen, China and Niamey, Niger, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⴰⵜⴰⵎ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵛⵓ, ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵛⵢⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵏⵉⵢⴰⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⵊⵔ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵙⴳ 5–8%."
"The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion citydwellers (and 300 million fewer countrydwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa.","ⴷⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ 2.5 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ (ⴷ 300 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ) ⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ 2050, ⵙ 90% ⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ."
"A deep gulf divides rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴷⵀⵛⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰⵡ ⵉⴷⵀⵛⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ."
"""Yet municipalities routinely enact sweeping by-laws directed at open ended (and ill-defined) offences such as loitering and obstruction, requiring permits for protests or requiring residents and homeowners to remove snow from the city's sidewalks.""""""","“ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⴽⴽⴰⴹⵏ (ⵎⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ) ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴼⵜⵉⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴼ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ.”””"
"These are provided more or less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴽ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
"""These production oriented criteria often give rise to """"service deliver rules"""", regularized procedures for the delivery of services, which are attempts to codify the productivity goals of urban service bureaucracies.""","“ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ““ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ””, ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵓⵔⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.”"
"""""""Robert L. Lineberry, """"Mandating Urban Equality: The Distribution of Municipal Public Services""""; in Hahn & Levine (1980).""","“““ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵕⵜ ⵍ. ⵍⵉⵏⵉⴱⵉⵔⵔⵉ, ““ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ: ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ””, ⴳ ⵀⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷ ⵍⵉⴼⵉⵏ (1980).”"
"However, financing municipal services, as well as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services into the private sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradable financial instruments and derivatives).","ⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵥⵍⵢ (ⴰⵣⵣⵏⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ), ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ (ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵏⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ (ⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵏⵣⴰ)."
"""The impact of globalization and the role of multinational corporations in local governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away from the """"urban regime theory"""" in which a coalition of local interests functionally govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics with the philosophy of neoliberalism.""","ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴰⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵉ ““ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ”” ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴹ ⵜⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴹⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵖⵔ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.””"
"Planning tools, beyond the original design of the city itself, include public capital investment in infrastructure and land-use controls such as zoning.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ."
"""Also available to cities in their implementation of planning objectives are municipal powers of zoning, subdivision control and the regulation of building, housing and sanitation principles.""""""","“ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴼⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵉⵖ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ.”””"
"People living relatively close together may live, work, and play, in separate areas, and associate with different people, forming ethnic or lifestyle enclaves or, in areas of concentrated poverty, ghettoes.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ."
"""Suburbs in the west, and, increasingly, gated communities and other forms of """"privatopia"""" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and exclusive neighborhoods.""","“ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵏⵜ, ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ““ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ”” ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ.”"
"This outcast proletariat—perhaps 1.5 billion people today, 2.5 billion by 2030—is the fastest-growing and most novel social class on the planet.","ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵓⵍⵉⵟⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⵓⴹⵜ—ⵜⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷ 1.5 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ, 2.5 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⴳ 2030— ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵍⴼⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
It is ontologically both similar and dissimilar to the historical agency described in the Communist Manifesto.,ⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵓⵔⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵍ ⴰⵏⵊⵎⴰⵡ.
As hubs of trade cities have long been home to retail commerce and consumption through the interface of shopping.,ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵎⵙⵖⵉⵡⵜ.
A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals.,ⴰⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ.
"Cultural elites tend to live in cities, bound together by shared cultural capital, and themselves playing some role in governance.","ⵣⵍⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ."
"""Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, """"Rethinking Place Identities"""", in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).""","“ⴳⵔⵉⴳ ⴽⵉⵔ ⴷ ⴷⵊⵉⵙⵙⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⵍⵉⴼⵔ, ““ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ””, ⴳ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⵜⵣⵉⵙ, ⵡⴰⵔⵏⴰⴱⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⵛⵡⵓⵔⵜ (2015).”"
"Patriotic tourists visit Agra to see the Taj Mahal, or New York City to visit the World Trade Center.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵊ ⵎⴰⵃⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⴰⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"Why do anonymous people—the poor, the underprivileged, the unconnected—frequently prefer life under miserable conditions in tenements to the healthy order and tranquility of small towns or the sanitary subdivisions of semirural developments?",ⵎⴰⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ —ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⵓⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ—ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⵅⵅⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵣⴳⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ?
Those who came to live in them did so in order to participate and compete on any attainable level.,ⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵏⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ.
Sports also play a major role in city branding and local identity formation.,ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ.
"More importantly, there is also huge long term potential for both tourism and investment (Kasimati, 2003).","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵎⴰ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵉ (ⴽⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉ, 2003)."
"""War brought concentration of social leadership and political power in the hands of a weapons-bearing minority, abetted by a priesthood exercising sacred powers and possessing secret but valuable scientific and magical knowledge.""""""","“ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⴱⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵃⵔⴳⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ.”””"
"During World War II, national governments on occasion declared certain cities open, effectively surrendering them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and bloodshed.","ⴳ ⵓⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵍⴰⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵏⴼⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴳⵓ ⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ."
"Such warfare, known as counterinsurgency, involves techniques of surveillance and psychological warfare as well as close combat, functionally extends modern urban crime prevention, which already uses concepts such as defensible space.","ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵡⵡⵖ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵔⵉⴳ, ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⵖⴰ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⵉⵙⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵔⵉ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ."
"Because of the higher barriers to entry, these networks have been classified as natural monopolies, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵍ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⵡⴰⵛⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵥⵍⵉⵢⵜ."
"""Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, """"Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance""""; in Wellman & Spiller (2012).""","“ⴽⴰⵜ ⵡⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⵓⵔⵢⵓⵙ, ““ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ: ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ””; ⴳ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵙⴱⵉⵍⵔ (2012).”"
"Sanitation, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and waste management as well as individual hygiene.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴰⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴳⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ."
"Modern urban life relies heavily on the energy transmitted through electricity for the operation of electric machines (from household appliances to industrial machines to now-ubiquitous electronic systems used in communications, business, and government) and for traffic lights, streetlights and indoor lighting.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵏ (ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵓⵡⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵍⴼ ⴰⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ.
"""Tom Hart, """"Transport and the City""""; in Paddison (2001).""","“ⵜⵓⵎ ⵀⴰⵔⵜ, ““ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ””; ⴳ ⴱⴰⴷⴷⵉⵙⵓⵏ (2001).”"
"Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular New York City Subway system.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵜⵕⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵅⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⴰ."
"Anthropogenic buildings and waste, as well as cultivation in gardens, create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in wilderness, in some cases enabling exceptional biodiversity.","ⴷ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⵉⵢ."
"From one perspective, cities are not ecologically sustainable due to their resource needs.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ."
"Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates, due to concrete, asphalt, and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in sunlight and channel rainwater into underground ducts.","ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵉⵢ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵔⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴱⵔⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
Aerial particulates increase rainfall by 5–10%.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵙ 5–10%.
"For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵥⵥⵉⴹⵉⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ (ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⴷⵙ)."
"Generally they are called Urban open space (although this word does not always mean green space), Green space, Urban greening.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵜⵉⵢ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵡ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ."
"The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK.","ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 20,000 ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
People who did not get at least two hours — even if they surpassed an hour per week — did not get the benefits.,ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ — ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ — ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⴷ.
"""The study didn't count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles from home. """"""","“ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵔⵜⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ.”””"
"""Saskia Sassen used the term """"global city"""" in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo to refer to a city's power, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size.""","“ⵙⴰⵙⴽⵢⴰ ⵙⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ” ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1991, ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ: ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ, ⵍⵓⵏⴹⵓⵏ, ⵟⵓⴽⵢⵓ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.”"
"3 (1982): 319 Global cities form the capstone of the global hierarchy, exerting command and control through their economic and political influence.","3 (1982): 319 ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵣⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⵕⴽⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
Multinational corporations and banks make their headquarters in global cities and conduct much of their business within this context.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⵉⴳⴷⴰⵡⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵓⴷⵜ ⴰⴷ.
"""Nancy Duxbury & Sharon Jeannotte, """"Global Cultural Governance Policy""""; Chapter 21 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture; London: Ashgate, 2013.""","“ⵏⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⴷⵓⴽⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵕⵓⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵓⵜ, ““ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ””; ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ 21 ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵛⴳⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ; ⵍⵓⵏⴹⵓⵏ:ⵛⴳⴰⵜ, 2013.”"
"""The Habitat I conference in 1976 adopted the """"Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements"""" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of development and establishes various principles for maintaining urban habitats.""",ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976 ““ⴰⵍⴰⵖⵉ ⴼⴰⵏⴽⵓⴼⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ” ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴱⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ.”
"In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency called the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or UN-Habitat, a member of the United Nations Development Group.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2002, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ."
The Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering real estate markets through credit and technical assistance.,ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⵙ ⵓⵕⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵕⵟⵟⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.
"Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the Bible in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by Babylon and Jerusalem.","ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵛ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵛⴰⵍⵉⵎ."
"Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ: ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ, ⵉⵊⵊⵉⵡⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⴹⵏ, ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴱⴱⵊⵏ."
This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in discourse about cities.,ⵜⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵕ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.
Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of descriptiones which treat of city features and history.,ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵊⵊⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport.,ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
A country is a distinct territorial body or political entity (i.e. a nation).,ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ (ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰ).
It is not inherently sovereign.,ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"The largest country in the world by geographical area is Russia, while the most populous is China, followed by India, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan and Brazil.","ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴱⴰⴽⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵕⴰⵣⵉⵍ."
"In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the national territory, as in the German Bundesländer, as well as a less formal term for a sovereign state.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵏⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"""There is no universal agreement on the number of """"countries"""" in the world since a number of states have disputed sovereignty status.""",“ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ““ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ”” ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.”
The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely.,ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.
The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI).,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵢ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⴽ.
"The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, and Asia and the Pacific.",ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ 2019 ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⵉ.
"The World Bank defines its regions as East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵜⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴰⵢⴱⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉ."
"Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources, especially in the context of geography or space, rather than research and development that is usually not centred on earth sciences or astronomy.","ⵉⴼⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵚⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵜ."
Only the one done by emperor Nero seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of Ethiopia or Nubia: in 62 AD two legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river.,"ⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵏⵉⵕⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵊⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⵓⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵓⴱⵢⴰ: ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 62 ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ."
"The Romans also organized several explorations into Northern Europe, and explored as far as China in Asia.","ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵕⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ."
100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese relations begin.,100 - 166 ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵙⵏⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵚⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"The key invention to their exploration was the outrigger canoe, which provided a swift and stable platform for carrying goods and people.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵣⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ.
2011 studies at Wairau Bar in New Zealand show a high probability that one origin was Ruahine Island in the Society Islands.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ 2011 ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵔⵓ ⴱⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵡⴰⵀⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
There are cultural and language similarities between Cook Islanders and New Zealand Maori.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⴽ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵎⴰⵡⵔⵉ.
"During 1328–1333, he sailed along the South China Sea and visited many places in Southeast Asia and reached as far as South Asia, landing in Sri Lanka and India, and he even went to Australia.","ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1328 ⴷ 1333, ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵏ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⴳⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏⴷ, ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ."
"Portugal and Spain dominated the first stages of exploration, while other European nations followed, such as England, Netherlands, and France.","ⵜⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴹⴼⵕⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
The extreme conditions in the deep sea require elaborate methods and technologies to endure them.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵇⵙⵃⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵄⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵇⵙⵃⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵉⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
"An administrative subdivision, instead, is understood to be a division of a state proper.","ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣ ⵙ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ."
The dependent territories that currently remain in the world today generally maintain a very high degree of political autonomy.,ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.
"Cook Islands' status is considered to be equivalent to independence for international law purposes, and the country exercises full sovereignty over its internal and external affairs.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴽ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⴹ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ."
"Under the terms of the free association agreement, however, New Zealand retains some responsibility for the foreign relations and defence of Niue.","ⵙ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵜⵟⵟⴼ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵏⵉⵡⵉ."
"This list is generally limited to entities that are either subject to an international treaty on their status, uninhabited, or have a unique level of autonomy and are largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs.","ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵡⵓⵎⵓⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"They are independently administrated jurisdictions, although the British Government is solely responsible for defense and international representation and has ultimate responsibility for ensuring good government.","ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴹ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵓⵣ ⴷ ⵓⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵓⵖⴷⵉⵎⵜ."
No crown dependency has representation in the U.K. Parliament.,ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⵓⵏⵏ.
New Zealand and its dependencies share the same governor-general and constitute one monarchic realm.,ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ.
The mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States was approved in 1976.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵎⵓⵏⵡⵉⵍⵜⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵢⴰⵏⴰ (CNMI) ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976.
"This is a constant source of ambiguity and confusion when trying to define, understand, and explain Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States.",ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵣⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴱⵊ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⵔⵓⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ.
"""However, the status of its """"constituent countries"""" in the Caribbean (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) can be considered akin to dependencies or """"associated non-independent states.""""""","“ⵎⵖⴰⵔ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ““ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ”” ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⵢⴱⵉ (ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⵕⴰⵙⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ) ⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵏⵖ ““ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ.”””"
"Borders are geographic boundaries, imposed either by geographic features such as oceans, or by arbitrary groupings of political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities.",ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵊⵖⵕⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"Most external borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed legally only at designated border checkpoints and border zones may be controlled.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ."
"Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit the movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of the country.",ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ.
To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign persons) may need special immigration documents or permits; but possession of such documents does not guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border.,"ⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⵓⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏ (ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ) ⵜⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ; ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ."
Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders.,ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴷⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵍ ⵓⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures.","ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⴽⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ."
This is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border.,ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵛⵉⵏⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ.
Rivers: some political borders have been formalized along natural borders formed by rivers.,ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ: ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ.
"In the Hebrew Bible, Moses defined the middle of the river Arnon as the border between Moab and the Israelite tribes settling east of the Jordan.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵏⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵓⵡⴰⴱ ⴷ ⵜⵇⴱⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⵓⵏ."
"Examples are Lake Tanganyika, with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia on its west shore and Tanzania and Burundi on the east; and the Great Lakes which form a substantial part of the border between Canada and the United States.","ⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵏⵢⵉⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵣⴰⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵕⵓⵏⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ."
"Mountain ranges: Many nations have their political borders defined along mountain ranges, often along a drainage divide.","ⴰⵙⵔⵔⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ: ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
One example is the defensive forest created by China's Song Dynasty in the eleventh century.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴳ ⵜⴰⵚⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ.
"For instance, the boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical markers on the landscape, and it is still a cultural and economic division in Germany.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵉⵏⵏⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵜⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ."
"Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters, contiguous zones, and exclusive economic zones; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered within the context of land boundaries.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ; ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴽⵛⵉⵎⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from the coast of a country and it holds responsibility for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection.,ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 12 ⵎⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵜⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ.
"However, there is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the point of the Kármán line.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ.
Overall border regulations are placed by national and local governments and can vary depending on nation and current political or economic conditions.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
Working across borders – Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands .,ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ – ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ.
Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping) may involve mass commuting between workplaces and residential settlements.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ (ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵖⴱⴱⵔ) ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ.
"It can enable and stop movement, across as well as along borders.",ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏ.
Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as well as cross-border economic development strategies.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
"Since its conception in the mid-80's, this artistic practice has assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland, borders, surveillance, identity, race, ethnicity, and national origin(s).","ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 80 ⵉⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵓⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ."
"Borders can include but are not limited to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity.","ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ."
"""These artists are often """"border crossers"""" themselves.""",“ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ““ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ”” ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.”
"In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements.,ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their population living in a rural community.,ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 15 ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ.
"Rural northern regions are predominantly rural census divisions that are found either entirely or mostly above the following lines of parallel in each province: Newfoundland and Labrador, 50th; Quebec 54th; Ontario, 54th; Manitoba, 53rd; Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, 54th.","ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ : ⵏⵢⵓⴼⴰⵡⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴱⵔⴰⴷⵓⵔ, ⵜⵉⵙ 50; ⴽⵉⴱⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵙ 54; ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ, ⵜⵉⵙ 54; ⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵓⴱⴰ, ⵜⵉⵙ 53; ⵙⴰⵙⴽⴰⵜⵛⵉⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜ, ⵜⵉⵙ 54."
"The U.S. Census Bureau, the USDA's Economic Research Service, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) have come together to help define rural areas.","ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴱⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ (OMB) ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107–171, Sec.","ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵜⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2002 (P.L. 107–171, Sec."
"""According to the handbook, Definitions of Rural: A Handbook for Health Policy Makers and Researchers, """"Residents of metropolitan counties are generally thought to have easy access to the relatively concentrated health services of the county's central areas.""","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ: ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ, ““ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ.”"
"""This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural. """"""",“ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵍⴷⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ.”””
"""President Emmanuel Macron government launched an action plan in 2019 in favour for rural areas named """"Agenda Rural"""".""",“ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⴽⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2019 ⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ““ⴰⵊⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ””.”
In Scotland a different definition of rural is used.,"ⴳ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"RBI defines rural areas as those areas with a population of less than 49,000 (tier -3 to tier-6 cities).",ⵉⴼⴽⴰ RBI ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 49000 (ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ -3 ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵙ 6).
Rural areas in Pakistan that are near cities are considered as suburban areas or suburbs.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴱⴰⴽⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵡⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵡⵖⵔⵎ.
"Suburbs might have their own political or legal jurisdiction, especially in the United States, but this is not always the case, especially in the United Kingdom where most suburbs are located within the administrative boundaries of cities.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉ ⴰⵀⴰ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"In others, such as Morocco, France, and much of the United States, many suburbs remain separate municipalities or are governed locally as part of a larger metropolitan area such as a county, district or borough.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵕⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ."
"The terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density areas in proximity to the city centre (which would not be referred to as 'suburbs' in most other countries), and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area.","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ (ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ” ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ), ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ."
"In New Zealand, most suburbs are not legally defined, which can lead to confusion as to where they may begin and end.","ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴱⴱⵊ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ."
The word suburbani was first employed by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas and estates built by the wealthy patricians of Rome on the city's outskirts.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷⴰⵡⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵛⵉⵛⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵊⵉⵡⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ.
"By the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city (then the largest in the world) became more overcrowded and unsanitary.","ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ (ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ) ⵜⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
The line reached Harrow in 1880.,ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵀⴰⵔⵔⵓⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1880.
"""The Met's marketing department coined the term """"Metro-land"""" in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide, priced at 1d.""","ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷⵣ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ““ⵎⵉⵜⵔⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷ”” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1915 ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⵉⵜⵔⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵙ 1 ⵡⴰⵙⵙ.”"
"""In part, this was a response to the shocking lack of fitness amongst many recruits during World War One, attributed to poor living conditions; a belief summed up in a housing poster of the period """"you cannot expect to get an A1 population out of C3 homes"""" – referring to military fitness classifications of the period.""","ⵉⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⴳⵣⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵍⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ““ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⴷⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ A1 ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔⵉⵏ C3”” –ⵙ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵖⵔ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⵏⵏ.”"
"The Report also legislated on the required, minimum standards necessary for further suburban construction; this included regulation on the maximum housing density and their arrangement and it even made recommendations on the ideal number of bedrooms and other rooms per house.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴷⴷⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ."
Within just a decade suburbs dramatically increased in size.,"ⴳ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ."
Levittown developed as a major prototype of mass-produced housing.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵍⵉⴼⵉⵜⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ.
"Shopping for different goods and services in one central location without having to travel to multiple locations, helped to keep shopping centers a component of these newly designed suburbs which were booming in population.","ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴷⵣ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⴽ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷ ⴳ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"The Highway Act of 1956 helped to fund the building of 64,000 kilometers across the nation by having $26 thousand-million to use, which helped to link many more to these shopping centers with ease.","ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵔⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1956 ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ 64,000 ⵏ ⵉⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵕⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵉ ⵏ 26 ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ."
Some suburbs had developed around large cities where there was rail transportation to the jobs downtown.,ⵢⵉⵜⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ.
The product was a great housing boom.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⴼⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⵔⵜ.
"With 16 million eligible veterans, the opportunity to buy a house was suddenly at hand.","ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ 16 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⵙⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⵔⵅⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"Developers purchased empty land just outside the city, installed tract houses based on a handful of designs, and provided streets and utilities, or local public officials race to build schools.","ⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵉⵍⵏ, ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ."
Veterans could get one with a much lower down payment.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ.
"The growth of the suburbs was facilitated by the development of zoning laws, redlining and numerous innovations in transport.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵀⵡⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ."
African-Americans and other people of color largely remained concentrated within decaying cores of urban poverty.,ⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ.
"After World War II, availability of FHA loans stimulated a housing boom in American suburbs.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵃⵓⵣ ⵓⵕⵟⵟⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴱⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
Economic growth in the United States encouraged the suburbanization of American cities that required massive investments for the new infrastructure and homes.,ⵉⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ.
"""An alternative strategy is the deliberate design of """"new towns"""" and the protection of green belts around cities.""",“ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵀⵀⵍ ⵏ ““ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ”” ⴷ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.”
Federal subsidies for suburban development accelerated this process as did the practice of redlining by banks and other lending institutions.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵍⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵟⵟⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"Virginia Beach is now the largest city in all of Virginia, having long since exceeded the population of its neighboring primary city, Norfolk.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵔⵊⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴱⵉⵜⵛ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵊⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵜ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵓⵔⴼⵓⵍⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"A greater percentage of whites (both non-Hispanic and, in some areas, Hispanic) and lesser percentage of citizens of other ethnic groups than in urban areas.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ (ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵙⴱⴰⵏⵉ) ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ."
"Compared to rural areas, suburbs usually have greater population density, higher standards of living, more complex road systems, more franchised stores and restaurants, and less farmland and wildlife.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵛⵛⵏ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"""However, of this metropolitan population, in 2001 nearly half lived in low-density neighborhoods, with only one in five living in a typical """"urban"""" neighborhood.""","“ ⵎⵖⴰⵔ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2001, ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ““ⵓⵖⴰⵔⴰⵎ””ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵏ.”"
"Throughout Canada, there are comprehensive plans in place to curb sprawl.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵉⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ."
"The majority of recent population growth in Canada's three largest metropolitan areas (Greater Toronto, Greater Montréal, and Greater Vancouver) has occurred in non-core municipalities.",ⵉⵚⵕⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ (ⵜⵓⵔⵓⵏⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵏⴽⵓⴼⵔ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ) ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
This is due to annexation and large geographic footprint within the city borders.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ.
"In the 2016 census, the City of Calgary had a population of 1,239,220, whereas the Calgary Metropolitan Area had a population of 1,392,609, indicating the vast majority of people in the Calgary CMA lived within the city limits.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ 2016, ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⴰⵍⴳⴰⵔⵉ 1,239,220 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ 1,392,609 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⴳⴰⵔⵉ CMA ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ."
"In the UK, the government is seeking to impose minimum densities on newly approved housing schemes in parts of South East England.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ."
"Suburbs can be found in Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey, and most major cities.","ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴳⵓⴷⴰⵍⴰⵅⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ, ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉⵔⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"""As the growth of middle-class and upper-class suburbs increased, low-class squatter areas have increased, most notably """"lost cities"""" in Mexico, campamentos in Chile, barriadas in Peru, villa miserias in Argentina, asentamientos in Guatemala and favelas of Brazil.""","“ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ, ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴱⵊ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ “ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ” ⴳ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⴰⵎⵉⵏⵜⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵢⴰⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ, ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴳ ⴰⵕⵊⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⵜⵓⵙ ⴳ ⴳⵡⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴳ ⴱⵕⴰⵣⵉⵍ.”"
"In an illustrative case of South Africa, RDP housing has been built.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ RDP."
"In certain areas such as Klang, Subang Jaya and Petaling Jaya, suburbs form the core of these places.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵍⴰⵏⴳ ⴷ ⵙⵓⴱⴰⵏⴳ ⵊⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵃⴻⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵊⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵡⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ."
"In the suburban system, most trips from one component to another component requires that cars enter a collector road, no matter how short or long the distance is.","ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵜ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ."
"If a traffic crash occurs on a collector road, or if road construction inhibits the flow, then the entire road system may be rendered useless until the blockage is cleared.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⴽⴽⵙ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵏ."
This encourages car trips even for distances as low as several hundreds of yards or meters (which may have become up to several miles or kilometers due to the road network).,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵖⴰⵙ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵕⴷⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵜⵕ (ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵕ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ).
"Taken together, these two groups of taxpayers represent a largely untapped source of potential revenue that cities may begin to target more aggressively, particularly if they're struggling.","ⴳ ⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴳ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴳ ⵖⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"French songs like La Zone by Fréhel (1933), Aux quatre coins de la banlieue by Damia (1936), Ma banlieue by Reda Caire (1937), or Banlieue by Robert Lamoureux (1953), evoke the suburbs of Paris explicitly since the 1930s.","ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵕⵉⵀⵍ (1933), ⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵎⵢⴰ (1936), ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵉⴹⴰ ⴽⴰⵢⵔ (1937), ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵕⵓⴱⵉⵕⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⵓⵕⵢⵓ (1953),ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ 1930."
"French cinema was although soon interested in urban changes in the suburbs, with such movies as Mon oncle by Jacques Tati (1958), L'Amour existe by Maurice Pialat (1961) or Two or Three Things I Know About Her by Jean-Luc Godard (1967).","ⵜⴼⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ, ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵄⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵊⴰⴽ ⵜⴰⵜⵉ (1958), ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⴱⵢⴰⵍⴰⵜ (1961) ⵏⵖ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵙⵙⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵍⵓⴽ ⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ (1967)."
"""The 1962 song """"Little Boxes"""" by Malvina Reynolds lampoons the development of suburbia and its perceived bourgeois and conformist values, while the 1982 song Subdivisions by the Canadian band Rush also discusses suburbia, as does Rockin' the Suburbs by Ben Folds.""","“ⵜⵉⵣⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1962 ““ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵓⵥⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ”” ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴼⵉⵏⴰ ⵔⵉⵏⴰⵍⴷⵣ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴹⵚⴰ ⴳⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⵣⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1982 ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⵕⴰⵛ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵕⵓⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴷⵣ.”"
Over the Hedge is a syndicated comic strip written and drawn by Michael Fry and T. Lewis.,ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⵉⵙⴹⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴼⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜ. ⵍⵡⵉⵙ.
"British television series such as The Good Life, Butterflies and The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin have depicted suburbia as well-manicured but relentlessly boring, and its residents as either overly conforming or prone to going stir crazy.","ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴱⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵊⵉⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⵍⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵢ ⴽⴰ."
"A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand.","ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ, ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵜⵎⵥⵉⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ (ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ."
"This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts, and development of many trades.","ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⵥⵍⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
The size of these villages varies considerably.,ⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
Desa are generally located in rural areas while kelurahan are generally urban subdivisions.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵕⴰⵀⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
"A desa or kelurahan is the subdivision of a kecamatan (subdistrict), in turn the subdivision of a kabupaten (district) or kota (city).","ⴷⵉⵣⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵕⴰⵀⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴽⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏ (ⴰⵏⵡⴰ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ), ⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴽⴰⴱⵓⴱⴰⵜⵏ (ⴰⵏⵙⴰ) ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵜⴰ (ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ)."
"In Malaysia, a kampung is determined as a locality with 10,000 or fewer people.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⵣⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵓⵏⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ 10,000 ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡⴰⵙ."
"All Muslims in the Malay or Indonesian village want to be prayed for, and to receive Allah's blessings in the afterlife.","ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵥⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴽⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵀ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⴰⵏⵜ."
Mainland Singapore used to have many kampung villages but modern developments and rapid urbanisation works have seen them bulldozed away; Kampong Lorong Buangkok is the last surviving village on the country's mainland.,"ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⴳⴰⵖⵓⴼⵓⵕⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵎⴱⵓⵏⴳⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵔⵎ ⴰⵏⵙⴷⴷⵔⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ; ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵓⵏⴳ ⵍⵓⵔⵓⵏⴳ ⴱⴰⵏⴽⵓⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ."
Vietnam's village is the typical symbol of Asian agricultural production.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⴰⵡⵉⵜ.
"In Slovenia, the word selo is used for very small villages (fewer than 100 people) and in dialects; the Slovene word vas is used all over Slovenia.","ⴳ ⵙⵍⵓⴼⴰⴽⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⵍⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ (ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 100 ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ; ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵓⴼⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴼⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵙⵍⵓⴼⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
It could be relative to a Sanskrit like Afgan word deh and Indonesian word desa.,ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⵙⴽⵔⵉⵜⵉⵜ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⵉⵀ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⴷⵉⵙⴰ.
Approximately 46% of all migrated people have changed their residence from one city to another.,ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 46% ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ.
"The lowest administrative unit of the Russian Empire, a volost, or its Soviet or modern Russian successor, a selsoviet, was typically headquartered in a selo and embraced a few neighboring villages.","ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵉⵜ, ⴼⵓⵍⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴼⵓⵕⵜ, ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵙⵓⴼⵢⵉⵜ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵍⵓ ⵜⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"While peasants of central Russia lived in a village around the lord's manor, a Cossack family often lived on its own farm, called khutor.","ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵙⵙⴰⴽ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵔⵜⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵅⵓⵜⵓⵔ."
"There is, however, another smaller type of settlement which is designated in Ukrainian as a selysche (селище).","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⴽⵕⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⵓⵖⵜ (селище)."
"They represent a type of a small rural locality that might have once been a khutir, a fisherman's settlement, or a dacha.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰⵛⴰ."
"However, ambiguity is often avoided in connection with urbanized settlements by referring to them using the three-letter abbreviation smt instead.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⴽⴽⵉⵙ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ smt."
They became really popular during the Stolypin reform in the early 20th century.,ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20.
Larger villages can also be referred to as a Flecken or Markt depending on the region.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴼⵍⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ.
"For example, in areas such as the Lincolnshire Wolds, the villages are often found along the spring line halfway down the hillsides, and originate as spring line settlements, with the original open field systems around the village.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓⵍⵏⵛⴰⵢⵔ ⵡⵓⵍⴷⵣ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵙⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵙⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⴼⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ."
"Some villages have disappeared (for example, deserted medieval villages), sometimes leaving behind a church or manor house and sometimes nothing but bumps in the fields.","ⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵏⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⵏ), ⴰⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵡⵓⵔⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ."
"Other villages have grown and merged and often form hubs within the general mass of suburbia—such as Hampstead, London and Didsbury in Manchester.",ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵡⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ — ⴰⵎ ⵀⴰⵎⴱⵙⵜⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙⵜⵔ.
"Seen as being far from the bustle of modern life, it is represented as quiet and harmonious, if a little inward-looking.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⴱⴱⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴼⵙⵜⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ."
"These (such as Murton, County Durham) grew from hamlets when the sinking of a colliery in the early 20th century resulted in a rapid growth in their population and the colliery owners built new housing, shops, pubs and churches.","ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ (ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⵜⵓⵏ , ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⵀⴰⵎ) ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵄⵓⵎ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵙⴽⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵃⵓⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
Maltby was constructed under the auspices of the Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company and included ample open spaces and provision for gardens.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⴱⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵛⵉⴱⴱⵔⵉⴷⵊ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ.
"The typical village had a pub or inn, shops, and a blacksmith.",ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵍ.
"However, some civil parishes have no functioning parish, town, or city council nor a functioning parish meeting.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴱⵍⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"In Scotland, the equivalent is also a community council, however, despite being statutory bodies they have no executive powers.","ⴳ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"The district of Danniyeh consists of thirty-six small villages, which includes Almrah, Kfirchlan, Kfirhbab, Hakel al Azimah, Siir, Bakhoun, Miryata, Assoun, Sfiiri, Kharnoub, Katteen, Kfirhabou, Zghartegrein, Ein Qibil.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵔⴰⵃ, ⴽⴼⵉⵔⵛⵍⴰⵏ, ⴽⴼⵉⵔⵃⴱⴰⴱ, ⵃⴰⵢⵍ ⵍⴰⵄⴹⵎ, ⵚⵉⵕ, ⴱⴰⵅⵓⵏ, ⵎⵉⵔⵢⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵙⵓⵏ, ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵉ, ⵅⴰⵕⵏⵓⴱ, ⵇⴰⵟⵉⵏ, ⴽⴼⵉⵔⵃⴰⴱⵓ, ⵣⵖⴰⵔⵜⵉⴳⵔⵉⵏ, ⵄⵉⵏ ⵇⵉⴱⵉⵍ."
"Dinniyeh has an excellent ecological environment filled with woodlands, orchards and groves.",ⵜⵍⴰ ⴹⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴽⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ.
"Villages in the south of Syria (Hauran, Jabal al-Druze), the north-east (the Syrian island) and the Orontes River basin depend mostly on agriculture, mainly grain, vegetables, and fruits.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰ (ⵃⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⵔⵓⵣ) ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ (ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵎⵅⵉⴱ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵛⴰⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ."
"Mediterranean cities in Syria, such as Tartus and Latakia have similar types of villages.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵟⴰⵕⵟⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⴷⵉⵇⵢⴰ."
"""Every urbanization is a """"pueblo"""" unless is elevated by decree to the next category.""",“ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵖⵔⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ““ⴱⵡⵉⴱⵍⵓ”” ⵎⴰⵃⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.”
"However, this is a generality; in many states, there are villages that are an order of magnitude larger than the smallest cities in the state.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ.
"In some cases, the village may be coterminous with the town or township, in which case the two may have a consolidated government.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
"Hempstead, the largest village, has 55,000 residents; making it more populous than some of the state's cities.","ⵀⵉⵎⴱⵙⵜⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ 55,000 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ; ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵔ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ."
"The village of Arlington Heights, Illinois had 75,101 residents as of the 2010 census.","ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵍⵉⵏⴳⵜⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵢⵜⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵓⵢ 75,101 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ 2010."
Villages can incorporate land in multiple townships and even multiple counties.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.
"The largest village is Menomonee Falls, which has over 32,000 residents.","ⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⴼⵓⵍⵣ, ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 32,000 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"""In Maryland, a locality designated """"Village of ..."""" may be either an incorporated town or a special tax district.""","“ⴳ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵍⵏ ““ⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ...”” ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵓⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ.”"
At that time Traditional rulers used to have absolute power in their administrative regions.,ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏⵏ.
Every Hausa village was reigned by Magaji (Village head) who was answerable to his Hakimi (mayor) at the town level.,ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵎⴰⴳⴰⵊⵉ (ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ)ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵃⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉ (ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ) ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ.
"They have mud houses with thatched roofing though, like in most of the villages in the North, zinc roofing is becoming a common sight.","ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵣⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ."
Others are lucky to have wells within a walking distance.,ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰ ⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of maps of Earth or a region of Earth.,ⴰⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"This title provides Mercator's definition of the word as a description of the creation and form of the whole universe, not simply as a collection of maps.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵕ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
A desk atlas is made similar to a reference book.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⵓⵎⵓⵖ.
"""In cartography, a contour line (often just called a """"contour"""") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea level.""","“ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ (ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ““ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ””) ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ (ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ) ⵅⴼ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ.”"
The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ.
"Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes.",ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵖⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ.
"In 1701, Edmond Halley used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1701, ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵀⴰⵍⵉ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ (ⵉⵣⵓⴳⵓⵏⵙ) ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ."
"In 1791, a map of France by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1791, ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵊ.ⵍ ⴷⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵢⵍ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ 20 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ, ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ."
"Isobaths were not routinely used on nautical charts until those of Russia from 1834, and those of Britain from 1838.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵣⵓⴱⴰⵜⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1834, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1838."
"As late as 1944, John K. Wright still preferred isogram, but it never attained wide usage.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1944, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴽ. ⵕⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⴳⵕⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴰⵔ."
"Despite attempts to select a single standard, all of these alternatives have survived to the present.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵀⴰⵡⵜ."
"Weather stations are seldom exactly positioned at a contour line (when they are, this indicates a measurement precisely equal to the value of the contour).","ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ (ⵉⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⴰ, ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ)."
"In meteorology, the barometric pressures shown are reduced to sea level, not the surface pressures at the map locations.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵣⵡⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵕⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ."
Isallobars are lines joining points of equal pressure change during a specific time interval.,ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵍⵍⵓⴱⴰⵕ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⴰⴽ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
Isallobaric gradients are important components of the wind as they increase or decrease the geostrophic wind.,ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⴼⵉ.
An isotherm at 0 °C is called the freezing level.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⴳ 0 °C ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ.
"From these contours, a sense of the general terrain can be determined.",ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴽⵢ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ.
"In cartography, the contour interval is the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff.,ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵊⴷⵉⵔ.
"Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but there are exceptions.",ⴷⴰ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴽⴰ.
Whether crossing an equipotential line represents ascending or descending the potential is inferred from the labels on the charges.,"ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⵓⵣ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵖ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⴽⵓⵔⵜ."
Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.,ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴷⵉⵅ ⴰⵏⵙⵎⵓⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵣⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜⵙ.
Contour lines are also used to display non-geographic information in economics.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ.
Such isolines are useful for representing more than two dimensions (or quantities) on two-dimensional graphs.,ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ (ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ) ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ.
"In interpreting radar images, an isodop is a line of equal Doppler velocity, and an isoecho is a line of equal radar reflectivity.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⴰⵕ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵓⴷⵓⴱ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵓⴱⵍⵔ, ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵍⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵕⵕⴰⴷⴰⵕ."
Line color is the choice of any number of pigments that suit the display.,ⴰⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴳⵍ.
"Line type refers to whether the basic contour line is solid, dashed, dotted or broken in some other pattern to create the desired effect.",ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵕⵕⵥⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ.
Numerical marking is the manner of denoting the arithmetical values of contour lines.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ.
"If the contour lines are not numerically labeled and adjacent lines have the same style (with the same weight, color and type), then the direction of the gradient cannot be determined from the contour lines alone.","ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵡ (ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ), ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ."
A properly labeled contour map helps the reader to quickly interpret the shape of the terrain.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉ ⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ.
Then the coordinates of other places are measured from the nearest control point through surveying.,"ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵣⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⴹ."
This phenomenon is called datum shift.,ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ.
"More ambitious undertakings such as the Struve Geodetic Arc across Eastern Europe (1816-1855) and the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India (1802-1871) took much longer, but resulted in more accurate estimations of the shape of the Earth ellipsoid.","ⵛⵛⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⴼ ⵊⵢⵓⴷⵉⵙⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ (1816-1855) ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷ (1802-1871) ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢ."
"An approximate definition of sea level is the datum WGS 84, an ellipsoid, whereas a more accurate definition is Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008), using at least 2,159 spherical harmonics.","ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ WGS 84, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳⵕⴰⴼⵉⵜⴰⵙⵢⵓⵏⵉⵍ 2008 (EGM2008), ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 2,159 ⵉⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵎⵎⴰ."
"When used without qualification, the term latitude refers to geodetic latitude.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⴷⵉⵙⵉ."
"The datum shift between two particular datums can vary from one place to another within one country or region, and can be anything from zero to hundreds of meters (or several kilometers for some remote islands).","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵛⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙ ⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵜⵔ (ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵜⵎⵏ)."
"For example, in Sydney there is a 200 metres (700 feet) difference between GPS coordinates configured in GDA (based on global standard WGS 84) and AGD (used for most local maps), which is an unacceptably large error for some applications, such as surveying or site location for scuba diving.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵉⴷⵏⵉ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ 200 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ (700 ⵏ ⵓⴹⴰⵕ) ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ GPS ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ GDA (ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ WGS 84) ⴷ AGD (ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⴰⴹ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴱⵣ."
"Since reference datums can have different radii and different center points, a specific point on Earth can have substantially different coordinates depending on the datum used to make the measurement.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜⵉⵙⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ."
"The most common reference Datums in use in North America are NAD27, NAD83, and WGS 84.","ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ NAD27, NAD83, ⴷ WGS 84."
"""This datum, designated as NAD 83 ...is based on the adjustment of 250,000 points including 600 satellite Doppler stations which constrain the system to a geocentric origin.""""""","“ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ NAD 83 ...ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ 250,000 ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ 600 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⴱⴱⵍⵔ ⵏⵏⵣ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⴼⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.”””"
"It is the reference frame used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and is defined by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) (formerly the Defense Mapping Agency, then the National Imagery and Mapping Agency).","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉ (DoD) ⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ (NGA) (ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ)."
"It was used as the reference frame for broadcast GPS Ephemerides (orbits) beginning January 23, 1987.",ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ GPS ⵉⴼⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴷ (ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵢⵏ) ⵙⴳ 23 ⵢⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔ 1987.
"It became the reference frame for broadcast orbits on June 28, 1994.",ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⴳ 28 ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 1994.
"WGS 84 (G873) was adopted as the reference frame for broadcast orbits on January 29, 1997.",ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵣⵏ WGS 84 (G873) ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⴳ 29 ⵢⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔ 1997.
WGS 84 is the default standard datum for coordinates stored in recreational and commercial GPS units.,WGS 84 ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ GPS ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴹⵚⴰ.
"For example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the equator in Uganda, on the African Plate, and a point on the equator in Ecuador, on the South American Plate, increases by about 0.0014 arcseconds per year.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⴳⵔ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 0.0014 ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"Most mapping, such as within a single country, does not span plates.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⵜ."
"Ptolemy credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms of the length of the midsummer day.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⵟⵍⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵣⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ."
Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes' recovery of Ptolemy's text a little before 1300; the text was translated into Latin at Florence by Jacobus Angelus around 1407.,ⵜⵙⴹⴼⵕ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⵙⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵓⴷⵙ ⵉ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵟⵍⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1300 ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ; ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵊⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1407.
"They then choose the most appropriate mapping of the spherical coordinate system onto that ellipsoid, called a terrestrial reference system or geodetic datum.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵎⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⵓⵜ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⴷⵉⵙⵉ."
"φ, or phi) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.","φ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴼⵉ) ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵖⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⵉⴽⴽ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ) ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often called great circles), which converge at the North and South Poles.","ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵢⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ (ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵥⵢⴰⵕⵉⵏ), ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵊⵎⴰⵄⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵇⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E. This is not to be conflated with the International Date Line, which diverges from it in several places for political and convenience reasons, including between far eastern Russia and the far western Aleutian Islands.","ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏⴳ ⴳⵔⵉⵏⵉⵜⵛ ⵉⴳⴰ 180° ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴷ 180° ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ. ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ,ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵛⵢⴰⵏ."
Coordinates on a map are usually in terms northing N and easting E offsets relative to a specified origin.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ N ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ E ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ.
"In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth's surface.","ⴳ ⵜⵊⵖⵕⴰⴼⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ."
Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the surface of the Earth.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface.,ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵢⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface.,ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ.
"""Since there are many different reference ellipsoids, the precise latitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that """"without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates (that is latitude and longitude) are ambiguous at best and meaningless at worst"""".""","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ: ⵙⵙⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ISO ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ““ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ) ⵍⵍⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ””.”"
The plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator.,ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ.
The time variation is discussed more fully in the article on axial tilt.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵙⵙ ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"The situation is reversed at the June solstice, when the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴳⵯⴷⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ, ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵕⴰⵟⴰⵏ."
"Since latitude is defined with respect to an ellipsoid, the position of a given point is different on each ellipsoid: one cannot exactly specify the latitude and longitude of a geographical feature without specifying the ellipsoid used.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ: ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴼⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵙ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ."
Geographic latitude must be used with care.,ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ.
The evaluation of the meridian distance integral is central to many studies in geodesy and map projection.,ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴷⵓⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵊⵢⵓⴷⵉⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ.
There are two methods of proceeding.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕ.
"When converting from isometric or conformal to geodetic, two iterations of Newton-Raphson gives double precision accuracy.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵢⵣⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵊⵢⵓⴷⵉⵙⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵙⴰ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵔⴰⴼⵙⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ."
The differences shown on the plot are in arc minutes.,ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ.
The transformation between geodetic and Cartesian coordinates may be found in Geographic coordinate conversion.,ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
In general the true vertical at a point on the surface does not exactly coincide with either the normal to the reference ellipsoid or the normal to the geoid.,"ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉ ⵊⵢⵓⴷ."
"Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body.",ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
"The prime meridian, which passes near the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, is defined as 0° longitude by convention.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ, ⴳⵔⵉⵏⵉⵜⵛ, ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ 0°."
"Local time (for example from the position of the sun) varies with longitude, a difference of 15° longitude corresponding to a one-hour difference in local time.","ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ) ⵙ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ, ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⴱⵟⵟ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵙ 15° ⵅⴼ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ."
"The principle is straightforward, but in practice finding a reliable method of determining longitude took centuries and required the effort of some of the greatest scientific minds.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵙⵔⵉⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ, ⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ."
His prime meridian passed through Alexandria.,ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵢⴰ.
"He used a prime meridian through the Canary Islands, so that all longitude values would be positive.","ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⴰⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
"Hindu and Muslim astronomers continued to develop these ideas, adding many new locations and often improving on Ptolemy's data.","ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵎⵉⵔⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵊⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵎⵉ."
"In the later Middle Ages, interest in geography revived in the west, as travel increased, and Arab scholarship began to be known through contact with Spain and North Africa.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵏⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⴰ ⴳⵯ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵜ, ⵉⴷⵖ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ, ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⵜⵄⵢⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵄⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵙⵃⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"Christopher Columbus made two attempts to use lunar eclipses to discover his longitude, the first in Saona Island, on 14 September 1494 (second voyage), and the second in Jamaica on 29 February 1504 (fourth voyage).","ⵓⵔⵎ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⵓⵔ ⴳⵯ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵛⴰⵍ, ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴰ ⴳ 14 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1494 (ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴳⵯ ⵊⴰⵎⴰⵢⴽⴰ ⴳⵯ 29 ⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ 1504 (ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ)."
"Initially an observation device, developments over the next half century transformed it into an accurate measurement tool.","ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵯⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ."
"On land, the period from the development of telescopes and pendulum clocks until the mid 18th-Century saw a steady increase in the number of places whose longitude had been determined with reasonable accuracy, often with errors of less than a degree, and nearly always within 2-3°.","ⴰⴼⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵛⴰⵍ, ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵢⵜⵓⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ, ⵙ ⵜⵣⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⴳⵀⴷ ⵜⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵯⵔ 2-3°."
"Making accurate observations in an ocean swell is much harder than on land, and pendulum clocks do not work well in these conditions.","ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⵔⴰ ⵏⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵓⴳⵯⴰⵔ ⵏⵡⴰⵛⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⵯ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍⴷⵖ."
"It offered two levels of rewards, for solutions within 1° and 0.5°.","ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵓⴷⵡⴰⵍ, ⵏⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 1° ⴷ 0.5°."
"This work was supported and rewarded with thousands of pounds from the Board of Longitude, but he fought to receive money up to the top reward of £20,000, finally receiving an additional payment in 1773 after the intervention of parliament.","ⴰⵢⵜⵅ ⵏⵍⵅⴷⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵙ ⵉⴼⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵡⵏⴷ, ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ £20,000, ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵡⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⴳⵯ 1773 ⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵄⵢⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⵯⵊⵎ ⴰⴱⵔⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
Lunar distances came into general use after 1790.,ⵄⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵡⴰⵢⵓⵔ ⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵜ 1790.
It was quickly realised that the telegraph could be used to transmit a time signal for longitude determination.,ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵓⵢⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵣⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵍⵓⵇⵜ ⵏⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵓⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ.
"The Survey established chains of mapped locations through Central and South America, and the West Indies, and as far as Japan and China in the years 1874–90.","ⵙⵏⵄⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵯ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵏⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴷⵍ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵜ, ⴷⴰⵡⴷ ⴳⵯ ⵊⴰⴱⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵅⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴳⵉⵙⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1874-90."
This changed when wireless telegraphy became available in the early 20th-Century.,ⵉⴱⴷⵍ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵅⵉ ⴰⵢⵏⴰⴳⴷ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴽⵯ ⴳⵯ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20.
Radio navigation systems came into general use after World War II.,"ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⵏⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵎ,ⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ."
"With the exception of magnetic declination, all proved practicable methods.","ⵎⵅ ⵏⴽⴽⵙ ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓ, ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴳⵯⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓ."
Longitude at a point may be determined by calculating the time difference between that at its location and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).,ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵙⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵓⴽⵓⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵯⵔ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⵖ ⴷ ⴳⵯ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ.
"The word near is used because the point might not be at the centre of the time zone; also the time zones are defined politically, so their centres and boundaries often do not lie on meridians at multiples of 15°.","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵯⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴹⵔ ⴰⵅⴽⵯⵓ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵓⵣⵎⵣ; ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜⵉ, ⴰⵢⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙⵄⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴷ 15°."
"The international standard convention (ISO 6709)—that East is positive—is consistent with a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, with the North Pole up.","ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ (ISO 6709)—ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵡ—ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
They have since shifted to the standard approach.,ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵖ ⴱⴷⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ.
"The geoid is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth, including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent.","ⵊⵉⵢⵓⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵓⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ ⵏⵡⴰⵛⴰⵍ, ⵉⴽⵯⵅⵎ ⴷⵉⴳⵯⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⴳⵖⴰ ⴷⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵏⵡⴰⵛⴰⵍ, ⵎⵅ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ."
It can be known only through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ.
"Although the physical Earth has excursions of +8,848 m (Mount Everest) and −10,984 (Marianas Trench), the geoid's deviation from an ellipsoid ranges from +85 m (Iceland) to −106 m (southern India), less than 200 m total.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⵏ +8,848 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ (ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜ) ⴷ -10,984 (ⴰⵛⴱⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵢⴰⵏⴰⵙ), ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵊⵢⵓⵢⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵙⵓⵢⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ +85 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ (ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ) ⴰⵔ -106 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ (ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⴷ), ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 200 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵓⴷ."
"If the continental land masses were crisscrossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in those canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid.",ⵎⵅ ⵏⵖⵣⴰ ⴰⵛⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴱⵣⴰⴼ ⵏⵉⵙⵍⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏⵙⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵯ ⴰⵎ ⵊⵉⵓⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵯ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ.
"That means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulations of the geoid; the local vertical (plumb line) is always perpendicular to the geoid and the local horizon tangential to it.","ⵓⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ, ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵅⴰⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵓⴷ; ⵉⵛⴰⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵊⵉⵓⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⵯⴰ."
"That is because GPS satellites, orbiting about the center of gravity of the Earth, can measure heights only relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴷ ⵙⴰⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ GPS, ⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴷⵓⵔ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵛⴰⵍ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⴳⵯⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵉⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵛⴰⵍ."
"Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented in their software by which they obtain, from the current position, the height of the geoid (e.g. the EGM-96 geoid) over the World Geodetic System (WGS) ellipsoid.","ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵣⵏ ⴳⵯ GPS ⵓⵊⴷⵉⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⵓ ⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ, ⵙⴳⵯ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⴰⴳⵯ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵊⴳⵯⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵢⵓⴷ (ⵣⵄⵏⴷ EGM-96 ⵊⵉⵢⵓⴷ) ⴳⵯ ⵓⵏⴳⵯⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵉⴷ ⵊⵉⵢⵓⴷ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵏ (WGS)."
"If that sphere were then covered in water, the water would not be the same height everywhere.","ⵎⵛ ⵜⴷⵍ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⴽⵯⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵄⵔ ⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵢⵄⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵊⴳⵯⵍⵜ."
This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level.,ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ ⵏ GPS ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ.
"The first products based on GOCE satellite data became available online in June 2010, through the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Earth observation user services tools.","ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ GOCE ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 2010, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵣⴰ (ESA)."
"The geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute.","ⵊⵢⵓⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ."
"A globe is a spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere.","ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴳⵯⴰ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵛⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔ."
A model globe of the celestial sphere is called a celestial globe.,ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔ ⴷⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔ.
It might show nations and major cities and the network of latitude and longitude lines.,ⴷⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵏⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵏⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔ.
"Typically, it will also divide the celestial sphere into constellations.",ⴷⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵯⵏⴰ ⴳⵯⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵔ.
"The first known mention of a globe is from Strabo, describing the Globe of Crates from about 150 BC.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⴰ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⴱⵓ, ⵏⴰⴳⵯ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵙ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ 150 BC."
"Many globes are made with a circumference of one metre, so they are models of the Earth at a scale of 1:40 million.","ⵜⵉⴽⵯⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⵔⵓ, ⴱⴰⵛⵀ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵯⵔⵏⵜ ⵙⵍ ⵍⵄⴱⴰⵔ ⵏ 1:40 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ."
"Most modern globes are also imprinted with parallels and meridians, so that one can tell the approximate coordinates of a specific location.","ⵜⵉⴽⵯⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵊⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵛⴰⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⴱⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵛⴰⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵏ, ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰ ⵏⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⵙⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ."
Early terrestrial globes depicting the entirety of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic world.,ⵜⵉⴽⵯⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵇⴷⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵇⴷⵉⵎ ⵙⴽⵯⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ.
"Behaim was a German mapmaker, navigator, and merchant.","ⴱⵉⵀⴰⵢⵎ ⵉⴳⵯⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⵍⴽⴰⵔⴷⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵏⵣⴰ."
"Before constructing the globe, Behaim had traveled extensively.",ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵉⵀⴰⵢⵎ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵛⵉⴳⵯⴰⵏ.
"Another early globe, the Hunt–Lenox Globe, ca.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵀⴰⵏⵜ-ⵍⵉⵏⵓⴽⵙ ⴳⵍⵓⴱ, ⴽⴰ."
It may be the oldest globe to show the New World.,ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⴽⵯⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵇⴷⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⴽ ⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⴷⵉⴷ.
A facsimile globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507.,ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴼⴰⴽⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⴼⴰⵍⴷⵙⵉⵎⵓⵍⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1507.
"Globus IMP, electro-mechanical devices including five-inch globes have been used in Soviet and Russian spacecraft from 1961 to 2002 as navigation instruments.","ⴳⵍⵓⴱⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⴱ IMP, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴽⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⵏⵛ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⵙⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ 1961 ⴰⵔ 2002 ⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵢⵍⴻⵍ."
This method of globe making was illustrated in 1802 in an engraving in The English Encyclopedia by George Kearsley .,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1802 ⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⵙⴽⵍⵓⴱⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⴽⵉⵔⵙⵍⵉ.
This is placed in a machine which molds the disk into a hemispherical shape.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ.
These globes were “enormous” and very costly.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ “ⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏⵜ” ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
The latter has a Soviet bullet hole through Germany.,ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵅⴱⵓ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ.
"A great circle, also known as an orthodrome, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through the center point of the sphere.","ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵓⴷⵔⵓⵎ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ."
"This special case of a circle of a sphere is in opposition to a small circle, that is, the intersection of the sphere and a plane that does not pass through the center.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
"The exception is a pair of antipodal points, for which there are infinitely many great circles.","ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
The length of the minor arc of a great circle is taken as the distance between two points on a surface of a sphere in Riemannian geometry where such great circles are called Riemannian circles.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
Another great circle is the one that divides the land and water hemispheres.,ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵏⵏ.
"In cartography, a map projection is a way to flatten a globe's surface into a plane in order to make a map.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵜⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ."
"Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties.","ⵙ ⵢⵉⵡⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ; ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Projections are a subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry, projective geometry, and manifolds.","ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵉⵍⵏ."
"Rather, any mathematical function that transforms coordinates from the curved surface distinctly and smoothly to the plane is a projection.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵓⵔⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ."
"The Earth and other large celestial bodies are generally better modeled as oblate spheroids, whereas small objects such as asteroids often have irregular shapes.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵙⵔⵏ, ⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵉⵎⵏ."
"Because the curved Earth's surface is not isometric to a plane, preservation of shapes inevitably leads to a variable scale and, consequently, non-proportional presentation of areas.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ, ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ, ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵉⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ."
The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ.
Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on the chosen datum (model) of the Earth.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵛⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵏ; ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ (ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ) ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ.
"Like Tissot's indicatrix, the Goldberg-Gott indicatrix is based on infinitesimals, and depicts flexion and skewness (bending and lopsidedness) distortions.","ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⵛⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⵙ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵍ ⴳⵓⵍⴷⴱⵉⵔⴳ-ⴳⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵢ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴳⵓⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ (ⴰⴳⵓⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ) ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖⵏ."
Sometimes spherical triangles are used.,ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ.
Another way to visualize local distortion is through grayscale or color gradations whose shade represents the magnitude of the angular deformation or areal inflation.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵙⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ.
"Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵉⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"To compare, one cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing and warping it.)","ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⴼ ⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵛⵔⵔⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵜⵜ.)"
Tangent means the surface touches but does not slice through the globe; secant means the surface does slice through the globe.,ⵉⴳ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⴹⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴱⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ; ⵉⴳ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"If these lines are a parallel of latitude, as in conical projections, it is called a standard parallel.","ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵕⴽⵓⵕⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ."
This applies for any cylindrical or pseudocylindrical projection in normal aspect.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⵍⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⴽⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
Scale is constant along all straight lines radiating from a particular geographic location.,ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵖⴷⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼ.
"Whether spherical or ellipsoidal, the principles discussed hold without loss of generality.","ⵙⵡⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵎⵣⵍⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ."
The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵓⴱⴱⵓⴳⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ.
"Compared to the best fitting ellipsoid, a geoidal model would change the characterization of important properties such as distance, conformality and equivalence.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰ."
"For irregular planetary bodies such as asteroids, however, sometimes models analogous to the geoid are used to project maps from.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵉⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵊⵢⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ."
"The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the Earth, followed by an implied scaling operation.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴹⴼⵕ ⵜ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"""Where the light source emanates along the line described in this last constraint is what yields the differences between the various """"natural"""" cylindrical projections.""",ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ““ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ”” ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ.
"This cylinder is wrapped around the Earth, projected onto, and then unrolled.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴹⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵎⵙ ⴷⵉⵖ."
"""North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equirectangular projection or """"plate carrée"""".""",“ⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵎⵉⵏ (1): ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⴰⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ““ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ”.”
"Since this projection scales north-south distances by the reciprocal of east-west stretching, it preserves area at the expense of shapes.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"Other meridians are longer than the central meridian and bow outward, away from the central meridian.",ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴳⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.
"Therefore, meridians are equally spaced along a given parallel.","ⵅⴼ ⵎⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵄⵕⴰⵇⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵉⵡⴰⵣⴰⵏ."
"The resulting conic map has low distortion in scale, shape, and area near those standard parallels.",ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵕⴽⵓⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ.
Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin .,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ; r(d) = c sin .
"Near-sided perspective projection, which simulates the view from space at a finite distance and therefore shows less than a full hemisphere, such as used in The Blue Marble 2012).","ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⵡⴰⵍⵜ 2012)."
The special point or points may get stretched into a line or curve segment when projected.,ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ.
Azimuthal equidistant: Distances from the center and edge are preserved.,ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵣⵉⵎⵓⵜⴰⵍ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ.
"Thus, many projections exist to serve the many uses of maps and their vast range of scales.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ."
Reference maps of the world often appear on compromise projections.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰ.
The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569.,ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵎⴰⵏⴽⵉ ⵊⵉⵕⴰⵕⴷⵓⵙ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1569.
"As a side effect, the Mercator projection inflates the size of objects away from the equator.","ⴷ ⴰⴹⵕⵉⵥ ⴰⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰ."
"However, given the geometry of a sundial, these maps may well have been based on the similar central cylindrical projection, a limiting case of the gnomonic projection, which is the basis for a sundial.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ, ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ."
"However, this was a simple, and common, case of misidentification.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ."
"""Mercator titled the map : """"A new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of sailors"""".""",ⵎⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵕ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵣⵡⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ : ““ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ””.”
"Various hypotheses have been tendered over the years, but in any case Mercator's friendship with Pedro Nunes and his access to the loxodromic tables Nunes created likely aided his efforts.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴱⵉⴷⵕⵓ ⵏⵓⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵓⴷⵔⵓⵎⵉⴽ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵓⵏⵙ ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"However, the mathematics involved were developed but never published by mathematician Thomas Harriot starting around 1589.","ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵀⴰⵕⵢⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1589."
"Two main problems prevented its immediate application: the impossibility of determining the longitude at sea with adequate accuracy and the fact that magnetic directions, instead of geographical directions, were used in navigation.","ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵔⴰⴼ: ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ."
"However, it did not begin to dominate world maps until the 19th century, when the problem of position determination had been largely solved.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴹ."
"Due to these pressures, publishers gradually reduced their use of the projection over the course of the 20th century.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵢⵢⵉⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵙⴷⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20."
"In accomplishing this, the unavoidable east–west stretching of the map, which increases as distance away from the equator increases, is accompanied in the Mercator projection by a corresponding north–south stretching, so that at every point location the east–west scale is the same as the north–south scale, making it a conformal map projection.","ⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵎⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴰⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵣⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵏⴰⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ."
"At latitudes greater than 70° north or south the Mercator projection is practically unusable, because the linear scale becomes infinitely large at the poles.","ⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⵙ 70° ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ."
"Ellesmere Island on the north of Canada's Arctic archipelago looks about the same size as Australia, although Australia is over 39 times as large.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵙⵎⵉⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵅⵉⴱⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵅⴰⵜⵔ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ 39 ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ."
Greenland's real area is comparable to the Democratic Republic of the Congo's alone.,ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Alaska appears to be the same size as Australia, although Australia is actually 4½ times as large.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ 4½ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
Sweden appears much larger than Madagascar.,ⵙⵙⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵅⴰⵜⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⴷⵖⴰⵛⵇⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"""A World Map on a Regular Icosahedron by Gnomonic Projection.""""""",“ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵏⵓⵎⵉⴽ.”””
"As a result of these criticisms, modern atlases no longer use the Mercator projection for world maps or for areas distant from the equator, preferring other cylindrical projections, or forms of equal-area projection.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵟⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ, ⵙⵢⵉⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ."
"Arno Peters stirred controversy beginning in 1972 when he proposed what is now usually called the Gall–Peters projection to remedy the problems of the Mercator, claiming it to be his own original work without referencing prior work by cartographers such as Gall's work from 1855.","ⵉⵍⴷⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵕⵏⵓ ⴱⵉⵜⵔⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1972 ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⴳⴰⵍ-ⴱⵉⵜⵔⵣ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ, ⵉⵙⵢⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1855."
"The range for a amongst the possible choices is about 35 km, but for small scale (large region) applications this variation may be ignored, and mean values of 6,371 km and 40,030 km may be taken for the radius and circumference respectively.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 35 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ (ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ) ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵏⵅⵉⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⵜⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 6,371 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴷ 40,030 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴹⴼⵕ."
A cylindrical map projection is specified by formulae linking the geographic coordinates of latitude φ and longitude λ to Cartesian coordinates on the map with origin on the equator and x-axis along the equator.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵖⵔ ⴰⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ φ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ  λ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⵖⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ.
"Since the cylinder is tangential to the globe at the equator, the scale factor between globe and cylinder is unity on the equator but nowhere else.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵟⵟⵓⵙ ⵉⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ, ⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
The difference (λ − λ0) is in radians.,ⴱⵟⵟⵓ (λ − λ0) ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ.
"Even more extreme truncations have been used: a Finnish school atlas was truncated at approximately 76°N and 56°S, an aspect ratio of 1.97.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ: ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴱⴱⵢ ⵓⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ 76° ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ 56° ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ 1.97."
"Narrower strips are better: sec 8° = 1.01, so a strip of width 16° (centred on the equator) is accurate to within 1% or 1 part in 100.","ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ: sec 8° = 1.01, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ 16° (ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵙ 1% ⵏⵖ ⴷ 1 ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴳ 100."
The value of e2 is about 0.006 for all reference ellipsoids.),ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ e2 ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 0.006 ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ.)
"For the above model 1 cm corresponds to 1,500 km at a latitude of 60°.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, 1 ⵙⴰⵏⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵍ 1,500 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ 60°."
This chord subtends an angle at the centre equal to 2arcsin(cos φ sin ) and the great circle distance between A and B is 2a arcsin(cos φ sin ).),ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ 2arcsin(cos φ sin ) ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳⵔ A ⴷ B ⵜⴳⴰ 2a arcsin(cos φ sin ).)
"For other bodies a fixed surface feature is usually referenced, which for Mars is the meridian passing through the crater Airy-0.","ⵉ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵔⵔⵉⵅ ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵡⴰⵔ Airy-0."
"By convention for the Earth, Moon, and Sun it is expressed in degrees ranging from −180° to +180° For other bodies a range of 0° to 360° is used.","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⵥⵍⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ −180° ⴰⵔ +180° ⵉ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ 0° ⴰⵔ 360°."
The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.,ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
The first way is the ratio of the size of the generating globe to the size of the Earth.,ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
Many maps state the nominal scale and may even display a bar scale (sometimes merely called a 'scale') to represent it.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵔ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ (ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ “ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ”) ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ.
In this case 'scale' means the scale factor (= point scale = particular scale).,"ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳⴰ ‘ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ’ ⴰⵎⴰⵡⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ (=ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ=ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ)."
The map projection becomes critical in understanding how scale varies throughout the map.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ.
This is a survey of virtually all known projections from antiquity to 1993.,ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵖⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1993.
Small scale refers to world maps or maps of large regions such as continents or large nations.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ.
"Large-scale maps show smaller areas in more detail, such as county maps or town plans might.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵛⴰⵎⵎⵓ, ⴰⵎ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"""However, as explained above, cartographers use the term """"large scale"""" to refer to less extensive maps – those that show a smaller area.""","“ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ““ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ”” ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ – ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ.”"
This is commonly illustrated by the impossibility of smoothing an orange peel onto a flat surface without tearing and deforming it.,ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⴱⵄ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
Conversely isotropic scale factors across the map imply a conformal projection.,"ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
The qualification 'small' means that at some given accuracy of measurement no change can be detected in the scale factor over the element.,"ⴰⵙⵖⵔⵜ ‘ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ’ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ."
We say that these coordinates define the projection map which must be distinguished logically from the actual printed (or viewed) maps.,ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴷⵖⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⵔⵏ).
Since the point scale varies with position and direction the projection of the circle on the projection will be distorted.,"ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵙ ⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ."
Superimposing these distortion ellipses on the map projection conveys the way in which the point scale is changing over the map.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⴱⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ.
The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is .,ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ.
The scale is true (k=1) on the equator so that multiplying its length on a printed map by the inverse of the RF (or principal scale) gives the actual circumference of the Earth.,ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰ (ⴽ=1) ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ RF (ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ) ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ.
The top plot shows the isotropic Mercator scale function: the scale on the parallel is the same as the scale on the meridian.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⴽⴰⵙⵏ: ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ.
"Therefore, the tangent Mercator projection is highly accurate within a strip of width 3.24 degrees centred on the equator.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ 3.24 ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ."
These observations prompted the development of the transverse Mercator projections in which a meridian is treated 'like an equator' of the projection so that we obtain an accurate map within a narrow distance of that meridian.,ⵜⵃⵓⵣ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ‘ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ’ ⵉ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ.
"The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively.","ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵚⵓⵍⵜ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ: ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ N, E, S, ⴷ W ⵙ ⵓⵙⴹⴼⵕ."
"When travelling East or West, it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and be going straight (without the need to steer).","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ (ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⵙ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ) ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ."
The north pole of the magnetic needle points towards the geographic north pole of the earth and vice versa.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴳⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ.
"In the middle of the day, it is to the south for viewers in the Northern Hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the Southern Hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴱⵓ ⵓⵢⵍⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵖⴰⴹ."
"In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while the right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵛⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ —ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ; ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ."
"Because of the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what the location of the viewer, there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵜⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⵙⵔ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ."
"For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north.","ⵉ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵍ 12 ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵔⵇⵇⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ 12 ⵖⵔ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles, which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon.","ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴹⵓⴼⵏⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴹⴼⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ."
"The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be readily derived, and which corresponds to the Celestial pole, which lies directly above the position of the true pole (North or South) on the horizon.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜⴰⵍ ⵙⵎⴷⵏⵉⵏ) ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ (ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ) ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ."
The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years because of the precession of the equinoxes.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵜⵏ.
"""The asterism """"Big Dipper"""" may be used to find Polaris.""",“ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵔⵉⵜ ““ⴱⵉⴳ ⴷⵔⵉⴱⵔ”” ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⴰⵔⵉⵙ.”
"Since it finds true, rather than magnetic, north, it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓⵜⵏ."
"Most maps in medieval Europe, for example, placed east (E) at the top.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵔ (E) ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ."
"Topographic maps include elevation, typically via contour lines.","ⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵓⴱⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ."
The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole.,ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ.
"Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point.","ⵓⵜⵓⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵇⵇⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵙ ⵓⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ."
"In pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of the compass – cardinal and intercardinal directions – were given names.","ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ 32 ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵓⵚⵓⵍⵜ – ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ–."
"Systems with five cardinal points (four directions and the center) include those from pre-modern China, as well as traditional Turkic, Tibetan and Ainu cultures.","ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ (ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ) ⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵓⵕⴽⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⴱⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
"""Some may also include """"above"""" and """"below"""" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions.""","“ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ “ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ” ⴷ “ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ” ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴱⵓ ⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵡⵉⵏ.”"
North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka).,ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴱⴰ (ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⵍⵓⴽⴰ).
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions.,ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵚⵓⵍⵜ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"""Septentrionalis is from septentriones, """"the seven plow oxen"""", a name of Ursa Major.""","“ⵙⵉⴱⵜⵓⵏⵜⵔⵢⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⴱⵜⵓⵏⵜⵔⵢⵓⵏ, ““ⴰⵡⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰ”, ⴰⵙⵙⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵙⴰ ⵎⴰⵊⵓⵕ.”"
"""For example, in Lezgian, kefer can mean both """"disbelief"""" and """"north"""", since to the north of the Muslim Lezgian homeland there are areas formerly inhabited by non-Muslim Caucasian and Turkic peoples.""","“ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵍⵉⵣⴳⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵉⴼⵉⵔ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ““ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵙⵏ” ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ”, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵍⵉⵣⴳⵢⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵇⵓⵇⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵓⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ.”"
"On any rotating astronomical object, north often denotes the side appearing to rotate counter-clockwise when viewed from afar along the axis of rotation.","ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴻⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵇⵇⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⵢ."
"But simple generalizations on the subject should be treated as unsound, and as likely to reflect popular misconceptions about terrestrial magnetism.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"This convention has developed from the use of a compass, which places north at the top.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵚⵓⵍⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ."
"95% of the Global North has enough food and shelter, and a functioning education system.","95% ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ, ⴷ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ."
"""Use of the term """"South"""" may also be country-relative, particularly in cases of noticeable economic or cultural divide.""","“ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ‘“ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ”” ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.”"
"Rarely does the meaning broaden to Bolivia, and in the most restricted sense it only covers Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵕⵎⴹⵏ, ⵉⴷⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵛⵛⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵕⵊⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴳⵡⴰⵢ."
"West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set.","ⴰⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"In Ancient Egypt, the West was considered to be the portal to the netherworld, and is the cardinal direction regarded in connection with death, though not always with a negative connotation.","ⴳ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵢ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ."
"In Judaism, west is seen to be toward the Shekinah (presence) of God, as in Jewish history the Tabernacle and subsequent Jerusalem Temple faced east, with God's Presence in the Holy of Holies up the steps to the west.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴽⵉⵏⴰⵀ (ⵜⵉⵀⴰⵡⵜ)ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵀ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵓⴷⴰⵢ, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵇⵓⴷⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵕ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵀ ⴳ ⵇⵓⴷⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ."
The Arctic Circle is one of the two polar circles and the most northerly of the five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of Earth.,ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
A circle of latitude or line of latitude on Earth is an abstract east–west small circle connecting all locations around Earth (ignoring elevation) at a given latitude coordinate line.,ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ) ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ.
"Circles of latitude are unlike circles of longitude, which are all great circles with the centre of Earth in the middle, as the circles of latitude get smaller as the distance from the Equator increases.","ⵜⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ, ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵥⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ."
A circle of latitude is perpendicular to all meridians.,ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵍ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ.
The Equator is the longest circle of latitude and is the only circle of latitude which also is a great circle.,ⵉⴳⴰⵉⴽⵡⴰⵜⴻⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ.
"On a map, the circles of latitude may or may not be parallel, and their spacing may vary, depending on which projection is used to map the surface of the Earth onto a plane.","ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵖ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⵄⵔⴰⵇ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ."
"For instance, on a Mercator projection the circles of latitude are more widely spaced near the poles to preserve local scales and shapes, while on a Gall–Peters projection the circles of latitude are spaced more closely near the poles so that comparisons of area will be accurate.","ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵄⵔⴰⵇⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍ–ⴱⵉⵜⵔⵣ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⵢⵣⵏ."
"There are many smaller terms, resulting in varying daily shifts of some metres in any direction.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ."
54°40'N The border between 19th century Russian territories to the north and conflicting American and British land claims in western North America.,54°40'N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⴰⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ.
"43°30'N In the US, the border between Minnesota and Iowa.","43°30'N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⵡⴰ."
42°N Originally the northward limit of New Spain.,42°N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.
"41°N In the US, part of the border between Wyoming and Utah, the border between Wyoming and Colorado, and part of the border between Nebraska and Colorado.","41°N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵓⵎⵉⵏⴳ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵜⴰⵀ, ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵓⵎⵉⵏⴳ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵕⴰⴷⵓ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵏⴱⵕⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵕⴰⴷⵓ."
"38°N The boundary between the Soviet and American occupation zones in Korea, and later between North Korea and South Korea, from 1945 until the Korean War (1950–1953).","38°N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵔⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵔ ⴽⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1945 ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴽⵓⵔⵉ(1950–1953)."
Geographically it is a Westward extension of the border between Virginia and North Carolina and part of the border between Kentucky and Tennessee.,ⴳ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴼⵉⵔⵊⵉⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵓⵍⵉⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴽⵉⵏⵜⴰⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉ.
"Also, part of the border between North Carolina and Georgia.",ⴷ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴽⴰⵕⵓⵍⵉⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊⵢⴰ.
"32°N In the US, part of the border between New Mexico and Texas.","32°N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ, ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵏⵢⵓⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⴰⵙ."
25°N Part of the border between Mauritania and Mali.,25°N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵓⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵍⵉ.
17°N The division between Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) and Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the Vietnam War.,17°N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ (ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ) ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟⵉⵜ (ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ) ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ.
8°N Part of the border between Somalia and Ethiopia.,8°N ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵚⵚⵓⵎⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵓⴱⵢⴰ.
7°S A short section of the border between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola.,7°S ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵓⵍⴰ.
"The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation.",ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"They can employ skill and imagination to produce objects, performances, convey insights and experiences, and construct new environments and spaces.",ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
"They can also develop or contribute to some particular aspect of a more complex art form, as in cinematography.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ."
The first meaning of the word art is « way of doing ».,ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ “ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ”.
"In its most basic abstract definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view, hear or experience it.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵀⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵍⴷ ⵏⵖ ⵜ ⵢⵓⵔⵎ."
Such public rating is dependent on various subjective factors.,ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵅⴼⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.
"In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, techne.","ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⵉⴽⵏ."
"Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g. Zeus' thunderbolt).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ ⵉⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ (ⴰⵎ ⵡⵓⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵢⵓⵙ)."
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ (ⴰⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⵏⵏⵉⵖ).
"In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"""The word architecture comes from the Greek arkhitekton, """"master builder, director of works,"""" from αρχι- (arkhi) """"chief"""" + τεκτων (tekton) """"builder, carpenter"""".""","“ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ “ⴰⵔⵛⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔ” ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵔⵅⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵏ, ““ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵜⵏ, ⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ,”” ⵙⴳ αρχι-(ⴰⵔⵅⵉ) ““ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔ”” + τεκτων (ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵏ) ““ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉ, ⴰⵏⵙⵔⴰⵎ””.”"
"In modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline of creating, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of, a complex object or system.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
"Planned architecture manipulates space, volume, texture, light, shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing aesthetics.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴹⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⴷⴰⵣⵏ.
"While some ceramic products are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial, or applied art objects.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵥⵉⵍⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵙⵙⴰ."
"In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, and decorate the pottery.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⵯⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⴽ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ."
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵣⵓⵔ."
"The main techniques used in drawing are line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending.","ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵇⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴱⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵅⵔⴱⵛ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵟ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵔ."
"Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism), or political in nature (as in Artivism).","ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ (ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ), ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴰⴼⵓⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ (ⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ), ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ), ⵏⵖ ⵎⵎ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ (ⴳ ⴰⵔⵜⵉⴼⵉⵙⵎ)."
"""The noun """"literature"""" comes from the Latin word littera meaning """"an individual written character (letter).""""""",“ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ““ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⴰ”” ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵍⵉⵜⵜⵉⵕⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ““ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ (ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ).”””
"Each discipline in the performing arts is temporal in nature, meaning the product is performed over a period of time.","ⴽⵓ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙ."
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (e.g. bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (e.g. the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵉⵎⵉ (ⵥⵕ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ) ⴳⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵉⵣⵡⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ), ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ (ⴰⵎ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⴽⴰⴹ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ), ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
"The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context.",ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"""The composer Richard Wagner recognized the fusion of so many disciplines into a single work of opera, exemplified by his cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (""""The Ring of the Nibelung"""").""","“ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵓⵎⵏⵢⴰ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴼⴰⴳⵏⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵔ ⵔⵉⵏⴳ ⴷⵉ ⵏⵉⴱⵍⵓⵏⴳⵏ (““ⵍⴼⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵏⵉⴱⵍⵓⵏⴳ””).”"
"Other works in the late 19th, 20th and 21st centuries have fused other disciplines in unique and creative ways, such as performance art.","ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴷ 21 ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ."
"John Cage is regarded by many as a performance artist rather than a composer, although he preferred the latter term.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵢⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵉⵙⵢⵉⴼ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ."
"The applied arts includes fields such as industrial design, illustration, and commercial art.",ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ.
"Within social sciences, cultural economists show how video games playing is conducive to the involvement in more traditional art forms and cultural practices, which suggests the complementarity between video games and the arts.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⵢ ⵛⵔ ⵉⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵕⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton """"architect"""", from ἀρχι- """"chief"""" and τέκτων """"creator"""") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.""","ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ (ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵛⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⴽ ἀρχιτέκτων ⴰⵔⵅⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵏ ““ⴰⵔⵅⵉⵜⵉⵛⵜ””, ⵙⴳ ἀρχι- ““ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔ”” ⴷ τέκτων ““ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ””) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ.”"
"The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing culture for civilizations on all seven continents.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ."
"""In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that """"form follows function"""". """"""","“ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵉⵍⴰⵖⵉ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ “ⴷⴰ ⵜⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ””.”””"
"Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication.",ⵜⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵡⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ.
"During the European Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰⵏ, ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵢⵓⴼ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ."
"Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
A unifying or coherent form or structure.,ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵖⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ.
"The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognisable truths.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵍⵢ, ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵏⵚⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective).","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴽⵍⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉ ⵙⵉⴱⴰⵙⵜⵢⴰⵏⵓ ⵙⵉⵔⵍⵢⵓ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙTutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ)."
"""Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only """"true Christian form of architecture.""""""",“ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⴱⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ “ⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ““ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ.”””
"Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and Phenomenology.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉⵜ, ⴰⴼⵔⵜⴻⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵏⵓⵎⵉⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged.,ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ.
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time.,ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ.
"Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity.","ⵜⵙⵙⴰⴽⵣ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉⵜ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ."
"The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵎⴰⵊⵉⵙⵜⵔ ⵍⴰⵜⵓⵎⵓⵔⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun.","ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ – ⴱⵔⵓⵏⵍⵉⵙⴽⵉ, ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜⵉ, ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴰⵏⵊⵉⵍⵓ, ⴱⴰⵍⵍⴰⴷⵢⵓ – ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵥⵉⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵥⵉⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵓⴷⵓ."
"Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷⵓⵜⵛⵔ ⵡⵉⵔⴽⴱⵓⵏⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1907 ⵉ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"When modern architecture was first practised, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings.","ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴷⴰⵜ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵍ."
"The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures.","ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵙ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵔ ⵔⵓⵀ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵉⵍ ⴱⵔⵡⵉⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ."
"The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws.","ⴷⵡⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⵢⴷⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ."
"Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession.",ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ.
This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment.,ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ.
The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.,ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ LEED (ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ) ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ.
"It can also be the initial design and plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⴳ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ."
"Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵓⵎⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⵏⵉⵏ."
"Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public.","ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ, ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵕⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉⵜ, ⵜⵓⵥⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ."
"With the rise of Christianity and Islam, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer and meditation.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ."
"India was crisscrossed by trading routes of merchants from as far away as Siraf and China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles.","ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵔⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵢⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ (ⴱⵉⵀⴰⵕ).
"In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (stupa halls).","ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵛⴰⵢⵟⵢⴰ ⴳⵔⵉⵀⴰⵙ (ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵓⴱⴰ)."
"Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⴹⴰ ⵉⴱⵉⴷⵉⵜⵏⴳ ⵢⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴱⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⴹⴰ ⵎⴰⵀⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉ ⴳ ⴱⵓⴷ ⴳⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵀⴰⵕ."
"In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴹⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ."
It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 2000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
"In addition, brick replaced stone, classical order was less strictly observed, mosaics replaced carved decoration, and complex domes were erected.","ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵟⵓⴱ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵇⵡⵡⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
The earliest styles in Islamic architecture produced 'Arab-plan' or hypostyle mosques during the Umayyad Dynasty.,ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ‘ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ’ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵡⵉⵜ.
"In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ."
"The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose – calling the faithful to prayer.","ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵕⵟⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ – ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⵎⵏⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ."
"Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia and Persia.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙ."
"Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall, which is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵇⴱⵍⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ."
"In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the'qibla wall.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵇⴱⵍⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵎⵉⵃⵕⴰⴱ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵇⴱⵍⵜ."
The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.,ⴰⵎⵉⵃⵕⴰⴱ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵍⵉⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ.
"It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end (see cathedral diagram).","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ (ⵥⵕ ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰ)."
"Most architectural historians regard Michelangelo's design of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style; this can be recognized by broader interior spaces (replacing long narrow naves), more playful attention to light and shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and frequently, a dramatic central exterior projection.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴰⵏⵊⵉⵍⵓ ⵉ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⴱⵉⵜⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵕⵓⴽⵉⵜ; ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ (ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵕⴰⵎⵉ."
"While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious buildings of the 20th century.","ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵥⵉⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20."
"""It has been described as a """"phalanx of fighters"""" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward.""",“ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ““ⵜⴰⵙⴹⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ”” ⵜⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎ ⵖⵉⴼ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.”
"The Temple at Independence, Missouri was conceived by Japanese architect Gyo Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳⵢⵓ ⵓⴱⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⴹⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵣⵓⵔⵉ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵓⵜⵉⵍⵓⵙ.
The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more traditional edifice.,"ⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⴰⵣⵉⵍⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵔⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
An architectural style is a set of characteristics and features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ.
"Most architecture can be classified within a chronology of styles which changes over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵎⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas.","ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"For instance, Renaissance ideas emerged in Italy around 1425 and spread to all of Europe over the next 200 years, with the French, German, English, and Spanish Renaissances showing recognisably the same style, but with unique characteristics.","ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1425 ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ 200 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵙⵙⴽⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⵉⵡⵉⴱ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵜⵢ."
"After an architectural style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ."
"The Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ 100 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵣⵉⴽ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉ."
An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola in the rugged country side outside of Rome.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⴰⵔⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴽⴰⴱⵔⴰⵔⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ.
"Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were widely introduced in England, Germany, and northern and eastern Europe in general.","ⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵡⵉⵔⴱ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ."
The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⴰⵎⵏ.
"Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture.",ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ.
"Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵣⴷⴷⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"This does not mean, however, that such works did not exist, given that many works never survived antiquity.","ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵊⵉⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ."
"Probably written between 27 and 23 BC, it is the only major contemporary source on classical architecture to have survived.","ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 27 ⴷ 23 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⵏⵊⵎⵏ."
"It also proposes the three fundamental laws that architecture must obey, in order to be so considered: firmitas, utilitas, venustas, translated in the 17th century by Sir Henry Wotton into the English slogan firmness, commodity and delight (meaning structural adequacy, functional adequacy, and beauty).","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⵕ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳ, ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ: ⴼⵉⵔⵎⴰⵜⴰⵙ, ⵖⵉⵏⵓⵙⵜⴰⵙ, ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⴰⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖⵍ ⵜⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵣ (ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵥⵍⵢ)."
"Since the architectural theories were on structures, fewer of them were transcribed.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ."
These theories anticipated the development of Functionalism in modern architecture.,ⴷⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵥⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"This in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau in the UK, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced the Vienna Secession.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵔⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⴽⵉⵏⵜⵓⵛ, ⵉⵟⵟⵓⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ."
The generation born during the middle-third of the 19th century was largely enthralled with the opportunities presented by Semper's combination of a breathtaking historical scope and a methodological granularity.,ⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⴱⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ.
The Modern Movement rejected these thoughts and Le Corbusier energetically dismissed the work.,ⵢⵓⴳⵢ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⵢ ⵍⵓ ⴽⵓⵔⴱⵓⵣⵢⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ.
"Another influential planning theorist of this time was Ebenezer Howard, who founded the garden city movement.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴱⵉⵏⵉⵣⵔ ⵀⵓⵡⴰⵔⴷ, ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵜⴰⵏ."
"An early use of the term modern architecture in print occurred in the title of a book by Otto Wagner, who gave examples of his own work representative of the Vienna Secession with art nouveau illustrations, and didactic teachings to his students.","ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴰⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵓ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵔ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵢⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Frank Lloyd Wright, while modern in rejecting historic revivalism, was idiosyncratic in his theory, which he conveyed in copious writing.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽ ⵍⵡⵉⴷ ⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
Wright was more poetic and firmly maintained the 19th-century view of the creative artist as unique genius.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴽⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ.
"This has also been the case with educators in academia like Dalibor Vesely or Alberto-Perez Gomez, and in more recent years this philosophical orientation has been reinforced through the research of a new generation of theorists (E.G. Jeffrey Kipnis or Sanford Kwinter).","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵍⵉⴱⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜⵓ-ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ, ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ (ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵊⵉⴼⴼⵔⵉⵢ ⴽⵉⴱⵏⵉⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰⵏⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴽⵡⵉⵜⵔ)."
"Others, like Beatriz Colomina and Mary McLeod, expand historical understandings of architecture to include lesser or minor discourses that have influenced the development of architectural ideas over time.","ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵔⵉⵣ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢⵓⴷ, ⵢⵓⵏⴼⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵟⵟⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ."
"In their theories, architecture is compared to a language which can be invented and re-invented every time it is used.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"Since 2000, architectural theory has also had to face the rapid rise of urbanism and globalization.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000, ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⴷⴷⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"""In the past decade, there has been the emergence of the so-called """"Digital"""" Architecture.""","“ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ““ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ”” ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳ.”"
Architects also design organic-looking buildings in the attempt to develop a new formal language.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵖⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.
"Since these new architectural tendencies emerged, many theorists and architects have been working on these issues, developing theories and ideas such as Patrick Schumacher's Parametricism.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⵙⵙⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⵛⵓⵎⴰⵅⵔ."
"Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵔⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ."
Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches.,ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵓⵙⵢⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
Some of the columns were also made of marble.,ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵛⵉ.
"Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors.","ⴰⵕⵕⵓⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴼ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉ."
"For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴰⵀⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ, ⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ."
"Those in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice (1071) specially attracted John Ruskin's fancy.","ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⴽ, ⵜⵍⴷⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵏⴷⵓⵇⵜ (1071) ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⴽⵉⵏ."
"On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally.","ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵣⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵓⴳⵓⴹ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ."
Composite columns line the principal space of the nave.,ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ.
The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
"Other structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople, the innovative walls of Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns).","ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⵙⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⵙⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ (ⴰⴽⴷ 192 ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ) ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⴹⴼⵉ (ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ)."
"The Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵟⴰⵏⴱⵓⵍ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴰⴼⵢⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴱⴰⵎⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵙ."
The Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki) is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⵉ ⴰⴱⵓⵙⵜⵍ (ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵍⵓⵏⵉⴽⵉ) ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴻⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⴽ ⴱⵓ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ.
"At Saint Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon.","ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵔⵊⵢⵓⵙ, ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵙⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉ, ⵔⴰⴼⵉⵏⴰ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵜⴰⵎ."
"This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces.","ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉⵏ, ⵎⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ 260 ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵛⵉⵍ (80 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ), ⴷ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⴳⵔ 100 ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵛⵉⵍ (30 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ), ⵉⵎⴷⵍⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest.,ⴳ ⵀⵓⵍⵉ ⴰⴱⵓⵙⵜⵍ (ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 6) ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⴰ; ⵜⴳ ⵜⵇⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ.
"Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⴰⵎⵜ , ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⴰⵢ ⵢⵙⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵇⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵉⵎⵥⵉⵢ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ."
Still in front put a square court.,ⵉⵙⴰⵍ ⴷⴰⵜⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵙ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ.
"Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo, from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers.","ⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵇⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ, ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ, ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵉⵔⵏ."
Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⴰⴱⴰⵟⵕⵉⵕⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵜⵔⵓⵏⵓⵏ.
The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of the Roman variety.,ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉ.
There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709–715).,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰ (709–715).
"Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ ⵏ 70 ⵙⵎ x 35 ⵙⵎ x 5 ⵙⵎ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵙ ⵙⵙⵉⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 5 ⵙⵎ."
Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵀⴰⵊⵢⴰ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏ.
"This style influenced the construction of several other buildings, such as St. Peter's Basilica.","ⵜⵟⵟⵓⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴱⵉⵜⵔⵣ."
"The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian.","ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵊⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵢⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵚⵓⴼⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ."
"Gothic architecture (or pointed architecture) is an architectural style that was particularly popular in Europe from the late 12th century to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas.","ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ (ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴱⴱⴻⴱⵜ) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 12 ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⵉⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 17 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ."
The style at the time was sometimes known as opus Francigenum (lit.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵙ ⴼⴰⵏⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ (lit.
The primary engineering innovation and one of the other characteristic design components is the flying buttress.,ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⵍⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ.
"However, there is no evidence to indicate that there was a connection between Armenian architecture and the development of the Gothic style in Western Europe.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ."
"Thus the Gothic style, being in opposition to classical architecture, from that point of view was associated with the destruction of advancement and sophistication.","ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴷⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ."
"The term ‘Saracen’ was still in use in the 18th century and it typically referred to all Muslim conquerors, including the Moors and Arabs.","ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ‘ⵙⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ’ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ 18 ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵏ."
"His aversion of the style was so strong that he refused to put a Gothic roof on the new St. Paul's, despite being pressured to do so.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⴳⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⵔⴽ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⴳ."
"Several authors have taken a stance against this allegation, claiming that the Gothic style had most likely filtered into Europe in other ways, for example through Spain or Sicily.","ⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵚⵉⵇⵉⵍⵢⴰ."
It was also influenced by theological doctrines which called for more light and by technical improvements in vaults and buttresses that allowed much greater height and larger windows.,ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵖⵉⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ.
Rib-vaults were employed in some parts of the cathedral at Durham (1093–) and in Lessay Abbey in Normandy (1098).,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⴳ ⴷⵓⵔⵀⴰⵎ (1093–) ⴷ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⴱⴱⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉ (1098).
"The Duchy of Normandy, part of the Angevin Empire until the 13th century, developed its own version of Gothic.","ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⵓⵇⵢⴰ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⴰⵏⵊⴼⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 13, ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ."
One example of early Norman Gothic is Bayeux Cathedral (1060–70) where the Romanesque cathedral nave and choir were rebuilt into the Gothic style.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵢⵓ (1060–70)ⵛⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ.
Coutances Cathedral was remade into Gothic beginning about 1220.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵜⵓⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1220.
Suger reconstructed portions of the old Romanesque church with the rib vault in order to remove walls and to make more space for windows.,ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⵙⵓⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵃⵎⵎⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⵙ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ.
"In addition, he installed a circular rose window over the portal on the facade.","ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵕⵥⵎ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵊⵊⵉⴳⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⴼ."
"Durham Cathedral was the first cathedral to employ a rib vault, built between 1093 and 1104.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⴷⵓⵔⵀⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵃⵎⴰⵕⵉⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1093 ⴷ 1104."
"One of the builders who is believed to have worked on Sens Cathedral, William of Sens, later travelled to England and became the architect who, between 1175 and 1180, reconstructed the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in the new Gothic style.","ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵓⴼ ⵙⴰⵏⵙ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⵙ, ⵖⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵔⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1175 ⴷ 1180."
"French Gothic churches were heavily influenced both by the ambulatory and side-chapels around the choir at Saint-Denis, and by the paired towers and triple doors on the western façade.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵏⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⴳⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ."
"The builders of Notre-Dame went further by introducing the flying buttress, heavy columns of support outside the walls connected by arches to the upper walls.","ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⵍⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ."
His work was continued by William the Englishman who replaced his French namesake in 1178.,ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1178.
"Tiercerons – decorative vaulting ribs – seem first to be have been used in vaulting at Lincoln Cathedral, installed c.1200.","ⵜⵉⵢⵕⵙⵓⵕⵓⵏⵙ – ⵉⵖⵙⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵃⵎⵎⴰⵕⵉⵏ– ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵃⵎⵎⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵍⵉⵏⴽⵓⵍⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ c.1200."
"The first building in the High Gothic was Chartres Cathedral, an important pilgrimage church south of Paris.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵀⴰⵢ ⴳⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵛⴰⵕⵜⵕ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵣⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ."
"The walls were filled with stained glass, mainly depicting the story of the Virgin Mary but also, in a small corner of each window, illustrating the crafts of the guilds who donated those windows.","ⵜⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⵔⵢⴰⵎ, ⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⵖⵍⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵕⵥⵎ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵣⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ."
"In central Europe, the High Gothic style appeared in the Holy Roman Empire, first at Toul (1220–), whose Romanesque cathedral was rebuilt in the style of Reims Cathedral; then Trier's Liebfrauenkirche parish church (1228–), and then throughout the Reich, beginning with the Elisabethkirche at Marburg (1235–) and the cathedral at Metz (c.1235–).","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵜ, ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵍ (1220–), ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵔⵉⵎⵙ; ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵔ ⵍⵉⴱⴼⵔⵓⵢⵏⴽⵉⵔⵛ (1228–), ⴷ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵢⵅ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⵉⵜⴽⵉⵔⵛ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵔⴱⵓⵔⴳ (1235–) ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵜⵣ (c.1235–)."
Lancet windows were supplanted by multiple lights separated by geometrical bar-tracery.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ.
"Other characteristics of the High Gothic were the development of rose windows of greater size, using bar-tracery, higher and longer flying buttresses, which could reach up to the highest windows, and walls of sculpture illustrating biblical stories filling the facade and the fronts of the transept.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵊⵊⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵢⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
"The high and thin walls of French Rayonnant Gothic allowed by the flying buttresses enabled increasingly ambitious expanses of glass and decorated tracery, reinforced with ironwork.","ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵕⴰⵢⵓⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⴳⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵢⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ."
Masons elaborated a series of tracery patterns for windows – from the basic geometrical to the reticulated and the curvilinear – which had superseded the lancet window.,ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵓⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ – ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵓⵙⵙ – ⵉⴹⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵕⵥⵎ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ.
"Churches with features of this style include Westminster Abbey (1245–), the cathedrals at Lichfield (after 1257–) and Exeter (1275–), Bath Abbey (1298–), and the retro choir at Wells Cathedral (c.1320–).","ⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵜⵎⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔ (1245–), ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵜⵛⴼⵉⵢⵉⵍⴷ (ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ 1257-), ⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵜⵔ (1275-), ⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵜ (1298-), ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵡⵉⵍⵣ (c.1320-)."
Use of ogees was especially common.,ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵉⵣ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"Examples of French flamboyant building include the west façade of Rouen Cathedral, and especially the façades of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s) and choir Mont-Saint-Michel's abbey church (1448).","ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵕⵡⴰⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⴷⵓ ⴼⵉⵏⵙⵉⵏⵏ (1370s) ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵎⵓⵏ-ⵙⴰⵏⵜ-ⵎⵉⵛⵉⵍ (1448)."
It first appeared in the cloisters and chapter-house (c. 1332) of Old St Paul's Cathedral in London by William de Ramsey.,ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴷ (c. 1332) ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⴱⵓⵍⵙ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴷⵓ ⵔⴰⵎⵣⵉ.
"Perpendicular is sometimes called Third Pointed and was employed over three centuries; the fan-vaulted staircase at Christ Church, Oxford built around 1640.",ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵇⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 1640.
"The Kings of France had first-hand knowledge of the new Italian style, because of the military campaign of Charles VIII to Naples and Milan (1494), and especially the campaigns of Louis XII and Francis I (1500–1505) to restore French control over Milan and Genoa.","ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏⵓ (1494), ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ (1500-1505) ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ. ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵊⵉⵏⵡⴰ."
The Château de Blois (1515–24) introduced the Renaissance loggia and open stairway.,ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⵡⴰ (1515–24) ⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵍⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ.
"Under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, England was largely isolated from architectural developments on the continent.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵜ, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ."
Shute published the first book in English on classical architecture in 1570.,ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵛⵓⵜ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1570.
"The pointed arch did not originate in Gothic architecture; they had been employed for centuries in the Near East in pre-Islamic as well as Islamic architecture for arches, arcades, and ribbed vaults.",ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⴽ ⴰⵎⴷⴻⴱⴱⴻⴱ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ; ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵍⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⴽⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵖⵙⴷⵉⵙⵏ.
"They were also sometimes used for more practical purposes, such as to bring transverse vaults to the same height as diagonal vaults, as in the nave and aisles of Durham Cathedral, built in 1093.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵙⵙⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴷⵓⵕⵀⴰⵎ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1093."
"Unlike the semi-circular barrel vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, where the weight pressed directly downward, and required thick walls and small windows, the Gothic rib vault was made of diagonal crossing arched ribs.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵃⵎⵎⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵏⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⵏⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵃⵎⵎⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵖⵙⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵏⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ."
The outward thrust against the walls was countered by the weight of buttresses and later flying buttresses.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵢⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.
"They were very difficult to build, and could only cross a limited space.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ."
"The alternating rows of alternating columns and piers receiving the weight of the vaults was replaced by simple pillars, each receiving the same weight.","ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵍⵉ."
"The first of these new vaults had an additional rib, called a tierceron, which ran down the median of the vault.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴷⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵔⵓⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵃⵎⵎⴰⵕ."
These vaults often copied the forms form of the elaborate tracery of the Late Gothic styles.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ.
"A second type was called a reticulated vault, which had a network of additional decorative ribs, in triangles and other geometric forms, placed between or over the traverse ribs.","ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵃⵎⵎⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵙⵔⵏ."
An example is the cloister of Gloucester Cathedral (c. 1370).,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵍⵓⵙⵉⵙⵜⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ (c. 1370).
"They were used later at Sens, at Notre-Dame de Paris and at Canterbury in England.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴳ ⵙⴰⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵏⵓⵕⵜ-ⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⵓ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ."
"In the High Gothic period, a new form was introduced, composed of a central core surrounded several attached slender columns, or colonettes, going up to the vaults.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
"In England, the clustered columns were often ornamented with stone rings, as well as columns with carved leaves.","ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵣⴰⵢ."
"In place of the Corinthian capital, some columns used a stiff-leaf design.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵕⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴱⵓ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"In later structures, the buttresses often had several arches, each reaching in to a different level of the structure.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ."
The arches had an additional practical purpose; they contained lead channels which carried rainwater off the roof; it was expelled from the mouths of stone gargoyles placed in rows on the buttresses.,ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ; ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ;ⵜⵥⵥⵍ ⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ.
"They also had a practical purpose; they often served as bell towers supporting belfries, whose bells told the time by announcing religious services, warned of fire or enemy attack, and celebrated special occasions like military victories and coronations.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉ; ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⵙⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴳⵓ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ."
"Since cathedral construction usually took many years, and was extremely expensive, by the time the tower were to be built public enthusiasm waned, and tastes changed.","ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵜⵛⵛ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ, ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰ ⵡⴰⵚⵚⴰⴱ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ."
Chartres would have been even more exuberant if the second plan had been followed; it called for seven towers around the transept and sanctuary.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵛⴰⵔⵜⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵎⵔ ⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ; ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ.
The early and High Gothic Laon Cathedral has a square lantern tower over the crossing of the transept; two towers on the western front; and two towers on the ends of the transepts.,ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵏⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ; ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ. ⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢ.
"In Normandy, cathedrals and major churches often had multiple towers, built over the centuries; the Abbaye aux Hommes (begun 1066), Caen has nine towers and spires, placed on the facade, the transepts, and the centre.","ⴳ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢ ⵓⵣ ⵓⵎ (Abbaye aux Hommes) (ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴳ 1066), ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵢⵏ (Caen) ⵜⵥⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
"A variation of the spire was the flèche, a slender, spear-like spire, which was usually placed on the transept where it crossed the nave.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵔⵎⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⵙⵔⵎⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ ⵜⴱⴱⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ."
Amiens Cathedral has a flèche.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵡⵙⵔⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏ.
"It was removed in 1786 during a program to modernise the cathedral, but was put back in a new form designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.","ⵜⴻⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1786 ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵖⵢⵓⵍⵉ-ⵍⵓ-ⴷⵓⴽ."
"In English Gothic, the major tower was often placed at the crossing of the transept and nave, and was much higher than the other.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"A crossing tower was constructed at Canterbury Cathedral in 1493–1501 by John Wastell, who had previously worked on King's College at Cambridge.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵔⴱⵔⵉ ⴳ 1493–1501 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍ, ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵊ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵊ."
An unusual double arch had to be constructed in the centre of the crossing to give the tower the extra support it needed.,ⵜⵛⵉⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ.
"Construction began again in 1724 to the design of Nicholas Hawksmoor, after first Christopher Wren had proposed a design in 1710, but stopped again in 1727.","ⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1724 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵀⴰⵡⴽⵙⵎⵓⵔ, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⵔ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴼⵔ ⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1710, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1727."
"Cologne Cathedral had been started in the 13th century, following the plan of Amiens Cathedral, but only the apse and the base of one tower were finished in the Gothic period.","ⵜⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 13, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ."
"The tower of Ulm Minster has a similar history, begun in 1377, stopped in 1543, and not completed until the 19th century.","ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵎ ⵎⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ, ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1377, ⵉⵡⴷⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1543, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19."
Burgos Cathedral was more inspired by Northern Europe.,ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴳⵓⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ.
"Plate tracery was the first type of tracery to be developed, emerging in the later phase of Early Gothic or First Pointed.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ, ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
"Tracery is practical as well as decorative, because the increasingly large windows of Gothic buildings needed maximum support against the wind.","ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵉⵛⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ."
"""Plate tracery reached the height of its sophistication with the 12th century windows of Chartres Cathedral and in the """"Dean's Eye"""" rose window at Lincoln Cathedral.""",“ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⵜⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 12 ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵊⵊⵉⴳⵏ ““ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⵢ (Dean's Eye)”” ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⴽⵓⵍⵏ.”
"Stone bar-tracery, an important decorative element of Gothic styles, first was used at Reims Cathedral shortly after 1211, in the chevet built by Jean D'Orbais.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰ ⵔⵉⵎⵙ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1211 ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵊⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵔⴱⵉⵙ."
"Bar-tracery became common after c.1240, with increasing complexity and decreasing weight.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1240, ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ."
"Rayonnant also deployed mouldings of two different types in tracery, where earlier styles had used moulding of a single size, with different sizes of mullions.","ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵕⴰⵢⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵓⵜ, ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵣⵔⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
The mullions of Geometrical style typically had capitals with curved bars emerging from them.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ.
The mullions were in consequence branched into Y-shaped designs further ornamented with cusps.,"ⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ Y ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ."
"Second Pointed (14th century) saw Intersecting tracery elaborated with ogees, creating a complex reticular (net-like) design known as Reticulated tracery.","ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⴱⴱⴻⴱ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 14) ⵜⵉⴽⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵉⵙ (ogees), ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ (ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ) ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ."
"These shapes are known as daggers, fish-bladders, or mouchettes.",ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵃⵎⴰⵊⵊⵓ.
"Perpendicular strove for verticality and dispensed with the Curvilinear style's sinuous lines in favour of unbroken straight mullions from top to bottom, transected by horizontal transoms and bars.","ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⴼⵙⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴽⵓⵔⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏⵉⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⵕ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵖⴷⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ."
The transoms were often topped by miniature crenellations.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⵉⵔⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ.
"It frequently covered the facades, and the interior walls of the nave and choir were covered with blind arcades.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵍⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
2 Vaults Barrel or groin Ribbed Ribbed vaults appeared in the Romanesque era and were elaborated in the Gothic era.,ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ 2 ⵜⴼⵏⵉⵇⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉ.
"They have a long nave making the body of the church, where the parishioners worshipped; a transverse arm called the transept and, beyond it to the east, the choir, also known as a chancel or presbytery, that was usually reserved for the clergy.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ; ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ, ⴼⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ, ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵙⴰ, ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ."
A passage called the ambulatory circled the choir.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵊⵊⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ.
"The early cathedrals, like Notre-Dame, had six-part rib vaults, with alternating columns and piers, while later cathedrals had the simpler and stronger four-part vaults, with identical columns.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵡⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ."
"Transepts were usually short in early French Gothic architecture, but became longer and were given large rose windows in the Rayonnant period.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⴳⵣⵍⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵊⵊⵉⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵢⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ."
"In England, transepts were more important, and the floor plans were usually much more complex than in French cathedrals, with the addition of attached Lady Chapels, an octagonal Chapter House, and other structures (See plans of Salisbury Cathedral and York Minster below).","ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ, ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉ ⵜⵔⵏⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴷⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⴱⵍⵣ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵣⴱⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⴽ ⵎⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ)."
An elevation typically had four levels.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ.
"Above that was a narrower gallery, called the triforium, which also helped provide additional thickness and support.","ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴼⵓⵔⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"This system was used at Noyon Cathedral, Sens Cathedral, and other early structures.",ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏⵓⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ.
"The tribune disappeared, which meant that the arcades could be higher.","ⵜⵣⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴽⴽⵯⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵊⵊⴳⵓⵍⵏ."
"A similar arrangement was adapted in England, at Salisbury Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵣⴱⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵍⵉⵏⴽⵓⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵉ."
"This was made possible by the development of the flying buttress, which transferred the thrust of the weight of the roof to the supports outside the walls.","ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⵍⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵢⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵓⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
Beauvais Cathedral reached the limit of what was possible with Gothic technology.,ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴱⵓⴼⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ.
Gothic facades were adapted from the model of the Romanesque facades.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"The sculpture of the central tympanum was devoted to the Last Judgement, that to the left to the Virgin Mary, and that to the right to the Saints honoured at that particular cathedral.","ⵜⵙⵜⵢ ⵜⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵢⴰⵎ, ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ."
"""They followed the doctrine expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas that beauty was a """"harmony of contrasts.""""""",“ⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵓⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵖⵜⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⴽⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵥⵍⵢ ““ⴰⵙⵏⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ.”””
In England the rose window was often replaced by several lancet windows.,"ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵊⵊⵉⴳⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⵎ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⴳⵏ."
"The portals were crowned with high arched gables, composed of concentric arches filled with sculpture.",ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵜⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵯⵍⴰ.
"The towers were adorned with their own arches, often crowned with pinnacles.","ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⵔⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵇⵔⵔⴰⵢ."
"While French cathedrals emphasised the height of the facade, English cathedrals, particularly in earlier Gothic, often emphasised the width.","ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ."
"He broke away from the French emphasis on height, and eliminated the column statutes and statuary in the arched entries, and covered the facade with colourful mosaics of biblical scenes (The current mosaics are of a later date).","ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴽⴽⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⴷⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⵙⴰⵢⴼⵙⵜ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵕⴰⵜ (ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵙⴰⵢⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ)."
The sculptor Andrea Pisano made the celebrated bronze doors for Florence Baptistry (1330–1336).,ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⴱⵉⵙⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵓⵏⵣⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵉ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵓⵏⵙ ⴱⴰⴱⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉ (1330–1336).
"There is usually a single or double ambulatory, or aisle, around the choir and east end, so parishioners and pilgrims could walk freely easily around east end.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ."
"""Abbot Suger first used the novel combination rib vaults and buttresses to replace the thick walls and replace them with stained glass, opening up that portion of the church to what he considered """"divine light"""".""","“ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⵙⵓⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵏⴼⵏ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ““ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ””.”"
"There are three such chapels at Chartres Cathedral, seven at Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens Cathedral, Prague Cathedral and Cologne Cathedral, and nine at Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua in Italy.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵔⵜⵔ, ⵙⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⵓ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴱⵔⴰⴳ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵥⴰⵜ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵣⵉⵍⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉ ⴱⴰⴷⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ."
"""An edict of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 had declared: """"The composition of religious images is not to be left to the inspiration of artists; it is derived from the principles put in place by the Catholic Church and religious tradition.""",“ⴰⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴼⵖ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵉⵇⵉⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 787 ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ: ““ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴷⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ; ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ.”
"Gradually, as the style evolved, the sculpture became more and more prominent, taking over the columns of the portal, and gradually climbing above the portals, until statues in niches covered the entire facade, as in Wells Cathedral, to the transepts, and, as at Amiens Cathedral, even on the interior of the facade.","ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴷⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵣ, ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴹⴰⵍ, ⴷ, ⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ."
This set a pattern of complex iconography which was followed at other churches.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"The tympanum over the central portal on the west façade of Notre-Dame de Paris vividly illustrates the Last Judgement, with figures of sinners being led off to hell, and good Christians taken to heaven.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⵓ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⴱⴹⴰⵢ, ⴳ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⵍⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴷⵖⵓ, ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴳⵍⴻⵍ."
The torments of hell were even more vividly depicted.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵡⴰⵅⵓⴱ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"They were part of the visual message for the illiterate worshippers, symbols of the evil and danger that threatened those who did not follow the teachings of the church.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴷⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ."
"They were replaced with figures in the Gothic style, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc during the 19th-century restoration.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ, ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵖⵢⵓⵍⵉ-ⵍⵓ-ⴷⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19."
"Religious teachings in the Middle Ages, particularly the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a 6th-century mystic whose book, De Coelesti Hierarchia, was popular among monks in France, taught that all light was divine.","ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵙⵓⴷⵓ-ⴷⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⴷⴻ ⴰⵔⵢⵓⴱⴰⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵚⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 6 ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷⵓ ⵛⵡⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⵔⵛⵉ, ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵔⵓⵀⴱⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ."
"The windows on the north side, frequently in the shade, had windows depicting the Old Testament.","ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ."
"The details were painted onto the glass in vitreous enamel, then baked in a kiln to fuse the enamel on the glass.","ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵎⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ, ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ."
Sainte-Chapelle became the model for other chapels across Europe.,ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ-ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵓ.
"Clear glass was dipped into coloured glass, then portions of the coloured glass were ground away to give exactly the right shade.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⴹ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ."
"One of the most celebrated Flamboyant buildings was the Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s), with walls of glass from floor to ceiling.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⴱⵉⵏⵙ (1370 ⵙ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵍⴰⴱⵓⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵣⵣⴰⵊ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵍⵉ.
The stained glass windows were extremely complex and expensive to create.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵣⴰⵊ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ.
"The rose was a symbol of the Virgin Mary, and they were particularly used in churches dedicated to her, including Notre-Dame de Paris.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵍⴷⵊⵉⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ."
"The Palais de la Cité in Paris, close to Notre-Dame de Paris, begun in 1119, which was the principal residence of the French kings until 1417.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵉⴱⵔⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⴱⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵜⵉⴳ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⴷⵉ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1119, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⵉⵚⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1417."
"However, it was soon made obsolete by the development of artillery, and in the 15th century it was remodelled into a comfortable residential palace.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 15 ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰⵏ."
"The oldest existing example in England is probably the Mob Quad of Merton College at Oxford University, constructed between 1288 and 1378.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵓⴱ ⴽⵡⴰⴷ ⵓⴼ ⵍⵉⵔⵜⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵊ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1288 ⴷ 1378."
"A similar kind of academic cloister was created at Queen's College, Oxford in the 1140s, likely designed by Reginald Ely.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵡⵉⵏⵣ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⴷⵊ, ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵣⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⵓⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ 1140s, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵊⵉⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⵉⵍⵉ."
"Some colleges, like Balliol College, Oxford, borrowed a military style from Gothic castles, with battlements and crenolated walls.","ⵕⴹⵍⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵉⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⴰⵍⵢⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⵎ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵍⵏⵉⵏ."
"""He wrote in 1447 that he wanted his chapel """"to proceed in large form, clean and substantial, setting apart superfluity of too great curious works of entail and busy moulding.""""""","“ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1447 ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⵉⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ““ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⵉⵣⴷⵉⴳ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⵢⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.”””"
"The walls had two levels of walkways on the inside, a crennellated parapet with merlons, and projecting machicolations from which missiles could be dropped on besiegers.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵍⴰⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ."
"Castles were surrounded by a deep moat, spanned by a single drawbridge.",ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵅⴱⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵯⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵉⵣⵏ.
"One good surviving example is the Château de Dourdan, near Nemours.",ⵖⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵎⵓⵔⵙ.
The conversion implied compromises since Latin churches are oriented towards the East and mosques are oriented towards Mecca.,ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵎⴽⴽⴰ.
"Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque, in Famagusta, Northern Cyprus.","ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⵚⵟⴰⴼⴰ ⴱⴰⵛⴰ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵖⵓⵙⵜⴰ, ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵇⵓⴱⵕⵓⵚ"
"The Gothic style began to be described as outdated, ugly and even barbaric.",ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴱⴰⵔⵉ.
"Ireland was an island of Gothic architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the construction of Derry Cathedral (completed 1633), Sligo Cathedral (c. 1730), and Down Cathedral (1790–1818) are other examples.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵕⵍⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⵔⴷⴰⵍ ⴷⵉⵔⵉ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1633), ⴷ ⵓⴽⵜⵔⴷⴰⵍ ⵙⵍⵉⵊⵓ ( ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ 1730) ⴷ ⵓⴽⵜⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⵓⵡⵏ (1790-1818)."
"The two western towers of Westminster Abbey were constructed between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, opening a new period of Gothic Revival.","ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵀⵓⴽⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴳ ⴷⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵜⵎⵉⵏⵙⵜⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 1722 ⴷ 1745, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⵓⵟⵉⵜ."
"This period of more universal appeal, spanning 1855–1885, is known in Britain as High Victorian Gothic.","ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⴳⵔ 1855 ⴰⵔ 1885, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵍⵇⵓⵟⵉ ⵍⴼⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ."
"From the second half of the 19th century onwards, it became more common in Britain for neo-Gothic to be used in the design of non-ecclesiastical and non-governmental buildings types.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⵟⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ."
"""Landscape architects work on structures and external spaces in the landscape aspect of the design – large or small, urban, suburban and rural, and with """"hard"""" (built) and """"soft"""" (planted) materials, while integrating ecological sustainability.""","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ - ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵕⵓⵏⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ “ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ” (ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ), ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵜ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵏ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ Iⵎⵓⵯⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ."
They can also review proposals to authorize and supervise contracts for the construction work.,ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵎⴰⵔ I ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵅ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵔⵣ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ.
The first person to write of making a landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⴰⴷⵉⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵢⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1712.
"During the latter 19th century, the term landscape architect began to be used by professional landscapes designers, and was firmly established after Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and Beatrix Jones (later Farrand) with others founded the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 1899.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵥⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵍⴰⵡ ⵓⵍⵎⵙⵜⵉⴷ ⵊⵓⵏⵢⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴱⵢⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⵙ ⵊⵓⵏⵣ (ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴷ) ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ I ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ (ⴰⵙⵍⴰ) ⴳ 1899."
Their projects can range from site surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management purposes.,ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵀⵍⴰ.
"Their work is embodied in written statements of policy and strategy, and their remit includes master planning for new developments, landscape evaluations and assessments, and preparing countryside management or policy plans.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⵖⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵀⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰ."
In recent years the need and interest of therapeutic gardens have been increasingly rising.,"ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵣⴰⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ."
"Among these were Central Park in New York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system.","ⴳ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵚⵓⵏⵟⵕⴰⵍ ⴱⴰⵔⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ, ⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵙⴱⵜ ⴱⴰⵔⴽ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⴷⵍ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵙⴹⵏ."
"She was design consultant for over a dozen universities including: Princeton in Princeton, New Jersey; Yale in New Haven, Connecticut; and the Arnold Arboretum for Harvard in Boston, Massachusetts.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵏⵙⴼⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵊⵉⵔⵙⵉ, ⵢⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵀⴰⴼⵏ, ⴽⵓⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵜⵍ ⴰⵔⵏⵓⵍⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵀⴰⵔⴼⴰⵔⴷ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵚⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵙ."
"Urban Planners are qualified to perform tasks independent of landscape architects, and in general, the curriculum of landscape architecture programs do not prepare students to become urban planners.","ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ."
Roberto Burle Marx in Brazil combined the International style and native Brazilian plants and culture for a new aesthetic.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜⵓ ⴱⵉⵔⵍ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵙ ⴳ ⵍⴱⵕⴰⵥⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵥⵉⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵍⵜ.
He popularized a system of analyzing the layers of a site in order to compile a complete understanding of the qualitative attributes of a place.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ.
"Once recognized by AILA, landscape architects use the title 'Registered Landscape Architect' across the six states and territories within Australia.","ⵖⵉⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵢⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⵣⵡⵍ "" ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵙⵔ"" ⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵟⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ."
"Within NZ, Members of NZILA when they achieve their professional standing, can use the title Registered Landscape Architect NZILA.","ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵥⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵣⵉⵍⴰ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵔⵉⵊⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵙⴽⴰⴱ ⴰⵔⵛⵉⵜⴽ ⵏⵣⵉⵍⴰ."
"ILASA's mission is to advance the profession of landscape architecture and uphold high standards of professional service to its members, and to represent the profession of landscape architecture in any matter which may affect the interests of the members of the institute.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ."
At present there are fifteen accredited programmes in the UK.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ.
"""In 2008, the LI launched a major recruitment drive entitled """"I want to be a Landscape Architect"""" to encourage the study of Landscape Architecture.""","""ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵍⵉ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ "" ⵔⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⵖ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ"" ""ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ""."
Several states require passage of a state exam as well.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ.
"By the 6th century BC, the sand already covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 6 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⴷⵍ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵢⵉⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵓⵖ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⴷⴷⵏ."
"One scheme to save the temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear freshwater dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile.","ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⴽⴽⵉⵜⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ."
They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds.,ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⵜⴻⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵅⵉⵅ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉ.
"Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 metres higher and 200 metres back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history.","ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964 ⴷ 1968, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴱⴱⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ (ⴰⵔ 30 ⵟⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ 20ⵟⵓⵏ), ⵜⵜⵢⵉⵙⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ 65 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴷ 200 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ, ⵉⵏⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵥ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
"Many visitors also arrive by plane at an airfield that was specially constructed for the temple complex, or by road from Aswan, the nearest city.","ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴳⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵔⵣⴰⴼ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯⵣ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵙⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"The colossal statues along the left-hand wall bear the white crown of Upper Egypt, while those on the opposite side are wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent).","ⵜⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ, ⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴼⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵉ ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ (pschent)."
"The most famous relief shows the king on his chariot shooting arrows against his fleeing enemies, who are being taken prisoner.",ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵔⴳⴳⵯⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⴼ.
There are depictions of Ramesses and Nefertari with the sacred boats of Amun and Ra-Horakhty.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵏⴼⵔⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵃⵓⵔⴰⵅⵜⵉ.
"These dates are allegedly the king's birthday and coronation day, respectively.",ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"In fact, according to calculations made on the basis of the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (Sothis) and inscriptions found by archaeologists, this date must have been October 22.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴹⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵙⵉⵔⵢⵓⵙ (ⵙⵓⵜⵉⵙ) ⴷ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵕⴽⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ 22 ⴽⵜⵓⴱⵕ."
This was in fact the second time in ancient Egyptian history that a temple was dedicated to a queen.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ.
"Traditionally, the statues of the queens stood next to those of the pharaoh, but were never taller than his knees.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵄⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏ ⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴰⴼⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ."
The capitals of the pillars bear the face of the goddess Hathor; this type of column is known as Hathoric.,ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⵃⴰⵜⵃⵓⵕ; ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵃⴰⵜⵃⵓⵕⵉⴽ.
"On the south and the north walls of this chamber there are two graceful and poetic bas-reliefs of the king and his consort presenting papyrus plants to Hathor, who is depicted as a cow on a boat sailing in a thicket of papyri.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵀⴰⵜⵓⵔ, ⵜⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⵓⵎⵍ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵔⴷⵉ."
"None of the current buildings are believed to date from before the 17th century, but they were likely built with the same construction methods and designs as had been used for centuries before.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⵎⵉ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⴽⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ."
"Other kasbahs and ksour were located all along this route, such as the nearby Tamdaght to the north.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴳⵎⵎⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵖⵜ ⵉⵍⵜⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
The village's buildings are grouped together within a defensive wall that includes corner towers and a gate.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⴱ ⴰⵎⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵜ.
"The village also has a number of public or community buildings such as a mosque, a caravanserai, a kasbah (castle-like fortification) and the Marabout of Sidi Ali or Amer.",ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵡⵉⵅⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ(ⵜⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ) ⴷ ⵎⴰⵕⴰⴱⵓⵟ ⵙⵉⴷⵉ ⵄⵍⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵄⴰⵎⵕ.
"It was made of compressed earth and mud, usually mixed with other materials to aid adhesion.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ, ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ."
"The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1960s, the Aswan High Dam, is the world's largest embankment dam, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970.","ⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴰⵙⵡⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 1960s, ⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴰⵙⵡⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⴰⵏ, ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 1960 ⴷ 1970."
"Like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt.","ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵉⵚⵉⴹ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ."
"However, this natural flooding varied, since high-water years could destroy the whole crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought and consequently famine.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴰⵜⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴷⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"Instead the Nile Valley Plan by the British hydrologist Harold Edwin Hurst was favored, which proposed to store water in Sudan and Ethiopia, where evaporation is much lower.","ⵜⵃⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵀⵉⴷⵓⵔⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉ ⵀⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵀⵉⵔⵙⵜ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵓⴱⵢⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ."
"Initially, both the United States and the USSR were interested in helping development of the dam.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜⵉ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ."
"At that time the U.S. feared that communism would spread to the Middle East, and it saw Nasser as a natural leader of an anticommunist procapitalist Arab League.","ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴳⵯⴷⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵊⵎⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵜⵥⵕ ⵄⴱⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵚⵕ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵊⵎⴰⵡⵜ."
"After the UN criticized a raid by Israel against Egyptian forces in Gaza in 1955, Nasser realized that he could not portray himself as the leader of pan-Arab nationalism if he could not defend his country militarily against Israel.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵖⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⴰⵢⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵖⴰⵣⵣⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1955, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵏⴰⵚⵉⵕ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⴳⵉⵖ ⴰⵎⵓⵣⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵜ ⵎⴰⵃⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⴰⵢⵉⵍ."
"Nasser did not accept these conditions, and consulted the USSR for support.","ⵢⵓⴳⵢ ⵏⴰⵚⵉⵕ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⵉⵡⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜⵉⵜ."
"Dulles was angered more by Nasser's diplomatic recognition of China, which was in direct conflict with Dulles's policy of containment of communism.","ⵉⵊⵄⵔ ⴷⴰⵍⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵄⴱⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵚⵉⵕ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵍⵙ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵊⵎⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵙ."
He was also irritated by Nasser's neutrality and attempts to play both sides of the Cold War.,ⵉⵊⵄⵔ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵄⴱⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵚⵉⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.
The enormous rock and clay dam was designed by the Soviet Hydroproject Institute along with some Egyptian engineers.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜⵉ ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⴱⵕⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ.
"Conversely, the dam flooded a large area, causing the relocation of over 100,000 people.","ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵉⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 100,000 ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
The assessment of the costs and benefits of the dam remains controversial decades after its completion.,ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴹⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Not taking into account the negative environmental and social effects of the dam, its costs are thus estimated to have been recovered within only two years.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵍⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ."
Another observer disagreed and he recommended that the dam should be torn down.,ⵉⴼⴽ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⵓⵜⵔ ⵏⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⵍ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ.
"The dam mitigated the effects of floods, such as those in 1964, 1973, and 1988.","ⵉⵙⴷⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1964 ⴷ 1973 ⴷ 1988."
"A new fishing industry has been created around Lake Nasser, though it is struggling due to its distance from any significant markets.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⴽⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵚⵉⵕ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵄⵔⴰⵇ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
About half a million families were settled on these new lands.,ⵉⵣⴷⵖ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ.
"On other previously irrigated land, yields increased because water could be made available at critical low-flow periods.","ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵡⴰ, ⵜⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵖⵍⵍⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"In Sudan, 50,000 to 70,000 Sudanese Nubians were moved from the old town of Wadi Halfa and its surrounding villages.","ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 50,000 ⴰⵔ 70,000 ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉ ⵃⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ."
"The government developed an irrigation project, called the New Halfa Agricultural Development Scheme to grow cotton, grains, sugar cane and other crops.",ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵃⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴹⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⴰⵏⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⵕ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ.
Housing and facilities were built for 47 village units whose relationship to each other approximated that in Old Nubia.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ 47 ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵎⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵓⴱⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ.
"The nutrient value added to the land by the sediment was only 6,000 tons of potash, 7,000 tons of phosphorus pentoxide and 17,000 tons of nitrogen.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵍⵉⵖⵏ 6,000 ⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⴰⵙ ⴷ 7,000 ⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵎⵓⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵕ ⴷ 17,000 ⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵜⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ."
Soil salinity also increased because the distance between the surface and the groundwater table was small enough (1–2 m depending on soil conditions and temperature) to allow water to be pulled up by evaporation so that the relatively small concentrations of salt in the groundwater accumulated on the soil surface over the years.,"ⵜⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, (1-2 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ) ⵉ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵊⵊ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
By the 1950s only a small proportion of Upper Egypt had not been converted from basin (low transmission) to perennial (high transmission) irrigation.,"ⵙ ⵓⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1950s ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ (ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ (ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ)."
S. haematobium has since disappeared altogether.,ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⴰ ⵙ. ⵀⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴱⵢⵓⵎ.
This means that the dead storage volume would be filled up after 300–500 years if the sediment accumulated at the same rate throughout the area of the lake.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢ ⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ 300-500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ.
"After construction of the dam, aquatic weeds grew much faster in the clearer water, helped by fertilizer residues.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ, ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔ."
Mediterranean fishing and brackish water lake fishery declined after the dam was finished because nutrients that flowed down the Nile to the Mediterranean were trapped behind the dam.,ⵜⴳⴳⵣ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⵎⴻⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵉⴳⴰⵍⵢ ⵜⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ.
A concern before the construction of the High Dam had been the potential drop in river-bed level downstream of the Dam as the result of erosion caused by the flow of sediment-free water.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵙⵍⵉⵖⵏ.
"The red-brick construction industry, which consisted of hundreds of factories that used Nile sediment deposits along the river, has also been negatively affected.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ, ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ."
Because of the lower turbidity of the water sunlight penetrates deeper in the Nile water.,"ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵖⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"Construction work began in 1995 and, after some US$220 million had been spent, the complex was officially inaugurated on 16 October 2002.","ⵏⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1995, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 220 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⵉ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⴳ 16 ⴽⵜⵓⴱⵕ 2002."
"The recreation of the ancient library was not only adopted by other individuals and agencies, it garnered support from Egyptian politicians.",ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ.
UNESCO's involvement beginning in 1986 created a great opportunity for the project to truly be international in focus.,ⵜⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵉⵙⴽⵓ (UNESCO) ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1986 ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ.
This architectural team consisted of ten members representing six countries.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴹⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ.
"The first pledges were made for funding the project at a conference held in 1990 in Aswan: USD $65 million, mostly from the MENA states.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1990 ⴳ ⴰⵙⵡⴰⵏ: 65 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⵉ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ."
"In 2010, the library received a donation of 500,000 books from the National Library of France, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ 500,000 ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, (BnF)."
"The main reading room stands beneath a 32-meter-high glass-panelled roof, tilted out toward the sea like a sundial, and measuring some 160 m in diameter.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ 32 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ, ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵡⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 160 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ."
"Holding approximately 1,316 artifacts, the Antiquities Museum collection provides a glimpse into Egyptian history from the Pharaonic era to the conquest of Alexander the Great to the Roman civilizations before the advent of Islam across Egypt.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 1316 ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴼⵔⵄⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ."
"Microfilm: This section includes microfilms of around 30,000 rare manuscripts and 50,000 documents, as well as a collection from The British Library of around 14,000 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manuscripts, which is considered the largest collection in Europe.","ⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ: ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 30,000 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ 50,000 ⵏ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 14,000 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵓⵕⴽⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
"However, in 2010 the library received an additional 500,000 books from the Bibliothèque nationale de France.)","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ 500,000 ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ (Bibliothèque nationale de France).)"
The Great Mosque of Djenné is a large banco or adobe building that is considered by many architects to be one of the greatest achievements of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ ⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⴻⵍ.
"The earliest document mentioning the mosque is Abd al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan which gives the early history, presumably from the oral tradition as it existed in the mid-seventeenth century.","ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵄⴱⴷ ⵙⵙⵄⴷⵉ, ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵚⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ."
His immediate successor built the towers of the mosque while the following Sultan built the surrounding wall.,ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⵟⴰⵏ ⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ.
This would have been the building that Caillié saw.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵕ ⴽⴰⵢⵍⵉ.
"The new mosque was a large, low building lacking any towers or ornamentation.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴳⵯⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵕ.
"The rebuilding was completed in 1907 using forced labour under the direction of Ismaila Traoré, head of Djenné's guild of masons.","ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1907 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵄⵉⵍ ⵜⵕⴰⵡⵕⵉ, ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉ."
There has been debate as to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ.
He thought that the cones made the building resemble a baroque temple dedicated to the god of suppositories.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵇⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵎⵖ ⴰⴱⴰⵕⵓⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⴽⵓⵕⵏ.
"He also says that local people were so unhappy with the new building that they refused to clean it, only doing so when threatened with prison.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵕⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵃⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵣⴷⵉⴳⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵙⴰⵣⴷⴳⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵔⵎⵓ."
"The larger tomb to the south contains the remains of Almany Ismaïla, an important imam of the 18th century.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴹⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵄⵉⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 18."
"In some cases, the original surfaces of a mosque have even been tiled over, destroying its historical appearance and in some cases compromising the building's structural integrity.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⴱⴱⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵍⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ."
"In 1996, Vogue magazine held a fashion shoot inside the mosque.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴼⵓⴳ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⵕⵓⴹⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ."
"It is accessed by six sets of stairs, each decorated with pinnacles.","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵍⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵢⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵇⵔⵔⴰⵢ."
The prayer wall or qibla of the Great Mosque faces east towards Mecca and overlooks the city marketplace.,ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵍⴱⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵙ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ.
The cone shaped spires or pinnacles at the top of each minaret are topped with ostrich eggs.,ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴻⵍⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵀⴰⵍⵜ.
"The small, irregularly-positioned windows on the north and south walls allow little natural light to reach the interior of the hall.",ⴷⴰ ⵣⵣⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⵥⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ.
The imam conducts the prayers from the mihrab in the larger central tower.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵟⵟⴰⵍⴱ ⵙ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⵃⵕⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ.
"To the right of the mihrab in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or minbar, from which the imam preaches his Friday sermon.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵃⵕⴰⴱ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵎⵉⵃⵕⴰⴱ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⴱⴰⵕ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵎⵡⴰⵙ."
The walls of the galleries facing the courtyard are punctuated by arched openings.,ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵏⴼⵏ.
"Rather than a single central niche, the mihrab tower originally had a pair of large recesses echoing the form of the entrance arches in the north wall.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵃⵕⴰⴱ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"It requires several days to cure but needs to be periodically stirred, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the mixture, thus stirring up the contents.","ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵜⵔ ⵜⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵇⵍⵍⴱ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵔ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
A race is held at the beginning of the festival to see who will be the first to deliver the plaster to the mosque.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ.
"In 1930, an inexact replica of the Djenné Mosque was built in the town of Fréjus in southern France.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1930, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⵊⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
"The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the Middle Ages, with thousands of students coming to study the Quran in Djenné's madrassas.","ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵥⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⴼⴹⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉ."
On 20 January 2006 the sight of a team of men hacking at the roof of the mosque sparked a riot in the town.,"ⴳ 20 ⵢⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2006, ⵜⵓⵔⵡ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵡⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵕⵉⴹⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ."
In the mosque the mob ripped out the ventilation fans that had been presented by the US Embassy at the time of the Iraq War and then went on a rampage through the town.,"ⴳ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴼⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵇⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵄⵉⵕⴰⵇ, ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ."
"The Great Sphinx of Giza, commonly referred to as the Sphinx of Giza or just the Sphinx, is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx, a mythical creature.","ⴰⵙⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵣⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵣⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⵉⵔⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵔ ⵓⵎⵉⵢ."
"Furthermore, the angle and location of the south wall of the enclosure suggests the causeway connecting Khafre's Pyramid and Valley Temple already existed before the Sphinx was planned.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵅⴰⴼⵕⴰⵄ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵎⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ.
"When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵉⴳⵉⵜ (Stele) ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1925, ⴱⴱⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴰⴼ ⴳⵉⴼⵏ."
The cult of the Sphinx continued into medieval times.,ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.
"Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo and the Giza Pyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵉⵟⴰ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵎⵢⴰⵟ ⴷ ⵇⴰⵀⵉⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵣⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⴷⵜ."
"""Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) described the Sphinx as """"the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter"""".""","“ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵣⴰ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵜ (ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵙⵎⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵛⴰⵎ, 1556) ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ““ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵣⵉⵙ, ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⵓⵙ, ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴱⵉⵜⵉⵔ””.”"
"Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with a straight haired wig; the only edge over Thévet is that the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress.","ⴰⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵀⴰⵏⵙ ⵀⵉⵍⴼⵉⵔⵉⵛ (1579) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴷⵏ, ⵎⵉ ⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵏ; ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ (Thévet) ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵉ."
"Although certain tracts on the Stela are likely accurate, this passage is contradicted by archaeological evidence, thus considered to be Late Period historical revisionism, a purposeful fake, created by the local priests as an attempt to imbue the contemporary Isis temple with an ancient history it never had.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵀⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵉⵙ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ."
"""Recent discoveries, however, strongly show that it was really not built before the reign of Khafre, in the fourth dynasty.""""""","“ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵅⴰⴼⵕⴰⵄ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ.”””"
"""Maspero believed the Sphinx to be """"the most ancient monument in Egypt"""".""",“ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴱⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ ““ⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ””.”
"Part of its headdress had fallen off in 1926 due to erosion, which had also cut deeply into its neck.","ⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1926 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵔⵙ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⴼⵅⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ."
The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder.,ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
Other tales ascribe it to being the work of Mamluks.,ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⵉⴽ.
"According to al-Maqrīzī, many people living in the area believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was retribution for al-Dahr's act of defacement.","ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵇⵔⵉⵣⵉ, ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵏ ⴰⴹⴹⴰⵀⵕ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵅⵉⵅ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵣⴰ."
Al-Minufi stated that the Alexandrian Crusade in 1365 was divine punishment for a Sufi sheikh of the khanqah of Sa'id breaking off the nose.,ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵏⵓⴼⵉ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1365 ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵍ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵕⵕⵥ ⵛⵛⵉⵅ ⴰⵚⵓⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵅⴰⵏⵇⴰⵀ ⵏ ⵚⵚⴰⵄⵉⴷ.
"The idea is considered pseudoarchaeology by academia, because no textual or archaeological evidence supports this to be the reason for the orientation of the Sphinx.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⴳⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ."
"There is a long history of speculation about hidden chambers beneath the Sphinx, by esoteric figures such as H. Spencer Lewis.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵀⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵉⵏⴽⵙ, ⵙ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵀ. ⵙⴱⵉⵏⵙⵔ ⵍⵓⵡⵉⵙ."
It is believed to be the second most visited historical site in Egypt; only the Giza pyramid complex near Cairo receives more visits.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵣⴼⵜ; ⵖⴰⵙ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵇⴰⵀⵉⵕⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⵓⴳⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵣⴰⴼ.
"The three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public.","ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵃⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⵏ, ⵇⵇⵏⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰⴼ."
"The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⵍ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵥⵖⵕ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵃⴰⵜⵛⴱⵙⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵄⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ."
Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued into Ptolemaic times.,ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵏⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⵓⵟⵍⵓⵎⵉ.
The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture.,"ⵉⵢⵓⵛⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵏⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ."
These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴽⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"If stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material.","ⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵔⵃⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
Final carving was executed after the drums were put in place so that it was not damaged while being placed.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴼⵔⵔⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the Eleventh Dynasty and previous temple building there would have been relatively small, with shrines being dedicated to the early deities of Thebes, the Earth goddess Mut and Montu.","ⵓⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵢⵉⵛⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵟⵉⴱⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵢⵓⵛⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵓ."
Amun (sometimes called Amen) was long the local tutelary deity of Thebes.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ (ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵢⵓⵛ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⵉ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⴰ.
"Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the Eighteenth Dynasty, when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt.","ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵔⴰⵄ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵟⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ."
"Another of her projects at the site, Karnak's Red Chapel or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵏⴰⴽ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⵔⵓⵊ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵣⴼ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ (obelisks)."
"Known as the unfinished obelisk, it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵎⵉⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴽⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ."
"The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the First Pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surround the whole precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I of the Thirtieth Dynasty.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵔⴰⵄ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵢⴷⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴰⵅⵜ ⴰⵏⴱⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ."
"The Karnak temple complex is first described by an unknown Venetian in 1589, although his account gives no name for the complex.","ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⵏⴽ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵓⵏⴷⵓⵇⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1589, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ."
"Protais' writing about their travel was published by Melchisédech Thévenot (Relations de divers voyages curieux, 1670s–1696 editions) and Johann Michael Vansleb (The Present State of Egypt, 1678).","ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵎⵉⵍⵛⵉⵣⵉⴷⵉⵛ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⵜⴰⵢⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ (ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴱⵓ ⵜⴷⵡⵡⴰⵢⵜ, 1670s–1696 ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⴳⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵢⵓⵀⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽ ⴼⴰⵏⵙⵍⴱ (ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ, 1678)."
"Following excavation and restoration works by the Johns Hopkins University team, led by Betsy Bryan (see below) the Precinct of Mut has been opened to the public.",ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵊⵓⵏⵣ ⵀⵓⴱⴽⵉⵏⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵜⵙⵉ ⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⴷⴷⴰⵡⴰⵙ) ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ.
"In 2006, Betsy Bryan presented her findings of one festival that included apparent intentional overindulgence in alcohol.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2006, ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⴱⵉⵜⵙⵉ ⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵛⵛⵉⵢⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵃⵓⵍ."
"These findings were made in the temple of Mut because when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed the warrior goddesses, Sekhmet and Bast, as some of her aspects.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵍⵢ ⵓⵜⵜⵢⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵉⴱⴰ ⵓⴽⵣⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵓⵛⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⵙⵅⵎⵜ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ."
"In a later myth developed around the annual drunken Sekhmet festival, Ra, by then the sun god of Upper Egypt, created her from a fiery eye gained from his mother, to destroy mortals who conspired against him (Lower Egypt).","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵎⵉⵢ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⵯⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵙⵅⵎⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵕⴰⵄ, ⴰⵢⵓⵛ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵖ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ. (ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ)."
The Luxor Temple is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes) and was constructed approximately 1400 BCE.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵇⵚⵓⵕ ⴰⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵓⵇⵚⵓⵕ (ⵟⵉⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ) ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 1400 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ.
"Four of the major mortuary temples visited by early travelers include the Temple of Seti I at Gurnah, the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri, the Temple of Ramesses II (i.e., Ramesseum), and the Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu.","ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵏⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵔⵣⴼⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵇⵓⵔⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵃⴰⵜⵛⵉⴱⵙⵓⵜ ⴳ ⴷⵉⵔ ⵏⴱⴰⵃⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵕⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ (ⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵕⴰⵎⵙⵢⵓⵎ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵕⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⴱⵓ."
"To the rear of the temple are chapels built by Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty, and Alexander.","ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵎⵖ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵃⵓⵜⴱ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18, ⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ."
This sandstone is referred to as Nubian sandstone.,ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵅⵉⵅ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵅⵉⵅ ⴰⵏⵓⴱⵉ.
"""Alexander Badawy, """"Illusionism in Egyptian Architecture,"""" Studies in the Ancient Oriental Civilization, 35 (1969): 23.""","“ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⴷⴰⵡⵉ, ““ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ,”” ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ, 35 (1969): 23.”"
Along the avenue the stations were set up for ceremonies such as the Feast of Opet which held significance to temple.,"ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵎⵖ."
"Lalibela is a town in Lasta district of North Wollo Zone in Amhara Region, Ethiopia.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ  ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵍⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵜⵔⵜ ⵡⵓⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵣⵎⵀⴰⵔⴰ, ⵉⵜⵢⵓⴱⵢⴰ."
"To Christians, Lalibela is one of Ethiopia's holiest cities, second only to Axum, and a center of pilgrimage.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵎ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵣⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ."
The names of several places in the modern town and the general layout of the rock-cut churches themselves are said to mimic names and patterns observed by Lalibela during the time he spent as a youth in Jerusalem and the Holy Land.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵇⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵏ.
Christian faith inspires many features with Biblical names – even Lalibela's river is known as the River Jordan.,ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵖⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵓⵕⴰⵜ - ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵕⴷⵓⵏ.
"Portuguese priest Francisco Álvares (1465–1540), accompanied the Portuguese Ambassador on his visit to Dawit II in the 1520s.","ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵇⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍⵉ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴰⵍⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙ (1465–1540), ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵣⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1520s."
"The next reported European visitor to Lalibela was Miguel de Castanhoso, who served as a soldier under Cristóvão da Gama and left Ethiopia in 1544.","ⴰⵏⵔⵣⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵣⵏⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵍⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍ ⴷⵉ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⴰⵏⵀⵓⵙⵓ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴼⴰⵡ ⴷⴰ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵉⵜⵢⵓⴱⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙ ⵏ 1544."
"""Its pillars were likewise cut from the mountain.""""),""","“ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵜⴱⴱⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴼ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ.””),”"
There is some controversy as to when some of the churches were constructed.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
His report described two types of vernacular housing found in the area.,ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ.
"Saint Catherine's Monastery, officially Sacred Monastery of the God-Trodden Mount Sinai, is an Eastern Orthodox monastery located on the Sinai Peninsula, at the mouth of a gorge at the foot of Mount Sinai, near the town of Saint Catherine, Egypt.","ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴳⵓⴷ-ⵜⵕⵓⴷⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵕⵜⵓⴷⵓⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴳⵏⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴹⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⵉⵥⵕ."
"""The Saint Catherine monastery is located in the shadow of a group of three mountains; Ras Sufsafeh (possibly """"Mount Horeb"""" c.1 km west), Jebel Arrenziyeb and Jebel Musa, the """"Biblical Mount Sinai"""" (peak c.2 km south).""","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵉⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵔⴰⵔ; ⵕⴰⵙ ⵚⵚⴼⵚⴰⴼⴰ (ⵉⵖⵢ “ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵃⵓⵔⵉⴱ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 1 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ), ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵕⵏⵣⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ, ⴷ ““ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵓⵕⴰⵜⵉ”” (ⵉⵙⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 2 ⴽⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ).”"
Catherine herself ordered the execution to commence.,ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵉ.
"""The monastery was built by order of Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565), enclosing the Chapel of the Burning Bush (also known as """"Saint Helen's Chapel"""") ordered to be built by Empress Consort Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, at the site where Moses is supposed to have seen the burning bush.""","“ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕ ⵊⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ (ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵙⴳ 527–565), ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⴱⵓⵛ ⵉⵖⵓⵙⵏ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏ”) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵜ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⴰ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵇⵓⵙⵟⴰⵏⵟⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⵢ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵖⵓⵙ”."
"The site is sacred to Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.",ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵢⵜ.
"During the seventh century, the isolated Christian anchorites of the Sinai were eliminated: only the fortified monastery remained.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⴰⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⵍⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ: ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ."
"From the time of the First Crusade, the presence of Crusaders in the Sinai until 1270 spurred the interest of European Christians and increased the number of intrepid pilgrims who visited the monastery.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⴰⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵛⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1270 ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵉⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵣⴰ ⵉⵔⵣⴼⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ."
"The exact administrative status of the church within the Eastern Orthodox Church is ambiguous: by some, including the church itself, it is considered autocephalous, by others an autonomous church under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴷⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵕⵜⵓⴷⵓⴽⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵡ: ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵕⵜⵓⵙⵓⴽⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜ."
But in 2003 Russian scholars discovered the donation act for the manuscript signed by the Council of Cairo Metochion and Archbishop Callistratus on 13 November 1869.,ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003 ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵎⵉⵜⵓⵛⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵓⴼⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵇⴰⵀⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 13 ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1869.
Palimpsests are notable for having been reused one or more times over the centuries.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⴱⴰⵍⵉⵎⴱⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
Each page took approximately eight minutes to scan completely.,ⵜⵛⵛⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ.
"The large icon collection begins with a few dating to the 5th (possibly) and 6th centuries, which are unique survivals; the monastery having been untouched by Byzantine iconoclasm, and never sacked.","ⵜⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵇⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙ 5 (ⵉⵖⵢ) ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 6, ⵜⴰⵢⵇⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ; ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵔⴷⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵜⵏ."
"The conservation of its architectural structures, paintings, and books comprise much of the Foundation's purpose.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ.
Its size reflects the relative prosperity of the time.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ.
"It was built on the site of an earlier, smaller temple also dedicated to Horus, although the previous structure was oriented east-west rather than north-south as in the present site.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵃⵓⵔⵓⵙ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴷⵖⵉ."
The temple of Edfu fell into disuse as a religious monument following Theodosius I's persecution of pagans and edict banning non-Christian worship within the Roman Empire in 391.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵉⴷⴼⵓ ⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⴱ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 391.
"Over the centuries, the temple became buried to a depth of 12 metres (39 ft) beneath drifting desert sand and layers of river silt deposited by the Nile.","ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴹⵍ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵏ 12 ⵎⵉⵜⵔ (39 ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵛⵉⵍ) ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵍⵅⵉⵅ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵙⵖ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ."
"In 1860 Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist, began the work of freeing Edfu temple from the sands.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1860, ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵢⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵅⵉⵅ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵉⴷⴼⵓ."
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵎⵓⵜⵉⵔⵉⴽⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴼⵉⵏⴳⵓ.
Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ.
They were constructed without mortar (dry stone).,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⵍⵉⵍⴰ (ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ).
"The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵣⴰⴼ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵏⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1871."
The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the 4th century AD.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵣⴷⵖ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 4 ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ.
"David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴷⴰⵢⴼⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵛ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⴳⵔ 1200 ⴷ 1500, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴹⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1500s ⵖⵔ ⵊⵡⴰⵡ ⴷⵉ ⴱⴰⵕⵓⵙ."
"They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure.",ⵜⵜⵡⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴳⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵏⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ.
"The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ."
"The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the 12th century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early 16th century.",ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵀⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 12 ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 16.
"Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.","ⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵛⵍⴰⵍⴼ (ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉ), ⴷ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵄⴰⵊ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵢⵢⵣ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⵯⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵟⴰⵟⵟⴰⵃⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵅⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⴳⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ."
"That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important.","ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ."
"Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the medieval city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade.","ⵙⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⵖⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⵙⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
"He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323–30 BC), when Alexandria-based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.","ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⵓⵟⵍⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕ ( ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 30-323 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⴽⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ."
"Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia, Greece and Asia Minor.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵏⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ."
They have a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ.
"The Lemba claim was also reported by a William Bolts (in 1777, to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century).","ⵉⵙⴳⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⵓⵍⵜⵙ ⴷ ⴰ.ⴰ. ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵙⵓⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⴱⵓⴱⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19) ⴰⵍⵜⵓ (ⴳ1777, ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⴱⵙⴱⵓⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵎⵙⴰ)."
"She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork.","ⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵅⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴱⴷⵓⵣⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵔⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ."
Caton Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg.,ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⴽⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵟⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵊⵓⵀⴰⵏⵏⵙⴱⵓⵔⴳ.
"The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the 12th-to-15th-centuries chronology.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ 28 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 12 ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 15."
"The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, notably diggings by Richard Nicklin Hall.","ⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⵏⵉⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⵀⵓ."
"Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe's past to support their vision of the country's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction.","ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴱⵔⵉⴱⵏ ⴽⵔⵛⵓⵍⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵀⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ."
Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area.,ⵉⴳⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵉⵔⴰⵢⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵛⵓⵍⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ.
"In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1980, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵉ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵍⵓⵍⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵛⵏⵢⴰⵍ ⴰⵔⵓⴷⵉⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵔⵎⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵛⵏⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
"An example of the former is Ken Mufuka's booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⴽⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⴼⵓⴽⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ."
It was created to preserve the rich history of this country which was facing a dark future due to globalisation.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ.
"The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴽ (Puuc) ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏⵙ (Chenes) ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ."
"The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⵢ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ."
"""One possible translation for Itza is """"enchanter (or enchantment) of the water,"""" from its (itz), """"sorcerer"""", and ha, """"water"""".""","“ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ “ⵉⵃⵔⴳⵉ” ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ““ⵙⴳ ⵉⵜⵙ (ⵉⵜⵣ) ““ⵉⵃⵔⴳⵉ””, ⴷ ⵀⴰ, ““ⴰⵎⴰⵏ””.”"
"This form preserves the phonemic distinction between chʼ and ch, since the base word chʼeʼen (which, however, is not stressed in Maya) begins with a postalveolar ejective affricate consonant.","ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ chʼ ⴷ ch, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵛⵉⵏ chʼeʼen (ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⴱⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ) ⵜⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ ⵏⵜⵔⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏ."
"""Of these cenotes, the """"Cenote Sagrado"""" or Sacred Cenote (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous.""","“ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ, ““ⵙⵉⵏⵓⵜ ⵙⴰⴳⵔⴰⴷⵓ”” ⵏⵖ ⵙⵉⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵜ), ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.”"
"""Instead, the city's political organization could have been structured by a """"multepal"""" system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.""","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ “ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ”, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵊⴷⴷⵓⵄⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ.”"
"It was, however, toward the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵙⵉⵡ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉⴽⵉ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ."
Hunac Ceel supposedly prophesied his own rise to power.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵀⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵙⵉⵍ ⵉⴷⵎⴰ ⵉⵍⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.
"While there is some archeological evidence that indicates Chichén Itzá was at one time looted and sacked, there appears to be greater evidence that it could not have been by Mayapan, at least not when Chichén Itzá was an active urban center.","ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵡⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"After Chichén Itzá elite activities ceased, the city may not have been abandoned.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵊⴷⴷⵓⵄⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⵊⵊ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ."
Montejo returned to Yucatán in 1531 with reinforcements and established his main base at Campeche on the west coast.,ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉⵊⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵢⵓⴽⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1531 ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⴼⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵉⵜⵛⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ.
"Montejo the Younger eventually arrived at Chichen Itza, which he renamed Ciudad Real.","ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉⵊⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ, ⵎⵉ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵡⴷⴰⴷ ⵔⵉⵢⴰⵍ."
"Months passed, but no reinforcements arrived.",ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵏ.
"By 1535, all Spanish had been driven from the Yucatán Peninsula.","ⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ 1535, ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵥⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵏⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵢⵓⴽⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
"In 1860, Désiré Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1860, ⵉⵙⴼⴹ ⴷⵉⵣⵉⵔⵉⵀ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⵛⵉⵏⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵜⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵏ (1863)."
"""Augustus Le Plongeon called it """"Chaacmol"""" (later renamed """"Chac Mool"""", which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica).""","“ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵍⵓ ⴱⵍⵓⵏⵊⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵡⵏⵏ ⵙ ““ⵛⴰⴽⵎⵓⵍ”” (ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ““ⵛⴰⴽ ⵎⵓⵍ””, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ).”"
"In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward Herbert Thompson, purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included the ruins of Chichen Itza.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1894, ⵉⵙⵖⴰ ⵓⵇⵓⵏⵙⵓ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⴽⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵟⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵙⵢⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⵛⵉⵛⴰⵢⵏ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ."
"Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵟⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵓⵜ ⵙⴰⴳⵕⴰⴷⵓ (ⵙⵉⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵜ) ⵙⴳ 1904 ⴰⵔ 1910, ⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵯⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵅⵔⵔⵓⵇ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ."
"The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability, as well as World War I, delayed the project by a decade.","ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴹⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcán) and the Great Ball Court.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵙⵜⵉⵢⵓ (ⴰⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴽⵓⵍⵛⴰⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵏⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ."
"Thompson, who was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatán.","ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵟⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵖⵔ ⵢⵓⴽⴰⵜⴰⵏ."
In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichen Itza to his heirs.,"ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1944, ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵜⵙⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵖ ⵟⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵛⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵛⵢⵓⵏⴰⵍ ⵊⵢⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
"The city was built upon broken terrain, which was artificially levelled in order to build the major architectural groups, with the greatest effort being expended in the levelling of the areas for the Castillo pyramid, and the Las Monjas, Osario and Main Southwest groups.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵣⵓⵏⵣ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵜⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵊⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ."
"Many of these stone buildings were originally painted in red, green, blue and purple colors.",ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵉⴱⵉ.
"Just like gothic cathedrals in Europe, colors provided a greater sense of completeness and contributed greatly to the symbolic impact of the buildings.","ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵜⵉⴷⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵓⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵃⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ."
"The Puuc-style building feature the usual mosaic-decorated upper façades characteristic of the style but differ from the architecture of the Puuc heartland in their block masonry walls, as opposed to the fine veneers of the Puuc region proper.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴽ (Puuc) ⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⵙⴰⵢⴼⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴽ."
At the base of the balustrades of the northeastern staircase are carved heads of a serpent.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵖⵔⴰ.
"After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the pyramid.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ, ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ."
"The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up the earlier pyramid's stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists.","ⵜⵖⵣⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵅⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵏⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵔⵏ, ⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰⴼ."
"In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated; the wound emits streams of blood in the form of wriggling snakes.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴱⴱⵢ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ; ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵉⴼⴼⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵜⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ."
"At the south end is another, much bigger temple, but in ruins.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵔⵔⴷⵍ."
"Inside there is a large mural, much destroyed, which depicts a battle scene.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵉⵔⵔⴷⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ.
"It is built in a combination Maya and Toltec styles, with a staircase ascending each of its four sides.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⵜⵉⴽ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏⵙ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ."
"In its interior archeologists discovered a collection of large cones carved out of stone, the purpose of which is unknown.","ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵕⴽⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵎⴰⴳ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"""Its name comes from a series of altars at the top of the structure that are supported by small carved figures of men with upraised arms, called """"atlantes.""""""","“ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵎⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵙⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ““ⴰⵟⵍⴰⵏⵟⵙ.”””"
"This complex is analogous to Temple B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two regions.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ B ⴳ ⵜⵓⵍⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
This temple encases or entombs a former structure called The Temple of the Chac Mool.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵇⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⴽ ⵎⵓⵍ.
"To the south of the Group of a Thousand Columns is a group of three, smaller, interconnected buildings.","ⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵉⵥⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ."
A section of the upper façade with a motif of x's and o's is displayed in front of the structure.,ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ x ⴷ ⵉⴷ o ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ.
The Temple of Xtoloc is a recently restored temple outside the Osario Platform is.,ⴰⵙⵓⵎⵖ ⵙⵜⵓⵍⵓⴽ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵎⵖ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴽⴽⵯⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵢⵓ.
"Between the Xtoloc temple and the Osario are several aligned structures: The Platform of Venus, which is similar in design to the structure of the same name next to Kukulkan (El Castillo), the Platform of the Tombs, and a small, round structure that is unnamed.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⵜⵓⵍⵓⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵕⵢⵓ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⴰⴷⴽⴽⵯⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵓⵙ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵢⵓⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴽⵓⵍⴽⴰⵏ (ⵉⵍⴽⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵓ), ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴽⵯⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴹⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ."
"""The Casa Colorada (Spanish for """"Red House"""") is one of the best preserved buildings at Chichen Itza.""",“ⴽⴰⵙⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵔⴰⴷⴰ (ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵜ”) ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ.”
"In 2009, INAH restored a small ball court that adjoined the back wall of the Casa Colorada.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2009, ⵜⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵀ (INAH) ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵙⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵙⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵕⴰⴷⴰ."
"This building's name has been long used by the local Maya, and some authors mention that it was named after a deer painting over stucco that doesn't exist anymore.","ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⵉⵔⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"""The Spanish named this complex Las Monjas (""""The Nuns"""" or """"The Nunnery""""), but it was a governmental palace.""","“ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵊⴰⵙ (““ⵉⵕⴰⵀⵉⴱⵏ”” ⵏⵖ ⴷ ““ⵏⵏⵓⵏⵔⵉ””), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.”"
These texts frequently mention a ruler by the name of Kʼakʼupakal.,ⴷⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴽⴰⴽⵓⴱⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
It gets its name from the stone spiral staircase inside.,ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⴰⵡⵍⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ.
"The long, western-facing façade has seven doorways.",ⵉ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⴱⵓ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵡⴰⵏ.
The southern end of the building has one entrance.,ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ.
"Inside one of the chambers, near the ceiling, is a painted hand print.","ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ."
The location of the cave has been well known in modern times.,ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ.
E. Wyllys Andrews IV also explored the cave in the 1930s.,ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴻ. ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵢⵙ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵡⵣ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1930s.
"On 15 September 1959, José Humberto Gómez, a local guide, discovered a false wall in the cave.","ⴳ 15 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1959, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⵓⵙⵙⵉ ⵓⵎⴱⵉⵔⵜⵓ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵀⵡⵓ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ."
"Even before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emanuel von Friedrichsthal traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ, ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⴱⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⴰⵕⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵡⵉⵍ ⴼⵓⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵔⵉⵛⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏⵣ, ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ."
"In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1923, ⵢⵓⵏⴼ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴽⴰⵔⵉⵍⵓ ⴱⵓⵡⵉⵔⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⵔⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ."
"In 1930, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1930, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵙⵢⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⴽⴰⵏⵊⵉ."
"In 1972, Mexico enacted the Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (Federal Law over Monuments and Archeological, Artistic and Historic Sites) that put all the nation's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at Chichen Itza, under federal ownership.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1972, ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ, ⴳ ⴰⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ, ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵜ."
"Tour guides will also demonstrate a unique the acoustical effect at Chichen Itza: a handclap before the in front of the staircase the El Castillo pyramid will produce by an echo that resembles the chirp of a bird, similar to that of the quetzal as investigated by Declercq.","ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵜⵛⵏ ⵉⵜⵣⴰ: ⵙ ⵓⴱⵇⵇⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵉⵍⴽⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵥ ⵙ ⵜⵇⵍⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵇⵣⵇ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⵜⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⵍⵉⵔⴽ."
"INAH, which manages the site, has closed a number of monuments to public access.","ⵉⵏⴰⵀ (INAH) ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⵜⵇⵇⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵕⴽⵢⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
"Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was constructed by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴰⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵀ. ⵔⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵣ, ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵜ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⵜⵔ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ."
"An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners.","ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⴹⴼⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1952, ⵜⵣⵣⵏⵣ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ."
The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes.,ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ.
"""The following year, Chrysler was named Time magazine's """"Person of the Year"""".""","“ⴳⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⴽⵕⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ““ⴰⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ”” ⵉ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵎ.”"
"Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵢⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
"Prior to his involvement in planning the building, Reynolds was best known for developing Coney Island's Dreamland amusement park.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵔⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵀⵉ ⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ."
"In 1927, after several years of delays, Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1927, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵍ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵔⵉⵏⵓⵍⴷⵣ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances.","ⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵏⵙ ⴳⵔⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵉⴳ ⵙⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵏⵙ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵜ."
"The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵙⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ 63 ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵛⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ 56 ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
These plans were approved in June 1928.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 1928.
"He instead devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵏⴰⵍⴷⵣ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1928."
"A contract was awarded on October 28, and demolition was completed on November 9.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ 28 ⴽⵜⵓⴱⵕ, ⵜⵙⵎⴷ ⵜⵔⴷⵍⴰ ⴳ 9 ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ."
"From late 1928 to early 1929, modifications to the design of the dome continued.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1928 ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1929, ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵇⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ."
"Lower down, the design was affected by Walter Chrysler's intention to make the building the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters, and as such, various architectural details were modeled after Chrysler automobile products, such as the hood ornaments of the Plymouth (see ).","ⴳ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⵜⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵜ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵍⵔ(Chrysler Corporation), ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⴱⵍⵉⵎⵓⵜ (ⵥⵕ)."
"Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929.",ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ 21 ⵢⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔ 1929.
"Despite a frantic steelwork construction pace of about four floors per week, no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡ."
"""40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building started competing for the distinction of """"world's tallest building"""".""",“ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ 40 ⵡⵓⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ ““ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ””.”
"On October 23, 1929, one week after surpassing the Woolworth Building's height and one day before the catastrophic Wall Street Crash of 1929 started, the spire was assembled.","ⴳ 23 ⴽⵜⵓⴱⵕ 1929, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1929, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ."
"Even the New York Herald Tribune, which had virtually continuous coverage of the tower's construction, did not report on the spire's installation until days after the spire had been raised.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵎⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⵍⴷ ⵜⵔⵉⴱⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⴰⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"""In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read """"in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement"""" was unveiled.""",“ⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⴼ ⵜⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴱⵕⵓⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ““ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ””.”
"The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ 14 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ 1859 ⵉⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⴱⵔ."
Van Alen's satisfaction at these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.,ⵉⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵢⵓⴳⴳⵢ ⵡⴰⵍⵜⵔ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"However, the lawsuit against Chrysler markedly diminished Van Alen's reputation as an architect, which, along with the effects of the Great Depression and negative criticism, ended up ruining his career.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵢ ⵜⵚⵕⵓⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⵙⵍⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵔⴷⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵍⴷⵢ ⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴹⵓⵕⵏ."
"In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1944, ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ 38 ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ, ⴳ 666 ⴰⵙⵓⴽ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ."
"The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated.","ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⵖⵕ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million.,ⵜⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1953 ⵉ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵣⵉⴽⵉⵏⴷⵓⵔⵓⴼ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ 18 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ.
"At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ."
"In 1961, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1961, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⴳⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⴳⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⴳⵓⵢⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ."
The company purchased the building for $35 million.,ⵜⵙⵖⴰ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⵥⴽⴽⴰ ⵙ 35 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ.
The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1995.
The cleaning received the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for 1997.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵉ ⴳ. ⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1997.
"In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million.","ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 2008, ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⴹⴰⴱⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ 75% ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵜ TMW, ⴷ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ 15% ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴱⵉⵢⵔ (Tishman Speyer Properties) ⴳ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵉⵖⴰ ⵜⵔⵉⵍⵓⵏⵙ ⵙ 800 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⵉ."
"This resulted in a 21% decrease in the building's total energy consumption, a 64% decrease in water consumption, and an 81% rate of waste being recycled.","ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ 21% ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴽⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ 64% ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ 81% ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"""The Ethics of Philosophical Practice.""""""",“ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ.”””
"""""""Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value).""","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵏⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ (ⵎⵉⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵡⴰⵜ), ⴰⵙⵏⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ (ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵓⴳⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ), ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ (ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ)."
Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.
"In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵥⵍⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"In Against the Logicians the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴱⵉⵔⵓⵏⵉ ⵙⵉⴽⵙⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⴱⵉⵔⵉⴽⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⴼⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ, ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵣⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴹⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵡⴰⵇⵉⵜⵏ."
"Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Stoicism, and Academic Skepticism.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟ: ⴰⵙⴹⵚⵓ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵡⴰⵇⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉ."
"Some key Medieval thinkers include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⴽⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴱⵓⵜⵢⵓⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵍⵎ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵊⵔ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ."
"Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴱⵉⵏⵓⵣⴰ, ⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵏⵣ, ⴷ ⵍⵓⴽ, ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⴽⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵀⵢⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ."
Babylonian astronomy also included much philosophical speculations about cosmology which may have influenced the Ancient Greeks.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵃⵔⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ.
"Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism, and Reform Judaism.","ⵜⵓⴳⵎ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ, ⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⵎⵏⴷⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵃⴰⵙⴽⴰⵍⴰ (ⴰⵙⴼⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ) ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜ."
Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating in the Islamic tradition and is mostly done in Arabic.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵜ.
Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions.,ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
"The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as Al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes (12th century).","ⵓⴳⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴽⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴽⵉⵏⴷⵉ (ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 9), ⴷ ⵉⴱⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ (980- ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 1037), ⴷ ⵉⴱⵏ ⵕⵓⵛⴷ (ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 12)."
Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴱⵏⵅⴰⵍⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ.
"Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions.","ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ."
Indian philosophy is commonly grouped based on their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⴼⵉⴷⴰ (Vedas) ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.
"""The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called """"orthodox"""" or """"Hindu"""" traditions, are often classified into six darśanas or philosophies:Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.""","ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵛⴰⴷ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ““ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵓⴷⵓⴽⵙⵉⵏ”” ⵏⵖ ““ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ””, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ: ⵙⴰⵏⵅⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵊⴰ, ⵏⵢⴰⵢⴰ, ⴼⴰⵢⵛⵉⴽⴰ, ⵎⵉⵎⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⴼⴰⴷⴰⵏⵜⴰ.”"
They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.,"ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ."
"""There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as """"Hindu"""", though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).""","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ “”ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ”” ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵕⵜⵓⴷⵓⴽⵙⵉⵏ (ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵛⴰⵢⴼⴰ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰⵙ), ⵙⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵛⴰⴼⵉⵙⵎ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷⴱⴰⵛⵓⴱⴰⵜⴰ, ⵛⵉⴼⴰ ⵙⵉⴷⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏ, ⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰ ⴰⵔⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵉⴽⴰ, ⴽⵓⵍⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ).”"
"""The denial that a human being possesses a """"self"""" or """"soul"""" is probably the most famous Buddhist teaching.""",“ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ““ⵉⵅⴼ”” ⵏⵖ ““ⵉⵎⴰⵏ”” ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵏⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏⵉⵏ.”
"""Jain philosophy is one of the only two surviving """"unorthodox"""" traditions (along with Buddhism).""",“ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ““ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵕⵜⵓⴷⵓⴽⵙ”” ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ (ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⴷⵉⵜ).”
"Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.",ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵊⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵖⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ.
"In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like Tibetan, Chinese and Pali).","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳⵎⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⵍⵉⵜ)."
"The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand.",ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵔⵉⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵔⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ.
"After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed Abhidharma.","ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⴰ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵙⵎⴷⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⵕⵎⴰ."
"There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India.",ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵀⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.
"These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li.","ⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⵢⴰⵏⴳ, ⴷ ⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉ."
"Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the Song dynasty (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the imperial exams for the scholar official class.","ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴳ (960–1297), ⴽⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⵉⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ."
"During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial state.","ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴻⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵎⵉⵏⴳ (1368–1644) ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵉⵜ (1392–1897), ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴳ ⵢⴰⵏⴳⵎⵉⵏⴳ (1472–1529) ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵜ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉ."
"In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ."
"For example, New Confucianism, led by figures such as Xiong Shili, has become quite influential.","ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴽⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵅⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵢⵓⵏⴳ ⵛⵉⵍⵉ, ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the """"National Studies"""" (Kokugaku) tradition.""",ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ” (ⴽⵓⴽⵓⴳⴰⴽⵓ).”
"During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 17, ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵜⵢⵓⴱⴱⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳ ⴳ ⵣⵉⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⵓⴱ (Zera Yacob)."
Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.,ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵖⵕⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⵜⵍ (Teotl) ⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 1990s ⵉⵙ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⴳⵔ 17% ⴷ 30% ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"""See also """"Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities.""""""",“ⵥⵕ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ““ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵀⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.”””
Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality.,ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵥⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including perceptual experience, reason, memory, and testimony.","ⴷⴰ ⴼⵔⵔⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⴳⵉⵜ."
"It arose early in Pre-Socratic philosophy and became formalized with Pyrrho, the founder of the earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism.","ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵜⵜ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ (Pyrrho) ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ, ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼ."
Empiricism places emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ.
"Rationalism is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience (such as logic and mathematics).","ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ (ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ)."
"Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.","ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ."
"Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵟⵟⴰⵕ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵀⵡⵓ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ."
New York: Oxford University Press.,ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵕⴽ: ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵕⴷ.
"However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"In analytic philosophy, philosophy of language investigates the nature of language, the relations between language, language users, and the world.","ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
"These writers were followed by Ludwig Wittgenstein (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), the Vienna Circle as well as the logical positivists, and Willard Van Orman Quine.","ⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵓⴷⴼⵉⴳ ⴼⵉⵜⴳⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⴼⵢⵉⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵡⵉⵏ."
He criticized conventionalism because it led to the bizarre consequence that anything can be conventionally denominated by any name.,ⵉⵣⵖⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵡⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ.
"To do this, he pointed out that compound words and phrases have a range of correctness.","ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
"However, by the end of the Cratylus, he had admitted that some social conventions were also involved, and that there were faults in the idea that phonemes had individual meanings.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⵜⵉⵍⵓⵙ, ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
He separated all things into categories of species and genus.,ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"""However, since Aristotle took these similarities to be constituted by a real commonality of form, he is more often considered a proponent of """"moderate realism"""".""","“ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ““ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵖⴷⵉⵎⵜ””.”"
This lektón was the meaning (or sense) of every term.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵍⵉⵏⴽⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵔⵎ.
There were several noteworthy philosophers of language in the medieval period.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.
"The scholastics of the high medieval period, such as Ockham and John Duns Scotus, considered logic to be a scientia sermocinalis (science of language).","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵙⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵀⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵓⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⵉⵔⵎⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵍⵉⵙ (ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ)."
"The phenomena of vagueness and ambiguity were analyzed intensely, and this led to an increasing interest in problems related to the use of syncategorematic words such as and, or, not, if, and every.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴷ, ⵓⵀⵓ, ⵎⴽ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ."
The suppositio of a term is the interpretation that is given of it in a specific context.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ.
"Such a classification scheme is the precursor of modern distinctions between use and mention, and between language and metalanguage.","ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⵉⴼ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵅⴼⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ."
"One part of the common sentence is the lexical word, which is composed of nouns, verbs, and adjectives.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵊⵕⵕⵓⵎⵜ, ⴳ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ."
Philosophical semantics tends to focus on the principle of compositionality to explain the relationship between meaningful parts and whole sentences.,ⴳⴳⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ.
It is possible to use the concept of functions to describe more than just how lexical meanings work: they can also be used to describe the meaning of a sentence.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ: ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜ.
"""A propositional function is an operation of language that takes an entity (in this case, the horse) as an input and outputs a semantic fact (i.e., the proposition that is represented by """"The horse is red"""").""","“ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ (ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⵉⵙ) ⴷ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⵜ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ““ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵉⵙ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ””).”"
Is language acquisition a special faculty in the mind?,ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵥⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ?
"The first is the behaviorist perspective, which dictates that not only is the solid bulk of language learned, but it is learned via conditioning.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵄⴰⴼⵔ."
Nativist models assert that there are specialized devices in the brain that are dedicated to language acquisition.,ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ.
"""Linguists Sapir and Whorf suggested that language limited the extent to which members of a """"linguistic community"""" can think about certain subjects (a hypothesis paralleled in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four).""",“ⴱⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵔⴼ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵎⵉ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ““ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⴰⵢⵜ”” ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵡⵍⵏ (ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵕⵡⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ).”
"The stark opposite to the Sapir–Whorf position is the notion that thought (or, more broadly, mental content) has priority over language.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵔ ⵡⵓⵕⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ (ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ.
Another argument is that it is difficult to explain how signs and symbols on paper can represent anything meaningful unless some sort of meaning is infused into them by the contents of the mind.,ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵎⴽ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⵉⵎ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵖ.
Another tradition of philosophers has attempted to show that language and thought are coextensive – that there is no way of explaining one without the other.,ⵜⵓⵔⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ - ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ.
"To an extent, the theoretical underpinnings to cognitive semantics (including the notion of semantic framing) suggest the influence of language upon thought.","ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏ) ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴹⵓⵚ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ."
There are studies that prove that languages shape how people understand causality.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⴱⴻⴱ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ.
"""However, Spanish or Japanese speakers would be more likely to say """"the vase broke itself"""".""","“ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⵜ ““ⵜⵕⵕⵥⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ””.”"
Spanish and Japanese speakers did not remember the agents of accidental events as well as did English speakers.,ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜ.
In one study German and Spanish speakers were asked to describe objects having opposite gender assignment in those two languages.,ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ” ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.
"""To describe a """"bridge"""", which is feminine in German and masculine in Spanish, the German speakers said """"beautiful"""", """"elegant"""", """"fragile"""", """"peaceful"""", """"pretty"""" and """"slender"""", and the Spanish speakers said """"big"""", """"dangerous"""", """"long"""", """"strong"""", """"sturdy"""" and """"towering"""".""","“ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ “ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴳⴳⵯⵉⵜ”, ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵓⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ “ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰ”, “ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳ”, “ⵉⴷⵀⵛ”, “ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ”, “ⵜⵥⵉⵍ” ⴷ “ⵜⵖⵓⴷⴰ”, ⵉⵏⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜⵏ “ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔ” ⴷ “ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔ” ⴷ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ” ⴷ ⵉⴷⵓⵙ” ⴷ “ⴰⵣⵏⵜⴰⵕ”.”"
Whether each alien was friendly or hostile was determined by certain subtle features but participants were not told what these were.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⵡⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵀⵔⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ.
"For the rest, the aliens remained nameless.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ."
It was concluded that naming objects helps us categorize and memorize them.,ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Within this area, issues include: the nature of synonymy, the origins of meaning itself, our apprehension of meaning, and the nature of composition (the question of how meaningful units of language are composed of smaller meaningful parts, and how the meaning of the whole is derived from the meaning of its parts).","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ: ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ, ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ, ⵜⴰⵡⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ (ⴰⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ)."
"The ideational theory of meaning, most commonly associated with the British empiricist John Locke, claims that meanings are mental representations provoked by signs.","ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵙⵡⵏⴳⴰⵎ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵍⵓⴽ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵓⵏⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ."
(See also Wittgenstein's picture theory of language.),(ⵥⵕ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴳⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ.)
"Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.","ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵊ, ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵙ: ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵕⴼⵓⵕⴷ."
"The reference theory of meaning, also known collectively as semantic externalism, views meaning to be equivalent to those things in the world that are actually connected to signs.","ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⵜ, ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵍⵏ."
The traditional formulation of such a theory is that the meaning of a sentence is its method of verification or falsification.,ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵃⵙⴰⵢⵜ.
"In this version, the comprehension (and hence meaning) of a sentence consists in the hearer's ability to recognize the demonstration (mathematical, empirical or other) of the truth of the sentence.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜ (ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ) ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴼⵍⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ (ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ) ⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜ."
A pragmatic theory of meaning is any theory in which the meaning (or understanding) of a sentence is determined by the consequences of its application.,ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⴰⴳⵎⴰⵜⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ (ⵏⵖ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ) ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Gottlob Frege was an advocate of a mediated reference theory.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴳⵓⵜⵍⵓⴱ ⴼⵔⵉⵊⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ.
"Such a thought is abstract, universal and objective.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⴰ.
Referents are the objects in the world that words pick out.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"""He viewed proper names of the sort described above as """"abbreviated definite descriptions"""" (see Theory of descriptions).""",“ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ “ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⵣⴰⵍ”” (ⵥⵕ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ).”
Such phrases denote in the sense that there is an object that satisfies the description.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ.
"On Frege's account, any referring expression has a sense as well as a referent.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⵊⵉ, ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ."
"Despite the differences between the views of Frege and Russell, they are generally lumped together as descriptivists about proper names.",ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴳⵔ ⴼⵔⵉⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵍ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"""Consider the name Aristotle and the descriptions """"the greatest student of Plato"""", """"the founder of logic"""" and """"the teacher of Alexander"""".""","“ⴰⴽⵢ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ““ⴰⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ””, ““ⴰⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ”” ⴷ ““ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⴰⵕ””.”"
He may have existed and not have become known to posterity at all or he may have died in infancy.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.
But this is deeply counterintuitive.,ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ.
Questions inevitably arise on surrounding topics.,ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ.
David Kellogg Lewis proposed a worthy reply to the first question by expounding the view that a convention is a rationally self-perpetuating regularity in behavior.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵢⴼⵉⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴳ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"Noam Chomsky proposed that the study of language could be done in terms of the I-Language, or internal language of persons.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵄⵓⵎ ⵜⵛⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ."
"One fruitful source of research involves investigation into the social conditions that give rise to, or are associated with, meanings and languages.",ⵉⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵥⵉⵕⵙ.
The presumptions that prop up each theoretical view are of interest to the philosopher of language.,ⵓⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ.
"Rhetoric is the study of the particular words that people use to achieve the proper emotional and rational effect in the listener, be it to persuade, provoke, endear, or teach.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴼⵍⵉⴷⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵢⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ."
"It also has applications to the study and interpretation of law, and helps give insight to the logical concept of the domain of discourse.","ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ."
"""The idea of language is often related to that of logic in its Greek sense as """"logos"""", meaning discourse or dialectic.""","“ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ““ⵍⵓⴳⵓⵙ””, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⵉⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵉⴽ.”"
Heidegger combines phenomenology with the hermeneutics of Wilhelm Dilthey.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵢⴷⵉⴳⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵀⵉⵍⵎ ⴷⵉⵍⵜⵉ.
"For example, Sein (being), the word itself, is saturated with multiple meanings.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ , ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ Sein (being), ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"""Heidegger claims writing is only a supplement to speech, because even readers construct or contribute their own """"talk"""" while reading.""","“ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵀⴰⵢⴷⵉⴳⵔ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ““ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ”” ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ.”"
"""In Truth and Method, Gadamer describes language as """"the medium in which substantive understanding and agreement take place between two people.""","“ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⴷⴰⵎⵔ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ““ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ.”"
"""Paul Ricœur, on the other hand, proposed a hermeneutics which, reconnecting with the original Greek sense of the term, emphasized the discovery of hidden meanings in the equivocal terms (or """"symbols"""") of ordinary language.""","“ ⴱⵓⵍ ⵔⵉⴽⵓⵔ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵙⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵏⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ, ⵉⵟⵟⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴽⴰⵙ (ⵏⵖ ““ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵍⵏ””) ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ.”"
It allows them to take advantage of and effectively manipulate the external world in order to create meaning for themselves and transmit this meaning to others.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"Some important figures in the history of semiotics, are Charles Sanders Peirce, Roland Barthes, and Roman Jakobson.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵣ ⴱⵉⵔⵙ, ⴷ ⵕⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴱⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱⵙⵓⵏ."
19th century romanticism emphasised human agency and free will in meaning construction.,ⵜⵙⵙⴰⴽⵣ ⵜⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ.
Humanistic views are challenged by biological theories of language which consider languages as natural phenomena.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
"In Neo-Darwinism, Richard Dawkins and other proponents of cultural replicator theories consider languages as populations of mind viruses.","ⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵓⴽⵉⵏⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ."
"""Some have said that the expression stands for some real, abstract universal out in the world called """"rocks"""".""",“ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ““ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ””.”
"""The issue here can be explicated if we examine the proposition """"Socrates is a Man"""".""",“ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵎⴽ ⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ““ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ””.”
These two things connect in some way or overlap.,ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ.
"""Another perspective is to consider """"man"""" to be a property of the entity, """"Socrates"""".""","“ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ““ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵣ”” ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ““ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ””.”"
"Some of the most prominent members of this tradition of formal semantics include Tarski, Carnap, Richard Montague and Donald Davidson.","ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴽⵉ, ⴽⴰⵔⵏⴰⴱ, ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⴳ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⴷⵙⵓⵏ."
They did not believe that the social and practical dimensions of linguistic meaning could be captured by any attempts at formalization using the tools of logic.,ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ.
"Many of its ideas have been absorbed by theorists such as Kent Bach, Robert Brandom, Paul Horwich and Stephen Neale.","ⵓⴽⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⴱⴰⵅ, ⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⴷⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵍ ⵀⵓⵔⵡⵉⵜⵛ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ."
"In Word and Object, Quine asks readers to imagine a situation in which they are confronted with a previously undocumented, group of indigenous people where they must attempt to make sense of the utterances and gestures that its members make.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ (Word and Object), ⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⴽⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⵥⵖⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⴼⵏ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"All that can be done is to examine the utterance as a part of the overall linguistic behaviour of the individual, and then use these observations to interpret the meaning of all other utterances.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"For Quine, as for Wittgenstein and Austin, meaning is not something that is associated with a single word or sentence, but is rather something that, if it can be attributed at all, can only be attributed to a whole language.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵡⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⵜⴳⵉⵏⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⴰⴽ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵜ."
"""The specific instances of vagueness that most interest philosophers of language are those where the existence of """"borderline cases"""" makes it seemingly impossible to say whether a predicate is true or false.""",“ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵔⵉⴽⵣ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ““ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ”” ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⴽⴰⵙ.”
"The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"Today, some philosophers of mathematics aim to give accounts of this form of inquiry and its products as they stand, while others emphasize a role for themselves that goes beyond simple interpretation to critical analysis.","ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ, ⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴹⵉⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵎⴰ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵖⴰⵏ."
Greek philosophy on mathematics was strongly influenced by their study of geometry.,ⵜⵓⴳⵎ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ.
"""Therefore, 3, for example, represented a certain multitude of units, and was thus not """"truly"""" a number.""","ⵅⴼ ⵎⵉ, 3, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⴰⵣⵡⵉⵍ."
These earlier Greek ideas of numbers were later upended by the discovery of the irrationality of the square root of two.,ⵜⵉⴽⵯⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵔⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ.
"According to legend, fellow Pythagoreans were so traumatized by this discovery that they murdered Hippasus to stop him from spreading his heretical idea.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵉⵢ, ⴷⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⴱⴰⵙⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵔⵟⵉⵇⵜ."
"""It is a profound puzzle that on the one hand mathematical truths seem to have a compelling inevitability, but on the other hand the source of their """"truthfulness"""" remains elusive.""",“ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵏⵉ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ “ⵜⵉⴷⵜ” ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ.”
"Three schools, formalism, intuitionism, and logicism, emerged at this time, partly in response to the increasingly widespread worry that mathematics as it stood, and analysis in particular, did not live up to the standards of certainty and rigor that had been taken for granted.","ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷ."
"As the century unfolded, the initial focus of concern expanded to an open exploration of the fundamental axioms of mathematics, the axiomatic approach having been taken for granted since the time of Euclid around 300 BCE as the natural basis for mathematics.","ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ,ⵜⵉⵔⵡ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵍⵉⴷⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 300 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ."
"In mathematics, as in physics, new and unexpected ideas had arisen and significant changes were coming.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ, ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ."
"""I do not think that the difficulties that philosophy finds with classical mathematics today are genuine difficulties; and I think that the philosophical interpretations of mathematics that we are being offered on every hand are wrong, and that """"philosophical interpretation"""" is just what mathematics doesn't need.""","ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵍⵖ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ , ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ; ⵉⵖⵉⵍⵖ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⴳⵍ, ⴷ ““ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉ”” ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽ."
Many working mathematicians have been mathematical realists; they see themselves as discoverers of naturally occurring objects.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ; ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵕⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Certain principles (e.g., for any two objects, there is a collection of objects consisting of precisely those two objects) could be directly seen to be true, but the continuum hypothesis conjecture might prove undecidable just on the basis of such principles.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵏⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴰ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ) ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
"Both Plato's cave and Platonism have meaningful, not just superficial connections, because Plato's ideas were preceded and probably influenced by the hugely popular Pythagoreans of ancient Greece, who believed that the world was, quite literally, generated by numbers.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⵎ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ."
"This view bears resemblances to many things Husserl said about mathematics, and supports Kant's idea that mathematics is synthetic a priori.)","ⵢⴰⵖ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵀⵓⵙⵔⵍ ⵛⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ.)"
"Full-blooded Platonism is a modern variation of Platonism, which is in reaction to the fact that different sets of mathematical entities can be proven to exist depending on the axioms and inference rules employed (for instance, the law of the excluded middle, and the axiom of choice).","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵥⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ, ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ)."
"Set-theoretic realism (also set-theoretic Platonism) a position defended by Penelope Maddy, is the view that set theory is about a single universe of sets.","ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ (ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵜ) ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⵍⵓⴱⵉ ⵎⴰⴷⴷⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"""They attributed the paradox to """"vicious circularity"""" and built up what they called ramified type theory to deal with it.""",“ⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ““ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏ”” ⵙⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⵙ.”
Even Russell said that this axiom did not really belong to logic.,ⴰⵡⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ.
"Frege required Basic Law V to be able to give an explicit definition of the numbers, but all the properties of numbers can be derived from Hume's principle.","ⵉⵜⵜⵔ ⴼⵔⵉⵊⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⵉⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵓⵖⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵀⵢⵓⵎ."
But it does allow the working mathematician to continue in his or her work and leave such problems to the philosopher or scientist.,ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵊ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ.
"""Hilbert aimed to show the consistency of mathematical systems from the assumption that the """"finitary arithmetic"""" (a subsystem of the usual arithmetic of the positive integers, chosen to be philosophically uncontroversial) was consistent.""","""ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⴼⵖ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ "" ⴰⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ""(ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ , ⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴱⴷⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵜ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ."
"Thus, in order to show that any axiomatic system of mathematics is in fact consistent, one needs to first assume the consistency of a system of mathematics that is in a sense stronger than the system to be proven consistent.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⴰⴷⵉⵀⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵏⴰⴷⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵎⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ."
"Other formalists, such as Rudolf Carnap, Alfred Tarski, and Haskell Curry, considered mathematics to be the investigation of formal axiom systems.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⴳⵖ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⴽⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵕⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴽⴰⵕⵏⴰⴱ, ⴷ ⵀⴰⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴽⴰⵔⵉ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴳⴰⵡ ⵉⴱⵉⴷⴰⵀⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵏ."
"The more games we study, the better.","ⴽⵓⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰ, ⵢⵓⴼ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ."
The main critique of formalism is that the actual mathematical ideas that occupy mathematicians are far removed from the string manipulation games mentioned above.,ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ.
"Brouwer, the founder of the movement, held that mathematical objects arise from the a priori forms of the volitions that inform the perception of empirical objects.","ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴱⵕⵓⵡⵕ, ⴰⵎⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ, ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ."
"The axiom of choice is also rejected in most intuitionistic set theories, though in some versions it is accepted.","ⵢⵓⴳⵢ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴷⵉⵀⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⴼⵖⵉⵏ."
"In this view, mathematics is an exercise of the human intuition, not a game played with meaningless symbols.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ."
"Likewise all the other whole numbers are defined by their places in a structure, the number line.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵀⴰⵢⴽⴰⵍⵉ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴹⴰⵏ."
"However, its central claim only relates to what kind of entity a mathematical object is, not to what kind of existence mathematical objects or structures have (not, in other words, to their ontology).","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵜ ( ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ)."
Structures are held to have a real but abstract and immaterial existence.,ⵉⵖⵍⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ.
Structures are held to exist inasmuch as some concrete system exemplifies them.,ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⵕⵚⵉⵢⵏ.
"Like nominalism, the post rem approach denies the existence of abstract mathematical objects with properties other than their place in a relational structure.","ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵜ, ⵉⵏⴽⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵎ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ."
"It is held that mathematics is not universal and does not exist in any real sense, other than in human brains.","ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"However, the human mind has no special claim on reality or approaches to it built out of math.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵜ."
"The most accessible, famous, and infamous treatment of this perspective is Where Mathematics Comes From, by George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez.","ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵖⴰⵏⵉⴱ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵍⴰⴽⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵕⴰⴼⵉⵍ ⵉⵏⵓⵏⵉⵣ."
"""Franklin, James (2014), """"An Aristotelian Realist Philosophy of Mathematics"""", Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke; Franklin, James (2021), """"Mathematics as a science of non-abstract reality: Aristotelian realist philosophies of mathematics,"""" Foundations of Science 25.""","ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵉⵍ, ⵊⵉⵎⵉⵙ (2014), “"" ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵜ""”, ⴱⴰⵍⵊⵔⵉⴼ ⵎⴰⴽⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵏⵊⵙⵜⵓⵙ, ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ, ⵊⵉⵎⵉⵙ (2021), ““ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ : ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵚⵟⵓⵟⵉⵏ,”“ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ 25.”"
The Euclidean arithmetic developed by John Penn Mayberry in his book The Foundations of Mathematics in the Theory of Sets also falls into the Aristotelian realist tradition.,ⴰⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴱⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵚⵟⵓⵟ.
"""Edmund Husserl, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, called """"The Prolegomena of Pure Logic"""", criticized psychologism thoroughly and sought to distance himself from it.""","ⵉⴼⵔⵏ ""ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵀⵓⵔⵙⵍ"", ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⵖⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ "" ⵜⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ"" ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ""."
"That is, since physics needs to talk about electrons to say why light bulbs behave as they do, then electrons must exist.","ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵅ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ, ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵜⵏ."
"It argues for the existence of mathematical entities as the best explanation for experience, thus stripping mathematics of being distinct from the other sciences.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.
This grew from the increasingly popular assertion in the late 20th century that no one foundation of mathematics could be ever proven to exist.,ⵉⴳⵎⴰ ⵓⴱⵔⴰⴽ ⴰⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜ.
A mathematical argument can transmit falsity from the conclusion to the premises just as well as it can transmit truth from the premises to the conclusion.,ⵜⴱⴰⴹ ⵜⵏⵥⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ.
He gave a detailed argument for this in New Directions.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⴳⵣⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
"If mathematics is just as empirical as the other sciences, then this suggests that its results are just as fallible as theirs, and just as contingent.","ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ."
For a philosophy of mathematics that attempts to overcome some of the shortcomings of Quine and Gödel's approaches by taking aspects of each see Penelope Maddy's Realism in Mathematics.,"ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴳⵓⴷⵍ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ, ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⵍⵓⴱ ⵎⴰⴷⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"""He started with the """"betweenness"""" of Hilbert's axioms to characterize space without coordinatizing it, and then added extra relations between points to do the work formerly done by vector fields.""","“ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵙ ““ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⵜ”” ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ, ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.”"
"By this account, there are no metaphysical or epistemological problems special to mathematics.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"""However, while on an empiricist view the evaluation is some sort of comparison with """"reality"""", social constructivists emphasize that the direction of mathematical research is dictated by the fashions of the social group performing it or by the needs of the society financing it.""","“ⵡⵖⴰⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ““ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ””, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.”"
"But social constructivists argue that mathematics is in fact grounded by much uncertainty: as mathematical practice evolves, the status of previous mathematics is cast into doubt, and is corrected to the degree it is required or desired by the current mathematical community.","ⵎⴰⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵥⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷ: ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵜⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ."
The social nature of mathematics is highlighted in its subcultures.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ.
"""Social constructivists see the process of """"doing mathematics"""" as actually creating the meaning, while social realists see a deficiency either of human capacity to abstractify, or of human's cognitive bias, or of mathematicians' collective intelligence as preventing the comprehension of a real universe of mathematical objects.""","“ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ “”ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ”” ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴳⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⴳⵓⵙⵙ ⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.”"
More recently Paul Ernest has explicitly formulated a social constructivist philosophy of mathematics.,"ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⴱⵓⵍ ⵉⵔⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵙⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"For example, the tools of linguistics are not generally applied to the symbol systems of mathematics, that is, mathematics is studied in a markedly different way from other languages.","ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"However, the methods developed by Frege and Tarski for the study of mathematical language have been extended greatly by Tarski's student Richard Montague and other linguists working in formal semantics to show that the distinction between mathematical language and natural language may not be as great as it seems.","ⵎⵖⴰⵔ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵜⴰⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰ ⴼⵉⵔⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔ ⵄⵏⵉⵖ."
"""The assertion that """"all"""" entities postulated in scientific theories, including numbers, should be accepted as real is justified by confirmation holism.""","“ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⵅⴼ ““ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ” ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵙⵉⵍ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵜⵖⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ.”"
Field developed his views into fictionalism.,ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴼⵢⵉⵍⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
The argument hinges on the idea that a satisfactory naturalistic account of thought processes in terms of brain processes can be given for mathematical reasoning along with everything else.,ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"Another line of defense is to maintain that abstract objects are relevant to mathematical reasoning in a way that is non-causal, and not analogous to perception.",ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⵔⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴽⵣ.
"By way of example, they provide two proofs of the irrationality of .","ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ."
"""Paul Erdős was well known for his notion of a hypothetical """"Book"""" containing the most elegant or beautiful mathematical proofs.""",“ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴱⵓⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ““ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ”” ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵥⵉⵍⵏ.”
"By the same token, however, philosophers of mathematics have sought to characterize what makes one proof more desirable than another when both are logically sound.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⴷ, ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ."
Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the ontology and nature of the mind and its relationship with the body.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ.
"Dualism and monism are the two central schools of thought on the mind–body problem, although nuanced views have arisen that do not fit one or the other category neatly.","ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵓⵡⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ."
"""Hart, W.D. (1996) """"Dualism"""", in Samuel Guttenplan (org) A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, Blackwell, Oxford, 265-7.""","“ⵀⴰⵔⵜ, ⵡ.ⴷ. (1996) ““ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰ””, ⴳ ⵙⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ ⴳⵉⵜⵜⵏⴱⵍⴰⵏ (org) ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ, ⴱⵍⴰⴽⵡⵉⵍ, ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ, 265-7."""
"Pinel, J. Psychobiology, (1990) Prentice Hall, Inc. LeDoux, J. (2002) The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are, New York:Viking Penguin.","ⴱⵉⵏⵉⵍ, ⵊ. ⵜⴰⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, (1990) ⴱⵔⵉⵏⵜⵉⵙ ⵀⵓⵍ, ⵉⵏⴽ. ⵍⵓⴷⵓ, ⵊ. (2002) ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰⵜ: ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⴽⴽⵯⵏⵉ, ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ: ⴼⴰⵢⴽⵉⵏⴳ ⴱⵉⵏⴳⵡⵉⵏ."
"""Psychological Predicates"""", in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill, eds.,""","“ⵉⵎⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ”, ⴳ ⵡ. ⵀ. ⴽⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⴷ. ⴷ. ⵎⵔⵔⵉⵍ, ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ,”"
"Secondly, intentional states of consciousness do not make sense on non-reductive physicalism.","ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵣⴳⵣⵍ."
"Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants.","ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵟⴰⵟⵟⴰⵃⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵜⵣⴰ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⵜⴰⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ."
"""Robinson, H. (1983): """"Aristotelian dualism"""", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 1, 123–44.""","“ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵙⵓⵏ, ⵀ. (1983): ““ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ””, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ 1, 123–44."""
"They would almost certainly deny that the mind simply is the brain, or vice versa, finding the idea that there is just one ontological entity at play to be too mechanistic or unintelligible.","ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴰⵏⵍⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⵉⵙ."
"So, for example, one can reasonably ask what a burnt finger feels like, or what a blue sky looks like, or what nice music sounds like to a person.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⴽⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⵓⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉ, ⵏⵖⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⴰ."
There are qualia involved in these mental events that seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵚⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵍⵍⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵖⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ.
Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical reality.,ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵢ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ.
"Knowledge, however, is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent.","ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⵎⵖⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵥⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
"The basic idea is that one can imagine one's body, and therefore conceive the existence of one's body, without any conscious states being associated with this body.","ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴽⵢ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵢⵓⴽⵣⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⴷ."
"Others such as Dennett have argued that the notion of a philosophical zombie is an incoherent, or unlikely, concept.",ⵏⵥⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵥⵓⵎⴱⵉ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ.
"It is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states.","ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵎⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ."
"""Descartes' argument depends on the premise that what Seth believes to be """"clear and distinct"""" ideas in his mind are necessarily true.""",“ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵙⵉⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ““ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ”” ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ.”
"Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Bradford) For example, Joseph Agassi suggests that several scientific discoveries made since the early 20th century have undermined the idea of privileged access to one's own ideas.","ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵊ, ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵙ: ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⴽⵏⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ (ⴱⵔⴰⴷⴼⵓⵔ) ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⴰⴳⵙⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
This view was most prominently defended by Gottfried Leibniz.,ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⵊⵓⵜⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵍⴰⵢⴱⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"These emergent properties have an independent ontological status and cannot be reduced to, or explained in terms of, the physical substrate from which they emerge.",ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴳⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴰ.
Epiphenomenalism is a doctrine first formulated by Thomas Henry Huxley.,ⵜⵉⴱⵉⴼⵉⵏⵓⵎⵉⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵀⵓⴽⵙⵍⵉ.
This view has been defended by Frank Jackson.,ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽ ⵊⴰⴽⵙⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ.
"Panpsychism is the view that all matter has a mental aspect, or, alternatively, all objects have a unified center of experience or point of view.","ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴰⵏⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ, ⵏⵖ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⵓⵡⵏ."
"""An example of these disparate degrees of freedom is given by Allan Wallace who notes that it is """"experientially apparent that one may be physically uncomfortable—for instance, while engaging in a strenuous physical workout—while mentally cheerful; conversely, one may be mentally distraught while experiencing physical comfort"""".""","“ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ““ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵔⵎⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ - ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ - ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴷⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ; ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵕⵎⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ””.”"
Mental states can cause changes in physical states and vice versa.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ.
Experiential dualism is accepted as the conceptual framework of Madhyamaka Buddhism.,"ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵜⵣⵔⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵢ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⴷⵀⵢⴰⵎⴰⴽⴰ."
"In denying the independent self-existence of all the phenomena that make up the world of our experience, the Madhyamaka view departs from both the substance dualism of Descartes and the substance monism—namely, physicalism—that is characteristic of modern science.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⴼⵔⵖ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵢⴰⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓ -ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ- ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
"Indeed, physicalism, or the idea that matter is the only fundamental substance of reality, is explicitly rejected by Buddhism.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵉ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵜⵓⴳⵢ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴱⵓⴷⵉⵜ."
"While the former commonly have mass, location, velocity, shape, size, and numerous other physical attributes, these are not generally characteristic of mental phenomena.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⵉⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ."
The fundamentally disparate nature of reality has been central to forms of eastern philosophies for over two millennia.,ⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵔ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ.
"Physicalistic monism asserts that the only existing substance is physical, in some sense of that term to be clarified by our best science.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"Although pure idealism, such as that of George Berkeley, is uncommon in contemporary Western philosophy, a more sophisticated variant called panpsychism, according to which mental experience and properties may be at the foundation of physical experience and properties, has been espoused by some philosophers such as Alfred North Whitehead and David Ray Griffin.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⴱⵉⵔⴽⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵏⴱⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜ (panpsychism), ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ, ⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵔⵜ ⵡⴰⵢⵜⵉⵀⵉⴷ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴰⵢⴼⵉⴷ ⵔⴰⵢ ⴳⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ."
A third possibility is to accept the existence of a basic substance that is neither physical nor mental.,ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ.
Introspective reports on one's own interior mental life are not subject to careful examination for accuracy and cannot be used to form predictive generalizations.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ.
"Parallel to these developments in psychology, a philosophical behaviorism (sometimes called logical behaviorism) was developed.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵜ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ (ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ)."
"These philosophers reasoned that, if mental states are something material, but not behavioral, then mental states are probably identical to internal states of the brain.","ⵙⵢⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ."
"According to token identity theories, the fact that a certain brain state is connected with only one mental state of a person does not have to mean that there is an absolute correlation between types of mental state and types of brain state.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵉ."
"Finally, Wittgenstein's idea of meaning as use led to a version of functionalism as a theory of meaning, further developed by Wilfrid Sellars and Gilbert Harman.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵊⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ, ⵉⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⴰⵔⵣ ⴷ ⵊⵉⵍⴱⵔⵜ ⵀⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏ."
"Hence, the question arises whether there can still be a non-reductive physicalism.","ⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍⵏ."
"""Davidson uses the thesis of supervenience: mental states supervene on physical states, but are not reducible to them. """"""","“ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵢⴼⵉⴷⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ: ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.”””"
The brain goes on from one moment of time to another; the brain thus has identity through time.,ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ; ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ.
An analogy of the self or the “I” would be the flame of a candle.,ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴽⴽⵜ ⵏⵖ “ⵏⴽⴽ” ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴱⵍⴰⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵔⴱⵓⵜ.
"The flame displays a type of continuity in that the candle does not go out while it is burning, but there is not really any identity of the flame from one moment to another over time.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⵍⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵔⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⵍⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ."
"Similarly, it is an illusion that one is the same individual who walked into class this morning.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴷ."
This is analogous to physical properties of the brain giving rise to a mental state.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ.
"The Churchlands often invoke the fate of other, erroneous popular theories and ontologies that have arisen in the course of history.",ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓⵢ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵔⵛⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵜⵉⵊ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⴳⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ.
Some philosophers argue that this is because there is an underlying conceptual confusion.,ⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵅⵡⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ.
"Rather it should simply be accepted that human experience can be described in different ways—for instance, in a mental and in a biological vocabulary.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴼⴽ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ - ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
The brain is simply the wrong context for the use of mental vocabulary—the search for mental states of the brain is therefore a category error or a sort of fallacy of reasoning.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵉⵏ - ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⴳ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ.
"And it is characteristic of a mental state that it has some experiential quality, e.g. of pain, that it hurts.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵇ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵖⵉⵇ."
"The existence of cerebral events, in and of themselves, cannot explain why they are accompanied by these corresponding qualitative experiences.",ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ.
This follows from an assumption about the possibility of reductive explanations.,ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⵣⴰⵍ.
"The 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger criticized the ontological assumptions underpinning such a reductive model, and claimed that it was impossible to make sense of experience in these terms.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵀⴰⵢⴷⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ."
This problem of explaining introspective first-person aspects of mental states and consciousness in general in terms of third-person quantitative neuroscience is called the explanatory gap.,ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵍⵎⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴽⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵡⴷⴰⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵅⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵜ.
There are two separate categories involved and one cannot be reduced to the other.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ.
"For Nagel, science is not yet able to explain subjective experience because it has not yet arrived at the level or kind of knowledge that is required.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵏⴰⵊⵉⵍ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏ."
This property of mental states entails that they have contents and semantic referents and can therefore be assigned truth values.,ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ.
"But mental ideas or judgments are true or false, so how then can mental states (ideas or judgments) be natural processes?","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵣⴳⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ (ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ) ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴰⵎⵜⵉⵏ?"
"If the fact is true, then the idea is true; otherwise, it is false.","ⵎⵛ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵜ; ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵣⴳⴰⵍ."
"Since mental processes are intimately related to bodily processes, the descriptions that the natural sciences furnish of human beings play an important role in the philosophy of mind.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵉ."
"Within the field of neurobiology, there are many subdisciplines that are concerned with the relations between mental and physical states and processes: Sensory neurophysiology investigates the relation between the processes of perception and stimulation.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ: ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⴰⵍ."
"Lastly, evolutionary biology studies the origins and development of the human nervous system and, in as much as this is the basis of the mind, also describes the ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of mental phenomena beginning from their most primitive stages.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵇⵇⵔⴰ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
A simple example is multiplication.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ.
This question has been propelled into the forefront of much philosophical debate because of investigations in the field of artificial intelligence (AI).,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ.
"The objective of strong AI, on the contrary, is a computer with consciousness similar to that of human beings.","ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵍⴰⵛ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"The Turing test has received many criticisms, among which the most famous is probably the Chinese room thought experiment formulated by Searle.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏⴳ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴰ ⵙⵉⵔⵙⵍ."
Psychology investigates the laws that bind these mental states to each other or with inputs and outputs to the human organism.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
A law of the psychology of forms says that objects that move in the same direction are perceived as related to each other.,ⴰⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ.
"It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers).","ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵥⵥⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵎ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵛⴰⴷ.) ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ (ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ (ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ) ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ)."
"Nonetheless, Hegel's work differs radically from the style of Anglo-American philosophy of mind.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵊⵉⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ."
"Phenomenology, founded by Edmund Husserl, focuses on the contents of the human mind (see noema) and how processes shape our experiences.",ⴷⴰ ⵙⴷⵉⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵀⵓⵙⵉⵔⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ) ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ.
This is the case for materialistic determinists.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ.
Some take this reasoning a step further: people cannot determine by themselves what they want and what they do.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ: ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ.
"""Those who adopt this position suggest that the question """"Are we free?""""""",ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⵉⵙ ⵏⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵏ’’.
It is not appropriate to identify freedom with indetermination.,ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ.
The most important compatibilist in the history of the philosophy was David Hume.,ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⵀⵢⵓⵎ.
"These philosophers affirm the course of the world is either a) not completely determined by natural law where natural law is intercepted by physically independent agency, b) determined by indeterministic natural law only, or c) determined by indeterministic natural law in line with the subjective effort of physically non-reducible agency.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ (ⴱ) ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵏⵖ (ⵊ) ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵍⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵎⴰⵎ."
"They argue as follows: if our will is not determined by anything, then we desire what we desire by pure chance.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ : ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵏⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴰⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳ."
The idea of a self as an immutable essential nucleus derives from the idea of an immaterial soul.,ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ.
"Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King.","ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵣⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵀⵉⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ."
"The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state.","ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵔⵜⵙⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⴳⵓ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴽ."
"The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools.","ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⴰⵚⴰⴷⴼⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⵓⵙⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴰⵣⵀⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵟⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws.,ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵚⴰⴷⴰⴼⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵜⴷⵏⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵙⵃⵏ.
"""By the late ancient period, however, the """"traditionalist"""" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed.""",‘’ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵓⵕⵉⵢⵜ ‘’ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ’’ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.
"However, in Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ: ⵍⴽⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉ, ⵍⴼⴰⵕⵉ, ⵉⴱⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵏ ⴱⴰⵊⴰ, ⴱⵏⵓ ⵕⵓⵛⴷ."
"For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought.","ⵙⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴷⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵊ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ acioiy ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵣⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ."
Aristotleanism flourished as the Islamic Golden Age saw rise to a continuation of the peripatetic philosophers who implemented the ideas of Aristotle in the context of the Islamic world.,ⵜⴱⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵔⵉⵚⵟⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵜ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵟⵕⴱⵍⵓⵙⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ.
"""Other notable political philosophers of the time include Nizam al-Mulk, a Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuq Empire who composed the Siyasatnama, or the """"Book of Government"""" in English.""","ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵣⴰⵎ ⵍⵎⵓⵍⴽ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⵊⵓⵇ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵢⵢⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏⴰⵎⴰ, ⵏⵖ ‘’ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ” ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ."
"Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵡⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵍⵍⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵅⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵔⵓⵙ."
"Others, like Nicole Oresme in his Livre de Politiques, categorically denied this right to overthrow an unjust ruler.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵏⴰⴽⵔⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⴽⵡ, ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍ ⵓⵔⵉⵙⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵣⵣⴰⵔⴼⵓ."
"That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of classical antiquity, did much to influence modern political thought in the West.","ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵟ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵍⵎⵕⵕⵓⴽ."
"At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the acquisition and maintenance of absolute power.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵎⵉⴽⵢⴰⴼⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴳⵉ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be.","ⵜⵜⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴰⵏⵏ: ⴰⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ: ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ; ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵓⵏⴽ."
"""The term """"government"""" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound.""","“ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ “ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ” ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵥⴰⵕⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵛⵛⵍⵏ”."
It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵔⵎⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ.
"The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵓ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴷⵉⴱⵓⵍⵜⵉⵔ ⴰⴼⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵙⴼⵡ."
"""My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out.""""""","“ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵣⵎⵉⵔⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴽⴽⵡⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ, ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ.”"
Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system.,ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵍⵓⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴼⴼⵓⴽⵍ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴼⵉⵍⵎⵔⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa.","ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵡⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⴽⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵍⵓⴽ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵟⴰⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵔⴰⵙⴰ."
"Though one could be worried about restrictions on liberty by benevolent monarchs or aristocrats, the traditional worry is that when rulers are politically unaccountable to the governed they will rule in their own interests, rather than the interests of the governed.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⴰⴼ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⴽⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓⵔⵕⴰⵟⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵇ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"Justice involves duties that are perfect duties—that is, duties that are correlated with rights.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵉ ⴳ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ.
"He uses, On Liberty to discuss gender equality in society.",ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"The Liberty of the Ancients was participatory republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ."
"Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous societies, in which the people could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵣⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵖⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ."
"Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from the necessity of daily political involvement.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵏⵊⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ."
"In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality.",Iⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵀⵓⴱⵣ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵓⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵚⴰⴹⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ.
"In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⴽⵓ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ, ⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
"Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition.","ⵜⵜⵙⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵡⴰⵙⵏ 1762, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ."
"""Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they.""""""","“ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought.,ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵓⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.
"In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵥⴰ (19), ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴽⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵛⵜⵉⵔⴰⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵔⵖⴰⵎⵜ."
"Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵓⵢⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ."
"In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵊⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⵉⵢ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20."
"This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968, led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴱⴱⵓⵍ ⵙⴰⵜⵕⵜⵔ ⴷ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙⵉⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵡⵜⵙⵉ ⵟⵓⵏⴳ ⴳ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴼⵉⴷⵍ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ ⴳ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 1968, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵢⵜ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵡ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
"The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant.",ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⵍⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⵔⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ.
"Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance.","ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵔⴰⵡⵍⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴱⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⵣⴰⵔⴼⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴷⵖⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe, several new lines of philosophy directed at the critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⵉⵢ, ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙ 1950 ⴷ 1980."
"""Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a """"return to Hegel"""".""","‘‘ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵣⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ- ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉⵢⵜ-ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ’’."
"Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor.",ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ (ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ) ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⵣⵔ ⵙⴰⵏⴷⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵍⵣ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⵓⵕ.
Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵉⵔⵉⵟⵟ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach.,ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ (20) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ.
"To a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵅ, ⵓⵔ ⴰⵖ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵅ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵉ."
Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴽⵓ ⵡⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ.
"Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals.","ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵍⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ (ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ) ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ."
Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⴽ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.
"Chomsky is a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵛⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵢⵉⵙⵔⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵉⵚⵟⵉⵏⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"William E. Connolly: Helped introduce postmodern philosophy into political theory, and promoted new theories of Pluralism and agonistic democracy.","ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴽⵓⵏⵓⵍⵉ : ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
Thomas Hill Green: Modern liberal thinker and early supporter of positive freedom.,ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵀⵉⵍ ⴳⵔⵉⵏ : ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴰⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢ ⴰⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ.
His early work was heavily influenced by the Frankfurt School.,ⵜⵜⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴼⵓⵕⵜ.
He advocated free-market capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the rule of law and let spontaneous order develop.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⵜⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
David Hume: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement.,ⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⵀⵢⵓⵎ : ⵉⵣⵖⵏⴻⵏⵏ ⵀⵉⵢⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵍⵓⴽ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ.
Most famous for the United States Declaration of Independence.,ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴹⵔⴻⵔ ⵓⵣⵔⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.
Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace.,ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵏⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ.
"He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property.","ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵀⵓⴱⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵍⵢ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵏⵄⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ."
One of the founders of Western Marxism.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ.
Gave an account of statecraft in a realistic point of view instead of relying on idealism.,ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵣⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"As a political theorist, he believed in separation of powers and proposed a comprehensive set of checks and balances that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the tyranny of the majority.","ⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵏⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ."
"""Introduced the concept of """"repressive desublimation"""", in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire.""","‘‘ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ (ⴰⵔⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵉⵔⵉⵟⵟ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵥⴻⵥⵜ’’."
Created the concept of ideology in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions.,ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ (ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵍⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴽⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"Mencius: One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled.","ⵎⵉⵏⵙⵢⵓⵏ : ⵀⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵡⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ."
"""Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of the people by a """"balance of powers"""" in the divisions of a state.""",‘‘ⵎⵓⵏⵜⵉⵙⴽⵢⵓ : ⵚⵍⴹⵖ ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙ (ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵙⵏ) ⴳ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ.’’
His interpreters have debated the content of his political philosophy.,ⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ.
Plato: Wrote a lengthy dialog The Republic in which he laid out his political philosophy: citizens should be divided into three categories.,ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ : ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ : ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴽⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ : ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
Ayn Rand: Founder of Objectivism and prime mover of the Objectivist and Libertarian movements in mid-twentieth-century America.,ⵉⵢⵏ ⵔⴰⵏⴷ : ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ.
The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ.
"""Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior (""""the invisible hand"""") of artisans and traders.""","‘‘ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵎⵉⵜ : ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ; ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵙⵏ (ⴰⴼⵓⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ) ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ’’."
"Socrates: Widely considered the founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.","ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ : ⵉⴳⴰ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ, ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ; ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴷⵊⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ (ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ) ⴰⵡⴷ ⵃⴰⵃ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ; ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ."
Max Stirner: Important thinker within anarchism and the main representative of the anarchist current known as individualist anarchism.,ⵎⴰⴽⵙ ⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏⵔ : ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ.
"Other forms of social philosophy include political philosophy and jurisprudence, which are largely concerned with the societies of state and government and their functioning.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as early Greek philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates.","ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵚⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵚⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ."
Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost.,ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴹⴹⵕⵏⵜ.
"Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.","ⵜⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵚⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 6 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵢⴰⵏ: ⵟⴰⵍⵉⵚ, ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵔ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵙⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵙ."
Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods.,ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵙⵉⵏⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵎⵔⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ.
"The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE.","ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⴽ (ⴱⴰⵕⵎⵉⵏⵉⴷⵙ , ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵓⵙ) ⵜⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created.,ⵉⵡⵛⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵙⴰⴳⵓⵕⴰⵚⵕⴰⵚ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴱⵉⴷⵓⴽⵍⵉⵚ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
"""It was first used by the German philosopher J.A. Eberhard as """"vorsokratische Philosophie''' in the late 18th century.""","“ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵓⴼⵉ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵊ. ⴰ. ⵉⴱⵀⵀⴰⵕⴷ ⴰⵎ ”” ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵕⵚⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵛ”” ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 18."""
"The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life.","ⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵔ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵚⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟ ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵙ ⵖⴰ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ."
"According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived.","ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ."
"Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⴽⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟⵢ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴽ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ."
"Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵃⵉⵔⵉ ⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵙ, ⵓⵕ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵖ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used.,ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ.
"Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times.","ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙⵜⵓⵙ, ⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟ, ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ."
Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering.,ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵟⵟⴰⵡⵊⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵇⴹ ⴷⵉⵍⵣ-ⴽⵔⴰⵏⵣ.
"""After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as """"A"""", or """"B"""" if is a direct quote from the philosopher.""","""ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵟⵟⴰⵡⵊⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ‘’ⴰ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⴱ’’ ⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ."""
"The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵍⵎⵖⵔⵉⴱ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵇⵓⴱⵕⵓⵚ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵔⵉⵢⴰ."
"The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE.","ⵊⵄⵔⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ 499 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵎⵖⵜ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ 494 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ."
Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece.,ⵉⴱⵣⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ.
"Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵡⵀⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵜⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ.
"The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod.","ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵎⵔ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵙⵓⴷ."
They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵖⴷⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵢⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵍⴼⵓⵍⴽⵍⵓⵕ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ.
"The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵜ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods.,ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ- ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛⵏ.
"Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance.","ⵡⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematicazion of nature and others.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵃⵢⵢⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵜⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴽⵓⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴼⴰⵔⵏ.
"This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control.","ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⴳⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵕ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ."
Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings.,"ⴷ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵎⵎⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵡⵛⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴽⴰⴼⵔⵏ, ⵅⵙ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴳ ⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵉⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations.","ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵍⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ."
The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it).,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⴽⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵡⴰⵃⵃⴷⵏ (ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵅⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ).
"He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry.,ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵟⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵔⵉ.
"Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations.","ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵙ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ."
"Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting).","ⵉⵔⵣⴼ ⵟⴰⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵔⴷⵉⵙ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵣⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵃⴹⴰ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵜⵔⵓⵍ)."
He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being.,ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵓⵥⵓⵚ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴽⵓⵛⴰⵏ.
"He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ."
"In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵟⴰⵍⵉⵙ, ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴷ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ, ⵉⵍⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind.,ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵜ.
He also wrote a book on nature in prose.,ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ.
He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⴰⵀⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ.
"He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵏⵖⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵡⵏ."
"Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St. Elmo's fire.",ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⵛⴰ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ.
"While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵇⵜ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux.,ⵉⴷⵎⴰ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ.
Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵎⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows).","ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ : (ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ)."
"Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵍⴰⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ."
Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ.
"A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book.","ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵣⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ; (ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ) ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum.,ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵍ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴰⵔⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵜⴰⵃⵓⵏⵜⵓⵎ.
"They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations.","ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵍⵉⴳ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⵏ, ⴰⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⵉ."
"Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ."
Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation.,ⵟⵏⵣⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ.
"Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato.","ⵜⴹⵉⵚ ⵜⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵏⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴽ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.","ⵙⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵙⵟⵓ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵓⵊⵉⵏⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵔⵜⵢⵓⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵃⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⴽⵉ."
He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵇⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ.
"Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy.","ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⴷⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i.e., preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion.","ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ."
"The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ."
"Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations.","ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵀⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵅⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵄⵏⵡⴰ."
"The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴳⵍⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵣⴰⵏⵜ."
Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵍⵓⵙⵉⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷⵉⵏ.
He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist.,ⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵅ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ.
"Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens.","ⵉⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵃⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵏⴰ."
Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴹⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ.
Interpretations differ as to what he meant.,ⴷ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others.","ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⵡⵓ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ‘’ⵏⵓⵙ’’ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ."
"Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena.","ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⵅⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ."
"According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications).","ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵓⵊⵉⵏⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵜⵢⵓⵙ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵓⴽⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴳ: ⴱⵉⵔⵉ ⴼⵢⵓⵙ (ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ) ⴷ ⵡⵉⴽⴰⵜⴰⵕⵎⵓⵕⵉ (ⵉⵎⵕⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ)."
"""He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four """"roots"""" (i.e., classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us.""",ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ‘’ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ’’ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ (ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ’’.
"These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist.","ⵜⵉⴷⵓⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⴳⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴽⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴱⴱⵉ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵏⵓⵣ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵏⵜ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⵉⵎⵃⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
"Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵜⵙ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵙⵉⴱ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴼⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ."
"Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⴷⴷⵔ, ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ."
"Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional.","ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵢ ⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ."
"They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history.","ⵜⴰⵏⵟⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴹⴹⵕⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints.,ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not.",ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴳⵓⵔⵊⵢⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ‘’ ⵅⴼⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵢⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵢⴰⵜⵉⴽⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ.
Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city.,ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴼⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ.
He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos.,ⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought.","ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⴷⵢⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⴷⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⴻⵥⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵛ, ⵓⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⴰⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology.","ⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴹⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵀⵓⵎⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵀⵉⵙⵢⵓⴷ ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵀⵓⵜ."
The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵀⵓⵜⵉⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵏ.
"Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought.","ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴳⵣⵏⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵡⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ: ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵖⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ."
Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things.,"ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains.,"ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟ ( ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵙⵙⵍⵖⵏ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ."
Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux).,ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴷⵉⵀⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ‘’ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵟⵙ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵖⵢⵉ’’ - ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ).
"The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism.","ⵎⵎⴰⵖⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ."
"Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵛⵉⵎⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵃⴰⵃ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴱⵀⴰⵏⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵏⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⵛ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ.
"Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ, ⵡⵛⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights.",ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵍⵙⴻⵙⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world.","ⵜⵙⵙⴹⵀⵔ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⵟⵟ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴳⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⴰⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵓⵀⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ."
"""Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous """"sages"""" who were interested in more practical issues.""","‘’ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵙⵉⵙⵉⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ‘’ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ’’, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵅⴼ ‘’ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙⵏ’’ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ’’."
"Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche.","ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵉⵡⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵢⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵔⴰⴱⵓ."
"Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts.","ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ (16) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴷⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them """"tyrants of the spirit"""" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors.""","‘’ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵏⵉⵜⵛ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⵙⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ‘’ⵉⵥⴰⵛⵛⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ’’ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche.","ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵔⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵉⵜⵛ."
"Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵙⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵖⵏ-ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵅⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴻⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ."
"Taoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction).","ⵜⴰⵟⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ (ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ: ⴰⴼⵛⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵍⴷⵓⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵏⵓⵣ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⵉⵍ ⵓⵡⴳⵎ ⴰⵟⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ; ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ;ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ (ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ)."
"Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.","ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵇⵇⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢⵏ."
"Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⵓⵛⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵢⵢⵍ."
"""The School of """"Minor-talks"""", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.""","ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ‘ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵅⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ’’."
"Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷⵓⵏⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⵛⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⵖⵛⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ."
"In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.","ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵎⵙⵓⵛⴹⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⴼⵓⵛⵢⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴽⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵓ."
"Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement.","ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ (1) ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵏⴰⵚⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⵢⴰⵙⵜⵡⴰ ⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔ."
This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.","ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵛⵉⵙ-ⴰⵜⵔⵉ, ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰⴷⵡⴰⵊⴰ, ⵖⴰⵡⵜⴰⵎⴰ, ⵊⴰⵎⴷⴰⵖⵏⵉ, ⴽⴰⵙⵢⴰⴱⴰ, ⴼⴰⵙⵉⵛⵜⴰ, ⴼⵉⵙⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰ."
"Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, marking the end of the Greek Dark Ages.","ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 6 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵏⴽⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ."
"It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.","ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵔⵇⵇⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍⴽⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Roman philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, Medieval Scholasticism, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵕⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ."
But they taught themselves to reason.,ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ.
"""Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something """"unlimited"""" or """"indefinite"""" (in Greek, the apeiron).""","‘’ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵙⵉⵎⵏⴹⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⵛⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵜⵜⵉ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ’’ (ⵙ ⵜⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.’’"
"""Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei (""""everything flows""""), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire.""","‘’ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵡⵛⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵖⵕⵕⴰⴱⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵍⴱⵓⵟⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴱⴱⵍⴱⵟ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ."
"Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵅⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴼⵢ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⵍⵉⵙⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵎⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵛⵜⴰⴳⵏ."
"In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist.","ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵖ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵎⵉⵏⴷⵙ ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵍⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴳⴰⴼⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ."
Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵎⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵍⵢⵓⵙⵉⴱⵢⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵟⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ : ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ.
"""While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as """"the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil.""""""","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵚⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵙⴰⵏⵙⵉⵔⵓ ⴷ ‘’ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵣⵎ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ."
"The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically, has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.","ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵚⵕ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ (ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵣⵉⵏⵢⵓⴼⵓ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢ."
"Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵀⵔⵛⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⵡⵛⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ."
"The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious.","ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵙⴰⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵡⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴱⵖⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵣ ⵎⴳⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵍⴰⵟⵕ."
"Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates).","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⵓⵢⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 399 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵙⴰⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ)."
"Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism).","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ (ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵜⵓⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ)."
Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism.,ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵜⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵏⵥ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵏⵥ.
"Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⴼⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ."
"Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵅⵙ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⵥⵉⵥⵏ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms.","ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵉⴷⴰⵜⵉⵏ."
"It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ."
"If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.","ⵎⴽ ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵎ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ (ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ) ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵡⵊⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ’’."
"Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).","ⴱⵉⵔⵏⴰⵕⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ, ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ (ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ : ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ - ⵡⵛⵓⵙⵜⵔ, 1972)."
"""He criticizes the regimes described in Plato's Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as """"empty words and poetic metaphors.""""""","ⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵉⵏ.’’"
"Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.","ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ."
"It was founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates.","ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵎⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ."
Pyrrhonism places the attainment of ataraxia (a state of equanimity) as the way to achieve eudaimonia.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵓⵡⵍⵉⵡⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵜⵓ.
"""His ethics were based on """"the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain"""".""",‘’ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ‘’ⵜⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵣ’’.’’
Their logical contributions still feature in contemporary propositional calculus.,ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵖ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ.
"This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the New Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a Middle Academy.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉⵍⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵔⵉⵙⴰ, ⵜⴷⵡⵍ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ."
"While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵎⴰⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵙⵉⵢⴰ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵙⵉⵙⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵙⵉⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
"In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢⵜ ⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵣⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴽⴽⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵅⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵡⴷⴷⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵄⴱⴱⴰⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance in the 15th century.","ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵉⵙ 5 ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 15."
"With the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as Plato and Aristotle.",ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ : ⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⵊⵉⵏ ⴷⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴼ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ : ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ.
One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ.
"It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354–430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴳⵉⵚⵟⵉⵏ (354-430) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵀⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵉⵙⴰⵜ."
Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ.
Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⵓⵚⵟⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ.
"For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵀⵓⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⵓⵏⵙⵓ ⴳ 510 ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵖⵓⵙ.
"He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories).","ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴰⵊⵓⵊ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴼⵉⵔⵉ (ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ)."
"Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵙ ⴼⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵅⵍⵓ."
Is the host the same as Christ's historical body?,ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢ.
This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship.,ⵜⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"Later, under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴱⵓ ⵎⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍⵓⵔⵉ (ⴱⴰⴱⴰ 988-1004), ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⴷ, ⵉⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ."
The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy.,ⵜⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 13 ⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.
Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.,ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life.","ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ."
"The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⴳⵏⵓⵙ (ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ) ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵡⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵡⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ."
"""Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the """"errors"""" of the Commentator Averroes.""",ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ‘’ⴰⴽⵉⵏⴰⵙ’’ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏⴹⵕ ⴳ ‘’ⵜⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ’’’ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⵎⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵉⵔⵓⵙ’’.
"The problem of evil: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period.","ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ: ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵃⴰⵔⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⴽⴽⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ."
"In the earlier period, writers such as Peter Abelard wrote commentaries on the works of the Old logic (Aristotle's Categories, On interpretation, and the Isagoge of Porphyry).","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵕⴹ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ (ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵖⵓⵊ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴼⵉⵔⵉ)."
"(The word 'intentionality' was revived by Franz Brentano, who was intending to reflect medieval usage).","(ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ’’ ⵙ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵉⵔⵜⴰⵏⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵇⵍⴱ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ)."
"""The designation """"Renaissance philosophy"""" is used by scholars of intellectual history to refer to the thought of the period running in Europe roughly between 1355 and 1650 (the dates shift forward for central and northern Europe and for areas such as Spanish America, India, Japan, and China under European influence).""",‘’ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ’’ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1355 ⴷ 1650 ( ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵜ).’’
"The assumption that Aristotle's works were foundational to an understanding of philosophy did not wane during the Renaissance, which saw a flourishing of new translations, commentaries, and other interpretations of his works, both in Latin and in the vernacular.","ⵎⴽ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ."
"The latter, similar in some ways to modern debates, examined the pros and cons of particular philosophical positions or interpretations.","ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ."
"Plato, known directly only through two and a half dialogues in the Middle Ages, came to be known through numerous Latin translations in fifteenth century Italy, culminating in the hugely influential translation of his complete works by Marsilio Ficino in Florence in 1484.","ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ, ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⵓ ⴳ 1484."
"Not all Renaissance humanists followed his example in all things, but Petrarch contributed to a broadening of his time's 'canon' (pagan poetry had previously been considered frivolous and dangerous), something that happened in philosophy as well.","ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴱⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⴽ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵖⵔⵓⵛⵜ’’ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ (ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ), ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ."
Other movements from ancient philosophy also re-entered the mainstream.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ.
"This position came under increasing strain in the Renaissance, as various thinkers claimed that Thomas's classifications were inaccurate, and that ethics were the most important part of morality.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴰⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴼⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"As we have seen, they believed that philosophy could be brought under the wing of rhetoric.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵢⵉⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ."
"In 1416–1417, Leonardo Bruni, the pre-eminent humanist of his time and chancellor of Florence, re-translated Aristotle's Ethics into a more flowing, idiomatic and classical Latin.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ 1416-1417, ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵕⴷⵓ ⴱⵕⵓⵏⵉ, ⴰⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⵏⵙⴰ, ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵃⵉⴹⵏ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
The driving conviction was that philosophy should be freed of its technical jargon so that more people would be able to read it.,ⴰⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵖⵔⵉⵏ.
"Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch humanist, even prepared a Greek edition of Aristotle, and eventually those teaching philosophy in the universities had to at least pretend that they knew Greek.","ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵊⴷ ⴷⵉⵙⵉⴷⵉⵔⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ, ⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ, ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴹⵀⵕⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⵙ ⵙⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ."
"Once it had been determined, however, that Italian was a language with literary merit and that it could carry the weight of philosophical discussion, numerous efforts in this direction started to appear, particularly from the 1540s onward.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵜⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴻⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵥⴰⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ 1540 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ."
"We know that debates about the freedom of the will continued to flare up (for instance, in the famous exchanges between Erasmus and Martin Luther), that Spanish thinkers were increasingly obsessed with the notion of nobility, that duelling was a practice that generated a large literature in the sixteenth century (was it permissible or not?).","ⵏⵙⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵖ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵉⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵓⵜ), ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵣⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵚ (ⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵀⵓⵢ ?)."
"We must not forget that most philosophers of the time were at least nominal, if not devout, Christians, that the sixteenth century saw both the Protestant and the Catholic reformations, and that Renaissance philosophy culminates with the period of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).","ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ, ⵅⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚⵚ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ (1618-1648)."
"In conclusion, like any other moment in the history of thought Renaissance philosophy cannot be considered to have provided something entirely new nor to have continued for centuries to repeat the conclusions of its predecessors.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity.,ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"By the 17th and 18th centuries the major figures in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics were roughly divided into two main groups.",ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⴷ 18 ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ (ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ) ⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⵟⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⴰ ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
"""The """"Empiricists,"""" by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience.""","‘’ⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ‘’ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ’’ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴽ’’."
Other important figures in political philosophy include Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵀⵓⴱⵣ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵊⴰⴽ ⵕⵓⵚⵓ.
"Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with German idealism.","ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜⵥⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ."
"Karl Marx appropriated both Hegel's philosophy of history and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a science of society.","ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
"Arthur Schopenhauer took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated atheism and pessimism.","ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴰⵕⵜⵕ ⵛⵓⴱⴱⵏⵀⴰⵡⵕ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⴻⵥⴹⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵛⵓⴼⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵉⵎⴰⵍ."
Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false.,ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵕⵟ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵟⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵄⵏⵡⴰ.
"He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for certain.","ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵏ."
From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ.
"While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"""As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data """"speak for themselves"""", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal.""","‘’ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵢ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉ ‘’ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ’’, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ’’."
"In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science.","ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ : ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ."
"It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ."
Brian Leiter (2006) webpage “Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy.,ⴱⵕⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵔ (2006) ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ’’ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ‘’ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ’’.
Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.,ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵣⵣⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ.
Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏ.
"Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ."
Each division organises a large annual conference.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵙⴰⵏ.
"Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵟⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ."
"""This development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic (hence the term """"analytic philosophy"""").""",‘’ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵖⵓⵜⵍⵓⴱ ⴼⵔⵉⵊ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵜⵕⴰⵏⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ (ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵜ’’).
"""Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon Glendinning, argue that this """"analytic–continental"""" divide is inimical to the discipline as a whole.""","‘’ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵕⵉⵜⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⵕⵓⵕⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵍⵉⵏⴷⵏⵉⵏⵖ, ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ- ⴰⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢ’’ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵄⵢⵓⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ’’."
"Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers differ on the importance and influence of subsequent philosophers on their respective traditions.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Although, since analytic and continental philosophy have such starkly different views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy is also often understood in an extended sense to include any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism, where analytic philosophy tends to treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, capable of being analyzed apart from their historical origins.","ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ. ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵉⵡⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ."
The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.,ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵟⴰⵕⵜⵓⴹⵓⴽⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵖⵓⴱⵜⴰ.
These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label Hinduism.,ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ.
"Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ. ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ.
"Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.","ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵀⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ (ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ) ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ, ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⴱⵕⴰⵎⴰⵏ - ⴰⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵓⵏⵢⴰⵜⴰ- ⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences.,ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⵏ.
"Nyāya traditionally accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).","ⵏⵢⴰyⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵟⵓⵎⵥ ⴽⴽⵓⵣ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵏⴼⵍⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⴰⵜⴰⵎ, ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ, ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⴰⴱⴰⴷⴰ ( ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ)."
"This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu).","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⵇⵍⴱ ⵅⴼ (ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵣⵍⵍⵄ (ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵢⴰ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵄⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵥⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ‘’ⵟⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ’’."
Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence).,"ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⵙⴰⴷⴼ (ⵉⵙⴼⵔⴷⵀⴰⵔⴰ ⵡⵉⴷⵢⴰⵏⴰ) ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ (ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ)."
"Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.","ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵖⵓⴱⴱⵣ ⵎⵉⵎⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a mind-body dualism, denial of a creative and omnipotent God, karma, an eternal and uncreated universe, non-violence, the theory of the multiple facets of truth, and morality based on liberation of the soul.","ⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⴽⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵛ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵛⵓⵛⵛⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴽⵕⴹⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ."
It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵇⵇⵔⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⴰⴼⵉⴽⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵔⵉⵀⴰⵙⴱⵉⵜⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴼⵔⵔⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
It is the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴹⴳⵯⵓⵕ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵉⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵔⵎⴰ.
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'.,ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴹⵀⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ‘’ⴰⴱⵉⵀⵉⴷⵀⴰⵔⵎⴰ’’.
"""This tradition contributed to what has been called an """"epistemological turn"""" in Indian philosophy.""",‘’ⴰⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ‘’ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵢⵉⴱⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ’’ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵜ’’.
"Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American convert Henry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernists Taixu (1890–1947) and Yin Shun (1906–2005), Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki, and the Tibetan Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951).","ⵙⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵊⵊⵓⴽⴽⵓⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⵏⵊⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵎⴱⴰⵍⴰ (1864-1933), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵉⵍ ⵓⵍⴽⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴽⵙⵓ (1890-1947), ⵡⵉⵏ ⵛⵓⵏ (1906-2005), ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ.ⵜ ⵙⵓⴼⵙⴽⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴱⵓⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏ ⵛⵓⴼⵉⵍ (1903-1951)."
"Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.","ⵜⵓⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.,ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ.
"When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the Société was abandoned.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵔ ⵓⴽⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1848, ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ."
"For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect.","ⵉ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ, ⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ."
There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"""His definition now became """"the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature"""".""","‘’ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ ‘’ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’."
"He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him.","ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰ."
The last two volumes were published posthumously.,ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ.
"He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.","ⵢⵓⵙⵙⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ."
Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵜⵣ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ.
"Representatives from the French Société were present, though not Broca.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰ."
"Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists.","ⴳⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ (1869) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴼⵉⵔⵛⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵟⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
The major theorists belonged to these organizations.,ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵚⵚⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ.
"Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene.","ⵍⴽⵎⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ; ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵍ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴹⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴰⵚⴰⴹⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ."
"This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵡⴰⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵣⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⵖⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate.","ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵎⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵉⵔⵉⵟⵟ."
"Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among individuals and groups.","ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
"There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.","ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⵏⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵢⴰ.
Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ."
Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵍⵉⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ.
"Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.","ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵟⵕⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange.",ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⵉⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵔⵉⵔⴰ.
"""The first of these areas was concerned with the """"pre-capitalist"""" societies that were subject to evolutionary """"tribal"""" stereotypes.""",‘ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ‘’ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉ’’ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴱⵓⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ.
Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer?,ⵎⴰⵅ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵡⵊⴷⵏ ⵡⵉⴷⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ?
Within kinship you have two different families.,ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
"Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere.","ⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⴰ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵡⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"""Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more """"complex"""" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena.""","‘’ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ : ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ‘’ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ’’ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵉⵔⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵜⵏⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ.’’"
"Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions).","ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵄⴰⴼ ⴰⴱⵓⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ (ⴷ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ)."
"It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ."
It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ.
"""Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the """"Third World"""" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of """"specialists in 'other cultures'"""" closer to their homes.""",‘’ ⵣⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ‘’ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ’’ (ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ) ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏ ‘’ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ‘’ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ’’.
"It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵅⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ."
"In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1989, ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⴰⵛ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
"This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms.","ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵖⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
"Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.","ⵢⵓⵎⵎ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵡⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵡⵛⵜⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴽⴹ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵖⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴽⴰⵎⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⴱⵕⴰⵢⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵟⴼⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵟⵕⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴼⵛⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵛⵓⵢⵓⵄⵉⵢⵏ."
Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).,ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴽⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.
The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous.,ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵓⵎⵏⵓⵍⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
"These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.","ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜ."
"On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ‘’ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵡⵏ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⵎⵓⵙⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⴰⵏ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⵍⴼⴰⵍⵡⴰⵣⵉⵢⴰⵏ’’ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
"A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ."
"These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing.","ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ⴰⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴽⴰⵣ, ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⴳⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵡⵉ, ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴽⵯⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⵉⵜ."
The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵥⵍⵉⵏⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ.
Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20.
"In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet.","ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴽⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ ⵉⴰⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ."
"""In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, """"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.'""","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1986, ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵙ. ⴽⴰⵙⵉ, ‘’ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ‘’ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏⵏ’’ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵅⴼ ‘’ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵜ, ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ, ⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⵥⴰⵍⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵜ’’."
"""Thus a contrast between """"culture"""" and """"civilization"""" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.""","ⴰⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ‘’ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ’’ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ’’."
"This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans.",ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ 50000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
"Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.","ⵉⴽⴰ ⵔⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⵡⴷ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵎⴱⵉⵕⵟⵓ ⵉⴽⵓ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔ ⴱⵓⵕⴹⵢⵓ ⴷ ⵊⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵙⵉ ⴰⵍⴽⵉⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵔⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵓⴳⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⴽ."
Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡⴰⵏ."
Environmental conditions may also enter as factors.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ.
War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"""For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. """"""","‘’ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⵙⵏⴽⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵔⴳⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20.’’"
"He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
"""Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: """"For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.""""""","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵀⵉⵔⴷⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⵊ : ‘’ⵉ ⵀⵉⵔⴷⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⵉⴷⵓⵏⵊ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ’’."
"According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⴷ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴰⵔⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements.,ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ.
"""""""a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group.""""""","‘’ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ’’."
"""In other words, the idea of """"culture"""" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.""","‘’ⵙ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ‘’ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18 ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ’’."
"According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ, ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵖⵓⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature.","ⵇⴱⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵙⵓ, ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵛⴱⴱⴰⴽ ⵙ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵄⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ."
In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion.,ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1870 ⵉⵣⵣⵓⴳⵣ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⵓⵕ (1832-1917) ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ.
"""For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to """"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.""""""","‘’ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵙⵉⵎⵉⵍ (1858-1918), ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ‘’ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ’’."
"Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏⴰⴽⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⵓⴳⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ."
"""Cultural sociology was then """"reinvented"""" in the English-speaking world as a product of the """"cultural turn"""" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science.""","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ‘’ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ’’ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ’’ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴹ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ’’ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ’’."
"""Culture"""" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis.""","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ’’."
"They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.","ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⴷⵉⵎ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ."
"It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵀⵓⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵊⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍ."
These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture.,ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵔⵊ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵍⴼⴰⵣⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ) ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ.
"""Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to """"fit in"""" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.""","‘’ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ; ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⵢⴰⵙ’’ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ’’."
"""Culture"""" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices.""","ⵜⴳⴰ ‘’ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ’’ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵢⵜ (ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ) ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵟⵓⵎⵣ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵉⵏ’’."
Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s.,ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1970.
"The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴽⵉⵍ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⴹⵓⴽⵙⵉⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ.
"Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵖ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴷⴷⵖ."
"Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture.","ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⵢ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ."
"On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵣⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"Basically, the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Diversity deal with the protection of culture.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵎⵇⵇⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵀⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴻⵎⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ.
"Under international law, the UN and UNESCO try to set up and enforce rules for this.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵍⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵖ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ."
"The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target.","ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or cultures.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵛⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⴽⵍⵓⵕ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ."
"Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they're called patronal festivals.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⵛ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⵎⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"In Ancient Greece and Rome, festivals such as the Saturnalia were closely associated with social organisation and political processes as well as religion.","ⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ !, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔⵏⵢⴰ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ."
"""In Middle English, a """"festival dai"""" was a religious holiday.""",‘’ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ‘’ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ’’ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ’’.
"""The term """"feast"""" is also used in common secular parlance as a synonym for any large or elaborate meal.""",ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵛⵛⴰ’’ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰⵢ ⴰⵄⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ’’.
"The most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha serve to mark out the year.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵕⵓⵛ ⵀⴰⵛⴰⵏⴰⵀ, ⴷ ⴷⵢⵓⵡⴰⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⴰⵙⴽⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
An early example is the festival established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵄⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵔⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵢⵏ.
There are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities.,"ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
Ancient Egyptian festivals could be either religious or political.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ.
"The Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaoh's rule and then every three (or four in one case) years after that.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵄⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵚⵔⵉⵢ, ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⴽⵓ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ) ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ."
"In the Christian liturgical calendar, there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection (Easter), but minor festivals in honour of local patron saints are celebrated in almost all countries influenced by Christianity.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ."
"Buddhist religious festivals, such as Esala Perahera are held in Sri Lanka and Thailand.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵀⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ."
"Film festivals involve the screenings of several different films, and are usually held annually.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"There are also specific beverage festivals, such as the famous Oktoberfest in Germany for beer.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕⴼⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ."
"Ancient Egyptians relied upon the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⵙⵡⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 by praying for a bumper crop harvest.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴷⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⴱⴰⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴱⴰⵏⵙⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⴰⵍ ⴱⵔⴰⴷⵉⵛ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵙ 4 ⴰⵔ 7 ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵥⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰ.
"A holiday is a day set aside by custom or by law on which normal activities, especially business or work including school, are suspended or reduced.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⵣⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵉⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ."
"The degree to which normal activities are reduced by a holiday may depend on local laws, customs, the type of job held or personal choices.",ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴹⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"In most modern societies, however, holidays serve as much of a recreational function as any other weekend days or activities.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ.
"In some cases, a holiday may only be nominally observed.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵅⵙ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ."
The modern use varies geographically.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴳⵍⴰⵏⵜ.
"For example, Monkey Day is celebrated on December 14, International Talk Like a Pirate Day is observed on September 19, and Blasphemy Day is held on September 30.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵄⴹⵓⴹ ⴳ 14 ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⵜⵍⵏ ⴳ 19 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵍ ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 30 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ."
"""Jehovah's Witnesses annually commemorate """"The Memorial of Jesus Christ's Death"""", but do not celebrate other holidays with any religious significance such as Easter, Christmas or New Year's.""","‘’ⴷⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ’’, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵟⴰⵃ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"Ahmadi Muslims additionally celebrate Promised Messiah Day, Promised Reformer Day, and Khilafat Day, but contrary to popular belief, neither are regarded as holidays.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵃⵎⴰⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵍⴰ."
"Celtic, Norse, and Neopagan holidays follow the order of the Wheel of the Year.","ⵙⵉⵍⵜⴽ, ⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵣ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⴱⴱⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵟⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skill sets of human osteology, paleopathology, and archaeology, and often consider the cultural and mortuary context of the remains.","ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴰⵅⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
Evolutionary psychology is the study of psychological structures from a modern evolutionary perspective.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"Human behavioral ecology is the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology).","ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ (ⴰⴳⴳⵉⴷⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵔⵔⴰⵡⵜ) ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ (ⵥⵕ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ)"
"Paleoanthropology is the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.","ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵥⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵕⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ , ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵓⵥⵥⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"The name is even relatively new, having been 'physical anthropology' for over a century, with some practitioners still applying that term.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ’’ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ."
"Some editors, see below, have rooted the field even deeper than formal science.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵥⵕ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⴱⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ."
"This became the main system through which scholars thought about nature for the next roughly 2,000 years.",ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ 2000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.
"He also wrote about physiognomy, an idea derived from writings in the Hippocratic Corpus.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ."
"In the 19th century, French physical anthropologists, led by Paul Broca (1824-1880), focused on craniometry while the German tradition, led by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), emphasized the influence of environment and disease upon the human body.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵙⴷⴽⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ, ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍ ⴱⵕⵓⴽⴰ (1824-1880), ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⵏⵉⵢ, ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴼⵉⵔⵛⵓ (1821-1902), ⵅⴼ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"He changed the focus from racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human evolution, moving away from classification towards evolutionary process.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ."
A race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by society.,ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"Modern science regards race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on rules made by society.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
"Still others argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance because all living humans belong to the same subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.","ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ."
"In South Africa, the Population Registration Act, 1950 recognized only White, Black, and Coloured, with Indians added later.","ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⴰ (ⵊⴰⵏⵓⴱ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ), ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1950 ⵅⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"The United States Census Bureau proposed but then withdrew plans to add a new category to classify Middle Eastern and North African peoples in the U.S. Census 2020, over a dispute over whether this classification should be considered a white ethnicity or a separate race.","ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵢⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴷⵉ ⵉⵎⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⴰⴳⵓⵣⴷⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵢⵢⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ 2020, ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵙⵡⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴳⴰ."
"""The establishment of racial boundaries often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in the one-drop rule used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as """"white"""".""","‘’ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵉⴼ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵕⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ‘’ⵜⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵜ’’."
"""According to geneticist David Reich, """"while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real.""""""","‘’ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⴷ ⵔⵉⵜⵛ, ‘’ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ’’."
"Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions, and language.",ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ.
"Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups.","ⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ-ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ."
"Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide.","ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵔⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
"Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable.","ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
"For example, in 2008, John Hartigan, Jr. argued for a view of race that focused primarily on culture, but which does not ignore the potential relevance of biology or genetics.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⵜⵉⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴱⴰ. ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ."
"In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵇⴰⵕⵕⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities.",ⵣⵓⵣⵣⵍⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵏ.
"The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human species Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer, each associated with a different humour: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic, respectively.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ 1735, ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵎⴰ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵇⴰⵔⵔⵉⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰⵢⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴹⵚⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ: ⴰⴳⵕⴹ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓⵍⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵎⴰⵜⵉⵢⵜ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ."
"""Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that """"one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them"""".""","‘’ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴱⵍⵓⵎⵏⴱⴰⵛⵀ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵢⵓⵥⴻⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ‘’ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵏⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ’’."
"It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups.","ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴽⴰⵍⵉⵏ."
"New studies of culture and the fledgling field of population genetics undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation.","ⵙⴷⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⴹⵀⵕⵏ."
"Studies of human genetic variation show that human populations are not geographically isolated, and their genetic differences are far smaller than those among comparable subspecies.","ⴰⵔ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ."
Andreasen cited tree diagrams of relative genetic distances among populations published by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza as the basis for a phylogenetic tree of human races (p. 661).,ⵉⴱⴷⵔ ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙ ⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵉ ⵙⴼⵓⵔⵣⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ‘’ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⴽ’’ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ (ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵜ 661).
"Marks, Templeton, and Cavalli-Sforza all conclude that genetics does not provide evidence of human races.",ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⵍⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵉ ⵙⴼⵓⵔⵣⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
"For example, with respect to skin color in Europe and Africa, Brace writes:To this day, skin color grades by imperceptible means from Europe southward around the eastern end of the Mediterranean and up the Nile into Africa.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵇⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵢⵙ : ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ."
"""He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between """"race differences"""" and """"the race concept"""".""",‘’ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ‘’ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ’’.
"In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ, ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵍⵉⴼⵏⵉⵖⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵓⴱⵣⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ; ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ."
"""As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, """"Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous"""".""","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⵊⴰⴽⵙⵓⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ‘’ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⴰⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⴹⵀⵔⵏ’’."
"""The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: """"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses.""",ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⵡⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵙ ‘’ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ’’.
"Moreover, the anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵔⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵎⵓⵍⵏⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵍⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ."
"Joanna Mountain and Neil Risch cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as the relationship between genes and complex traits remains poorly understood.","ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵣⵖ ⵊⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵡⵏⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵔⵉⵛ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴹⵀⵕⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵎⵍⵉⵃ."
"""Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility.""""""","‘’ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ’’."
"This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian).","ⵎⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷⴰ ⴱⴹⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ (ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ)."
"""Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves, have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normally defined as """"continental races"""", this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations.""","‘’ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏⴳ ⴱⵕⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵊⵓⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⵡⵉⵏⵜⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⵊⵔⴰⵢⴼⵣ, ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵄⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ‘’ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵉⵢⵏ’’, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ’’."
"Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials.","ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⵙ ⴷ ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵔⵜⵓⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴰⵙⵍⵉⵙⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵎⴰⵡⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵎⴰⵡⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵎⴰⵢⴰ."
"Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers).",ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ (ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ) ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ).
"""Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with """"race"""", following the Second World War, evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery, and genocide.""","‘’ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ‘’ⵓⵥⵓⵕ’’, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵅⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ’’."
Craig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000.,ⵉⴷⵔⴰ ⴽⵔⵉⵖ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵔ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵏⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000.
It's not a scientific one.,ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"""Anthropologist Stephan Palmié has argued that race """"is not a thing but a social relation""""; or, in the words of Katya Gibel Mevorach, """"a metonym"""", """"a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference.""""""","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⵎⵢⵉⵀ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ’’, ⵏⵖ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴰⵜⵢⴰ ⵊⵉⵍ ⵎⵉⴼⵓⵔⴰⵛ, ‘’ⵎⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏⵉⵎ’’, ‘’ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ’’."
"There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the one-drop rule, as it was in the United States.","ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ."
"These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest.","ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984.","ⵏⵢⵓ ⵊⵉⵔⵙⵉ: ⴱⵔⴰⵏⵜⵉⵙ ⵀⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⵙ,1984."
"""In European context, historical resonance of """"race"""" underscores its problematic nature.""","‘’ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜⵎ ⵓⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⵥⵓⵕ’’ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵙⵙ’’."
"""The concept of racial origin relies on the notion that human beings can be separated into biologically distinct """"races"""", an idea generally rejected by the scientific community.""","‘’ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ‘’ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ’’ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ’’."
"In the United States most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors, while many people who identify as European American have some African or Amerindian ancestors.","ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ."
The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century.,ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19.
"""Amerindians continue to be defined by a certain percentage of """"Indian blood"""" (called blood quantum).""",‘’ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ‘’ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ’’ (ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ’’).
This rule meant that those that were mixed race but with some discernible African ancestry were defined as black.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ.
"""The term """"Hispanic"""" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States.""",‘’ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ’’ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵍⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵍⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵃⵉⴷⴰ’’.
"Three factors, country of academic education, discipline, and age, were found to be significant in differentiating the replies.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴹⵀⴰⵕ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵢⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"In 2007, Ann Morning interviewed over 40 American biologists and anthropologists and found significant disagreements over the nature of race, with no one viewpoint holding a majority among either group.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2007. ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 40 ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
"""While he can see good arguments for both sides, the complete denial of the opposing evidence """"seems to stem largely from socio-political motivation and not science at all"""".""","‘’ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵇⵙⵃⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴷⴳ ⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵢⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ‘’ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ’’."
"In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology C. Loring Brace argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are clinally distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍ, ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ. ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⵉⴷⵙ ⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵢⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ."
"Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist.","ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1970, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"""In February 2001, the editors of Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine asked """"authors to not use race and ethnicity when there is no biological, scientific, or sociological reason for doing so.""""""","ⴳ ⴼⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ ⵏ 2001, ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵓⴷⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ‘’ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ’’ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ’’."
Morning (2008) looked at high school biology textbooks during the 1952–2002 period and initially found a similar pattern with only 35% directly discussing race in the 1983–92 period from initially 92% doing so.,"ⵉⵣⵕⴰ ⵚⵚⴱⴱⴰⵀ (2008) ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ 1952-2002, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ 35% ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ 1983-92 ⵙⴳ 92% ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"In general, the material on race has moved from surface traits to genetics and evolutionary history.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⴰⵏ."
"""She notes, """"At best, one can conclude that biologists and anthropologists now appear equally divided in their beliefs about the nature of race.""""""","‘’ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ."
33 health services researchers from differing geographic regions were interviewed in a 2008 study.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ 33 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008.
"Many sociologists focused on African Americans, called Negroes at that time, and claimed that they were inferior to whites.","ⵙⴷⵉⴽⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵣⵓⵏⵓⵊ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ."
"In 1910, the Journal published an article by Ulysses G. Weatherly (1865-1940) that called for white supremacy and segregation of the races to protect racial purity.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1910, ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵙⵉⵙ ⵊ. ⵡⵉⴷⵔⵍⵉ (1865-1940) ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵃⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
"In his work, he contended that social class, colonialism, and capitalism shaped ideas about race and racial categories.","ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ."
"By 1978, William Julius Wilson (1935–) argued that race and racial classification systems were declining in significance, and that instead, social class more accurately described what sociologists had earlier understood as race.","ⴳ 1978, ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵊⵓⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵡⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ (1935-) ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵜⴼ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ."
"""Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Sociology professor at Duke University, remarks, """"I contend that racism is, more than anything else, a matter of group power; it is about a dominant racial group (whites) striving to maintain its systemic advantages and minorities fighting to subvert the racial status quo.""","ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⵓⵏⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⵉⵍⴱⴰ, ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵓⴽ ⵢⵓⴽⵣ “ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ , ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ( ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴰⵥ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"In clinical settings, race has sometimes been considered in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙⵉ , ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴽⵣ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏ."
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵙⵏⵓⵊⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
Members of the latter camp often base their arguments around the potential to create genome-based personalized medicine.,ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵊⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ.
"They argue that overemphasizing genetic contributions to health disparities carries various risks such as reinforcing stereotypes, promoting racism or ignoring the contribution of non-genetic factors to health disparities.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵜⵉⴱⵏ (ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ), ⴰⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴽⵓⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ."
"""IC"""" stands for """"Identification Code;"""" these items are also referred to as Phoenix classifications.""",‘IC’ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ “ⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴳⵉ’;ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵏⵉⴽⵙ’’
"""In many countries, such as France, the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like """"dark skin complexion"""", etc.""","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴷⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵡⵏⴰⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵛⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ. ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵍⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⵍⵖⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ, ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵛⵏⵢⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ: ‘’ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵉⴷⵏⵓⵏⵙⵏ ‘’ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ’’"
Many consider de facto racial profiling an example of institutional racism in law enforcement.,"ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴰⵙⴱⵔⵓⴼⵉⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ."
"""Mass incarceration is also, """"the larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison.""""""","ⴰⵙⵙⵖⵣⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴹⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ‘’’’ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ , ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵏ , ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⴰⴳⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵏⵉⵇ’’’’"
Many research findings appear to agree that the impact of victim race in the IPV arrest decision might possibly include a racial bias in favor of white victims.,"ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⵙ ⴳ ‘’IPV’’ ⵜⵖⴰⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴱⴷⴷ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⴼ ⴰⵎⴽⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ."
"Some studies have reported that races can be identified with a high degree of accuracy using certain methods, such as that developed by Giles and Elliot.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵊⵉⵍⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵢⵓⵜ."
"""The study concluded that """"The apportionment of genetic diversity in skin color is atypical, and cannot be used for purposes of classification.""""""","ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ “ ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵏ , ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ”."
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans.,ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ.
"In addressing this question, ethnologists in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴷⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ."
"""Some of those who advocated """"independent invention"""", like Lewis Henry Morgan, additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of cultural evolution (See also classical social evolutionism).""","ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ “”””ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵡⵡⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏ “””, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵀⵓⵏⵔⵉ ⵎⵓⵔⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵣⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ( ⴰⴳⴳ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ)."
"Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized.","ⵎⵓⵔⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵓⵎⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ."
"""Although 19th-century ethnologists saw """"diffusion"""" and """"independent invention"""" as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most ethnographers quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities.""","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 “ⴰⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ” ⴷ “ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵡⵡⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏ” ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"""Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: """"...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes.""""""","ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⴱⵓⵡⵣ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ 1887: “””” ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴽⵓⵛ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ...ⴰⵎⵇⵇⴰⵏ , ⴷ ... ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵖ’’’’."
Cultural relativism involves specific epistemological and methodological claims.,ⵜⴰⵏⴽⵓⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵟⵓⴷⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western ethnocentrism.,"ⵜⴰⵏⴽⵓⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵏⵓⵚⵓⵏⵜⵔⵉⵣⵎ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"This understanding of culture confronts anthropologists with two problems: first, how to escape the unconscious bonds of one's own culture, which inevitably bias our perceptions of and reactions to the world, and second, how to make sense of an unfamiliar culture.","ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ/ ⵉⵏⵜⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ: ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵏⵔⴳⴳⵯⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵕⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵉⵖⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵣⵎⴰⴽ/ ⵏⵇⵇⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵎⵢⴰⵔ."
"One such method is that of ethnography: basically, they advocated living with people of another culture for an extended period of time, so that they could learn the local language and be enculturated, at least partially, into that culture.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴻⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵃⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ."
"His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws.","ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵊⴰⵏⵜ/ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵡⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵓⴳⵢ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ."
"He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the natural sciences, were not possible.","ⵢⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵜⵢ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ. ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴱⴰⵥ."
"His first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Edward Sapir, and Ruth Benedict, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures.","ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴽⵔⵓⴱⵔ, ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⵍⵓⵡⵉ, ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵙⴰⴱⵉⵔ, ⴷ ⵔⵓⵜ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⴽⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ."
The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook Anthropology (1923) marked a turning point in American anthropology.,ⵜⴰⵥⵕⵉⴳⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴽⵕⵓⴱⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ (1923) ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵜ.
"Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up.","ⵜⵜⵓⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⵙⵉⴽⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜⴽⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵉⴳⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⵔⵓⵢⴷ ⴷ ⵔⴰⴽⵍ ⵊⵓⵏⴳ, ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵇⵇⴰⵣⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵔⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ."
"Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics to take account of cultural and social factors, and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study.","ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴹⵓⵚ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵓⵍⴰⵏⵢⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵎⴰⵕⵛⴰⵍ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏⵣ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴷⴰⵍⵟⵓⵏ , ⵜⵓⴳⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵢⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵜ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵕⴽⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
"In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the Vietnam War; Marxism became an increasingly popular theoretical approach in the discipline.","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴽⵯⵛⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵣⴰⵢⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵟⵏⴰⵎ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
"In the 1980s books like Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight.","ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ” ⴷ “ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴽⴰⵡⵏⵜⵔ’’ ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴳⵔⴰⵎⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⴼⵓⴽⵓ, ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⵙⴽⵉⵍ."
"These interpretations must then be reflected back to its originators, and its adequacy as a translation fine-tuned in a repeated way, a process called the hermeneutic circle.","ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⵍⵏ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ “ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ”"
David Schnieder's cultural analysis of American kinship has proven equally influential.,ⴰⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵛⵏⴰⵢⴷⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"The method originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronislaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of Sociology.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴱⵕⵓⵏⵉⵙⵍⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⴼⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵡⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ , ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⵉⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴽⴰⴳⵓ."
"Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.","ⵡⴰⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ, ⵙⴰ: ⴰⵍⵟⴰ ⵎⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵕⵉⵙⵙ."
"To establish connections that will eventually lead to a better understanding of the cultural context of a situation, an anthropologist must be open to becoming part of the group, and willing to develop meaningful relationships with its members.","ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ, ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⴽⵯⵛⵎ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ."
"Before participant observation can begin, an anthropologist must choose both a location and a focus of study.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ, ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ."
This allows the anthropologist to become better established in the community.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ.
The majority of participant observation is based on conversation.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ.
"In some cases, ethnographers also turn to structured observation, in which an anthropologist's observations are directed by a specific set of questions he or she is trying to answer.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ , ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ."
"This helps to standardize the method of study when ethnographic data is being compared across several groups or is needed to fulfill a specific purpose, such as research for a governmental policy decision.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵏⴱⴷⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ , ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
"Who the ethnographer is has a lot to do with what he or she will eventually write about a culture, because each researcher is influenced by his or her own perspective.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
"However, these approaches have not generally been successful, and modern ethnographers often choose to include their personal experiences and possible biases in their writing instead.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵎⵓⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴼⵔⵔⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵯⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵢⵓⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"An ethnography is a piece of writing about a people, at a particular place and time.",ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ.
"A typical ethnography will also include information about physical geography, climate and habitat.",ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ.
"Boas' students such as Alfred L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead drew on his conception of culture and cultural relativism to develop cultural anthropology in the United States.","ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵣ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵍ.ⴽⵕⵓⴱⵓ, ⵔⵓⵜ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⴳⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ( relativisme) ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ (ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ)."
Today socio-cultural anthropologists attend to all these elements.,"ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
"""American """"cultural anthropologists"""" focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in symbolic forms, such as art and myths.""","ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵙⴷⵉⴽⴽⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵉⵏ."
"Monogamy, for example, is frequently touted as a universal human trait, yet comparative study shows that it is not.","ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵉⵡⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵀⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ."
"Through this methodology, greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities.","ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵍⴽⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"""For example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a """"thing,"""" such as a particular commodity, as it is transported through the networks of global capitalism.""","“ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵢⴰⵜ """"ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ""""ⴰⵎⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴰⵣⵉⵣ/ ⵓⵢⴰⴼⵓ , ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ”."
An example of multi-sited ethnography is Nancy Scheper-Hughes' work on the international black market for the trade of human organs.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏⴰⵏⵙⵉ ⵛⵉⴱⵔ ⵀⵢⵓⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴰⴱⵔⵔⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
"Research in kinship studies often crosses over into different anthropological subfields including medical, feminist, and public anthropology.","ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵙⵙⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵡⴳⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ."
"That is the matrix into which human children are born in the great majority of cases, and their first words are often kinship terms.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵍⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"There are stark differences between communities in terms of marital practice and value, leaving much room for anthropological fieldwork.",ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⴱⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
"The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is monogamy, where one woman is married to one man.","ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵉⵡⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ."
There are similar foundational differences where the act of procreation is concerned.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵡ.
"The shift can be traced back to the 1960s, with the reassessment of kinship's basic principles offered by Edmund Leach, Rodney Neeham, David Schneider, and others.","ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⵎ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵉⵛ, ⵕⵓⴷⵏⵉ ⵏⵉⵀⴰⵎ, ⴷⴰⴱⵉⴷ ⵛⵏⴰⵢⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⴰⴹ."
"This shift was progressed further by the emergence of second-wave feminism in the early 1970s, which introduced ideas of marital oppression, sexual autonomy, and domestic subordination.","ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵍⵡⵡⵉ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1970, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵍⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴼⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵏ ( ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ)."
"""At this time, there was the arrival of """"Third World feminism"""", a movement that argued kinship studies could not examine the gender relations of developing countries in isolation, and must pay respect to racial and economic nuance as well.""","“ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵉⵡⴹ ⴷⴷ ‘’’’ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ’’’’, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵙ, ⵣⵔⴽⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ’’"
"In Jamaica, marriage as an institution is often substituted for a series of partners, as poor women cannot rely on regular financial contributions in a climate of economic instability.","ⴳ ⴷⵊⴰⵎⴰⵢⴽⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵄⵡⵡⵍⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵏⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ/ ⵉⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"With this technology, questions of kinship have emerged over the difference between biological and genetic relatedness, as gestational surrogates can provide a biological environment for the embryo while the genetic ties remain with a third party.","ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵙⴰ, ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵙⴽⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵓⵊⴰⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴹⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴹⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ."
"There have also been issues of reproductive tourism and bodily commodification, as individuals seek economic security through hormonal stimulation and egg harvesting, which are potentially harmful procedures.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵣ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⵉⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵣⴰⴷⵉⵏ."
"One critique is that, as its inception, the framework of kinship studies was far too structured and formulaic, relying on dense language and stringent rules.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ (ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵜⵉⴱⵏ), ⵉⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⵉⵔⵏ."
Much of this development can be attributed to the rise in anthropologists working outside of academia and the increasing importance of globalization in both institutions and the field of anthropology.,"ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⴹⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
The two types of institutions defined in the field of anthropology are total institutions and social institutions.,ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"Anthropology of institutions may analyze labor unions, businesses ranging from small enterprises to corporations, government, medical organizations, education, prisons, and financial institutions.","ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ( ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ), ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵉⴱⵏⵉⵇⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
Institutional anthropologists may study the relationship between organizations or between an organization and other parts of society.,ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"More specifically, anthropologists may analyze specific events within an institution, perform semiotic investigations, or analyze the mechanisms by which knowledge and culture are organized and dispersed.","ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ."
"This new era would involve many new technological developments, such as mechanical recording.","ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ."
"Current Anthropology 43(Supplement):S5-17.Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2006.","ⴽⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ 43 ( ⵙⵓⴱⴱⵍⵉⵎⵏⵜ): ⵙ5-17. ⵛⵛⵉⴼⵍⵉⵏ, ⴱⴰⵎⴱⵉ ⴱ.2006."
"""Woolard, in her overview of """"code switching"""", or the systematic practice of alternating linguistic varieties within a conversation or even a single utterance, finds the underlying question anthropologists ask of the practice—Why do they do that?—reflects a dominant linguistic ideology.""","“ⵡⵓⵍⴰⵕⴷ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ‘’’’ⴽⵓⴷ ⵙⵡⵉⵜⵛ”””” ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵍⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵢⵜ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴰⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ — ⵎⴰⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ? ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ.”"
"Other linguists have carried out research in the areas of language contact, language endangerment, and 'English as a global language'.","ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ “ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ”."
"The work of Joel Kuipers develops this theme vis-a-vis the island of Sumba, Indonesia.","ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵡⵉⵍ ⴽⵡⵉⴱⵔⵣ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵎⴱⴰ, ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⴰ."
"He feels, in fact, that the exemplary center idea is one of linguistic anthropology's three most important findings.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵜ."
"Therefore, after a couple generations these languages may no longer be spoken.","ⴰⵍⵜⵓ, ⴰⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ."
"To follow best practices of documentation, these records should be clearly annotated and kept safe within an archive of some kind.","ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵎ, ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵎⵍⵉⵃ, ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓ.ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵛⵉⴼ."
Language revitalization is the practice of bringing a language back into common use.,ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ.
The course aims to educate indigenous and non-indigenous students about the Lenape language and culture.,ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵜⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏⴰⴱⵜ.
"Encouraging those who already know the language to use it, increasing the domains of usage, and increasing the overall prestige of the language are all components of reclamation.","ⴰⵙⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵙⴳⵉⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵊ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ."
Social anthropology is the study of patterns of behaviour in human societies and cultures.,ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ/ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
British and American anthropologists including Gillian Tett and Karen Ho who studied Wall Street provided an alternative explanation for the financial crisis of 2007–2010 to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory.,"ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵊⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵀⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵢ (ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵍⵍⵢ) ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2007-2010. ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ."
This development was bolstered by Franz Boas's introduction of cultural relativism arguing that cultures are based on different ideas about the world and can therefore only be properly understood in terms of their own standards and values.,"ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵯⵛⵎ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵣ ⴱⵓⵣ ⴰⵔⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉⴱⵉⵙⵎ ( relativisme) ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵔⵎⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"""In 1906, Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was put by American anthropologist Madison Grant in a cage in the Bronx Zoo, labelled """"the missing link"""" between an orangutan and the """"white race"""" — Grant, a renowned eugenicist, was also the author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916).""","“ ⴳ 1906, ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓⵍⵉⵢ ⵓⵜⴰ ⴱⵉⵏⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵙⵓⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵅⴱⵓⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴱⵕⵓⵏⴽⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵛⵏⵢⴰⵍⵜ ‘’’’ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴳⵯⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ “””” ⴳⵔ ⵓⴱⴰⵖⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⴳⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ “”ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍ”” — ⴳⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ “ The Passing of the Great Race, ⴰⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ1916”."
"Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the 19th century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled A Hundred Years of Anthropology.","ⵉⵎⵉⵃ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵃ, ⵜⵙⵜⵢ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵓ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔ -ⵙⴳ 1935, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵜ.ⴽ ⴱⵉⵏⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ “ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ”."
"""Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary """"living fossils"""" that could be studied in order to understand the European past.""","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ “ⵉⵖⵉⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ” ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵖⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵖⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ”."
"However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and he generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural change proposed by later anthropologists.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵍⵓⴽⵉⵏ, ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⵓⵕ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵛⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴱⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴽⵟⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵜⴰⵣⵢⵉⵣⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⵔⵎⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵏ."
"His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally.","ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ “ ⴳⵓⵍⴷⵏ ⴱⵓⵡ” ⴼⵙⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ (symbolisme) ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.,ⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜ ( ⵜⵓⴼⵓⵖⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⴰⵏ.
"Other intellectual founders include W. H. R. Rivers and A. C. Haddon, whose orientation reflected the contemporary Parapsychologies of Wilhelm Wundt and Adolf Bastian, and Sir E. B. Tylor, who defined anthropology as a positivist science following Auguste Comte.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵚⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡ.ⵀ.ⵔ ⵔⵉⴱⵔⵣ ⴷ ⴰ.ⵙ.ⵀⴰⴷⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵟⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⵔⴰⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵀⵉⵍⵎ ⵡⵓⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵉⵔ ⵓ.ⴱ. ⵜⴰⵢⵍⵓⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵟⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵙⵜ ⴽⵓⵎⵜ."
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown also published a seminal work in 1922.,ⴰ.ⵔ. ⵕⴰⴷⴽⵍⵉⴼ ⴱⵕⵓⵡⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵚⴽⴰⵢ ⴳ 1922.
"""This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for """"Social Anthropology"""" by teaching at universities across the British Empire and Commonwealth.""","“ⵙ ⵓⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷ ⵕⴰⴷⴽⵍⵉⴼ ⴱⵕⵓⵡⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ """"ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ"""" ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴽⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏ”."
He believed that indigenous terms used in ethnographic data should be translated into Anglo-American legal terms for the benefit of the reader.,ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵓⴽⵜⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⵉ.
Departments of Social Anthropology at different Universities have tended to focus on disparate aspects of the field.,ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴷⵉⴽⵏⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ.
A people is any plurality of persons considered as a whole.,ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ.
"Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as the Commonwealth in case captions and legal process.","ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ — ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵉⵜⵙ, ⴱⵉⵔⵊⵉⵏⵢⴰ, ⴱⵉⵏⵙⵍⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⴽⵢ — ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⵏⵡⵉⵍⵟ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ."
"In some parts of the world, ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with cultural anthropology becoming dominant especially in the United States, and social anthropology in Great Britain.","ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⴷⴰⴳⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ (ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ), ⵜⵙⵍⵍⴱ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ."
"""The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occident (the Western world), such as the notion of the """"Other"""".""","“ⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 15 ⵢⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ( ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ), ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ """"ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ""""."""
"""The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between """"societies with histories"""" and """"societies without histories"""", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth.""","""ⴰⵙⵙⴼⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵡⵙ, ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵣⵢⵉⵣⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ """"ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ"""" ⴷ """"ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ"""", ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ"" ⵉ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰⴷⵢⴰⵏⵜ."""
"However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th- and 20th-century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, and Deleuze.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵙ, ⵏⵉⵜⵛⵉ, ⴼⵓⴽⵓ, ⴷⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰ, ⵓⵍⵜⵉⵙⵔ, ⴷ ⴷⵉⵍⵉⵣ."
"An ethnic group or ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups such as a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵙⵜⵢⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ, ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⵉ, ⴰⵙⴳⴷ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, or physical appearance.","ⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ, ⵓⵎⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ, ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ, ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵔⴳⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵉ, ⵙⵙⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ."
"By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⴽⴽⵙⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏ, ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵔ."
"Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ, ⵉⵍⵡⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵙⵜ."
"""In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense of disparate """"nations"""" which did not yet participate in the Christian oikumene), as the Septuagint used ta ethne (""""the nations"""") to translate the Hebrew goyim """"the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews"""".""","""ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ: ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴷⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵢⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ( """"ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ"""" ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵡⵢⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴽⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵎⵢ), ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙⵉⴱⵜⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵏ (""""ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ"""") ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵉ ⵀⵉⴱⵔⵓ ⴳⵓⵢⵉⵎ """"ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ""""."""
"""In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of """"peculiar to a race, people or nation"""", in a return to the original Greek meaning.""","""ⴳ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ """"ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉ"""", ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵥⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ."""
"""ethnic, a. and n."""") Depending on context, the term nationality may be used either synonymously with ethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state).""","""ⴰⵥⵓⵕ, ⴰ. ⴷ ⵏ."""") ⵙ ⵢⵉⴳⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ, ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵉ (ⴳ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵢ)."
Whether ethnicity qualifies as a cultural universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used.,ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵏⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⴰⵏ.
"According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵚ ⵀⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⴽⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵖⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⴷⵖ."
"The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, treats ethnicity primarily as an ad hoc element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power, or status.","ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ."
"Constructivists view national and ethnic identities as the product of historical forces, often recent, even when the identities are presented as old.","ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ."
"This is in the context of debates over multiculturalism in countries, such as the United States and Canada, which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean and South Asia.","ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴰⵢⴱⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ."
"Third, group formation resulted from the drive to monopolize power and status.","ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵡⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ."
Barth went further than Weber in stressing the constructed nature of ethnicity.,"ⴱⴰⵕⵜ, ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴱⵔ."
"""He wanted to part with anthropological notions of cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface between groups. """"""","""ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵔⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ,ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ"""""""
"""He agrees with Joan Vincent's observation that (in Cohen's paraphrase) """"Ethnicity... can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization.""","""ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ (ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⵓⵀⵉⵏ)""""ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ"""
Ethnic groups came to be defined as social rather than biological entities.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ.
"Examples of various approaches are primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism.","ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"""""""Essentialist primordialism"""" further holds that ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence, that ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is unchanged by it.""","""""""ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ"""" ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵜⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍ."
"""""""Kinship primordialism"""" holds that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship units, basically being derived by kinship or clan ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to show this biological affinity.""","""""""ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ"""" ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵜⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴷ ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵖⵙⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵙⴳⴷ, ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉ) ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵍ ⴰⵍⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ. """
"""""""Geertz's primordialism"""", notably espoused by anthropologist Clifford Geertz, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming power to primordial human """"givens"""" such as blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences.""","""""""ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵉⵔⵜⵣ"""", ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴳⵓⵔⵜⵣ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵏⵟⴰⵕⵜ ⵉ """"ⵜⵎⵓⵛⴰ"""" ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ, ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ."""
"""Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: """"continuous perennialism"""", which claims that particular nations have existed for very long periods, and """"recurrent perennialism"""", which focuses on the emergence, dissolution and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of human history.""","""ⵙⵎⵉⵜ(1999) ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ: """"ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ"""", ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⴷ """"ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ"""", ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⴼⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ."""
"This view holds that the concept of ethnicity is a tool used by political groups to manipulate resources such as wealth, power, territory or status in their particular groups' interests.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⴰ, ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⴱⵉⵔⵏ."
"""""""Instrumentalist perennialism"""", while seeing ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that identified different ethnics groups and limits through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratification, meaning that ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals.""","""""""ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ"""", ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ , ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⴳⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴹⵏ.."""
"According to Donald Noel, ethnic stratification will emerge only when specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another, and only when those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power.","ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⴷⵓⵏⴰⵍⴷ ⵏⵡⵉⵍ, ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⴰⵏ."
"Continuing with Noel's theory, some degree of differential power must be present for the emergence of ethnic stratification.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵍ, ⵎⴰⵅⵛⵛⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
"The different ethnic groups must be competing for some common goal, such as power or influence, or a material interest, such as wealth or territory.","ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵖⴰⴱⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵡ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ."
"It holds that ethnic groups are only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in societies.","ⵜⵓⴽⵣ ⴰⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⴳ ⵙⵓⴼⵔⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
They hold that prior to this ethnic homogeneity was not considered an ideal or necessary factor in the forging of large-scale societies.,ⵛⴱⴱⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴽⴽⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ.
"Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.","ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵍⵉⵡⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵢ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⵡⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ."
"""It is based on the notion of """"culture"""".""","""ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ """"ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ""""."""
This view arose as a way to justify enslavement of African Americans and genocide of Native Americans in a society that was officially founded on freedom for all.,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ.
Many of the foremost scientists of the time took up the idea of racial difference and found that white Europeans were superior.,"ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
"Instead of attributing the marginalized status of people of color in the United States to their inherent biological inferiority, he attributed it to their failure to assimilate into American culture.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⴽⴷ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵜ."
They argue in Racial Formation in the United States that the ethnicity theory was exclusively based on the immigration patterns of the white population and did take into account the unique experiences of non-whites in the United States.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
"Assimilationshedding the particular qualities of a native culture for the purpose of blending in with a host culturedid not work for some groups as a response to racism and discrimination, though it did for others.","ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵢ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⴼⵉⵔ ⵉ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⴼⵔ ⵉ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ."
"""They culminated in the rise of """"nation-states"""" in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries.""","""ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ """"ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ-ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ"""" ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ."""
"Nation-states, however, invariably include populations who have been excluded from national life for one reason or another.","ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ-ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ, ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ."
"Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two opposite events, either the recent creation of state borders at variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation-state.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⴳⵜⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵣⵉⵡⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴰⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ-ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⵉ."
"""States such as the United Kingdom, France and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed """"multicultural"""" societies, especially in large cities.""","""ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵚⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵡⵉⵚⵕⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵥⴰⵕⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ """"ⵉⴳⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ"""", ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ."""
"Though these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ, ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Before Weber (1864–1920), race and ethnicity were primarily seen as two aspects of the same thing.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵡⵉⴱⵔ (1864-1920), ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ."
"According to this view, the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals.","ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ, ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴻⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴽ ⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ."
"The 19th century saw the development of the political ideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of race was tied to nationalism, first by German theorists including Johann Gottfried von Herder.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵍⵖ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵀⴰⵏ ⴳⵓⵜⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴼⵓⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⴷⵔ."
Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea that these governments were acquiring only lands that had always been inhabited by ethnic Germans.,ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⵯⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵔⴽⵏⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ.
"The colonization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th century, with national drives for independence and self-determination across the continent.","ⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵎⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ."
"A number of European countries, including France and Switzerland, do not collect information on the ethnicity of their resident population.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵡⵉⵙⵔⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"During European colonization, Europeans arrived in North America.","ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰⵏ, ⵉⵡⴹ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ."
Digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies.,ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ.
Relational Ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people.,ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ.
The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of personal bias in the data.,ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ.
"Interviews are often taped and later transcribed, allowing the interview to proceed unimpaired of note-taking, but with all information available later for full analysis.","ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵎⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⵉⵎⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵊⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ."
"Despite these attempts of reflexivity, no researcher can be totally unbiased.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵜⵡⵡⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴳ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ."
"These informants are typically asked to identify other informants who represent the community, often using snowball or chain sampling.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴱⴰⵣⴰⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵛⴰⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴼⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ."
2010) examine the ontological and epistemological presuppositions underlying ethnography.,2010) ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ.
"""Critical theory researchers address """"issues of power within the researcher-researched relationships and the links between knowledge and power.""""""","ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ """"ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ-ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵙ."""""""
"An image can be contained within the physical world through a particular individual's perspective, primarily based on that individual's past experiences.","ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴹ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴹ ⴰⵏⵏ."
The idea of an image relies on the imagination and has been seen to be utilized by children in a very spontaneous and natural manner.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⴰⵔⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴷⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ.
Cultural and social anthropologists today place a high value on doing ethnographic research.,ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼ.
"""Ethnographies are also sometimes called """"case studies.""""""","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵙ """"""ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ""""""."
"The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life.","ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Benedict's experiences with the Southwest Zuni pueblo is to be considered the basis of her formative fieldwork.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵚⴰⵡⵜⵡⵉⵙⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⴱⵡⵉⴱⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ.
"A typical ethnography attempts to be holistic and typically follows an outline to include a brief history of the culture in question, an analysis of the physical geography or terrain inhabited by the people under study, including climate, and often including what biological anthropologists call habitat.","ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ-ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴹⴼⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⵓⵖⵜ."
"Kinship and social structure (including age grading, peer groups, gender, voluntary associations, clans, moieties, and so forth, if they exist) are typically included.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ (ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵜⵜⴼ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵜⴰⵢ, ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⵣⴳⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"Rites, rituals, and other evidence of religion have long been an interest and are sometimes central to ethnographies, especially when conducted in public where visiting anthropologists can see them.","ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵉⵏ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵣⵎⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵥⵕⵉⵏ."
"For example, if within a group of people, winking was a communicative gesture, he sought to first determine what kinds of things a wink might mean (it might mean several things).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵅⴰⵚ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵣⴰ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵏⵅⴰⵚ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⴽ (ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ)."
"""Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline, moved outside that outline to talk about """"webs"""" instead of """"outlines"""" of culture.""","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⴳⵉⵔⵜⵣ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵃ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ """"""ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ"""""" ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ """""" ⵜⴷⵙⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵥⵉⵥⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵟⴰⵕⵏ""""""."
"Writing Culture helped bring changes to both anthropology and ethnography often described in terms of being 'postmodern,' 'reflexive,' 'literary,' 'deconstructive,' or 'poststructural' in nature, in that the text helped to highlight the various epistemic and political predicaments that many practitioners saw as plaguing ethnographic representations and practices.","ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵓⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ 'ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵔⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ', 'ⵜⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ', 'ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏⵜ', 'ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴽⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ' ⵏⵖ ⴷ 'ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵔⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ' ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"In regards to this last point, Writing Culture became a focal point for looking at how ethnographers could describe different cultures and societies without denying the subjectivity of those individuals and groups being studied while simultaneously doing so without laying claim to absolute knowledge and objective authority.","ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⵀⵓⵏ ( ⵏⴽⵕⵏ) ⵜⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵃⵏⵊⵉⴼⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"As the purpose of ethnography is to describe and interpret the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group, Harris, (1968), also Agar (1980) note that ethnography is both a process and an outcome of the research.","ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ, ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ, ⵀⴰⵔⵔⵉⵙ(1968), ⴷ ⴰⴳⴰⵔ (1980) ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ."
"""Sociologist Sam Ladner argues in her book, that understanding consumers and their desires requires a shift in """"standpoint,"""" one that only ethnography provides.""","""ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙⴰⵎ ⵍⴰⴷⵏⵉⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ """"ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ"""" ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵢⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ"""
"""By assessing user experience in a """"natural"""" setting, ethnology yields insights into the practical applications of a product or service.""","""ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ """"ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"""", ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ."""
The Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC) conference is evidence of this.,ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⴱⴰⵕⴰⴽⵙⵉⵙ (EPIC) ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ.
"""Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein's (1997) monograph, The New Language of Qualitative Method, discusses forms of ethnography in terms of their """"methods talk.""""""","""ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵊⴰⵢⴱⵔ ⴳⵓⴱⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵊⴰⵢⵎⵙ ⵀⵓⵍⵙⵟⴰⵢⵏⵣ (1997), ⴳ ⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ """" ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏⵜ""""."""
"""Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that """"each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know"""".""","""ⵙ ⵓⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⴼⵉⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ— ⴷ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ """"ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ""""."""
"""He maintains that """"illusions"""" are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences.""","""ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵉⵙ ⴷ """"ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵏ"""" ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵢ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ""."
"The code of ethics notes that anthropologists are part of a wider scholarly and political network, as well as human and natural environment, which needs to be reported on respectfully.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⴽ."
Researchers take near-fictions and turn them into claims of fact.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵃⴹⴰⵕⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ.
"In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because of lacking omniscience.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴰⵜⵏⵓⴳⵕⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⵯⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Indigenous peoples, also referred to as first people, aboriginal people, native people, or autochthonous people, are culturally distinct ethnic groups who are native to a place which has been colonised and settled by another ethnic group.","ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ, ⵉⵥⵖⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵢⵏ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"""Peoples are usually described as """"indigenous"""" when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region.""","""ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ """"ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ"""" ⵉⴳ ⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ."""
"Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, ways of knowing, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend.","ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴷⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⵉⴳⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⴹⵕⵕⵃ ⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Estimates of the total global population of Indigenous peoples usually range from 250 million to 600 million.,ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳⵔ 250 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ 600 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ.
"As a reference to a group of people, the term Indigenous first came into use by Europeans who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans.","ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵢⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵣⵣⴰⵕⵏ ⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⵙⴳ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⴽⴰ."
"In the 1970s, the term was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1970, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵯⵔⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ."
"This situation can persist even in the case where the Indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory processes that have some, at least titular, influence over aspects of their community and land rights.","ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴽ ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ; ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵖⵜⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⴼⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵔⵜ, ⵎⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"A 2009 United Nations report published by the Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues stated: For centuries, since the time of their colonization, conquest or occupation, Indigenous peoples have documented histories of resistance, interface or cooperation with states, thus demonstrating their conviction and determination to survive with their distinct sovereign identities.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ 2009 ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵙⵉⴽⵔⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ: ⵜⵉⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ, ⴰⵍⵉⴽ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵢ, ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵄⵡⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵢⵏ."
"These people were seen by ancient writers either as the ancestors of the Greeks, or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵉⴽⵏ ( ⴰⵢⵜ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ), ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵏ.."
The Crusades (1096-1271) were based on this ambition of a holy war against who the church saw as infidels.,ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ (1096-1271) ⵉⵏⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴷⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵔⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵔ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵍⵉⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵏ.
"However, the council upheld that conquests could 'legally' occur if non-Christians refused to comply with Christianization and European natural law.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
"In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Indigenous peoples of what are now referred to as the Canary Islands, known as Guanches (who had lived on the islands since the BCE era) became the subject of colonizers' attention.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵡⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 14 ⴷ 15, ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⴰⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵡⴰⵏⵛⵏ ( ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ BCE) ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ."
"In 1402, the Spanish began efforts to invade and colonize the islands.","ⴳ 1402, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
"The invaders brought destruction and diseases to the Guanche people, whose identity and culture disappeared as a result.","ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴷⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵡⴰⵏⵛ, ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""As stated by Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg, the doctrine developed over time """"to justify the domination of non-Christian, non-European peoples and the confiscations of their lands and rights.""""""","""ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵕ ⵊ. ⵎⵉⵍⵔ, ⵊⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⵔⵓⵔⵓ, ⵍⴰⵔⵉⵙⵙⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⵢⵙⵉ ⵍⵉⵏⴷⴱⵓⵔⴳ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ """" ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵥⵉ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔⵉⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⴽⴽⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵙⵏ.’’"
"Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella hired Christopher Columbus, who was dispatched in 1492, to colonize and bring new lands under the Spanish crown.","ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵣⴰⴱⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓⴼ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵚ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴼⵓⴹⵏ ⴳ 1492, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴷⴷⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ."
"""Alexander granted Spain any lands that it discovered as long as they had not been """"previously possessed by any Christian owner.""""""","""ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⴷⵔ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉ ⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ """"ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⵎⵢ."""""
"Many conquistadors apparently feared that, if given the option, Indigenous peoples would actually accept Christianity, which would legally not permit invasion of their lands and the theft of their belongings.","ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴳⵯⴷⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵟⵓⴽⵟⵓⵏⵏ, ⵇⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵢⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴷⴷⵊ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⵣ ⵉ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴳⵏ."
"Being Catholic countries in 1493, England as well as France worked to 're-interpret' the Doctrine of Discovery to serve their own colonial interests.","ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⴳ 1493, ⵓⵔⵎⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵔⵎⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ."
"""Land claims were made through symbolic """"rituals of discovery"""" that were performed to illustrate the colonizing nation's legal claim to the land.""","""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ """"ⵜⵉⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵜ"""" ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏ."""
"In 1774, Captain James Cook attempted to invalidate Spanish land claims to Tahiti by removing their marks of possession and then proceeding to set up English marks of possession.","ⴳ 1774, ⵍⴽⴰⴱⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵊⴰⵢⵎⵙ ⴽⵓⴽ ⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⵙ ⴰⵚⴰⴷⴰⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵥⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⴽⴽⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
This concept formalized the idea that lands which were not being used in a manner that European legal systems approved of were open for European colonization.,ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ.
"As the 'rules' of colonization became established into legal doctrine agreed upon by between European colonial powers, methods of laying claims to Indigenous lands continued to expand rapidly.","ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⴷⵡⵍⵏ ‘’ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ’’ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ ⵓⵍⵍⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵣⴰⵔⴼⵓⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰⵏ."
"Precise estimates for the total population of the world's Indigenous peoples are very difficult to compile, given the difficulties in identification and the variances and inadequacies of available census data.","ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵢⵢⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples in over 72 countries.",ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 5000 ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 72 ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ.
Some have also been assimilated by other populations or have undergone many other changes.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.
"The highly diverse and numerous ethnic groups that comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation.","ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ."
"The impacts of historical and ongoing European colonization of the Americas on Indigenous communities have been in general quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline primarily due to disease, land theft and violence.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ ⴰⵢⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⵉⴽⴹⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵕⵉⴹⵜ."
"In the southern states of Oaxaca (65.73%) and Yucatán (65.40%), the majority of the population is Indigenous, as reported in 2015.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙⵜ (65.73%) ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵓⴽⴰⵜⴰⵏ (65.40%), ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015."
"""The descriptors """"Indian"""" and """"Eskimo"""" have fallen into disuse in Canada.""",‘’ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ‘’ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵉⵙⴽⵉⵎⵓⵜⵏ’’ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⵉ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ’’.
"Most notable was the change of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) in 2015, which then split into Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Development Canada in 2017.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ (AANDC) ⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ (INAC) ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2017."
"First Nations peoples signed 11 numbered treaties across much of what is now known as Canada between 1871 and 1921, except in parts of British Columbia.","ⵙⴳⵎⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ 11 ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⵉⵟⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1871 ⴷ 1921, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ."
"The autonomous territory of Greenland within the Kingdom of Denmark is also home to a recognised Indigenous and majority population of Inuit (about 85%) who settled the area in the 13th century, displacing the Indigenous Dorset people and Greenlandic Norse.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵖⵔⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵎⴰⵕⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ (ⴷⴰⵔ 85%) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 13, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵊⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴷⴷⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵏⵓⵔⵙ ⵍⵖⵔⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⵢⵢⵉⵏ."
"In Spanish or Portuguese speaking countries, one finds the use of terms such as índios, pueblos indígenas, amerindios, povos nativos, povos indígenas, and, in Peru, Comunidades Nativas (Native Communities), particularly among Amazonian societies like the Urarina and Matsés.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵔⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ, ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ: ⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵓⵚ, ⴱⵓⴱⵍⵓⵚ, ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴹⵢⵓⵚ, ⴱⵕⵓⴼⵓ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⴼⵉⵚ, ⴱⵓⴼⵓⵚ ⵉⵏⴷⵉⵊⵉⵏⴰⵙ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵍⴱⵉⵕⵓ, ⴽⵓⵎⵉⵏⵉⴹⴰⴹⵓⵚ ⵏⴰⵜⵉⴼⴰⵚ (ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ), ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵜⴰⵜⵉⵙⵙ."
"Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⴰⵥⵉⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ."
There are currently more Armenians living outside their ancestral homeland because of the Armenian genocide of 1915.,ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵕⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵕⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1915.
"The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel.","ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⴼⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵚⵕⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1990, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉⵚⵟⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵔⵓⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵕⴰⵢⵉⵍ."
"""In Russia, definition of """"indigenous peoples"""" is contested largely referring to a number of population (less than 50 000 people), and neglecting self-identification, origin from indigenous populations who inhabited the country or region upon invasion, colonization or establishment of state frontiers, distinctive social, economic and cultural institutions.""","‘’ⴳ ⵔⵓⵙⵉⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ‘’ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ’’ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ (ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 50000), ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ’’."
The Tibetans are indigenous to Tibet.,ⵉⵜⵓⴱⵓⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵉⴱⵜ.
"In Hong Kong, the indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories are defined in the Sino-British Joint Declaration as people descended through the male line from a person who was in 1898, before Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.","ⴳ ⵀⵓⵏⴳ ⴽⵓⵏⴳ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵓⵏⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢ - ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1898, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵏⴳ ⴽⵓⵏⴳ."
The Cham are the indigenous people of the former state of Champa which was conquered by Vietnam in the Cham–Vietnamese wars during Nam tiến.,ⵛⵛⴰⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵎⴱⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵍⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵢⵎ.
The Khmer Krom are the indigenous people of the Mekong Delta and Saigon which were acquired by Vietnam from Cambodian King Chey Chettha II in exchange for a Vietnamese princess.,ⵍⵅⵎⵉⵔ ⴽⵔⵓⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴷⵉⵍⵜⴰ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⵓⵏⴳ ⴷ ⵙⴰⵢⵖⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵟⵓⵎⵥ ⵍⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⴱⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⵛⴰ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵜ.
This problem is shared by many other countries in the ASEAN region.,ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ.
"The indigenous peoples of Mindanao are the Lumad peoples and the Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao and others) who also live in the Sulu archipelago.",ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⴰⵡ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⵓ (ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵖⵉⵏⴷⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⴰⵔⵅⴰⴱⵉⵍ ⵙⵓⵍⵓ.
These groups are often together spoken of as Indigenous Australians.,ⵉⵏⴽⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵙⵟⵕⴰⵍⵉⵢⵏ.
"During the 20th century, several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states formed under local control.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵍⴰⵛ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵉⵔⵉⵟⵟ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"The remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were recently found on the islands of Palau in Micronesia.",ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵍⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⵏⵉⵣⵢⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵜⵓⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ 25 ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ 1000 ⴷ 3000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
"According to the 2013 census, New Zealand Māori make up 14.9% of the population of New Zealand, with less than half (46.5%) of all Māori residents identifying solely as Māori.","ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ 2013, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵡⵔⵉ ⵉⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵏⴰⵍⴷⵉⵏⵢ 14.9% ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ (46.5) ⵙⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵔⵉⵢⵏ."
"Many Māori national leaders signed a treaty with the British, the Treaty of Waitangi (1840), seen in some circles as forming the modern geo-political entity that is New Zealand.","ⵙⴳⵎⴹⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉ (1840), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵏⴹⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵊⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ."
"These issues include cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and exploitation of natural resources, political determination and autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty, health, and discrimination.","ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵅⴼⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⴷⵀⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵣⵓ, ⴷ ⵥⵥⵍⴹ, ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ."
"The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources.","ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Despite the diversity of indigenous peoples, it may be noted that they share common problems and issues in dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴰⵖⵏ.."
"Notable exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two northern indigenous peoples of Russia), who now control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state, and the Canadian Inuit, who form a majority of the territory of Nunavut (created in 1999).","ⵙⴳ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴽⴽⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴰⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵎⵉ (ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵎⵣⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ ⴰⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1999)."
This rejection ended up recognizing that there was a pre-existing system of law practised by the Meriam people.,ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵢⴰⵎ.
Retrieved on 11 October 2011.,ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴳ 11 ⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕ 2011.
"Hindus and Chams have both experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confiscating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵛⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵛⵛⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴷⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵛⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ."
"In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2012, ⵙⴽⵍⴻⵍⵏ ⵍⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵡ ⵊⵢⴰⵏⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵎ, ⴰⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⵖⵚⴱⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵎ."
"In 2012, Indonesia stated that ‘The Government of Indonesia supports the promotion and protection of indigenous people worldwide ... Indonesia, however, does not recognize the application of the indigenous peoples concept ... in the country’.","ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2012, ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵜⵢ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ‘’ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ... ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ’’."
"The Vietnamese were originally centered around the Red River Delta but engaged in conquest and seized new lands such as Champa, the Mekong Delta (from Cambodia) and the Central Highlands during Nam Tien.",ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵍⵟⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵎⴱⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵉⵍⵟⴰ ⵎⵉⴽⵓⵏⵊ (ⵙⴳ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵓⴷⵢⴰ) ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⵢⵉⵏ.
The tremendous scale of Vietnamese Kinh colonists flooding into the Central Highlands has significantly altered the demographics of the region.,ⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ.
And no elimination of one culture by another.”,‘’ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ’’.
"Indigenous peoples have been denoted primitives, savages or uncivilized.",ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵓⴹⴰⵥ ⵏⵖ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵖⵓⵔⵎⵉ.
"""Some philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), considered indigenous people to be merely """"savages"""".""","‘’ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵚ ⵀⵓⴱⵣ (1679-1588), ⵙⴰⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⵓⵏ ⵅⵙ ‘’ⵉⵅⵎⵎⴰⴳ’’."
Retrieved from Internet Archive 13 December 2013.,ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ 13 ⵏ ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2013.
"The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, established indigenous peoples' right to self-determination, implying several rights regarding natural resource management.","ⵉⵙⵙⵕⵚⴰ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ (ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵎ ⵍⵎⵓⵜⵜⴰⵃⵉⴷⴰ) ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⵣⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 2007, ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵍ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ."
Oil drilling could destroy thousands of years of culture for the Gwich'in.,ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴼⵟ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵕⵕⵥ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵡⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ.
"Development projects such as dam construction, pipelines and resource extraction have displaced large numbers of indigenous peoples, often without providing compensation.","ⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴷⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ, ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵍⵄ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⴰⵡⴷ ⵃⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
These women also become economically dependent on men when they lose their livelihoods.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⵖⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
For example the Munduruku people in the Amazon rainforest are opposing the building of Tapajós dam with the help of Greenpeace.,"ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⴷⵓⵔⵓⴽⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵅⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵉⵏ ⴱⵉⵙ."
"Two main scenarios are proposed, an early expansion to Central Africa, and a single origin of the dispersal radiating from there, or an early separation into an eastward and a southward wave of dispersal, with one wave moving across the Congo basin towards East Africa, and another moving south along the African coast and the Congo River system towards Angola.","ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵇⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵇⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵢⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⴳⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵓⵍⴰ."
"Cattle terminology in use amongst the relatively few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests that the acquisition of cattle may have been from Central Sudanic, Kuliak and Cushitic-speaking neighbors.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⵟⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵅⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵢⴰⴽ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵛⵉⵢⵜ.
"Not far from the Mutirikiwi river, the Monomatapa kings built the Great Zimbabwe complex, a civilisation ancestral to the Kalanga people.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⵜⵉⴽⵉⵡⵉ, ⴱⵏⵉ ⵎⵍⵍⵓⴽ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵣⵉⵎⴱⴰⴱⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵖⴰ."
"The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people.","ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵎⴹ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⵊⵉⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⵟⵓ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ."
"""After World War II, the National Party governments adopted that usage officially, while the growing African nationalist movement and its liberal allies turned to the term """"African"""" instead, so that """"Bantu"""" became identified with the policies of apartheid.""","‘’ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ, ⴽ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵍⵛⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ‘’ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ’’ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ‘’ⵍⴱⴰⵟⵓ’’ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕ’’."
"""Again association with apartheid discredited the term, and the South African government shifted to the politically appealing but historically deceptive term """"ethnic homelands"""".""","‘’ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵉⵊⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴷⵡⵍ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵏⵓⴱ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ’’ ⵉⵟⵏⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵅⵅⵏⴷⵍⵍⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ."
In Swati the stem is -ntfu and the noun is buntfu.,ⴳ ⵙⵡⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵛⵜⵜⵓⵃ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵏⵜⴼⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⴼⵓ.
Not all Basques are Basque-speakers.,ⵓⵔ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴹⴽⵉⵢⵜ.
"""modern Basque esan) and the suffix -(k)ara (""""way (of doing something)"""").""",‘’ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵙⵓⴼⵉⴽⵙ -(ⴽ) ⴰⵔⴰ (‘’ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ’’).
He records the name of the Basque language as enusquera.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⴰ.
"Although they are genetically distinctive in some ways due to isolation, the Basques are still very typically European in terms of their Y-DNA and mtDNA sequences, and in terms of some other genetic loci.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵜⵍ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⵖⵉⵢ ⵏ (Y-DNA ⴷ mtDNA), ⴷ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"However, studies of the Y-DNA haplogroups found that on their direct male lineages, the vast majority of modern Basques have a common ancestry with other Western Europeans, namely a marked predominance of Indo-European Haplogroup R1b-DF27 (70%).","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⵖⵉⵢ (Y-DNA haplogroups) ⵓⴼⵉⵖ ⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵕⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ (R1b-DF27) ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⴱⵍⵓ ⴰⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵜ (70%)."
"""In spite of its high frequency in Basques, Y-STR internal diversity of R1b-DF27 is lower there, and results in more recent age estimates"""", implying it was brought to the region from elsewhere.""","‘’ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵎⵚⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ (R1b-DF27) ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔ’’, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ’’."
The collection of mtDNA and Y-DNA haplogroups sampled there differed significantly compared to their modern frequencies.,ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ (mtDNA and Y-DNA) ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴳⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ.
"Rather, some 4500 years ago almost all Y-DNA heritage from Iberian admixture of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers was replaced by the R1b lineage of Indo-European herders from the steppe, and the Basque genetic distinctiveness is a result of centuries of low population size, genetic drift, and endogamy.","ⵙ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ 4500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⵙⵉⴱⵖⵉⵢ (Y-DNA) ⵙⴳ ⵍⵇⵙⵟⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⵜⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴼⵔⵜ (R1b) ⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵖⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵛⵓⴹ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ."
"Mattias Jakobsson from Uppsala University in Sweden analysed genetic material from eight Stone Age human skeletons found in El Portalón Cavern in Atapuerca, northern Spain.","ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰⵙ ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱⵙⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵓⴱⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵡⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵜⴰⴱⵡⵉⵔⴽⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ."
The findings were published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.
"This admixed group was also found to be ancestral to other modern-day Iberian peoples, but while the Basques remained relatively isolated for millennia after this time, later migrations into Iberia led to distinct and additional admixture in all other Iberian groups.","ⵉⴹⵀⵕ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵕⵚⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵡⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵉⵔⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time and later they spoke old varieties of the Basque language (see: Aquitanian language).,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ (ⵥⵕ: ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵡⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵜ).
"The Kingdom of Pamplona, a central Basque realm, later known as Navarre, underwent a process of feudalization and was subject to the influence of its much larger Aragonese, Castilian and French neighbours.","ⵜⵎⵣⵣⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵎⴱⵍⵓⵏⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴰⵍⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵙⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵔ, ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵜⴰⵄⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵥⵓⴱⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔⴰⵖⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵙⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ."
"Weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies (1512–1524).","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙⵉ, ⵜⴹⵕ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵣⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ (1512-1524)."
"Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a great deal of self-government until the French Revolution (1790) and the Carlist Wars (1839, 1876), when the Basques supported heir apparent Carlos V and his descendants.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵢⵜ (1790) ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵔⵢⴰ (1839, 1876), ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴰⵕⵍⵓⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"The autonomous community (a concept established in the Spanish Constitution of 1978) known as Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa or EAE in Basque and as Comunidad Autónoma Vasca or CAV in Spanish (in English: Basque Autonomous Community or BAC), is made up of the three Spanish provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ (ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵚⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1978) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⴽⵉⴷⵉⵊⵡⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⴽⵉⴷⵉⵊⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵜⵓⵏⵓⵎⴰ ⴼⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵖ (CAV) ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ (ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ; ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⵢⵎⴰⵏ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴰ."
"""It is sometimes referred to simply as """"the Basque Country"""" (or Euskadi) by writers and public agencies only considering those three western provinces, but also on occasions merely as a convenient abbreviation when this does not lead to confusion in the context.""","‘’ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵕⵙⴽ’’ (ⵉⵡⵉⵙⴽⴰⴷⵉ) ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵛ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ’’."
"""In particular in common usage the French term Pays Basque (""""Basque Country""""), in the absence of further qualification, refers either to the whole Basque Country (""""Euskal Herria"""" in Basque), or not infrequently to the northern (or """"French"""") Basque Country specifically.""","‘’ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴼⴰⵕⴰⵏⵚⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ (ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ), ⴳ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⴹⴰⵕ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ (ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵀⵉⵔⵢⴰ) ⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ (ⵏⵖ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ) ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ’’."
"""Note that in historical contexts Navarre may refer to a wider area, and that the present-day northern Basque province of Lower Navarre may also be referred to as (part of) Nafarroa, while the term """"High Navarre"""" (Nafarroa Garaia in Basque, Alta Navarra in Spanish) is also encountered as a way of referring to the territory of the present-day autonomous community.""","‘’ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ (ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴳ) ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ‘’ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ’’ (ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ ⵖⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ, ⴰⵍⵜⴰ ⵏⴰⴼⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ) ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ’’."
Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory under the Spanish constitution (article no.,ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢ (ⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴷ).
"Knowledge of Basque, after declining for many years during Franco's dictatorship owing to official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵜⴹⵕ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⴽⵜⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵓⵏⵙⵉⴱ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵇⵇⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ."
"Only Spanish is an official language of Navarre, and the Basque language is only co-official in the province's northern region, where most Basque-speaking Navarrese are concentrated.","ⵅⵙ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵙⵉⴱⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⴼⴰⵔⵙ."
"Much of this population lives in or near the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) urban belt on the coast (in Basque these are Baiona, Angelu and Miarritze).",ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵢⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⴱⵢⴰⵔⵉⵜⵣ ⴰⵏⵔⵖⴰⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ (ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵊⵉⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵢⴰⵔⵉⵜⵣ).
"Millions of Basque descendants (see Basque American and Basque Canadian) live in North America (the United States; Canada, mainly in the provinces of Newfoundland and Quebec), Latin America (in all 23 countries), South Africa, and Australia.","ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ, ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ) ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵜ (ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⴼⴰⵡⵏⴷⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴱⵉⴽ), ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ (ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ 23 ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⴰ), ⴷ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵟⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ."
Estimates range between 2.5 - 5 million Basque descendants live in Chile; the Basque have been a major if not the strongest influence in the country's cultural and economic development.,"ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ 2.5 ⴰⵔ 5 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵛⵉⵍⵉ, ⵉⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ."
It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵡⴰⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵓⵔⴰⵏⴳⵓ.
"In Guatemala, most Basques have been concentrated in Sacatepequez Department, Antigua Guatemala, Jalapa for six generations now, while some have migrated to Guatemala City.","ⴷ ⴳ ⵖⵡⵉⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴽⴰⵜⵉⴱⴽⵣ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴳⵡⴰ ⵖⵡⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵊⴰⵍⴰⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵖⵡⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰ."
"Bambuco, a Colombian folk music, has Basque roots.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⴰⵎⴱⵓⴽⵓ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵉⵢ, ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ."
"Elko, Nevada, sponsors an annual Basque festival that celebrates the dance, cuisine and cultures of the Basque peoples of Spanish, French and Mexican nationalities who have arrived in Nevada since the late 19th century.","ⵉⵢⵍⴽⵓ, ⴷ ⵏⵉⴼⴰⴷⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴰⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰⵡⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ فⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵏⵉⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19."
"Some of North America's largest ranches, which were founded under these colonial land grants, can be found in this region.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵍⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ."
"There is a history of Basque culture in Chino, California.",ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵏⵓ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ.
They are mostly descendants of settlers from Spain and Mexico.,ⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽ.
This sense of Basque identity tied to the local language does not only exist in isolation.,ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵙⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⴰⴽⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"As with many European states, a regional identity, be it linguistically derived or otherwise, is not mutually exclusive with the broader national one.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
I have friends who are involved in the political side of things but that is not for me.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜⵉ.
There are extremely few Basque monolingual speakers: essentially all Basque speakers are bilingual on both sides of the border.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵙⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵜ: ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵏⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
"The Basque language is thought to be a genetic language isolate in contrast with other European languages, almost all of which belong to the broad Indo-European language family.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
Home in this context is synonymous with family roots.,ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ.
"As in other cultures, the fate of other family members depended on the assets of a family: wealthy Basque families tended to provide for all children in some way, while less-affluent families may have had only one asset to provide to one child.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ: ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵊⵊ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵏⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ."
"Mostly after the advent of industrialisation, this system resulted in the emigration of many rural Basques to Spain, France or the Americas.",ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔ ⵙ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.
Some scholars and commentators have attempted to reconcile these points by assuming that patrilineal kinship represents an innovation.,ⵎⵎⴰⵖⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵊⵎⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.
They emerged from the Franco regime with a revitalized language and culture.,ⵜⴼⴼⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ.
The region has been a source of missionaries like Francis Xavier and Michel Garicoïts.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴱⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴳⵣⴰⴼⵉⵀ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵖⴰⵔⵉⴽⵓⵜⵉⵙ.
Lasuén was the successor to Franciscan Padre Junípero Serra and founded 9 of the 21 extant California Missions along the coast.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⴰⵚⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴼⵔⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴷⵔⵉ ⵊⵓⵏⵉⴱⵉⵔ ⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ 9 ⵙⴳ 21 ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⴱⴰⵕ ⴰⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ.
"By the time Henry III of Navarre converted to Catholicism in order to become king of France, Protestantism virtually disappeared from the Basque community.","ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ, ⵜⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰ ⵜⴱⵕⵓⵙⵜⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ."
"Nowadays, according to one single opinion poll, only slightly more than 50% of Basques profess some kind of belief in God, while the rest are either agnostic or atheist.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵖ, ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50% ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵛⴰⴼⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴰⴼⵔⵏ."
"According to one, Christianity arrived in the Basque Country during the 4th and 5th centuries but according to the other, it did not take place until the 12th and 13th centuries.","ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ,ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 4 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵊⵕⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 12 ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ 13."
"""In this sense, Christianity arrived """"early"""".""","ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ."
"According to one tradition, she travelled every seven years between a cave on Mount Anboto and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in Aloña, or Supelegor, or Gorbea.","ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴽⵓ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵓ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ (ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ), ⴰⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⵍⵓ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵓ, ⵉⵣⵡⴰ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵙⵓⴱⴱⵉⵍⵉⵊⵓⵕ, ⵏⵖ ⵊⵓⵔⵉⴱⵢⴰ."
"It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵊⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
"Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like jentilak (equivalent to giants), lamiak (equivalent to nymphs), mairuak (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally Moors), iratxoak (imps), sorginak (witches, priestess of Mari), and so on.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵍⴰⴽ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ), ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵔⵡⴰⴽ (ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ), ⴷ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵡⴰⴽⵏ ( ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵚⵚⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵕⵓⵎⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵥⵕⵓ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵕ), ⴷ ⵍⵉⵔⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⴽ (ⵏⵖ ⵓⴹⵍⵉⴱⵏ), ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏⴰⴽ (ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵃⵔⴳⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ), ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"""There is a trickster named San Martin Txiki (""""St Martin the Lesser"""").""",‘’ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵅⵏⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵉ’’.
"The jentilak ('Giants'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of Stone Age culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of iron.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ‘’ⵉⵍⵖⵓⵖⵏ’’ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ."
"For more than a century, scholars have widely discussed the high status of Basque women in law codes, as well as their positions as judges, inheritors, and arbitrators through ante-Roman, medieval, and modern times.","ⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵚⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⴰⵔ."
"Navarre has a separate statute of autonomy, a contentious arrangement designed during Spanish transition to democracy (the Amejoramiento, an 'upgrade' of its previous status during dictatorship).","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵜⵉⵢⵜ (ⴰⵎⵉⵊⵓⵕⴰⵎⵉⵏⵟⵓ), ⵉⴳⴰ ‘’ⴰⵙⴼⴰⵍⴽⵉ’’ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⴽⵜⴰⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ)."
"Questions of political, linguistic and cultural allegiance and identity are highly complex in Navarre.",ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵏⴰⴼⴰⵕ.
The majority of schools under the jurisdiction of the Basque education system use Basque as the primary medium of teaching.,ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵣⴰⵔⴼⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ.
"In contrast, the desire for greater autonomy or independence is particularly common among leftist Basque nationalists.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⵥⴻⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵏⴳⵎⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵍⴰⵛⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⵚⴽ."
They regard themselves as culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbours.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ.
Miguel de Unamuno was a noted novelist and philosopher of the late 19th and the 20th century.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⵉⴳⵍ ⴷⵉ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⵏⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20.
He also founded the Chilean Trade Union Association to promote a union movement based on the social teachings of the Catholic Church.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⵛⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ.
The historical presence of the San in Botswana is particularly evident in northern Botswana's Tsodilo Hills region.,ⵉⴹⵀⵕ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵟⵙⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵟⵙⵡⴰⵏⴰ.
"From the 1950s through to the 1990s, San communities switched to farming because of government-mandated modernisation programs.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1950 ⴰⵔ 1990, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵏ."
"""Certain San groups are one of 14 known extant """"ancestral population clusters""""; that is, """"groups of populations with common genetic ancestry, who share ethnicity and similarities in both their culture and the properties of their languages"""".""","‘’ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ 14 ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ’’, ‘’ⵜⵉⵔⴱⴱⴰⵄ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ’’ ; ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵜⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Representatives of San peoples in 2003 stated their preference of the use of such individual group names where possible over the use of the collective term San.,ⴱⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003 ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ.
"I continued to use Bushman, and I was publicly corrected several times by the righteous.","ⵙⵏⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵛⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴹⵔⴰⵔⵜ"
"""Instead, the San Council's representative was adamant that no hurt or harm was caused to them or the San community with the manner in which (Die Burger) published the word 'boesman'.""""""","‘’ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⴱⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ’’."
"San kinship is comparable to Eskimo kinship, with the same set of terms as in European cultures, but also uses a name rule and an age rule.","ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵙⴽⵉⵎⵓ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ."
"Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to San of all ages.","ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⵕⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵛⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵊⴷⵉⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
They make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵊⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ.
Droughts may last many months and waterholes may dry up.,ⵇⴰⴷ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵡⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
Into this hole is inserted a long hollow grass stem.,ⴳ ⵜⵃⴱⵓⵛⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵛⵜⵜⵓⵃⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ.
"Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter.",ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵙⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ: ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵇⵔⴼⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ.
"Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ, ⴰⵖⴰⵣ, ⴷ ⵓⵥⴰⵍⵉⵎ, ⴷ ⴱⴰⵟⴰⵟⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"Depending on location, the San consume 18 to 104 species, including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites.","ⵙ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ 18 ⴰⵔ 104 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⵍⴰⵥⵕⴰⵕ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵅⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵍⵏ."
"These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.","ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ (ⴰ) ⴷ (ⴱ), ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ (ⵢ) ⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵙⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.","ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ (ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ), ⵏ (L0d) ⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ."
The San have been particularly affected by encroachment by majority peoples and non-indigenous farmers onto land traditionally occupied by San people.,ⵜⵜⵓⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵢⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ.
"Loss of land is a major contributor to the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, including especially the San's eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve.","ⵜⵉⵡⵙ ⵜⵏⵊⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵜⵙⵡⴰⵏⴰ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵍⴰⵀⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵛ ⵉ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"Van der Post grew up in South Africa, and had a respectful lifelong fascination with native African cultures.","ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⵔ ⴱⴱⵓⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"""Driven by a lifelong fascination with this """"vanished tribe"""", Van der Post published a 1958 book about this expedition, entitled The Lost World of the Kalahari.""","ⵜⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⵔ ⴱⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1958 ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⴰⵀⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵊⵍⴰⵏ’’, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵃⵔⴳⵉ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴼⴼⴰⵔⵏ’’."
"His early film The Hunters, released in 1957, shows a giraffe hunt.","ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1957, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵖ."
"His sister Elizabeth Marshall Thomas wrote several books and numerous articles about the San, based in part on her experiences living with these people when their culture was still intact.","ⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵍⵜⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵥⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⵎ ⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵖⵓⴷⴰ."
"""This was reviewed by Lawrence Van Gelder for the New York Times, who said that the film """"constitutes an act of preservation and a requiem"""".""","‘’ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵍⵓⵕⴰⵏⵙ ⴼⴰⵏ ⵊⵉⵍⵉⴷⵔ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ ⵟⴰⵢⵎⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ‘’ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ’’."
The BBC's The Life of Mammals (2003) series includes video footage of an indigenous San of the Kalahari desert undertaking a persistence hunt of a kudu through harsh desert conditions.,ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ‘’ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⵟⵟⵉⵏ’’ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ (2003) ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⴷⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⴰⵀⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵟⵓⵥⵥⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵍⴽⵓⴷⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⵔⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ.
"Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵔⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ, ⴰⵅⴼ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ."
"The film was directed by Jamie Uys, who returned to the San a decade later with The Gods Must Be Crazy, which proved to be an international hit.","ⴰⵙⵔⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵎⵉ ⵓⵢⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⵛⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ‘’ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵓⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⵛ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ."
"James A. Michener's The Covenant (1980), is a work of historical fiction centered on South Africa.","ⴷⴷⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵎⵉⵛⵏⵕ ‘’ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵓⵏ’’ (1980), ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵢⴰ."
Norman Rush's 1991 novel Mating features an encampment of Basarwa near the (imaginary) Botswana town where the main action is set.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵕⴰⵛ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1991 ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏ ‘’ⵉⵡⵍⴰⵏ’’ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵙⵡⴰⵏⴰ (ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵔⴳⵉⵜ) ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ.
"In 2007, David Gilman published The Devil's Breath.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2007, ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ ‘’ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⴰⴱⵔ’’."
The fiancé of the protagonist of The No.,ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ‘’ⵓⵀⵓⵢ’’.
The Germanic peoples were a historical group of people living in Central Europe and Scandinavia.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ.
"In discussions of the Roman period, the Germanic peoples are sometimes referred to as Germani or ancient Germans, although many scholars consider the second term problematic, since it suggests identity with modern Germans.","ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ."
"In contrast, Roman authors first described Germanic peoples near the Rhine at the time the Roman Empire established its dominance in that region.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ."
"Roman efforts to integrate the large area between Rhine and Elbe ended around 16 CE, following the major Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE.","ⵙⵎⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵕⵕⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴱⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ 16 ⵏ (CE), ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰ ⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⵜⵓⴱⵓⵔⴳ ⴳ 9 (CE)."
"In the 3rd century the Germanic-speaking Goths dominated the Pontic Steppe, outside Germania, and launched a series of sea expeditions into the Balkans and Anatolia as far as Cyprus.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ (3) ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⵟ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴱⵓⵏⵜⵉⴽ ⵙⵜⵉⴱ, ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⵙ ⵍⴱⵍⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏⴰⴹⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵇⵓⴱⵕⵓⵚ."
Archaeology instead shows a complex society and economy throughout Germania.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵀⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ.
"Traditionally, the Germanic peoples have been seen as possessing a law dominated by the concepts of feuding and blood compensation.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵅⵙ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵊⵊ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ.
"The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples probably shared a common poetic tradition, alliterative verse, and later Germanic peoples also shared legends originating in the Migration Period.","ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴽ ⵉⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ."
"Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute, with proposals of Germanic, Celtic, and Latin, and Illyrian origins.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵜ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵙⵍⵜⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ."
"Regardless of its language of origin, the name was transmitted to the Romans via Celtic speakers.","ⵙ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵜⵉⵢⵜ."
"By late antiquity, only peoples near the Rhine, especially the Franks, and sometimes the Alemanni, were called Germani by Latin or Greek writers.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ, ⵅⵙ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵕⵕⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
"While Roman authors did not consistently exclude Celtic speaking-people, or treat the Germanic peoples as the name of a people, this new definition, by using Germanic language as the main criterion, understood the Germani as a people or nation with a stable group identity linked to language.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵜⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⵕⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ."
"""Some scholars studying the Early Middle Ages now stress the question of whether the Germanic peoples saw themselves as an ethnic unity, while others point to the existence of Germanic languages as a historical fact that can be used to identify Germanic peoples, regardless of whether they saw themselves as """"Germanic"""".""","‘’ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ‘’ⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ’’."
"""For such reasons, Goffart argues that the term Germanic should be avoided entirely in favor of """"barbarian"""" except in the linguistic sense, and historians such as Walter Pohl have also called for the term to be avoided or used with careful explanation.""","‘’ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ‘’ⵓⴱⵔⴱⵔⵉⵢ’’ ⵅⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵟⵔ ⴱⵓⵀⵍ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ’’."
"In Caesar's account, the clearest defining characteristic of the Germani people was that they lived east of the Rhine, opposite Gaul on the west side, an observation he made with historical digressions in his writing.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵇⴰⵢⵚⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵖⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Tacitus was at times unsure whether a people were Germanic or not, expressing his uncertainty about the Bastarnae, who he says looked like Sarmatians but spoke like the Germani, about the Osi and the Cotini, and about the Aesti, who were like Suebi but spoke a different language.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵍⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⵢⴰⵇⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵍⴱⴰⵙⵟⴰⵔⵏⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵙⴰⴼⴼⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉ, ⴷ ⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
The Upper Danube served as a southern border.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵓⴱ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙ.
"It is unclear if these Germani spoke a Germanic language, and they may have been Celtic speakers instead.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏⵜ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵜⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ."
"Tacitus continues to mention Germanic tribes on the west bank of the Rhine in the period of the early Empire, such as the Tungri, Nemetes, Ubii, and the Batavi.","ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵕⵕⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⴱⵉ, ⵏⵉⵎⵉⵜⵙ, ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵜⴰⴼⵉ."
"Inspired by this, these three groups are also sometimes used in older modern linguistic terminology, attempting to describe the divisions of later Germanic languages.)","ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ."
"Herminones or Hermiones in the interior, included the Suevi, the Hermunduri, the Chatti, the Cherusci according to Pliny.","ⵖⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⴱⵍⵉⵏⵉ; ⵙⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵀⵉⵔⵎⵉⵏⵓⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵀⵉⵔⵔⵎⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵙⵓⴼⵉ ⴽⵔⵓⵙⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵛⴰⵜⵜⵉ, ⴷ ⵀⴻⵔⵎⵓⵏⴷⵓⵔⵉ."
"""On the other hand, Tacitus wrote in the same passage that some believe that there are other groups which are just as old as these three, including """"the Marsi, Gambrivii, Suevi, Vandilii"""".""","‘’ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ‘’ⵎⴰⵔⵙⵉ, ⵖⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴼⵉ, ⴷⵓⴼⵉ, ⴼⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍⵉ’’."
"""Strabo, who focused mainly on Germani between the Elbe and Rhine, and does not mention the sons of Mannus, also set apart the names of Germani who are not Suevian, in two other groups, similarly implying three main divisions: """"smaller German tribes, as the Cherusci, Chatti, Gamabrivi, Chattuarii, and next the ocean the Sicambri, Chaubi, Bructeri, Cimbri, Cauci, Caulci, Campsiani"""".""","‘’ⵙⵜⵔⴰⴱⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵍⴱⵉ ⴷ ⵕⵕⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵓⵙ, ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⵡⵉⴼⵢⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ: ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⵏⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ; ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵔⵓⵛⵉ, ⵛⴰⵜⵉⵜⵉ, ⵖⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴼⵉ, ⵛⴰⵜⵉⵜⵡⴰⵔⵉ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵙⵉⴽⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉ, ⵛⵓⴱⵉ, ⵙⵉⵎⴱⵔⵉ, ⴽⴰⵡⵜⵛⵉ, ⴽⴰⵡⵍⵛⵉ, ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵉⵙⵢⴰⵏⵉ’’."
"During the Pre-Germanic linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the proto-language has almost certainly been influenced by linguistic substrates still noticeable in the Germanic phonology and lexicon.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ (2500-500 BCE), ⵜⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ."
"There is also a great deal of influence in vocabulary from the Celtic languages, but most of this appears to be much later, with most loanwords occurring either before or during the sound shift described by Grimm's Law.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵍⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴹⵀⵕ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵊⵕⵕⵓⵏ ⵙⵡⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵉⵎ."
"Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed without dialects via the comparative method, it is almost certain that it never was a uniform proto-language.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓ-ⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓ."
"The earliest attested runic inscriptions (Vimose comb, Øvre Stabu spearhead), initially concentrated in modern Denmark and written with the Elder Futhark system, are dated to the second half of the 2nd century CE.","ⵉⵕⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⵎⵛⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵎⵓⵙ, ⵓⴼⵕ ⵚⵜⴰⴱⵓ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴳ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵎⴰⵔⴽ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵟⴰⵔⴽ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ(2) ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ."
"However, the merging of unstressed Proto-Germanic vowels, attested in runic inscriptions from the 4th and 5th centuries CE, also suggests that Primitive Norse could not have been a direct predecessor of West Germanic dialects.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵉⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓ-ⵊⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵕⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ (4) ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ (5) ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵏⵏⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ."
"""By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant -z had already occurred within the """"residual"""" Northwest dialect continuum.""","‘’ⴽ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ (3) ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵊⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ (ⵣ) ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵊⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ‘’ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ’’ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ."
"The inclusion of the Burgundian and Vandalic languages within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation.","ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵖⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵍⴼⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⴹ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⴱⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or speech as acceptable or unacceptable.,ⴰⵔ ⵚⴽⴽⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⵉⵢ.
"Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵣⴹⵉⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴱⵖⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵎⵔ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ; ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ (ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ), ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵙⵏⵜ."
"""This was in turn from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius (""""comrade, friend, ally""""; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil.""","‘’ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ‘’ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⴹⴰ’’; ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵅⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵢ’’."
"""In the 1630s it was used in reference to """"people bound by neighborhood and intercourse aware of living together in an ordered community"""".""",ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1630 ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵊⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ’’.
"These structures may have varying degrees of political power, depending on the cultural, geographical, and historical environments that these societies must contend with.","ⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴰⵍⵏ."
Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community.,ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵍⴰⵛⵏ.
"Conversely, members of a society may also shun or scapegoat any members of the society who violate its norms.","ⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵣⵔⵢ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⵓⵍ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵇⵇⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵡⵇⵇⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵕⴰ."
Some societies bestow status on an individual or group of people when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action.,ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵙⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ.
"Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵚⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵏⵥⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵏⵥⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⴼⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ."
"However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as people of tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⵉⵏⵊⵉⵜ) ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵖⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement.","ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵜⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ."
"There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidations for collective action are not governmental.","ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⴳⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴼⴰⵡⵏ; ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹⵜ."
"Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations.","ⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴼⴽⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry, among other items of value.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵃⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵓⵣⴰⴼ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ."
These families often gain power through their increased wealth.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⴰⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵎ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵖⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔ."
They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again.,ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵡⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.,"ⴰⵔ ⴼⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ 30 ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000."
"Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals.",ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ 8.500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⴽ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⵔⵣⴰⵏⵏ.
Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies.,ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ
"However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵊⴱⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ, ⵜⴷⵡⵍ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⴹⴳⵯⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ."
A system of rulers with high social status also appeared.,ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ.
Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉ.
This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⵛⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ.
This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.,ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⴳⵯⵔ ⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ.
"However, inequality became even greater than before.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ.
"Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵚⵟⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ."
One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰ ⵢⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ.
"Some academic, professional, and scientific associations describe themselves as societies (for example, the American Mathematical Society, the American Society of Civil Engineers, or the Royal Society).","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ)."
"A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms, religion, values, customs, or identity.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ (ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ."
"In this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient settlement - whether a hamlet, village, town, or city.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ-- ⵙⵡⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵙⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⵔⵎ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ.
Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical distance.,ⴽⵉⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ.
No group is exclusively one or the other.,ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ.
"Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵉⵚ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵃⵏⵊⴰⵔ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
At the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools.,"ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ , ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ."
"Emptiness: Moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to human beings.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"""The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and """"institution-based community organizing,"""" (also called """"broad-based community organizing,"""" an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or Congregation-based Community Organizing).""","‘’ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵙⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ, ⴷ ‘’ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ‘’(ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ‘’ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ’’, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡ)’’."
"Retrieved on: June 22, 2008.",ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴳ 22 ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 2008.
Community organizing can focus on more than just resolving specific issues.,ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ.
Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.,ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵔⵇⴰⴱ ⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"Identity-based Communities: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ: ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵎⵎ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰⴷ."
Relationships among members in a virtual community tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ.
"""Scholars in the humanities are """"humanities scholars"""" or humanists.""",‘’ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ‘’ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ‘’ⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ’’.
"The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras.","ⴰⵔ ⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
"Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ) ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵅⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ."
"""The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek word for """"human being"""" or """"person"""".""",ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵢⵓⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ‘’ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⴰⵡⵔⵉⴽ’’.
"This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem.","ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.","ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵏⵟⵕⵓⴱⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵛⴰⵎⵎⵓ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⵉ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities.,ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"A good deal of twentieth-century and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the analysis of language and to the question of whether, as Wittgenstein claimed, many of our philosophical confusions derive from the vocabulary we use; literary theory has explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of language; and historical linguists have studied the development of languages across time.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵉⵖⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵇⵇⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵣⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ."
"""It has been defined as a """"system of rules"""", as an """"interpretive concept"""" to achieve justice, as an """"authority"""" to mediate people's interests, and even as """"the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction"""".""","‘’ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ‘’ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵎ’’, ⴷ ‘’ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ‘’ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴷⵎⵜ, ⴷ ‘’ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ’’ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ, ⴰⵔ ‘’ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ."
"Laws are politics, because politicians create them.","ⴰⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ."
"""As Immanuel Kant noted, """"Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three sciences: physics, ethics, and logic."""")""","‘’ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵡⵉⵍ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ ‘’ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ: ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰ’’."
"Shinto, Daoism, and other folk or natural religions do not have ethical codes.","ⵛⵛⴰⵏⵜⵓ ⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵊⵊⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"Belief systems imply a logical model that religions do not display because of their internal contradictions, lack of evidence, and falsehoods. .","ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵅⵔⵔⵉⵇⵏ."
They are necessary for understanding the human predicament.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵣⴰⵣⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
"The non-founder religions are Hinduism, Shinto, and native or folk religions.","ⵉⵙⵖⴰⴷⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓⵙⵉⵢⵜ, ⵛⵛⵓⵏⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ."
"When traditional religions fail to address new concerns, then new religions will emerge.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵉⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ."
"Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft.","ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
This is called Performance art.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉ.
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), and motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind).","ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⵣ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ) ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⴰⵔⴽⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵉⵣⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍⴰⵏ), ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ (ⵎⵎⵛⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ)."
"In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths.","ⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵥⴰⵏⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵇⵓⵟⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵥⴰⵕ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ."
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,"ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⴽⵯⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵖⴰ (ⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵔ’’."
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ."
"However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing, composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ⵎⵄⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ."
"Black is associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be.","ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵛⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵔⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ."
"""The word """"red"""", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum.""","‘’ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ‘’ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ’’ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ ⴰⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ’’."
This began with cubism and is not painting in strict sense.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴽⵓⴱⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⵉⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ.
"Consequently, many spend the first few years after graduation deciding what to do next, resulting in lower incomes at the start of their career; meanwhile, graduates from career-oriented programs experience more rapid entry into the labour market.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵉⵜ, ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⵖⵍⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ."
"However, the empirical evidence also shows that humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes than workers with no postsecondary education, and have job satisfaction levels comparable to their peers from other fields.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵙⵙⴹⵀⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴼⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵟⵟⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵕⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵕⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵓⵢⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"As a percentage of the type of degrees awarded, however, the humanities seem to be declining.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ.
Federal funding represents a much smaller fraction of funding for humanities than other fields such as STEM or medicine.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵚⵉⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ (STEM) ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ.
"This understanding, they claimed, ties like-minded people from similar cultural backgrounds together and provides a sense of cultural continuity with the philosophical past.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ.
"Apart from its societal application, narrative imagination is an important tool in the (re)production of understood meaning in history, culture and literature.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ."
"Poststructuralism has problematized an approach to the humanistic study based on questions of meaning, intentionality, and authorship.","ⵜⵎⵎⵏⵜⵍ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ, ⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵓⴼⵜ."
"Furthermore, critical thinking, while arguably a result of humanistic training, can be acquired in other contexts.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵔⵇⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
Such pleasure contrasts with the increasing privatization of leisure and instant gratification characteristic of Western culture; it thus meets Jürgen Habermas' requirements for the disregard of social status and rational problematization of previously unquestioned areas necessary for an endeavor which takes place in the bourgeois public sphere.,ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵇⵇⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵇⵊⴷⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⴷⵖⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ; ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⴳⵏ ⵀⴰⴱⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵅⵅⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵢ.
Despite many humanities based arguments against the humanities some within the exact sciences have called for their return.,ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
It’s good to know the history of philosophy.”,ⵜⵓⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ.
"""Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning """"to share""""or """"to be in relation with"""") is """"an apparent answer to the painful divisions between self and other, private and public, and inner thought and outer word.""""""","‘’ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ (ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢ, ⵉⴳⴰ ‘’ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵔⵓ’’ ⵏⵖ ‘’ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ’’) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ‘’ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵃⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⵅⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵡⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ’’."
Message composition (further internal or technical elaboration on what exactly to express).,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ (ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵛⴰⵎⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ).
Noise sources such as natural forces and in some cases human activity (both intentional and accidental) begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers.,ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
Interpretation and making sense of the presumed original message.,ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴷⵡⵍ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ.
"Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵢ."
"Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, the spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⴽⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵕⵉⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵔⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⴼⴼⵔⵏ."
"To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch, distance, timing, and other environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction.","ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴷⵔⵓ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵖⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰ."
"""""""Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system.""""""",‘’ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ’’
Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵉⵜ
"Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.","ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⵀⵕⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵉⵙⵔⴰⵏⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵅⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
The properties of language are governed by rules.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵍⵍⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵎ.
"Contrary to popular belief, signed languages of the world (e.g., American Sign Language) are considered to be verbal communication because their sign vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic structures abide by all the necessary classifications as spoken languages.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ."
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding.,"ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ."
"A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission.",ⵜⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⴹ.
"A destination, where the message arrives.",ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ.
No allowance for differing purposes.,ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
No allowance for situational contexts.,ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ.
"These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication.","ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).,ⵜⴰⵊⵔⵔⵓⵎⵜ (ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴽⵓⵎⵏ).
"In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication.","ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⵔⵏⵓⵏⴷ ⴳ (2008)ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
"This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⴽⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴱⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⵙⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⵍⵖⵜⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ."
"The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ."
"Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ."
"Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications.","ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ."
"The information environment is the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵊⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ tsila nns.
In verbal interpersonal communication there are two types of messages being sent: a content message and a relational message.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵣⴰⵏⵏ : ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ.
This is the study of how individuals explain what causes different events and behaviors.,ⵜⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
Open and honest communication creates an atmosphere that allows family members to express their differences as well as love and admiration for one another.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ.
Researchers develop theories to understand communication behaviors.,ⴰⵔ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ.
"""This also includes a lack of expressing """"knowledge-appropriate"""" communication, which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is not understood by the recipient.""","‘’ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ‘’ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵓⵏⴼⵓ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵔⵎⴰⵙ’’."
"Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵎⵛⵉⵙ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵛⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵀⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ."
Examples might include an organizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know whom to communicate with.,"ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
It is better if such words are avoided by using alternatives whenever possible.,ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴰⴼ.
"However, research in communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴹⴼⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⵉⴼ ⵓⵍⵖⴰⴷ."
It is when the sender is expressing a thought or a word but the receiver gives it a different meaning.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⵍⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"This has, in turn, led to a notable change in the way younger generations communicate and perceive their own self-efficacy to communicate and connect with others.",ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰ.
Fear of being criticized – This is a major factor that prevents good communication.,"ⵜⴰⵡⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ."
This will not only boost your confidence but also improve your language and vocabulary.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴽ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴽ.
Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵛⵇⵇⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ.
"The act of disambiguation regards the attempt of reducing noise and wrong interpretations, when the semantic value or meaning of a sign can be subject to noise, or in presence of multiple meanings, which makes the sense-making difficult.","ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴽⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵙⵔ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⴰ ⵜⵖⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴷⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵢ."
"For example: words, colours and symbols have different meanings in different cultures.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ: ⵟⵟⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
Understanding cultural aspects of communication refers to having knowledge of different cultures in order to communicate effectively with cross culture people.,ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ.
It also includes sounds from throat and all these are greatly influenced by cultural differences across borders.,ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵕⴹ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚⵏ ⵙ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
This concept differs from culture to culture as the permissible space varies in different countries.,ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ.
"Some issues explaining this concept are pauses, silences and response lag during an interaction.","ⵛⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ."
"In different countries, the same gestures and postures are used to convey different messages.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⴰ, ⵉⴳⵓⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores.,ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵕⵉⵥⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⴷ.
"The biochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to react.","ⵜⵏⵉⴳⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵣⵣⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⵔⵙⴰⵍⴰⴱ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴳⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴽⵉⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴷⵔⵏ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖ."
"Through quorum sensing, bacteria can sense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴹⴼ, ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⴽ, ⴷ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ."
"Information, in a general sense, is processed, organised and structured data.","ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ, ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ."
Information is associated with data.,ⵓⵎⵍⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ.
"Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space, via communication and telecommunication.","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵙ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⴳⵯⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ."
"Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal).","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴹⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴹⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ)."
Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence.,ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵏⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ.
"Furthermore, Latin itself already contained the word īnfōrmātiō meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is not clear.","ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ īnfōrmātiō ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵓⵚ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ."
In modern Greek the word Πληροφορία is still in daily use and has the same meaning as the word information in English.,ⴳ ⵜⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ Πληροφορία ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ.
"The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon in the 1940s.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⵢⵉⴽⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵍⴼ ⵀⴰⵔⵜⵍⵉ ⴳ 1920 ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⵛⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴳ 1940 ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ."
Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵉⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ.
"Important sub-fields of information theory include source coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, and information-theoretic security.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵎ, ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉ, ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ."
In his book Sensory Ecology biophysicist David B. Dusenbery called these causal inputs.,ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵍⵊⵉⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵣⵏⴱⵉⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵓⴷⴰⴼ.
"In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵃⵓⵕⵛⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⴰ ⵖⴰ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ."
The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.,ⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽⵍⵉⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⵏⵏⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴼⵔⴽ.
"In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.","ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ."
Whether the answer provides knowledge depends on the informed person.,ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵇⵙⴰⵏ.
This is the informational equivalent of almost 61 CD-ROM per person in 2007.,ⴷ ⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵖⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 61 ⵏ ⵜⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴳ 2007.
Sound records management ensures that the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴹⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ.
Beynon-Davies explains the multi-faceted concept of information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴱⵉⵢⵏⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵢⴱⵉⵙ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ.
Pragmatics is concerned with the purpose of communication.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴳⵣⴰⵎ ⵓⴱⵕⴳⵎⴰⵜⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ.
"In other words, pragmatics link language to action.","ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵕⴰⴳⵎⴰⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ."
Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs - the association between signs and behaviour.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵍⴼⵏ - ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ.
Syntax as an area studies the form of communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems.,ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵕⵕⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ.
"He introduces the concept of lexicographic information costs and refers to the effort a user of a dictionary must make to first find, and then understand data so that they can generate information.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵡⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴰⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ."
In a communicative situation intentions are expressed through messages that comprise collections of inter-related signs taken from a language mutually understood by the agents involved in the communication.,"ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵍⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
"Information visualization (shortened as InfoVis) depends on the computation and digital representation of data, and assists users in pattern recognition and anomaly detection.",ⴰⵙⵓⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ (ⴰⵙⴰⵏⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴼⵓⴱⵉⵙ) ⵢⵓⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖⵏ.
The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences as well as in philosophy and bioethics.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
"In developing societies it may be mainly based on kinship and shared values while more developed societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵛⵛⵓⵕⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
Durkheim introduced the terms mechanical and organic solidarity as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labour in Society (1893).,"ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴷⵓⵔⴽⴰⵢⵉⵎ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ""ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ"" (1893)."
"Collins Dictionary of Sociology, p405-6.","ⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵏⵣ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ 405-6."
Definition: it is social cohesion based upon the dependence which individuals have on each other in more advanced societies.,ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ: ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵖⵣⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵛⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵏⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵏ.
Early ancient philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotle discuss solidarity as a virtue ethics framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.,ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵚⵓⵇⵔⴰⵟ ⴷ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵖⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel Kant's concept of the Categorical Imperative.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⵓⵚⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵡⵉⵍ ⴽⴰⵏⵟ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰⵏ.
Foreign-area studies were virtually nonexistent.,ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴷⵓⵔⵖ ⴷⴷ.
"The former became area-studies advocates, the latter proponents of modernization theory.","ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
From 1953 to 1966 it contributed $270 million to 34 universities for area and language studies.,ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴳⵔ 1953 ⴰⵔ 1966 ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ 270 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴳ 34 ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ.
Other large and important programs followed Ford's.,ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵔⴷⵙ.
"Others insisted, however, that once they were established on university campuses, area studies began to encompass a much broader and deeper intellectual agenda than the one foreseen by government agencies, thus not American centric.","ⵏⴷⴻⴷⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ."
"Other interdisciplinary research fields such as women's studies, gender studies, disability studies, LGBT studies and ethnic studies (including African American studies, Asian American studies, Latino studies, Chicano studies and Native American studies) are not part of area studies but are sometimes included in discussion along with it.","ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴳⵔⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵄⴹⴹⵕ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍ ⴷⵊⵉ ⴱⵉ ⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⴰⵏⵉⵏ-ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ-ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵏ) ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵛⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵉⴷⵙ."
"Demography (from prefix demo- from Ancient Greek δῆμος (dēmos) meaning 'the people', and -graphy from γράφω (graphō) meaning 'writing, description or measurement') is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings.","ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ (ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵣⵡⵉⵔ ⴷⵉⵎⵓ- ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ δῆμος (ⴷⵉⵎⵓⵙ) ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ""ⴰⵖⵔⴼ"", ⴷ -ⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵏ γράφω (ⴳⵔⴰⴼⵓ) ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ""ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ, ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ"") ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ."
"Patient demographics form the core of the data for any medical institution,such as patient and emergency contact information and patient medical record data.","ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵏ."
The term Demography refers to the overall study of population.,ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ.
"In the Middle ages, Christian thinkers devoted much time in refuting the Classical ideas on demography.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ."
"One of the earliest demographic studies in the modern period was Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality (1662) by John Graunt, which contains a primitive form of life table.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ (1662) ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⴳⵔⵓⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
"His work influenced Thomas Robert Malthus, who, writing at the end of the 18th century, feared that, if unchecked, population growth would tend to outstrip growth in food production, leading to ever-increasing famine and poverty (see Malthusian catastrophe).","ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵟⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18, ⵉⴳⴳⵯⴷ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴱⵉⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙⵜ)."
A census is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵉⵎⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵏ.
Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place.,ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴹⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵇⴷⴷⵔ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⵥ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ.
"Other indirect methods in contemporary demography include asking people about siblings, parents, and children.","ⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵎⴰⵜⵏ, ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ."
"They include models of mortality (including the life table, Gompertz models, hazards models, Cox proportional hazards models, multiple decrement life tables, Brass relational logits), fertility (Hernes model, Coale-Trussell models, parity progression ratios), marriage (Singulate Mean at Marriage, Page model), disability (Sullivan's method, multistate life tables), population projections (Lee-Carter model, the Leslie Matrix), and population momentum (Keyfitz).","ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ (ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ, ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⴱⵉⵔⵜⵣ, ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴽⵙ, ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵏⴰⵥ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵉⵜⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵙ), ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵍⵍⵙ (ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⵏⵉ, ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⵔⵓⵙⵙⵍ, ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ), ⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⵍ (ⵙⵉⵏⴳⵓⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⵍ, ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵢⴷⵊ), ⵜⴰⵔⵙⵓⴳⵔⵜ (ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉ ⴽⴰⵔⵜⵔ, ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⵙ ⵍⵉⵣⵍⵉ) ⴷ ⵜⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ (ⴽⴰⵢⴼⵉⵜⵣ)."
"The age-specific fertility rates, the annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular age groups (usually age 15–19, 20-24 etc.)","ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⵓⵍⵍⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵡⴰⵜⴰⵢ, ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⵯⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵉ 1,000 ⵏ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ 15 ⴰⵔ 19, 20 ⴰⵔ 24 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵉⵜⵙⵉⵜⵉⵔⴰ.)"
"The expectation of life (or life expectancy), the number of years that an individual at a given age could expect to live at present mortality levels.","ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵜ ( ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ), ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⵇⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"A stationary population, one that is both stable and unchanging in size (the difference between crude birth rate and crude death rate is zero).","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ (ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ)."
Note that the crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression.,ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ.
Individuals who change their ethnic self-labels or whose ethnic classification in government statistics changes over time may be thought of as migrating or moving from one population subcategory to another.,ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵏⵢⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵏⵉⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵏⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴹ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵇⵇⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ.
"The figure in this section shows the latest (2004) UN projections of world population out to the year 2150 (red = high, orange = medium, green = low).","ⵓⵏⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ (2004) ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2150 (ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ = ⵢⵓⵍⵉ, ⴰⵍⵛⵛⵉⵏⵉ = ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ = ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ)."
"Mortality is the study of the causes, consequences, and measurement of processes affecting death to members of the population.","ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵟⵟⴰⵙⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
Migration researchers do not designate movements 'migrations' unless they are somewhat permanent.,"ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ""ⵉⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ"" ⵅⵙ ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ."
"Demography is today widely taught in many universities across the world, attracting students with initial training in social sciences, statistics or health studies.","ⵜⵜⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴷⵉ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⴹⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ."
"""In this respect, one can see information science as a response to technological determinism, the belief that technology """"develops by its own laws, that it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources available and the creativity of its developers.""","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰ, ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⴷⵉⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ, ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵍⵍⵡⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"It is concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
This is especially true when related to the concept developed by A. I. Mikhailov and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s.,ⵉⵚⵃⴰ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵎⵉⵅⴰⵢⵍⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ 1960 ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ.
Definitions reliant on the nature of the tools used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs.,ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴹⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ.
It can be used to reason about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ.
"Traditionally, their work has been with print materials, but these skills are being increasingly used with electronic, visual, audio, and digital materials.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉ, ⴰⵎⵙⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏⵉⵏ."
"Institutionally, information science emerged in the 19th century along with many other social science disciplines.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵉⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"In 1731, Benjamin Franklin established the Library Company of Philadelphia, the first library owned by a group of public citizens, which quickly expanded beyond the realm of books and became a center of scientific experiment, and which hosted public exhibitions of scientific experiments.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1731, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵏⵢⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⴰⴷⵉⵍⴼⵉⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴼⵙⴰⵄ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a punched card system to control operations of the cloth weaving loom in France.","ⴳ 1801, ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵊⴰⴽⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⴱⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴹⵓⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⴳ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⴰ."
"By 1843 Richard Hoe developed the rotary press, and in 1844 Samuel Morse sent the first public telegraph message.","ⴳ 1843, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵔⵓⵜⵛⴰⵔ ⵀⵓ ⵜⴰⵖⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⴳ 1844, ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⵙⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ."
In 1860 a congress was held at Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule to discuss the feasibility of establishing a systematic and rational nomenclature for chemistry.,"ⴳ 1860, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⵙⵖⵓ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⴽⵜ."
The following year the Royal Society began publication of its Catalogue of Papers in London.,"ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵏⴷⵓⵏ."
Many information science historians cite Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine as the fathers of information science with the founding of the International Institute of Bibliography (IIB) in 1895.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴱⵓⵍ ⵓⵜⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵀⵓⵏⵔⵉ ⵍⴰⴼⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵉⴱⵍⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ (ⵉⵉⴱ) ⴳ 1895.
Documentalists emphasized the utilitarian integration of technology and technique toward specific social goals.,ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴻⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵓⴱⵖⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"Otlet and Lafontaine established numerous organizations dedicated to standardization, bibliography, international associations, and consequently, international cooperation.","ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵓⵜⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵍⴰⴼⵓⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉ ⵜⴱⵉⴱⵍⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ, ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ, ⵙ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵜ, ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ."
This collection involved standardized paper sheets and cards filed in custom-designed cabinets according to a hierarchical index (which culled information worldwide from diverse sources) and a commercial information retrieval service (which answered written requests by copying relevant information from index cards).,ⵜⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵖⴹ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴱⵉ (ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ) ⴷ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ (ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵜ).
"Additionally, traditional boundaries among disciplines began to fade and many information science scholars joined with other programs.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⵍⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ."
The 1980s also saw the emergence of numerous special interest groups to respond to the changes.,ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵓⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ.
"Zhang, B., Semenov, A., Vos, M. and Veijlainen, J. (2014).","ⵣⵀⴰⵏⴳ, ⴱ., ⵙⵉⵎⵉⵏⵓⴼ, ⴰ., ⴱⵓⵙ, ⵎ, ⴷ ⴱⵉⵊⵍⴰⵢⵏⴻⵏ, ⵊ. (2014)"
"""Sharing through social media has become so influential that publishers must """"play nice"""" if they desire to succeed.""","ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵕⴰⴳⵏ ""ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵜⵜⵉ"" ⵎⴽ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ."
"""It is for this reason that these networks have been realized for the potential they provide. """"""",“ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ.”””
What about assigning privileges and restricting access to unauthorized users?,ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵜⵉⵢⴰⵣⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵏⵥ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ.
It is an emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing together principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴱⴰⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴳⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ.
"""Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called """"information overload"""".""","ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵏⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ""ⴰⴱⵔⵜⴽⴽⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ""."
An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system.,ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵔⵎⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ
"Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵙⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵙⵉⵙⵜ."
"Depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ, ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ, ⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵢⵓⵜⵏ."
"Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval (IR).","ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ (ⴷⵉ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰ."
Logic is used to supply formal semantics of how reasoning functions should be applied to the symbols in the KR system.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵍⵖⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴽⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴽⴰ ⵉⵔ.
"It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⴷⴰⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵉⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ, ⵉⵀⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⵢⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ."
"The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule.","ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⴽⵓⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ; ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵏⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴱⴹ."
"The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks.",ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ.
"Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations.","ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ, ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ 31 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ 17 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ."
"As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ."
They created the Mandate of Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven.,ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵟⵟⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
"However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵀⴷⴷⵏⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵀⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵣⵀⵓ."
"They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners.","ⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⴱⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ, ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵃⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵢⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⵃⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵏ."
Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ.
"Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect, and their relationship with the lower class.","ⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔ, ⴰⵡⵇⵇⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ."
"Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⴰ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵢⵄⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰ!ⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵏⵥ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵀⵓ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⴰ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵣⵀⵓ ⴰⵓⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵖⴷⵉⵎⵜ."
"During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⵢⵓⵜⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ."
The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China’s history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country.,.ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ.
A major purpose was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven through these five dynasties and thus to the Song dynasty.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴳ.
They also held considerably more territory than any of the other Chinese states that had existed conterminously in the south.,ⵎⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⴰ ⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ.
"The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen and the Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate.","ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵀⵓ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵟⵕ ⵍⵉⵢⴰⵏⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⴳⴰⵥ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ."
"However, Kublai Khan was the only indifferent ruler when he claimed the Mandate of Heaven over the Yuan Dynasty since he had a sizable military and was part of the Khitan people, as with many others from the same background since they did not have the same traditions and culture as their Chinese adversaries.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴳⵓⴱⵍⴰⵢ ⵅⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⴷⴼⵔⵉⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵍⵅⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⵎⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵢⵏ."
It was solely politics from beginning to end and an attempt from the emperor to maintain a favorable act towards Heaven.,ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵟⵟⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law.,ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵡⵡⴰⵖⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ.
"""Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of Victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying """"The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw"""" (Chinese: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”).""","""ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵜⵃⴰⵙⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵏⵡⵉⵢ ""ⴰⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ, ⴰⵎⵕⵕⵥⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴼⵖ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ"" ( ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”)."""
"The kingdom of Silla is also said to be adopted the Mandate of Heaven, but the earliest records are from Joseon Dynasty, which made the Mandate of Heaven an enduring state ideology.","ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵊⵓⵣⵢⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ."
"The later and more centralized Vietnamese dynasties adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, which led to the creation of a Vietnamese tributary system in Southeast Asia that was modeled after the Chinese Sinocentric system in East Asia.","ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⴼⵓⵛⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⵏⴷ ⵓⵏⵥⵓⵍ ⵓⴳⵎⵉⴹ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵢ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵓ."
"In later times, this need was obviated because the Imperial House of Japan claimed to be descended in an unbroken line from the Japanese sun goddess, Amaterasu.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵄⵟⵟⵕⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴳⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵔⴰⵙⵓ."
"Even after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the emperor was placed back in the center of the political bureaucracy, the throne itself had very little power vis-à-vis the Meiji oligarchy.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵊⵉ ⴳ 1868, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵉⵔⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴳⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵊⵉ."
"Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ."
"Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, and in secondary schools in the mid 1960s.","ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 1960, ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960."
"In secondary schools, an early film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960."
"It has since become, and continues to be, a strong component of the VCE.","ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉ ⵙⵉ ⵉ."
Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level.,ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⵓⵍ.
Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan are famous Canadian scholars for their contributions to the fields of media ecology and political economy in the 20th century.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵀⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴽⵍⵓⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵉⵊⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20.
"Carleton University and the University of Western Ontario, 1945 and 1946 prospectively, created Journalism specific programs or schools.","ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ 1945 ⴷ 1946, ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ."
"Today, most universities offer undergraduate degrees in Media and Communication Studies, and many Canadian scholars actively contribute to the field, among which: Brian Massumi (philosophy, cultural studies), Kim Sawchuk (cultural studies, feminist, ageing studies), Carrie Rentschler (feminist theory), and François Cooren (organizational communication).","ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ: ⴱⵔⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵓⵎⵉ (ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴽⵉⵎ ⵙⴰⵡⵛⵓⴽ (ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔ), ⴽⴰⵔⵉ ⵔⵉⵏⵜⵛⵔ (ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⴼⵔⵓⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏ (ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ)."
A medium is anything that mediates our interaction with the world or other humans.,ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
McLuhan says that the “technique of fragmentation that is the essence of machine technology” shaped the restructuring of human work and association and “the essence of automation technology is the opposite”.,"ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⴻⴷ ⵎⴽⵍⵓⵀⴰⵏ ""ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏ"" ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ""ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ""."
The characteristic of all media means the “content” of any medium is always another medium.,"ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ""ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ"" ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰⵍⵜ."
If the electric light is used for Friday night football or to light up your desk you could argue that the content of the electric light is these activities.,ⵎⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵎⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵜⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴷ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ.
It is not until the electric light is used to spell a brand name that it is recognized as medium.,ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ.
The effect of the medium is made strong because it is given another media “content”.,"ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⴹⵓⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ""ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⴹ"" ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ."
Hot media are low in participation and cool media are high in participation.,ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ.
"Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, that dates back to 1954.","ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⴳ ⴱⴱⵉⴽⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1954."
"Bourdieu's analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, than we think.","ⴰⵚⵍⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ , ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ."
"Within the field of Film Studies, again, both Frankfurt and Berlin were dominant in the development of new perspectives on moving image media.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ, ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ."
"One of the early publications in this new direction is a volume edited by Helmut Kreuzer, Literature Studies - Media Studies (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), which summarizes the presentations given at the Düsseldorfer Germanistentag 1976.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵀⵉⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⴽⵔⵢⵓⵣⵔ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ - ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ Düsseldorfer Germanistentag ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976."
"The German Institute for Media and Communication Policy, founded in 2005 by media scholar Lutz Hachmeister, is one of the few independent research institutions that is dedicated to issues surrounding media and communications policies.","ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ 2005 ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵍⵓⵜⵔⵣ ⵀⴰⵛⵎⵉⵙⵜⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
"Medienwissenschaften is currently one of the most popular courses of study at universities in Germany, with many applicants mistakenly assuming that studying it will automatically lead to a career in TV or other media.","ⵜⴰⴳ Medienwissenschaften ⴷⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⴽⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
It offers a five-year integrated programme and a two-year programme in Electronic Media.,ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ.
"Whereas communication sciences focuses on the way people communicate, be it mediated or unmediated, media studies tends to narrow the communication down to just mediated communication.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ , ⵙⵡⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴳⵉ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵢⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵢ."
"Communication sciences (or a derivative thereof) can be studied at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Radboud University, Tilburg University, University of Amsterdam, University of Groningen, University of Twente, Roosevelt Academy, University of Utrecht, VU University Amsterdam and Wageningen University and Research Centre.","ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ (ⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ) ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵕⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⴱⵓⴷ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴱⵓⵔⴳ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⵉⵔⴷⴰⵎ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵓⵏⵉⵏⴳⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵜⵉ, ⵜⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴼⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵉⵅⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵡ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⵉⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵉⵏⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ."
University of the Punjab Lahore is the oldest department.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⵊⴰⴱ ⵍⴰⵀⵓⵔ ⵜⵥⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.
Media Studies is now taught all over the UK.,ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ
"However, the focus of such programs sometimes excludes certain media—film, book publishing, video games, etc.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ - ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ, ⵜⵥⵕⵉⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ, ⵜⵔⵓⵔⴰⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵢⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"This is partly thanks to the acquisition of Professor Siva Vaidhyanathan, a cultural historian and media scholar, as well as the Inaugural Verklin Media Policy and Ethics Conference, endowed by the CEO of Canoe Ventures and UVA alumnus David Verklin.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵍⴼⴹⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵛⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⵄⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵎⴷ ⵙⵉⴼⴰ ⴼⴰⵢⴷⵢⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵔⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵛⴰ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ ⴽⴰⵏⵓ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⵢⴰⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⴼⵉⵔⴽⵍⵉⵏ."
"A media studies major at Radford still means someone concentrating on journalism, broadcasting, advertising or Web production.)","ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵖⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵔⴰⴷⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵀⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⵎⵙⴰ , ⴰⵡⵓⵡⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵡⵣⴰⵢ, ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵡⵉⴱ.)"
"Bergson contrasted an open society with what he called a closed society, a closed system of law, morality or religion.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵔⴳⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⵏ ⵉⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ, ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ."
"""Soros, George, """"The Age of Fallibility,"""" Public Affairs (2006).""","""ⵙⵓⵔⵓⵙ, ⵊⵓⵔⵊ'''' ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ,'''' ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⵣⵉⵏ (2006)."
Totalitarianism forced knowledge to become political which made critical thinking impossible and led to the destruction of knowledge in totalitarian countries.,ⵜⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⵜⵟⵓⵟⴰⵍⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ; ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵣⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵅⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵟⵓⵟⴰⵍⵉⵟⴰⵔⵢⴰ.
"In the closed society, claims to certain knowledge and ultimate truth lead to the attempted imposition of one version of reality.","ⵏ ⵡⴰ,ⵓⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⵏ, ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ."
"Because the electorate's perception of reality can easily be manipulated, democratic political discourse does not necessarily lead to a better understanding of reality.",ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵎⴹⵉ; ⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Popper however, did not identify the open society either with democracy or with capitalism or a laissez-faire economy, but rather with a critical frame of mind on the part of the individual, in the face of communal group think of whatever kind.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⴼ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵊ-ⵙⵙⴽⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ; ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ."
Regulatory colleges are legal entities charged with serving the public interest by regulating the practice of a profession.,ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⵍⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⵣⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ.
"For example, no worker in Ontario may work in a compulsory trade without membership in the Ontario College of Trades.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ."
"For Weber, sociology is the study of society and behavior and must therefore look at the heart of interaction.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵉⴱⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ."
"""The term is more practical and encompassing than Florian Znaniecki's """"social phenomena"""", since the individual performing social action is not passive, but rather active and reactive.""","''ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ''ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ'', ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⵡⴷⵉⵔ, ⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ.''"
This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴰⵙⴱ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"If the student chooses not to do well in college, they know that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer.","ⵎⴽ ⵉⴼⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵜⴳ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ; ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵏ."
Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands.,ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰ ⵖⴼ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ-ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
These demands have posed several problems even legal formalism has been put to the test.,"ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵙⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵥⵕⴰⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ."
"To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵜⵜⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵛⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏ."
"It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵎⵍⵉⵃ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴰⵛⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ."
"Affectual action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to 'one's emotions, to express personal feelings.","ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⴽⵜ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉ): ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ""ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵏⴰⴷⵎ, ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ."
In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion.,ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵏ ⵡⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ.
When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest.,ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵅⵙⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ.
A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵚⵉⵏⵄ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉ.
These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.,ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ.
Micrological theories of economy consider acts of a group of individuals.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ.
By doing this it causes providers to be competitive and therefore creates order in the economy.,ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴽⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⴷⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ.
"Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions.","ⵜⵓⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉⵢ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
"Traditional actions: actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations.","ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ: ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵉ."
A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity.,ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ.
A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴱⵖⵔⵏ ⵢⵓⵥⴻⵥⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴼⵔⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ.
The idea of Cooley's looking glass self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions.,ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⴽⵍⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ.
"""Social capital is """"the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively"""".""","""ⴰⵢⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ"" ⵉⴳⴰ ""ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ""."
"In the first half of the 19th century, de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ19, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵟⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⴽⵣ ⴰⵢⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
"The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴱⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵓⵎ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴱⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴱⵏⴰⴷⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵓⴽⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""In the words of Stein (1960:1): """"The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level.""""""","""ⴳ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ (1960:1): """"ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴱⵖⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ""""."
All of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades.,ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵕⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ.
"Robert D. Putnam (1993) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime.","ⵉⵖⵜⵙ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴷⵉ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ (1993) ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵥⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴱⴽⴽⴰⴹ."
"""Nan Lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: """"Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace.""""""","""ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ:""""ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴷⵣ."""""
"The term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵙⵏⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵖⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ)."
"Robison, Schmid, and Siles (2002) reviewed various definitions of social capital and concluded that many did not satisfy the formal requirement of a definition.","ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵙⵓ, ⵙⵛⵎⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵙ (2002) ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ."
They propose that social capital be defined as sympathy: the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital.,ⵖⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵙⵉ: ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ; ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
Social capital is also distinguished from the economic theory social capitalism.,ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"""It """"creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well.""""""","""""ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ."""""
"""According to Robert D. Putnam, social capital refers to """"connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.""""""","""ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴷⵉ. ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵔ """" ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ - ⵉⵥⵟⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⵖⵏ."""""
This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ.
"Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is women's entry the workforce, which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵓⵟⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ."
"Fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare.","ⵉⵖⵜⵙ ⴼⵓⴽⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵡⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴱⵖⵔ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵥⴰⵥⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ."
"This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network.","ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ."
This is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network.,ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.
"Research by Sheri Berman and Dylan Riley, as well as economists Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, and Hans-Joachim Voth, have linked civic associations to the rise of fascist movements.","ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⵍⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵛⴰⵏⴽⵔ ⵙⴰⵜⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵉⴽⵓ ⴼⵡⵉⵊⵍⴰⵏⴷⵔ, ⴷ ⵀⴰⵏⵙ -ⵊⵓⵡⴽⴰⵢⵎ ⴼⵓⵜⵀ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵛⵉⵢⵏ."
The negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging.,ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ.
"Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other.","ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴼⴽⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵎⵢⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ."
The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⴹⵓⵕⵕⴼ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⵍⵉⵡⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"""Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler's rise to power.""""""","""ⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵙⴱⵏⵏⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴹⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⴱⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰⵕ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⵉ ⵀⵉⵜⵜⵍⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ""."
They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵙⴱⵏⴰⴱⴽⴰⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵎⴰⵕ.
"Robert Putnam, in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities.","ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵖⵜⵙ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴱⵕⵉⴽⴽⵉⴹ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community.","ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴽⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"Human capital, a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital.","ⵉⵥⴰⴹⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
"Even though Coleman never truly addresses Pierre Bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with Bourdieu's argument set forth in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴳⵍⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵙ ⴱⵢⵉⵔⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵥⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ, ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ."
"Thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to.","ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴱⵏⴰⴷⵎ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ."
"To illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society.","ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
Is Civil Society an Adequate Theory?,ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ?
"Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴽⴽⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵓⵍⵉⵏⴳ (ⵙⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ, ⵜⵙⵖⵉⵍⴼ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ) ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵢ."
"Aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of disaster recovery, and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⵓⵃ ⴰⵍⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⴳⴷⴷⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⵡⵍ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⴷⵏ, ⵜⵉⴹⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ."
"People who live their life this way feel that these are norms of society and are able to live their lives free of worry for their credit, children, and receive charity if needed.","ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵇⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⵯⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ."
"""All forms of """"capital"""" were, for Marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their labour power, because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise.""","ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵉⵏ ⵏ ''ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ'''', ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⴼⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵣⵏⵣⵏ ⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴼⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
Portes mentions the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group as an example of this.,"ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵔ ⴱⵓⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵉⵜ."
"Bonding and bridging sub-scales are proposed, which have been adopted by over 300 scholarly articles.","ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"However, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵓⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
"Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant.","ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴽⴰⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ."
"How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴽⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"Recognizing that one may not be able to influence the sympathy of others, persons seeking to belong may act to increase their own sympathy for others and the organizations or institutions they represent.",ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ; ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ.
"According to such authors as Walzer (1992), Alessandrini (2002), Newtown, Stolle & Rochon, Foley & Edwards (1997), and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵣⵔ (1992); ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵏⵉ (2002), ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ, ⵙⵜⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵛⵓⵏ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷⵣ (1997), ⴷ ⵡⵓⵍⵜⵔⴰ, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⵔ ⵡⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ; ⴰⴳ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"Not only has civil society been documented to produce sources of social capital, according to Lyons' Third Sector (2001), social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector.","ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏ (2001); ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⵢⴰⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ."
"""The goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into """"the community.""""""",''ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵡⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ''''ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ''''
"""Alessandrini agrees, saying that, """"in Australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work.""""""","''ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ, '''' ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴰⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ'''''."
"In international development, Ben Fine (2001) and John Harriss (2001) have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and NGOs, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵣⵖⵏ ⴱⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵏ (2001) ⴷ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⵉⵙ (2001) ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵔ ⵉⵊⵊⵓⵊⵓⵢⵏ (ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵣⵓ ⵉⵏ ⵊⵊⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ) ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⴳⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ."
"However, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⵏ ⵡ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵜ."
Careful evaluation of these fundamental factors often suggests that women do not vote at similar levels as men.,ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⴱ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ.
Social capital offers a wealth of resources and networks that facilitate political engagement.,ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.
Women are more likely to organize themselves in less hierarchical ways and to focus on creating consensus.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴱⵉⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ.
"For example, a person who is sick with cancer may receive information, money, or moral support he or she needs to endure treatment and recover.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵓⴼⵓⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ, ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵙⵔ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵉⵛⵛ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵊⵊⵉ."
"Furthermore, neighbourhood social capital may also aid in buffering health inequities amongst children and adolescents.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵔⵓⴳⵏ."
The relationships and networks that are maintained by an ethnic minority population in a geographical area where a high percentage of residents belong to the same ethnic group may lead to better health outcomes than would be expected based on other individual and neighbourhood characteristics.,ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵊⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵔⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"For example, results from a survey given to 13- to 18-year-old students in Sweden showed that low social capital and low social trust are associated with higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and depression.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ 13 ⴰⵔ 18 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵉⴷ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵍⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵙⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽ; ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵊⵊⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⴰⴱⴰ."
"In one study, informational uses of the Internet correlated positively with an individual's production of social capital, and social-recreational uses were negatively correlated (higher levels of these uses correlated with lower levels of social capital).",".ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ (ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ)."
"This means that individuals can selectively connect with others based on ascertained interests, and backgrounds.",ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"This argument continues, although the preponderance of evidence shows a positive association between social capital and the Internet.",ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰ; ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵔⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.
"Recent research, conducted in 2006, also shows that Internet users often have wider networks than those who access the Internet irregularly or not at all.","ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ 2006, ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
"Other research shows that younger people use the Internet as a supplemental medium for communication, rather than letting the Internet communication replace face-to-face contact.","ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵔⵏⵉ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵊⵊⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"They criticise Coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⴱⵢⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴹⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⴱⴰⵜ."
Morgan and Sorensen (1999) directly challenge Coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why Catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement.,ⵢⵓⴳⵉ ⵎⵓⵔⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏⵙⵏ (1999) ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵖ ⴰⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵔⵜ.
"It is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring.","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴽⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵡⴼⴰⵏ."
"These schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵜⵔⵓⴳⵏ."
The similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children's education.,ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"Without social capital in the area of education, teachers and parents who play a responsibility in a students learning, the significant impacts on their child's academic learning can rely on these factors.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰ."
"""As Tedin and Weiher (2010) state, """"one of the most important factors in promoting student success is the active involvement of parents in a child's education.""""""","''ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵀⵔ (2010); ""ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ.''''"
"Supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed.","ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵃⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎⵏ."
Ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society.,ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴳⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ.
Ethnic support provides impetus to academic success.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵃⵓⵔⵓⵛ ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.
His main argument for classifying social capital as a geographical concept is that the relationships of people is shaped and molded by the areas in which they live.,ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵉⴳ ⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ.
"In his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space.","ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ."
Another area where social capital can be seen as an area of study in geography is through the analysis of participation in volunteerism and its support of different governments.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴰⵙⴱ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵅⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
There is a significant connection between leisure and democratic social capital.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵜⵉ.
"In a later study, Kislev (2020) shows the relation between romantic relationships desire and singleness.",ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⴹⴼⵉⵕⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⵙⵍⵉⴼ (2020) ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵃⵓⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⵔⴷⴰⵏⵉⵜ.
Similar results were revealed in a cross-sectional study run by Sarker in Bangladesh.,ⵜⵉⵢⴰⵡⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵙⴰⵔⴽⵔ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵏⴳⵍⴰⴷⵉⵛ.
Epo did this by comparing the welfare outcomes of the entrepreneurs who both had access and no access.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⴱⵓ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵕⵕⵃ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴼ.
Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole.,ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ (ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵜ.
Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members.,ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵢⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Its dynamic nature refers to how it gradually changes over time in its strength and form from the time a group is formed to when a group is disbanded.,ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ.
This definition can be generalized to most groups characterized by the group definition discussed above.,ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵙ.
"In a study, they asked the group members to identify all their good friends and calculated the ratio of ingroup choices to outgroup choices.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ."
"Group cohesion is similar to a type of group-level attraction which, according to Hogg, is known as social attraction.","ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵀⵓⴳ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ."
"Lott and Lott (1965) who refer to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on the literature and found that individuals' similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness.","ⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵜ (1965), ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⵖⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵥⵖⵕ, ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⵉ, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ, ⴰⵡⴰⵜⴰⵢ), ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵡⵓⵔⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ."
"In addition, similar background makes it more likely that members share similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⵏ."
"This is often caused by social loafing, a theory that says individual members of a group will actually put in less effort, because they believe other members will make up for the slack.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵕⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴽⵓⵔⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⴰ."
Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ (ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ.
"When it is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction.","ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ."
"However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴰⵥⵜ-ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly related to performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ."
Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups.,ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵜ ⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⴼⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⵓⴽⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵉⵏ.
It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ.
"One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision making when the group is under stress, more than when it is not under stress.","ⵜⵎⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵣⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵡⵉ."
The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency.,ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⵍ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⵍ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ.
The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder the group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making.,ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉ.
"Another reason is because people value the group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships.",ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵃⵢⵢⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵥⵎⵎⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
The degree of member liking was presumed to indicate group cohesiveness.,ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ.
"According to the government-commissioned, State of the English Cities thematic reports, there are five different dimensions of social cohesion: material conditions, passive relationships, active relationships, solidarity, inclusion and equality.","ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ: ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ, ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵣⵉ, ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ."
These basic necessities of life are the foundations of a strong social fabric and important indicators of social progress.,ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴰ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ.
"""The third dimension refers to the positive interactions, exchanges and networks between individuals and communities, or """"active social relationships"""".""","ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵉⵏ, ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ""ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ''''.''"
"It also includes people's sense of belonging to a city and the strength of shared experiences, identities and values between those from different backgrounds.","ⵉⴽⵛ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"On a societal level Albrekt Larsen defines social cohesion 'as the belief—held by citizens in a given nation state—that they share a moral community, which enables them to trust each other'.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔ ⵍⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ''ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵖⴰⵍ - ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ-ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ - ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎⵙⴼⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ."
"Social formation is a Marxist concept (synonymous with 'society') referring to the concrete, historical articulation between the capitalist mode of production, maintaining pre-capitalist modes of production, and the institutional context of the economy (disambiguation).","ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉ (ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ''ⴰⵎⵓⵏ"") ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⴳⴰⵔ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ (ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜ)."
"In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ."
"""It contrasts with """"social system"""", which refers to the parent structure in which these various structures are embedded.""","''ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ""ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ''; ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.''"
It determines the norms and patterns of relations between the various institutions of the society.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.
"It is also important in the modern study of organizations, as an organization's structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, etc.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⵉ ⵏⵙ, ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⵍ, ⵉⵜⵛⵉⵜⵉⵔⴰ."
"On the meso scale, it concerns the structure of social networks between individuals or organizations.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵎⵉⵣⵉ, ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"""For example, John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions (i.e., """"structure"""" resembles that used by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss).""",ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ; ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ (ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ''ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ'' ⵜⵔⵡⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ-ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵡⵙ)''.
"""Alexis de Tocqueville was supposedly the first to use the term """"social structure"""".""",''ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⵉⵙ ⴷⵓ ⵜⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ '' ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ''''.
"One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the mode of production (an underlying economic structure).","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⵯⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ (ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ)."
"Émile Durkheim, drawing on the analogies between biological and social systems popularized by Herbert Spencer and others, introduced the idea that diverse social institutions and practices played a role in assuring the functional integration of society through assimilation of diverse parts into a unified and self-reproducing whole.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴷⵓⵔⴽⴰⵢⵉⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴱⵉⵏⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴰⵏⵙⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ."
Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures.,ⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
The most influential attempts to combine the concept of social structure with agency are Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration and Pierre Bourdieu's practice theory.,ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⵉⵡ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉ ⴳⵉⴷⴷⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ.
"Giddens's analysis, in this respect, closely parallels Jacques Derrida's deconstruction of the binaries that underlie classic sociological and anthropological reasoning (notably the universalizing tendencies of Lévi-Strauss's structuralism).","ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵉⴷⴷⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰ, ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵊⴰⴽ ⴷⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ (ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵍⵎⵓⵢⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵡⵙ)."
This was studied by Jacob L. Moreno.,ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵍ. ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵢⴰ.
Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain social behavior in terms of evolution.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵔ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ, ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴰⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
It predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ.
Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population.,ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵉⵀⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ.
"""Altmann developed his own brand of sociobiology to study the social behavior of rhesus macaques, using statistics, and was hired as a """"sociobiologist"""" at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in 1965.""","ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵙⵓⵢⵓⴱⵍⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵓ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴽⴰⴽ ⵔⵉⵙⵓⵙ; ⵙ ⵓⵙⵅⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ''ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ''''' ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⴽⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1965."
"""Once a specialist term, """"sociobiology"""" became widely known in 1975 when Wilson published his book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, which sparked an intense controversy.""","''ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ''''ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵜ'''' ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ 1975 ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵡⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ: ⴰⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵇⵇⵓⵔ."
"However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists and philosophers since soon after the discovery of evolution itself.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⴹⵉⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵉⵙⵣⴳⵎ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Edward H. Hagen writes in The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology that sociobiology is, despite the public controversy regarding the applications to humans, """"one of the scientific triumphs of the twentieth century."""" """"""","''ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵀⵉⴳⵉⵏⵣ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ;'''' ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ.'''' ''''''"
"""Therefore, these traits were probably """"adaptive"""" in the environment in which the species evolved.""","''ⵙ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵜ, ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ''''ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ'''' ⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.''"
"Thus, they are often interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures.","ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴳⵣⴰⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵎⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴳⵔ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⵏ."
This parental protection would increase in frequency in the population.,ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ.
E.O. Wilson argued that evolution may also act upon groups.,ⵉ.ⵓ. ⵡⵉⵍⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ.
"If altruism is genetically determined, then altruistic individuals must reproduce their own altruistic genetic traits for altruism to survive, but when altruists lavish their resources on non-altruists at the expense of their own kind, the altruists tend to die out and the others tend to increase.","ⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⵉⴰⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼ, ⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵚⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉ."
"Within sociobiology, a social behavior is first explained as a sociobiological hypothesis by finding an evolutionarily stable strategy that matches the observed behavior.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵙⵔ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉ ⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙⵏ."
Altruism between social insects and littermates has been explained in such a way.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵙⵔ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰ.
"In general, females with more bearing opportunities may value offspring less, and may also arrange bearing opportunities to maximize the food and protection from mates.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵏⵜ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"Studies of human behavior genetics have generally found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability.","ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ, ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ, ⵜⵉⵛⵛⵓⵏⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵜⵜⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ."
"Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the mouse genome, male mice will instantly attack other males, whereas their wild-type counterparts take significantly longer to initiate violent behaviour.","ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙ ⴼⴼⵉ ⵉ ⴱⴱⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢ, ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵓⴳⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵙⵔⵏ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳⵎⵏ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵓⴽⵕⵉⴹ."
"During a 1976 meeting of the Sociobiology Study Group, as reported by Ullica Segerstråle, Chomsky argued for the importance of a sociobiologically informed notion of human nature.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ 1976, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵍⵉⴽⴰ ⵙⵉⴳⵉⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⵄⵕ ⵜⵛⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
"Wilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what ought to be, only what is the case.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵎ ⵡⵉⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵊⵊⵓⵏ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ."
Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services).,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⴱⵃ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⴱⵃ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵎⵙⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵙⵍⵉⵄⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ).
"If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions.","ⵎⴽ ⵜⴱⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ."
The term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or by public officials) to refer to a company.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ (ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⵣⵏ) ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ.
"A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, who elect a board of directors to direct the corporation and hire its managerial staff.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵔⴰⵅⵡⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"A cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority.","ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴹⴹⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⵙⵜ."
"Limited liability companies (LLC), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections.","ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏ (LLC), ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴼⵔⵔⴳⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵕⵥⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵏ."
"The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise, they have no economic rights in relation to the company.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴹⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ) ⴳ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵃⵔⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⴼ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ."
"This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist.","ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ."
"""Note that """"Ltd after the company's name signifies limited company, and PLC (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held.""""""","''ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ''''ⵉⵍ ⵜⵉ ⴷⵉ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⴱⵉ ⵉⵍ ⵙⵉ (ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ."
"In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⵓⴹⵎⴰⵏ, ⵀⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
"Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares.",ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵥⵏ ⵖⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ.
Entertainment companies and mass media agencies generate profits primarily from the sale of intellectual property.,ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ.
"They include tangible goods such as cars, buses, medical devices, glass, or aircraft.","ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ, ⵏ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ."
Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵃⵓⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⴰⵟⴰⵍⵓⴳ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⴱⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ.
They make their profits by selling goods and services that are sports related.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵣⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ.
The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494.,ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1494 ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⵏⵉⵢ ⵍⵓⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ.
Finance can also be defined as the science of money management.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⵥⵕⴼⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ.
"Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them.","ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵢ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰⵜⵏ.
Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability).,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ (ⵙⵡⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ).
"""Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate """"person"""".""","""ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ, ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵕⵟⵟⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ """"ⵓⴷⵎ"""" ⴰⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢ."""
"The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ."
"In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵢ ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⴰ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵍⵓⵖⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼⵏ."
"""""""Going public"""" through a process known as an initial public offering (IPO) means that part of the business will be owned by members of the public.""","ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ""ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ"" ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵍ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵣⵎⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
"The Code of Hammurabi dates back to about 1772 BC for example and contains provisions that relate, among other matters, to shipping costs and dealings between merchants and brokers.","ⵜⵓⴳⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵃⵎⵎⵓⵕⴰⴱⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⴰⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1772 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵙⵎⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵙⴰⵕⵏ."
Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵓⵔⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵓⴳⴰⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵎⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ.
Most countries with capital markets have at least one.,ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴱⵄⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ.
Other western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ.
The proliferation and increasing complexity of the laws governing business have forced increasing specialization in corporate law.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴽⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵉⵏ.
"Most businesses have names, logos, and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking.","ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵟⵟⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⵖⵔⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ."
"Economics is the social science that studies how people interact with value; in particular, the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⵛ ⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ; ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵍⴰⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
"He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.","ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵣⵏ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵚⵍⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰ: ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⵔⴰ (ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ) ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⵉ."
"If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives.","ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵖⵜⴰⵙ (ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴷⵓ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ) ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ (ⴰⵖⵜⴰⵙ) ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ."
"""Economic precepts occur throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod himself as the """"first economist"""".""","""ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣ ⴱⵓⵜⵢⴰⵏ ⵀⵉⵙⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵀⵉⵙⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ""ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ""."""
"""Two groups, who later were called """"mercantilists"""" and """"physiocrats"""", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject.""","""ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⵔⴰⵏ """"ⵎⵉⵔⴽⴰⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⵜ"""" ⴷ """"ⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜ"""", ⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⵔⴰⵏ."
It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⴽ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵕⴼ.
"Physiocrats, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output.","ⴼⵉⵙⵢⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵙ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18, ⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ."
Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners.,ⴼⵉⵙⵢⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵍⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ.
"Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries.","ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵣⵣⵉⵢⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵄⴰⵏⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ."
The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour.,ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰ ⴰⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ.
"While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼ, ⴷⴰⵖⵉⴷ ⵕⵉⴽⴰⵔⴷⵓ (1817) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉⵜⵏ."
"Ricardo was the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.","ⵕⵉⴽⴰⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⴷⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income.,ⵎⵉⵍⵍ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ: ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ.
"""Smith wrote that the """"real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it"""".""","""ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ"" ""ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ... ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵅⵏⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ""."
"""Say's definition has prevailed up to our time, saved by substituting the word """"wealth"""" for """"goods and services"""" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well.""","""ⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵖ, ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ""ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ"" ⵙ ""ⴰⵍⵣⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ """" ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵟⵟⴼ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ""."
"""For Robbins, the insufficiency was solved, and his definition allows us to proclaim, with an easy conscience, education economics, safety and security economics, health economics, war economics, and of course, production, distribution and consumption economics as valid subjects of the economic science.""""""","""ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵣ ⴰⵏⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ, ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ , ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ""."
"Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵣ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵣ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ."
"""The term """"economics"""" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for """"economic science"""" and a substitute for the earlier """"political economy"""".""","ⵉⴽⵙⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ""ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ"" ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⵍⵏ ⵉ""ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ"" ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ""ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ"" ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
It dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.,ⵜⵣⴳⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴹⵕⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵥⴰⵣⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ.
"An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⴷⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵉⵥⴰⵥⴰⵜⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ."
"Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income.","ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵚⵍⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵚⵍⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵚⵍⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
"There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵎⵉⵍⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵖⵜⴰⵙ (ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ) ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵢ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.,ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷⴷ.
Keynesian economics has two successors.,ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵢⵏⵉⵣⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎⵏ.
It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson.,ⵜⵇⵇⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵊ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵚⵓⵏ.
"Ben Bernanke, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting Friedman's analysis of the causes of the Great Depression.","ⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵏⴰⴽ, ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴹⴰⴼ ⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵢ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵚⵍⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴱⵔ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"When creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.","ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵅⵕⵕⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
"Early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations.","ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵙⵄⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ , ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⵏⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ."
"Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative.","ⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ"
"However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.","ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏⵏⵉ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense.","ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵇⴱⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵎⵓ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
"Criticisms based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization, although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵟⵓⵕⴼ, ⵜⵉⵣⴳⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵊⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ."
"In applied economics, input–output models employing linear programming methods are quite common.","ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵜ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵀⵉⵍ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⵛⴰⵏ."
This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.,ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⵟⵃⴰⵃ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ.
Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⴰⵏⵜ.
"In perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product.","ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵉⵎⵣⵉⵖⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⵙⵔⵏ."
Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system by assuming that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵚⵍⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
Choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ.
"Part of the cost of making pretzels is that neither the flour nor the morning are available any longer, for use in some other way.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴽⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵍⴰ ⴰⴳⴳⵔⵏ ⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources).","ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵢⵏ, ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ (ⵉⵍⴰⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷⴰⵙⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ), ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ)."
"""Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of """"waste"""" is reduced.""","""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⵔⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ""ⵉⴼⵕⴰⴹⵏ""."""
"""In the simplest case an economy can produce just two goods (say """"guns"""" and """"butter"""").""","""ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵣⵏ (ⴰⵎ ""ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵡⴱⴰⵡ""ⴷ """"ⵜⵎⵓⴷⵉⵜ"""")."""
Scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the PPF (such as at X) and by the negative slope of the curve.,ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵊⵕⵉ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵉⴳ PPF (ⴰⵎⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵙ) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵣⵎⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵃⵓⴷⵔ.
The slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods.,ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴽⵙⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵣⴰⵣⵏ.
"Along the PPF, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ PPF, ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ."
"A point inside the curve (as at A), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴰⴳⵏⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵃⵓⴷⵔ ( ⴰⵎⵎ ⴳ ⴰ) ⵜⴱ=ⵖⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ (ⴰⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵙⵍⵉⵄⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴳⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵃⵓⴷⵔ."
"It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵉⵊⵕⵕⵓ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⴽⵏⵉⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴽⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ."
"Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.","ⴳⵔ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵡⵉ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ."
"Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⴼⵖⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ (ⵏⵉⵙⴱⵉⵢⴰⵏ) ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵉⵅⴷⴷⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ."
"In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.","ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣⵉ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ."
"Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc.","ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ, ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ, ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ, ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵜⵙⵉⵜⵉⵔⴰ."
"The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵚⵉⴹⵕⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵎⴳⵍⴰ."
"In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect).","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵖⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵖⵜ (ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰ)."
Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰ.
"Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵡⵡⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ."
"Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.","ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ, ⴰⵙⴷⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⵍ, ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵉⵏⵉⵢ."
"Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵃⵓⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰ ⵙⵏⵏⵊ."
"At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.","ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⵓⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts.","ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵉⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ."
"In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price.","ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ."
"Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⴰⵥⵕⴽⵡⴰⵛ, ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴳⵓⴱⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴱⵓⵍ."
"Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.","ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉ."
"In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.","ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵇⵇⵇⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴽⵍⵉⵢⵉⵔⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ, ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼ, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"""Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a """"lemon"""" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.""",ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ''''ⵍⵉⵎⵓⵏ'''' ⴷⴰ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵔⴳ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵉⴱⵓⴷⴰⵏ.
"""Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market (""""incomplete markets"""").""",ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵀⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ (''''ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏ'''').''
"Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.","ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵏⵥⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵙ."
Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market.,ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ.
"For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴰⴹⵓⵚ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⴹⵓⵚ ⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ (ⴰⴱⴽⴽⴰⴹ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.)."
"In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side.","ⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵛⴱⴱⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ , ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ."
Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵕⵚⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ.
"Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components.","ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ, ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⵅⵅⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵜ.
"Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.","ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴼⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵢ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information.","ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵓⵜ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏ."
The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs.,ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.,ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⴰ ⵓⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ.
Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵡⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏⵜ.
"Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.","ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵣⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵍⵎⴰⵎⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⵣⵜ."
"""In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, """"Money is what money does"""" (""""Money is that money does"""" in the original).""","''ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰ ⵡⵓⵍⴽⵔ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴷⵎⴰⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ''''ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ'''' (""""Money is that money does"""" ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ)''."
Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange).,ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ( ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵙ ⵡⵔ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ).
"When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed.","ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵅⴷⵎ ⵉⴱⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ."
The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ.
Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵍⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ.
"The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵓⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⵎⵏ."
It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.,ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ.
"""It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname """"the dismal science"""" as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply.""","''ⴰⵔ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⴰⵢⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ''ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵍⴼⵏ'''' ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18 ⵏ ⵍⵇⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ."
"The close relation of economic theory and practice with politics is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems.",ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
Some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment.,ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⴰⵣ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
"Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state, are focus of contention and criticism.","ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵍⴰⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵍⵜ) ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵡⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ."
"The field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.","ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄⴰⵏⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵟⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵢⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ."
"""Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were """"trotted out ex post"""".""","'' ⵉⵍⴰ ⵊⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵄⵜⵉⴽⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵍⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵖⴰⵏⵏ """"trotted out ex post""""."""
"Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
"His works such as History of Animals were especially important because they revealed his naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life.","ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏⴻⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
"Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵣⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵅⴷⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴳⵎ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴱⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.,ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵏ ⵙⵡⴰⵎⵎⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⵍⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵍⵓ.
"Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.","ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴳ 1838, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵛⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ (1) ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ (2) ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ (3) ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵏⴼ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ 1735 (ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ), ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1750 ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰ."
"Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.","ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⵏⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ."
"""The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel, who presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","''ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉⵍ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ''''Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵀⵊⵊⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ''’’), ⴳ 1865, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.’’"
"A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.","ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵓⵏⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵡⴰⵢⴷ ⵏ ⴰ ⴷⵉ ⵉⵏ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ 1953, ⵕⵛⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔⵜ."
"Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴰⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⴳ 1990 ⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
Life on Earth began from water and remained there for about three billions years prior to migrating onto land.,ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵓⴳ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⵔⵎⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ.
"The atom of each specific element contains a unique number of protons, which is known as its atomic number, and the sum of its protons and neutrons is an atom's mass number.","ⴰⴼⵏⵓⵣ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴼⵏⵓⵣ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵏⵓⵣ."
"Carbon, for example, can exist as a stable isotope (carbon-12 or carbon-13) or as a radioactive isotope (carbon-14), the latter of which can be used in radiometric dating (specifically radiocarbon dating) to determine the age of organic materials.","ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵜⵓⴱ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ (ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ 12 ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ 13) ⵏⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵜⵓⴱ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓⴰⴽⵜⵉⴼ (ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ 14), ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽ (ⵙ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ) ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ."
"Ionic bonding involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵍⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
"Unlike ionic bonds, a covalent bond involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⴽⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ."
A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ, ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⵖ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ O–Hⵉⵇⵓⵟⴱⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵏⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵜⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ."
Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.,ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵍⵍⵖⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴷⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"The lower density of ice compared to liquid water is due to the lower number of water molecules that form the crystal lattice structure of ice, which leaves a large amount of space between water molecules.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵏⵏⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴳⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵓⴷⵍⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵡⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵢ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into gas (or water vapor).",ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵕⵥⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⵣ (ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ).
"With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ."
"For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane, two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide, or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵎⵣⵎⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⵟⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵎⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ (CO)."
"A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound.","ⵉⵥⴷⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴱⵓⵣⵄⵔⵓⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ(O), ⵍⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ (H), ⵍⴼⵓⵚⴼⵓⵕ (P), ⴷ ⵍⴽⴱⵔⵉⵢⵜ (S), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ."
"When two monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose are linked together, they can form a disaccharide such as sucrose.","ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴷⴰⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰⵏⵙⴰⴽⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵍⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵥ ⴷ ⵍⴼⵔⴽⵟⵓⵣ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵛⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴽⵕⵓⵙ."
These lipids are organic compounds that are largely nonpolar and hydrophobic.,ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵔⵥⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵢⵉⵏⵏ.
The glycerol and phosphate group together constitute the polar and hydrophilic (or head) region of the molecule whereas the fatty acids make up the nonpolar and hydrophobic (or tail) region.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴳⵍⵉⵙⵉⵔⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵍⴼⵓⵚⴼⴰⴼⴰⵟ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⴼ) ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵉ ⵜⵓⴹⵕⵉⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⴹⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⴰⵛⵡⴰⵍ).
"Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules, which include enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural proteins.","ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵎⴰⵜ, ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ, ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
The polarity and charge of the side chains affect the solubility of amino acids.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵜⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ.
The primary structure consists of a unique sequence of amino acids that are covalently linked together by peptide bonds.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⴰⴱⵜⵉⴷⵉ.
The folding of alpha helices and beta sheets gives a protein its three-dimensional or tertiary structure.,ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏⴹ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵢⵜⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ.
"The purines include guanine (G) and adenine (A) whereas the pyrimidines consist of cytosine (T), uracil (U), and thymine (T).","ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏⵏ (ⴳ) ⴷ ⴰⴷⵏⵉⵏ (ⴰ) ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙⵏ (ⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉⵍ (ⵓ), ⴷ ⵓⵜⴰⵢⵎⵉⵏ (ⵜ)."
"A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures.","ⵜⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵢⵔ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⴽⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵓⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵍⵉⴱⵓⴷ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵃⵔⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton.","ⴷⴰ ⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵍⵜⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⴽⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵍⵉⵜⵓⵏ."
"""The Alberts text discusses how the """"cellular building blocks"""" move to shape developing embryos.""","""''ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴰⴽ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏⵜ ''ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ''ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵖⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⴰⵏ."
"Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.","ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓⵔⵓⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved, i.e., cannot be created or destroyed.","ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵖⵍⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉⵎ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵅⵍⴰ."
"As a result, an organism requires continuous input of energy to maintain a low state of entropy.","ⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⵢⵓⵙⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵢⴰ."
"Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ."
"The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions.","ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"Acetyl-Coa enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⵍ-ⴽⵓⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⴰⵍ."
"Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis), which generates a proton motive force.","ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵔⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵀ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⴷⵀ2 ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵎⴱⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ (ⴰⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵓⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ) ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ (ⴽⵉⵎⵢⵓⵙⵎⵓⵣⵉⵙ), ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴷⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ."
"If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation.","ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴳⴷⵎⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵓⴼⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⴰⵏ."
Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis.,ⴰⵎⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵀ ⵙ ⵏⴰⴷ+ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵣⵉⵙ.
"In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid.","ⴳ ⵜⴱⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ, ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⴽⵜⵉⴽ."
"During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⴰⴷ+ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵉⵔⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵀⵃⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵖⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⴽⵜⴰⵜ."
"During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴳⵍ ⵏⴰⴷ+ ⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴰⴽⵜⴰⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⴰⵜⴱ."
"In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ."
This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.,ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵉⴷⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ.
"In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵓⴽⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵕⵥⵥⵎ."
"In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.","ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ ( ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ), ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⵓⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵢⵓⵣⵜ."
"After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ."
Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.
"Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⵓⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵣⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜ, ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ."
"Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.","ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ."
"The first is that genetic characteristics, which are now called alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents.","ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜⵜⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵉⵏ, (ⵙ ⵓⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵊⵏⵊⴰⵕⵉ ⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ), ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"Mendel noted that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene, which is stated by his law of segregation.","ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵕⵛⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ."
"The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⴰⵔ-ⴰⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵄⵔⵓⵔ."
The bases are divided into two groups: pyrimidines and purines.,ⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ : ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏⵏ.
DNA is replicated once the two strands separate.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.
A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏⵏ.
"In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.","ⵖⵔ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵎ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⴷ."
"The genetic information stored in DNA represents the genotype, whereas the phenotype results from the synthesis of proteins that control an organism's structure and development, or that act as enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways.","ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
"Under the genetic code, these mRNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation, which occurs in ribosomes.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵉⴱⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ."
Sequencing and analysis of genomes can be done using high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ.
"The genomes of prokaryotes are small, compact, and diverse.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵣⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ : ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.,ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏⵜ.
"Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, also occurs during morphogenesis, such as the death of cells between digits in human embryonic development, which frees up individual fingers and toes.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⴱⵟⵓⵥ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴷⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ."
"These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵓⴽⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵟⵟⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴽⴽⴰ."
"A toolkit gene can be expressed in a different pattern, as when the beak of Darwin's large ground-finch was enlarged by the BMP gene, or when snakes lost their legs as Distal-less (Dlx) genes became under-expressed or not expressed at all in the places where other reptiles continued to form their limbs.","ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵓⵖⵏⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵅⵅⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ BMP, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍ-ⵍⵉⵙ (Dlx) ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
This perspective holds that evolution occurs when there are changes in the allele frequencies within a population of interbreeding organisms.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ.
"When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵃⵍⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ."
Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵃⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵡⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ.
"When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a node (or split) on the phylogenetic tree.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵙⵔⵔⵉⴼⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ) ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ."
"Within a tree, any group of species designated by a name is a taxon (e.g., humans, primates, mammals, or vertebrates) and a taxon that consists of all its evolutionary descendants is a clade, otherwise known as a monophyletic taxon.","ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴽⵍⴰⵢⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵏ."
"A species or group that is closely related to the ingroup but is phylogenetically outside of it is called the outgroup, which serves a reference point in the tree.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ."
"Based on the principle of Parsimony (or Occam's razor), the tree that is favored is the one with the fewest evolutionary changes needed to be assumed over all traits in all groups.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏⵉⵢ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵎⵙ), ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
"Based on this system, each species is given two names, one for its genus and another for its species.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵥⵥⵄ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴳⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⵍⵜⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ."
"Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.7 ⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event.,ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ.
"During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵄⴷⵔⵉⵇ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚⵓⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵄⴱⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ; ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚⵓⵕⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵏⴰⵚⵓⵕⵏ, ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵓⵕⴰⵙⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵕⵉⵟⴰⵚⵉ."
"Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of the earth's crust.","ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴱ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵟⵟⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⴼⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴱⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), a term that has fallen out of use.","ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ( ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ), ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ."
"Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.","ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵍⵓⴽⴰⴷⵔⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵙⴱⵢⵉ."
"Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ : ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵯⴰⵔ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ."
"The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms.","ⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵥⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵟⵟⵓⵕⴼⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ."
Archaea are a major part of Earth's life.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"Five of these clades are also collectively known as protists, which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"Most protists are unicellular, which are also known as microbial eukaryotes.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ."
Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and can be found in the ocean where they play a role as primary producers of organic matter.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵊⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼⵜ.
Ciliates are alveolates that possess numerous hair-like structure called cilia.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎ ⵉⵃⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ.
The excavates are groups of protists that began to diversify approximately 1.5 billion years ago shortly after the origin of the eukaryotes.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.5 ⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ.
"Stramenopiles, most of which can be characterized by the presence of tubular hairs on the longer of their two flagella, include diatoms and brown algae.","ⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓⴱⵉⵍⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵄⴱⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ, ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵎⴰⵏⵏ."
"The rhizarians comprise three main groups: cercozoans, foraminiferans, and radiolarians.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵕⴰⵢⵥⴰⵕⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ : ⴰⵙⵉⵕⴽⵓⵣⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵓⵕⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⴰⵕⵢⴰⵏ."
"Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⴼⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵡⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ."
Land plants (embryophytes) first appeared in terrestrial environments approximately 450 to 500 million years ago.,ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵅⵍⴰ (ⵉⵃⵛⵍⴰⴼⵏ) ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 450 ⴰⵔ 500 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
"In contrast, the other three clades are nonvascular plants as they do not have tracheids.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ."
They tend to be found in areas where water is readily available.,ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵀⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"Most nonvascular plants are terrestrial, with a few living in freshwater environments and none living in the oceans.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍ."
"Gymnosperms includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.","ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵃⴷⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵉⴽⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⴽⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ."
They do so through a process called absorptive heterotrophy whereby they would first secrete digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵔⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵕⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵉⵅⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"Fungi, along with two other lineages, choanoflagellates and animals, can be grouped as opisthokonts.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⴽⵡⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵊⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⵜⵙ."
"Multicellular fungi, on the other hand, have a body called mycelium, which is composed of a mass of individual tubular filaments called hyphae that allows for nutrient absorption to occur.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵄⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ."
"With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⵏⴼⴰⵏ, ⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ, ⵜⴳⵎⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰ, ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ."
Animals can be distinguished into two groups based on their developmental characteristics.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"In protostomes, the blastopore gives rise to the mouth, which is then followed by the formation of the anus.","ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ, ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵓⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⴷⴰⵏ."
"The bodies of most animals are symmetrical, with symmetry being either radial or bilateral.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴽⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵔⴰⵏ."
"Finally, animals can be distinguished based on the type and location of their appendages such as antennae for sensing the environment or claws for capturing prey.","ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵅⴱⴰⵛⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵔ."
"The majority (~97%) of animal species are invertebrates, which are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine), derived from the notochord.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (~97%) ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ."
Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ.
"More than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 6,000 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ."
"When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent particles, or virions, consisting of the genetic material (DNA or RNA), a protein coat called capsid, and in some cases an outside envelope of lipids.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⵜ ⵢⵓⴹⵏⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ (DNA ⵏⵖⴷ RNA), ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⴱⵙⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴹⵕⵥ."
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria.,ⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ : ⵉⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵓⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷⵏ -- ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ -- ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.
Viruses can spread in many ways.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ.
"Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal–oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵏⵓⵕⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵜⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵣⵡⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵅⴷⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"The shoot system is composed of stem, leaves, and flowers.",ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵟ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ.
The direction of water movement across a semipermeable membrane is determined by the water potential across that membrane.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ.
"Most plant seeds are usually dormant, a condition in which the seed's normal activity is suspended.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴹⴰⵡ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ."
"Imbibition is the first step in germination, whereby water is absorbed by the seed.","ⵉⵙⵙⵡⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵖⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"These monomers are obtained from the hydrolysis of starch, proteins, and lipids that are stored in either the cotyledons or endosperm.",ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴳⵯⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵜⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴹⵓⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎ.
"Their flowers are organs that facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.","ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵀⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢ."
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴽⴽⵯⴰⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵢ ⵓⵅⵓⵍⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
"These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.",ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵏ.
"The photoreceptor proteins relay information such as whether it is day or night, duration of the day, intensity of light available, and the source of light.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴹ, ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ."
"Many flowering plants bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as photoperiodism.","ⴷⴰ ⵕⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ."
Animals can be classified as either regulators or conformers.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ.
"In contrast, animals such as fishes and frogs are conformers as they adapt their internal environment (e.g., body temperature) to match their external environments.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵛⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ) ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷⴷ ⵢⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Mice, for example, are able to consume three times more food than rabbits in proportion to their weights as the basal metabolic rate per unit weight in mice is greater than in rabbits.","ⵉⵖⵔⴹⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵛⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵍ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴹⴰ ⵢⵓⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵓⵍ."
"However, the relationship is non-linear in animals that swim or fly.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
"At low flight speeds, a bird must maintain a high metabolic rates to remain airborne.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣⵏ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵓⴳⴹⵉⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ."
"Finally, freshwater animals have body fluids that are hyperosmotic to fresh water.","ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵃⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ."
"If an animal were to consume food that contains an excess amount of chemical energy, it will store most of that energy in the form of lipids for future use and some of that energy as glycogen for more immediate use (e.g., meeting the brain's energy needs).","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵥ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⵢⴰⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷⵉⵡⴰⵊⴱ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ)."
"In addition to their digestive tracts, vertebrate animals have accessory glands such as a liver and pancreas as part of their digestive systems.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⴽⵕⵢⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ."
"Upon leaving the stomach, food enters into the midgut, which is the first part of the intestine (or small intestine in mammals) and is the principal site of digestion and absorption.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵅⴷⵉⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ, (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵎ."
"Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles these are called alveoli, and in birds they are known as atria.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵛⵏⴱⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⵏ."
"These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵃⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⵔ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵃⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
There are two types of circulatory systems: open and closed.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵥⵓⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏⵜ.
Circulation in animals occur between two types of tissues: systemic tissues and breathing (or pulmonary) organs.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵔⵓ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⵉⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ).
"In birds and mammals, the systemic and pulmonary systems are connected in series.","ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ."
Skeletal muscle contractions are neurogenic as they require synaptic input from motor neurons.,ⵉⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵙⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials.","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴳⴰⴳⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴱⵓⴽⵔⵓⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵚⴹⴼⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ."
The mechanisms of contraction are similar in all three muscle tissues.,ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵓⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ.
"Other animals such as mollusks, and nematodes, possess obliquely striated muscles, which contain bands of thick and thin filaments that are arranged helically rather than transversely, like in vertebrate skeletal or cardiac muscles.","ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ."
They can transmit or receive information at sites of contacts called synapses.,ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ.
Cells such as neurons or muscle cells may be excited or inhibited upon receiving a signal from another neuron.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵕⵕⴰⵛⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"In vertebrates, the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves that connect the CNS to every other part of the body.","ⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (CNS), ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⴳⴰⵍ (PNS), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ."
"The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ."
"The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴱⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵜⴽⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⴰⵕⴰⵙⵉⵎⴱⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⴳⵓⵏⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
Nerves that exit directly from the brain are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.,"ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏⵏ."
"In humans specifically, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⵉⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴼⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵥⵍⵉⵏ."
"Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵡⵉⴷⵏ, ⵉⴽⵓⵙⴰⵏⵡⵉⴷⵏ, ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵓⵜⵔⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵙⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⵏ."
They produce haploid gametes by meiosis.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵢⵢⵓⵥ.
"In most cases, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, also develops between them.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ."
"Gastrulation occurs, whereby morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three germ layers that comprise the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵍⴰⵙⵢⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵕⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵜⵓⴷⵉⵕⵎⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵓⴷⵉⵔⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⴷⵉⵔⵎ."
"Cellular differentiation is influenced by extracellular signals such as growth factors that are exchanged to adjacent cells, which is called juxtracrine signaling, or to neighboring cells over short distances, which is called paracrine signaling.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⴽⵙⵜⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉⵏ."
The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵎⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ.
Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against virus infections.,ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
"Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently.","ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵉⵡⴰⵛ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"Fixed action patterns, for instance, are genetically determined and stereotyped behaviors that occur without learning.","ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ."
"The community of living (biotic) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (abiotic) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil) of their environment is called an ecosystem.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵏ) ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ) (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⵉⵣⵏⵣⵕ, ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ, ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵖⵉ, ⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ) ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ."
"By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ."
The Earth's physical environment is shaped by solar energy and topography.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ.
"Weather is the day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.","ⴰⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵓ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵕ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴽⴽⴰ 30 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"As a result, wet environments allow for lush vegetation to grow.","ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴳⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵎⵉⵏ."
"Population growth during short-term intervals can be determined using the population growth rate equation, which takes into consideration birth, death, and immigration rates.","ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ."
A biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other.,ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ.
A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis.,ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ.
"There are different trophic levels within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or autotrophs) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into organic compounds, which can then be used by the rest of the community.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ (ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ) ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ."
And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on.,ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance remains or is sequestered for a long period of time.,ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.
"The largest driver of warming is the emission of greenhouse gases, of which more than 90% are carbon dioxide and methane.","ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵖⵓⴼⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 90%."
"Biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵉⵚ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ."
"Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress.","ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉ, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ."
"Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance.","ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼ."
These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants.,ⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"""Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the """"Father of Botany"""".""","""ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵇⴷⵉⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵢⵓⴼⵔⴰⵙⵜⵓⵙ (371-287 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ """"ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ""""."""
"De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years.","ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⴷⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⴽⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 1,500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"In the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject.,ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.
"Throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼ."
Bock created his own system of plant classification.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⴽ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵥⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ (ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵢⵉⴽⵣ) ⵏⵖ ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⵓⴱⵜⵉⴽⵢⵉⵏ.
This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ.
"Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus.",ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ.
The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany.,ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⵄⵉⵙⵓ (1898–1997) ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements.",ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⵏⴷⵍⵕ ⴽⴰⵡⵍⵥ ⴷ ⴰⵕⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⴽⵍⵉⵎⵏⵜⵙ.
The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals.,ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵜ V. ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ 1948 ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.
"20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉ, ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵎⴰⵜⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⴼⵓⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙ."
"These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵥⵥⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵥⵥⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵔⵢⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants.,ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.","ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵕⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏ."
"Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"""The strictest definition of """"plant"""" includes only the """"land plants"""" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses.""","""ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ """"ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ"""" ⵢⵓⵎⵥ """"ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ"""" ⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ (ⵉⵊⵉⵎⵏⵓⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵏ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴳⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⴰⵏⵏ) ⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉⴱⵜⵓⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴱⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵏⵡⵓⵕⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵏ."""
"The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte.","ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴳⴰⵎⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵛⵜⵜⵛⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉⵜ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵄⴷⴰ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵛⵜⵜⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵉⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants.,ⴷⴰ ⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵖⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
This is what ecologists call the first trophic level.,ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.
"Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems.","ⴷⴰ ⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ."
The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵓⴽⵍⵓⵕⵓⴼⵉⵍ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵏ (ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵛⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ATP ⴷ NADPH ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ.
Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵥ ⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ.
"Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids.","ⴳⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ), ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵥⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
"Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress.","ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵕ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵔⴷⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵄⵏⴰⵄ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⴹⴼⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔ (ⴰⵎ ⵍⴽⴰⴱⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵅⵛⵅⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ."
"For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⵃⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⵚⴰⴼ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⵙⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵃⵃⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵀⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵅⵛⵅⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ."
Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years.,ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.
"Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products.","ⵙⵙⴽⵔ, ⴰⴳⵯⵔⵏ, ⵍⵇⴹⵏ, ⵍⴽⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⵍⵇⵏⵏⴱ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⴱⵔⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵛⵛⵎⵄ, ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵡⴰⵜⵛⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ."
"Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton.","ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⵣ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵕⴰⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵓⴼⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵍⵖⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴰⴱⵢⵓⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵍⵇⴹⵏ."
Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
Plants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ.
"They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴳⵍ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ.
Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas).,ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵙⵓⵎ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⴼⵓⵎ (ⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ).
"Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ.
In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals.,"ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ."
The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵟⴰⵟⴰ.
"Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴱⵓ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
"Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals.","ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴱⵍⵡⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⴽⵙⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ."
Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵉⵙⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽ.
"The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.","ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ, ⵙⴳ ⵕⵕⵓⵣ (ⵓⵕⵉⵣⴰ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⴼⴰ) ⴷ ⵓⴱⵕⴰⵛⵉⴱⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴷⵉⵙⵜⴰⵛⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⴽⵓⵙⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵉⵏⴰⵛ, ⵜⴰⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ.
"Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
"Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⵓⵏⵛⵉⵎⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏⵜ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
"The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⵓⴼⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⵓⴼⵉⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵃⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⴽⵍⴰⴷ.
Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian.,ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵀⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴱⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵓⴼⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵍⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵔⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ.
"Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⵣⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ (ⵎⵉⴳⴰⵙⴱⵓⵕⴰⵏⵊⵢⴰ) ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ."
The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.
"Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism.","ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues.","ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵥⵉⵟⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.","ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵕ, ⴰⴱⵓⵜⴰⵙⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍⵙⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵣⵢⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼⵓⵕ."
This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity.,ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵕⵓⴱⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵣⵖⴰ.
"The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⵓⴽⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵓⵕⵏ, ⵣⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⵙ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ."
"They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵄⴰⵢⴷ.
"Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏⴰⵜⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵙⵎⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴳⵔⴰⴷⵉⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵄⵟⵟⵉⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵄⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴼ."
"Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵀⵇⴰⵕⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵀⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots.,ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.
"In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴳⵎ."
"In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots.","ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵍⵓⵡⵉⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.
Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.,ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ.
"Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy.,ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
"While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ."
"The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ (ICN) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴷⵔ."
The combination is the name of the species.,ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⴽⵉⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ."
"Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⴱⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.","ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔ."
"The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to.","ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ."
Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⴽⵍⴰⴷⵓⴳⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ – ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.,ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ.
"Although humans have always been interested in the natural history of the animals they saw around them, and made use of this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology can be said to have originated with Aristotle.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ."
"Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel and many others.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ, ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉ ⴼⴰⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏⵀⵓⴽ, ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵀⵓⴽ, ⵛⴰⵕⵍⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in carefully rendered detail.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ 15,000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ."
"Ancient knowledge of wildlife is illustrated by the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near East, Mesopotamia and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and fishing.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ."
"Aristotle, in the fourth century BC, looked at animals as living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"Four hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to study their anatomy and the function of the different parts, because the dissection of human cadavers was prohibited at the time.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ."
"In Europe, Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century.","ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16."
"Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ 18, 19 ⴷ 20, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection; in this Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational evidence that it had done so.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ 1859 ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵕⵕⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ: ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of the taxonomist.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals.,ⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.
These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ.
"Homo is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make up the species name.","ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⴱⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy.,ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ.
Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.,ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ.
"It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied.","ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ."
"For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜ."
"Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time.","ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ."
"Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (biogeography).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ (ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵏⵜ)."
Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"Experimental systematics identifies and classifies animals based on the evolutionary units that comprise a species, as well as their importance in evolution itself.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
Explaining the biodiversity of the planet and its organisms.,ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.
Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ (a) ⴰⵔ (d).
"However, in modern usage, they can all be considered synonyms of each other.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ."
"Some claim systematics alone deals specifically with relationships through time, and that it can be synonymous with phylogenetics, broadly dealing with the inferred hierarchy of organisms.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
Scientific classifications are aids in recording and reporting information to other scientists and to laymen.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ."
"In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ."
"In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵕⵓⵏⵓⵙⴱⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⴰⵣ."
"""All species (except viruses) are given a two-part name, a """"binomial"""".""","""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ (ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ) ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ, """"ⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ""""."""
"For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the genus Boa, with constrictor being the species's epithet.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴱⵡⴰ ⴽⵓⵏⵙⵜⵔⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴱⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
"Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies.","ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢ."
"Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ.
That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
"Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test.","ⵉⵕⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵢⵕ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"""This method was used as a """"classical"""" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory.""","""ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ """"ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ"""" ⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓ""ⵍⵓ."""
"As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that kinds of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to the same species or not.","ⴷ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵢ, ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰⵜⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ RNA ⴰⵕⵉⴱⵓⵣⵓⵎⵉ 16S ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 97% ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵏ DNA-DNA ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ."
Modern approaches compare sequence similarity using computational methods.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
"A database, Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD), contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ, ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵓⴷ ⵓⴼ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ ⴷⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⵉⵙⵜⵉⵎ (BOLD), ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ DNA ⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 190,000 ⵏ ⵡⵏⴰⵡ."
"For example, in a study done on fungi, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⴷⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ."
"""Yet others defend this approach, considering """"taxonomic inflation"""" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as """"taxonomic conservatism""""; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding.""","""ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ """"ⴰⴱⵣⵣⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ"""" ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⵜⴰⵙⵃⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ""""; ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵛⵛⴽ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴷⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ."""
"If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵓⴱⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted.","ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴳⵉ."
"Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting.","ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ."
The term quasispecies is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.,ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵣⵉⵙⴱⴱⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
"In ring species, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⵕⵚⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵔⴼ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵄⵔⵇⵇⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ."
Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation.,ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⵕⵚⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.
"Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation, a reduced gene flow.","ⵢⵓⴳⵍ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ."
"Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.","ⵜⵖⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ."
"Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including volcanic activity, climate change, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴱⵓⵕⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
One of the classic cases in North America is that of the protected northern spotted owl which hybridises with the unprotected California spotted owl and the barred owl; this has led to legal debates.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵇⵇⵟ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵇⵇⵟ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⵃⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴰⵕⵜ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ.
"A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.","ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵊⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵜⵉⵙⵜ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⵕⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1809, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ."
Genus (plural genera) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses.,ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ (ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙ!ⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⴰⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.
E.g. Panthera leo (lion) and Panthera onca (jaguar) are two species within the genus Panthera.,ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ ⵍⵢⵓ (ⵉⵣⵎ) ⴷ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ ⵓⵏⴽⴰ (ⴰⴽⵙⵉⵍ) ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵜⵉⵕⴰ.
"A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus, a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⵉⵙⴽⵓⵙ ⴰⵕⵏⵓⵜⵢⴰⵏⵓⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵢⵉⵙⴽ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵢ."
"""Available names are those published in accordance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and not otherwise suppressed by subsequent decisions of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN); the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the """"valid"""" (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question.""","""ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ (ICZN); ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ) ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ """"ⵉⵙⵖⵣⵏⵏ"""" (ⵏⵖⴷ, ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰ) ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ."""
"In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ (ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ) ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
A name that means two different things is a homonym.,ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ.
"However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ) ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles, which have about 1180 genera, the most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ (ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1180 ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ (>300) ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 1 ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷⴰⵢ, ~360 ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵏ 2 ⴷ 4 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, 260 ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 5–10 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ~200 ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ 11–50 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ 27 ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ."
Which species are assigned to a genus is somewhat arbitrary.,ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵜⵜⴼ.
What belongs to a family—or if a described family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists.,ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ—ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ—ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ.
"Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵣ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵅⵓⵍⴼⵏ."
Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position.,ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙⴽ (1986) ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ.
"There are no objective rules for describing a class, but for well-known animals there is likely to be consensus.","ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ."
"In botany, classes are now rarely discussed.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏⵏ."
"Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ."
So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not.,ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ.
"By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏⵙⵏⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
"However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ, ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣ."
"However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵎ, ⴳ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵎ."
"""The table below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating """"Plantae"""" with Archaeplastida, a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.""","""ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵚ (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰⵏ) ⵏ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ ⵏ """"ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ"""" ⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⵉⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴹⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ."""
"The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴽⴰⴷⵙⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏⴽⴳⵓⵙ ⴷ ⴳⵏⵉⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜⵙ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵃⴷⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ."
"Protista is a polyphyletic taxon, which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ."
"Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) laid the foundations for modern biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes, in 1735.","ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ (1707–1778) ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ, ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1735."
"""In 1937 Édouard Chatton introduced the terms """"prokaryote"""" and """"eukaryote"""" to differentiate these organisms.""","""ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1937, ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵜⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ """"ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ"""" ⴷ """"ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ"""" ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ."""
Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi.,ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵡⵉⵜⴰⴽⵕ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ.
"The remaining two kingdoms, Protista and Monera, included unicellular and simple cellular colonies.","ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵕⴰ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
"In other systems, such as Lynn Margulis's system of five kingdoms, the plants included just the land plants (Embryophyta), and Protoctista has a broader definition.","ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⴳⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ (ⵓⵎⴱⵕⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ), ⴷ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⴽⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ."
Technological advances in electron microscopy allowed the separation of the Chromista from the Plantae kingdom.,ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰⵢ.
"Finally, some protists lacking mitochondria were discovered.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉ."
"This superkingdom was opposed to the Metakaryota superkingdom, grouping together the five other eukaryotic kingdoms (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae and Chromista).","ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⵢⵓⵜⴰ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ (ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵣⵡⴰ, ⴼⵓⵏⴳⵉ, ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵛⵔⵓⵎⵉⵙⵜⴰ)."
Cavalier-Smith no longer accepted the importance of the fundamental Eubacteria–Archaebacteria divide put forward by Woese and others and supported by recent research.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵓⴱⴰⵛⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ–ⴰⵔⵛⴰⵢⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵡⵓⵢⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵜⵜⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ.
"""Cavalier-Smith does not accept the requirement for taxa to be monophyletic (""""holophyletic"""" in his terminology) to be valid.""","""ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⵛⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ (""""ⵀⵓⵍⵓⴼⵉⵍⵜⵉⴽ"""" ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ) ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵣⵏ."""
"The advances of phylogenetic studies allowed Cavalier-Smith to realize that all the phyla thought to be archezoans (i.e. primitively amitochondriate eukaryotes) had in fact secondarily lost their mitochondria, typically by transforming them into new organelles: Hydrogenosomes.","ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⴼⴰⵍⵢⵉⵔ-ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜⵏ) ⵜⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ: ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵙⵓⵎⵙ."
"""Based on such RNA studies, Carl Woese thought life could be divided into three large divisions and referred to them as the """"three primary kingdom"""" model or """"urkingdom"""" model.""","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵔⵉⴱⵉⵢ RNA, ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵡⵓⵥ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ, """"ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ"""" ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ """"ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ""""."""
"Woese divided the prokaryotes (previously classified as the Kingdom Monera) into two groups, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much genetic difference between these two groups as between either of them and all eukaryotes.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵡⵓⵥ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵏⵉⵕⴰ) ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵛⴰⵢⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ."
"""They held that only monophyletic groups should be accepted as formal ranks in a classification and that – while this approach had been impractical previously (necessitating """"literally dozens of eukaryotic 'kingdoms) – it had now become possible to divide the eukaryotes into """"just a few major groups that are probably all monophyletic"""".""","""ⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ– ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ (ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵏ """"ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ) – ⵉⵖⵢ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ """"ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ""""."""
"""It divided the eukaryotes into the same six """"supergroups"""".""","""ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ """"ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ""""."""
Plants are thought to be more distantly related to animals and fungi.,ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ.
The ten arguments against include the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasites that lack metabolism and are not capable of replication outside of a host cell.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵕⴰⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵛⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉⵏ.
"The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or mostly single-celled organisms whose cells have a distorted or non-membrane bound nucleus.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⵉⵉⴼⵔⵖ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵣⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ."
"Halophiles, organisms that thrive in highly salty environments, and hyperthermophiles, organisms that thrive in extremely hot environments, are examples of Archaea.","ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⴰⵍⵓⴼⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰ."
Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are two examples of bacteria.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵏⵊⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.,ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵔⵏ.
"Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵚ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective environments.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵏ."
"The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms.","ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ, ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵢ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order.,ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢ.
"The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.","ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1735 ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ."
These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support.,ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ.
"""Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a """"struggle for existence"""" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished.""","""ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ (1798) ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ """"ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ"""" ⴳ ⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."""
"""Darwin developed his theory of """"natural selection"""" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his """"big book"""" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858.""","""ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ """"ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"""" ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1838 ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓ """"ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ"""" ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1858."""
"Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis.","ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
"To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.","ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ."
The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.,ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1953 ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.
"""In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that """"nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution,"""" because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.""","""ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⴷⵓⴱⵣⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ """"ⴰⵡⴷ ⵃⴰⵃ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ,"""" ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."""
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype.,ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ.
"For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.","ⵙⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵓⵏⵣⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ; ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵓⵣⵏⵣⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ."
DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases.,ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.
Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases.,ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ; ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.
"If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ."
"However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci (multiple interacting genes).","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ)."
"DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.","ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ RNA ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵓⵏⵏ) ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ."
"For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ."
A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation.,ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.
Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.,ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⵉⵖ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵣⵣⴳⵓ—ⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴹⵕ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ.
"When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.","ⵉⴳ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ."
Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ.
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.
"The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.","ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ."
The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young.,"ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ."
Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms.,"ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ."
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.,ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ.
Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred.,ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵛⴰⵕⵓⵎⵉⵙⵉⵣ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴼⵉⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷⵣⵓⴽⵉ ⴽⴰⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵕⵓⵛⵓⵙ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙ.
Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).,ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ (ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ).
"Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ."
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.,ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ.
"For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ."
Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity.,ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.
"However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see Dollo's law).","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵡⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵓ)."
"The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.","ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ—ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ."
"Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity.","ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵟⵟⵓⵕⴼⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.",ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
"However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation).","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ)."
A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype.,ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ.
"This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵅⵜⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴰ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵛⴽⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift.,ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵅⵜⵎ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ.
"However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵕⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.","ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵣⵖⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution.,ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
"This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴼ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ."
"For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⴷⵓⵏ."
Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.,ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ.
Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵛⵉⵔ.
"Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴷⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ."
"Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴰⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ; ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ."
"However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
"""A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for """"progress"""", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.""","""ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ """"ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ"""", ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ; ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ."""
"Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival.","ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ."
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ.
"Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ, ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵛⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵜⵛⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⴽⵯⴰⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⴼⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴼⵉⵏⴳⵓⴱⵢⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵏⵜⴰⴽⵍⵓⵔⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵓⴼⵜ."
"Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ."
"However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵕⵜⵕⵓⴱⵓⴷⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵜⵕⵓⴱⵓⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴻⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ."
"Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.","ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵙⵓⴷⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵄⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ."
"One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵇⵇⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵙⴱⵉⵙ ⴳⵉⵏⵜⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵅⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵉⵥⵉⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵔⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵉⵚⵟⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵉⵏⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
"These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.","ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵙⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⵊⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵓⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ."
"These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species.","ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
"For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved.,ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.
"Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die.","ⵖⵉⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⴷⵎⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ."
"""There are multiple ways to define the concept of """"species.""""""","""ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ """"ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."""""""
"Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
"Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰ BSC ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions (see laboratory experiments of speciation) and in nature.,ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⵯⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ.
"The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration.","ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵓⴱⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵖⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ."
"The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment.","ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ."
The third mode is parapatric speciation.,ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉⵙ.
Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ.
"Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation.","ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⴷ."
This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.,ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile.,ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ.
"This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰ."
"Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⵓⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹⵏ."
"Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.","ⵯⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵛⴽⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 99 ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1 ⵜⵔⵉⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ."
"The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵣⵏ ⵉ 3.5 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴰⵕⵛⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵕⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵀⴰⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ."
"""Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote, """"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe.""""""","""ⴷ ⴰⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⴱⵍⵉⵕ ⵀⵉⴷⴳⵙ, """"ⵉⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵙⵄ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵖ ⵉⵖⵣⵔ."""""""
"Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.","ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ 10 ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ 14 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.9 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ 1.6 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ 80 ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ."
"The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.","ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ, ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ."
This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ.
"By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ."
"More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago.,ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 1.6 ⴷ 2.7 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.
Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.,ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵚⵕⴰⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.","ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2016, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 800 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ GK-PID ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
"Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔⵉⵢ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.,ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ) ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⴰⴷⵙ.
"Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⴽⴰⴹ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ."
It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵥⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems.,ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ.
"In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ."
"The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision.","ⵜⵙⵎⵏⵜⵍ ⵜⵖⵜⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵚⵉⵔⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵙⴽⵓⴱⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1925 ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴱⵔⵙⵓⵏ v. ⴰⵕⴽⴰⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1968."
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ.
Variation exists within all populations of organisms.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
"The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment.","ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ."
Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵥⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics.","ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵚⵃⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
"The classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⴱⴰⵃⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵕⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
"The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species.",ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴷⵊ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵃⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"""He was in the process of writing his """"big book"""" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell.""","""ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰ """"ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ"""" ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵢⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵍⵉⵍ."""
"In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 3 ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1861 ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ—ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵡⵉⵍⵍ ⴳ 1813, ⴷ ⵃⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵓ ⴳ 1831—ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵙⵏⴽⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
"""In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term """"Natural Selection"""", preferring the term """"Natural Preservation"""".""","""ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵍⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵛⵓⵏⴰⵜⴱⵉⵔ 1860, ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ """"ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"""", ⵢⴰⴼ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ """"ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ""""."""
"""However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its """"unguided"""" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance.""","""ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ """"ⴰⵔⴰⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ"""" ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵡⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴽⴽⵛⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ."""
"With the early 20th century integration of evolution with Mendel's laws of inheritance, the so-called modern synthesis, scientists generally came to accept natural selection.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"""J. B. S. Haldane introduced the concept of the """"cost"""" of natural selection.""","""ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ J. B. S. ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ """"ⴰⵜⵉⴳ"""" ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ."""
"""However, natural selection is """"blind"""" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable.""","""ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵜ """"ⵉⵄⵎⴰ"""" ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ."""
"If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation.","ⵉⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice.","ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ."
"This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark.","ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴼⴽⵉⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation.","ⵉⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⴰⴳ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ."
"""A distinction must be made between the concept of """"survival of the fittest"""" and """"improvement in fitness"""". """"""","ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ """" ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⵍⵃⵏ """" ⴷ """""" ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ""""""."
"""Haldane called this process """"substitution"""" or more commonly in biology, this is called """"fixation"""".""","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ """" ⴰⵎⵙⴱⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ """" ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ """"ⴰⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ""""."
The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of a population depends on the total number of replications of that variant.,ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ.
"""In this experiment, """"improvement in fitness"""" depends on the number of replications of the particular variant for a new variant to appear that is capable of growing in the next higher drug concentration region.""","""ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ, """"ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ"""" ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ."""
"""Richard Lenski's classic E. coli long-term evolution experiment is an example of adaptation in a competitive environment, (""""improvement in fitness"""" during """"survival of the fittest"""").""","""ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ E. ⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵕⵉⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ, (""""ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ"""" ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ """"ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ"""")."""
"The uncommon disruptive selection also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ."
"Some biologists recognise just two types: viability (or survival) selection, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ: ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ (ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⵙⵉ (ⵜⵉⴱⵍⵙⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
"In kin selection and intragenomic conflict, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"Ecological selection is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and infanticide.","ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵅ."
"However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵖⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴳⵏⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰⵜⵏ."
"Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1928, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
"Genetic variation is the result of mutations, genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes).","ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ, ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵖⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ)."
"However, many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵏⴰⴳⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ."
Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes.,ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population.","ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ."
"However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a species that hybrids are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵉ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵇⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ (ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ) ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ.
"An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ABO ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ."
This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype.,ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ.
"Stabilizing selection conserves functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants.","ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ."
"Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ."
"Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵃⵢⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵍⵍⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ), ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ."
"However, after a period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ."
"The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them.,ⴰⵣⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ.
A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population.,ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ (ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.
Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep.,ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵕⵓⵡⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ.
"""In the words of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, """"Darwin's dangerous idea"""" of evolution by natural selection is a """"universal acid,"""" which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings.""","""ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⵏⵢⵉⵍ ⴷⵉⵏⵉⵜⵜ, """"ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ"""" ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ """"ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ,"""" ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⵉⵏⵏⵖⵍ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."""
"These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources.","ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ: ⴰⵙⵓⴽⴽⵙ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate Francis Galton's interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for colonialism, eugenics, and social Darwinism.","ⵉⵎⵣⵖ ⵀⵉⵕⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵃⴰⵏⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵍⵜⵓⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ, ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵄⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⴽⵙ, ⵜⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ."
"""The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect.""""""","""ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ."""""""
"The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵄⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⴽⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵎ ⵜⴰⵊⵕⵕⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"""He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete """"units of inheritance"""".""","""ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ (ⵜⴰⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ """"ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ""""."""
"Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴱⴹ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
"The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵀⵀⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵚⵟⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴳⵕⵉⴳⵓⵕ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19."
His second law is the same as what Mendel published.,ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ.
"A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents.","ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1859 ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ: ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵡⵀⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"""In his paper """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically.""","""ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ""""), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1865 ⵉ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴼⵓⵕⵛⵓⵏⴷⵔ ⴼⵉⵔⵢⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ) ⴳ ⴱⵕⵓⵏ, ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."""
"""William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905 (the adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis—γένεσις, """"origin"""", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860).""","""ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1905 (ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ—γένεσις, """"ⴰⵥⵓⵕ"""", ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1860)."""
"Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes.","ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ 11 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ X ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ X ⴷ Y."
"James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew).","ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ DNA ⴳ 1953, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵍⴽⵉⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ DNA ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ)."
"The structure also suggested a simple method for replication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand.","ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ: ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ."
"In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⴹ DNA ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research.,"ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ, ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏDNA ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1977 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵙⴰⵏⵊⵉⵔ.
"In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors.",ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ—ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ."
"When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed.","ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⴱⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⴱⴹⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴳⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
"""Often a """"+"""" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene.""","""ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ """"+"""" ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ """
One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⵟ.
"Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.)","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ.)"
"Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵍⵓⵏ ⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ."
Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and skin color).,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵊⵏⵊⴰⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ.)
The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability.,ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵙⴰ.
"DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ : ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ (A), ⵙⵉⵜⵓⵣⵉⵏ (C), ⴳⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ (G), ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵎⵉⵏ (T)."
"Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms.","ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.,ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ : ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ.
"These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length.","ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 247 ⵏⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ."
"DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵕⵓⵟ ⵚⴰⵊⵉⵕ ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ."
"While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene.","ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ."
"In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics.","ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ Y ⴰⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵊⵉⵎⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
"This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction.","ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏⵜ."
Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.
"Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium.","ⵜⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⴰⵎ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵛⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair.,"ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ."
The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵕⵢⵉⵜ ⴽⵕⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵕⴱⴰⵕⴰ ⵎⴽⵍⵉⵏⵟⵓⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1931.
"For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵉⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵇⵡⵉ."
"The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions.","ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵎ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.",ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵉ; ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵏⵏⵓ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵛⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⴰⵏ.
"For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵍⴰⵏⴻⵎⴻ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴴⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵍⴰ ⴱⵢⵜⴰ ⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ."
Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA.,"ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵯⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵍ ⴰⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵓⵔⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵔⵉⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵎⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵉⵢ."
An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⵛⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵢⴰⵎⵡⴰ.
"But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e. have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and denature in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵃⴱⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ ( ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵛⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵓ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵛⵛ."
"After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.","ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵟⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ (400 ⴰⵔ 1000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ) ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ."
"Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which deal with symbols governed by rules.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵙⵉ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵓⵏⵏ."
New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.,ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵥⴻⵥⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ.
"In particular, it was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other and share.","ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ."
"However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵏ."
"They even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year.","ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
"""For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish """"nature"""" and """"convention.""""""","‘’ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵡ ‘’ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵜⵎⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ’’."
"In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for artisans of lower social class.","ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ (ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵏⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵜ) ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.,ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵍⵢⵓⵙⵉⴱⴱⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ.
The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵈⵕⴰⵟ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⵚⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ: ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ.
Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.,ⵉⴼⵔⵏ ⵙⵓⵈⵔⴰⵟ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ.
"Aristotle later created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are.","ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵔⵣⴰⵏⵜ: ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ."
The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy).,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ).
Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⴽⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵕⵥⵥⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ.
"John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⴱⵏⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ 500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Aristotle's four causes prescribed that the question """"why"""" should be answered in four ways in order to explain things scientifically.""",‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵙⴷⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⵎⴰⵅ’’ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ’’.
"However, Aristotle's original texts were eventually lost in Western Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely known, the Timaeus, which was the only Platonic dialogue, and one of the few original works of classical natural philosophy, available to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵓⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ. ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ."
Many Syriac translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and Monophysites.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⵢⵏ.
"""p. 465: """"only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated.""""""",‘’ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ 465: ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⵢⵜⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ’’.
"Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back their claims.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵓⵛⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⴼⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵄⵔⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ."
"Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book of Optics also propagated across Europe before 1240, as evidenced by its incorporation into Vitello's Perspectiva.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ‘’ⵍ ⴰⵀⵣⴰⵏ’’ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1240, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵔⵟⵓ ⴼⵉⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓ."
"The influx of ancient texts caused the Renaissance of the 12th century and the flourishing of a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism in western Europe, which became a new geographic center of science.","ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 12 ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ.
"This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.","ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵟⵓⵍⵎⵉ."
He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere.,ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ.
Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.,ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴳⵉ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓⵇⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ.
"""Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work """"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems"""", which greatly offended Urban VIII.""","‘’ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ’’ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵍⵃⴰⴹⵕ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵎ’’."
Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study nature.,ⵉⴷⵓⵣ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ.
"""This new science began to see itself as describing """"laws of nature"""".""",‘’ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ‘’ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’.
"In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴱⵉⵏⵣ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""In Bacon's words, """"the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches"""", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond """"the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation"""".""","‘’ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ‘’ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ’’, ⵙⵡⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ‘’ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵅⵏⴷⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓ’’."
Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ.
"Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day.","ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ-- ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ, ⴱⵡⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ-- ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ."
"""Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a """"science of man"""", which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.""","‘’ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵀⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍⵏ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⵏⵉⵜ, ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴼⵉⵔⵖⵙⵓⵏ, ⵊⵓⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵔⴱⵔⵓⵜⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ’’."
Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⵛⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵡⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ: ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.
"""Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","‘’ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵊⵔⵉⵊⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ‘’ⴼⵔⵉⵙⵓⵛ ⵓⴱⵔ ⴱⵉⴼⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵏⵀⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ‘’(‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⵉⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ’’), ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1865, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the atom were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity.,ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ 19: ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵏⵥⴰⵔ.
"In addition, the extensive use of technological innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions in transportation (automobiles and aircraft), the development of ICBMs, a space race, and a nuclear arms race.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ (ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ (ICBM), ⴷ ⴰⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ."
The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 led to a rejection of the Steady State theory of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.,ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964 ⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵕⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⵍⵉⵎⴰⵜⵔ.
"Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones.","ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⵢⵢⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ."
"Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.","ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ."
"For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science.","ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ."
"The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they actually constitute a science.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Engineering itself encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, science, and types of application.",ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. ⵇⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵙⵏ.
"""he responded: """"Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?"""".""","ⵉⵔⴰⵔ: ‘’ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵏⵓ, ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ?’’."
This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ.
"This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment).","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵍⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ)."
"If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena.","ⵎⴽ ⵜⵏⵊⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⴳ ⴰⴳⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴼⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓⵜⵏ."
"Statistics, a branch of mathematics, is used to summarize and analyze data, which allow scientists to assess the reliability and variability of their experimental results.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ."
"It can be contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as electrons.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵍⵡⵉⵜ, ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵄⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only.","ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⴷⴰⵢ."
"Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵖⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ."
Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.,ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵀⵓⴱⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ.
"Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵓⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ."
"Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations.",ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵥⴰⵕⵚ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm.","ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ."
Its main point is that a difference between natural and supernatural explanations should be made and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.,"ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵍⴰⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science accepts the concept of fallibilism.",ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵜⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ.
New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵖ.
Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by various researchers across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.,"ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
"""Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for """"knowledge"""" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct.""","ⵉⵙⴰⴷⴼ ‘’ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴱⴰⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ’’, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵣⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏ’’."
"This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, physical cosmology).","ⵎⴽⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ)."
Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased.,"ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵖⵍⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰ."
"Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed articles are published in English.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ 39 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ 91% ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ."
"Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.","ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵇⵇⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ."
"Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵖⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵅⵏⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ."
"Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.",ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ.
"""For example, Christine Ladd (1847–1930) was able to enter a Ph.D. program as """"C. Ladd""""; Christine """"Kitty"""" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see truth table), color vision, and psychology.""","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴷ (1930-1847) ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ‘""""C. Ladd""""; ⵜⵙⵎⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ‘’ⴽⵉⵢⵜⵉ’’ ⵍⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1882, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵟⵓⵎⵉⵥ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ 1926, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⴱⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ (ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⵜ), ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⵉⵍⵙⵏⵜ’’."
"In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; in the early 21st century over half of the new biologists were female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men.","ⴳ ⵉⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ; ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 21 ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ 80% ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ."
"Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some scientific credentials, or may be an honor conferred by election.","ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ."
Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences.,"ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵟⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Prominent historical examples include the Great Wall of China, completed over the course of two millennia through the state support of several dynasties, and the Grand Canal of the Yangtze River, an immense feat of hydraulic engineering begun by Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖 7th cent.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⴷ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏⵖⵉⵜⵙⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵍⵉⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⵓⵏⵛⵓ ⴰ (7%)."
"Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds.","ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
"The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities.","ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵢⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵟⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as populist anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, postmodernist subjectivism, and fear for business interests.","ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴰⴷⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴷⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ."
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.
"Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time.","ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⴷⴰⵕ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable.",ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
"If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis.","ⵎⴽ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵕⵥⵥⴰ."
"In medicine and the social sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be aggregated through systematic review and meta-analysis.","ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ."
We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters.,"ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵍⴽⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⵡⵉⵣⵏ ⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⴽⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵕⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏⵣⵉⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to subjective opinions—through """"prejudices"""" and """"leniency""""—and thus has to be critical about his own way of building hypotheses.""","‘’ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ - ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ’’- ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ’’."
"Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or experiments.","ⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"For example, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉ (1564-1642) ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ."
"In some disciplines (e.g., psychology or political science), a 'true experiment' is a method of social research in which there are two kinds of variables.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ), ‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ’’ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ."
A good example would be a drug trial.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ.
"The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample).","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵡ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵍⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ (ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ)."
A negative control is known to give a negative result.,ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ.
"""Most often the value of the negative control is treated as a """"background"""" value to subtract from the test sample results.""",‘’ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵕⵉⵟⵟ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ’’ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴷⵉⵏ’’ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ’’.
Students might be given a fluid sample containing an unknown (to the student) amount of protein.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵟⵟⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ (ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ).
Students could make several positive control samples containing various dilutions of the protein standard.,ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
The assay is a colorimetric assay in which a spectrophotometer can measure the amount of protein in samples by detecting a colored complex formed by the interaction of protein molecules and molecules of an added dye.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵍⵓⵕⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵯⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵟⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼⵏ.
"In this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample groups that are probabilistically equivalent, which means that measurements of traits should be similar among the groups and that the groups should respond in the same manner if given the same treatment.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴰⴳ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵯⵓ."
"Once equivalent groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identically except for the one variable that he or she wishes to isolate.","ⵅⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵢ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ."
This ensures that any effects on the volunteer are due to the treatment itself and are not a response to the knowledge that he is being treated.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴳⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵊⵉⵊⵊⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ.
"These hypotheses suggest reasons to explain a phenomenon, or predict the results of an action.","ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ."
The null hypothesis is that there is no explanation or predictive power of the phenomenon through the reasoning that is being investigated.,ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ.
"To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation in certain variables remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned.","ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵖ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed.","ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹⵏ."
"""For example, in astronomy it is clearly impossible, when testing the hypothesis """"Stars are collapsed clouds of hydrogen"""", to start out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then perform the experiment of waiting a few billion years for it to form a star.""","‘’ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴹⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⴹⵀⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵎ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ‘’ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵡ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ’’, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵄⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵏⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵚⴽⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ’’."
"For this reason, field experiments are sometimes seen as having higher external validity than laboratory experiments.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙ."
"In these situations, observational studies have value because they often suggest hypotheses that can be tested with randomized experiments or by collecting fresh data.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ."
"In addition, observational studies (e.g., in biological or social systems) often involve variables that are difficult to quantify or control.",ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴳⵉⵙ.
"Without a statistical model that reflects an objective randomization, the statistical analysis relies on a subjective model.","ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ, ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ."
"For example, epidemiological studies of colon cancer consistently show beneficial correlations with broccoli consumption, while experiments find no benefit.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴹⵀⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵓⵍⵉⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ."
"For any randomized trial, some variation from the mean is expected, of course, but the randomization ensures that the experimental groups have mean values that are close, due to the central limit theorem and Markov's inequality.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵎⵅⴰⵎⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⵓⴼ."
"To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trials—say for U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval—quantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified.","ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ -ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ- ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ."
"It is also generally unethical (and often illegal) to conduct randomized experiments on the effects of substandard or harmful treatments, such as the effects of ingesting arsenic on human health.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ (ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ) ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵉⵔⵏⵉⵊ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⴷⵉⵎ, ⴳ ⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵢⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Scientists in other fields will use still other types of laboratories.,ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ.
"""Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts, the term """"laboratory"""" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make prototypes, working collaboratively or sharing resources.""","‘’ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ‘’ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵎ’’ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴰⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴼⴰⴱ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⴽⵔⵙⴱⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵙⴱⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ."
This laboratory was created when Pythagoras conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵕⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⵏⵏⵉⵊⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉ.
A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory was accidentally discovered in the year 2002.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 16 ⵙ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2002.
"Laboratory hazards might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers, strong magnetic fields or high voltage.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵀⵉⴷⴷⵊ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵖⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⵣⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵟⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories.","ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⴳⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⴰⵙⵏ."
"In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵎⵙ, ⵉⵇⵇⵏⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ."
"""Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective """"outside view"""" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit.""","‘’ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⴱⴰⵕ ‘’ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ’’ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵛⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ’’."
Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ.
"For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ."
"Through ethnographic studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ (ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ."
"By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization.","ⴳ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ."
"So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies.,ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⴽⵎ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ.
"For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⴷⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ."
"Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵍⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
"""Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, material world or universe. """"""","‘’ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ."
"Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers (though this word had a dynamic dimension then, especially for Heraclitus), and has steadily gained currency ever since.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ, ⴰⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ (φύσις) ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟ (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵀⵉⵔⴰⴽⵍⵉⵜⵓⵙ), ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ."
"However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the presocratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after Charles Darwin.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
"""It is often taken to mean the """"natural environment"""" or wilderness—wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention.""","‘’ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ’’ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ-ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ, ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⵊⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⴰ."
"The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere.","ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⴰ ⵏⵜⴰⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵜ."
"The interior remains active, with a thick layer of plastic mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵙ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⴽⵯⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ."
Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying rock.,ⴰⵔ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵙⵡⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵓⵍⵍⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ.
Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere.,ⵉⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⵡⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ.
"Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent.","ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡⵏⵏ ⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⵏⵥⵡ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"During the Neoproterozoic era, freezing temperatures covered much of the Earth in glaciers and ice sheets.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵢⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵔⵓⵣⵓⵎⵉ, ⴷⵍⵏ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵛⵎⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ."
"The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals.","ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 66 ⵏ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴰⵃ ⵉⴹⵉⵏⵓⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵁⵎⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵏⵊⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵟⵟⴷⵏ."
"The subsequent advent of human life, and the development of agriculture and further civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form, affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate.","ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ."
The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity.,ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ.
The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵓⵣⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵣⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⵉⴱⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵊⵏⵏⴰ.
"Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ."
"Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵓⵏⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the weather, and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect, both on the vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their food.","ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵥⵥⵓⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ."
"There are a number of such regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵔⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵙⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙⵏ."
This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵡⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵕⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface.,ⴷⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ 71% ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays and other names.",ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵅⵍⵉⵊⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"It is not known if Titan's lakes are fed by rivers, though Titan's surface is carved by numerous river beds.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⵍⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵛⵜⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵇⴰⵛⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ."
"A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴼⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵡⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴼⴼⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ."
"Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no general rule that defines what can be called a river.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵔⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ, ⵍⵅⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⴽ, ⴷ ⵔⵔⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵔⵔⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵙⵙⵍⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ."
The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ.
Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment.,ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⵓⴳⴳⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ.
Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms.,ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.
"However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ."
"From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air).","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵢⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⵡⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
"More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been identified to date, and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over 50 million.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 2 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50 ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ."
Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct.,ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⴽⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
When basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms.,"ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴱⵖⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵜⵥⵕ."
Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse.,ⴷ ⵜⵍⵉⵙⴰⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵜ.
"Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵟⴰ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ, ⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the purpose of study, can also include fossil flora, remnants of plant life from a previous era.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵖⵣⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵜⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
"""Some types of """"native flora"""" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced.""","''ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ''ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ''ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ''."
Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ.
"They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.",ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜⵉⵏ.
There is also typically an internal digestive chamber.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵙ.
"A 2020 study published in Nature found that anthropogenic mass (human-made materials) outweighs all living biomass on earth, with plastic alone exceeding the mass of all land and marine animals combined.","ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2020 ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ (ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵯⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ) ⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵡⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ."
"In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⴹⵜ."
"Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals, with roughly 1 million species threatened with extinction within decades.","ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴷⴰⵔ 1 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏ."
This distorts market pricing of natural resources and at the same time leads to underinvestment in our natural assets.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⴷⴰⵎ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵎⵏ.
Governments have not prevented these economic externalities.,ⵓⵔ ⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.
"Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people.","ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵊⴱⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊ."
"That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⴼ ⴰⴼⵓⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵢⴰⵣⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴹⵀⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ."
Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵔⵔⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.
"Although natural wonders are celebrated in the Psalms and the Book of Job, wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic movement.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵙⴰⵍⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷⵡⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ 1800, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵢⵜ."
"""For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be """"physics""""—the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the """"study of nature"""".""","''ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ''ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ''- ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ''ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ''."
The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4.9 percent of the total mass.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴷⴰⵔ 9.4% ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.
The behaviour of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-defined physical laws.,ⵉⴹⵀⵕ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"There is no discrete boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude.","ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⴰⵔ."
"There is also some gas, plasma and dust, and small meteors.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴹⵕⵓⵕ, ⴷ ⵓⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ."
"Although Earth is the only body within the solar system known to support life, evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵛⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵔⵔⵉⵅ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist.","ⵎⴽ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵍⵎⵔⵔⵉⵅ, ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵜⴰⵏ."
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source.,"ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵉⴽⵔⵓⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ."
"The use of measurement developed to allow recording and comparison of observations made at different times and places, by different people.",ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵙ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
In measurement the number of standard units which is equal to the observation is counted.,"ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⵚⵉⵟⵏⵜ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ."
"Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, and radio receivers.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⴱⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵕⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴼⵉⴼⵉⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵖⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵛⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵜⵎⵉⵜⵔ."
"For example, it is not normally possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, thereby changing the pressure.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⴽⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵔⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵔ."
"For example, in the twin paradox one twin goes on a trip near the speed of light and comes home younger than the twin who stayed at home.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵡⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
"""Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to observe a system without changing the system, and the """"observer"""" must be considered part of the system being observed.""","''ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ: ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⵏⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ''ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ'' ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ’’"
"Human perception occurs by a complex, unconscious process of abstraction, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and remembered, and the rest forgotten.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"""Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by """"plausible"""" data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called reconstructive memory.""","''ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵏⴽⵜⵢ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ''ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏ'' ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ''."
"In psychology, this is called confirmation bias.",ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ.
"For example, let us suppose that an observer sees a parent beat their child; and consequently may observe that such an action is either good or bad.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷⵊ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴹⴰⴼⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ."
"""Research is """"creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge"""".""",''ⵉⴳⴰ ''ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ'' ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ''
"To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.","ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵍⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ."
This material is of a primary-source character.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.
"In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results.","ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⵎ, ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.,ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⵉⵏⵏ.
This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world.,ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.,ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴹⵓ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵜⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ.
"Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵉⴳⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ."
"Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴻⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ, ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.
"Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ."
This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ.
"As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction.","ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ."
"""Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – """"Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines.""",‘’ⵜⵜⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴽ ⴳ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵀⵓⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ: ‘’ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ’’.
Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.,ⴷⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ.
"""According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, """"perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities"""".""","ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ‘’ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⵉⵏ’’."
"Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵅⴼⴰⵏ."
The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵓⵛⵛⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ.
The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis.,ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.
"The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research.","ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ."
"""However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving """"up"""" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review.""","''ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ: ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵙ ''ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴹⵀⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ''."
Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ.
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.,ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰ.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ.
"If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.","ⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research.","ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵊⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ."
This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer.,ⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach.,ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.
The management of research ethics is inconsistent across countries and there is no universally accepted approach to how it should be addressed.,ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵥⴹⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Regardless of approach, the application of ethical theory to specific controversial topics is known as applied ethics and research ethics can be viewed as a form of applied ethics because ethical theory is applied in real-world research scenarios.","ⵙ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⴳⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
"Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research, the most notable Code being the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.","ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵏⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964."
"Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies.","ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ."
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.
"For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ."
"Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions.","ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵡⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵏⵏⴰⵏ."
"For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ."
"The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly.","ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵙⵍⵃⵉⵍ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations.,ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ.
"The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⴼⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴳⵣ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢ."
Business models are different in the electronic environment.,ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵍⵉⵍⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ.
Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds.,ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ) ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ.
The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries).,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 (ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ).
"These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.","ⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ.
"There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ.
"""The term """"scientific method"""" emerged in the 19th century, when a significant institutional development of science was taking place and terminologies establishing clear boundaries between science and non-science, such as """"scientist"""" and """"pseudoscience"""", appeared.""","''ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ''ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ'' ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ''ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ'' ⴷ ''ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ''."
"Gauch 2003, and Tow 2010 disagree with Feyerabend's claim; problem solvers, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⵊⵓⵜⵛ 2003 ⴷ ⵜⵓ 2010 ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵔⴰⴱⵏⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method, said that debates over scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of Against Method, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵔⵓⴱⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⴽⵉ, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2007 ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵔⴰⴱⵏⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⵔⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⵛⵛⵓⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ."
The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"The scientific method counters claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵛ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⴽⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"From the 16th century onwards, experiments were advocated by Francis Bacon, and performed by Giambattista della Porta, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 16 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵊⵢⴰⵎⴱⴰⵜⵙⵉⴽⴰ ⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⴰ, ⵢⵓⵀⴰⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ, ⴷ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉ."
"As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics of study over time.","ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ (ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ) ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"""This model can be seen to underlie the scientific revolution.: """"""",‘’ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ''.
"One conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in some of the people in that population, as in a clinical trial of the drug.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵊⵓⵊⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ."
These predictions are expectations for the results of testing.,ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ.
The difference between expected versus actual indicates which hypothesis better explains the resulting data from the experiment.,ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ.
"Depending on the complexity of the experiment, iteration of the process may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer the question with confidence, or to build up other answers to highly specific questions, to answer a single broader question.","ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"""X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA by Florence Bell in her Ph.D. thesis (1939) were similar to (although not as good as) """"photo 51"""", but this research was interrupted by the events of World War II.""","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ''ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵏⵙ ⴱⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ (1939) ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ''ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ 51'' (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵃⵍⵉ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷⴷⵖⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ''."
"""June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.: """"""","''ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 1952, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵚⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ (TMV) ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ''."
"This prediction was a mathematical construct, completely independent from the biological problem at hand.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"""DNA is not a helix.""""""",''ⴰⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ''.
"For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ (ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ 2 ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵡⴰⵟⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ (ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴷⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴷⵢ), ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
"""But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure.: """"""",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⴽⵏⵣ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽ ⵍⵉⵏ''.
"He and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing.:","ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵊⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ."
"For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.","ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⵢ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴽ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter).","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ (ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ)."
These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences.,ⴷⴰ ⴼⵔⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"""The elements above are often taught in the educational system as """"the scientific method"""".""",ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ''ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ''.
"For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵉⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵇⵙ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⵙⵢⴰ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ."
"The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology.","ⴰⵔ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵊⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used.,ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵥⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵥⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵍⵉⵡⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ.
"""The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of """"mass"""" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a particular kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a laboratory in France.""","''ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ: ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ''ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ'' ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴳⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ-ⵉⵔⵉⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵃⴼⵓⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ."
Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
"It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic, and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth.","ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵉⵍⴷⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵀⵏⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ."
The observed difference for Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Albert Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of General relativity.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⴱⵔⵟ ⴰⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ.
"Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive reasoning, Bayesian inference, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ-ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵢⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ- ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵡⵍⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ."
Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle.,ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⵔⵅⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵀⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ.
It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown.,ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ.
"If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense.","ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴽⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ."
This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'.,ⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ''ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ (x).
Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a crucial experiment.,ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴷⵉ.
"This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⴱⴰⵄ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ."
Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.,ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ.
Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment that tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.,ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ.
Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content.,ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.
Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ.
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage.,ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.
"Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community.",ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives.","ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ."
"Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⵜⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new evidence.","ⵉⵖ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵏⵉⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⵉ ⵉⵙⵀⵢⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵅ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ."
"For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets almost perfectly.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
"Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors.","ⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵔⵏⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
"""Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it"""".""","ⵅⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵔⵓⴼ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵎⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory.,"ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰ ⵜⴷⵣⵔⵉ."
"""The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of """"what is agreeable to reason.""""""","ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴹⵉⵜⵏ."
"That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community.","ⵖⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵏⵉⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⴼⴽⵉ."
"From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, based on tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵢ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ."
"Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong.",ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
"""Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from Draft D of Memoir 27: """"Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery.""","''ⴱⵉⵔⵙ, ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵙ (1902), ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵏⵉⵊⵉⵢⵜ (MS L75.329330) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ 27: ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵅ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ.’’"
"""Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.""""""","''ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵚⵚⴹⵚⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵟⵟⵏⵥ, ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ."
"The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests.","ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⵙⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"""Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say """"the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility.""""""",''ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵕⵟ (1936-1956) ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ.
These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which science may be grounded.,ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ.
His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures.,ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"""He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a """"different"""" sunrise despite the same physiological phenomenon.""","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ 1 ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵖⵓⵍⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵉ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ''ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ'' ⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ."
"In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ.
"Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof).","ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ (ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ)."
"For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵇⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵛⵃⴰⵃⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"Eugene Wigner's paper, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist.","ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵊⵏⵕ, ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⴰⵔⵖⵡⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵖ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ."
"In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures.","ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵍⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵣ"
This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.,ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵅⵅ ⵍⵍⵉⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵓⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵃⵢⴰⵏⵏ
"Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.",ⵎⴰⵀⵡⴰⵀ ⵏⵊ: ⵍⵓⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵔⵍⴱⴰⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵔⴽⵏ.
"""This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls """"Anti-fragility""""; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile).""","« ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵟⴰⵍⴱ ⴽⴰⵍⵍⵙ » «ⴰⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⴽⴹ” ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴽⵓⴽⴹⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵚⴰⵃⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ."
These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method.,ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been repeatedly tested and verified in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results.","ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵉⵣ ⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵍ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge.,ⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.
"""Stephen Jay Gould wrote that """"...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty.""","ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵊⴰⵢ ⴳⵓⵍⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ « ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
The meaning of the term scientific theory (often contracted to theory for brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of theory.,ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ( ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵃⵛⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ) ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵡⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵖ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ.
"In everyday speech, theory can imply an explanation that represents an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, whereas in science it describes an explanation that has been tested and is widely accepted as valid.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴷⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏⵚⵚⵃⵓⵜ ⵏⵣⵍⵓⵣⵓⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⴷ."
"Some theories are so well-established that they are unlikely ever to be fundamentally changed (for example, scientific theories such as evolution, heliocentric theory, cell theory, theory of plate tectonics, germ theory of disease, etc.).","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ (ⵙ ⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⴽⵜⵓⵏⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵅⵛⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ)."
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.,ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
"The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions.","ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ."
"It is well-supported by many independent strands of evidence, rather than a single foundation.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ."
"""The theory of biological evolution is more than """"just a theory"""".""",‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ''ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ''.
This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis.,ⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ.
"This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
"The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups.","ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ."
"In chemistry, there are many acid-base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior.","ⴳ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ."
"Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⴰ."
"Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ."
"If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required.","ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵃⵜⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ."
"This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts.","ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification.","ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ (ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ); ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ."
"For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ."
"This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ, ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ."
"By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial—that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴱⴷⵔ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ- ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⵉⴽⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ."
"Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating.","ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵢⵓⵣⵣⵍⴰⵏ."
"""Even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by """"curving"""" the geometrical """"surface"""" of 4D space-time.""",ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ''ⵉⵃⵓⴷⵔⵏ'' ''ⴰⵣⵓⵔ'' ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ 4ⴷ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ.
"However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ/ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ.
A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵎⵏ.
Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence.,ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ.
First-order logic is an example of a formal language.,ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ.
"The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ/ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⵏⵓⵣⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢ), ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ (ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵏ."
"""The phrase """"the received view of theories"""" is used to describe this approach.""",“ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ “ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴷ’’.
"One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model.","ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ (ⵏⵉⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time.","ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⴰⵕⴰⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ."
"""The word """"semantic"""" refers to the way that a model represents the real world.""",‘’ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ''ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ'' ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ''.
"""Engineering practice makes a distinction between """"mathematical models"""" and """"physical models""""; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool.""","ⴷⴰ “ ⵜⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ “ ⴷ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ “, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ."
Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists).,ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ).
"This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested.","ⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ, ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ."
"The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
"""The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere (""""accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp""""), which is a conjunction of ad- (""""to, towards, at"""") and sumere (to take).""","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⴽ ⵅⴼ (OED) ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵓ (“ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ”), ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ (“ⵖⵔ”, “ⵙ” ⴷ (ⵙⵓⵎⵉⵔⵉ)."
"""The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in """"to receive up into heaven"""", especially """"the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption"""", (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to """"receive into association"""" or """"adopt into partnership"""".""","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ », ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ « ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ ⵏ ⵎⵔⵢⴰⵎ ⵍⵄⴰⴷⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ », (1297) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ » ⵏⵉⵖ « ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ »."
"Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory.","ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵥⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ - ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ."
A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific.,"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ."
"Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, might still be upheld by their admirers—for example by introducing post hoc (after the fact) some auxiliary hypothesis or assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory post hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵏⵜ- ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ), ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ."
"""Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its """"falsifiability, or refutability, or testability"""".""","ⵉⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ «ⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ «ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔⵊⴰⵏ, ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ."
"""Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of """"theory"""", observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have """"falsified"""" Newton's celestial mechanics.""","ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵅⵙ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⵓⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1781 ⵇⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ « ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ’’."
"""Fecundity: """"A great scientific theory, like Newton's, opens up new areas of research….""","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ."
"At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer.","ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ."
"Like other definitions of theories, including Popper's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences.","ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵉ."
"It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms.","ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ."
"""The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed """"laws of electromagnetism,"""" reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them.""","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉ « ⵉⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ » ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force.,ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕ.
A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.,ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ.
"Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well.","ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ (ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⴳⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ) ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵍⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ-ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⵙⵏ- ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
"Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⵉⵍⵓⵎⵜⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality.,ⵉⵙⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴽⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated a theory of mechanics and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement and perception.,"ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴽⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵕⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
He provided a comprehensive formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics.,ⵉⴼⴽ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ.
He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body.,ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵖⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵊⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ.
Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences.,ⵍⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴱⵍⴰⵏⵣⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵙⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ.
"However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵏ."
"A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.","ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⴰ."
They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality.,ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist).","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ (ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ)."
"These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project.",ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵓⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
The figure included twice as many men as women.,ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ.
"Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.","ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⵏⵓⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵔⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵇⵇⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴽⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵔⴰⵏ."
Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences.,ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.
"In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars.","ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵙⵉ."
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects.,ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵏ
These two fields complement each other.,ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ .
"""Based on strict dictionary definitions, """"astronomy"""" refers to """"the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties,"""" while """"astrophysics"""" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with """"the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena"""".""","‘’ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔ'' ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ''ⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ'' ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ''ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ."
"Some fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics.","ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
"From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ."
"A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵉⵏ."
"Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.",ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.
"Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵀⵉⴱⴰⵕⵛⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ 1020 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later.,ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴼⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵕⵓⴱⴰⵅ (1423-1461) ⴷ ⵕⵉⵊⵢⵓ ⵎⵓⵏⵟⴰⵏⵓⵙ(1436-1476) ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⵔⵏⵉⴽⵓⵚ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.
"In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest galaxy in the Local Group, was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 964, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⵄⴰⴱⴷ ⵕⵕⴰⵃⵎⴰⵏ ⵚⵚⵓⴼⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴷⵕⵓⵎⵉⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars.,ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵄⵕⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴷⵉⵢⵏ.
Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented a meteor shower in August 1583.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⵓⵏⵖⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵃⵎⵓⴷ ⴽⴰⵜⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1583.
Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ.
"The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars, More extensive star catalogues were produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.","ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⴼⵍⴰⵎⵙⵜⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 3000 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵚ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⴷⵓ ⵍⴰⴽⴰⵢ."
"This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.",ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⵊⵓⵥⵉⴼ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⴳⵔⴰⵏⵊ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵕ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⴰⴱⵍⴰⵚ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of temperatures, masses, and sizes.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵖⵍⵜ, ⴰⵏⴷⴷⵓⵔ, ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ."
"Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars, which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and radio galaxies.","ⵜⵉⵡⵢ ⵜⵚⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴳⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵊⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵣⴰⵕⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ."
Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵊⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵇ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ.
"Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields.","ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵓⴽⵕⵓⵜⵕⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⴹ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ."
Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star clusters.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵖⵉ ⵉⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵕⴱⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉⵏ.
Images of observations were originally drawn by hand.,ⵙⵙⵓⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ.
Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright in this wave band.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⴽⵥⴰⵢ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵔⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⴰ.
Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⴽⵓⵎⴱⵜⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⵕⵕⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵉⵕⵓⵏⴽⵓⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ.
Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects.,ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ.
"Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ( ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵔⵉⵟ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴼⴽⴰ) ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ."
The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe.,ⴰⵔ ⵉⵊⴱⴱⵕ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⴼⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⴰⵙⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ.
Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on.,ⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴰⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵓⵎⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵚⵕⵓⵏ.
The observation of a phenomenon predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternate or conflicting models as the one best able to describe the phenomena.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ.
"In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to the total abandonment of a model.","ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ."
"Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵡⵔⵉⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ"
"""The word """"astrochemistry"""" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium.""",“ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ““ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ”” ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.”
The term exobiology is similar.,ⵢⴰⵖ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰ (exobiology).
"Observations of the large-scale structure of the Universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵣⵡⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵖⵓⴱ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ."
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space.,ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴰⵡⵍⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ.
"Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵣⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵅⴱⵢⵉⵏ."
Various fields of physics are crucial to studying the universe.,ⵛⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
"Finally, the latter is important for the understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ."
"As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse.","ⵉⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵉ, ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters, and may have been formed through mergers of large galaxies.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵀⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ.
"About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ."
"A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵏⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵔⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ."
The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ.
"In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at its center.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵏⴽⴼⴼⴰⵢ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵣⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴱⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular clusters.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹ ⵜⵀⴰⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵙⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"These begin as a compact pre-stellar core or dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by the Jeans length) to form compact protostars.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⵡⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵥⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵍⵍⵓⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴷⴰⵍ ( ⵙ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵣ) ⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵥⵏ."
"These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴼⵣⵣⴰⵄⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴼⴼⴰⵢ."
"7–18 Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant molecular clouds.","7–18 ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵥⵥⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵏⵖⵔ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡ ⵉⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵕⵓⴹⵏ."
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
"Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve.","ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴰⵀⵉⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ."
The ejection of the outer layers forms a planetary nebula.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⵏⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ.
This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number.,ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵣ ⵏ 11 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵉⵄⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ.
The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⴰⵜⵜⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⴽⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
Above this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere.,ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵕⵓⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵔ.
"Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵜ."
"A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost limit of the Solar System, it reaches the heliopause.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵓⴹ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵙ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴹ,ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ."
The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun.,ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 4.6 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ.
"The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon.","ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴱⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ."
"This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust.","ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵓ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢ ⵓⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonics.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵢⵓⵊⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵜⵓⵏⵉⵜ.
Astrostatistics is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the analysis of a vast amount of observational astrophysical data.,ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⵔ.
"Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System, including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios.","ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ."
Astronomy clubs are located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier (110 objects) or Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky.,"ⵎⴼⵣⵣⴰⵄⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵢⵉ (110 ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉ) ⵏⵖ ⵀⵉⵔⵛⵍ 400 ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ."
"Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ."
A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope).,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⵕⴰⴷⵢⴰⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵏ (ⴰⵎ ⵓⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵍ).
"Answers to these may require the construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, and possibly new developments in theoretical and experimental physics.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ."
A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵓⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox?","ⵎⴽ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵎⵉ?"
What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy?,ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵓⵙⵏ?
How did the first galaxies form?,ⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ?
"Astrobiology, formerly known as exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe.","ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ."
The origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ.
"Biochemistry may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⴹⵉⵇⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ 13.8 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ 10-17 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ."
"Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the universe humans know to harbor life.","ⵎⵖⴰⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
The term exobiology was coined by molecular biologist and Nobel Prize winner Joshua Lederberg.,ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ (exobiology) ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ ⵊⵓⵛⵡⴰ ⵍⵉⴷⵔⴱⵉⵔⴳ.
"""The term xenobiology is now used in a more specialized sense, to mean """"biology based on foreign chemistry"""", whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (possibly synthetic) origin.""","“ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ, ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ““ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜ””, ⵙⵡ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ).”"
"Though once considered outside the mainstream of scientific inquiry, astrobiology has become a formalized field of study.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ."
"In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded an Exobiology Program, which is now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1959, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ (NASA) ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1960, ⵜⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ."
"Advancements in the fields of astrobiology, observational astronomy and discovery of large varieties of extremophiles with extraordinary capability to thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, have led to speculation that life may possibly be thriving on many of the extraterrestrial bodies in the universe.","ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵡⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ."
Missions specifically designed to search for current life on Mars were the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⴽⵉⵏⴳ ⴷ ⴱⵉⴳⵍ 2.
"In late 2008, the Phoenix lander probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars, and researched the history of water there.","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008, ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ, ⵜⵔⴻⵓ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ."
"In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory mission carrying the Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012.","ⴳ ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2011, ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⴰⵥⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⵔⵢⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉ (Curiosity), ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⴳ ⴳⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⵉⵜⵔ (Gale Crater) ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2012."
"One is the informed assumption that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⴰⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
A third assumption is to focus on planets orbiting Sun-like stars for increased probabilities of planetary habitability.,ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have been considered, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs, both of which have been cancelled.","ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (Terrestrial Planet Finder) (TPF) ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵕⵡⵉⵏ ESA, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ."
"Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference, but some applications of the formula had been taken literally and related to simplistic or pseudoscientific arguments.","ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⴷⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ (Green Bank), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ."
"The discovery of extremophiles, organisms able to survive in extreme environments, became a core research element for astrobiologists, as they are important to understand four areas in the limits of life in planetary context: the potential for panspermia, forward contamination due to human exploration ventures, planetary colonization by humans, and the exploration of extinct and extant extraterrestrial life.","ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ: ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⵏⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Even life in the ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵥⵉⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ."
This chemosynthesis revolutionized the study of biology and astrobiology by revealing that life need not be sun-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.,ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ; ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵜⵔ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Ten hardy organisms selected for the LIFE project, by Amir Alexander Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade.","ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⴰⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴷⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵍⴰⵢⴼ (LIFE), ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴱⵉⴷⵓⴱⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵔⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⵉⴳⵔⴰⴷ (Tardigrade)."
"Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵣⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵛⵜⴰⵔⵉ, ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵃⴰⵍ , ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵍⴰⴷⵓⵙ, ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵟⵟⵉⵜⵏ."
"""The cosmic dust permeating the universe contains complex organic compounds (""""amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure"""") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.""",“ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵏⵖⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ (““ⵜⵉⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⴽⵙⵏ””) ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵙⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.”
"PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵉⵇⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⵣⵍⵍⴰⵄⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵣⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⵕⵕⴰⵜⵉⵏ."
"Experimental astroecology investigates resources in planetary soils, using actual space materials in meteorites.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵏⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽⵏ."
"On the largest scale, cosmoecology concerns life in the universe over cosmological times.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ."
"Specializations include cosmochemistry, biochemistry and organic geochemistry.",ⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ.
"Some regions on Earth, such as the Pilbara in Western Australia and the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars, and as such, might be able to provide clues on how to search for past life on Mars.","ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵍⴱⴰⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴽⵎⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴷⵔⴰⵢ ⴼⴰⵍⵍⵉⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔⴽⵜⵉⴽⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵕⵚ."
"Indeed, it seems likely that the basic building blocks of life anywhere will be similar to those on Earth, in the generality if not in the detail.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Only two of the natural atoms, carbon and silicon, are known to serve as the backbones of molecules sufficiently large to carry biological information.","ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⴽⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴽⵓⵏ, ⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ."
"The four most likely candidates for life in the Solar System are the planet Mars, the Jovian moon Europa, and Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus.","ⵉⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⵊⵓⴼⵢⴰⵏⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵣⵉⵃⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵉⵍⴰⴷⵓⵙ."
"At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴷⵔ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵚⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","“ⴳ 11 ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2013, ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ““ⴰⵣⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ”” (ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵍ, ⴼⵉⵍⵓⵣⵉⵍⵉⴽⴰⵜⵙ), ⵜⵣⴷⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵏⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵔⵓⴱⴰ.”"
Some scientists think it possible that these liquid hydrocarbons might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth.,ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵟⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴹⵕⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
There are no known abiotic processes on the planet that could cause its presence.,ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000.","ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵢⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ 000593, ⴰⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000."
"On 5 March 2011, Richard B. Hoover, a scientist with the Marshall Space Flight Center, speculated on the finding of alleged microfossils similar to cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites in the fringe Journal of Cosmology, a story widely reported on by mainstream media.","ⴳ 5 ⵎⴰⵕⵚ 2011, ⵉⴷⵎⴰ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴱ. ⵀⵓⴼⵔ, ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ, ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⵜⵏ CI1 ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"Evidence of perchlorates have been found throughout the solar system, and specifically on Mars.","ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴽⵍⵓⵕⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵥⵓⵢⵖ."
"Improved detection methods and increased observation time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ; ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ, ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
The aim is to detect those organisms that are able to survive space travel conditions and to maintain the proliferating capacity.,"ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ; ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ."
"These stress responses could also allow them to survive in harsh space conditions, although evolution also puts some restrictions on their use as analogues to extraterrestrial life.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵊⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ; ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
The formation of spores allows for it to survive extreme environments while still being able to restart cellular growth.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ."
"The two landers were identical, so the same tests were carried out at two places on Mars' surface; Viking 1 near the equator and Viking 2 further north.","ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖⵏ Viking 1 ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴳⵙ, ⴷ Viking 2 ⴳ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ."
"In astronomy, extinction is the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by dust and gas between an emitting astronomical object and the observer.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⵜⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⴷⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⴹⵓ."
"For stars that lie near the plane of the Milky Way and are within a few thousand parsecs of the Earth, extinction in the visual band of frequencies (photometric system) is roughly 1.8 magnitudes per kiloparsec.","ⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵊⴽⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⵎⵉⵟⵕ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴳⵓⵍⵏ ( ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ), ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.8 ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵯⵔ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⴱⴰⵔⵙⴽ."
Reddening occurs due to the light scattering off dust and other matter in the interstellar medium.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵜⵣⵓⵖⵉ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ.
In most photometric systems filters (passbands) are used from which readings of magnitude of light may take account of latitude and humidity among terrestrial factors.,"ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴽⵉⴷⵉⵏ ( ⵉⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵖⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Broadly speaking, interstellar extinction is strongest at short wavelengths, generally observed by using techniques from spectroscopy.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵇⵙⴰⵃ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵣⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⵍⴰⴼ."
The amount of extinction can be significantly higher than this in specific directions.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵢ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"As a result, when computing cosmic distances it can be advantageous to move to star data from the near-infared (of which the filter or passband Ks is quite standard) where the variations and amount of extinction are significantly less, and similar ratios as to R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 and 0.528±0.015 were found respectively by independent groups.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ Ks ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ), ⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ, ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴽⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 ⴷ 0.528±0.015 ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"This feature was first observed in the 1960s, but its origin is still not well understood.","ⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ 1960, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ."
"In the SMC, more extreme variation is seen with no 2175 Å and very strong far-UV extinction in the star forming Bar and fairly normal ultraviolet extinction seen in the more quiescent Wing.","ⴳ SMC ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ 2175 Å, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⴰⵢⵜ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰ."
Finding extinction curves in both the LMC and SMC which are similar to those found in the Milky Way and finding extinction curves in the Milky Way that look more like those found in the LMC2 supershell of the LMC and in the SMC Bar has given rise to a new interpretation.,"ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⴳ LMC ⴷ SMC ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵊⴽⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵢⴰⴼⵓⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵊⴽⵔⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ LMC2 supershell, ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ LMC ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ SMC, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
"This extinction has three main components: Rayleigh scattering by air molecules, scattering by particulates, and molecular absorption.","ⵓⴼⵓⴹ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ: ⴰⴼⵣⵣⵄ ⵏ ⵔⴰⵢⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵣⵣⵄ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ."
The amount of such extinction is lowest at the observer's zenith and highest near the horizon.,ⴰⵙⵓⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵃⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ.
The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe.,ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵔⴰⴽ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ.
"This encompasses a search for current and historic extraterrestrial life, and a narrower search for extraterrestrial intelligent life.","ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵢⵉⵎⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"Over the years, science fiction communicated scientific ideas, imagined a wide range of possibilities, and influenced public interest in and perspectives of extraterrestrial life.","ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, as well as notable personalities such as Winston Churchill, it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere other than Earth.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵙⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵀⵓⴽⵉⵏⴳ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵕⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵛⵔⵛⵍ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the universe.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.
"At each level of the organism there will be mechanisms in place to eliminate conflict, maintain cooperation, and keep the organism functioning.","ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔ ."
"Life based on ammonia (rather than water) has been suggested as an alternative, though this solvent appears less suitable than water.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵢⴰ ( ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵙⵙⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
"About 95% of living matter is built upon only six elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur.","ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 95% ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ: ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓ, ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵏⵉⵟⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴼⵓⵚⴼⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴼⵔⵉⵜ."
"The carbon atom has the unique ability to make four strong chemical bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ."
"""According to NASA's 2015 Astrobiology Strategy, """"Life on other worlds is most likely to include microbes, and any complex living system elsewhere is likely to have arisen from and be founded upon microbial life.""","ⵙ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015, ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ, “ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ."
"""Rick Colwell, a member of the Deep Carbon Observatory team from Oregon State University, told the BBC: """"I think it’s probably reasonable to assume that the subsurface of other planets and their moons are habitable, especially since we’ve seen here on Earth that organisms can function far away from sunlight using the energy provided directly from the rocks deep underground"""".""","ⵔⵉⴽ ⴽⵓⵍⵡⵉⵍ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⴳⵓⵏ, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ BBC; ⵖⴰⵍⵖ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⵓⴼⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ, ⵏⵓⵎⵕ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵄⵔⴰⵇ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴱⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
The panspermia hypothesis proposes that life elsewhere in the Solar System may have a common origin.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵏⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ.
"In the 19th century it was again revived in modern form by several scientists, including Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834), Kelvin (1871), Hermann von Helmholtz (1879) and, somewhat later, by Svante Arrhenius (1903).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱ ⴱⵔⵣⵍⵢⵓⵙ (1834), ⴽⵉⵍⴼⵉⵏ (1871), ⵀⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵎⵀⵓⵍⵜⵣ (1879) ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵀⵓⵏⵢⵓⵙ (1903)."
"""One of the early scientific inquires into the topic appeared in an 1878 Scientific American article entitled """"Is the Moon Inhabited?""""""",ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵔⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ Scientific American ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1878 ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ “ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ?”.
Warm and pressurized regions in the Moon's interior might still contain liquid water.,ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵍⵉⵏ.
"There is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up riverbeds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴳⴰⵖⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵇⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
The vapor could have been produced by ice volcanoes or by ice near the surface sublimating (transforming from solid to gas).,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵔⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⴰⴼ (ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ).
It is also possible that Europa could support aerobic macrofauna using oxygen created by cosmic rays impacting its surface ice.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴼⴰⴼ.
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","ⴳ 11 ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2013, “ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ (ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ phyllosilicates), ⵇⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵍⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵇⵛⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ.
"In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996 ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵏⴰⵏⴰⵡⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵏⴰⵢⵣⴰⴽ ALH84001, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ."
"NASA officials soon distanced NASA from the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions.","ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵣⴰ; ⵄⵔⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
It is designed to assess the past and present habitability on Mars using a variety of scientific instruments.,"ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵙⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"However, significant advances in the ability to find and resolve light from smaller rocky worlds near their stars are necessary before such spectroscopic methods can be used to analyze extrasolar planets.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ."
"In August 2011, findings by NASA, based on studies of meteorites found on Earth, suggest DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules), building blocks for life as we know it, may be formed extraterrestrially in outer space.","ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2011, ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵥⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵢⴰⵥⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ DNA ⴷ RNA (ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ), ⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⵏ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ."
"In August 2012, and in a world first, astronomers at Copenhagen University reported the detection of a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a distant star system.","ⴳ ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 2012, ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓⴱⵏⵀⴰⴳⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵙⴽⴽⴰⵔ ⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵍⴷⵀⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵄⵕⵇⵏ."
"The Kepler space telescope has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be false positives.","ⵢⴰⴼ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ 11% ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ."
"The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, about 29 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to most definitions of a planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead.","ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵥⴰ, ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 29 ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵛⵜⴰⵔⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ."
"One sign that a planet probably already contains life is the presence of an atmosphere with significant amounts of oxygen, since that gas is highly reactive and generally would not last long without constant replenishment.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ."
"Even if it is assumed that only one out of a billion of these stars has planets supporting life, there would be some 6.25 billion life-supporting planetary systems in the observable universe.","ⵎⴽ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵉⴼⴹⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 6.25 ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ."
The earliest recorded assertion of extraterrestrial human life is found in ancient scriptures of Jainism.,ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵣ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵢⵏⵉⵣⵎ.
Medieval Muslim writers like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Muhammad al-Baqir supported cosmic pluralism on the basis of the Qur'an.,ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⴰⵅⵔ ⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵕⵕⴰⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵃⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵇⵕ; ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵕⴰⵏ.
"Once it became clear that Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe, the theory of extraterrestrial life started to become a topic in the scientific community.","ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated.,"ⵜⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⴱⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"The idea of life on Mars led British writer H. G. Wells to write the novel The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet's desiccation.","ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⵜⵛ ⵊⵉ ⵡⵉⵍⵣ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1897, ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵓⵢⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"""Belief in extraterrestrial beings continues to be voiced in pseudoscience, conspiracy theories, and popular folklore, notably """"Area 51"""" and legends.""","ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴼⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵄⵏⵡⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵓⵣ, ⴷ ⵍⴼⵓⵍⴽⵍⵓⵕ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ 51, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵢ."
Ward and Brownlee are open to the idea of evolution on other planets that is not based on essential Earth-like characteristics (such as DNA and carbon).,ⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵓⵡⵏⵍⵉ ⵔⵣⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ DNA ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ).
"""If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when Columbus landed in America, which didn't turn out well for the Native Americans"""", he said.""","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ “ⵉⴳⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵏⵖ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵣ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵥⵖⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
COSPAR also provides guidelines for planetary protection.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵓⵙⴱⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⴼⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ.
"""Also, according to the response, there is """"no credible information to suggest that any evidence is being hidden from the public's eye.""""""","ⴰⵡⴷ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
Top: Light sources of different magnitudes.,"ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"Comet Borrelly, the colors show its brightness over the range of three orders of magnitude (right).","ⴽⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⴱⵓⵔⵍⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵓ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ (ⴰⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ)."
"The scale is logarithmic and defined such that each step of one magnitude changes the brightness by a factor of the fifth root of 100, or approximately 2.512.","ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉ 100, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 2.512."
Astronomers use two different definitions of magnitude: apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude.,"ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ: ⴰⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼ."
"The absolute magnitude describes the intrinsic luminosity emitted by an object and is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were placed at a certain distance from Earth, 10 parsecs for stars.","ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵍⵉⵍⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙ ⵖⴼ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, 10 ⴼⵔⵙⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
The development of the telescope showed that these large sizes were illusory—stars appeared much smaller through the telescope.,ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ ⵉⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵏⴷⴰⵡⵜ-ⴰⴳⴷ ⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱ.
"The more negative the value, the brighter the object.",ⴽⵓ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ.
"Stars that have magnitudes between 1.5 and 2.5 are called second-magnitude; there are some 20 stars brighter than 1.5, which are first-magnitude stars (see the list of brightest stars).","ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ 1.5 ⴷ 2.5 ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 20 ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ 1.5 ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ( ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ)."
Absolute magnitudes for solar system objects are frequently quoted based on a distance of 1 AU.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵯⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ 1 AU.
The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools.,ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.
It has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class.,"ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ( ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ), ⵢⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜ."
"Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.","ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵥⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"""The term's meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into """"technology.""""""","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⴱⵍⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⴽ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ."
"""In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that """"technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them.""""""","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1937, ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉ ⵔⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵏ; ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵛⵓⵛⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ."
"""More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of """"technique"""" to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the self (techniques de soi).""","ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵎⵥⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⴰⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴽⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ."
"""to invent useful things or to solve problems"""" and """"a machine, piece of equipment, method, etc.,""","ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ, ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ."
"The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.","ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵄⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems.",ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵜⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ.
"""W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a similarly broad way as """"a means to fulfill a human purpose.""""""","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""When combined with another term, such as """"medical technology"""" or """"space technology,"""" it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. """"""","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵣⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼⵜ”, ⵏⵖⴷ “ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ”, ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ."
"Additionally, technology is the application of mathematics, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science.","ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ (ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵀⴰ) ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ."
"For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors by using already-existing tools and knowledge.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ."
"The exact relations between science and technology, in particular, have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"Early humans evolved from a species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal, with a brain mass approximately one third of modern humans.","ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵛ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ."
The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance that allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.,"ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵓⵇⵇⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⵣⴰ."
The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to the 8th-millennium BCE.,"ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ “ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ”, ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴼⵍⵓⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 8 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 BCE probably independently and nearly simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe.","ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ, ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 4000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ( ⵍⵄⵉⵕⴰⵇ ⴷⵖⵉ), ⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵓⵇⴰⵣ ( ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵓⴱ), ⴷ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ."
"More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.","ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⵖ, ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵣⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⴱⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵍⵓⴼⵉⵏⵢⴰ."
The ancient Sumerians used the potter's wheel and may have invented it.,"ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵓⵎⵉⵔⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ."
The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois and were first used in Mesopotamia and Iran in around 3000 BCE.,"ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ travois, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⴳⵔ-ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 3000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.,ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵓⴼ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵏⵓⵙⵓⵙ.
The primary sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima; construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.,"ⴰⵇⵇⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵕⵓⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ Cloaca Maxima, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"Medieval technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks, and a system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices.","ⵜⵥⵕ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵍⵊⵕⵕⴰⵕⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴹⴼⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⴹⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
"Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, driven by the discovery of steam power and the widespread application of the factory system.","ⵙⴳ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 18, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ."
The rise in technology has led to skyscrapers and broad urban areas whose inhabitants rely on motors to transport them and their food supplies.,"ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴱⵔⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵎⵛⵜⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
The 20th century brought a host of innovations.,ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ.
"Information technology subsequently led to the birth in the 1980s of the Internet, which ushered in the current Information Age.","ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ 1980, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵔⵃⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ."
"Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain some of the newer technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools.","ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ."
"Transhumanists generally believe that the point of technology is to overcome barriers, and that what we commonly refer to as the human condition is just another barrier to be surpassed.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ “ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ” ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴹⵡ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴻⵏⴹⵡ."
They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.,ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵉ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⴷ; ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⵓⴽⵍⵉⵙⵜ.
"He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel helplessly against it.'","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽ ⵢⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴽ ⵎⴰⵎⵏⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⴽⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵇⵏ-ⵡⴰⵍⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵖⵡⵡⵖ ⵙ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ."
"Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics such as Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four.","ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⵓⵙ ⵀⵉⴽⵙⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵉ ⴱⵓⵔⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵏⴱⵓⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵕⵡⵉⵍ."
"""The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called """"technopolies,"""" societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values, and world-views.""","ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ; ⵏⵉⵍ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵄⵔⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
"Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dangers of new technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, and robotics.","ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ."
"Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has published books such as On the Internet and What Computers Still Can't Do.","ⴰⴼⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵀⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⴷⵔⴰⵢⴼⵓⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ."
"In his article, Jared Bernstein, a Senior Fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, questions the widespread idea that automation, and more broadly, technological advances, have mainly contributed to this growing labor market problem.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴼⴹⴹⵏ."
He uses two main arguments to defend his point.,ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"""Indeed, automation threatens repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary because they complement technology and manual jobs that """"requires flexibility judgment and common sense"""" remain hard to replace with machines.""","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⵜⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵃⵙⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
"""Technology is often considered too narrowly; according to Hughes, """"Technology is a creative process involving human ingenuity"""".""","ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵀⵢⵓⵣ “ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵏⵏⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ."
They have often supposed that technology is easily controllable and this assumption has to be thoroughly questioned.,"ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ."
Solutionism is the ideology that every social issue can be solved thanks to technology and especially thanks to the internet.,ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ: ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.
Benjamin R. Cohen and Gwen Ottinger also discussed the multivalent effects of technology.,ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴱⵏⵢⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵔ.ⴽⵓⵀⵏ ⴷ ⴳⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ.
The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.,ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
"""In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil predicted that the future of technology would mainly consist of an overlapping """"GNR Revolution"""" of genetics, nanotechnology and robotics, with robotics being the most important of the three.""","“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵢ ⴽⵓⵍⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⴳ “ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ GNR” ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ.”"
Humans have already made some of the first steps toward achieving the GNR revolution.,ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ; ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ GNR”.
Some believe that the future of robotics will involve a 'greater than human non-biological intelligence.',ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ.
"""This future shares many similarities with the concept of planned obsolescence, however, planned obsolescence is seen as a """"sinister business strategy.'""","ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ “ⵜⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ”, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵖⵔ “ⵜⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ” ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ."
"Genetics have also been explored, with humans understanding genetic engineering to a certain degree.",ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ.
Others think that genetic engineering will be used to make humans more resistant or completely immune to some diseases.,ⵡⵉⵢⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
It is believed by futurists that nanobot technology will allow humans to 'manipulate matter at the molecular and atomic scale.',ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵊ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ.
"""In this context, now obsolete, an """"engine"""" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult).""","“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴹⵓ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ “ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ”, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴷⵉ).”"
The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East.,"ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕ."
"The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.","ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 5000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⴰⴳⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ."
"The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC.",ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵛⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ (911-609) ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ.
"As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵄⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵙⵉⵔ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵣⵓⵙⵔ (ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵕⵊⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵙⴰⵇⴰⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 2630-2611 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.,"ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵛⵢⵢⵓⵏ speos, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⵉ ⴳⵔ 3700 ⴷ 3250 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⵕⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 7 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵛ."
"Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.","ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ Antikythera, ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵀⵢⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵏⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵏⴽⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 18."
"He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.","ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵓⴳⵏⵏⴰⴳ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⵏⵏⴳⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵊⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵅⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵏⵏⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.","ⵉⴳ ⵏⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.,"ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴷⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ.
Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine.,ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ Newcomen.
"Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read.","ⵚⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⵓⵕⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⴽⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴽⵙⵀⵓⵍ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⵓ, ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴼⵔⵉ."
"Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.","ⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⴽⵓⵎⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1712, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical.","ⵙⵙⴷⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴳⵯⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵢⵉⴷⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴼⵍⵓⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ."
"The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools.","ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19.
"""The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of """"engineer"""" for the first time with a count of 2,000.""","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ 1850, ⵢⵓⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ 2000."
"In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1890, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ 6000 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ."
"The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ 1800, ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵓ ⴼⵓⵍⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵣⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1816 ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1872."
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design.,"ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⵓⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ."
"Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches.",ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.
"As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ."
"It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⴹⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"""Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of """"low-level"""" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.""","“ⵉⵏⵏⴰ Genrich Altshuller ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴷⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⴳⴳⴰⵣ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ, “ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ “, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ.”"
Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.,ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵜⵏ ⵏⴷⵎⴰ.
As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering.,"ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ (ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ), ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ."
"It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs.","ⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ 3 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ 2 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵚⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.,"ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ."
"By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior.",ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖ.
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development.,ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.
"There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ."
"Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
"First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ."
The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.,ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.
A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.
"An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components.","ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⵢⵉⵔ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
Engineers stress innovation and invention.,ⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵍⵥⴰⵡⵏ.
"Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics.",ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ.
"Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ; ⵜⵓⵥⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ."
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems.,ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ.
"""Engineering management or """"Management engineering"""" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector.""","ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ, ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ."
Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods.,"ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ, ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ."
"Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by humans or animals.","ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ (ⵛⵜ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
"AI research has tried and discarded many different approaches during its lifetime, including simulating the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of knowledge and imitating animal behavior.","ⵓⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴹⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ, ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ."
"The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.","ⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ,ⴷ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"AI also draws upon computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.",ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"""The study of mechanical or """"formal"""" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity.""",ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.
"The Church-Turing thesis, along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, this led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain.","ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵕⵜ ⵏⵜⵛⵓⵔⵛ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉ."
"Attendees Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), Marvin Minsky (MIT) and Arthur Samuel (IBM) became the founders and leaders of AI research.","ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵍ (CMU), ⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ (CMU), ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵎⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉ ( ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵛ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴼⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ( ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵔ ⵚⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ (IBM), ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"""AI's founders were optimistic about the future: Herbert Simon predicted, """"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do"""".""",ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ: ⵉⴷⵎⴰ ⵀⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ “ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ”.
"Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI.","ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵜⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴳ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars.","ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1985, ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ."
"Faster computers, algorithmic improvements, and access to large amounts of data enabled advances in machine learning and perception; data-hungry deep learning methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks around 2012.","ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⴱⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ; ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 2012."
AI research divided into competing sub-fields that often failed to communicate with each other.,"ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵛⴰⵃⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
"The research was centered in three institutions: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford, and MIT, and as described below, each one developed its own style of research.","ⵉⵙⵎⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ: ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵏⵊⵉ ⵎⵉⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵛ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴰⵙ, ⵜⴱⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ."
"They called their work by several names: e.g. embodied, situated, behavior-based or developmental.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ: ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ."
"The shared mathematical language permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like mathematics, economics or operations research).",ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ).
"Nowadays results of experiments are often rigorously measurable, and are sometimes (with difficulty) reproducible.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ( ⵙ ⵛⵇⵇⵉⵢⵜ) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ."
"""These algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experienced a """"combinatorial explosion"""": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.""","“ⵙⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵎⵔⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ “ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ”, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ.”"
"Among the things a comprehensive commonsense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains.","ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ: ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ( ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ), ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ."
"For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture a fist-sized animal that sings and flies.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴹⵉⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵎⵉⵥⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires.,ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰⵄⵍⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵔ ⵡⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ.
"Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering—they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ Cyc), ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵏ - ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ, ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ."
"""They need a way to visualize the future—a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it—and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or """"value"""") of available choices.""","“ⵜⵅⵚⵚⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ - ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵎⵏⴽ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ - ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵙⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ), ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.”"
This calls for an agent that can not only assess its environment and make predictions but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its assessment.,"ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, and occurs after a program sees a number of examples of things from several categories.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ."
"Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.","ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ (ⴰⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ."
"""Many current approaches use word co-occurrence frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. """"""",“ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵊⵕⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ.”
"Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level.","ⵜⵖⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴷⵔⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
"A modern mobile robot, when given a small, static, and visible environment, can easily determine its location and map its environment; however, dynamic environments, such as (in endoscopy) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵛⵜⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ (ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ), ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴹⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵕⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ."
"For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵀⴹⵕⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴹⵚⴰ, ⴷⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⵔⵉⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵃⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ."
"Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization)?",ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ).
"""Or do we use algorithms that can only give us a """"reasonable"""" solution (e.g., probabilistic methods) but may fall prey to the same kind of inscrutable mistakes that human intuition makes?""","“ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ “ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ” (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ?”"
"""Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig observe that most AI researchers """"don't care about the strong AI hypothesis—as long as the program works, they don't care whether you call it a simulation of intelligence or real intelligence.""""""","ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⵏⵓⵔⴼⵉⵊ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ; ⵓⵔ ⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ - ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ, ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵉⵀⵡⵡⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans.,"ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵜⵛⵢ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
The relationship between automation and employment is complicated.,ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵏⵡⵡⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵔⵡⵢ.
"""Subjective estimates of the risk vary widely; for example, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimate 47% of U.S. jobs are at """"high risk"""" of potential automation, while an OECD report classifies only 9% of U.S. jobs as """"high risk"""".""","ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵓⵣⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⴼⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏ ⵙ 47% ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ “ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ” ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ 9% ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"In the long-term, the scientists have proposed to continue optimizing function while minimizing possible security risks that come along with new technologies.","ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ, ⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
"In his book Superintelligence, philosopher Nick Bostrom provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to humankind.",ⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵏⵉⴽ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ Superintelligence; ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴰⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.
Bostrom also emphasizes the difficulty of fully conveying humanity's values to an advanced AI.,ⵉⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ.
"In his book Human Compatible, AI researcher Stuart J. Russell echoes some of Bostrom's concerns while also proposing an approach to developing provably beneficial machines focused on uncertainty and deference to humans, possibly involving inverse reinforcement learning.","ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵊ.ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⵙⵓⴹⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵔⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴽ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵏⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴹ."
"The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵛⵛⴰⵔ, ⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⴽ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ."
"""Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg believes AI will """"unlock a huge amount of positive things,"""" such as curing disease and increasing the safety of autonomous cars.""","ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⴽ ⵣⵓⴽⵔⴱⵉⵔⴳ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵙⴱⵓⴽ; ⵉⵙⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵥⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵃⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ."
"""Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as DeepMind and Vicarious to """"just keep an eye on what's going on with artificial intelligence.""",ⵉⵙⵙⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⴽ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵉⴱⵎⴰⵏⴷ ⴷ ⴼⵉⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵃⴹⵓ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ.
"Research in this area includes machine ethics, artificial moral agents, friendly AI and discussion towards building a human rights framework is also in talks.","ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍ."
The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines.,"ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴱⵄⴷⴰ."
Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems—it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence.,"ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ: ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ - ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ."
"Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is no a priori reason to believe that they would be sympathetic to our system of morality, which has evolved along with our particular biology (which AIs would not share).","ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴽⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵏⵖ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵣⴰⵕⵏⵖ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ( ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ)."
One proposal to deal with this is to ensure that the first generally intelligent AI is 'Friendly AI' and will be able to control subsequently developed AIs.,"ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ; ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵛⵡⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵛⵡⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ, ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ."
"""I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence.""""""","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵣⵄⴰⴼ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎ."
Regulation is considered necessary to both encourage AI and manage associated risks.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⵣⴰⵣ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵔⵇⴱ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ.
"A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵍⵡⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵛⵉⵍⵉⵢⵣ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵏⵙⵜⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the """"Multivac"""" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name.""","ⵉⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵃⴰⵇ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵓⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵜⴰⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵢⵓⴼⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ “ⵎⵓⵍⵜⵉⴼⴰⴽ”, ⵖⴼ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ."
"""In the 1980s, artist Hajime Sorayama's Sexy Robots series were painted and published in Japan depicting the actual organic human form with lifelike muscular metallic skins and later """"the Gynoids"""" book followed that was used by or influenced movie makers including George Lucas and other creatives.""","ⴳ 1980, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵢⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵀⴰⵊⵉⵎⵉ ⵙⵓⵔⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴳ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴰⵊⵊ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ, ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜⵉⴷ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ “ⵊⵉⵏⵡⵉⴷ” ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⵍⵓⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Biotechnology is a broad area of biology, involving the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.","ⴱⵢⵓ-ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ, ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.","ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ."
"Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules.",ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ.
"Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops, having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population.","ⵙⴳ ⴱⵉⵄⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⴷ ⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ."
These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer.,ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵅⵎⵕ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵍⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰ.
"In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⴼⵙⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵍⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⵍⴽⵓⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍ."
"Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵅⵎⵕ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1857, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵓ-ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ."
These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.,ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ.
"In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1928, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴼⵍⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵖⵓⵍ Penicillium."
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.,"ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ MOSFET (ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⴹⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵉⵏ), ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵓⵃⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⵎ, ⵄⴰⵟⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵀ, ⴷ ⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵊ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1959."
"The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970.","BioFET ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴱⵓ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴹ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ (ISFET), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⴱⵉⵢ ⴱⵉⵔⴼⵉⵍⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1970."
"By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).","ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1980, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ BioFETs ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⵃⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ FET (GASFET), ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ, ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ (ChemFET), ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ISFET (REFET), ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎ FET (ENFET), ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ FET (IMFET)."
"Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴱⵉⵟⵔⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵢⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⴰⵔ 30% ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵙ 2030."
"TCE: The Chemical Engineer, (816), 26–31.","TCE: ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, (816), 26–31."
Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ) ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ.
"On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴰⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴰⴹⵏ."
"As well as the development of hormones, stem cells, antibodies, siRNA and diagnostic tests.",ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴷ siRNA ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏ.
"One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⵊⴰⴼⴰⴼ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ."
"The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects.","ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⴰⵙⵏⴰⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵊⵉⵏⵉ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵊⵓⵊⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵚⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ; ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⵍⵉⵏ.
"Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵀⵛⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ (ⵎⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ) ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ."
"Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵄⵣⵄ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⵓ."
Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture.,"ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.,ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ 10% ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴽⵓⵙⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010.
These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.,"ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⴰⵖⵓⴼⴼⴰⵏ."
These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles.,ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵏⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ, ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴽⵚⵓⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⵙ ⵍⴰⵥ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ."
"There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵡⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ.
Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed.,"ⴷⴰ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵥⵕⴼ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵄⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔⵜ."
"Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with either identical or virtually identical DNA, either by natural or artificial means.","ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵙ DNA ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵙⴽⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
It is used in a wide array of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to large scale protein production.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ.
"Initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵊ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ DNA ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ."
Following ligation the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells.,"ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵖⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ."
A useful tissue culture technique used to clone distinct lineages of cell lines involves the use of cloning rings (cylinders).,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵕⵚⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ (ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵉⵎⵜ).
"""This process is also called """"research cloning"""" or """"therapeutic cloning"""".""","“ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ “ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ”, ⵏⵖⴷ “ⴰⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ”.”"
Therapeutic cloning is achieved by creating embryonic stem cells in the hopes of treating diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer's.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴽⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵀⴰⵢⵎⵕ.
The reason why SCNT is used for cloning is because somatic cells can be easily acquired and cultured in the lab.,ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⵉⵙⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ.
"The oocyte will react to the somatic cell nucleus, the same way it would to a sperm cell's nucleus.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵓⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
The somatic cells could be used immediately or stored in the laboratory for later use.,"ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵜ."
This creates a one-cell embryo.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ.
"The successfully developed embryos are then placed in surrogate recipients, such as a cow or sheep in the case of farm animals.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵇⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵍⴰⵖ."
Another benefit is SCNT is seen as a solution to clone endangered species that are on the verge of going extinct.,ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵛⵛⴽ.
"Only three of these embryos survived until birth, and only one survived to adulthood.","ⵓⴳⵔⵏⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ, ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⴽⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴳ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎ."
"However, by 2014 researchers were reporting cloning success rates of seven to eight out of ten and in 2016, a Korean Company Sooam Biotech was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos per day.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2014; ⵄⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵙⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2016; ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵄⵍⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⵡⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵓ-ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ 500 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵙ."
"Asexual reproduction is a naturally occurring phenomenon in many species, including most plants and some insects.","ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵅⵅⴰⵛ."
"As an example, some European cultivars of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴹⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Many trees, shrubs, vines, ferns and other herbaceous perennials form clonal colonies naturally.","ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"In plants, parthenogenesis means the development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell, and is a component process of apomixis.","ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ apomixis."
Such clones are not strictly identical since the somatic cells may contain mutations in their nuclear DNA.,ⵉⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ DNA ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.
"Artificial embryo splitting or embryo twinning, a technique that creates monozygotic twins from a single embryo, is not considered in the same fashion as other methods of cloning.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⵉⵡⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵎⵎ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵣⵉⵊⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
Dolly's embryo was created by taking the cell and inserting it into a sheep ovum.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍⵍⵉ.
She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland by British scientists Sir Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell and lived there from her birth in 1996 until her death in 2003 when she was six.,"ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵔⵓⵣⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ; ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵜ ⴽⴰⵎⴱⵍ, ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996 ⴰⴳ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003 ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Dolly was publicly significant because the effort showed that genetic material from a specific adult cell, designed to express only a distinct subset of its genes, can be redesigned to grow an entirely new organism.","ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵕⵉⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"The first mammalian cloning (resulting in Dolly the sheep) had a success rate of 29 embryos per 277 fertilized eggs, which produced three lambs at birth, one of which lived.","ⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵉⵏ (ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ), ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 29 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓ 277 ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⵓⴳⵓⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ."
"Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵓ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ."
"However, other researchers, including Ian Wilmut who led the team that successfully cloned Dolly, argue that Dolly's early death due to respiratory infection was unrelated to problems with the cloning process.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵎⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ."
"""Soviet scientists Chaylakhyan, Veprencev, Sviridova, and Nikitin had the mouse """"Masha"""" cloned.""","ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵛⴰⵢⵍⴰⵅⵢⴰⵏ, ⴼⵉⴱⵔⵉⵏⴽⵉⴼ, ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵉⴷⵓⴼⴰ, ⴷ ⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴷⴰ “ⵎⴰⵛⴰ” ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ."
More akin to artificial formation of twins.,ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴱ ⵡⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ.
"Dog: Snuppy, a male Afghan hound was the first cloned dog (2005).","ⵉⴳⴷⵉ: ⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵉ, ⴰⵇⵣⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵖⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ (2005)."
Water buffalo: Samrupa was the first cloned water buffalo.,ⴰⵎⵓⴳⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ: ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵙⴰⵎⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ.
"Camel: (2009) Injaz, is the first cloned camel.","ⴰⵍⵖⵎ: (2009) ⵉⵏⵊⴰⵣ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ."
Goat: (2001) Scientists of Northwest A&F University successfully cloned the first goat which use the adult female cell.,"ⵜⴰⵖⴰⴹⵜ: (2001) ⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ Northwest A&F, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵜ."
"Conducted in China in 2017, and reported in January 2018.","ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2017, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2018."
"Black-footed ferret: (2020) In 2020, a team of scientists cloned a female named Willa, who died in the mid-1980s and left no living descendants.","ⵉⵣⵉⵔⴷⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍⵏ: (2020) ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2020, ⵜⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵎⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵍⴰ, ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ 1980, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵊⵉ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ."
It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical twins.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ.
"As of right now, scientists have no intention of trying to clone people and they believe their results should spark a wider discussion about the laws and regulations the world needs to regulate cloning.","ⵙⴳ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵜⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⴽⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ."
"While many of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced by secular perspectives as well.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴷⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"Opponents of cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe and that it could be prone to abuse (leading to the generation of humans from whom organs and tissues would be harvested), as well as concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.","ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵚⵚⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ; ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ ( ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ), ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"""This is also referred to as """"Conservation cloning"""".""",ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ “ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉ”.
These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species.,"ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ (ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ), ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰⵏ."
"In 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), at the time extinct for about 65 years, using polymerase chain reaction.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2002, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ DNA ⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ (ⴰⵖⵉⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏⵉ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 65 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵍⴱⵉⵍⵎⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔ."
"In 2003, for the first time, an extinct animal, the Pyrenean ibex mentioned above was cloned, at the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon, using the preserved frozen cell nucleus of the skin samples from 2001 and domestic goat egg-cells.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003, ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵉⵏⵜⵍⵏ, ⵖⴼ ⵍⴱⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵔⴰⴳⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2001 ⴷ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵖⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ."
"""""""Когда вернутся мамонты"""" (""""When the Mammoths Return""""), 5 February 2015 (retrieved 6 September 2015) Another problem is the survival of the reconstructed mammoth: ruminants rely on a symbiosis with specific microbiota in their stomachs for digestion.""","""""""Когда вернутся мамонты"""" ( ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵍⵎⴰⵎⵓⵜ), 5 ⴼⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ 2015 ( ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵔⴰⴷ ⴳ 6 ⵛⵓⵜⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 2015), ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵎⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ: ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵢⵓⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵥⴰⵥ.”"
"Because of this, some posited she may have aged more quickly than other naturally born animals, as she died relatively early for a sheep at the age of six.","ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵉⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴳ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵣⵉⴽ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵇⵄ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ."
"However, early pregnancy loss and neonatal losses are still greater with cloning than natural conception or assisted reproduction (IVF).","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵉⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵃⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ (IVF)."
"The concept of cloning, particularly human cloning, has featured a wide variety of science fiction works.","ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Many works depict the artificial creation of humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs.","ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏ DNA, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵉⵢⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
Science fiction films such as The Matrix and Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones have featured scenes of human foetuses being cultured on an industrial scale in mechanical tanks.,ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ: ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ - ⴰⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⴷⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⵢⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴳⵔⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴱⴱⴰⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵉⵏ.
"A Number was adapted by Caryl Churchill for television, in a co-production between the BBC and HBO Films.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⴽ ⵓⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴰⵔⵢⴰⵍ ⵜⵛⵉⵔⵛⵍ, ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ BBC ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ HBO."
"She grew up always doubtful about the love from her mother, who looked nothing like her and who died nine years before.","ⵜⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"In the 1976 Ira Levin novel The Boys from Brazil and its 1978 film adaptation, Josef Mengele uses cloning to create copies of Adolf Hitler.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵕⴰ ⵍⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976 ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⴰⵣⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ 1978, ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵊⵓⵣⵉⴼ ⵎⵉⵏⵊⵍ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⵀⵉⵜⵍⵉⵕ."
"""In Doctor Who, an alien race of armour-clad, warlike beings called Sontarans was introduced in the 1973 serial """"The Time Warrior"""".""","ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ""ⵓⴷⵓⴽⵟⵓⵕ ⵀⵓ"", ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⵜⵕⴰⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973 ""ⴰⵎⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏ""."""
"""The concept of cloned soldiers being bred for combat was revisited in """"The Doctor's Daughter"""" (2008), when the Doctor's DNA is used to create a female warrior called Jenny.""","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵄⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⴽⵟⵓⵕ"" (2008), ⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ""."
"The 2005 Kazuo Ishiguro novel Never Let Me Go and the 2010 film adaption are set in an alternate history in which cloned humans are created for the sole purpose of providing organ donations to naturally born humans, despite the fact that they are fully sentient and self-aware.","ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵣⵓⵡⵓ ⵉⵛⵓⴳⵓⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005 ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵃⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⵓⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ 2010 ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴼⵛⵛⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"""In the futuristic novel Cloud Atlas and subsequent film, one of the story lines focuses on a genetically-engineered fabricant clone named Sonmi~451, one of millions raised in an artificial """"wombtank"""", destined to serve from birth.""","ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⴽⵍⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵙⵓⵏⵎⵉ~451, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ""wombtank"", ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"In the film Us, at some point prior to the 1980s, the US Government creates clones of every citizen of the United States with the intention of using them to control their original counterparts, akin to voodoo dolls.","ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵎ ⵓⵣ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⴷⵙⵉⵃ, ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵉⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵓⴷⵓ ⴷⵓⵍⵙ."
"In the present day, the clones launch a surprise attack and manage to complete a mass-genocide of their unaware counterparts.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴽⵏ."
"Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ (ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ), ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker.","ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵓⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵔⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ."
"Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin.","ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵀⴰⵕⴱⵕⵜ ⴱⵓⵢⵕ ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵣⴱⴱⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ."
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.,ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵉⵛ (2003) ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵜⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015.
Fungi have been engineered with much the same goals.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ.
There are proposals to remove the virulent genes from viruses to create vaccines.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵄⴰⵡⵔⴹⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ.
The majority are engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ.
Animals are generally much harder to transform and the vast majority are still at the research stage.,ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.
"Livestock is modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance, and survival.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵓⵎ, ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ."
"Although human gene therapy is still relatively new, it has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.","ⵡⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⵓⵔⵖ ⴷⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵛⵛⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵓⵙⵉⵙ."
"Other concerns are the objectivity and rigor of regulatory authorities, contamination of non-genetically modified food, control of the food supply, patenting of life and the use of intellectual property rights.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⵓⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵖⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ."
Countries have adopted regulatory measures to deal with these concerns.,ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"""A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection."""",""","ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ.,"""
"For example, the grain crop triticale was fully developed in a laboratory in 1930 using various techniques to alter its genome.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⵔⵉⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1930 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"""Modern biotechnology is further defined as """"In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family.""""""","ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵔⵓ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴷⵢⵓⴽⵙⵉⵔⵉⴱⵓⵏⵓⵢⵉⴽ (ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵔⵔⵉⴱⵓⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ) ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ."""""
"The definitions focus on the process more than the product, which means there could be GMOS and non-GMOs with very similar genotypes and phenotypes.","ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ GMOS ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ-GMOS ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
It also poses problems as new processes are developed.,ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism.,ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ.
"The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ."
"DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵉⵎⴽⵕⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵜⵜⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ."
In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture.,ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ.
Traditionally the new genetic material was inserted randomly within the host genome.,ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵍⵓⴳⵏ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵏⴰⵢ.
"There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR).","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ: ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵥⵥⵏⴽ, ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵥⵣⵏⴽ, ⵜⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵍ (TALENs), ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ Cas9-guideRNA (ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵙⴳ CRISPR)."
In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus.,ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵙⵏ 1972 ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⵍ ⴱⵉⵔⴳ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵔⵉⴱⵓⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵖⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⴱⴰⴷⴰ.
The bacteria that had successfully incorporated the plasmid was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin.,ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴼⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵛⵉⵏ.
"In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974 ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵕⵓⴷⵍⵓⴼ ⴷⵊⵉⵏⵉⵛ ⴰⵖⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵉⵊⵉ ⵙ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
Mice with genes removed (termed a knockout mouse) were created in 1989.,ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1989 ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⵙⵏ (ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ).
"In 1983 the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1983 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉ ⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⵡ. ⴱⵉⴼⵏ, ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴱ.ⴼⴰⵍⴱⵍ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵔⵉ-ⴷⵉⵍⵍ ⵛⵉⵍⵟⵓⵏ."
"In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵕⵕⵓⵣ ⴰⵡⵔⵖ ⴰⵙⴱⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⵓⵜⵛⵉ."
"The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1982, ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵕⵥⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⵎⵓⵍⵉⵏ."
"In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, the first genetically modified food.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1994 ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴽⴰⵍⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵎⵟⴰⵎ ⴼⵍⴰⴼⵕ ⵙⴰⴼⵕ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⵜⵛⵓ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ."
"In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⵙⵙⵓⴹⵔⴻⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵀ ⴳⵔⵉⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
It was released to the US market in 2003.,"ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵖ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ""ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ"" ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003."
Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be added to a plasmid and inserted into bacteria for storage and modification.,ⵉⵥⴰⴹ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏⵜ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ
A large number of custom plasmids make manipulating DNA extracted from bacteria relatively easy.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷⴷ.
Scientists can easily manipulate and combine genes within the bacteria to create novel or disrupted proteins and observe the effect this has on various molecular systems.,ⵥⴷⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵄⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵚ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵓⵢⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ.
"Bacteria have been used in the production of food for a long time, and specific strains have been developed and selected for that work on an industrial scale.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵓⴳⵔⵉ."
"Most food-producing bacteria are lactic acid bacteria, and this is where the majority of research into genetically engineering food-producing bacteria has gone.","ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⴽⵜⵉⴽⵉ, ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⵊⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ."
"The majority are produced in the US and even though regulations are in place to allow production in Europe, as of 2015 no food products derived from bacteria are currently available there.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ""ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏ"" ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴹⴼⵕⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⵓⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2015 ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ."
The bacteria are then harvested and the desired protein purified from them.,ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ.
"Many of these proteins are impossible or difficult to obtain via natural methods and they are less likely to be contaminated with pathogens, making them safer.","ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏⵜⵏⵖ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
Outside of medicine they have been used to produce biofuels.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴱⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵓⵏⴷⵉⵔ.
"Ideas include altering gut bacteria so they destroy harmful bacteria, or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins.","ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵅⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵎⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵙ."
"Enabling the bacteria to form a colony could provide a more long-term solution, but could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are less well understood than with traditional drugs.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵚⵚⴰⴹ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵙⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ."
For over a century bacteria have been used in agriculture.,ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ.
"With advances in genetic engineering, these bacteria have been manipulated for increased efficiency and expanded host range.","ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡ."
Pseudomonas strains of bacteria cause frost damage by nucleating water into ice crystals around themselves.,ⵜⴰⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵖⵛⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵛⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ.
"Other uses for genetically modified bacteria include bioremediation, where the bacteria are used to convert pollutants into a less toxic form.","ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴽⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵍⵓⴼⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵓ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ."
"In the 1980s artist Jon Davis and geneticist Dana Boyd converted the Germanic symbol for femininity (ᛉ) into binary code and then into a DNA sequence, which was then expressed in Escherichia coli.","ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1980 ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵏⴰ ⴱⵓⵢⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵜⵎⵜ (ᛉ) ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵓⵎⴷ ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵔ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵛⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ""."
"Researchers can use this to control for various factors; including the target location, insert size, and duration of gene expression.","ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ; ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ."
"Although primarily still at trial stages, there has been some successes using gene therapy to replace defective genes.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ."
"As of 2018, there are a substantial number of clinical trials underway, including treatments for hemophilia, glioblastoma, chronic granulomatous disease, cystic fibrosis and various cancers.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2018, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴽⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵎⵓⴼⵓⵍⵉⵢⴰ, ⴳⵍⵉⵢⵓⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴹⵕⴹⵓⵕ ⵉⵅⵛⵏⵏ, ⵙⵢⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⴱⵔⵓⵙⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ."
"Herpes simplex viruses make promising vectors, having a carrying capacity of over 30kb and providing long term expression, although they are less efficient at gene delivery than other vectors.","ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵀⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵜⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⴹⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ 30 ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵅⴰⵜⵔ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"Other viruses that have been used as vectors include alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses, rhabdoviruses, Newcastle disease virus, poxviruses, and picornaviruses.","ⵙⴳ ⵍⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵉⵏ : ⴰⵍⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ, ⵍⴼⵍⴰⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙ, ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ, ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⴱⴷⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ, ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⴽⴰⵙⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⴽⵔⵓⵏⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ."
"This does not affect the viruses infectivity, invokes a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines.","ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵏⴰⵙⵎⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"The most effective vaccine against Tuberculosis, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, only provides partial protection.","ⴰⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴽⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⴽⴰⵍⵎⵉⵜⵜ-ⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ (BCG), ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ."
Other vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"In 2004, researchers reported that a genetically modified virus that exploits the selfish behaviour of cancer cells might offer an alternative way of killing tumours.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2004, ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⵅⴼ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
The virus was injected into orange trees to combat citrus greening disease that had reduced orange production by 70% since 2005.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⴰⵏⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⵜⵛⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ 70% ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005.
Genetically modified viruses that make the target animals infertile through immunocontraception have been created in the laboratory as well as others that target the developmental stage of the animal.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵚⵍⵃⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔⵏ.
Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ.
It is possible to engineer bacteriophages to express modified proteins on their surface and join them up in specific patterns (a technique called phage display).,ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵢⵓⴼⴰⵊ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ (ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵊ).
"For industrial applications, yeasts combine the bacterial advantages of being a single-celled organism that is easy to manipulate and grow with the advanced protein modifications found in eukaryotes.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⵓⴽⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵉⵙ."
"One has increased malolactic fermentation efficiency, while the other prevents the production of dangerous ethyl carbamate compounds during fermentation.","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓⵍⴰⵜⵉ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⴱⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵢ."
"Unlike bacteria and viruses they have the advantage of infecting the insects by contact alone, although they are out competed in efficiency by chemical pesticides.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⵚⵏⵜ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵉⴽⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ."
"An attractive target for biological control are mosquitos, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴱⵉⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ, ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴹⵏⴳ."
Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria or remove the Plasmodium altogether.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴳⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ.
"Many plants are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and under the right conditions can develop into a new plant.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵜⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ."
Major advances in tissue culture and plant cellular mechanisms for a wide range of plants has originated from systems developed in tobacco.,ⵉⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⴼ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵙⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⵖⵖⴰ.
Another major model organism relevant to genetic engineering is Arabidopsis thaliana.,ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⴱⵉⴷⵓⴱⵙⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ.
"In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes.","ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ."
"Unlike mutagenisis, genetic engineering allows targeted removal without disrupting other genes in the organism.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵣⵉⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ."
"Other strategies include attaching the gene to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is overexpressed, forcing a gene to be expressed in a different location or at different developmental stages.","ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
The first genetically modified ornamentals commercialized altered color.,ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ.
Other genetically modified ornamentals include Chrysanthemum and Petunia.,ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⴷⵊⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵓⵏⵢⴰ.
The papaya ringspot virus devastated papaya trees in Hawaii in the twentieth century until transgenic papaya plants were given pathogen-derived resistance.,ⵉⵅⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵎⵜ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵖⵏⴽⴰ.
"The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile.","ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵏⴰⵢⵢⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ."
"GM crops contribute by improving harvests through reducing insect pressure, increasing nutrient value and tolerating different abiotic stresses.","ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵏⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵙ ⵙⵓⵙⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ."
"The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one.","ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵙⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵓⵣⵢⴰⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴳⵍⵓⴼⵓⵣⵉⵏⴰⵜ."
A few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins.,ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition.","ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴰⵄⵟⵟⵕ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
"Plants and plant cells have been genetically engineered for production of biopharmaceuticals in bioreactors, a process known as pharming.","ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵜ."
Many drugs also contain natural plant ingredients and the pathways that lead to their production have been genetically altered or transferred to other plant species to produce greater volume.,ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
They also pose less risk of being contaminated.,ⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖⵏ.
"Vaccines are expensive to produce, transport, and administer, so having a system that could produce them locally would allow greater access to poorer and developing areas.","ⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⴰⵢⵏ, ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵥⵍⴹⵏ ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ."
"Being stored in plants reduces the long-term cost as they can be disseminated without the need for cold storage, don't need to be purified, and have long term stability.","ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵇⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⴳⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⴹ, ⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⴳⵜ."
"As of 2018 only three genetically modified animals have been approved, all in the USA.","ⵙⴳ 2018 ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Canada: Brainwaving The first transgenic mammals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females.,ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ: ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵅⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ.
"The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system as a cheap and fast way of directly modifying germ cells, effectively halving the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified mammals.","ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ CRISPR-Cas9 ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵔⵜⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴼⵏⴰⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵀ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are cheap and easy to manipulate.","ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ CRISPR-Cas ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵓⵔⵜⵓⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴼⵏⴰⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵀ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) for the first time.","ⴳ 2009, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵎⴰⵜ (ⵎⴰⵔⵎⵓⵣⵉ)."
"Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats and other animals.","ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ."
Human alpha-1-antitrypsin is another protein that has been produced from goats and is used in treating humans with this deficiency.,ⴰⵍⴼⴰ -1-ⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜⵔⵉⴱⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵟⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰ.
Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans.,ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⴷⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵓⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
"Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier and resist diseases.",ⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵅⵉⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
A GM pig called Enviropig was created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional pigs.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵏⴱⵉⵔⵓⴱⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵥⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ.
This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula.,"ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴽⵯⴼⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ."
There have been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⵓ.
"It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.",ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵓⵔⵜⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵏ.
"Germline gene therapy results in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴽⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵛⵛⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants.,ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵙⵍⵎ-ⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⵛⴰⵟⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ.
"It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when in 2003 it was introduced for sale in the USA.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴽⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵉⴽⵓⵔ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ 2003."
"Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration, genetics, behaviour, disease mechanisms and toxicity testing.","ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ, ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ, ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷⵊ."
GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴼⵏⵥⵏ ⴰⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ.
"It obtained regulatory approval in 2015, the first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized.","ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴳ 2015, ⴰⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ GMO ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵖⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ."
"Drosophila have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic development, learning, behavior, and aging.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵓⴼⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ, ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ."
Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive).,"ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵏⵥⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵍⴰⵔⵢⴰ, ⵓⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵅⵅⵓ ⴰⵏⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵥⴰⵥ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏ (ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ)."
"Another approach is to use a sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵜⴽⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵅⵅⵓ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵥ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"The approach is similar to the sterile technique tested on mosquitoes, where males are transformed with a gene that prevents any females born from reaching maturity.","ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴱⵉⴱⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ."
In this case a strain of pink bollworm that were sterilized with radiation were genetically engineered to express a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them.,"ⴳ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵛⵛⵉⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴷⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵙⴷⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ."
There is also potential to use the silk producing machinery to make other valuable proteins.,ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵟⵟⴰⵍⵚⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵏ.
"A GM chicken that produces the drug Kanuma, an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed US regulatory approval in 2015.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⴰⵥⵉⴹ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵙⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵓⵎⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵥⵉⵎ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵊⵓⵊⵊⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ 2015."
There are proposals to use genetic engineering to control cane toads in Australia.,ⴰⵔ ⵏⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ.
It is also relatively easy to produce stable transgenic nematodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes.,ⵉⵍⵎⴹ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⴽ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵔ ⵉⵏ ⴰⵢ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
"Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, toxicology, diseases, and to detect environmental pollutants.","ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵀⵉⴷⵊ, ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ."
Flatworms have the ability to regenerate themselves from a single cell.,ⵉⵡⴽⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ.
"The bristle worm, a marine annelid, has been modified.","ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵡⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵟⵟⴰⵍⵚⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵃⵜⵉⵢⵜ."
"The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at Asilomar, California.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1975, ⴳ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵎⴰⵔ, ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵉⵔⵏⵢⴰ."
"It is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of genetically modified organisms.","ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ, ⴰⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Many experiments also need permission from a national regulatory group or legislation.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵜ.
There is a near-universal system for assessing the relative risks associated with GMOs and other agents to laboratory staff and the community.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⵏⵏ ⵙ GMOs ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ.
Different countries use different nomenclature to describe the levels and can have different requirements for what can be done at each level.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ.
"For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⵖⵓⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ."
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research using GMOs.,ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ GMO.
While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.,"ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ GMO ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ GMO ⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
"The US policy does not focus on the process as much as other countries, looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence.","ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴻⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ."
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ.
"The dispute involves consumers, producers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists.","ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵎⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ"
Most concerns are around the health and environmental effects of GMOs.,ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ GMO ⵖⴼ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.",ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵥⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ.
"Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of broad-spectrum herbicides, can increase the risk of herbicide resistant weed populations.","ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵍⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
In order to address some of these concerns some GMOs have been developed with traits to help control their spread.,"ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵙⴽⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ GMO ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"Other environmental and agronomic concerns include a decrease in biodiversity, an increase in secondary pests (non-targeted pests) and evolution of resistant insect pests.","ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵏⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴰⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ (ⵟⵟⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ."
The impact of Bt crops on beneficial non-target organisms became a public issue after a 1999 paper suggested they could be toxic to monarch butterflies.,ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ Bt ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ 1999 ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵀⵉⴷⵊⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ.
"With the ability to genetically engineer humans now possible there are ethical concerns over how far this technology should go, or if it should be used at all.","ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"October 2006 the rigor of the regulatory process, consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs, exaggeration of the benefits of genetic modification, or concerns over the use of herbicides with glyphosate.","ⴽⵟⵓⴱⵕ 2006 ⵜⴰⴽⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵜ, ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⴰⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵏⵜ GMO, ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴳⵍⵉⴼⵓⵣⴰⵜ."
"GMOs arrived on the scene as the public confidence in food safety, attributed to recent food scares such as Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other scandals involving government regulation of products in Europe, was low.","ⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ GMO ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵏⵙⵉⴼⴰⵍⵓⴱⴰⵜⵉ ⵙⴱⵓⵏⵊⵉⴼⵓⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⴰⵛⴰⴼⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⴼ ⵓⵏⴱⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴼⵜ."
"Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.","ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⴷⴷⴰⵛ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ.
"The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.","ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⵢⵓⵙⴽⵎⵛ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ."
Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974.,ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵔⵓⴷⵓⵍⴼ ⵊⴰⵏⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ 1974.
"Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato.","ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ 1994, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵜⵎⵉⵟⴰⵛⵜ ⴼⵍⴰⴱⵔ ⵙⴰⴱⵔ."
In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.,"ⴳ 2016, ⵏⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵙⴰⵍⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ."
By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases.,"ⵙ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ."
"The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology.","ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵢⴰⴽⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ."
"Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues.","ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ (ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ."
"Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them.","ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⴽⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴽⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⴽⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ.
"If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic.","ⵉⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium.,"ⴳ 1973, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵀⵉⵔⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴱⵡⴰⵢⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⵀⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵛⵉⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ."
"In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli.","ⴳ 1976, ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜⵉⵛ, ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵀⵉⵔⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴱⵡⴰⵢⵉ ⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ, ⵜⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵙⵓⵎⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ) ⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵉ."
The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴳ 1982.
"The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.","ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴱⴰⵖⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴷⴰⵍ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ 1992."
"In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US.","ⴳ 1995,ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⴱⴰⵟⴰⵟⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵛⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⴳⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ."
Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates.,ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ.
These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵍ ⴰⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⴼⵓⵔⵓⵣⵉⵙ.
Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium.,ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⵉⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴷⵉⴼⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.
"These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription.","ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ."
"This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA.","ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⵉⵙⵙ (ⵙ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⴰⵣⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ), ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ; ⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ."
"In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, taking advantage of the Agrobacteriums T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴳⵔⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ-ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⴰⵏⴳⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ T-DNA ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ."
In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture.,"ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵓ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵙⵜ."
Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells.,ⵉⵎⵔⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ.
These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵙ ⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵎⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴼⵏ.
The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵓⵏⴱⴳ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷ.
The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing.,ⴰⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵢⵛ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵕⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ.
TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages.,ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⴱⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵔⴰⴼ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.
"Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴰⵎⵉ ⵓⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵊⵊⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴼⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ, ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases.,ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.
Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models.,ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴷⴰⵢⵏ.
"In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.","ⴳ 2015, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵎⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ, ⵉⴱⵉⴷⵉⵔⵎⵓⵍⵉⵣⵉⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⵓⵣⴰ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵛⵛ ⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ 80% ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ."
"There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵓ ⵓⵊⵓⵊⵊⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵀⴰⵕ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵢⵜⵜⵉ, ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ."
"He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier.","ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵍⵓⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⴰ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ."
"Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries.","ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⵍ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵊⵉⵔⵉ ⴳ 40 ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ."
"Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely.","ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵔⵅⵙⵏ, ⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ, ⵓⵀⵏⴻⵏⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵎⵏ ⴳ -80 °C ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ."
"This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with.","ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴽⵉⴷⵙ."
In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional.,"ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ , ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉ."
This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the role of particular genes.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"""The simplest method, and the first to be used, is """"alanine scanning"""", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid alanine.""","ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ""ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵖⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⴰⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ."""
"The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently.","ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⵙⵍⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ."
"One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification.","ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ 'ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ', ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⴰⵍⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ (GFP) ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ."
Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵢⵢⴰⵛⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.
"Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalians cells can also be used.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵍⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴹⴻⴹⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ."
"Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable.","ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵓⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵎⴹⵉ."
Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴱⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.
In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.,ⴳ 2016 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⴰⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵀⵓⵔⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵔⵓⴳ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ.
Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils.,ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵙⵓⵊⴰ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⵓⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.
Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵓⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ.
Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice.,ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ.
The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology.,ⵜⵡⵚⵚⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵉⵍⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ.
One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.,ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research.,ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ.
"Emily Marden, Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture, 44 B.C.L. Rev. 733 (2003) The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world.","ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ : ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, 44 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ. Rev. 733 (2003), ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⵇⵊⴻⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ."
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ.
"These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.","ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵉⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴰⵔⴼⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵓⵢⵢⵉⵜⵏ,ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ."
"Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ,ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ."
Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.
"Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 The Boys from Brazil and the 1993 Jurassic Park, both of which made use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film.","ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ,ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ 1978 ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵥⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉ ⴱⴰⵔⴽ 1993 ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes.","ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵜⵉⴽ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ."
"This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold.","ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⵟⵓⵎ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ."
"The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.","ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⵔ,ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵣⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵕⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ, ⵖⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ."
"""The term """"nano-technology"""" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known.""","ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⴳⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ” ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter.","ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1980 ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵔⵉⴽⵙⵍⵔⵙ,ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴱⴹ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.,ⵜⵓⵡⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜ ⵊⵉⵔⴷ ⴱⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏⵉⵛ ⵔⵓⵀⵔⴻⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵣⵢⵓⵔⵉⵅ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1986.
C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes (sometimes called graphene tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.,ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵙ60 ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ; ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴳⵕⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⴱⵓⴽⵉ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ.
"Decades later, advances in multi-gate technology enabled the scaling of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices down to nano-scale levels smaller than 20 nm gate length, starting with the FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-gate MOSFET.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵔⵜ, ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ; ⵙⴳ 20 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵜ,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⴼⵜ (ⵜⵔⴰⵏⵣⵉⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵣⴰⵄⵏⴰⴼⵉ),ⴱⵓ ⴽⵔⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵙⵜ."
"Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.","ⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵉⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ."
These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter.,ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ.
It was based on gate-all-around (GAA) FinFET technology.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵏⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ.
This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced.,ⵢⵓⵎⵣ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.
"The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ (ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵓⵎ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ), ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ."
"To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.","ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵙ ⵍⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵛⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."
"""In the """"bottom-up"""" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition.""","“ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ””ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ”, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ."
"One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials.",ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ.
The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵔⵥⵥⵎ ⵓⵥⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ.
The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces.,"ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴷⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
"Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases.","ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰ, ⵜⴳ ⴱⴰⵟⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⴷⵔ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⴽⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⴽⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ."
"It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ."
"In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ, ⵉⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵉⵢⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ."
This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.,ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⴼⵖ “ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ” ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ” ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2003.
"They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.","ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰ: ⴰⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵍⴻⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ."
Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.,ⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.
Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
"More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.","ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ."
"Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques.","ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵇⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ (ALD)."
"Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses are applied at the same time.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⴹⴼⵜ; ⴰⴷ ⴽⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵕⴹⵍ, ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ."
These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.,ⵏⵖⵢ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ.
"Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways.",ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵍⵓⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴷⴼⵜ.
There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine.,ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵕⵕⵓⴱⵓⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ.
"Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial revolution.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴹⵉⵜ ( ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ), ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
"With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed.","ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ,ⵏⵥⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ."
"Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵙⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵔⴼⵏ ⵎⵉⵙⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1961, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⴼⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ (SAM) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵍⴼⵏ ⴽⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1970, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⴼⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔ, ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ."
"However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ."
"Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers.","ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⴰⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵥⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⴹⴹⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵔⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵍⴱⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ."
Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials.,ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.
"By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵛⵛⵜⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉ."
"These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly.",ⵙⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ ⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ.
Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur.,ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏ ⴱⵉⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵔ.ⴰⵔⵜⵔ.
"MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⵉⵜⴰⵏⵢⴰ; ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵊⵢ ⵓⵄⵟⵟⵉⴱ ⵣⵉⴽ.
Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.,"ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵟⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⵉ."
Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⵢⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ.
Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and water.,"ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵓⵢⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓ-ⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ-ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴽⵙⵉⴷ-ⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ."
Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology.,ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵔⵡ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⴼⴰⵙⵢⵓⵏ ⴼⵓⵏⴷⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⴽⵢⵢⴰ 15 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵓⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵔⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ.
"If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized, efficiency of the catalyst is maximized.","ⴰⵔ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ."
"Thus, creating these nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will decrease cost.","ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⴽⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⵢⵣ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ-ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ-ⵇⴰⴷⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ."
"When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.","ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵊⵢⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017, and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018.","ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ “ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵟⴰⵢⵡⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⵏⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ”; ⵜⵉⵀⵢⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ 7 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ 2017, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ 5 ⵏⴰⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔ ⴳ 2018."
"For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology be regulated by governments.","ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ."
Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⴰⴷⵙⵏ.
"Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴽⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ; ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ,ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⵛⵜ."
"""A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the """"nanotechnology revolution"""" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities.""","“ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ Nature Nanotechnology, ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵢⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ- ⵜⵉⵡⵍⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⵏ “ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜ”” - ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵡⴰⵖⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ”."
Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.,ⵉⵙⵏⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⴷⵉⵖⵉⵣ (2008) ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵜⴼⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴷ.
"As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary principle, with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data development requirements in relation to certain forms of nanotechnology.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵉⵇⵊⵕⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⵀⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵣⵍⵖ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ."
Nuclear technology is technology that involves the nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei.,ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ.
"He, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴽⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴽⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could be harmful in large amounts.","ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵅⵛⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢ."
"Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a severe long-term hazard.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵎⴹ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ."
"As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer.","ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⵚⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵔⵥⵎ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ."
This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block.,ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷ.
"The average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as k. Values of k larger than 1 mean that the fission reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs, and therefore is referred to as a self-sustaining chain reaction.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ k. ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ k ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ 1; ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵢ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵥⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ."
"If there are enough immediate decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be prompt critical, and the energy release will grow rapidly and uncontrollably, usually leading to an explosion.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴹ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵓⴽⵎⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴱⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴰⵎⵥ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ."
"During the project, the first fission reactors were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons manufacture and did not generate electricity.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵅⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴰⴼ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ."
"However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ."
"When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed.","ⵉⴳ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵕⵣⴰⵎ ⵜⵣⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ."
"The remaining abundance of heavy elements, from nickel to uranium and beyond, is due to supernova nucleosynthesis, the R-process.","ⵜⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴹⵚⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵏⵏⵉⴽⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵕⴹⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ-ⵔ."
"Hydrogen bombs obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled.","ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⴱⴷ."
"However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⴳⵜ."
"Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller) investigated it as a method to build a bomb.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴹⴼⵕ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵀⴰⵟⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵕⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵔ), ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵔⵜ."
"Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation.",ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⵔⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ.
"Such a weapon must hold one or more subcritical fissile masses stable for deployment, then induce criticality (create a critical mass) for detonation.","ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ (ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵇⵇⵉⵜ), ⵉ ⵓⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉ."
"One isotope of uranium, namely uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ-235, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰ , ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⵍⵢⵓⵔⴰⵏⵢⵓⵎ-238 ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴳⴰⵏ."
"Alternatively, the element plutonium possesses an isotope that is sufficiently unstable for this process to be usable.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴱⵍⵓⵜⵓⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⵊ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"""They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a test code-named """"Trinity"""", near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945.""","“ⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ “ⵜⵔⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉ””, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴰⵎⵓⴳⵓⵔⴷⵓ, ⵏⵢⵓ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ, ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 16 ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓⵣ 1945."
"In the wake of unprecedented devastation and casualties from a single weapon, the Japanese government soon surrendered, ending World War II.","ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵡⴰⵜ,ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢ ⴰⵛⵏⵢⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍ,ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ."
"Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first fission weapon.","ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ 29 ⵖⵓⵛⵜ 1949, ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⵇⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵛⵇ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ."
A radiological weapons is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas.,ⵉⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵏⴳⵯⴰ.
"While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over nuclear terrorism.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴼ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ."
The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing.,ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.
"After signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1996 (ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵙⴳ 2011),ⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵙⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ."
"Throughout the Cold War, the opposing powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of people.","ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵓⴽⵔⵉⵎ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⴱⴻⴱ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ."
"Currently nuclear power provides approximately 15.7% of the world's electricity (in 2004) and is used to propel aircraft carriers, icebreakers and submarines (so far economics and fears in some ports have prevented the use of nuclear power in transport ships).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 15.7% ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ( ⴳ 2004), ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵜⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵉⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⴳⴰⴹⵉⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⵉⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵔⵓⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵜⵉ)."
Medical and dental x-ray imagers use of cobalt-60 or other x-ray sources.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵍⵍⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰⵍⵜ 60, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵏⵥⵕ."
Both contain a small source of 241Am that gives rise to a small constant current.,"ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏ 241 ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ."
"Another use in insect control is the sterile insect technique, where male insects are sterilized by radiation and released, so they have no offspring, to reduce the population.","ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴷⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵅⵅⵓⵛⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵏⵕⵥⵎ ⴰⵙ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ."
"The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray generators and electron accelerators.",ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ; ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕ ⵉⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵔⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏ.
"As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for food packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵢⵢⵓⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴳⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵙⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵓⵜⴰ (ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ), ⴷ ⵕⵕⵡⴰⵢⴹ, ⴷ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵏ."
Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities.,ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⴽⵓⵛⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.
Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or aging process.,ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔⵜ ⵏⵙⵏ.
"The specialty of processing food by ionizing radiation is the fact, that the energy density per atomic transition is very high, it can cleave molecules and induce ionization (hence the name) which cannot be achieved by mere heating.","ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⴰⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴱⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏ ( ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵏⵔⵖⵉ."
"However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ ⴰⵙⵙⵃⵎⵓ ⴰⵏⴽⵔⴰⵎ “ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵥⵕⵏ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⵃⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵥⵕ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ."
Marie Curie died from aplastic anemia which resulted from her high levels of exposure.,"ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⴽⵓⵕⵉ ⵙ ⵥⵥⵍⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ."
Approximately half of the deaths from Hiroshima and Nagasaki died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.,ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵀⵉⵔⵓⵛⵉⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵏⴰⴳⴰⵣⴰⴽⵉ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕ.
A nuclear meltdown refers to the more serious hazard of releasing nuclear material into the surrounding environment.,ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵔⴷⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵅⵅⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵏⴼⵛⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ.
Military reactors that experienced similar accidents were Windscale in the United Kingdom and SL-1 in the United States.,"ⴰⵏⵎⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⴼ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉ; ⵡⵉⵏⴷⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵜ,ⴷ ⵙⵍ-1 ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵜ."
"Another topic of transhumanist research is how to protect humanity against existential risks, such as nuclear war or asteroid collision.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵏⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ,ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ."
"The assertion would lay the intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, and organizing in California a school of thought that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement.","ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⴽⵙ ⵎⵓⵔ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ 1990, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵕⵏⵢⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"In the Discourse, Descartes envisioned a new kind of medicine that could grant both physical immortality and stronger minds.","ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ, ⵉⴽⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
St. Leon may have provided inspiration for his daughter Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein.,ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⵓⵥⵥⵔ ⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵉⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵛⵉⵍⵉ.
"In particular, he was interested in the development of the science of eugenics, ectogenesis (creating and sustaining life in an artificial environment), and the application of genetics to improve human characteristics, such as health and intelligence.","ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⴹⴼ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵢ ( ⵜⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴷⵡⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙ."
These ideas have been common transhumanist themes ever since.,ⵜⵉⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ.
"""In the Material and Man section of the manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe suggests that:After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a """"brain wave receiver"""" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa.""","ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵏⵓⴱⵓⵔⵓ ⴽⵡⴰⵣⵓ: ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵉⴳⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ , ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⵓⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ,ⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎ."
"""In 1966, FM-2030 (formerly F. M. Esfandiary), a futurist who taught """"new concepts of the human"""" at The New School, in New York City, began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles and world views transitional to posthumanity as """"transhuman"""".""","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1966, ⴼⵎ-2030(ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⴰⵔⵉ) ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ “ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ”, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ, ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ."
"FM-2030 and Vita-More soon began holding gatherings for transhumanists in Los Angeles, which included students from FM-2030's courses and audiences from Vita-More's artistic productions.","ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⴼⵎ-2030 ⴷ ⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⵊⵍⵓⵙ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵎ-2030,ⴷ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵜ."
A particular concern is the equal access to human enhancement technologies across classes and borders.,ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization.,ⴰⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ.
The Mormon Transhumanist Association was founded in 2006.,ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ “ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵓⵔⵎⵓ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2006.
"""Transhumanism stresses the evolutionary perspective, including sometimes the creation of a highly intelligent animal species by way of cognitive enhancement (i.e. biological uplift), but clings to a """"posthuman future"""" as the final goal of participant evolution.""","ⵜⵙⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ (ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⵣ ⴳ “ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ”, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ."
"""While such a """"cultural posthumanism"""" would offer resources for rethinking the relationships between humans and increasingly sophisticated machines, transhumanism and similar posthumanisms are, in this view, not abandoning obsolete concepts of the """"autonomous liberal subject"""", but are expanding its """"prerogatives"""" into the realm of the posthuman.""","ⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ” ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ “ⴰⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ”, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ “ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵟ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ”."
"However, other progressives have argued that posthumanism, whether it be its philosophical or activist forms, amounts to a shift away from concerns about social justice, from the reform of human institutions and from other Enlightenment preoccupations, toward narcissistic longings for a transcendence of the human body in quest of more exquisite ways of being.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ , ⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵙⵡⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵡⴹ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴼⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵙⴼⵉⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵖⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⵊⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ."
"Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life, while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵀⵢⵢⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⴽⵍ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵉⵜ."
"Some theorists such as Ray Kurzweil think that the pace of technological innovation is accelerating and that the next 50 years may yield not only radical technological advances, but possibly a technological singularity, which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵣⵡⵉⵕ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ 50 ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ."
"For example, Bostrom has written extensively on existential risks to humanity's future welfare, including ones that could be created by emerging technologies.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵕⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵟⵕⵕⵃ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ."
"To counter this, Hawking emphasizes either self-design of the human genome or mechanical enhancement (e.g., brain-computer interface) to enhance human intelligence and reduce aggression, without which he implies human civilization may be too stupid collectively to survive an increasingly unstable system, resulting in societal collapse.","ⵉ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵀⵓⴽⵉⵏⴳ ⵙⵡⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵢⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵇⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ), ⵉ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴷⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵏⴳⵯⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜ; ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴱⵓⵀⵍⵍⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ."
These thinkers argue that the ability to discuss in a falsification-based way constitutes a threshold that is not arbitrary at which it becomes possible for an individual to speak for themselves in a way that is not dependent on exterior assumptions.,"ⵜⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⴽⴰⵕ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵔⵊⵓⵏ, ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵍⵄⴷⴼⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⴷⴷⵛⵜ, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ."
"""In keeping with this, many prominent transhumanist advocates, such as Dan Agin, refer to transhumanism's critics, on the political right and left jointly, as """"bioconservatives"""" or """"bioluddites"""", the latter term alluding to the 19th century anti-industrialisation social movement that opposed the replacement of human manual labourers by machines.""","“ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ: ⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ ⵉⵎⵃⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ”, ⵏⵖⴷ “bioluddites” ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⵢⵓⴳⵢ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ.”"
The same scenario happens when people have certain neural implants that give them an advantage in the work place and in educational aspects.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⴰⵕⵢⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ.
"Immortalism, a moral ideology based upon the belief that radical life extension and technological immortality is possible and desirable, and advocating research and development to ensure its realization.","ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴷⵉⴽⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵇⵇⴰⵕ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), structure (algebra), space (geometry), and change (analysis).","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ (ⵙⴳ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵢⴰ) ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ), ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ (ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ), ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ (ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ), ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ (ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ)."
"When mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, mathematical reasoning can be used to provide insight or predictions about nature.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵢ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ."
The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry.,ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏ.
"Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance, when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has continued to the present day.","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ, ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵖⵔ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time—days, seasons, or years.","ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵖⵚⴰⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ- ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ."
"Beginning in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, with Greek mathematics the Ancient Greeks began a systematic study of mathematics as a subject in its own right.","ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 6 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵉⵖⵔⵉⵇ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
The greatest mathematician of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse.,ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⴷ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⵙⴷ (287-212 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ) ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ.
"The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today, evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic mathematics.","ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ-ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ; ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ , ⴰⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ."
The most notable achievement of Islamic mathematics was the development of algebra.,ⴰⵙⵙⴹⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ.
"During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an accelerating pace in Western Europe.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ."
"Perhaps the foremost mathematician of the 19th century was the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who made numerous contributions to fields such as algebra, analysis, differential geometry, matrix theory, number theory, and statistics.","ⵉⵖ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ “ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜⵛ ⴷⵊⴰⵡⵙ” ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ, ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ."
Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today.,ⵜⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵙⵙ.
"""In particular, mathēmatikḗ tékhnē meant """"the mathematical art.""""""",“ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵅⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.””
"In English, the noun mathematics takes a singular verb.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ, ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳ ⴰⵎⵢⵓⵡⵏ."
"""However, Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity alone may not distinguish mathematics from sciences like physics; in his view, abstraction and studying quantity as a property """"separable in thought"""" from real instances set mathematics apart.""","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ, “ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳ”, ⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵙ."
A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it rejects some mathematical ideas considered valid according to other definitions.,ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ; ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵢ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"""Haskell Curry defined mathematics simply as """"the science of formal systems"""".""",“ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵀⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴽⴰⵔⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ””.
"""Popper also noted that """"I shall certainly admit a system as empirical or scientific only if it is capable of being tested by experience.""""""",“ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵜⵔ ⴱⵓⴱⴱⵔ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ “ ⵙⵙⵏⵖ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ””.
Intuition and experimentation also play a role in the formulation of conjectures in both mathematics and the (other) sciences.,ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.
"For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory, a still-developing scientific theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces of nature, continues to inspire new mathematics.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⴽⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ."
A distinction is often made between pure mathematics and applied mathematics.,ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ.
"As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization: there are now hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics and the latest Mathematics Subject Classification runs to 46 pages.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ, ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵏⵡⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⴱⵓ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 46 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰ."
"Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty.",ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⴷⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵃⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏ.
"G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics.","ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽ “ⴳⵓⴷⴼⵔⵉ ⵀⴰⵕⵓⵍⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴷⵉ “, ⵖⴼ ⵓⴼⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ ; ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ."
A theorem expressed as a characterization of the object by these features is the prize.,"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ."
Euler (1707–1783) was responsible for many of the notations in use today.,"ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ “ⵓⵡⵉⵍⵔ (1707-1783)”, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ."
"Unlike natural language, where people can often equate a word (such as cow) with the physical object it corresponds to, mathematical symbols are abstract, lacking any physical analog.","ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⴼⵉⴽⵉⵣ."
Mathematical language also includes many technical terms such as homeomorphism and integrable that have no meaning outside of mathematics.,"ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⵔⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"""Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as """"rigor"""".""",“ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⵏ “”ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵣⵜ””.
"""This is to avoid mistaken """"theorems"""", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject.""","“ⴰⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵉ “”ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ“”, ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵥⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.”"
Misunderstanding the rigor is a cause for some of the common misconceptions of mathematics.,ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⴰⵕ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"On the other hand, proof assistants allow verifying all details that cannot be given in a hand-written proof, and provide certainty of the correctness of long proofs such as that of the Feit–Thompson theorem.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏ."
"In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences (applied mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ: ⵙ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ (ⵉⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ), ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ (ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵔⴰⵏⵜ), ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⵉⴼⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ."
Some disagreement about the foundations of mathematics continues to the present day.,ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"As such, it is home to Gödel's incompleteness theorems which (informally) imply that any effective formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that can be proved are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved in that system).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ “ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⴰⵏ” ⵏ ⵊⵓⴷⵍ ( ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ), ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵏⵙⵉⴱ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ( ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵍⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ), ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴷ ( ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵍⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵉⵏ."
"Modern logic is divided into recursion theory, model theory, and proof theory, and is closely linked to theoretical computer science, as well as to category theory.","ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ."
"Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most well-known model—the Turing machine.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ; “ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ”."
"""Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite numbers, which formalize the concept of """"infinity"""".""","“ⴰⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ “ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ” ⴷ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ.”"
"Thus one can study groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems; together such studies (for structures defined by algebraic operations) constitute the domain of abstract algebra.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ( ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵀⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ), ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ."
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ.
Convex and discrete geometry were developed to solve problems in number theory and functional analysis but now are pursued with an eye on applications in optimization and computer science.,"ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵜⴱⴹⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⵙⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⵍⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ."
"Lie groups are used to study space, structure, and change.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ.
Functions arise here as a central concept describing a changing quantity.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ.
One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ.
"""Statisticians (working as part of a research project) """"create data that makes sense"""" with random sampling and with randomized experiments; the design of a statistical sample or experiment specifies the analysis of the data (before the data becomes available).""","ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜⵏ (ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ), ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ( ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ)."
Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using functional analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis includes the study of approximation and discretisation broadly with special concern for rounding errors.,"ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵖⵔⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ."
The Chern Medal was introduced in 2010 to recognize lifetime achievement.,"ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⵛⵉⵔⵏ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2010, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷ."
"This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved.","ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ."
The value of Pi was first calculated by him.,ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉ “ⴱⵉ” ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ.
"""It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term """"mathematics"""", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.""",“ⴽⵔⵏ ⵍⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵢⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ “ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ” ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⴰⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵏⵙ.”
"Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵎⵔⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵢⵢⴰ, ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ, ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵃⵔⵓⵢⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵓⴱⴹⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵍⵎ (ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵜ)."
"Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs, and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences.","ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths.,ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ; ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
"During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer).","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵖⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ, ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵍⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵍⵓⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⵙⵢⵓⵍⵉ (ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ), ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓ ⴼⵓⵏⵜⴰⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⴰⴳⵍⵉⵢⴰ (ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ), ⵊⵉⵔⵓⵍⴰⵎⵓ ⴽⴰⵔⴷⴰⵏⵓ ( ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ), ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵔⵉⴽⵓⵔⴷ (ⴰⵎⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ), ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴼⵢⵉⵜ (ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵏ)."
"British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt.","ⵙⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵀⵎⴱⵓⵍⵜ."
Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content.,"ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ."
"Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.","ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ( ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ)."
"Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴽⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵔⴰⴼ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵓⴷⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⴰⵖⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ."
"The hieroglyphic system for Egyptian numerals, like the later Roman numerals, descended from tally marks used for counting.","ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵖⵍⴰⴼⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ."
"Early number systems that included positional notation were not decimal, including the sexagesimal (base 60) system for Babylonian numerals, and the vigesimal (base 20) system that defined Maya numerals.","ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵚⴹⵉⵚ-ⵎⵔⴰⵡ (ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 60), ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ vigesimal ( ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 20), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ."
"Prior to the works of Euclid around 300 BC, Greek studies in mathematics overlapped with philosophical and mystical beliefs.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ."
"The ancient Greeks lacked a symbol for zero until the Hellenistic period, and they used three separate sets of symbols as digits: one set for the units place, one for the tens place, and one for the hundreds.","ⵉⵖⵔⵉⵇ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⵉⵙⵜⵉⴽ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ."
"Their long division algorithm was the same, and the digit-by-digit square root algorithm, popularly used as recently as the 20th century, was known to Archimedes (who may have invented it).","ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⴹⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵣⴰⵔⵚⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⴷⵙ (ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ)."
"The ancient Chinese had advanced arithmetic studies dating from the Shang Dynasty and continuing through the Tang Dynasty, from basic numbers to advanced algebra.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴳ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"For the hundreds place, they then reused the symbols for the units place, and so on.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ, ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ."
"The ancient Chinese were the first to meaningfully discover, understand, and apply negative numbers.","ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏ, ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴰⵡⵏ."
"""His contemporary, the Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD) said, """"Indians possess a method of calculation that no word can praise enough.""",ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵔⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵙⵉⴱⵓⵅⵜ (650 ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ): ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⴰⵍⵖ ⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ.
The Arabs also learned this new method and called it hesab.,"ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⵡⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ⵃⵉⵙⴰⴱ”."
"The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world, and also in Renaissance Europe, was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation.","ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵊⵉⴱⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵙⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ, ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ."
Arithmetic expressions must be evaluated according to the intended sequence of operations.,ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵔⴰ.
"For example, digital computers can reuse existing adding-circuitry and save additional circuits for implementing a subtraction, by employing the method of two's complement for representing the additive inverses, which is extremely easy to implement in hardware (negation).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵏⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ, ⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ, ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ (ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵡⵜ)."
"Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ."
"If the numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number greater than 1, say x, is the same as stretching everything away from 0 uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was.","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵖⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ, ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ “1”, ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ “ⴽ” ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵖⵔ “0” ⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ, ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ “1” ⵖⵔ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ “ⴽ”."
Any dividend divided by zero is undefined.,ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ; ⵀⴰⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic was first proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss.,ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵯⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⴳⴰⵡⵙ.
"""Positional notation (also known as """"place-value notation"""") refers to the representation or encoding of numbers using the same symbol for the different orders of magnitude (e.g., the """"ones place"""", """"tens place"""", """"hundreds place"""") and, with a radix point, using those same symbols to represent fractions (e.g., the """"tenths place"""", """"hundredths place"""").""","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ” (ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ “ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵕⴰⵏ”), ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ), ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴷⵔ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ)."
"The use of 0 as a placeholder and, therefore, the use of a positional notation is first attested to in the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhâga, dated 458 AD and it was only in the early 13th century that these concepts, transmitted via the scholarship of the Arabic world, were introduced into Europe by Fibonacci using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ 0 ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵙ ⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕ, ⵉⵡⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵙ Jain ⵙⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ Lokavibhâga ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷ 458 ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵙⵉⵙⵙ 13, ⵜⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ, ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵛⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ-ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ."
"The result is calculated by the repeated addition of single digits from each number that occupies the same position, proceeding from right to left.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵏⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ."
"The rightmost digit is the value for the current position, and the result for the subsequent addition of the digits to the left increases by the value of the second (leftmost) digit, which is always one (if not zero).","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ (ⴰⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹ), ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ (ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ)."
A multiplication table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results for each pair of digits.,"ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
Similar techniques exist for subtraction and division.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ.
"In mathematical terminology, this characteristic is defined as closure, and the previous list is described as .","ⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵡⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ."
The total in the pence column is 25.,ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵏⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ 25.
"This operation is repeated using the values in the shillings column, with the additional step of adding the value that was carried forward from the pennies column.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵍⵏⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵉⵏⵙⴰⵜ."
"""One typical booklet that ran to 150 pages tabulated multiples """"from one to ten thousand at the various prices from one farthing to one pound"""".""","ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 150 ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵊⵉⵏⵉⵀ."
This study is sometimes known as algorism.,ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ: “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵣⵎ”.
"Also, arithmetic was used by Islamic Scholars in order to teach application of the rulings related to Zakat and Irth.",ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷⵏ ⴰⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵙⵉⵜ.
"Addition (usually signified by the plus symbol ) is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the other three being subtraction, multiplication and division.","ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ ( ⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ), ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ; ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ, ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ."
"In algebra, another area of mathematics, addition can also be performed on abstract objects such as vectors, matrices, subspaces and subgroups.","ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵔⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"""Using the gerundive suffix -nd results in """"addend"""", """"thing to be added"""".""","“ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ “ⵊⵉⵔⵓⵏⴷⵉⴼ”, ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ “ⴰⴷⴷⵏⴷ”, ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵔⵏⵓ.”"
"""""""Sum"""" and """"summand"""" derive from the Latin noun summa """"the highest, the top"""" and associated verb summare.""","“ⵉⴼⴼⵖⴷ “ ⵙⵓⵎ”, ⴷ “ⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰⵏⴷ”, ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ “ⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰ” ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳ ⵓⴳⵉⵍ.”"
"""The later Middle English terms """"adden"""" and """"adding"""" were popularized by Chaucer.""",“ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ “ⴰⴷⴷⵏ” ⴷ “ ⴰⴷⴷⵉⵏ” ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⴽⵓⵙⵔ”.”
"As an example, should the expression a + b + c be defined to mean (a + b) + c or a + (b + c)?","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⵎ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ; ” ⴰ + ⴱ + ⵙ ”, ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵉⴽ “ ( ⴰ + ⴱ ) + ⵙ “, ⵏⵖⴷ “ ⴰ + ( ⴱ + ⵙ )?"
"Even some nonhuman animals show a limited ability to add, particularly primates.","ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ , ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ."
"""With additional experience, children learn to add more quickly by exploiting the commutativity of addition by counting up from the larger number, in this case, starting with three and counting """"four, five.""""""","“ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⴼⴽ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ; ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ “ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ.””"
"Zero: Since zero is the additive identity, adding zero is trivial.","ⴰⵎⵢⴰ: ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ, ⵙ ⵓⵔⵏⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ."
"One aligns two decimal fractions above each other, with the decimal point in the same location.","ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"If the addends are the rotation speeds of two shafts, they can be added with a differential.","ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴱⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ."
It made use of a gravity-assisted carry mechanism.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴷⴰⵢⵜ.
"To subtract, the operator had to use the Pascal's calculator's complement, which required as many steps as an addition.","ⵉ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ “ⴱⴰⵙⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ”."
Both XOR and AND gates are straightforward to realize in digital logic allowing the realization of full adder circuits which in turn may be combined into more complex logical operations.,"XOR ⴷ AND gates ⵡⵀⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ adder ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ."
"Many implementations are, in fact, hybrids of these last three designs.","ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ , ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ."
Unanticipated arithmetic overflow is a fairly common cause of program errors.,"ⴰⴳⵯⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴳⵉ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ."
"Taken literally, the above definition is an application of the recursion theorem on the partially ordered set N2.","ⵎⴽ ⵏⵓⵙⵢ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ “ ⵏ 2 “, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ."
"If either a or b is zero, treat it as an identity.","ⵎⴽ ⴷ a ⵏⵖⴷ b ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ, ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ “."
"Here, the semigroup is formed by the natural numbers and the group is the additive group of integers.",ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ.
"The commutativity and associativity of real addition are immediate; defining the real number 0 to be the set of negative rationals, it is easily seen to be the additive identity.","ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵖⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ “0” ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ, ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ."
"One must prove that this operation is well-defined, dealing with co-Cauchy sequences.","ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵛⵉ."
"""The set of integers modulo 2 has just two elements; the addition operation it inherits is known in Boolean logic as the """"exclusive or"""" function.""","ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, “ⵎⵓⴷⵓⵍ 2”, ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵜⴽⵓⵙⴰ, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ “ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ” ⵏⵖ “ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⵉⴼⵜ”."
These give two different generalizations of addition of natural numbers to the transfinite.,"ⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ."
There are even more generalizations of multiplication than addition.,ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵜ.
"In fact, if two nonnegative numbers a and b are of different orders of magnitude, then their sum is approximately equal to their maximum.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴱⴰⵡⵏ “ⴰ” ⴷ “ⴱ”, ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ"
"It includes the idea of the sum of a single number, which is itself, and the empty sum, which is zero.","ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"""Integration is a kind of """"summation"""" over a continuum, or more precisely and generally, over a differentiable manifold.""","“ⴰⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ “ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ” ⵙ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ.”"
"Linear combinations are especially useful in contexts where straightforward addition would violate some normalization rule, such as mixing of strategies in game theory or superposition of states in quantum mechanics.","ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵕⵥⵥⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ."
"Division is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the ways that numbers are combined to make new numbers.","ⵜⴰⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵎ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ."
Those in which a Euclidean division (with remainder) is defined are called Euclidean domains and include polynomial rings in one indeterminate (which define multiplication and addition over single-variabled formulas).,"ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ “ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⴹⵓ” (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ), ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵔⵚⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ ( ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ “ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ”)."
"This division sign is also used alone to represent the division operation itself, as for instance as a label on a key of a calculator.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⵖ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ."
Distributing the objects several at a time in each round of sharing to each portion leads to the idea of 'chunking' a form of division where one repeatedly subtracts multiples of the divisor from the dividend itself.,"ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ “ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ”, ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴱⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ."
"A person can use logarithm tables to divide two numbers, by subtracting the two numbers' logarithms, then looking up the antilogarithm of the result.","ⵉⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ “ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵏ “ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ “ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ."
"Some programming languages, such as C, treat integer division as in case 5 above, so the answer is an integer.","ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ: “ⵙ”, ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 5, ⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ “ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ”."
"Similarly, right division of b by a (written ) is the solution y to the equation .","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ “ⴱ” ⵅⴼ “ⴰ” ( ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ), ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ “ⵢ” ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
Examples include matrix algebras and quaternion algebras.,ⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⴷⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴱⵓⴽⴽⵓⵥ.
Entry of such an expression into most calculators produces an error message.,ⴰⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷⴰⵖⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
"Since this replacement reduces the larger of the two numbers, repeating this process gives successively smaller pairs of numbers until the two numbers become equal.","ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵖⴼ ⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ."
The fact that the GCD can always be expressed in this way is known as Bézout's identity.,"ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ “ⴰⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ” ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ “ⴱⵉⵣⵓⵜ”."
"With this improvement, the algorithm never requires more steps than five times the number of digits (base 10) of the smaller integer.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵜⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 10), ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵅⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ.
"The Euclidean algorithm may be used to solve Diophantine equations, such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences according to the Chinese remainder theorem, to construct continued fractions, and to find accurate rational approximations to real numbers.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵅⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ “ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ”, ⵣⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⵓⴳⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ”, ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
"The greatest common divisor is often written as gcd(a, b) or, more simply, as (a, b), although the latter notation is ambiguous, also used for concepts such as an ideal in the ring of integers, which is closely related to GCD.","ⴰⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵙ “ⴰ,ⵎ,ⵅ”(ⴰ, ⴱ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ (ⴰ, ⴱ), ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⵉ ⵓⵎⴻⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ: “ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ”, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
"For example, neither 6 nor 35 is a prime number, since they both have two prime factors: 6 = 2 × 3 and 35 = 5 × 7.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⵉⴹ 6 ⵓⵍⴰ 35; ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ: 6 = 2 × 3 ⴷ 35 = 5 × 7."
"Factorization of large integers is believed to be a computationally very difficult problem, and the security of many widely used cryptographic protocols is based upon its infeasibility.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ."
"The set of all integral linear combinations of a and b is actually the same as the set of all multiples of g (mg, where m is an integer).","ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ “ⴰ” ⴷ “ⴱ”, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵍⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⴳ” (“ⵎ,ⴳ”, ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ “ⵎ” ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ)."
"In other words, multiples of the smaller number rk−1 are subtracted from the larger number rk−2 until the remainder rk is smaller than rk−1.","ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵍⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ “ⵔⴽ-1” ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ “ⵔⴽ-2”, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵖⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ “ⵔⴽ” ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵖⴼ “ⵔⴽ-1”."
"Therefore, c divides the initial remainder r0, since r0 = a − q0b = mc − q0nc = (m − q0n)c.","ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓ “ⵙ” ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ “ⵔ0”, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ “ⵔ0” = ⴰ - ⵇ0ⴱ = ⵎⵙ - ⵇ0ⵏⵙ = (ⵎ - ⵇ0ⵏ)ⵙ."
"We first attempt to tile the rectangle using b-by-b square tiles; however, this leaves an r0-by-b residual rectangle untiled, where r0 < b. We then attempt to tile the residual rectangle with r0-by-r0 square tiles.","ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴽⴽ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ, “ⴱ-ⴱⵢ-ⴱ” ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵖⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵖ “ⵔ0-ⴱⵢ-ⴱ” ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵔ0” ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ “ⴱ”. ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵍⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ “ⵔ0-ⴱⵢ-ⵔ0”."
The theorem which underlies the definition of the Euclidean division ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist and are unique.,"ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ."
"At the end of the loop iteration, the variable b holds the remainder rk, whereas the variable a holds its predecessor, rk−1.","ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ “ⴱ” ⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵔⵓ “ⵔⴽ”, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵀⵟⵟⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ “ⴰ” ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, “ⵔⴽ-1”."
The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras.,"ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ “ⴱ.ⵍ.ⴼⴰⵏ .ⴷⵉⵔ. ⵡⵉⵔⴷⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ."
"Centuries later, Euclid's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China, primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arose in astronomy and making accurate calendars.","ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵍⵉⴷ” ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⴷ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⴷⵏ."
"The Euclidean algorithm was first described numerically and popularized in Europe in the second edition of Bachet's Problèmes plaisants et délectables (Pleasant and enjoyable problems, 1624).","ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⵇⵍⵉⴷⵏ” ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ, ⵜⴰⵖ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴽⵉⵜⵙ ⵉⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⵉⵜⵏ”( ⵉⵎⵢⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵏ, ⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ 1624)."
"In the 19th century, the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems, such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19 ⵜⵓⵡⵢ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ” ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵙⵢⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ."
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory.,"ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⴳⵓⵙⵜⴰⴼ ⵍⵉⴳⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⵔⵉⵜⵛⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ” ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ."
"For example, Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat's two-square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⵉⴷⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ “ⴼⵉⵔⵎⴰ” ⵎⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ “ⴳⵓⵙⵢⴰⵏ” ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ."
Other applications of Euclid's algorithm were developed in the 19th century.,"ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ “ⵉⴽⵍⵉⴷⵙ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ”, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19."
"Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed, such as the algorithm of Helaman Ferguson and R.W. Forcade (1979) and the LLL algorithm.",ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ” ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴼⵓⵔⴳⵓⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵔ.ⵡ.ⴼⵓⵔⴽⴰⴷ (1979) ⴷ ⵍⵍⵍ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ.”
The players take turns removing m multiples of the smaller pile from the larger.,ⵓⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ.
"By allowing u to vary over all possible integers, an infinite family of solutions can be generated from a single solution (x1, y1).","ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵔⵓⴼ ⵏ “ⵓ” ⵙ ⵓⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ” ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴼⴹⴹⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ (ⴽ1, ⵢ1)."
"In this field, the results of any mathematical operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division) is reduced modulo 13; that is, multiples of 13 are added or subtracted until the result is brought within the range 0–12.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ( ⵜⴰⵔⵏⵓⵜ, ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴰⴽⴼⵓⴷ, ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ) ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ 13, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ 13, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵊⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴰⵙⴳⵔⴰⵔ 0 - 12."
Now assume that the result holds for all values of N up to M − 1.,ⵎⵔⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ “ⵏ” ⴰⵔ “ⵎ - 1”.
"For illustration, the probability of a quotient of 1, 2, 3, or 4 is roughly 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, and 5.9%, respectively.","ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⴼⵉⵡ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵏ 1, 2, 3, ⵏⵖⴷ 4 ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, ⴷ 5.9%, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ."
One inefficient approach to finding the GCD of two natural numbers a and b is to calculate all their common divisors; the GCD is then the largest common divisor.,"ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ GCD ⵉ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ a ⴷ b, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ, ⴷ GCD ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ."
"As noted above, the GCD equals the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers a and b. Present methods for prime factorization are also inefficient; many modern cryptography systems even rely on that inefficiency.","ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ GCD ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ a ⴷ b. ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⵓ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵖⴼ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ."
Lehmer's GCD algorithm uses the same general principle as the binary algorithm to speed up GCD computations in arbitrary bases.,"ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ Lehmer's GCD, ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⴱⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ GCD ⴳ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵅⵔⴱⵇⵏ."
The Euclidean algorithm can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for polynomials; continued fractions of polynomials can also be defined.,"ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ."
"Any Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain (UFD), although the converse is not true.","ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ (UFD), ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
"A Euclidean domain is always a principal ideal domain (PID), an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷⵏ; ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ (PID), ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ."
"Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common, including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ."
The term was originally used to distinguish this type of fraction from the sexagesimal fraction used in astronomy.,"ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵚⴹⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
This was explained in the 17th century textbook The Ground of Arts.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏ “ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉⵡⵉⵏ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17.
"The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1, hence the reciprocal is the multiplicative inverse of a fraction.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ 1, ⵅⴼ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ."
The remainder becomes the numerator of the fractional part.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵏⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ.
"Since 5×17 (= 85) is greater than 4×18 (= 72), the result of comparing is .","ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ 5×17 (= 85) ⵢⵓⴳⵔ 4× 18 (= 72), ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ."
"Since one third of a quarter is one twelfth, two thirds of a quarter is two twelfth.","ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ."
Sometimes an infinite repeating decimal is required to reach the same precision.,"ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰ."
The Egyptians used Egyptian fractions  BC.,ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵚⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ.
Their methods gave the same answer as modern methods.,ⵜⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.
"A modern expression of fractions known as bhinnarasi seems to have originated in India in the work of Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ⴱⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉ” ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ “ⴰⵔⵢⴰⴱⴰⵜⴰ”, “ⴱⵔⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ”, ⴷ “ⴱⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⴰ”"
"""In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers """"wrap around"""" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus.""","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ; ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ."
A very practical application is to calculate checksums within serial number identifiers.,ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ.
RSA and Diffie–Hellman use modular exponentiation.,"“ⵔ,ⵙ,ⴰ” ⴷ “ ⴷⵉⴼⵉ ⵀⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ” ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ."
"It is used by the most efficient implementations of polynomial greatest common divisor, exact linear algebra and Gröbner basis algorithms over the integers and the rational numbers.",ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⴷ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ” ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ.
"The modulo operation, as implemented in many programming languages and calculators, is an application of modular arithmetic that is often used in this context.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ."
The method of casting out nines offers a quick check of decimal arithmetic computations performed by hand.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵉ “ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ” ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ.
"A linear system of congruences can be solved in polynomial time with a form of Gaussian elimination, for details see linear congruence theorem.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⴳⵓⵙⵢⴰⵏ”, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵣⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵉⵕ “ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ”."
"The multiplication of integers (including negative numbers), rational numbers (fractions) and real numbers is defined by a systematic generalization of this basic definition.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ( ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ (ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏⴻⵏ), ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ."
The product of two measurements is a new type of measurement.,ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ.
The inverse operation of multiplication is division.,ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵉⵜ.
The division of a number other than 0 by itself equals 1.,ⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ “0” ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ “1”.
"This implicit usage of multiplication can cause ambiguity when the concatenated variables happen to match the name of another variable, when a variable name in front of a parenthesis can be confused with a function name, or in the correct determination of the order of operations.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴰⵡⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ."
"""The numbers to be multiplied are generally called the """"factors"""".""",ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ”.
"""Also as the result of a multiplication does not depend on the order of the factors, the distinction between """"multiplicand"""" and """"multiplier"""" is useful only at a very elementary level and in some multiplication algorithms, such as the long multiplication.""","“ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ “ ⵓⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ” ⴷ “ⵓⵎⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢ” ⵓⴱⵖⵉⵔ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ” ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ”."
The result of a multiplication is called a product.,ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵓⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ.
The slide rule allowed numbers to be quickly multiplied to about three places of accuracy.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵕⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉ.
The general theory is given by dimensional analysis.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵍⵟ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ.
The complex numbers do not have an ordering.,ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ.
"Here we have identity 1, as opposed to groups under addition where the identity is typically 0.","ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⵖⴰⵔⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ 1, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ 0."
"To see this, consider the set of invertible square matrices of a given dimension over a given field.","ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⴷ ⵖⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴹⵓⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ."
Another fact worth noticing is that the integers under multiplication is not a group—even if we exclude zero.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⵙ ⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ; ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⴽⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ.
"""In mathematics, a percentage (from Latin per centum """"by a hundred"""") is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100.""","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ (ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ “ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ”) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ 100."
Computation with these fractions was equivalent to computing percentages.,"ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏⵜ."
"Whenever communicating about a percentage, it is important to specify what it is relative to (i.e., what is the total that corresponds to 100%).","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ (ⵉ.ⴻ., ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ 100%)."
"""When speaking of a """"10% rise"""" or a """"10% fall"""" in a quantity, the usual interpretation is that this is relative to the initial value of that quantity.""","“ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ “”ⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ 10%” ⵏⵖⴷ “ⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ 10%” ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ, ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ."
"The same confusion between the different concepts of percent(age) and percentage points can potentially cause a major misunderstanding when journalists report about election results, for example, expressing both new results and differences with earlier results as percentages.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵡⵓⵛⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ (ⴰⵡⵜⴰⵢ) ⴷ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ; ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ."
The term has been attributed to Latin per centum.,ⵉⵙⵓⵏⵏⴹ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ.
Grammar and style guides often differ as to how percentages are to be written.,ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
"""When interest rates are very low, the number 0 is included if the interest rate is less than 1%, e.g. """"% Treasury Stock"""", not """"% Treasury Stock"""".)""","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴳⵣⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0, ⵎⴽ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ 1%, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ “% ⵏ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵖⵉ” ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ “% ⵏ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵖⵉ”."
"Likewise, the winning percentage of a team, the fraction of matches that the club has won, is also usually expressed as a decimal proportion; a team that has a .500 winning percentage has won 50% of their matches.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵢⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ 500 ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ 50% ⴳ ⵉⵃⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"Subtraction also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations, such as addition and multiplication.","ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ."
Performing subtraction on natural numbers is one of the simplest numerical tasks.,ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ.
"Formally, the number being subtracted is known as the subtrahend, while the number it is subtracted from is the minuend.","ⵙ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⵣⴷⴰⵔ."
"""Subtraction"""" is an English word derived from the Latin verb subtrahere, which in turn is a compound of sub """"from under"""" and trahere """"to pull"""".""","“ⵙⵓⴱⵙⵜⵔⴰⴽⵛⵏ” ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ “ⵙⴰⴱⵜⵔⵀⵉⵔ”, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ “ⵙⴰⴱ” ⵙⴳ “ⴰⵏⴷⵔ” ⴷ ⵜⵓⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⵏ “ ⵜⵓ ⴱⵓⵍ”."
"From position 3, it takes no steps to the left to stay at 3, so .","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ 3, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴷⴰⵔ 3, ⵖⵎⴽⴰⵏⵏ."
"To represent such an operation, the line must be extended.","ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ."
"""The leading digit """"1"""" of the result is then discarded.""",“ ⴰⴽⴽⵓⴷⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ “1” ⵙⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ.
"In the ten's place, 0 is less than 1, so the 0 is increased by 10, and the difference with 1, which is 9, is written down in the ten's place.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ, 0 ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ 1, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ 0 ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ 10, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ 1 ⵉⴳⴰⵜ 9, ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ."
"The subtraction then proceeds in the hundreds place, where 6 is not less than 5, so the difference is written down in the result's hundred's place.","ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ, ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽ ⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ 6 ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵏ 5, ⵄⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ."
Rather it increases the subtrahend hundred's digit by one.,ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ.
"The answer is 1, and is written down in the result's hundred's place.","ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ 1, ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ."
"This theorem was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat in 1637 in the margin of a copy of Arithmetica, where he claimed that he had a proof that was too large to fit in the margin.",ⵜⵡⴰⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴷⵉ ⴼⵉⵔⵎⴰ ⴳ 1637 ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ “ⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽⴰ” ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ.
"The five color theorem, which has a short elementary proof, states that five colors suffice to color a map and was proven in the late 19th century; however, proving that four colors suffice turned out to be significantly harder.","ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⵣⵉⵍ, ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵎ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ."
It was the first major theorem to be proved using a computer.,ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ.
"Additionally, any map that could potentially be a counterexample must have a portion that looks like one of these 1,936 maps.","ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ 1,936 ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ."
"It was originally formulated in 1908, by Steinitz and Tietze.",ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵜ “ⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜⵣ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵜⵣ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1908.
"A variety V over a finite field with q elements has a finite number of rational points, as well as points over every finite field with qk elements containing that field.","ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ “ⴼ” ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ “ⵇ” ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ “ⵇⴽ” ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ."
"Originally conjectured by Henri Poincaré, the theorem concerns a space that locally looks like ordinary three-dimensional space but is connected, finite in size, and lacks any boundary (a closed 3-manifold).","ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ “ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⴱⵡⴰⵏⴽⴰⵔⵉ” ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵎⵎⵙⵍⴰⵖⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ( ⵓⵖⵓⵏ ⵏ 3 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ)."
"After nearly a century of effort by mathematicians, Grigori Perelman presented a proof of the conjecture in three papers made available in 2002 and 2003 on arXiv.",ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ “ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ” ⴰⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ 2002 ⴷ 2003 ⴳ “ⴰⵔⵅⴰⵢⴼ” (ⵜⴰⵍⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ).
Perelman completed this portion of the proof.,ⵉⵙⵎⴷ “ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵍⵎⴰⵏ” ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.
"Informally, it asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified by a computer can also be quickly solved by a computer; it is widely conjectured that the answer is no.","ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵉⴳⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵔⴱⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵔⵔⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ."
"It has not been proven which one is false, but it is widely believed that the first conjecture is true and the second one is false.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ."
"For instance, the Collatz conjecture, which concerns whether or not certain sequences of integers terminate, has been tested for all integers up to 1.2 × 1012 (over a trillion).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ “ⴽⵓⵍⴰⵜⵣ” ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ; ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ, ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ 1.2 × 1012 ( ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵍⵢⵓⵏ)."
"That evidence may be of various kinds, such as verification of consequences of it or strong interconnections with known results.","ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⵉⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ."
"""One method of proof, applicable when there are only a finite number of cases that could lead to counterexamples, is known as """"brute force"""": in this approach, all possible cases are considered and shown not to give counterexamples.""","“ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ “ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵜⵜⵍ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ."
"The continuum hypothesis, which tries to ascertain the relative cardinality of certain infinite sets, was eventually shown to be independent from the generally accepted set of Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of set theory.","ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵀⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵣⵉⵔⵎⵉⵍⵓ-ⴼⵔⵉⵏⴽⵍ, ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Few number theorists doubt that the Riemann hypothesis is true.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵏⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ “ⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ”.
"The logistic map is a polynomial mapping, often cited as an archetypal example of how chaotic behaviour can arise from very simple non-linear dynamical equations.","ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵊⵉⵙⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
Kepler proved that it is the limit of the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.,ⵉⵙⵡⵔ “ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ” ⵉⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ “ⴼⵉⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⵉ” ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ.
For two reasons this representation may cause problems.,"ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ."
"For example, the two representations 0.999... and 1 are equivalent in the sense that they represent the same number.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ 0.999... ⴷ 1 ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"Using computers and supercomputers, some of the mathematical constants, including π, e, and the square root of 2, have been computed to more than one hundred billion digits.","ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵟⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ “π” ⴷ “ⴻ” ⴷ ⵓⵥⵖⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ 2 ⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ."
Some constants differ so much from the usual kind that a new notation has been invented to represent them reasonably.,"ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ."
"Sometimes, the symbol representing a constant is a whole word.","ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ."
"0 (zero) is a number, and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.","0 (ⴰⵎⵢⴰ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ."
"""Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US; ), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter """"O""""—oh or o.""","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ 0 ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ “ⴰⵎⵢⴰ”, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⵡⴷ (ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⴷⵃⴰⵃ (ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵓⵏⵏ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵡⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ “ⵓ” (ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ) ⵏⵖⴷ “ⵓ” (ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ)."
"For the simple notion of lacking, the words nothing and none are often used.",ⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵜⵃⴰⵃ.
It is often called oh in the context of telephone numbers.,ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ “ⵓⵀ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏ.
"The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ “ⵏⴼⵔ”, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⵜ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⴷ."
"The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone, nor was it used at the end of a number.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"By AD 150, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero in his work on mathematical astronomy called the Syntaxis Mathematica, also known as the Almagest.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⴹ 150 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷ “ⴱⴰⵟⵍⵉⵎⵓⵙ” ⵖⵔ “ⴱⵀⵉⴱⴰⵔⵅⵓⵙ” ⴷ “ⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ” ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ “ⵜⴰⵊⵕⵕⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ”, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ “ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵊⵉⵙⵜ”."
"""This use was repeated in AD525 in an equivalent table, that was translated via the Latin nulla or """"none"""" by Dionysius Exiguus, alongside Roman numerals.""","“ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 525 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵖⵍⵜ ⵙ “ⵓⵎⵢⴰ” ⴷⵢⵓⵏⵉⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⵉⴽⵙⵉⵊⵓⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵎⵙⵍⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ”."
"The Lokavibhāga, a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380), uses a decimal place-value system, including a zero.","“ⵍⵓⴽⴰⴼⵉⴱⴰⴳⴰ” ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ “ⵊⴰⵢⵏ” ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵣⵡⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ “ⵙⴰⵏⵙⴽⵔⵉ” ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ “ⴱⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉ”, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴽⵓⴷ 458 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ( ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵙⴰⴽⴰ 380), ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ “ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ” ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"""In 813, al-Khwarizmi used the Hindu numerals in his astronomical tables.""""""","“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 813, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ “ⴰⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎ” ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵡⵜⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ.”"
This book was later translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum.,ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 12 ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵓⵔⵓⵎ”.
I pursued my study in depth and learned the give-and-take of disputation.,"ⵙⵎⴷⵖ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵏⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵔⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵍⵎⴷⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ."
"I have striven to compose this book in its entirety as understandably as I could, dividing it into fifteen chapters.","ⴳⵉⵖ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵣⴹⴰⵕⵖ, ⴷ ⴱⴹⵉⵖⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ."
The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.,ⵜⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⴷⵉⵜⵏ: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.
"254–255 include 0 as a natural number, in which case it is the only natural number that is not positive.","254-255 ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵏ 0 ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ."
"As a value or a number, zero is not the same as the digit zero, used in numeral systems with positional notation.","ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, “ⴰⵎⵢⴰ” ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⴰⵡⵜⵃⴰⵃ”, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ."
"The number 0 may or may not be considered a natural number, but it is an integer, and hence a rational number and a real number (as well as an algebraic number and a complex number).","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ (ⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ)."
"It cannot be prime because it has an infinite number of factors, and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed as a product of prime numbers (as 0 must always be one of the factors).","ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ( ⵉⵎⴽ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⴳ 0 ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ)."
"These rules apply for any real or complex number x, unless otherwise stated.",ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⴼ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ “ⴽ” ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⴽⵏⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ.
"The cardinality function, applied to the empty set, returns the empty set as a value, thereby assigning it 0 elements.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ 0 ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ."
"In abstract algebra, 0 is commonly used to denote a zero element, which is a neutral element for addition (if defined on the structure under consideration) and an absorbing element for multiplication (if defined).","ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ 0 ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ; ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ (ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ (ⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ)."
"For some quantities, the zero level is naturally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen.","ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵇⴷⴷⵛⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
It has been shown that a cluster of four neutrons may be stable enough to be considered an atom in its own right.,"ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵔ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵣⴳⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⴱⵍⴽⵎⵜ."
"For example, the elements of an array are numbered starting from 0 in C, so that for an array of n items the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to .","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵇⴹⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ “0” ⴳ “ⵙ”, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ 0 ⴰⵔ ."
"In databases, it is possible for a field not to have a value.","ⴳ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ."
For text fields this is not blank nor the empty string.,"ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ, ⵡⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵅⵡⵉ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ."
Any computation including a null value delivers a null result.,ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ.
"In Formula One, if the reigning World Champion no longer competes in Formula One in the year following their victory in the title race, 0 is given to one of the drivers of the team that the reigning champion won the title with.","ⴳ “ⵍⴼⵓⵔⵎⵓⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏ” ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵓⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ “ⵍⴼⵓⵔⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏ” ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ 0 ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔⵜ."
Typewriters originally made no distinction in shape between O and 0; some models did not even have a separate key for the digit 0.,ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ “O” ⴷ “0” ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0.
"The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays and has continued with some modern computer typefaces such as Andalé Mono, and in some airline reservation systems.","ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0 ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵖⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⴰⵕⵏ “ⵉⴱⵎ 3270”, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵉ ⵎⵓⵏⵓ, ⴷ ⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ."
"1 (one, also called unit, and unity) is a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.","1 (ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ) ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"In conventions of sign where zero is considered neither positive nor negative, 1 is the first and smallest positive integer.","ⴳ ⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ, 1 ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ."
Most if not all properties of 1 can be deduced from this.,"ⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ 1, ⵎⴽ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ."
It is thus the integer after zero.,ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ.
"It was transmitted to Europe via the Maghreb and Andalusia during the Middle Ages, through scholarly works written in Arabic.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵎⵔⵔⵓⴽ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵄⵔⴰⴱⵜ."
Styles that do not use the long upstroke on digit 1 usually do not use the horizontal stroke through the vertical of the digit 7 either.,"ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 1, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵙⵜ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 7."
"By definition, 1 is the magnitude, absolute value, or norm of a unit complex number, unit vector, and a unit matrix (more usually called an identity matrix).","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ, 1 ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ (ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ: ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ)."
"In category theory, 1 is sometimes used to denote the terminal object of a category.","ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ 1 ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵄⵜ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ."
"Since the base 1 exponential function (1x) always equals 1, its inverse does not exist (which would be called the logarithm base 1 if it did exist).","ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ 1, (ⴽ1) ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ 1, ⵓⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ 1, ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ)."
"Likewise, vectors are often normalized into unit vectors (i.e., vectors of magnitude one), because these often have more desirable properties.","ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⵢⵉⵡⵏ ( ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ), ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
It is also the first and second number in the Fibonacci sequence (0 being the zeroth) and is the first number in many other mathematical sequences.,"ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ “ⴼⵉⴱⵓⵏⴰⵜⵛⵉ (0 ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ), ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴹⴼⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ."
"Nevertheless, abstract algebra can consider the field with one element, which is not a singleton and is not a set at all.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ."
A binary code is a sequence of 1 and 0 that is used in computers for representing any kind of data.,ⵍⴽⵓⴷ ⴱⵓ-ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ 1 ⴷ 0 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ.
+1 is the electric charge of positrons and protons.,+1 ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵓⵥⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴱⵓⵟⵕⵓⵏⴰⵜ.
"The Neopythagorean philosopher Nicomachus of Gerasa affirmed that one is not a number, but the source of number.","ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵏⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ “ ⵏⵉⵎⵓⴽⴰⵅⴰⵔⵓⵙ” ⴳ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ."
"We Are Number One is a 2014 song from the children's TV show LazyTown, which gained popularity as a meme.","“ⵏⴽⵯⵏⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ” ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵍⵉⵜ ⴳ 2014, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵜⵍⴼⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏ “ⵍⴰⵣⵉ-ⵜⴰⵡⵏ” ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ."
In association football (soccer) the number 1 is often given to the goalkeeper.,ⴳ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴰⵕ ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 1 ⵉ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵙⵡⵉⵜ.
1 is the lowest number permitted for use by players of the National Hockey League (NHL); the league prohibited the use of 00 and 0 in the late 1990s (the highest number permitted being 98).,"1 ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ “ⵍⵀⵓⴽⵉ” (ⵜ.ⵜ.ⵍ), ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴳⴷⵍ ⵜⴱⵔⵣⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ 00 ⴷ 0 ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ 1990 ( ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ 98)."
"Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non-random, by the infinite monkey theorem.","ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵛⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵄⴹⵓⴹ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ."
"""Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible to """"square the circle"""".""","“ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵉⵚⵓⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵓⵎⵉ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ”."
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya (499 AD).,ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ “ⴰⵔⵢⴰⴱⴰⵟⴰ” ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ 3.1416 ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ “ⴰⵔⵢⴰⴱⵉⵟⵉⵢⴰ” (499 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ).
"The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al-Kāshī produced 9 sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits, in 1424 using a polygon with 3×228 sides, which stood as the world record for about 180 years.","ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉ “ ⵊⴰⵎⵛⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⴽⴰⵛⵉ” 9 ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵚⴹⵉⵚ-ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ 16 ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1424 ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵣⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ 3×228 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ 180 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ."
These avoid reliance on infinite series.,ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵣⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ.
"As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also referred to as the Brent–Salamin algorithm.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵎ ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵏⵜ- ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵎⵉⵏ”."
"This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.","ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ “ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ” ⵏⵖⴷ “ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵙⵉⵏ” ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ, ⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ."
Such memorization aids are called mnemonics.,ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴽⵜⵉ.
The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling.,ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⴱⵓⵙⵜ.
"""A numerical digit is a single symbol used alone (such as """"2"""") or in combinations (such as """"25""""), to represent numbers in a positional numeral system.""","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓⵏⵙ (ⴰⵎⵎ “2”), ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “25”), ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵇⴹ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ."
"A positional number system has one unique digit for each integer from zero up to, but not including, the radix of the number system.","ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ; ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
"The original numerals were very similar to the modern ones, even down to the glyphs used to represent digits.","ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵥⵖⵓⵕⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏⴰⵡⴹ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."
The Mayas used a shell symbol to represent zero.,ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵣ “ⵜⵉⵇⵛⵔⵜ” ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ.
The Thai numeral system is identical to the Hindu–Arabic numeral system except for the symbols used to represent digits.,ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵟⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵏⴷⵓ- ⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱ ⵅⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⵏ.
They are both base 3 systems.,ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ 3 ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ.
Several authors in the last 300 years have noted a facility of positional notation that amounts to a modified decimal representation.,ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ.
"For example, 1111 (one thousand, one hundred and eleven) is a repunit.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, 1111 ( ⵉⴼⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ) ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ."
"Besides counting ten fingers, some cultures have counted knuckles, the space between fingers, and toes as well as fingers.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵏⴼⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⵓⴷⴰⵏ."
"Stone age cultures, including ancient indigenous American groups, used tallies for gambling, personal services, and trade-goods.","ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ-ⴰⴳⴳⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵓⵕⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵇⴱⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ."
"Beginning about 3500 BC, clay tokens were gradually replaced by number signs impressed with a round stylus at different angles in clay tablets (originally containers for tokens) which were then baked.",ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 3500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⴰⵏⵉⴱ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵓⴹ ( ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵏⴰⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵡⴰⵏ.
These cuneiform number signs resembled the round number signs they replaced and retained the additive sign-value notation of the round number signs.,"ⴰⵖⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵇⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ."
Sexagesimal numerals were a mixed radix system that retained the alternating base 10 and base 6 in a sequence of cuneiform vertical wedges and chevrons.,ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵚⴹⵉⵚ-ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴷⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 10 ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 6 ⴳ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴼⵔⵓⵏ.
Unique numbers of troops and measures of rice appear as unique combinations of these tallies.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴳⵍ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ.
Conventional tallies are quite difficult to multiply and divide.,ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.
"Jews began using a similar system (Hebrew numerals), with the oldest examples known being coins from around 100 BC.","ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰ (ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵄⵉⴱⵔⵉⵢⴰ), ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 100 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"The Maya of Central America used a mixed base 18 and base 20 system, possibly inherited from the Olmec, including advanced features such as positional notation and a zero.","ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵍⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ; ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 18 ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 20, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵉⴷ ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⴽ, ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"Knowledge of the encodings of the knots and colors was suppressed by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, and has not survived although simple quipu-like recording devices are still used in the Andean region.","ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 16, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵊⵉⵎ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ “ⴽⵉⴱⴱⵓ”, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ “ⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ”."
Zero was first used in India in the 7th century CE by Brahmagupta.,"ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ “ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ”, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 7 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵙⵉⵃ."
"Arabic mathematicians extended the system to include decimal fractions, and Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī wrote an important work about it in the 9th  century.","ⵙⴱⵉⵔⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵄⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵎⵓⵃⵎⵎⴰⴷ ⴱⵏ ⵎⵓⵙⴰ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 9."
"The binary system (base 2), was propagated in the 17th century by Gottfried Leibniz.","ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ 2), ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴳⵓⵜⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵍⵉⴱⵏⵉⵣ."
"The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation.","ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵇⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵉⵙⵎ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.,ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ.
Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero.,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ.
An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed.,ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ.
"This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.","ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis.","ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⴰⴽ."
"These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.","ⵜⵉⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ, ⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵉⵏ ⵎⵛⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
"In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight.","ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵣ, “ⴽ”, “ⵢ” ⴷ “ⵣ” ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ( ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ), ⵙ ⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉ ⴽⵓ “ⴽ”, “ⵢ”, ⴷ “ⵣ” ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ “ⵔ” ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⵢ."
"The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation.","ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.,ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ.
An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵎⵎ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⴳ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ.
"In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is the basis and a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in most parts of modern mathematics.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ."
This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⴽⵓⵔⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⵄⴱⴰ.
"This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.","ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵀⵢⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ."
An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.,"ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴷⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ."
"Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.","ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⵣⵖⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ, ⵏⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵏⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ."
A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⴳ ⵟⴼⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
"In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
"Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained.","ⵜⵉⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ."
"PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ “PDE” ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵖⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵜⵔⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽ, ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵜⵔⵓⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵉⵡⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⵜⵎ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵏ."
A solution is an assignment of values to the unknown variables that makes the equality in the equation true.,ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵊ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ.
The set of all solutions of an equation is its solution set.,ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ.
"Depending on the context, solving an equation may consist to find either any solution (finding a single solution is enough), all solutions, or a solution that satisfies further properties, such as belonging to a given interval.","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ (ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⴼⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ , ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ."
"In this case, the solutions cannot be listed.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
"The variety in types of equations is large, and so are the corresponding methods.","ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ."
This may be due to a lack of mathematical knowledge; some problems were only solved after centuries of effort.,"ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵄⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ."
Polynomials appear in many areas of mathematics and science.,ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.
Many authors use these two words interchangeably.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ.
"Formally, the name of the polynomial is P, not P(x), but the use of the functional notation P(x) dates from a time when the distinction between a polynomial and the associated function was unclear.","P ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ P(x), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⴼ P(x), ⵉⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵚⴼⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ."
"However, one may use it over any domain where addition and multiplication are defined (that is, any ring).","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵙ (ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⵔⵙⵜ)."
Polynomials of small degree have been given specific names.,"ⵜⵉⴷ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
"The polynomial 0, which may be considered to have no terms at all, is called the zero polynomial.","ⴱⵓ-ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ 0, ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ."
"Because the degree of a non-zero polynomial is the largest degree of any one term, this polynomial has degree two.","ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵔ-ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ."
"Polynomials can be classified by the number of terms with nonzero coefficients, so that a one-term polynomial is called a monomial, a two-term polynomial is called a binomial, and a three-term polynomial is called a trinomial.","ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⵏⵛⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴱⵓ-ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴱⵓ-ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴱⵓ-ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵓ-ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ; ⴱⵓ-ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ."
"When it is used to define a function, the domain is not so restricted.","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ."
"A polynomial in one indeterminate is called a univariate polynomial, a polynomial in more than one indeterminate is called a multivariate polynomial.","ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ, ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⵡⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ."
"In the case of the field of complex numbers, the irreducible factors are linear.","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙⵏ; ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ."
"If the degree is higher than one, the graph does not have any asymptote.","ⵉⴳ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
"In elementary algebra, methods such as the quadratic formula are taught for solving all first degree and second degree polynomial equations in one variable.","ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ."
"However, root-finding algorithms may be used to find numerical approximations of the roots of a polynomial expression of any degree.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ."
"Since the 16th century, similar formulas (using cube roots in addition to square roots), but much more complicated are known for equations of degree three and four (see cubic equation and quartic equation).","ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 16 ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴽⵙⵍ ( ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵜⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ( ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵜⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ)."
"In 1830, Évariste Galois proved that most equations of degree higher than four cannot be solved by radicals, and showed that for each equation, one may decide whether it is solvable by radicals, and, if it is, solve it.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1830, ⵉⵙⵡⵔ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⴳⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⵜ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ, ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵢ, ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⵜ."
"Nevertheless, formulas for solvable equations of degrees 5 and 6 have been published (see quintic function and sextic equation).","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⴷ 6 (ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵚⴹⵉⴹⵜ)."
"The most efficient algorithms allow solving easily (on a computer) polynomial equations of degree higher than 1,000 (see Root-finding algorithm).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵀⴰⵍ ( ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ), ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ 1,000 ( ⵥⵕ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ)."
"For a set of polynomial equations in several unknowns, there are algorithms to decide whether they have a finite number of complex solutions, and, if this number is finite, for computing the solutions.","ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ-ⵉⵙⵎ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
A polynomial equation for which one is interested only in the solutions which are integers is called a Diophantine equation.,ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴷⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ.
"The coefficients may be taken as real numbers, for real-valued functions.",ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ.
This equivalence explains why linear combinations are called polynomials.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ.
"""In the case of coefficients in a ring, """"non-constant"""" must be replaced by """"non-constant or non-unit"""" (both definitions agree in the case of coefficients in a field).""","ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵉⵔⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵣⵉⵎⵏ (ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵡⴰⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ)."
"When the coefficients belong to integers, rational numbers or a finite field, there are algorithms to test irreducibility and to compute the factorization into irreducible polynomials (see Factorization of polynomials).","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ)."
The characteristic polynomial of a matrix or linear operator contains information about the operator's eigenvalues.,"ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⴽⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"However, the elegant and practical notation we use today only developed beginning in the 15th century.",ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⴽⵎ ⴰⵏⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 15.
"""This """"completes the square"""", converting the left side into a perfect square.""","ⵖⴰⵢⴰ “ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ”, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵎⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ."
"Descartes' theorem states that for every four kissing (mutually tangent) circles, their radii satisfy a particular quadratic equation.","ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ (ⴰⵎⴰⵍⵓ ⵓⴳⴷⵓ), ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ."
Babylonian mathematicians from circa 400 BC and Chinese mathematicians from circa 200 BC used geometric methods of dissection to solve quadratic equations with positive roots.,"ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ; ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 400 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 200 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵣⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ."
"Euclid, the Greek mathematician, produced a more abstract geometrical method around 300 BC.","ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⴽⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ."
"Al-Khwarizmi goes further in providing a full solution to the general quadratic equation, accepting one or two numerical answers for every quadratic equation, while providing geometric proofs in the process.","ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⴷ."
"Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam (Egypt, 10th century) in particular was the first to accept irrational numbers (often in the form of a square root, cube root or fourth root) as solutions to quadratic equations or as coefficients in an equation.","ⴰⴱⵓ ⴽⴰⵎⵉⵍ ⵛⵓⵊⴰⵄ ⵉⴱⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⵎ (ⵎⵉⵚⵕ, ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 10); ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵀ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏ ( ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴳⵏⵜⵔ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ) ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ."
His solution was largely based on Al-Khwarizmi's work.,ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵅⴰⵡⴰⵔⵉⵣⵎⵉ.
"However, at some point the quadratic formula begins to lose accuracy because of round off error, while the approximate method continues to improve.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵣⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵛⵛⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ; ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ."
"Methods of numerical approximation existed, called prosthaphaeresis, that offered shortcuts around time-consuming operations such as multiplication and taking powers and roots.","ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵉⵙⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ."
"Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science, and economics.","ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵛⵉⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ."
"For solutions in an integral domain like the ring of the integers, or in other algebraic structures, other theories have been developed, see Linear equation over a ring.","ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵅⵕⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵥⵕ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⴳⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵅⵕⵙⵜ."
"This allows all the language and theory of vector spaces (or more generally, modules) to be brought to bear.",ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵔⵙⵉⵍⵏ).
Such a system is known as an underdetermined system.,ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵢⵏ.
"The second system has a single unique solution, namely the intersection of the two lines.",ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⵊⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏ.
Any two of these equations have a common solution.,ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ.
A system of equations whose left-hand sides are linearly independent is always consistent.,ⴰⵀⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ; ⴰⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉ.
This yields a system of equations with one fewer equation and one fewer unknown.,"ⴷⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵣⴷⵓⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ."
Type 3: Add to one row a scalar multiple of another.,ⴰⵏⴰⵡ 3: ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"For instance, systems with a symmetric positive definite matrix can be solved twice as fast with the Cholesky decomposition.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵍⵟ ⵏⵜⵛⵓⵍⵉⵙⴽⵉ."
"A completely different approach is often taken for very large systems, which would otherwise take too much time or memory.","ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ."
This leads to the class of iterative methods.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵍⵙⵏ.
"In mathematics, a series is, roughly speaking, a description of the operation of adding infinitely many quantities, one after the other, to a given starting quantity.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ; ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⵡⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ."
"In addition to their ubiquity in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as physics, computer science, statistics and finance.","ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ."
"Zeno's paradox of Achilles and the tortoise illustrates this counterintuitive property of infinite sums: Achilles runs after a tortoise, but when he reaches the position of the tortoise at the beginning of the race, the tortoise has reached a second position; when he reaches this second position, the tortoise is at a third position, and so on.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⵏⵓ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵅⵉⵍ ⴷ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⴰⵅⵉⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵎⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔ, ⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹ ⴽⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴷⴷⵓ."
"This argument does not prove that the sum is equal to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is at most 2.","ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ 2 (ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵣⵣⴳⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ 2."
"Tests for uniform convergence include the Weierstrass' M-test, Abel's uniform convergence test, Dini's test, and the Cauchy criterion.","ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ, ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ “ⵡⴰⵢⵔⵙⵜⵔⵉⵙ ⵎ Weierstrass' M-tes”, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ “ⴰⴱⵉⵍ Abel's” ⴷ “ ⴷⵉⵏⵉ Dini's” ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ “ⴽⵓⵛⵉ Cauchy ”."
"The convergence is uniform on closed and bounded (that is, compact) subsets of the interior of the disc of convergence: to wit, it is uniformly convergent on compact sets.","ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⵏ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⴰⵍⵢ ( ⵉⴳ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵣⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ: ⵉ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵔⵏ."
The Hilbert–Poincaré series is a formal power series used to study graded algebras.,ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ “ⵉⵍⴱⵉⵔ-ⴱⵡⴰⵏⴽⴰⵔⵉ Hilbert–Poincaré” ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵙⵉⴱⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⵓⵕ.
"In the 17th century, James Gregory worked in the new decimal system on infinite series and published several Maclaurin series.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17 ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ “ⴳⵉⵎⵙ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔⵉ James Gregory” ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ; ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ “ⵎⴰⴽⵍⵓⵔⵉⵏ Maclaurin”."
"Cauchy (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria.","ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷ “ⴽⵓⵛⵉ” (1821) ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴽⵣ ⵉⴳ ⵎⵎⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵥⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵏ."
A summability method is such an assignment of a limit to a subset of the set of divergent series which properly extends the classical notion of convergence.,"ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴽⵣ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵄⵔⴰⵇⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ."
Indian scholars have been using factorial formulas since at least the 12th century.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 12.
"In functional languages, the recursive definition is often implemented directly to illustrate recursive functions.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵏⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍ, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ."
Other implementations (such as computer software such as spreadsheet programs) can often handle larger values.,ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ) ⴰⵙⵎⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ.
"Compared to the Pickover definition of the superfactorial, the hyperfactorial grows relatively slowly.","ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⴼⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵉⵙⵖⵜ."
"There are, relatively speaking, no such simple solutions for factorials; no finite combination of sums, products, powers, exponential functions, or logarithms will suffice to express ; but it is possible to find a general formula for factorials using tools such as integrals and limits from calculus.","ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵙⵖⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵙ ⵏⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵓⴼ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴷ."
"The integrals we have discussed so far involve transcendental functions, but the gamma function also arises from integrals of purely algebraic functions.","ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵏⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ."
"By taking limits, certain rational products with infinitely many factors can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function as well.","ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"Its history, notably documented by Philip J. Davis in an article that won him the 1963 Chauvenet Prize, reflects many of the major developments within mathematics since the 18th century.","ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⵊ. ⴷⵉⴼⵉⵙ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵛⵓⴼⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵔⵉⵣ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ1963, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ 18."
"Instead of finding a specialized proof for each formula, it would be desirable to have a general method of identifying the gamma function.","ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔⴽ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"However, the gamma function does not appear to satisfy any simple differential equation.",ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵜ.
The Bohr–Mollerup theorem is useful because it is relatively easy to prove logarithmic convexity for any of the different formulas used to define the gamma function.,"ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⵀ-ⵎⵓⵍⵉⵔⵓ ⵜⵓⴱⵖⵉⵔⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⵔ ⵡⵓⴹⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⵉ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ."
"As electronic computers became available for the production of tables in the 1950s, several extensive tables for the complex gamma function were published to meet the demand, including a table accurate to 12 decimal places from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards.","ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ 1950, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵖⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ 12 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉ."
"In science, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical formula or a chemical formula.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ, ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵎⵉ."
"In mathematics, a formula generally refers to an identity which equates one mathematical expression to another, with the most important ones being mathematical theorems.","ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"This convention, while less important in a relatively simple formula, means that mathematicians can more quickly manipulate formulas which are larger and more complex.","ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⴱⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ."
"For example, H2O is the chemical formula for water, specifying that each molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, H2O ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ (H) ⴷ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ (O)."
"In empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound—as ratios to the key element.","ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵜⵜⵉⵢ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ."
"Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written as empirical formulas which contains only the whole numbers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵓⵔ ⵏⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵏⵓⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ."
"There are several types of these formulas, including molecular formulas and condensed formulas.",ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ.
Functions were originally the idealization of how a varying quantity depends on another quantity.,ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⵏⴽ ⵙⵏⵣⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.
"""This definition of """"graph"""" refers to a set of pairs of objects.""","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ “ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ” ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵔ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ."
"When the domain and the codomain are sets of real numbers, each such pair may be thought of as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the plane.","ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵔⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ."
"Occasionally, it may be identified with the function, but this hides the usual interpretation of a function as a process.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵢⴹ, ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⵢ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ."
"A map can have any set as its codomain, while, in some contexts, typically in older books, the codomain of a function is specifically the set of real or complex numbers.","ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵍⵏ, ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ; ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ."
Another common example is the error function.,ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ; ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ.
Power series can be used to define functions on the domain in which they converge.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ.
"Then, the power series can be used to enlarge the domain of the function.",ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
Parts of this may create a plot that represents (parts of) the function.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵟⵟⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ) ⵙ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ.
This is the canonical factorization of .,ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ.
"At that time, only real-valued functions of a real variable were considered, and all functions were assumed to be smooth.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ."
Functions are now used throughout all areas of mathematics.,ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"This is how inverse trigonometric functions are defined in terms of trigonometric functions, where the trigonometric functions are monotonic.","ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵔⵜⵓⵜ."
"Usefulness of the concept of multi-valued functions is clearer when considering complex functions, typically analytic functions.","ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴼⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙⵜ."
Such a function is called the principal value of the function.,ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.
Functional programming is the programming paradigm consisting of building programs by using only subroutines that behave like mathematical functions.,"ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"""Except for computer-language terminology, """"function"""" has the usual mathematical meaning in computer science.""",ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ.
"Terms are manipulated through some rules, (the -equivalence, the -reduction, and the -conversion), which are the axioms of the theory and may be interpreted as rules of computation.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ (ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ, ⴰⵣⵓⴳⵣ, ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ), ⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ."
"Nicolas Chuquet used a form of exponential notation in the 15th century, which was later used by Henricus Grammateus and Michael Stifel in the 16th century.","ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵚ ⵜⵛⵓⴽⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 15, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉⴽⵓⵙ ⴳⵔⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵎⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵙⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 16 ."
"Thus they would write polynomials, for example, as .","ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ."
"The result is always a positive real number, and the identities and properties shown above for integer exponents remain true with these definitions for real exponents.","ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
This function equals the usual th root for positive real radicands.,"ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⴰⵥⵓⵕ th”, ⴳ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⵕⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
This is the starting point of the mathematical theory of semigroups.,ⵜⴰⴷⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵏⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ.
"We can again replace the set N with a cardinal number n to get Vn, although without choosing a specific standard set with cardinality n, this is defined only up to isomorphism.","ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ N ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ n, ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⴷ ⵜⴽ Vn, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⵜⵉⵢ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ n ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵏ."
"Nicolas Bourbaki, Elements of Mathematics, Theory of Sets, Springer-Verlag, 2004, III.§3.5.","ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵚ ⴱⵓⵔⴱⴰⴽⵉ, ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⵊ-ⴼⵉⵔⵍⴰⴳ, 2004, III.§3.5."
"Iterating tetration leads to another operation, and so on, a concept named hyperoperation.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉ, ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ."
"In applied settings, exponential functions model a relationship in which a constant change in the independent variable gives the same proportional change (that is, percentage increase or decrease) in the dependent variable.","ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ, ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵙⵖⵏ ⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ; ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵖ ( ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ), ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕ."
This function property leads to exponential growth or exponential decay.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵢ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ.
"Similarly, the composition of onto (surjective) functions is always onto.","ⵙ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵙ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ( ⵜⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ."
"Then one can form chains of transformations composed together, such as .","ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ."
This alternative notation is called postfix notation.,ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⴼⵉⴽⵙ.
The category of sets with functions as morphisms is the prototypical category.,ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ.
"For example, the decibel (dB) is a unit used to express ratio as logarithms, mostly for signal power and amplitude (of which sound pressure is a common example).","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⵉⵙⵉⴱⵍ (ⴷⴱ), ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⴰⵜ, ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵜⵜⵓⵔ ( ⵉⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ)."
"They help to describe frequency ratios of musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers or approximating factorials, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting.","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵓⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⴻⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴽⴰⴹ."
"The next integer is 4, which is the number of digits of 1430.","ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ 4, ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵓⵏⵉⵏ 1430."
"Prior to Napier's invention, there had been other techniques of similar scopes, such as the prosthaphaeresis or the use of tables of progressions, extensively developed by Jost Bürgi around 1600.","ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵀⵢⵢⴰ “ⵏⴰⴱⵉⵔ”, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⵜⵉⵎⵍⵙⵉⵜ”, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴼⵓⵔⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵊⵓⵙⵜ ⴱⵓⵔⵊⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵓⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ1600."
"Speaking of a number as requiring so many figures is a rough allusion to common logarithm, and was referred to by Archimedes as the “order of a number”.","ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔ,ⵉⵎⴽ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵏⵄⵜ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ”."
Such methods are called prosthaphaeresis.,ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ; ⵜⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ.
"For example, each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵚⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵏⵓⵜⵉⵍⵓⵙ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵕⵚⵉⵜ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⴰⵏ."
Logarithms are also linked to self-similarity.,ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ.
"It is used to quantify the loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals, to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics, and the absorbance of light in the fields of spectrometry and optics.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵍ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵉⵏ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵍⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵡⴰⵍⴰⵏ."
Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3.,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵍⵅⵍⵍ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ 3 ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵉ.
"""This """"law"""", however, is less realistic than more recent models, such as Stevens's power law.)""","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏⵙ."
"When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal distribution.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵎⵅⴱⴱⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ."
"For such a model, the likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated.","ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ."
"Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves and sorting these first before merging the results.","ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴽⵛⵎ, ⵙ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴼⵉⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ."
Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system.,ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⵓⵏⵓⴼ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽ.
"The Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be covered by three copies of itself, each having sides half the original length.","ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵍ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⵢⵉⵔⴱⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ( ⴳ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ), ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ."
"Another example is the p-adic logarithm, the inverse function of the p-adic exponential.",ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ p-adic ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ p-adic.
"Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently, but the discrete logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups.","ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵖⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵎⴱⴹⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ."
Square roots of negative numbers can be discussed within the framework of complex numbers.,ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ.
"In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was at least as old as the Sulba Sutras, dated around 800–500 BC (possibly much earlier).",ⴳ ⵍⵀⵉⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵙⵓⵍⴱⴰ ⵙⵓⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 800 ⴰⵔ 500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ (ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ).
The letter jīm resembles the present square root shape.,ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ jīm ⵢⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ.
It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics.,ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⴰⵏⵜ.
Most pocket calculators have a square root key.,ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ.
The time complexity for computing a square root with n digits of precision is equivalent to that of multiplying two n-digit numbers.,"ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵏⴽⵙ ⴰⵣⵎⵣⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ n ⵙ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⴷ, ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⴽⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ n."
Hilbert's problems are twenty-three problems in mathematics published by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1900.,"ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⵔⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴷⵉⴼⵉⴷ ⵀⴰⵍⴱⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1900."
"For other problems, such as the 5th, experts have traditionally agreed on a single interpretation, and a solution to the accepted interpretation has been given, but closely related unsolved problems exist.","ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰⵖ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ."
There are two problems that are not only unresolved but may in fact be unresolvable by modern standards.,"ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ."
"The other twenty-one problems have all received significant attention, and late into the twentieth century work on these problems was still considered to be of the greatest importance.","ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴷⴼⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ."
"Hilbert lived for 12 years after Kurt Gödel published his theorem, but does not seem to have written any formal response to Gödel's work.","ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵀⴰⵍⴱⵔⵜ 12 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⵓⴷⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⵓⴷⵍ."
"In discussing his opinion that every mathematical problem should have a solution, Hilbert allows for the possibility that the solution could be a proof that the original problem is impossible.","ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ, ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ."
"The first of these was proved by Bernard Dwork; a completely different proof of the first two, via ℓ-adic cohomology, was given by Alexander Grothendieck.","ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵉⵔⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵓⵔⴽ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴳⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⴽ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵎⵢⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ℓ-adic."
"However, the Weil conjectures were, in their scope, more like a single Hilbert problem, and Weil never intended them as a programme for all mathematics.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍ; ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⵡⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ."
Erdős often offered monetary rewards; the size of the reward depended on the perceived difficulty of the problem.,"ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵔⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵛⵇⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ."
"At least in the mainstream media, the de facto 21st century analogue of Hilbert's problems is the list of seven Millennium Prize Problems chosen during 2000 by the Clay Mathematics Institute.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⴱⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 21, ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴽⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2000."
"The Riemann hypothesis is noteworthy for its appearance on the list of Hilbert problems, Smale's list, the list of Millennium Prize Problems, and even the Weil conjectures, in its geometric guise.","ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴹⵏⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⵜ."
"1931, 1936 3rd Given any two polyhedra of equal volume, is it always possible to cut the first into finitely many polyhedral pieces that can be reassembled to yield the second?","1931, 3 ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1936 ⵉⴳ ⵏⵓⵙⵢ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⵉⵙ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵏⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵏ ⵏⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵖ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ?"
— 12th Extend the Kronecker–Weber theorem on Abelian extensions of the rational numbers to any base number field.,__12 ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵡ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⴱⵔ ⵜⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.
1959 15th Rigorous foundation of Schubert's enumerative calculus.,15 ⴳ 1959 ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵊⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵛⵓⴱⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ.
1927 18th (a) Is there a polyhedron that admits only an anisohedral tiling in three dimensions?(b) What is the densest sphere packing?,18 ⴳ 1927 (ⴰ) ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴼⴰⴼ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ? (ⴱ) ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵥⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ?
"A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label.",ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴻⵙⵙⴰⵖ.
"""More universally, individual numbers can be represented by symbols, called numerals; for example, """"5"""" is a numeral that represents the number five.""","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ “5” ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ."
"Calculations with numbers are done with arithmetical operations, the most familiar being addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation.","ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ; ⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵓⴽⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ."
"Gilsdorf, Thomas E. Introduction to Cultural Mathematics: With Case Studies in the Otomies and Incas, John Wiley & Sons, Feb 24, 2012.Restivo, S. Mathematics in Society and History, Springer Science & Business Media, Nov 30, 1992.","ⴳⵉⵍⵙⴷⵓⵔⴼ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵢ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵓⵎⵢⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴽⴰⵙ, ⵊⵓⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵉⵢ & ⵙⵓⵏⵙ, 24 ⵉⴱⵔⵉⵔ 2012. ⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⴼⵓ , ⵙ. ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵙⴱⵔⴰⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⴰⵢⵙ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱ, 30 ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1992."
"During the 19th century, mathematicians began to develop many different abstractions which share certain properties of numbers, and may be seen as extending the concept.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵛⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ."
"A tallying system has no concept of place value (as in modern decimal notation), which limits its representation of large numbers.","ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ (ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ), ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵡⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ."
"Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta is the first book that mentions zero as a number, hence Brahmagupta is usually considered the first to formulate the concept of zero.","ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵟⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵎⴰⵙⴼⵓⵟⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵏⵟⴰ; ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵟⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰ."
"In a similar vein, Pāṇini (5th century BC) used the null (zero) operator in the Ashtadhyayi, an early example of an algebraic grammar for the Sanskrit language (also see Pingala).","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⴰ ⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴱⴰⵏⵉⵏⵉ ( ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 5 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ), ⴰⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⵢⴰ), ⴳ ⴰⵛⵜⴰⴷⴰⵢⴰⵢⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵏⵙⵉⴽⵔⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴱⵉⴳⴰⵍⴰ)."
"By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for 0 (a small circle with a long overbar) within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals.","ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 130 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴱⴰⵟⵍⵉⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵙ ⴱⵀⵉⴱⴰⵔⵅⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ 0 ( ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ), ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⵇⴹ ⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⴰⵢⵏ."
"Diophantus' previous reference was discussed more explicitly by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta in 628, who used negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today.","ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏⵜⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴰⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵎⴰⵙⴼⵓⵟⴰⵙⵉⴷⴰⵏⵟⴰ ⴳ 628, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ."
"At the same time, the Chinese were indicating negative numbers by drawing a diagonal stroke through the right-most non-zero digit of the corresponding positive number's numeral.","ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ."
"Classical Greek and Indian mathematicians made studies of the theory of rational numbers, as part of the general study of number theory.","ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ."
The concept of decimal fractions is closely linked with decimal place-value notation; the two seem to have developed in tandem.,"ⵉⵣⵍⵖ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵣⵍⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
"However, Pythagoras believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers.","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵍⵙ ⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵀⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
"By the 17th  century, mathematicians generally used decimal fractions with modern notation.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 17, ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ."
"In 1872, the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil E. Kossak), Eduard Heine, Georg Cantor, and Richard Dedekind was brought about.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1872 ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵡⵢⵢⵉⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ( ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵢ ⴽⵓⵙⴰⴽ), ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵕⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵉⴽⵉⵏⴷ."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of real numbers, separating all rational numbers into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴱⵓⵢⵜ (ⵙⵛⵏⵉⵜ) ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴽⵓⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ."
Hence it was necessary to consider the wider set of algebraic numbers (all solutions to polynomial equations).,ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵅⵣⵣⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ( ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ).
Aristotle defined the traditional Western notion of mathematical infinity.,ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⴱⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ.
"But the next major advance in the theory was made by Georg Cantor; in 1895 he published a book about his new set theory, introducing, among other things, transfinite numbers and formulating the continuum hypothesis.","ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ; ⴳ 1895 ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ."
"""A modern geometrical version of infinity is given by projective geometry, which introduces """"ideal points at infinity"""", one for each spatial direction.""","ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵓⵜⵜⵉⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ."
"The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in Wallis's De algebra tractatus.",ⵜⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ 1685 ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ “ⵡⴰⵍⵉⵙ” “ⵉⵙⴰⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ”.
"In 240 BC, Eratosthenes used the Sieve of Eratosthenes to quickly isolate prime numbers.","ⴳ 240 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏⵙ ⴰⵔⴽⴽⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⴱⵉⵜ."
"Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture, which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes.","ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴷⵉⴽⵙ ⵜⵓⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵄⵔⴰⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵍⴷⴱⴰⵛ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ."
"Traditionally, the sequence of natural numbers started with 1 (0 was not even considered a number for the Ancient Greeks.)","ⵙ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 1 (0 ⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ)."
"In this base 10 system, the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place value of 1, and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right.","ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ 10, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ 1, ⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ."
Negative numbers are usually written with a negative sign (a minus sign).,ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ( ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⵜⴰⵎⵜ).
Here the letter Z comes .,ⴷⴰⴷⵖ ⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍ ⵥ.
"Fractions can be greater than, less than, or equal to 1 and can also be positive, negative, or 0.","ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ; ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ 1, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ 0."
The following paragraph will focus primarily on positive real numbers.,ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ.
"Thus, for example, one half is 0.5, one fifth is 0.2, one-tenth is 0.1, and one fiftieth is 0.02.","ⵉⵎⴽⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ 0.5, ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ 0.2, ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ 0.1, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰ 0.02."
Not only these prominent examples but almost all real numbers are irrational and therefore have no repeating patterns and hence no corresponding decimal numeral.,"ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ, ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⵙⴰⵍ."
"Since not even the second digit after the decimal place is preserved, the following digits are not significant.","ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵖⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ."
"For example, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., all represent the natural number 1.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ 1."
"Finally, if all of the digits in a numeral are 0, the number is 0, and if all of the digits in a numeral are an unending string of 9's, you can drop the nines to the right of the decimal place, and add one to the string of 9s to the left of the decimal place.","ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ 0, ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏ ⴳ 9, ⵜⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⴳⵣⵣⴷ ⵜⵥⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴼⴼⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⵔⵏⵓⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ 9 ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ."
Thus the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers.,"ⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ; ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ,"
"The fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that the complex numbers form an algebraically closed field, meaning that every polynomial with complex coefficients has a root in the complex numbers.","ⵜⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵏ, ⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ."
"The primes have been widely studied for more than 2000 years and have led to many questions, only some of which have been answered.","ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 2000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ."
Real numbers that are not rational numbers are called irrational numbers.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ; ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ."
"The computable numbers are stable for all usual arithmetic operations, including the computation of the roots of a polynomial, and thus form a real closed field that contains the real algebraic numbers.","ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵟⵏ; ⵡⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵡⴰⵍⴼⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵖⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ."
One reason is that there is no algorithm for testing the equality of two computable numbers.,ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ.
"The number system that results depends on what base is used for the digits: any base is possible, but a prime number base provides the best mathematical properties.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ, ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ."
"The former gives the ordering of the set, while the latter gives its size.","ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ."
"This standard basis makes the complex numbers a Cartesian plane, called the complex plane.",ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ.
The complex numbers of absolute value one form the unit circle.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ."
"In domain coloring the output dimensions are represented by color and brightness, respectively.","ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵯⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⴰⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ."
"Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher.","ⵢⵓⵡ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ; ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ."
Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy but went largely unnoticed.,"ⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ “ⴽⵓⴱⵏⵀⴰⴳⵏ”, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ."
"Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others.","ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵔⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵉⴽⵉⵏⴷ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵜⵓ ⵀⵉⵍⴷⵔ,ⴷ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ ⴽⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⴱⵡⴰⵏⴽⵉⵔ, ⴷ ⵀⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵛⵡⴰⵔⵜⵣ, ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵍ ⵡⵉⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."
The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).,"ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⵀⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵓⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⵡ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⵍⵔ (1707-1783), ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵔⵉⵜⵛ ⴳⴰⵡⵙ (1777-1855)."
The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ; ⵜⴰⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ."
It is the prototype of all objects of such algebraic structure.,"ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⴱⵔⵉⵜ."
"Fixed length integer approximation data types (or subsets) are denoted int or Integer in several programming languages (such as Algol68, C, Java, Delphi, etc.).","ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⵉⵄⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ), ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ “ int “ ⵏⵖⴷ “Integer” ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ Algol68, ⴷ C, ⴷ Java,ⴷ Delphi, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ)."
"These are provable properties of rational numbers and positional number systems, and are not used as definitions in mathematics.","ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵡⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ."
"Since the triangle is isosceles, a = b).","ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵍⴰⵍⵏ, a = b)."
"Since c is even, dividing c by 2 yields an integer.","ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ c ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵜ ⵏ c ⵅⴼ 2; ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ."
Substituting 4y2 for c2 in the first equation (c2 = 2b2) gives us 4y2= 2b2.,"ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ 4y2 ⵖⵔ c2, ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ (c2 = 2b2), ⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ 4y2= 2b2."
"Since b2 is even, b must be even.","ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ b2 ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ b ⴰⵎⵙⵉⵏ."
However this contradicts the assumption that they have no common factors.,ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ.
"Hippasus, however, was not lauded for his efforts: according to one legend, he made his discovery while out at sea, and was subsequently thrown overboard by his fellow Pythagoreans “…for having produced an element in the universe which denied the…doctrine that all phenomena in the universe can be reduced to whole numbers and their ratios.”","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ , ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴱⴰⵙⵓⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵉⵢ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ, ⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍ, ⴳⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ,..., ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵢⴰ ⵓⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ... ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ."
"For example, consider a line segment: this segment can be split in half, that half split in half, the half of the half in half, and so on.","ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ: ⵉⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓ ⵖⵔ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵣⵏⴳ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉ."
This is just what Zeno sought to prove.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⵣⵉⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵔ.
"In the minds of the Greeks, disproving the validity of one view did not necessarily prove the validity of another, and therefore further investigation had to occur.","ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵖⵔⵉⵇ, ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ."
"A magnitude “...was not a number but stood for entities such as line segments, angles, areas, volumes, and time which could vary, as we would say, continuously.","ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ”...ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ: ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵎⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ."
"Because no quantitative values were assigned to magnitudes, Eudoxus was then able to account for both commensurable and incommensurable ratios by defining a ratio in terms of its magnitude, and proportion as an equality between two ratios.","ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⴽⵙⵓⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⴽⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ."
"This incommensurability is dealt with in Euclid's Elements, Book X, Proposition 9.","ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵍⵉⴷⵙ, ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵙⵓⵎⵔ 9."
"In fact, in many cases algebraic conceptions were reformulated into geometric terms.",ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ; ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵍⵙ ⵜⵉⵀⴽⵛⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⴱⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴳⴰⵏⴻⵏ.
The realization that some basic conception within the existing theory was at odds with reality necessitated a complete and thorough investigation of the axioms and assumptions that underlie that theory.,"ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⵣⵔⵔⵓ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ."
"""However, historian Carl Benjamin Boyer writes that """"such claims are not well substantiated and unlikely to be true"""".""","ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵏ ⵊⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴱⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵏ; “ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵔⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ”."
Mathematicians like Brahmagupta (in 628 AD) and Bhāskara I (in 629 AD) made contributions in this area as did other mathematicians who followed.,"ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵜⴰ (ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 628 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ), ⴷ ⴱⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⴰ (ⴳ 629 ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ), ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⴽ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ."
"The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil Ernst Kossak), Eduard Heine (Crelle's Journal, 74), Georg Cantor (Annalen, 5), and Richard Dedekind.","ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ 1872 ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵡⵉⵢⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ( ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵔⵏⵙⵜ ⴽⵓⵙⴰⴽ) ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵕⴷ ⵀⴰⵢⵏ ( ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵕⵉⵍ, 74), ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ (ⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵏ, 5), ⴷ ⵔⵉⵜⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⵉⴽⵉⵏⴷ."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of all rational numbers, separating them into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","ⵉⵙⴽⴰ ⵡⵉⵢⵔⵙⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵀⵉⵏ; ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵎⵉ, ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⴷⵉⴷⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴱⵓⵢ (ⵙⵉⵛⵏⵉⵜ), ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⴻⵏ, ⴰⵔⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵟⵟⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ."
"Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject.","ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷⵉⵍⵉⵛⵍⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ."
This asserts that every integer has a unique factorization into primes.,ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵉⴹ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ.
"To show this, suppose we divide integers n by m (where m is nonzero).",ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵏⴰⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ n ⵅⴼ ⵎ ( ⴰⵛⴽⵓ m ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵜ).
"If 0 never occurs, then the algorithm can run at most m − 1 steps without using any remainder more than once.","ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ 0, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ m - 1, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ."
"""In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting (as in """"there are six coins on the table"""") and ordering (as in """"this is the third largest city in the country"""").""","“ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ( ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ : ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ( ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ : ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵔⵎ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ).”"
These chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded (identified) in the other number systems.,"ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴼⴼⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ( ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ."
The first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers.,"ⴰⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵖⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ."