source_sentence,target_sentence
"Lillian Diana Gish (October 14, 1893 – February 27, 1993) was an American actress, director and screenwriter.","Lillian Diana Gish (14 Octobre 1893 – 27 février 1993) taqal temagit, ta tagat tidawen américaine."
"Gish was a prominent film star from 1912 into the 1920s, being particularly associated with the films of director D. W. Griffith.","Gish eqal emasehi dǎɣ cinéma wan 1912 dǎɣ elan wi 1920, əntadǎɣ ertay əd silmatan tən wa ətagan D. W. Griffith."
"She also did considerable television work from the early 1950s into the 1980s, and closed her career playing opposite Bette Davis in the 1987 film The Whales of August.","Əntadǎɣ təšal ajen ye silma tan santo ən wityan wi 1950 hawendǎɣ har əwityan wi 1980, əd tasmada əšəxil ənes dǎɣ igitan ən tasaga tan Bette Davis dǎɣ silma The Whales of Aust San 1987."
The first several generations of Gishes were Dunkard ministers.,Widarzanen ədinat ən Gish aqalan ənamokalan Dunkertan.
"Their mother opened the Majestic Candy Kitchen, and the girls helped sell popcorn and candy to patrons of the old Majestic Theater, located next door.","Matisan tora Majestic Candy Kitchen, əd taratenes əlilnatas səsəš ən pop-corn ən bobon ye mašanšan wi runen ən Majestic Theater, ilan dǎɣ dedes."
"The seventeen-year-old Lillian traveled to Shawnee, Oklahoma, where James's brother Alfred Grant Gish and his wife, Maude, lived.","Lillian, ilan maraw elan əd diyan, ika Shawnee, dǎɣ Oklahoma, diha didar amadray ən James, Alfred Grant Gish, əd hinis, Maude."
"Her father died in Norman, Oklahoma, in 1912, but she had returned to Ohio a few months before this.","Tis abati dǎɣ Norman, Oklahoma, dǎɣ 1912, maśan tərkan dǎɣ Ohio harat nuran darat awen."
"When Lillian and Dorothy were old enough they joined the theatre, often traveling separately in different productions.","Ugud wa Lillian əd Dorothy aqalan awašaran, əgašnat théâtre, tasakalnat agudiyan dǎɣ asabdanat əšixilan."
"Gish continued to perform on the stage, and in 1913, during a run of A Good Little Devil, she collapsed from anemia.","Gish okay dǎɣ igitan ən sinema, əd wən 1913, xurugud wa tidawt yur A Gool Little Devil, tabda dasahat ənes."
Her performance in these frigid conditions gave her lasting nerve damage in several fingers.,Asahat ənes dǎɣ alwaqan ən təsəmde əssigrawanti tilawen ahoganen ajotnen əhədidiyan.
"He utilized her expressive talents to the fullest, developing her into a suffering yet strong heroine.","Ətkal tamusnenen tan magrad əstizway, iget tamat tasohet təməkadat mašan təbdat."
"She directed her sister Dorothy in one film, Remodeling Her Husband (1920), when D. W. Griffith took his unit on location.","Tanihad ye walatmas Dorothy dǎɣ silma, Remodeling Her Husband (1920), ugud was D. W. Griffith ətiwid haratanes ye asəsətkil."
"She turned down the money, requesting a more modest wage and a percentage so that the studio could use the funds to increase the quality of her films — hiring the best actors, screenwriters, etc.","Tugay ye əzrif, sastan dalhak ogdahan əd tasiwit fal atudabat əšəxil ən telenes ye kanan ahuskatnen ən silmatanes – dǎɣ tikal iguskatnen imatkalan, scenariste."
"Many of the silent era's leading ladies, such as Gish and Pickford, had been wholesome and innocent, but by the early 1930s (after the full adoption of sound and before the Motion Picture Production Code was enforced) these roles were perceived as outdated.","Ədagan ajotnen wi alwaq asosaman, sund Gish əd Pickford, aqalnat ahoxadan əd warašed wala, mašan dǎɣ santo ən wityan wi 1930 (darat alamad dak taswilt əd datawen igi ən Motion Picture Production Code), əšəɣilan wəndǎɣ aqalnen a okayan."
"""Louis Mayer wanted to stage a scandal (""""knock her off her pedestal"""") to garner public sympathy for Gish, but Lillian didn't want to act both on screen and off, and returned to her first love, the theater.""","""Louis Mayer erha adagu scène ayšdan ( """"ahasag atigilen dǎɣ asiwid ənes), fal arəgin nəzəgraz ye aljamaxat ye Gish, mašan Lillian wədarha igi ən tiset əd fal dawitaha tiset, əd duxul ən wazaran tarha, sidawat."""
"Returning to movies, Gish was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1946 for Duel in the Sun.","Dǎɣ uxil ən sineman, Gish igraw uxul ən Oscar wa tan ofan harat dǎɣ əšəxil wa səsən ən 1946 ye Duel un the Sun."
"She was considered for various roles in Gone with the Wind ranging from Ellen O'Hara, Scarlett's mother (which went to Barbara O'Neil), to prostitute Belle Watling (which went to Ona Munson).","Taqal atiwasamxaran dǎɣ əšəxilan ajotnen ən Autant dǎɣ as tigraw əsuk, tifal Ellen O'Hara, mas ən Scarlett ( ta təkat Barbara O'Neil), takarwat Belle Watling (ta təkat Ona Munson)."
She appeared as Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna in the short-lived 1965 Broadway musical Anya.,"""Tasewad əšəxil wan"
She was interviewed in the television documentary series Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film (1980).,Taqal amitkalan dǎɣ magrad ən kataban ənilkamnen ən silma tan Hollywood : Aa Celebration of the American Silenyt silma (1980).
She has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1720 Vine Street.,Tila tatrət dǎɣ Hollywood Walk of Fame yur 1720 Vine Street.
"At the Cannes festival, Gish won a 10-minute standing ovation from the audience.","Yur sidawat tan Cannes, Gish igraw talkit təbdadat ən 10 minitan his igan aljamaɣat."
"""The episode """"Marry for Murder"""" was broadcast on September 9, 1943.""","""Taswilt """"Marry for Murder"""" a dǎɣ tizgar 9 septembre 1943."""
"She was awarded an Academy Honorary Award in 1971, and in 1984 she received an AFI Life Achievement Award.","Tigraw alhak nətiqal na Iniversite dǎɣ 1971, əd dǎɣ 1984, tigraw AFI Life Achievement Award."
The University awarded Gish the honorary degree of Doctor of Performing Arts the next day.,Iniversite ifa Gish alkad nətiqal wa nənəmxar ən haratan ən tidawen ešalwen.
"Following Gish's 1993 death, the University raised funds to enlarge its gallery to display memorabilia received from Gish's estate.","Darat tamatant tan Gish dǎɣ 1993, université asdaw azrif fal asimxiran edag ənes fal azizgriran əsəmiktanes wigrawan darat Gish."
"The association between herself and D. W. Griffith was so close that some suspected a romantic connection, an issue never acknowledged by Gish, although several of their associates were certain they were at least briefly involved.","Tanmitaft ənes əd D. W. Griffith taqal aoxadan wadǎɣ fal əyad axelan ile harat ən tarha, awa Gish iskala wartinhey, ahuskat as ajen dǎɣ midawanes ardan as aqalan adarhertay agudiyan."
"In the 1920s, Gish's association with Duell became something of a tabloid scandal when he sued her and made the details of their relationship public.","Dǎɣ wityan wi 1920, tanmitaft tan Gish əd Duell eqal sund banan ye andiran ugud wa has tikam dǎɣ iširixa əd tiga aljamaxat dǎɣ təbədawt ən garesan."
George Jean Nathan praised Gish's acting glowingly—comparing her to Eleonora Duse.,"George Jean Nathan iga timal nadal wan Gish, tatolahat— ən Eleonora Duse."
"During the period of political turmoil in the US that lasted from the outbreak of World War II in Europe until the attack on Pearl Harbor, she maintained an outspoken non-interventionist stance.","Dǎɣ alwaq tirimax ən tinawiyen dǎɣ États-Unies təgat tahagit tan santo ən Seconde Guerre Mondiale dǎɣ Europe hawendǎɣ har agad ən Pearl Harbor, ətaf əmək wənan ətigiš ayabatan."
"Joseph Frank Keaton (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966), known professionally as Buster Keaton, was an American actor, comedian, film director, producer, screenwriter, and stunt performer.","Joseph Frank Keaton(4 Octobre 1895 - 1er Fevrier 1966), ətiwazayan səsəm wa Buster Keaton, eqal emag, awsəta , wa dakalan, wa ətagan, wa əsimsidiwan əd wa əšazaz ən américain."
His career declined when he signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and lost his artistic independence.,Azal ənes wa əxirambayan ugud wa erda ye Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer əd təgmati tanhat ənes tan amanzar.
"Many of Keaton's films from the 1920s remain highly regarded, such as Sherlock Jr. (1924), The General (1926), and The Cameraman (1928).","Dǎɣ silmatan ajotnen ən Keaton ilanat elan wi 1920 aqalnen ayknan, sund Sherlock Jr (1924), The General (1926) ən The Cameraman (1928)."
"""His father was Joseph Hallie """"Joe"""" Keaton, who owned a traveling show with Harry Houdini called the Mohawk Indian Medicine Company, or the Keaton Houdini Medicine Show Company, which performed on stage and sold patent medicine on the side.""","""Tis ənes ənta as Joseph """"Joe"""". Leaton, ilasidawat tilat tabarat dədr Harry Houdini, axrati əs Mohawk Indiana Medicine Company, yur Keaton Houdini Medicine Show Company, tət tagat fal batma əd dašənš ən təmaxwanen aqiymanen dǎɣ dedes."""
"In Keaton's retelling, he was six months old when the incident occurred, and Harry Houdini gave him the nickname.","Dǎɣ tənfas tən Keaton, ila sadis uran ugud wa dawafal wiriga iga əd seqal Harry Houdini a təfan anamadǎɣ en."
The act was mainly a comedy sketch.,Numero eqal əntaxas sketch əsistan.
A suitcase handle was sewn into Keaton's clothing to aid with the constant tossing.,Tamsudut ən suduqan tazmay dǎɣ karšayan wi Keaton fal ahis ilal ya təqəl ugudǎɣ adiwen.
"However, Buster was always able to show the authorities that he had no bruises or broken bones.","Əgudendǎɣ, Buster eqal harwa adoben ya disaknu ye nəmxaran as warila wala baršex exas erzan."
Several times I'd have been killed if I hadn't been able to land like a cat.,"Ihadagan ajotnen, išwar atwaga afal waraqelan ere adoben asris wa mos."
"Noticing that this caused the audience to laugh less, he adopted his famous deadpan expression when performing.","Ənhayan as awen as andiran aysasta dǎɣ ədinat, ilmadan magrad wa asohen wənan atwarda yur səknitan."
"Despite tangles with the law and a disastrous tour of music halls in the United Kingdom, Keaton was a rising star in the theater.","Awendǎɣ dak dǎɣ ašuhušil ən wa əsasagdahan əd disisitkil asuzsadan dǎɣ music-halls tan Royaume-Uni, Keaton eqal amilalaw dǎɣ tišukukinen."
"""In February 1917, he met Roscoe """"Fatty"""" Arbuckle at the Talmadge Studios in New York City, where Arbuckle was under contract to Joseph M. Schenck.""","""Dǎɣ février 1917, amuqas ən Roscoe """"Fatty"""" Arbuckle dǎɣ dagan wi nəsisilkil ən Talmadge dǎɣ New York, diha Arbuckle eqal atilan fal əmətkal dədr Joseph M. Schenck."""
"Buster was such a natural in his first film, The Butcher Boy, he was hired on the spot.","Buster eqal inta xas dǎɣ tazaran silma ənes, The Butcher Boy, wa erdan agudendǎɣ."
Keaton later claimed that he was soon Arbuckle's second director and his entire gag department.,Keaton iləxat as ugudiyan a dekal šikšik wa səsən ən wa itagan Arbuckle əd fuk wi tohaznen.
"It was based on a successful play, The New Henrietta, which had already been filmed once, under the title The Lamb, with Douglas Fairbanks playing the lead.","Əbdahin dadag iha agaraw, The New Henrietta, is kala ət timilkal ugud iyadǎɣ, fal salan ən ThLamb, dəd Douglas Fairbanks dǎɣ əšəxil wa azaran."
"He made a series of two-reel comedies, including One Week (1920), The Playhouse (1921), Cops (1922), and The Electric House (1922).","Iga anəlkaman dǎɣ səsta wi əsən bobitan, ye One Week (1920), The Playhouse (1921), Cops (1922) əd The Electric House (1922)."
"""Comedy director Leo McCarey, recalling the freewheeling days of making slapstick comedies, said, """"All of us tried to steal each other's gagmen.""","""Emag ən səsta Leo McCarey, əsamakten ehanin ugud itagu səsta tan awa ətawanen dǎɣ zabo nalxer, ələxat : ""nətirim daknanax afaru təfusen ti wəyadnen."""
"During the railroad water-tank scene in Sherlock Jr., Keaton broke his neck when a torrent of water fell on him from a water tower, but he did not realize it until years afterward.","Ugud wa harat wa nəsitwan dǎɣ edag wa naman wi tabarat tan tazoli dǎɣ Sherlock Jr, Keaton erza erines ugud wa falas daftazen aman uda falas daw château naman, mašan ilmad as darat wityan əyad."
"Keaton's character emerged unscathed, due to a single open window.","Awadim wa Keaton izgar as war əšed harat, fal təsəba niyada tasankarot tamerat."
"Aside from Steamboat Bill, Jr. (1928), Keaton's most enduring feature-length films include Our Hospitality (1923), The Navigator (1924), Sherlock Jr. (1924), Seven Chances (1925), The Cameraman (1928), and The General (1926).","Iga Steamboat Bill, Jr Navigator (1928), təzəgrit nanakaš wa ogaran tahagit ye Keaton isla Our Hospitality (1923), The Navigator (1924), Sherlock Jr. (1924), Seven Chances (1925), The Cameraman (1928) əd The General ( 1926)."
"Though it would come to be regarded as Keaton's greatest achievement, the film received mixed reviews at the time.","Falas atiwaga as wa ogaran agaraw ən Keaton, silma igraw tizmit təknat bahanin."
"His distributor, United Artists, insisted on a production manager who monitored expenses and interfered with certain story elements.","Amazan ənes, United Artists, ashašal as anamokal igitan aragu ənəyat ye azruf wazagaran əd arəgiš haratan iyad ən tinfas."
The actors would phonetically memorize the foreign-language scripts a few lines at a time and shoot immediately after.,"Əmagan atafan dax kətban ən škelan dax magrad nadag iyan, tisirad tiyad agudiyan, əd timliliynat darat awen."
"The director was usually Jules White, whose emphasis on slapstick and farce made most of these films resemble White's famous Three Stooges shorts.","Wa ədakalan eqal əntadax Jules White, was əsəkelan nes igašan asəmutiy əd tabatolt taqalat olahan diyad dax silmatan wi asohatnen alwaq wa naket ən Trois Stooges wan White."
"However, director White's insistence on blunt, violent gags resulted in the Columbia shorts being the least inventive comedies he made.","Alwaq wendax, asuhušil ən wa idakalan White fal təfusen asohatnen əd asuxsadnen iganen əs sakotan wən Columbia aqalan əsista wi əndiratnen dax igi wa ətkal."
"He made his last starring feature El Moderno Barba Azul (1946) in Mexico; the film was a low-budget production, and it may not have been seen in the United States until its release on VHS in the 1980s, under the title Boom in the Moon.","Asmalalay wa əlkaman ənes šigren akotan El Moderno Barda Azul ( 1946) dax Mexique ; silma taqal atawagen sadiran dax azrif, əd adobat as warosa États-Unis dat azagar ənes wa VHS dax wityan wi 1980, fal salan ən Boom on the Moon."
"In In the Good Old Summertime, Keaton personally directed the stars Judy Garland and Van Johnson in their first scene together, where they bump into each other on the street.","Dǎɣ In the Good Old Summertime, Keaton intadǎɣ ilway imusuha wən Judy Garland əd Van Johnson dǎɣ tatazarat tidawt artayan, yur amuqasan dǎɣ amazax."
"Reaction was strong enough for a local Los Angeles station to offer Keaton his own show, also broadcast live, in 1950.","Tamotayt taqal agdahan asuhu fal as asibdid ən hinan wi Los Angeles ifa Keaton adinatines emanes, wadǎɣ ədizgaran dǎɣ asitawanhay, dǎɣ 1950."
Buster Keaton's wife Eleanor also was seen in the series (notably as Juliet to Buster's Romeo in a little-theater vignette).,"Tamat tan Buster Keaton, Eleanor, intadǎɣ tozgarid dǎɣ awa dilkaman (dǎɣ awen dǎɣ əšəxil wan Juliette tan Roméo ən Buster dǎɣ samando ən tatiket sidawat)."
Keaton's periodic television appearances during the 1950s and 1960s helped to revive interest in his silent films.,Izagaran ən handagan wi Keaton dǎɣ silma dǎɣ wityan wi 1950 əd 1960 asewadan asudr ən tanfo ye silmatan tə asosamnen.
"Well into his fifties, Keaton successfully recreated his old routines, including one stunt in which he propped one foot onto a table, then swung the second foot up next to it and held the awkward position in midair for a moment before crashing to the stage floor.","Sumosant təmurwen okayan, Keaton asnalas igi dədr asisakna wi runen ilmad, intadǎɣ herkišixil wa dǎɣ itidid idaran fal tasaqaymut, izar isiwliwil wa səsən adidr dedes əd amara əmik əmsadan dǎɣ afala had harat ən tahagit izar aderza dǎɣ akal wan tidawt."
"""Keaton had prints of the features Three Ages, Sherlock Jr., Steamboat Bill, Jr., and College (missing one reel), and the shorts """"The Boat"""" and """"My Wife's Relations"""", which Keaton and Rohauer then transferred to Cellulose acetate film from deteriorating nitrate film stock.""","""Keaton ila fototan ən wi zagrotnen akotan Three Ages, Sherlock Jr, Steamboat Bill Jr əd College (aqaymin bobine), əd wa gizilan akot """"The Boat"""" əd """"My Wife's Relations"""", was Keaton əd Rohauer ila darat asawayen fal əndiran elam ən acétate wan cellulose fal əndiran elam ən nitrate ihan tabarat na dašid."
"In a series of silent television commercials for Simon Pure Beer made in 1962 by Jim Mohr in Buffalo, New York, Keaton revisited some of the gags from his silent film days.","Dǎɣ asəsətkil anilkaman ən soknitan amitkalnen asosaman wən asmid wa Simon Pure, igan dǎɣ 1962 as Jim Mohr dǎɣ Buffalo, dǎɣ Etat wan New York, Keaton olas tasawt nəyad imidawanes tagayt wi cinéma asosaman."
"""In December 1958, Keaton was a guest star in the episode """"A Very Merry Christmas"""" of The Donna Reed Show on ABC.""","""Dǎɣ décembre 1958, Keaton eqal guest star dǎɣ taswil ""A Very Merry Christmas"""" wan Donna Reed Show fal ABC."""
"In 1960, he returned to MGM for the final time, playing a lion tamer in a 1960 adaptation of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.","Dǎɣ 1960, eqal ye handag wa samando yur MGM, nadal ən namasadergin ən wixsan dǎɣ alamad wa 1960 ən Aventures wan Huckleberry Finn wan Mark Twain."
"""He worked with comedian Ernie Kovacs on a television pilot tentatively titled """"Medicine Man,"""" shooting scenes for it on January 12, 1962—the day before Kovacs died in a car crash. """"""","""Əšəxal dər nafešax wan Ernie Kovacs fal pilote ye silma tigat dǎɣ asigid sitawana ""Medicine Man"", fal erkan tidawen dǎɣ 12 janvier 1962, dat tamatant ən Kovacs dǎɣ tanaxla ən turaft."""""""
"He traveled from one end of Canada to the other on a motorized handcar, wearing his traditional pork pie hat and performing gags similar to those in films that he made 50 years before.","""Asekal sa fay safay"
"Also in 1965, he traveled to Italy to play a role in Due Marines e un Generale, co-starring Franco Franchi and Ciccio Ingrassia.","Harwa dǎɣ 1965, ika Italie fal aragu əšəxil dǎɣ Due Marines izar Generale, dər Franco Franchi əd Ciccio Ingrassia."
"One of his most biting parodies is The Frozen North (1922), a satirical take on William S. Hart's Western melodramas, like Hell's Hinges (1916) and The Narrow Trail (1917).","Harat dǎɣ sugburanes wa ogaran asuhu eqal The Frozen North ( 1922), əsalan nasugbur wən haratan ən westerns tan William S. Hart, sund Hell's Hinges (1916) əd The Narrow Trail ( 1917)."
Audiences of the 1920s recognized the parody and thought the film hysterically funny.,Ədənat wi wityan wi 1920 izayan tisine əd dagaraw ən silma nawinan ikna asistan.
The short also featured the impression of a performing monkey which was likely derived from a co-biller's act (called Peter the Great).,"Wagizilan edan əsakna intadǎɣ asugbubr ən lao namusan, anihagan adigmad numero wan co-biller ( axrati səs Peter the Great)."
"""Note: Source misspells Keaton's frequent appellation as """"Great Stoneface"""".""","""Saqaym : ašašil war ikna akatab texare ta tətilat ən Keaton, salamad """"Great Stoneface""""."
Keaton dated actress Dorothy Sebastian beginning in the 1920s and Kathleen Key in the early 1930s.,Keaton exra tamagit Dorothy Sebastian dǎɣ wityan wi 1920 əd Kathleen Key yur santo nelan wi 1930.
He escaped a straitjacket with tricks learned from Harry Houdini.,Əgmadid dǎɣ temalsit nasahat dǎɣ muduxulan ilmad yur Harry Houdini.
"She filed for divorce in 1935 after finding Keaton with Leah Clampitt Sewell, the wife of millionaire Barton Sewell, in a hotel in Santa Barbara.","Təsistan dimiziy dǎɣ 1935 darat agaraw ən Keaton dər Leah Clampitt Sewel, tamat tan anasbagor Barton Sewell, dǎɣ hôtel tan Santa Barbara."
He stopped drinking for five years.,Oya tesase awadan səmos elan.
The marriage lasted until his death.,Aduban ahoga hawendǎɣ har ibanes.
"Confined to a hospital during his final days, Keaton was restless and paced the room endlessly, desiring to return home.","Atiwasaxlam dǎɣ lactor dǎɣ hadan wilkamnen, Keaton eqal adiwen əd dazal winan itumudu dǎɣ ehan, igrazas ariqil xuris."
"The screenplay, by Sidney Sheldon, who also directed the film, was loosely based on Keaton's life but contained many factual errors and merged his three wives into one character.","Tidawt, əktab Sdney Sheldon, wa igan intadǎɣ silma, eqal ahuruwan ihan tamudre tan Keaton mašan itirim ajen dǎɣ awenen ikna əmik əd isirtay dedenes caradat dǎɣ awadəm iyadǎɣ."
"Dedicated to bringing greater public attention to Keaton's life and work, the membership includes many individuals from the television and film industry: actors, producers, authors, artists, graphic novelists, musicians, and designers, as well as those who simply admire the magic of Buster Keaton.","Tanminak, harnan adikis ənəyat nədinat fal təmudre əd əlkitab wan Keaton, adin dǎɣ mahazan ənes ajotnen dədinat ajotnen dədinat əd dizgarnen ehan wan cinéma əd silmatan : əmagan, witaganen, wihanene, imazaran, winšikelan, imazaran əd witakasnen, dəd dinat wi arhanen xas asuxsid wan Buster Keaton."
"""Hirschfeld said that modern film stars were more difficult to depict, that silent film comedians such as Laurel and Hardy and Keaton """"looked like their caricatures"""".""","""Hirschfeld ələxat as ənimxaran ən cinéma wa dišrayan aqalan a ogaran asuhu na mukis nini, wis ənufušax ən cinéma asosaman sund Laurel əd Hardy əd Keaton """"alahnen ən təmtar nasan""""."
"""Film critic Roger Ebert stated, """"The greatest of the silent clowns is Buster Keaton, not only because of what he did, but because of how he did it.""","""Tizmiten ən cinéma Roger Ebert ələxat : ""wa ogaran clown dǎɣ cinéma wa asosaman eqal Buster Keaton, dǎɣ awen ye awa iga, mašan dǎɣ ye əmik was tiga ""."
"""Filmmaker Mel Brooks has credited Buster Keaton as a major influence, saying: """"I owe (Buster) a lot on two levels: One for being such a great teacher for me as a filmmaker myself, and the other just as a human being watching this gifted person doing these amazing things.""","""Aw cinéma Mel Brooks inhay adagal wa maqaran ən Buster Keaton, ina : """"Arhex ajen ye (Buster)dǎɣ əsin hadagan : agudiyan, far atigriwad uxil ən namaxar makaran ye hahi dǎɣ aseqal cinéaste, əd darat awen, ariqisan dǎɣ aguduniya ikyadan awadim isanan itag haratanes asirmaxnen."""
Actor and stunt performer Johnny Knoxville cites Keaton as an inspiration when coming up with ideas for Jackass projects.,Emag əd damaxšad Johnny Knoxville ina Keaton sund ašašil nufas wa dǎɣ igaraw ənəyat ye dawlatan tin Jackass.
Lewis was particularly moved by the fact that Eleanor said his eyes looked like Keaton's.,Lewis eqal intadǎɣ azinuzguman fal igi ən Eleanor wa inan titawenes olahnat ət tən Keaton.
"""In 1964, he told an interviewer that in making """"this particular pork pie"""", he """"started with a good Stetson and cut it down"""", stiffening the brim with sugar water.""","""Dǎɣ 1964, ilixat dǎɣ salan as igi ""naminsi nə xurxurru ibdan"", ənta ""əsinta dihusken Stetson əd izar ifnazti"", oxad efay əs saman iha asukar."""
His paternal great-grandparents were Welsh.,Imarawan nes wi hin ilanen ibret ən tis aqalan Galltan.
Lloyd began collaborating with Roach who had formed his own studio in 1913.,Lloyd əsinta asirtay əd Roach wa igan imanes studio dǎɣ 1913.
"In 1919, she left Lloyd to pursue her dramatic aspirations.","Dǎɣ 1919, təfal Lloyd fal atilkim ye tarhanes nafušax."
"Reportedly, the more Lloyd watched Davis the more he liked her.","Atwana afal Lloyd ikyad Davis, a tat ətimil."
"Harold Lloyd would move away from tragicomic personas, and portray an everyman with unwavering confidence and optimism.",Harold Lloyd ənkašin fal idinat wi nufušax əd izar iga tətimal nahalis imdan dər afalasat əd amanhay wən itiwidis.
"""To create his new character Lloyd donned a pair of lensless horn-rimmed glasses but wore normal clothing; previously, he had worn a fake mustache and ill-fitting clothes as the Chaplinesque """"Lonesome Luke"""". """"""","""Fal arisumutiy imanes, Lloyd asiwar timanhayen sund iskawan winan ila lentille, mašan ilasu karšayan oxadnen ; datawen, iga izamzam ən bahu əd kalšayan išlaynen ən sund Chaplinesque """"Lonesome Luke"""". """""""
"""They were natural and the romance could be believable.""""""","""Eqal inta xas əd timal ən tarha eqalan morda."""""""
"On Sunday, August 24, 1919, while posing for some promotional still photographs in the Los Angeles Witzel Photography Studio, he picked up what he thought was a prop bomb and lit it with a cigarette.","Achal wan alxad 24 Aout 1919 iqal a idkalan fal salan win touzanen in fototan fal salan win assihraw natwissin dax adag wa dax tit wigin suhax id taliwen(fototan) Witzel wan Los Angeles,ikkal awa sorda as addobat ad iqil ilalan in tasilfaq tizar issirxet saben."
"Lloyd was in the act of lighting a cigarette from the fuse of the bomb when it exploded, also badly burning his face and chest and injuring his eye.",LIoyd amos a ishla assirx naben is tanalle in tasilfaq endax as tibbuqat ti tiknat assirx hullen dax idim d’idmaran ihiag dax tit nes
"Lloyd and Roach parted ways in 1924, and Lloyd became the independent producer of his own films.","Lloyd id Roach ibdan ɣur 1924, ɣas LIoyd amos emašaxal in man nes nimmik wa dǎɣ nadakal in taliwen niddinat id haratan samatikway nasan ines fal man nes."
"All of these films were enormously successful and profitable, and Lloyd would eventually become the highest paid film performer of the 1920s.","Filmtan win fuk ikrašan ugreh ditwarh sirsan dorawan tiwat ad kanan dex ašugiš n azrif, LIoyd iqal har wa emašagal wa ojaran timzal in wityan win 1920."
"However, his go-getting screen character was out of touch with Great Depression movie audiences of the 1930s.",Xur alwaq wad išuhišul imikan nes dǎɣ tisset war oher id majayhan in filimtan nibiytil nes ɣur wityan win 1930.
"On March 23, 1937, Lloyd sold the land of his studio, Harold Lloyd Motion Picture Company, to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.","Xur 23 mars 1937, LIoyd išinšin edag nes wan dǎɣ itag filimtan id suhax, xas Harold LIoyd Motion picture company ,ye L’Eglise tan jesu-šrist saints in šilan wi išraynen."
"He returned for an additional starring appearance in The Sin of Harold Diddlebock, an ill-fated homage to Lloyd's career, directed by Preston Sturges and financed by Howard Hughes.","Iqalid yad aj afukir išrayan dǎɣ The Sin of Harold Diddlebock, ikfa ugreh uɣšad en tamašaxalt in LIoyd, id isnamanak Preston Sturges idhal Howard Hughes."
"""Lloyd and Sturges had different conceptions of the material and fought frequently during the shoot; Lloyd was particularly concerned that while Sturges had spent three to four months on the script of the first third of the film, """"the last two-thirds of it he wrote in a week or less"""".""","""Lloyd əd Sturges əlan inuzguman abdanen yur lalan əd tamadašan harkuk dǎɣ asikil nasan ; Lloyd eqal intadǎɣ ayšlalan fal awas Sturges okay karad har əkoz uran dǎɣ script wazaran ən tazune ən silma """"winisin əlkamnen dǎɣ karad aqalan ayktaban dǎɣ əsa hadan mex ayur""""."
"Some saw The Old Gold Comedy Theater as being a lighter version of Lux Radio Theater, and it featured some of the best-known film and radio personalities of the day, including Fred Allen, June Allyson, Lucille Ball, Ralph Bellamy, Linda Darnell, Susan Hayward, Herbert Marshall, Dick Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Jane Wyman, and Alan Young.","Iyad asitaqalan Old Gold Comedy Theater sund tawalt taynayat fasusat dǎɣ Lux Radion Theater, əd hin itiwagaz harat dǎɣ adinat wi atiwazeynen dǎɣ cinéma əd tan salan nuru, windǎɣ Fred Allen, June Allyson, Lucille Ball, Ralph Bellamy, Linda Darnell Susan Hayward, Herbert Maršall, Dick Powell, Edward G. Robinson, Jane Wyman, əd Alan Young."
"Many years later, acetate discs of 29 of the shows were discovered in Lloyd's home, and they now circulate among old-time radio collectors.","Ahuskat dǎɣ elan darat awa, dǎɣ disque acétate wi 29 ən tidawenes atwnanhayan yur ehan wa Lloyd, əd orgašan amara gar masadawan ən tən salan arunen"
"He was a Past Potentate of Al-Malaikah Shrine in Los Angeles, and was eventually selected as Imperial Potentate of the Shriners of North America for the year 1949–50.","Waruwan anamokal atiwadgalan Al-Malaikah wan Los Angeles, atwakas sund anamokal ən taxrimt tan Šriners na Amérique tan emaynag dǎɣ awatay wan 1949-50."
"Lloyd was invested with the Rank and Decoration of Knight Commander Court of Honour in 1955 and coroneted an Inspector General Honorary, 33°, in 1965.","Lloyd atwaga dǎɣ tamxar əd dasišhax wan Kalugwan Ənmusuha Naxala wan tahanint dǎɣ 1955 əd tanumukla Inspecteur oharan ədinat dǎɣ təmal, 33⁰, dǎɣ 1965."
"It said, as first step, Lloyd will write the story of his life for Simon and Schuster.","Ələxatasan as, dǎɣ wazarat alwaq, Lloyd adəktib tanfust tan tamudre nes ye Simon and Schuster."
"He became known for his nude photographs of models, such as Bettie Page and stripper Dixie Evans, for a number of men's magazines.","Atwazay əs fatotanes nəmukan war ilsa, sund Bettie Page əd strip-teaseuse Dixie Evans, ye ajotnen magazatan ən medin."
"""We never intended them to be played with pianos.""""""","""Kala win nəkreš anuzgu na nidil əs pianos."""""
"""They've come close to it, but they haven't come all the way up"""".""","""Ohazanin, mašan wariglen hawendǎɣ har samando """"."
"In the early 1960s, Lloyd produced two compilation films, featuring scenes from his old comedies, Harold Lloyd's World of Comedy and The Funny Side of Life.","Dǎɣ santo nelan wi 1960, Lloyd ifa sanatat silmatan artaynen,saknanen tidawen ən sista arunen, Harold Lloyd's World of Comedy əd The Funny Side of Life."
"Time-Life released several of the feature films more or less intact, also using some of Scharf's scores which had been commissioned by Lloyd.","Time-Life əzizgar ajen dǎɣ wizagrotnen nedan win nan itiwidis, dǎɣ asikalan ogdahan haratan dǎɣ tidawt tan Scharf was kala his inihad Lloyd."
"The Brownlow and Gill documentary was shown as part of the PBS series American Masters, and created a renewed interest in Lloyd's work in the United States, but the films were largely unavailable.","Əkitban win Brownlow əd Gill izgaranid dǎɣ amas ən série tan American Masters wan PBS, əd asint nasumusuxil nagrawan ye əlkitab wan Lloyd dǎɣ États-Unis, mašan silmatan aqiymanat das huruw ən witilenat."
"""They also adopted Gloria Freeman (1924–1986) in September 1930, whom they renamed Marjorie Elizabeth Lloyd but was known as """"Peggy"""" for most of her life.""","""Əlan as ogdahan ilmadan Gloria Freeman (1924-1986) dǎɣ septembre 1930, ad has igan isim Marjorie Elizabeth Lloyd mašan as titiwazay isim wan """"Peggy"""" dǎɣ tahagit ta maqarat ən timudrenes""."
"Davis died from a heart attack in 1969, two years before Lloyd's death.","Davis abati əs tabade nulh dǎɣ 1969, isin wityan dat tamatant ən Lloyd."
"In 1925, at the height of his movie career, Lloyd entered into Freemasonry at the Alexander Hamilton Lodge No.","Gor 1925,gore dag wan saməndo ən achagal wan silma,Lloyd gar gor Alexander Hamilton Lodge No."
"In 1926, he became a 32° Scottish Rite Mason in the Valley of Los Angeles, California.","Gor 1926, eqal eməseqan wan 32° ən adabara wan Ecosse dag tebagawt tan Los Angeles, gor Californie."
A portion of Lloyd's personal inventory of his silent films (then estimated to be worth $2 million) was destroyed in August 1943 when his film vault caught fire.,Achrut ən assedən wan silma mazugnen win Lloyd ( as assuhu ness ibdad gor 2 milliontan ən dollars) ekchad gor août 1943 as ehan wa maqaran ən silma erxa.
The fire spared the main house and outbuildings.,Teraxe toyahin ehan wan azaran ad yaratan wi tihanen.
Lloyd was honored in 1960 for his contribution to motion pictures with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 1503 Vine Street.,Lloyd atwa səmxar gor 1960 ye talilt iness gor silma ad etar fal Hollywood Walk of Fame ilang or 1503 Vine Street.
"The second citation was a snub to Chaplin, who at that point had fallen foul of McCarthyism and had his entry visa to the United States revoked.","Tənna tas sanatat taqal ayfaran ye Chaplin, ənta, alwaq wendag,ad eqal tedagart ən maswan izar atwan hay iramass visa ness gor uguich ən Etats-Unis."
"Gladys Marie Smith (April 8, 1892 – May 29, 1979), known professionally as Mary Pickford, was a Canadian-American film actress and producer with a career that spanned five decades.","Gladys Marie Smith ( 8 avril 1892-29 mai 1979), tatiwazay temachagalt fal issəm wan Mary Pckford,taqal temasestit ad temaguit an silma tan canado-americaine əs tahaguit təzag fal səmosat təmərwen nawatay."
"Her father, John Charles Smith was the son of English Methodist immigrants, and worked a variety of odd jobs.","Tiss, John Charles Smith,eqal ruress ən amasakul ən anglais,itagan achəgalan madroynen."
"To please her husband's relatives, Pickford's mother baptized her children as Methodists, the religion of their father.","Ye ugraz ən marawan ən ahaləss ness, mass ən Pickford təkfa aratan ness issəm sund imusanan,tənəslila tan tissan."
"Gladys, her mother and two younger siblings toured the United States by rail, performing in third-rate companies and plays.","Gladys, mass ad aytmas ad chatmas wi madroynen takan Etats-Unis dag zirgui,tadalan dag tədawen ad adag was qarad dag alkum."
"Gladys finally landed a supporting role in a 1907 Broadway play, The Warrens of Virginia.","Gladys tassəmda əs agaraw ən achagal was asinn dag edag wan Broadway gor 1907, The Warrens of Virginia."
"After completing the Broadway run and touring the play, however, Pickford was again out of work.","Aguden,darat as tamənda tidawt tan Broadway ad edag, hannis ən Pickford taqima dag ichray wala achəgal."
She quickly grasped that movie acting was simpler than the stylized stage acting of the day.,Təlmad šik as adal gor silma raqiss fal adal wan temašagalt dag azaman.
"As Pickford said of her success at Biograph:I played scrubwomen and secretaries and women of all nationalities ... I decided that if I could get into as many pictures as possible, I'd become known, and there would be a demand for my work.","Sund awa ina Pickford dagagaraw iness gor Biograph : "" Idəlag deden tin ašagəl, tinaktiben ad deden ən akal kul…"". Itkalag as adobex adal dag silma wi agotnen,ad zuziyax imanin izar təməlti tamədilt ya ašəgal inn."
"In January 1910, Pickford traveled with a Biograph crew to Los Angeles.","Gor janvier 1910, Pickford ika Los Angeles ənta ad alzamagat ən Biograph."
Actors were not listed in the credits in Griffith's company.,Iməsosta war dəzgeran gor sənto dag tidawt tan Griffith.
Pickford left Biograph in December 1910.,Pickford ifal Biograph gor decembre 1910.
She returned to Broadway in the David Belasco production of A Good Little Devil (1912).,"Təqal gor Broadway dag tazəzgart tan David Belasco, A Good Little Devil (1912)."
"In 1913, she decided to work exclusively in film.","Gor 1913, tasənta ašəgal ye silma fal maness."
Pickford left the stage to join Zukor's roster of stars.,Pickford ifal edag wan adal yad əgiš lay wan ilyadan win Zukor.
"Comedy-dramas, such as In the Bishop's Carriage (1913), Caprice (1913), and especially Hearts Adrift (1914), made her irresistible to moviegoers.","Isosta win adal,sund In the Bšop’s Carriage (1913), Caprice (1913), ad hulen Hearts Adrift (1914),igatan iban ašamar ye kal silma."
Tess of the Storm Country was released five weeks later.,Tess of the Storm County izgar hebutan səmoss darat awa.
"Only Charlie Chaplin, who slightly surpassed Pickford's popularity in 1916, had a similarly spellbinding pull with critics and the audience.","Charlie Chaplin xas, a ogaran əs ədaran tamuzye tan Pickford gor 1916,iga ənmətəf atiwagrazan fal tezmiten ad adinat."
She also became vice-president of Pickford Film Corporation.,Taqal tamaokalt ən Pickford Film Corporation.
"Due to her lack of a normal childhood, she enjoyed making these pictures.","Assədatu niban tamadrit tiknat, takal torhagat ye igui ən silma."
"In August 1918, Pickford's contract expired and, when refusing Zukor's terms for a renewal, she was offered $250,000 to leave the motion picture business.","Dax août 1918, əšəxil wan Pickford tamada əd, darat tungit nalmaxna nasumutiy wa has ina Zukor, hanay as atafu 250 000 $ fal atifil ehan wan sinéma."
"Through United Artists, Pickford continued to produce and perform in her own movies; she could also distribute them as she chose.","Fal as United, Pickford itiki dag huk izar idal dag silma win ness ; tadobat deg atan tuzan as awa starha."
"""During this period, she also made Little Annie Rooney (1925), another film in which Pickford played a child, Sparrows (1926), which blended the Dickensian with newly minted German expressionist style, and My Best Girl (1927), a romantic comedy featuring her future husband Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers.""",""" Tahagit nassaxat,təga Little Annie Rooney (1925),silma iyan dag wa eqal Pickford ara,Sparrows (1926),asertay temašəgalt dickensien gor temašagalt taynayat ən allemand,ad My Best Girl (1927),adal azedan dag ahaləs iness Šarles """" Buddy"""" Rogers""."
"She played a reckless socialite in Coquette (1929), her first talkie, a role for which her famous ringlets were cut into a 1920s' bob.","Tadal ye adunia waren tarmeg dag Coquette (1929), silma wa azaran ina,ašagal ye yararu an muzayan azunan dag təkəbut nelan win 1920."
The public failed to respond to her in the more sophisticated roles.,Adinat war tarhen dag temašagal ta tiknat.
Established Hollywood actors were panicked by the impending arrival of the talkies.,Iməsosta wi hanen dag Hollywood armagan fal agad dimalan ən aməgrəd silma.
She retired from film acting in 1933 following three costly failures with her last film appearance being Secrets.,"Tizgar silma gor 1933 darat iban agaraw asohen,azagar iness wa ilkaman gor silma eqal dag ufar."
"During World War I she promoted the sale of Liberty Bonds, making an intensive series of fund-raising speeches, beginning in Washington, D.C., where she sold bonds alongside Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Theda Bara, and Marie Dressler.","Gor akinass ən adunia wazaran, tag hebu ən ašənš wan Liberty Bonds,dag talaxat tedagit maqarat ən magrad wan takute,gor sənto gor Washington,diha ad šənša tahašilt gor edess ən Šarie Šaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, Theda Bara ad Mrie Dressler."
"In a single speech in Chicago, she sold an estimated five million dollars' worth of bonds.","Gor migrad gor Chicago,təšənša ye awogdahan ad samos milliontan ən dollar ən tahašilt."
"At the end of World War I, Pickford conceived of the Motion Picture Relief Fund, an organization to help financially needy actors.","Gor saməndo nakinas, Pickford igraw Motion Picture Relief Fund, tartit tikat talilt ən win waren ila harat."
"As a result, in 1940, the Fund was able to purchase land and build the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital, in Woodland Hills, California.","Dag išray,gor 1940,agilal ašənša akal izar asoqan Motion Picture Country House and Hospital, gor Woodland Hills, gor Californie."
"She demanded (and received) these powers in 1916, when she was under contract to Zukor's Famous Players in Famous Plays (later Paramount).","Təssəstan (izar təgraw) anəmukul gor 1916,agud wad tašagal dag Famous Players in Famous Plays wan Zukor(darat awa Paramount)."
The Mary Pickford Corporation was briefly Pickford's motion-picture production company.,Mary Pickford Corporation təkal solan tidawt ta təgan silma ta hannis ən Pickford.
Distributors (also part of the studios) arranged for company productions to be shown in the company's movie venues.,Imuzanən (wi hanen deg studiotan) tamagdahan yad Ugatan ən ehən ad izgarən dag hanan win silma tan tidawt.
"It was solely a distribution company, offering independent film producers access to its own screens as well as the rental of temporarily unbooked cinemas owned by other companies.","""Təqal gas tidawt ən tazunt, hakat ye məgan"
"As a co-founder, as well as the producer and star of her own films, Pickford became the most powerful woman who has ever worked in Hollywood.","As təkal tamanokalt,sund teməguit ad edag wan silma win ness,Pickford takəl tamət ta təknat assuhu as kala war təšagəl gor Hollywood."
She and Chaplin remained partners in the company for decades.,"""Ənta ad Chaplin aqimanat timidawen tin tədawt"
It is rumored she became pregnant by Moore in the early 1910s and had a miscarriage or an abortion.,Nənna tassəmraw dag Moore gor sənto ən elan win 1910 izar tagšad təssa ness meg tagšəd assəmraw iness inta imanes.
The couple lived together on-and-off for several years.,Imazlayan ahoagan dag tamudre ta waren tika tahagit dag elan agotnen.
"Around this time, Pickford also suffered from the flu during the 1918 flu pandemic.","Dag azaman wen,Pickford ihanay tamakint ən grippe gor torhənna tan grippe gor 1918."
They went to Europe for their honeymoon; fans in London and in Paris caused riots trying to get to the famous couple.,Ikan gor Europe ye tarha nassan ; imarhan gor Londres ad Paris adlamən imagrazan ye irum ən uhaz ən marhan wi dag iknanen atwəzi.
Pickford continued to epitomize the virtuous but fiery girl next door.,Pickford okay dag assəkən ən tamawat ta šadigat mašen takus dag ihaz.
"Foreign heads of state and dignitaries who visited the White House often asked if they could also visit Pickfair, the couple's mansion in Beverly Hills.","Inamokalan nakal ad inaftagan wi atwa samgarnen ad dossanen ehan wa malan sastanan agud as aboben adakən Pickfair,tamuzaq tan mazlayan gor Beverly Hills."
"Other guests included George Bernard Shaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, H. G. Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler, Amelia Earhart, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Noël Coward, Max Reinhardt, Baron Nishi, Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, Sir Harry Lauder, and Meher Baba, among others.","Gar inaftagan wiyadnen ihen George Bernard Chaw, Albert Einstein, Elinor Glyn, Helen Keller, H. Wells, Lord Mountbatten, Fritz Kreisler,Amelia Earhart,F. Scott Vladmir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, Austen Chamberlain, Sir Harry Lauder ad Meher Bba,dag sən ."
"They were also constantly on display as America's unofficial ambassadors to the world, leading parades, cutting ribbons, and making speeches.","Zagaran harkuk deg sund inamušal ən alhakum tan Amerique dag adunia,tagan tiwit,tikrəmin tekaršayt izar tagan batu."
"They divorced January 10, 1936.",Amizayan gor 10 janvier 1936.
"She criticized their physical imperfections, including Ronnie's small stature and Roxanne's crooked teeth.","Tizəm iban tafrənt nasnat, gor təmadrit ən tebade tan Ronnie ad issenan wi izgarnen win Roxanne."
"Her siblings, Lottie and Jack, both died of alcohol-related causes in 1936 and 1933, respectively.","Aytmas ad šatmas, Lottie ad Jack, amun assənan as awa hassən iga asməd gor 1936 ad 1933, dag amzizar."
"Pickford withdrew and gradually became a recluse, remaining almost entirely at Pickfair and allowing visits only from Lillian Gish, her stepson Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and few other people.","Pickford tarkan fal maness izar takal takfal inta solan,təqima harkuk gor Pickfair izar war radu ar uss wan Lillian Giš,wan adagal iness Douglas Fairbanks Jr. ad adinat iyad."
"She appeared in court in 1959, in a matter pertaining to her co-ownership of North Carolina TV station WSJS-TV.","Samagdah dat alhakum gor 1959, dag adabara fal məssas ən assəbdan ən talbizont WSJS-TV gor Caroline tan tasaga nakal."
"""Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers often gave guests tours of Pickfair, including views of a genuine western bar Pickford had bought for Douglas Fairbanks, and a portrait of Pickford in the drawing room.""",""" Charles """"Buddy"""" Rogers itagu alwaq iyan tissawt ye naftagan gor Pickfair, ad edag aduten wan adakal naman ən westertan wa ašəša Pickford ye Douglas Fairbanks, ad fato ən Pickford dag ehan""."
"She also owned a house in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.","Kal təla deg ehan gor Toronto,dag Ontario, gor Canada."
"Her handprints and footprints are displayed at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, California.","Adariš ən fassən ness ad daran əssan gor Grauman’s Chinese Theatre gor Hollywood,gor Californie."
The Mary Pickford Theater at the James Madison Memorial Building of the Library of Congress is named in her honor.,Mary Pickford Theater wan James Madison Memorial Building wan ehan nalkadan win tartit igraw issəm.
"A first-run movie theatre in Cathedral City, California is called The Mary Pickford Theatre, which was established on May 25, 2001.","Silma wan azagor azaran gor Cathedral City,gor Californie,issəm iness The Mary Pickford Theater, wa igan gor 25 mai 2001."
"Among them are a rare and spectacular beaded gown she wore in the film Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (1924) designed by Mitchell Leisen, her special Oscar, and a jewelry box.","Gar haratan win,nagraw erasway hanat timagwanen assohatnen atiwagrahnen təlasse dag silma Dorothy Vernon of Haddon Hall (1924),təkraš Mitšell Leisen,agaraw iness wa ahusken ad takbat tan timagwanen."
"The family home had been demolished in 1943, and many of the bricks delivered to Pickford in California.","Ehan ən algahal egšad gor 1943, izar faragitan agotnen atwahakan ye hannis ən Pickford dag Californie."
"In 1993, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to her.","Gor 1993, Golden Palm Star iyat tatwagas fal Palm Springs Walk of Stars."
"From January 2011 until July 2011, the Toronto International Film Festival exhibited a collection of Mary Pickford memorabilia in the Canadian Film Gallery of the TIFF Bell LightBox building.","Gor janvier 2011 har juillet 2011,adalan in tartit gar kalan wan silma tan Toronto assəsa amsədu ən nəzgam win Mary Pickford dag Canadian Film Gallery an taxašamt Bell LightBox wan TIFF."
It was donated to Keene State College and is currently undergoing restoration by the Library of Congress for exhibition.,Tamsədawt ten tatiwakfa ye Keene State College izar tiha daberat nazan fal Library of Congress dag anyat an ahanay.
"The Google Doodle of April 8, 2017 commemorated Mary Pickford's 125th birthday.",Google Doodle wan 8 avril 2017 iga adal was 125 an santo iness gor Mary Pickford.
"Gloria Josephine May Swanson (March 27, 1899 – April 4, 1983) was an American actress, producer, and businesswoman.","Gloria Josephine May Swanson(27mars 1899-4 avril 1983) taqal temedalt,temaguit ad tamat našagalan an amerique."
Her schoolgirl crush on Essanay Studios actor Francis X. Bushman led to her aunt taking her to tour the actor's Chicago studio.,Takəbut iness tan texare tan emadal Francis X. Bušman wan Essanay Studios iway mass ye atət issəkən studio wan emadal dag Cicago.
"Her sound film debut performance in the 1929 The Trespasser, earned her a second Academy Award nomination.","Tafrənt iness ta təzarat dag silma tənzarat,The Trespasser,gor 1929,ogdahas ad ašanzi was assin gor Oscars."
"Her father was a Swedish American and her mother was of German, French, and Polish ancestry.","Tiss eqal aw Ameriktan Suedtan mass walat Allemantan, walat afrance ad Polognetan."
"In either version, she was soon hired as an extra.","Dag idagan win assi,tassənta šikanen sund tanamatkult."
"Her first role was a brief walk-on with actress Gerda Holmes, that paid an enormous (in those days) $3.25.","Ašagal iness wa azaran ikuy gazilan dag Gerda Holmes,ad ditiwayat azruf agen (dag azaman) an 3,25 dollars."
"In 1915, she co-starred in Sweedie Goes to College with her future first husband Wallace Beery.","Gor 1915,tuzan edag dag Sweedie Goes to College ad ahaləs iness wa azaran Wallace Beery."
Vernon and Swanson projected a great screen chemistry that proved popular with audiences.,Vermon ad Swanson igan silma maquarat tidit ya adinat.
Badger was sufficiently impressed by Swanson to recommend her to the director Jack Conway for Her Decision and You Can't Believe Everything in 1918.,Badger assigadah dag atwadis wan Swanson ya tisamumun ya magchad Jack Conway ya awatay wan 1918.
"1920), Something to Think About (1920), and The Affairs of Anatol (1921) soon followed.","1920), anizgamat harat dag uhaz (1920),ad haratan win Anatol (1921) alkamanid chikanene."
"He had become a star in 1921 for his appearance in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, but Swanson had known him since his days as an aspiring actor getting small parts, with no seeming hope for his professional future.","Kala adikal aliad dag awatay wan 1921 ya azagor iness dag akoz ibigwan namassehi machane Swanson izayti harwa andine diha dikal emasosti igarawan timašagalen madroynen, iban-torda an tagrist-ness."
Filming was allowed for the first time at many of the historic sites relating to Napoleon.,Issafilawitan atiwayat dag tizarat fal idagan agotnen tinfussen ikrasnen yé Napoleon.
"At the time, Swanson was considered the most bankable star of her era.","Dag azamane, Swanson ekal sund aliad wa atwagdahan dag azamane."
"The production was a disaster, with Parker being indecisive and the actors not experienced enough to deliver the performances she wanted.","Amukine yé kal tamirisset, Parker ekal éré waren assorda, imasosta waren ekel imussanane ya adafine timusnawen ti-torda."
"The members took further steps by registering their discontent with Will H. Hays, Chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America.","Aytedim dakalane adabaratan win-assilmidane iban tadawit nassane yé Will H. Hayes, amanokal namarumar an silma damukine aness da amuzane Nameric."
"Hays was enthusiastic about the basic story, but did have specific issues that were dealt with before the film's release.","Hays amiramar gor tanfust ta tazarat, machane achegalane aknane dat azagor an silma."
He proposed to personally bankroll her next picture and conducted a thorough examination of her financial records.,Assidabarat inta imaness tamazilt an silma ness ta-tilkamat izar issantu akayad makoran nalkadan ness.
"Kennedy, however, advised her to hire Erich von Stroheim to direct another silent film, The Swamp, subsequently retitled Queen Kelly.","Kennedy assidabarat harkuk yad zizarane Erich Von Stroheim yad izizgar silma iyat mazugat, Ebang,sitawani dag alkum Taliat Kelly."
Stroheim worked for several months on writing the basic script.,Stroheim ašigal oran agotnen dag santo nakatab wan amass.
"Shooting was shut down in January, and Stroheim fired, after complaints by Swanson about him and about the general direction the film was taking.",Assafalawi ibdad gor Janvier izar Stroheim atiwarkanid darat as Swanson iga takmo ad taberat tadakal silma.
"The Trespasser in 1929 was a sound production, and garnered Swanson her second Oscar nomination.","Gor 1929, (The Trespasser) anaftag ekal emagi an takalt iwadan ya Swanson tanaya tas sanatat gor Oscars."
"The world premiere was held in London, the first American sound production to do so.","Adunia ta ditazarat tassinta gor Londre, igi an takalt wazaran in Amerique."
"Perfect Understanding, a 1933 sound production comedy, was the only film produced by this company.","Perfect Understanding (Tadiwt ta-tiknat), igui an takalt dag sasto gor 1933, yé kal silma iyat tazizgar alzamagat."
She began appearing in stage productions and starred in The Gloria Swanson Hour on WPIX-TV in 1948.,Tassanta azagor gor igui nadal izar tatif edag dag Gloria Swanson alwak fal Wpix-Tv gor 1948.
"The storyline of the film follows a faded silent movie actress Norma Desmond (Swanson), in love with a failed screenwriter Joe Gillis (William Holden).","Tebadé an silma talkam yé temagit an silma mazougat hin tokayat, Norma Desmond (Swanson), temarhit nemagui nimechlane ekchadane, Joe Gillis (William Holden)."
"""Norma plays a card game of bridge with a group of actors also known as """"the Waxworks"""".""",".""Norma tadal dag alzamagat an masosta atiwazaynen fal issim an """"Waxworks"""""
"Norma dreams of a comeback are subverted, and when Gillis tries to break up with her, she threatens to kill herself, but instead kills him.","Emanaw-naw gor arakone ən Norma amlalayane, tizarat Gillis oram ebadi dis, tahad ya tangu imaness machene tangué dag edag iness."
"Although Swanson had objected to enduring a screen test for the film, she had been glad to be making much more money than she had been in television and on stage.",Darat as Swanson war tarda adabara na-twirim iss tisset an silma tikna tedawit na tigriw azrouf aguen fal talbizont.
"Swanson later hosted Crown Theatre with Gloria Swanson, a television anthology series in which she occasionally acted.","Swanson tomar darat awen samando nan mechalane dag Gloria Swanson,tartit tamizazarat dag tidal."
"""She was the """"mystery guest"""" on What's My Line.""","""Takal tanaftak"" an dekat tabaratine What's My Line."
"She made a notable appearance in a 1966 episode of The Beverly Hillbillies, in which she plays herself.",Gad azagor atiwagrahan dag tedaguit tan gor 1966 The Beverly Hillbillies dag tadal achegal ən ness.
"""Actor and playwright Harold J. Kennedy, who had learned the ropes at Yale and with Orson Wells' Mercury Theatre, suggested Swanson do a road tour of """"Reflected Glory"""", a comedy that had run on the Broadway stage with Tallulah Bankhead as its star.""","Massis an mechlane Harold J. Kennedy wa issanane itaran nachagal gor Yale ad Mercury Theatre an Orson Wells, """"Reflected Glory"""" assorda yé Swanson igui nadal wan amrumar"" fal edague wan taberat dag Tallulah sund tafaré"""
"After her success with Sunset Boulevard, she starred on Broadway in a revival of Twentieth Century with José Ferrer, and in Nina with David Niven.","Darat amukine dag Sunset Boulevard, tadal gor Broadway dag amissougal ən Twentieth Century ad José Ferrer, dag Nina ad dag Dvid Niven."
As a Republican she supported the 1940 and 1944 campaigns for president of Wendell Willkie and the 1964 presidential campaign of Barry Goldwater.,"Falas taqual walat amass, talil yé campaytan win 1940 ad win 1944 faltanaya tan Wendell Willkie ad campay an manokalan wan 1964 wan Barry Goldwater."
"Taking medication given to her by Beery, purported to be for morning sickness, she aborted the fetus and was taken unconscious to the hospital.","Darat as tigraw assafar was kala tatinfa Beery, as bahu infan tinhiten tin tifawt, takšad tassaness izar tamidkal dad iban anyat as laktor."
"In 1923, she adopted 1-year-old Sonny Smith, whom she renamed Joseph Patrick Swanson after her father.","Gor 1923, tassidwal ara Sonny Smith, ilan awatay iyan, is ga issim Joseph Patrick Swanson, sund tiss."
"She had conceived a child with him before her divorce from Somborn was final, a situation that would have led to a public scandal and possible end of her film career.","Tohar dis ara dat amizi inta Somborn, alwak adiwayan ataraka ya dinatad samando intahaguit an cinima."
"Following a four-month recuperation from her abortion, they returned to the United States as European nobility.","Darat ifri ness akoz oran adoraw agachad ən tassa, aqualan gor Etats-Unis istakal tamanokalt Europe."
He became a film executive representing Pathé (USA) in France.,Equal awadam an cinima ihan edag ən Pathé (USA) dag Afrance
"""Swanson described herself as a """"mental vampire"""", someone with a searching curiosity about how things worked, and who pursued the possibilities of turning those ideas into reality.""","""Swanson timal iman win-ness sund "" enametine"" awadam imogan ya wa siglan haratan izar ilkaman yé tadabit na sunad na niyat astidit."""
They met by chance in Paris when Swanson was being fitted by Coco Chanel for her 1931 film Tonight or Never.,"Amokassan dag iban ituss dag Paris, mašane Swanson kanu anufli dag Coco in silma ehad meg ibaness (1931)"
"Her friends, some of whom openly disliked him, thought she was making a mistake.","Imidiwan ness, iyad war tarhen, ordan as tamitala."
"Swanson had initially thought she was going to be able to retire from acting, but the marriage was troubled by Davey's alcoholism from the start.","Swanson ǎɣel dǎɣ santo atudabat at tizgir tamudre tan temagit, mašan azli nes eqal ašadan səs səmid wan Davey dǎɣ santo."
"He was the co-author (ghostwriter) of Billie Holiday's autobiography Lady Sings the Blues, the author of Sugar Blues, a 1975 best-selling health book still in print, and the author of the English version of Georges Ohsawa's You Are All Sanpaku.","Eqal emag ən (emag ən) wan tamuzuq tan Billue Holiday, Lady Sings the Bleues, emag wan Sugar Bleues, əlkitab wan asaxat nagaraw wan 1975 harkuk dax nazan, əd emag nəmək wan anglais wan You Are All Sanpaku ən Georges Ohsawa."
Swanson and her husband first got to know John Lennon and Yoko Ono because they were fans of Dufty's work.,Swanson dahalis-ness animazayan dag John Lennon ad Yoko Ono falas amossane imarhan nichagal win M. Dufty.
"She was cremated and her ashes interred at the Episcopal Church of the Heavenly Rest on Fifth Avenue in New York City, attended by only a small circle of family.","Tatwasarga izar izidawan atwambalan dag lagriss wan Heavenly Rest fal taberat tass simossat gor New York,gor ila afarag nalgayal gass."
"In 1974, Swanson was one of the honorees of the first Telluride Film Festival.","Gor 1974, Swanson awadam atiwaflassan gor adal wazaran an silma wan Telluride"
"Due to the erotic nature of her performances, Nielsen's films were censored in the United States, and her work remained relatively obscure to American audiences.","Dag tidit na dunya ta tahusket an tafrint,silma tan Nielsen at wazaman gor Etats-Unis, azar temachagalt tasohat yé alzamagat tan Amerique."
Nielsen's family moved several times during her childhood while her father sought employment.,Algayal wan Nielsen iga ihinane agotnen gor tamadrit- iness assiga awen tiss imague ya achagal.
Nielsen's father died when she was fourteen years old.,Tiss ən Nielsen abati gor awatay was maraw adikoz əness.
"In 1901, 21-year-old Nielsen became pregnant and gave birth to a daughter, Jesta.","Gor 1901, 21 Nielsen, təkrach sanatat timirwen nawatay ad diyan, tassamraw izar toraw tamat, Jesta."
Nielsen graduated from the Theater school in 1902.,Nielsen ikna tegarẻ dag lekol tan adal gor 1902.
Nielsen's minimalist acting style was evidenced in her successful portrayal of a naive young woman lured into a tragic life.,Temašagalt gadohat əntina tan Nielsen takal sokni dag segbar iknan adiwayan taɣrist ye tamawat.
"Nielsen and Gad married, then made four more films together.","Nielsen ad Gad azləyən, izar gan silma assinən."
I realised that the age of short film was past.,Elmadag as azaman tagazolat tamutay.
It was international film sales that provided Union with eight Nielsen films per year.,Amoss enazi gar kalan ən silma wi dossanen Union atam silma win Nielsen dag ayor.
"""I used every available means – and devised many new ones – in order to bring the Asta Nielsen films to the world.""""""","."" Ikalag tidabit kul ta titəlat -izar aznazgameg hulen -yad zuzuyag silma win Asta Nielsen ya dunia."""
"In a Russian popularity poll of 1911, Nielsen was voted the world's top female movie star, behind Linder and ahead of her Danish compatriot Valdemar Psilander.","Dag umag ən tamuzie russe gor 1911, Nielsen takal tamanhuyt ən deden dag cinema tan adunia, darat Linda ad dat tamidit iness danoise Valdemar Psilander."
"In 1921, Nielsen, through her own film distribution company of Asta Films, appeared in the Svend Gade and Heinz Schall directed Hamlet.","Dax 1921, Nielsen, daɣ təsəba ən manes tidawt tan tizunawen ən silmatan, Asta Films, izgarid daɣ silma Hamlet, tigat əs Svend Gad əd Heinz Schall."
"However, scholarly works such as the authoritative filmography published by Filmarchiv Austria in 2010 make no mention of such a film.","Harkuk, temašagalt ta təknat sund silma tagat azagor Filmarchiv Austria gor 2010 war səknin sund wa silma."
She worked in German films until the start of sound movies.,Tašegal dag silma allemands har sənto ən silma təzarat.
"Thereafter, Nielsen acted only on stage.","""Dag alkum, Nielsen war"
"Understanding the implications, Nielsen declined and left Germany in 1936.","Tihra ən tartit, Nielsen ungəy di fal Allemagne gor 1936."
They were divorced by 1919 when Nielsen married the Swedish shipbuilder Freddy Windgårdh.,"Aməzayən gor 1919,assagat wendag adag təway Nielsen enamekrəss suédois Freddy Windgårdh."
They began a long-term common-law marriage that lasted from 1923 until the late 1930s.,Ass namadadan azli zigren falass ahoga gor 1923 har saməndo nəwatay wan 1930.
"Fred Astaire (born Frederick Austerlitz; May 10, 1899 – June 22, 1987) was an American dancer, actor, singer, choreographer, and television presenter.","Fred Astaire ( iwa Frederick Austerlitz ; 10 mai 1899-22 Juin 1987 ) equal amadlal,emašesti, amanzar ,coregraf ad emassekni ən talbizon américain."
"He starred in more than 10 Broadway and West End musicals, made 31 musical films, four television specials, and numerous recordings.","Idal dag ogaran 10 nazaran nədalan win Broadway ad win West End, iga 31 ən silma wi na azar, akoz mazgaran ən salan ye talbizon ad sətkal agotnen."
Astaire's mother was born in the US to Lutheran German immigrants from East Prussia and Alsace.,Mas na Astaire a dǎɣ tuwa États-Unis ən mudakan na allemands lutheriens wən Prusse oriental ən Alsace
"Fritz was seeking work in the brewing trade and moved to Omaha, Nebraska, where he was employed by the Storz Brewing Company.","Fritz imǎɣ ye əšəxil dǎɣ edag wan tazoliyawinen əd aqima dǎɣ Omaha, Nebraska, yur atwatkal ye Storz Brewing Company."
"""Johanna planned a """"brother and sister act"""", common in vaudeville at the time, for her two children.""","""Johanna asmatay """"adal ən madrayan ən təmadrayen"""", tišilnen ehanin dax vaudeville, ye aratanes əsin""."
They began training at the Alviene Master School of the Theatre and Academy of Cultural Arts.,Əssətan alamad gor l’école tan adal Alviene Master ad Académie wan təmusnawen.
"They were taught dance, speaking, and singing in preparation for developing an act.","Tawassagren dalol, assəmusag da anazar ya sətən asgət ən numero."
"In an interview, Astaire's daughter, Ava Astaire McKenzie, observed that they often put Fred in a top hat to make him look taller.","Dag assostan iyan, walat Astaire, Ava Astaire Mckenzie,ikyad as tagan agud iyan Fred dag təkəbut tazwayat yad təkal ti makarat."
"As a result of their father's salesmanship, Fred and Adele landed a major contract and played the Orpheum Circuit in the Midwest, Western and some Southern cities in the US.","Fred ad Adelle igrawan ašagəl ahusken fal idəm ad tamusne ən tissan izar tadalan dag tedaguuit Orpheum dag Midwest, igadal ən tafuk ,ad kalan win Etats-Unis."
"In 1912, Fred became an Episcopalian.","Gor 1912, Fred ekal épiscopalien."
"From vaudeville dancer Aurelio Coccia, they learned the tango, waltz, and other ballroom dances popularized by Vernon and Irene Castle.","Əntaned da amadlal wan vaudeville Aurelio Coccia, lamadan dalol wan tango, valse ad dalolan iyad wi atwazaynen as Vernon ad Irene Castle."
"He first met George Gershwin, who was working as a song plugger for Jerome H. Remick's music publishing company, in 1916.","Amokass ad George Gershwin dag tizarat gor 1916, mašan ašegəl sund amanzar ye ehan wan izazgaran inazaran ən Jerome H. Remick."
"""Of their work in The Passing Show of 1918, Heywood Broun wrote: """"In an evening in which there was an abundance of good dancing, Fred Astaire stood out ... He and his partner, Adele Astaire, made the show pause early in the evening with a beautiful loose-limbed dance.""""""","""Ašagəl dag The Passsing Show gor 1918, Heywood Broun iktab: """"Dag ehad wa gor aguit dalolan ahuskatnin, Fred Astaire izgarid ... Inta ad tamartit iness, Adele Astaire, nas mayakat dag santo nehad ad dalol iknan iss daran samednen."""""""
"But by this time, Astaire's dancing skill was beginning to outshine his sister's.","Mašen alwaken dag, timusnawen ən madlalal win Astaire tarna win tamadrayt ines."
Astaire's tap dancing was recognized by then as among the best.,Tifadelen tin Astaire atiwazaynat dag ti ahuskatnen.
"After the close of Funny Face, the Astaires went to Hollywood for a screen test (now lost) at Paramount Pictures, but Paramount deemed them unsuitable for films.","Darat saməndo wan Funny Face, ad Astaire ikanat Hollywood ye as anamawəl (achali ingas) gor Paramount Pictures, mašen Paramount ina war anmawalan as gor silma."
The end of the partnership was traumatic for Astaire but stimulated him to expand his range.,Saməndo ən tartit ekal tamatert ye Astaire mašen amidagwas yad isiwad edag nasənt.
They lent him for a few days to MGM in 1933 for his significant Hollywood debut in the successful musical film Dancing Lady.,Ifadast ye harat ən hadan gor MGM gor 1933 ye santotan gor Hollywood dag silma tiknat Dancing Lady.
"""He wrote his agent, """"I don't mind making another picture with her, but as for this 'team' idea, it's 'out!'""","Iktab ya amašagal iness : ""arheg igui ən silma iyat dəris, mašen ye anyat wan alzamagat"", “imda"""
"The partnership, and the choreography of Astaire and Hermes Pan, helped make dancing an important element of the Hollywood film musical.","Tartit ten, ad timusnawen tin Astaire ad Hermès Pan, alilal ye igui dag dalol harat makoran ye adal anazar wan Hollywood."
Six out of the nine Astaire–Rogers musicals became the biggest moneymakers for RKO; all of the films brought a certain prestige and artistry that all studios coveted at the time.,Sadis dag taza isasta win anazar Astaire-Rogers ekalan tassugušt makarat nazrif ye RKO ; silma kul tiwayd yarat infan azar ihak timbe stidiotan kul wi ad tihaznen.
This gave the illusion of an almost stationary camera filming an entire dance in a single shot.,Awen ihaku anasgum an camera tazuket dakal dalol imdan dag iyan.
Astaire's style of dance sequences allowed the viewer to follow the dancers and choreography in their entirety.,Temašagalt nam zizar an dalol wan Astaire igraw ye imuguha ya adalkiman imadlalal ad tamusne dag iman.
Astaire's second innovation involved the context of the dance; he was adamant that all song and dance routines be integral to the plotlines of the film.,"Assini was asinn an Astaire ibdad ibret an dalol,ekal yas imazaran kul ad mussanan ad agən ugišan silma."
"""One would be a solo performance by Astaire, which he termed his """"sock solo.""""""",""" Iyat disnat takal solo Astaire,wa igaru "" solo wan chaussette"""
I think Ginger Rogers was.,Ordeg gas ekalti Ginger Rogers.
She faked it an awful lot.,Tikna tagdart hulen.
"In 1976, British talk-show host Sir Michael Parkinson asked Astaire who his favorite dancing partner was on Parkinson.","Gor 1976, emadegwis wan Britanique Sir Michael Parkinson asistan Astaire indek amartay wa tarhed dag dalol."
"Despite their success, Astaire was unwilling to have his career tied exclusively to any partnership.","Gur amukan, Astaire war tarha as tahagit iness at təbdad gor tartit."
"Throughout this period, Astaire continued to value the input of choreographic collaborators.","Yur alwak wenda, Astaire tokay dag agarozat ya wa dewayan imilalan ən imussanan."
"""They starred in Broadway Melody of 1940, in which they performed a celebrated extended dance routine to Cole Porter's """"Begin the Beguine.""""""",""" Ədalan dag Broadway Melody gor 1940, wa dag əgan amussan asissakayan anazar """"Begin the Beguine "" wan Cole Porter. """""""
He played alongside Bing Crosby in Holiday Inn (1942) and later Blue Skies (1946).,Idal edes ən Bing Crosby dag Holiday Inn ( 1942 ) izar darat awen Blue Skies ( 1946 ).
"""The latter film featured """"Puttin' On the Ritz"""", an innovative song-and-dance routine indelibly associated with him.""","""Silma wa ilkaman ihe "" Puttin On the Ritz"" numero an anazar ad dalol adisrayan has ebdan."""
"The first film, You'll Never Get Rich (1941), catapulted Hayworth to stardom.","Silma wa azaran, ‘’war təkəlam idag azrif’’ ( 1941 ), catapulte Hayworth ibret an tamuzié"
"""It featured a duet to Kern's """"I'm Old Fashioned,"""" which became the centerpiece of Jerome Robbins's 1983 New York City Ballet tribute to Astaire.""","""Ertay da sinn fal anazar """"I’m Old Fashioned,"""" wan Kern, Ekal imraš ye Astaire New York City Ballet gor 1983, daw tanhat an Jerome Robbins."""
Astaire choreographed this film alone and achieved modest box office success.,Astaire tazazgar silma iyan izar tagraw amukan adaran gor box-office.
The fantasy Yolanda and the Thief (1945) featured an avant-garde surrealistic ballet.,Anyat Yolanda ad emakrad ( 1945 )iga dag adal dalol iknan talabast.
"Always insecure and believing his career was beginning to falter, Astaire surprised his audiences by announcing his retirement during the production of his next film Blue Skies (1946).","Harkuk iflas inta aguel tahiguit santu anasmad, Astaire tagdar taməte ines talagat tasunfat ines aguden igui an silma ilkam ye Blue Skies (1946)."
Both of these films revived Astaire's popularity and in 1950 he starred in two musicals.,"Assinn silma widag hakan muziat an Astaire izar gor 1950, idal dag asinn manzaran nadal."
"While Three Little Words did quite well at the box office, Let's Dance was a financial disappointment.","Aguden Three Little Words itašam hulan ye box-office, Let’s Dance ekal tamograzst."
"But because of its high cost, it failed to make a profit on its first release.","Dag tidit nasuhu,war ikna agaraw gor azagor wa azaran."
"Then, his wife Phyllis became ill and suddenly died of lung cancer.","Izar, haniss Phyllis tanid izar tənget torhina tan torawen šik ."
Daddy Long Legs only did moderately well at the box office.,Daddy Long Legs war ikna agaraw gor box-office.
"Similarly, Astaire's next project – his final musical at MGM, Silk Stockings (1957), in which he co-starred with Cyd Charisse, also lost money at the box office.","Sund, projet wan Astaire-samando nadal gor MGM, Silk Stocking (1957), dag itozan dag Cyd Charisse,igarin deg azruf gor box-office."
"""The first of these programs, 1958's An Evening with Fred Astaire, won nine Emmy Awards, including """"Best Single Performance by an Actor"""" and """"Most Outstanding Single Program of the Year.""""""",""" Harat dag programtan ness wa azaran, An Evening With Fred Astaire (1958), igraw taza Emmy Awards,dag wi"" ogarnen assahat amussan"" ad "" program wan awatay""""""."
"""The choice had a controversial backlash because many believed his dancing in the special was not the type of """"acting"""" for which the award was designed.""",""" əssânafrin wa əsinkar tamadash, fal as aduniya agetnen əssanan as adalal wan ənes dǎɣ edag wa,werd eqal edag wa mossen a taha tamadash ta fal iga adagud wa."""
"They restored the original videotape, transferring its contents to a modern format and filling in gaps where the tape had deteriorated with kinescope footage.","əntaned əgan telvision tan tidat,adkalan awa titihan kul əganti dǎɣ edag aynayan əzar assirtayan awa ibraran dǎɣ issuhag widǎɣ kul, kineskop."
Astaire appeared in non-dancing roles in three other films and several television series from 1957 to 1969.,Astaire tatwaga dǎɣ edag wan aytedmen wis amos ward hen idalalan dǎɣ films tan karadat ad series tan ən 1957 ad 1969.
"Astaire's dance partner was Petula Clark, who played his character's skeptical daughter.","Tamidad tan Astaire dǎɣ adalan widǎɣ atawos Petula Clark,ənta a atagalat tarat tan adanlan win."
Astaire continued to act in the 1970s.,Astaire tiga awa dǎɣ tizzay dǎɣ adalan dǎɣ iwitiyan win 1970.
"In the second compilation, aged seventy-six, he performed brief dance linking sequences with Kelly, his last dance performances in a musical film.","Dǎɣ awatay was asin, awatay was sadisat timurmen ad karat,anta tiga idalal agotnen ad Kelly,timusnawen tin nes dǎɣ adalan dǎɣ timuzax tidǎɣ n'inazaran widǎɣ."
"In 1978, he co-starred with Helen Hayes in a well received television film A Family Upside Down in which they played an elderly couple coping with failing health.","Dǎɣ 1978, azun isalan dər Helen Hayes dǎɣ silma tizgarat ahusken əd tasawt, alxayal išlayan, dǎɣ itagu əšəxil wan mukusa wašarnen igraw iban nasǎɣat wi nan ikna."
Astaire asked his agent to obtain a role for him on Galactica because of his grandchildren's interest in the series and the producers were delighted at the opportunity to create an entire episode to feature him.,"Astaire əsistan anaktib en nes adəs əgrew eddag dǎɣ Galactica amosan ihay agaraw ən aratan ənes,ən adanan ənes ad alfagitanes ənes igrazasen awen hulenen ən ad adawian tamusne taynayat fal ədag wan timuzaɣ."
"""Long after the photography for the solo dance number """"I Want to Be a Dancin' Man"""" was completed for the 1952 feature The Belle of New York, it was decided that Astaire's humble costume and the threadbare stage set were inadequate and the entire sequence was reshot.""","""Ahogan darat samando dakalan nahanay ən numéro wan dalon wa solo """"I Want to Be a Dancin' Man"""" ye silma The Belle of New York wan 1952, abati ən sarho costume wan Astaire əd ədlagati is scène tšadat taqalat awinan ditis əd tazune təmdat at tamdǎɣalat."""
"Frame for frame, the two performances are identical, down to the subtlest gesture.","əsurat fal əsurat, sanatat tidabiten ti əlah nat, had edag war ənbas abdanat əswala."
His was a uniquely recognizable dance style that greatly influenced the American Smooth style of ballroom dance and set standards against which subsequent film dance musicals would be judged.,"Adalal wan ənes,atiwazay dǎɣ san kul,ənta ikfa tęmbē idalalan win Amerika Smooth hargudi ənta ikfah adabaratan agotnen yę îîssuhax."
He notes Astaire's dance style was consistent in subsequent films made with or without the assistance of Pan.,"ənta iktab as tamusne tan Astaire taqima as ənta tanihaga tax timuzax ti əganen kul,hargudi ənta warhas alil aytedem waladǎɣ îyen."
"""However, this was almost always confined to the area of extended fantasy sequences, or """"dream ballets"""".""","""Assaxa wendǎɣ,ənta titaf dǎɣ imanes asaxa nul,daha ən""ballets de rêve."""
"""Later in life, he admitted, """"I had to do most of it myself.""""""","""Tahoga dǎɣ tamudrenes,ənta tigash:""nak imanin ədtigen."""
"""Many dance routines were built around a """"gimmick,"""" like dancing on the walls in Royal Wedding or dancing with his shadows in Swing Time.""","""Agen dǎɣ awa atiwagen dǎɣ adalan əntaned əkresnen fal iyan""""gimmick""""sund adalal fal edag wan Royal Wedding me adalal ad taliwen dǎɣ Swing Time."""
They would work with a rehearsal pianist (often the composer Hal Borne) who in turn would communicate modifications to the musical orchestrators.,"Ašixal dəd itadawdaw wan asiburik ( agudiyan emag Hal Borne) was, dax tamasawal ənes, itamagradan tumutayen kal masartayan ən tiswal nanazar."
"With all the preparation completed, the actual shooting would go quickly, conserving costs.","Timassudawen kul əmdanatid,assimaduxal ənta aytagan amaradǎɣ shikanen,awendǎɣ aykanen ûduf ən timzal."
"""He will not even go to see his rushes... He always thinks he is no good.""""""","""Ənta ûdigla had ənhi imanokalan...ənta agel awen ward ahûskat."""
"Michael Kidd, Astaire's co-choreographer on the 1953 film The Band Wagon, found that his own concern about the emotional motivation behind the dance was not shared by Astaire.","Michael kidd,ənta cohegraphe ən Astaire dǎɣ idalalan win the Band Wagon dǎɣ awatay wan 1953, ənta tanhay as awa tarha dǎɣ idalalan widǎɣ wartitarha As taire."
"""Let's add the looks later.' """"""","""Siwidat îssigrihan win assaxatan wi akayen"""""""
"""Irving Berlin considered Astaire the equal of any male interpreter of his songs—""""as good as Jolson, Crosby or Sinatra, not necessarily because of his voice, but for his conception of projecting a song.""","""Irving Berlin tiga as Astaire tanihaga ad issamaduxulan win ənazaran win medîn""""harkudi askat yę Jolson, Crosby mex Sinatra,ward înfa tasiba an îlis ənes mashan tassuba ən tarhan ənes ya ad tagu assahax."""
"In his heyday, Astaire was referenced in lyrics of songwriters Cole Porter, Lorenz Hart and Eric Maschwitz and continues to inspire modern songwriters.","Samandœ nes,Astaire tawaxra dǎɣ îmagriden ən îmakiven win îssuhax Cole Porter,Lorenz Hart ad Eric Maschwitz hargüdi əntaned tagan yę compositeurs win aynaynen awa əhsanigrazan"
"During 1952, Astaire recorded The Astaire Story, a four-volume album with a quintet led by Oscar Peterson.","Awatay was 1952, Astaire tigran the Astraire Short,îyan ən album ilan əqoz volumeten ad iyan quintet sa nihad Oscar Peterson."
"Bogart began acting in Broadway shows, beginning his career in motion pictures with Up the River (1930) for Fox and appeared in supporting roles for the next decade, sometimes portraying gangsters.","Bogart tasanta adalan dǎɣ idagan win isuhax dǎɣ Broadway.dǎɣ cinema ad assanta tamusne tanes ənta ad Up The River(1930)yę Fox ad iganshid timusnawen ti aynaynen alwax wan assaxa wa ilkaman,ənta irgaw medîn."
"Bogart's private detectives, Sam Spade (in The Maltese Falcon) and Phillip Marlowe (in 1946's The Big Sleep), became the models for detectives in other noir films.","Əmanhayan iyad ən Bogart, Sam Spade ( dax Faucon maltais) əd Phillip Marlow (dax Grand Sommeil, wan 1946), eqalan timotayen tən manhayan dax silmatan kawalnen."
"Soon after the principal photography for The Big Sleep (1946, their second film together), he filed for divorce from his third wife and married Bacall.","Darat nîgi ən film the Big Sleep (1946,film ənasan tas sanatat dǎɣ tartit nasan)ənta asistan aməsiy ad hanis tas karadat,azar adoban Bacall."
"He reprised those unsettled, unstable characters as a World War II naval-vessel commander in The Caine Mutiny (1954), which was a critical and commercial hit and earned him another Best Actor nomination.","Ənta assîgrah ashaxal nasan ikna əzar îxshad sund amizar ən aytedîman agœtnen dǎɣ akinas was assin ən guerre mondiale dǎɣ mutinerie was Caine (1954), was igrawan dǎɣ timadashen ad commercial hargudi awen îkfey tassiwat tahusken dǎɣ ashaxal ənes."
"""The name """"Bogart"""" derives from the Dutch surname, """"Bogaert"""".""","""Issam wan""Bogart""Ad dizgar issam ən tawsset əs ganan néerlandais, , """" Bogaert"""""
"Maud was an Episcopalian of English heritage, and a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland.","Maud ataqal épiscopalienne ən origine anglaise,darat ən awen adid tizgar Mayflower, John Howland."
"""Clifford McCarty wrote that Warner Bros. publicity department had altered it to January 23, 1900 """"to foster the view that a man born on Christmas Day couldn't really be as villainous as he appeared to be on screen"""".""","Clifford Mccarty tîktab as aytedimen wi taganen issalan win Warner Bros əmiskalan ashal was 23 ən talil tan janvier ən awatay was 1900""""fal adîgîn tihussay as aytedîm wa iwan ashal Nôel ward adubat ad aqǎl awadul îbraran."
"Lauren Bacall wrote in her autobiography that Bogart's birthday was always celebrated on Christmas Day, saying that he joked about being cheated out of a present every year.","Lauren Bacall tîktab dǎɣ autobiographie ənes as ashal wad tuwa Bogart aqal aytagen adalan Nes ashal ən tilil tan ganen nôel,ənta tînna ward tithaken cadeaux ən anniversaire ənes."
"Maud was a commercial illustrator who received her art training in New York and France, including study with James Abbott McNeill Whistler.","Maud ənta ayteden ən îssanan commère,tamusnen ənes tan artistique adǎɣ ta tîrgaw New York ad France,fal James Abbott McNeill Whistler."
"She earned over $50,000 a year at the peak of her career – a very large sum of money at the time, and considerably more than her husband's $20,000.","Garaw agaran 50 000 dollars dax awatay yur samando nəšixil ənes – madin iknan hulen dax ehanin, əd ahuskat hulen fal 20 000 dollars tən ahalis ənes."
"""He had two younger sisters: Frances (""""Pat"""") and Catherine Elizabeth (""""Kay"""").""","""Ənta tila shǎtmas sanatat:Frances(""Par"") ad Catherine Élizabeth(""Kay"")."""
"A kiss, in our family, was an event.",Iyan ən tamulet dǎɣ tawset ta nanax taghal tidaw magharat.
"He inherited a tendency to needle, a fondness for fishing, a lifelong love of boating, and an attraction to strong-willed women from his father.","Ənta irgaw fal ǎba ənes harat wa îtakassan imanan dǎɣ aman,awen tarha ən hakūk Yę tawdes tan amǎn ad tidędęn ti sənen harat yę îman nǎsnat."
"Bogart later attended Phillips Academy, a boarding school to which he was admitted based on family connections.","Darǎt ən awen Bogart tinhǎy Academy wan Philipps,tarha ta tigraw tǎssūba ən tarha yę tiwssaten ənes."
"Several reasons have been given; according to one, he was expelled for throwing the headmaster (or a groundskeeper) into Rabbit Pond on campus.",Agen atwǎnah îga as amizar ən etang Rabbit Pond fal Campus.
"He then volunteered for the Coast Guard Temporary Reserve in 1944, patrolling the California coastline in his yacht, the Santana.","Ənta îga îmanes wan gardes-cotes dǎɣ awatay was 1944,ənta iswad littoral wan californien As îhǎ amas ən yacht ənes, Santana."
"In one, his lip was cut by shrapnel when his ship (the ) was shelled.",Tǎlîk ən îyat dǎɣen tǎt wankad fal tǎkat ǎlwaq wǎn tǎsnit tǎtwǎgar əs ęfew.
"While changing trains in Boston, the handcuffed prisoner reportedly asked Bogart for a cigarette.","As tøgǎz ǎlwaq węndǎɣ înzar dǎɣ train ən Boston,ǎytedem ęqfǎlan əs tîssîqfal assîstǎn Bogart îyat ən tezet ən sigarette."
"By the time Bogart was treated by a doctor, a scar had formed.","Ǎlwaq wa ikal assîssafar wan Bogart xør ęnassǎfar,ahayog îyan amera hid."
"""Instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up.""""""","""Ənta war has îssafar,îknęt assînantîf.."""""""
"His character and values developed separately from his family during his navy days, and he began to rebel.","Talqa ənes ǎd sôrho ənes assiskanan ti tawset ənes îhadǎn wîn îga fǎl amǎn,awęn ęqalas ad tǎssiskanən tamîten ənes."
"Bogart resumed his friendship with Bill Brady Jr. (whose father had show-business connections), and obtained an office job with William A. Brady's new World Films company.",Bogart îga tamidwa taynayat ǎd Bill Brady Jr.(âbǎ ənes îla îmūzayan ûlan dǎɣ show-business)darǎt ən awęn əenta igrǎw ǎshaxal dǎɣ ədag ən timashaxalen dǎɣ World Films de William A.Brady.
"He made his stage debut a few months later as a Japanese butler in Alice's 1921 play Drifting (nervously delivering one line of dialogue), and appeared in several of her subsequent plays.","""Dǎrǎt ən"
"A barroom brawl at this time was also a purported cause of Bogart's lip damage, dovetailing with Louise Brooks' account.","Iyan ən akînas igân dǎɣ bar dǎɣ awatay wen dǎɣ îwǎyid Bogart dǎɣ lesions labiales,awęndǎɣ ǎ tiwǎyanid dǎɣ récit wǎn Louise Brooks."
"""Bogart disliked his trivial, effeminate early-career parts, calling them """"White Pants Willie"""" roles.""","""Bogart wər ęrha ad aqęl awǎdəm wa ûnissen harət ad ashaxal wan tûdedęn itagû dǎɣ azamǎn wahîn ôkęyęn,ənta ǎ îrha ad tîkfîn""White Pants Willie""."
"Menken said in her divorce filing that Bogart valued his career more than marriage, citing neglect and abuse.",Menken ti sisstǎnt dǎɣ magręd ənes wǎn âmîzîy Bogart ǎ tassøfa ashəxal ənes fǎl adûbîn Îna ənta wər tiga adûbîn wǎla.
"There he met Spencer Tracy, a Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and they became close friends and drinking companions.","Edeg węn dǎɣ ad îmanhaÿ ad Spencer Tracy,acteur ən Broadway wa tarha Bogart as tihûssay,darat ən awęn aqalan imidiwęn fal haratęn agətnęn."
"Tracy received top billing, but Bogart appeared on the film's posters.","""Issam wan Tracy ayhən ęqaf,mashǎn"
"A quarter of a century later, the two men planned to make The Desperate Hours together.","Əkozat təzunawan dax temede nawatay nagudiyan, medin ganan adiqilan sartayan Alwaq waniba ən morda."
"Bogart shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and the New York stage from 1930 to 1935, out of work for long periods.","Awatay wǎn 1930 ad 1935,Bogart îla gar Hollywood ad scène new-yorkaise,ənta îga ęlan ǎgotnen ward îla ashaxal."
"""Although Leslie Howard was the star, The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson said that the play was """"a peach ... a roaring Western melodrama ... Humphrey Bogart does the best work of his career as an actor.""""""","Leslie Howard ənder ənta as vedette ,îmâgridǎn fǎl Brooks Atkinson wǎn New-York rimes ənta təna pièce ta atǎqal""une pêche...un mélodrame western rugissant...Humphrey Bogart îga ashǎxal ahukssęn dǎɣ tamudręnes."
Warner Bros. bought the screen rights to The Petrified Forest in 1935.,Warner Bros ta shînshâhid droits The Petrified Forest ən awǎy wǎs 1935.
"Howard, who held the production rights, made it clear that he wanted Bogart to star with him.","Howard, ənta ǎtitafǎt assahat wǎn production,ina a ęrha as Bogart dēdes ənes."
"When Warner Bros. saw that Howard would not budge, they gave in and cast Bogart.","Ugud wa Warner Bros, izax Howard waritiyu, itimal əd ikas Bogart."
"""According to Variety, """"Bogart's menace leaves nothing wanting"""".""","Variety tina,""""tassînę tân Bogart war tõya tarha wala dǎɣ iyet""""."
"There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face—something that antagonizes everybody.","Ilay harat dǎɣ magrad wa nîn,mex idâm wa îbraran...haręt îyęn idgazan ǎytedeman kul."
"In spite of his success, Warner Bros. had no interest in raising Bogart's profile.","Hakid dǎɣ awa tigręw, Warner Bros. Wǎr tilə taboxort ən atifnaz tamusnę tan Bogart."
"Bogart used these years to begin developing his film persona: a wounded, stoical, cynical, charming, vulnerable, self-mocking loner with a code of honor.","Bogart ikna dax wityan fal arisantu asiwid nədinat ənes wi silma : ədmanes ihyag, ətahanint, cynique, ahusken, taliqe əd ajotnen ən tarhanasan dər tiridawt ən tarha."
His disputes with Warner Bros. over roles and money were similar to those waged by the studio with more established and less malleable stars such as Bette Davis and James Cagney.,Tamadash ənes ad Warner Bros.fal îssalan awa ənbad tagî ad azruf œlah ad wa îwayid studio ad îmanzaran wi ôlahnen ad Bette Davis ad James Cagney.
"His only leading role during this period was in Dead End (1937, on loan to Samuel Goldwyn), as a gangster modeled after Baby Face Nelson.","Ashaɣal ənes wa ǎzaran dǎɣ awǎtəy wa îga dǎɣ Dead End (1937,atwahaka yę Samuel Golwyn) Diha ad îgraw gangster əyen safǎla ən Baby Face Nelson."
"""In Black Legion (1937), a movie Graham Greene described as """"intelligent and exciting, if rather earnest"""", he played a good man who was caught up with (and destroyed by) a racist organization.""","""Dax Black Legion (1937), iyat silma is Graham Greene iktab sund """"aniyat əd azikaran, ahuskat as itbat"""", itagu ahalis ahusken eqalan atiwatafan (əd exšad) is tidawen abdanen tiwsaten."""
"""The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie.""""""","Almasibat as ənta îssas ędagar wanin hakudi tagax wadǎɣ film."""""
"On August 21, 1938, Bogart entered a turbulent third marriage to actress Mayo Methot, a lively, friendly woman when sober but paranoid and aggressive when drunk.","21 ən talil tas 1938,Bogart assinta aduǎn ənes was assîn ad Mayo Met hot,tamat dar amędaw hûlęn mashan tamat ten war lamid azar takfar hulęn îhet akinas hulęn agud kul wa ad tiswa asmid."
"She set their house afire, stabbed him with a knife, and slashed her wrists several times.","ənta tiga efęw dǎɣ ehan nassęn, tidakęt sabsir."
"""According to their friend, Julius Epstein, """"The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the Civil War"""".""","“Awa ina amidi nassen, Julius Epstein,""""azli wǎn Bogart ad Methot ęqəl as ilkam akinas gar tiwssatęn."""""
"Methot's influence was increasingly destructive, however, and Bogart also continued to drink.","Tamusne tan Methot taqal almassibat ən tifawt kul, mashan, Bogart dǎɣ îssas hagudî."
"When he thought an actor, director or studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up publicly about it.","alwax wa ad iktahid as îyęn ən acteur, réalisateur mex stidio îga harat îbraran, anihaga ǎd ənen dat aduyət kul."
"Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney and Robinson turned down the lead role, giving Bogart the opportunity to play a character with some depth.","Paul Muni, George Raft, Cagney əd Robinson ugayan ye əšəxil wan santo, tən ifa Bogart dax tabaxor nuxil nawadim dər andiran dax ider."
"He worked well with Ida Lupino, sparking jealousy from Mayo Methot.","Ǎshiɣal as tihussay ad Ida Lupino, Dǎɣ ahanat tismiten ən Mayo Methot."
"He could quote Plato, Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson and over a thousand lines of Shakespeare, and subscribed to the Harvard Law Review.","Ənta iqra Platon,Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson ad awa ôgaran efad gûr Shakespeare,mashan əntaned igan issmawan nassen dag Harvard Law Review."
"Based on the Dashiell Hammett novel, it was first serialized in the pulp magazine Black Mask in 1929 and was the basis of two earlier film versions; the second was Satan Met a Lady (1936), starring Bette Davis.","Ilay fal roman wǎn Dashiell Hamlet,film tatwasagrah as série Dǎɣ magazine wǎn Pulp Black awatay was 1929 azar iga ikfa tabarat yę assin versiontan ən cinématographique ta sanatat as Satan Met a Lady(1936), ad Bette Davis."
Huston then eagerly accepted Bogart as his Sam Spade.,Huston erdah astihussay as Bogart itag Sam Spade ənes.
"The film, directed by Michael Curtiz and produced by Hal Wallis, featured Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson.","Film ta iga Micael Curtiz, ikna Hal Wallis,tikfa ahukssen yé Ingrid Bergman,Claude Crains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid,Conrad Veidt,Peter Lorre ad Dooley Wilson."
"Bogart is reported to have been responsible for the notion that Rick Blaine should be portrayed as a chess player, a metaphor for the relationships he maintained with friends, enemies, and allies.","Bogart ǎ igrawen tamkire as Rick Blaine anihaga ǎd atwigû amadlal wa ixashadan,timkarawen ahanen garessan ənta ad midawan ənes hakid Dǎɣ imikssanan ənes."
"Bogart was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost to Paul Lukas for his performance in Watch on the Rhine.","Dǎɣ ashaxal wa ən tidat,Bogart atwaga acteur wa azaran kul,mashan azaras Paul Lukas As tihussan Dǎɣ Watch on the Rhine."
"Bogart went on United Service Organizations and War Bond tours with Methot in 1943 and 1944, making arduous trips to Italy and North Africa (including Casablanca).","Bogart d Methot osan United Organizations d War Bond Tours dagh awatay wan 1943 d wan 1944, ijjan isikilan assohat nen s Italia d Afrikiya tan Tamasna (taha Casablanca)."
"""When they met, Bacall was 19 and Bogart 44; he nicknamed her """"Baby.""""""","Alwaq wad amanhayen, Bacall ila elan 19, Bogart 44 ən awatay; ad has iganû "" Baby"". """
"""We'll have a lot of fun together"""".""",Nakaned naga nidal hûlen garen nax.
"By Myself and Then Some, HarperCollins, New York, 2005.","By Myself ən Then Some, HarperCollins, New York, 2005."
"He considered himself Bacall's protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role.","Əntaned aganas istôssah ôgaz amidi ənes, mentor wǎn Bacall ad Bogart itikar ashaxal wen."
"""Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt.""""""","""Darat ən awen, ənta itag issasta wi taha yassine. """""
"The dialogue, especially in the added scenes supplied by Hawks, was full of sexual innuendo, and Bogart is convincing as private detective Philip Marlowe.","Edawani,hulen wa iga Hawks fal scène, ahanti imigriden aɣfalnes hulen fal aduban, Bogart igan haratan wi arnaen Dǎɣ temashaxal tan détective privée tan Philip Marlowe."
"The marriage was a happy one, with tensions due to their differences.","Azli ahukssat hulen, fal timusnawen ti abdanen garessan."
"""According to Bogart's biographer, Stefan Kanfer, it was """"a production line film noir with no particular distinction"""".""","Ina biographe wǎn Bogart, Stefan Kanfer, ənta""""iyen ən film ən amikwal, wardila ibadhi."
"Lacking a love interest or a happy ending, it was considered a risky project.","Warila anafa warila azigraz ən man, awen ôlahd ad projet ibraraen."
"""James Agee wrote, """"Bogart does a wonderful job with this character ... miles ahead of the very good work he has done before.""""""","James Agree iktab""""Bogart itag ashaqal ahuksen ...ashaqal ilan kilomètres ten."
"Bogart appeared in his final films for Warners, Chain Lightning (1950) and The Enforcer (1951).","Bogart izgarid Dǎɣ filimten ti dalkamnen kul yę Warner, Chain Lighting(1950) ad The Enforcer (1951)."
Santana also made two films without him: And Baby Makes Three (1949) and The Family Secret (1951).,Santana tiga ənta Dǎɣ films ten sanatet war iha ənta :And Baby Makes Thee(1949)ad the Family Secret (1951).
"Several Bogart biographers, and actress-writer Louise Brooks, have felt that this role is closest to the real Bogart.","Biographes ten agetnen ən Bogart, ad tanaktibt Louise Blooks,əntaned axelan as tamashaxal ta tôhaz hulen temashaxal tan Bogart."
"A parody of sorts of The Maltese Falcon, Beat the Devil was the final film for Bogart and John Huston.","Parodie Dǎɣ The Maltese Falcon,Beat the Devil as film wa ilkaman ə Bogart ad John Hulson."
"Huston's love of adventure, his deep, longstanding friendship (and success) with Bogart, and the chance to work with Hepburn convinced the actor to leave Hollywood for a difficult shoot on location in the Belgian Congo.","Tarha ən assikal yę Hulson, tamxre tamiduwa ənes ad Bogart, ad tadabit ənes yę ashaxal ad Hepburn agrawen tarna fal acteur nassen wǎn Hollywood ad afal ashaxal wa fal argawan ad agan taɣalay ɣalayen agotnen dǎɣ amas ən Congo Belge."
"Bacall came for the over-four-month duration, leaving their young son in Los Angeles.","Bacall ôssad yę adagû karad uran ən tahagit,Dǎɣ œyahin elessan dǎɣ Los Angeles."
"""She Luxed my undies in darkest Africa.""""""","""Ənta ta tubat ikarshayen ənaw Dǎɣ tihay."""""
"Hepburn (a teetotaler) fared worse in the difficult conditions, losing weight and at one point becoming very ill.","Hepbum ( wənan isisu asmid) igraw imanes dax alwaqan asohatnen, ugud ən tazayt əd uda sufruy hulen."
"Despite the discomfort of jumping from the boat into swamps, rivers and marshes, The African Queen apparently rekindled Bogart's early love of boats; when he returned to California, he bought a classic mahogany Hacker-Craft runabout which he kept until his death.","Dǎɣ iba nasahat wa tiwgat ən nakarambaw dǎɣ tədmar naman, ijereran əd dual, The African Queen intadǎɣ əsənkar tarhanes tasohet ən Bogart ye karabawan ; ugud wa eaqal Californie, əšəša tasnit tolaɣat Hacker-Craft ən hišk itwar hawendǎɣ hartaba."
"""When Bogart won, however, he said: """"It's a long way from the Belgian Congo to the stage of this theatre.""","Mugudu Bogart igraw, agudendǎɣ , adina : ‘’ ‘’ Tabarat tan Congo belge zəgrit ye tidawt in təfusen'' ‘’"
"As in tennis, you need a good opponent or partner to bring out the best in you.","Sund tennis, anihaga agaraw namakenis iwar sarho mex ami fal azzizgrar in tadabite in manes."
"Though he retained some of his old bitterness about having to do so, he delivered a strong performance in the lead; he received his final Oscar nomination and was the subject of a June 7, 1954 Time magazine cover story.","Inka adetaf andəran dǎɣ təssənawen ye tabarat ten, iga ašəɣil iwar sarho dǎɣ zabo ta-təšamat ; igraw tinimuklaness ta-samando in Oscars əzar igay temalsət in magazine time le 7 Juin 1954."
He is the type of director I don't like to work with ... the picture is a crock of crap.,Sund enamahat wa dǎɣ dar wəderhax ad-nəmšəxil…silma taqal aysartayan ən talafen.
"""Despite the acrimony, the film was successful; according to a review in The New York Times, Bogart was """"incredibly adroit ... the skill with which this old rock-ribbed actor blends the gags and such duplicities with a manly manner of melting is one of the incalculable joys of the show"""".""","‘’ Yur santo war əkna, silma taqal ahusken ; dǎɣ təzmit tan New York Times, Bogart eqal dǎɣ iba morda ere əwənanoxed…tamxar naxmar wa itagan silmatan ən talasse tan rock mêle ye imidiwan ən ənmitif ən nalmaxna ən tiwšre ye atiba egal agarazat magaran ye ere wa igihan ""."
"He was uneasy with Ava Gardner in the female lead; she had just broken up with his Rat Pack buddy Frank Sinatra, and Bogart was annoyed by her inexperienced performance.","Wa əsgrez maness dǎɣ Ava Gardner wa əšɣal dǎɣ əmək wa deden; Iket ətamšašat dəmidines wan Rat Pack, Frank Sinatra, əd Bogart səgrazan ən salan wirsen hulen."
"When Bacall found them together, she extracted an expensive shopping spree from her husband; the three traveled together after the shooting.","Agud wa ətənhya Bacall artayan, təsistan ahalis əness ya rag asuk assohen ; win carad asekalan darat asəsətkil."
"He also appeared on The Jack Benny Show, where a surviving kinescope of the live telecast captures him in his only TV sketch-comedy performance (October 25, 1953).","Izgarid dǎɣ salan wi The Jack Benny Šow, dǎɣ adakal ən salan agudendǎɣ ən təmudre ən tənmətaft dǎɣ šastotan yur sketšes dǎɣ silma ( 25 octobre 1953)."
Stephen became an author and biographer and hosted a television special about his father on Turner Classic Movies.,Stephen egal animxar ən təməsnawen nawa išəxəlan izar isimsiduw isalan əbdanew fal tis fal Tuner classic Movie.
"In the wake of Santana, Bogart had formed a new company and had plans for a film (Melville Goodwin, U.S.A.) in which he would play a general and Bacall a press magnate.","Dǎɣ adriš wa Santana, Bogart ila tasirtayt taynayat izar ila isalan nəgi ən silma (Melville Goodwin, U.S.A) wa dǎɣ ima diqil animxar əd Bacall anamokal ən sidawat."
He did not talk about his health and visited a doctor in January 1956 after considerable persuasion from Bacall.,"Wad itimgrid fal ašexat ines əd isəstan lactor dǎɣ janvier 1956, darat uxul nimasdimal ina Bacall."
"He had additional surgery in November 1956, when the cancer had metastasized.","Iga opere maqaran dǎɣ novembre 1956, mašan cancer təwəd."
"""On it was inscribed, """"If you want anything, just whistle.""""""",""" Əktab fallas :`` `` afal tarhed harat, sukusut.`` ``"
"Having studied with Stella Adler in the 1940s, he is credited with being one of the first actors to bring the Stanislavski system of acting and method acting, derived from the Stanislavski system, to mainstream audiences.","Ənəmaxra dəd Stella Alder dǎɣ awatay wan 1940, atiwafa asinəhig ən tizart nəsəsətkil wa asosanan adinat almaxna wan Stanislavski əd tabarat tan adalan, ədət tigmadat almaxna wan Stanislavski."
"He directed and starred in the cult western One-Eyed Jacks, a critical and commercial flop, after which he delivered a series of notable box-office failures, beginning with Mutiny on the Bounty (1962).","Iga izar idal dǎɣ western culte One-Eyed Jacks, tanadra ən tizmit əd amšinš, darat huk tənməlalen ən tanadra ətbanten dǎɣ box-office, asəsənta Mutiny on the Bounty (1962)."
He refused the award due to alleged mistreatment and misportrayal of Native Americans by Hollywood.,Ugay əs tajor fal abrur nalmaxna əd tasawt winnantikna na Amerindientan dǎɣ Hollywood.
"According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Brando was paid a record $3.7 million ($ million in inflation-adjusted dollars) and 11.75% of the gross profits for 13 days' work on Superman.","Dǎɣ alkitab Guinness wan records, Brando igraw 3,7 miliontan win dollar ( miliontan win dollar dǎɣ dollar wa iknan tiwat) əd 11,75 pursantan nawa dəwədan 13 ihadan nišixil fal Superman."
"His ancestry was mostly German, Dutch, English, and Irish.","Imarawanes aqalan sinilkaman alaymtan, nealartan, angletan əd irlandetan."
Brando was raised a Christian Scientist.,Brando adǎɣ atwasawdal akal wan scientistan christan.
"However, she was an alcoholic and often had to be brought home from bars in Chicago by her husband.","Əgudendǎɣ, eqal emasaw na alcol awendǎɣ as agudiyan ahalis ənes a tad ditiwyat dǎɣ dagan wi tasase win Chicago."
"""Brando harbored far more enmity for his father, stating, """"I was his namesake, but nothing I did ever pleased or even interested him.""","""Brando išaška ajen fal tahanint e tis, əlixat : "" Eqal amnuxrunen, mašan kala wis əgrez awa itag wala harhey. """
"Around 1930, Brando's parents moved to Evanston, Illinois, when his father's work took him to Chicago, but separated in 1935 when Brando was 11 years old.","Dǎɣ 1930, imarawan ən Brando idakan Everton, dǎɣ Illinois, ugud wa tiwat əšixil ən tis is Šicago, mašan abdan dǎɣ 1935, əzar Brando ila 11 elan."
"""Brando, whose childhood nickname was """"Bud"""", was a mimic from his youth.""","""Brando, was sisimnes wa timdrit eqal """"Bud"""", eqal isididan dǎɣ təmədrit ines. """
"In the 2007 TCM biopic Brando: The Documentary, childhood friend George Englund recalls Brando's earliest acting as imitating the cows and horses on the family farm as a way to distract his mother from drinking.","Dǎɣ əlkitab Brando wa 2007 ən TCM : The Documentary George Englund, amidi ən timəmdrit, isamakta as ašišil wazaran ən Brando eqal asugbubr ən wan əd bijuwan naxala ən tumuzuq, samando našlalat ən mas fal asmid."
Brando's sister Frances left college in California to study art in New York.,"France, walatmas ən Brando, təfal universite wa californie fal texare ən təmisnawen dǎɣ New York."
Brando excelled at theater and did well in the school.,Brando maqir dǎɣ timsədawt əd igraw aywar sarho dǎɣ ecole.
"The faculty voted to expel him, though he was supported by the students, who thought expulsion was too harsh.","Əšuhu nukus nəzizgar ines, falas igraw tadhilt ən maxran, wi axelnen azizgar eqal ašugu."
"""In a 1988 documentary, Marlon Brando: The Wild One, Brando's sister Jocelyn remembered, """"He was in a school play and enjoyed it ... So he decided he would go to New York and study acting because that was the only thing he had enjoyed.""","""Dǎɣ salan win 1988, Marlon Brando : The wild One, tamaydrat ən Brando, Jocelyn, tisan : """" Idal dǎɣ təmsudut nadal dǎɣ ecole izar awen igrazazs…Izar təsəbat iki ən New York ye texare ən təmsidawt falas inta xas a tat-tiwarhat."""
"For a time he lived with Roy Somlyo, who later became a four time Emmy winning Broadway producer.","Ugudendǎɣ ən harat ən tahagit, amsadwal əd Roy Somlyo, wa eqalan agudiyan emanahat ən Broadway itkalan ikoz Emmy Awards."
Brando's remarkable insight and sense of realism were evident early on.,Təmusne əd inəyat nigi noxadan wan Brando eqal atiwadalan šik.
"According to Dustin Hoffman in his online Masterclass, Brando would often talk to camera men and fellow actors about their weekend even after the director would call action.","Yur Dustin Hoffman dǎɣ wanes Masterclass ən internet, Brando ganu agudiyan ye wisasatkalnen əd midawanes win matkalan Week-end nasan, darat awa imanes wa idakalan əsistan dris tidawt."
"His behavior had him kicked out of the cast of the New School's production in Sayville, but he was soon afterwards discovered in a locally produced play there.","Temašaxalt ən nes təzəgartihin dǎɣ tizunawen ti nigi ən New School yur Sayville, mašan atwagraw andiran dǎɣ batma tigat yur mizɣax."
Cornell also cast him as the Messenger in her production of Jean Anouilh's Antigone that same year.,"Dǎɣ awatay wendǎɣ ,Cornell əsixlafti tanhat tan igi ən salan dǎɣ əgitanes ən Antigone de Jean Anuilh."
"Bankhead had turned down the role of Blanche Dubois in A Streetcar Named Desire, which Williams had written for her, to tour the play for the 1946–1947 season.","Bankhead kala ugay ye tanhat tan Blanche Dubois dǎɣ Streetcar Named Desire, was Williams iktabas has, fal ad disimililiy sidawat ya watay wa 1946-1947."
"""Wilson was largely tolerant of Brando's behavior, but he reached his limit when Brando mumbled through a dress rehearsal shortly before the November 28, 1946, opening. """"""","""Wilson eqal ere hin itiyin hulen ye təmašaxalen tən Brando, mašan iwad samando əgud wa Brando asmataktak əgud ən səmusuxul na dirran dat əsəst ən tat-tazarat ən 28 Novembre 1946."""""""
"""It was marvelous,"""" a cast member recalled. """"""","""Eqal ayknan "", asmatahit harat dǎɣ aljamaxat."""""""
"Critics were not as kind, however.","Tizmiten war aqelnat a iknan, agudendǎx ."
"""He received better reviews at subsequent tour stops, but what his colleagues recalled was only occasional indications of the talent he would later demonstrate. """"""","""Isla tizmiten maqornen yur asimililiy wadimalan, mašan wi midawanes kitun eqal dǎɣ tabarat batala ye tamašaxal ənes əgud wa əsikna darat awen."""""""
Brando displayed his apathy for the production by demonstrating some shocking onstage manners.,Brando əsiskna tadabit dǎɣ igitan dǎɣ ila tidit dǎɣ haratan ən salan asisnanen dǎɣ tidawt.
"After several weeks on the road, they reached Boston, by which time Bankhead was ready to dismiss him.","Darat isatan ajotnen dǎɣ zabo, iwad Boston, əd Bankhead asidaw ya tišig."
"""Pierpont writes that John Garfield was first choice for the role, but """"made impossible demands.""""""","""Pieroont iktab as John Garfield eqal wa azaran amukis fal salan, mašan """"itagu asostanan əwĕnan tila""""."
"""It humanizes the character of Stanley in that it becomes the brutality and callousness of youth rather than a vicious old man ... A new value came out of Brando's reading which was by far the best reading I have ever heard.""""""","""Ikna tamxar ən Stanley wa dǎɣ fal eqal talimt əd diba ən tazidert ye təmədrit yexul nahalis namxar azilbabayan….tembe taynayat tizgarit dǎɣ texare tan Brando ta taqal dǎɣ igig texare ta tatanatofat is kala wa has isla."""""""
"""He said, """"The curtain went up and on the stage is that son of a bitch from the gym, and he's playing me.""""""","""I na : ""rideau ikarid izar fal tidawt yur ila lures takarwat ta gymnase, izar awadǎɣ taga at tišlan."""""""
Brando's first screen role was a bitter paraplegic veteran in The Men (1950).,Wazaran išixil fal ecran wa Brando eqal emašehi tigraw paraplégie səməmat dǎɣ The Men (1950).
"By Brando's own account, it may have been because of this film that his draft status was changed from 4-F to 1-A. He had had surgery on his trick knee, and it was no longer physically debilitating enough to incur exclusion from the draft.","Dǎɣ təna tan Brando, igomiši təsəba ən silma was anuzgum ənes okay yur 4-F har 1-A. Atiwagas azibrizi dǎɣ əfud wa tašalge əd əfud wa nəxil. Atiwagas azibrizi dǎɣ əfud wa tašalmad əd abaddan ənes wa wənnan əgde ye twišig ənes dǎɣ əšəɣil wan sardasitan."
"Coincidentally, the psychiatrist knew a doctor friend of Brando.","Dǎɣ tabaxor, psyšiatre izay lactor iyan namidi ən Brando."
The role is regarded as one of Brando's greatest.,Əšil wendǎɣ eqal wa tan ofan fuk ye Brando.
The film was directed by Elia Kazan and co-starred Anthony Quinn.,Silma at-tat igan Elia Kazan izar iga tenamahat Anthony Quinn.
"During our scenes together, I sensed a bitterness toward me, and if I suggested a drink after work, he either turned me down or else was sullen and said little.","Dǎɣ tidawen nartay, ofraya ye harat nabrur dǎɣ ənəyatin, izar afal has ənes ad dəsu harat darat ašəxil, arugiy mex eqal aytaran izar wirigu at-tat ilan."
"After achieving the desired effect, Kazan never told Quinn that he had misled him.","Ugud wa digraw almaxna nawa əs igrazan, Kazan kala wrina ye Quinn igas hile."
"Gielgud was so impressed that he offered Brando a full season at the Hammersmith Theatre, an offer he declined.","Gielgud əsirmaxqi wadǎɣ fal ifa Brando awatay əmdan dǎɣ Hammersmith Theatre, ihuk wi asixarambay."
It was like a furnace door opening—the heat came off the screen.,Sud xas ašər nən nal furna itamaren- takaste tifalid tiset.
"""By all accounts, Brando was upset by his mentor's decision, but he worked with him again in On The Waterfront. """"""","""Dǎɣ ələxi dak, Brando eqal at-twasamalalay dǎɣ tanhat tan amizar ənes, mašan olas əšixil diris dǎɣ On The Waterfront."""""""
"Triumph's importers were ambivalent at the exposure, as the subject matter was rowdy motorcycle gangs taking over a small town.","Əmawayan ən Triumph eqalan tuhunawen nukus, falas əšixil eqal gluftan ən tisnay ən kal takalt dakalnen tanhat nəxrm əndiran."
"When initially offered the role, Brando—still stung by Kazan's testimony to HUAC—demurred and the part of Terry Malloy nearly went to Frank Sinatra.","Ugud wa has atwanan ad ətkil əšəxil, Brando, harwa əsnin fal tajuhenes tan Kazan dat HUAC- ocar əd əšəxil wan Terry Malloy išwar ət-tigraw Frank Sinatra."
Brando won the Oscar for his role as Irish-American stevedore Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront.,"Brando əgraw Oscar dǎɣ əšəxil wan Terry Malloy amaway irlando-américain, dǎɣ On The Waterfront."
"""In his July 29, 1954, review, The New York Times critic A. H. Weiler praised the film, calling it """"an uncommonly powerful, exciting, and imaginative use of the screen by gifted professionals.""""""","Dǎɣ tizmiten tən 29 juillet 1954, tizmit tan New York Times A. H. Weller iga timal ən silma, ətəganen dǎɣ """"dakalan ən tiset ta tas-suxsadat, tazizaydar izar tila ənizgum fal Idinat ilanen tayite""""."
He portrayed Napoleon in the 1954 film Désirée.,Iga əšəxil wan Napoléon dǎɣ silma watiwarhan dǎɣ 1954.
Brando was especially contemptuous of director Henry Koster.,Brando eqal aybdan dǎɣ əməkan ən Henry Koster.
"""Relations between Brando and costar Frank Sinatra were also frosty, with Stefan Kanfer observing: """"The two men were diametrical opposites: Marlon required multiple takes; Frank detested repeating himself.""""""","""Awa ilan gar Brando ən dimidines Frank Sinatra eqal intadǎɣ ahinilan, sud awadǎɣ axel Stefan Kanfer : """"Medin wi nəsin aqalan aybdan talxa : Marlon isihušul idakalan ajtonen ; Frank iskan awen anelasan."""""
"""Frank Sinatra called Brando """"the world's most overrated actor"""", and referred to him as """"mumbles"""".""","""Frank Sinatra exra Brando"""" emag wa tan ogaran atwilkah dǎɣ aadunyat ""hit tigan """"amudar."""""""
"""Pauline Kael was not particularly impressed by the movie, but noted """"Marlon Brando starved himself to play the pixie interpreter Sakini, and he looks as if he's enjoying the stunt—talking with a mad accent, grinning boyishly, bending forward, and doing tricky movements with his legs.""","""Pauline Kael warekel ere tigrazan silma, mašan iktab """"Marlon Brando egay laz fal igi ən nəlixi ən Lutin Sakini, izar erha ad didil ən tinidar – imigrad istənm ere ajoren, idǎɣ istənm ara, akutar əsdat dǎɣ iga ibarajan okaynen dǎɣ əsəsiwan."""""
"""Newsweek found the film a """"dull tale of the meeting of the twain"""", but it was nevertheless a box-office success.""","""Newsweek ənhay as silma taqal """"tanfust tisimakadat dǎɣ tidawt nəsin idinat"""" mašan eqal ayknan dǎɣ box-office."""
The film went on to win four Academy Awards.,Silma darat awen təkal ikoz Oscars.
"""By all accounts, Brando was devastated by her death, with biographer Peter Manso telling A&E's Biography, """"She was the one who could give him approval like no one else could and, after his mother died, it seems that Marlon stops caring.""""""","""Dǎɣ derhan cul, Brando təsirmaqi tamatant ən mas, awa əskala tiga Peter Manso dǎɣ asəlixat dǎɣ A&E's Biography : ""taqalas tatadobet a tətafu tarhanes awa səwadadobat awadəm atag, darat awen tamatant ən mas, taqal as Marlon watətikma."""""""
The Young Lions also features Brando's only appearance in a film with friend and rival Montgomery Clift (although they shared no scenes together).,The Young Lions taqal əntadǎɣ azagar əyandǎɣ ən Brando dǎɣ silma ənta dəmidines əd emakenis ənes Montgomery Clift (dǎɣ iba əntizune ən salan ən tartit).
"""Brando portrays the lead character Rio, and Karl Malden plays his partner """"Dad"""" Longworth.""","""Brando iga isalan nawadəm wadǎɣ azaran Rio, əd Karl Malden itag wa imidines """"Dad"""".Long Worth. """
Brando's inexperience as an editor also delayed postproduction and Paramount eventually took control of the film.,Əsuzsid wa Brando seqal emasehi idgal igi əd Paramount dǎɣ samando itkal tanhat ən silma.
"""By then, I was bored with the whole project and walked away from it.""""""","""Əgundedǎɣ , tadhit təsəmakadahi izar ənkašax falas."""""""
"Brando's revulsion with the film industry reportedly boiled over on the set of his next film, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's remake of Mutiny on the Bounty, which was filmed in Tahiti.","Tazude ən Brando ye igi ən silmatan tokay yur igitan ən silma nes wilkamnen, fato tan Mutins wi Bunty win Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, wa igan dǎɣ Tahiti."
"""Mutiny director Lewis Milestone claimed that the executives """"deserve what they get when they give a ham actor, a petulant child, complete control over an expensive picture.""""""","""Watagan Mutins, Lewis Milestone, ina inamahadan ""inahag awa garaw ugud war hakan amusan əntikan, ara wənan ukul, dǎɣ tanhat silma timdat tasohet"
The Ugly American (1963) was the first of these films.,The Ugly Americain (1963) eqal wa azaran silma.
"All of Brando's other Universal films during this period, including Bedtime Story (1964), The Appaloosa (1966), A Countess from Hong Kong (1967) and The Night of the Following Day (1969), were also critical and commercial flops.","Silmantan fuk wi eqal magrad ən Brando dǎɣ alwaq wendǎɣ, fal Bedtime Story (1964), Appaloosa (1966), hinis ən Hong Kong (1967) dǎɣ ehad ən sund dašalwen (1969), aqalan əntanedǎɣ aydaran dǎɣ təzmit əd mašanšan."
"Brando had also appeared in the spy thriller Morituri in 1965; that, too, failed to attract an audience.","Brando ila əntadǎɣ ayga dǎɣ thriller wa təmkrit Morituri dǎɣ 1965, wa wənan igrez ye ədinat."
"Candy was especially appalling for many; a 1968 sex farce film directed by Christian Marquand and based on the 1958 novel by Terry Southern, the film satirizes pornographic stories through the adventures of its naive heroine, Candy, played by Ewa Aulin.","Candy eqal əntadǎɣ ayhan ajen, sex farce de 1968 iga Šristian Marquand dǎɣ əlkitab wa 1958 ən Terry Suthern, silma tiga isalan ən tufusen nəzinatan dǎɣ əxsusid ən tahanint, Candy, taxray Ewa Aulin."
"""In the March 1966 issue of The Atlantic, Pauline Kael wrote that in his rebellious days, Brando """"was antisocial because he knew society was crap; he was a hero to youth because he was strong enough not to take the crap"""", but now Brando and others like him had become """"buffoons, shamelessly, pathetically mocking their public reputations.""""""","""Dǎɣ edan wa Mars 1966 wan The Atlantic, Pauline Kael əktab as ehanin ən tagat ənes, Brando, """"eqal amadgal ən tartit falas isan as tartit taqal awənan ikna"""", eqal emasehi ən təmədrit falas ila asahat ye iba ən tarha na wənan ikna """",mašan amara Brando əd iyad sundinta aqalan """"imaškan, tajakatnen talxanen, asuxsid, wan arhet nədinat """"""."
"""I was very convincing in my pose of indifference, but I was very sensitive and it hurt a lot.""""""","""Riduwan hulan dǎɣ igi nənəyat, mašan aqalax awənan išmer izar ikmahi hulen."""""
The film overall received mixed reviews.,"Dǎɣ tartit, silma tigraw tizmiten ən nəsušusku."
"Brando dedicated a full chapter to the film in his memoir, stating that the director, Gillo Pontecorvo, was the best director he had ever worked with next to Kazan and Bernardo Bertolucci.","Brando ətkal alxuruf əmdan ye silma dǎɣ ənəyat ənes, əlixat as emag, Gillo Pontecorvo, eqal wofan emag əd waskala waramšaxalan, darat Kazan əd Bernardo Bertolucci."
"In 1971, Michael Winner directed him in the British horror film The Nightcomers with Stephanie Beacham, Thora Hird, Harry Andrews and Anna Palk.","Dǎɣ 1971, Mišael Winner ilwaytan dǎɣ silma nətiqal wa britannique The Nightcomers əd Stephanie Beašam, Thora Hird, Harry Andrews əd Anna Palk."
He bested Brando at the 1972 New York Film Critics Circle Awards.),Azar ye Brando is New York silma Critics Circle Awards wan 1972).
"Brando also had One-Eyed Jacks working against him, a troubled production that lost money for Paramount when it was released in 1961.","Brando əntadǎɣ igraw tanmiltak tan Jack widigrew tabaxor, nəgitan nəsuhu wa asban azruf yur Paramount yur azagarines dǎɣ 1961."
"""Coppola convinced Brando to a videotaped """"make-up"""" test, in which Brando did his own makeup (he used cotton balls to simulate the character's puffed cheeks).""","""Coppola igraw Brando ya rəgiš ye aragu """"ašišuhax"""" igašan iyatsilma, tadǎɣ Brando išišahax ənta emanes ( itkal tibululaxen ən habu ya disaktid igazan akufnen nawadəm)""."
"""Brando had doubts himself, stating in his autobiography, """"I had never played an Italian before, and I didn't think I could do it successfully.""""""","""Brando ənta emanes əsinhugu, iganan dǎɣ awa əšxal : """"kala wiriga Italien dat awa, izar waraxelax adobex igu na husken."""""
"Brando was signed for a low fee of $50,000, but in his contract, he was given a percentage of the gross on a sliding scale: 1% of the gross for each $10 million over a $10 million threshold, up to 5% if the picture exceeded $60 million.","Brando atwaga sund tampo ən 50 000 $, mašan dǎɣ tiridwat ənes, igaraw harat dǎɣ tasudut ən éšelle mobile : 1% dǎɣ tamukust dǎɣ 10 millions ən dollar okayan 10 millions, awendǎɣ har 5% afal silma toqay 60 millions"
"""In a 1994 interview that can be found on the Academy of Achievement website, Coppola insisted, """"The Godfather was a very unappreciated movie when we were making it.""","""Dǎɣ tidawt tan 1994 ədǎɣ adobat agaraw dǎɣ tedagit tan Academy of Ašievement, Coppola tahat tehayt : """"Parrain eqal silma wənənan izgraz hulen ugud waritagu."""
They didn't like the way I was shooting it.,Wədarhen əmək was tawaga silma.
"In a 2010 television interview with Larry King, Al Pacino also talked about how Brando's support helped him keep the role of Michael Corleone in the movie—despite the fact Coppola wanted to fire him.","Dǎɣ tidawt təmətkalan tatiwardat dǎɣ 2010 yur Larry King, Al Pacino əntadǎɣ ələxat awas əsəlil tan Brando tədhalti suduf nəšixil wan Mišeal Corleone dǎɣ silma, awendǎɣ dak iga as Coppola arha atišig."
"""He broke the ice by toasting the group with a glass of wine."""" '""","""Erza glace as iligat tasəswit ye aljamaxat dǎɣ alcas nəsmid."""" """""
"""Caan adds, 'The first day we met Brando everybody was in awe.'""""""","""Caan asawed : ‘ašal wazaran yur amuqasan ənBrando, aljamaxat kul taqalan ayswadan."""""
"""Also, because he had so much power and unquestioned authority, I thought it would be an interesting contrast to play him as a gentle man, unlike Al Capone, who beat up people with baseball bats.""""""","Əntadǎɣ, falas ila tanaya tendǎɣ əd təmxire wənan tinwinu, axelax eqal aybdan ahusken da dəqəl ahalis ahusken, ebdan da Al Capone, wa Inaqan adinat is batte tan baseball."" "" """
There was really no beginning.,Wartila santo faw.
"He boycotted the award ceremony, instead sending indigenous American rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather, who appeared in full Apache attire, to state Brando's reasons, which were based on his objection to the depiction of indigenous Americans by Hollywood and television.","Itamax dǎɣ tidawen tən huk ən alhakan, əd asisiw dǎɣ edag nanamokal wa naxil ən Américain ən kal anal, Sašeen Littlefeather, wi əlsanen comple apaše, fal azizgriran tidit tan Brando, ta wənan tarda ye tasawt tan Americatan ən kal akal is Hollywood əd silmatan."
"As with previous films, Brando refused to memorize his lines for many scenes; instead, he wrote his lines on cue cards and posted them around the set for easy reference, leaving Bertolucci with the problem of keeping them out of the picture frame.","Sund silmatan wihin okaynen, Brando ugay dilmad texarenes dǎɣ handagan ajonen ;iktab dǎɣ alkadan izar igen dǎɣ batma far ad dagrha iman šik, oyan ye Bertolucci asafar na tan tətəf dǎɣ agama tele."
His gross participation deal earned him $3 million.,Asukənes wa nugiš wa hin odanan ikal 3 millions ən dollar.
"""Pauline Kael, in The New Yorker review, wrote """"The movie breakthrough has finally come.""","""Pauline Kael, dǎɣ tizmiten tən New Yorker, əktab : ""As amir nəgitan ən silma əwadid dǎɣ samando."""
"In 1973, Brando was devastated by the death of his childhood best friend Wally Cox.","Dǎɣ 1973, Brando təsinanti tamatant namidibes olax dǎɣ təmədrit Wally Cox."
"Absent for the first hour of the movie, Clayton enters on horseback, dangling upside down, caparisoned in white buckskin, Littlefeather-style.","Wardosa dǎɣ heure wa əzaran ən silma, Clayton igaš dabaje, ətiwligilit exafines sider, elakef nalam dǎɣ təməle, iga Littlefeather."
"""Penn, who believed in letting actors do their thing, indulged Marlon all the way.""""""","""Penn, wa axelan as araywu imakanan igin awa harhan, əsikna tarxisenes ye Marlon awendǎɣ har samando."""""
"In 1978, Brando narrated the English version of Raoni, a French-Belgian documentary film directed by Jean-Pierre Dutilleux and Luiz Carlos Saldanha that focused on the life of Raoni Metuktire and issues surrounding the survival of the indigenous Indian tribes of north central Brazil.","Dǎɣ 1978, Brando iga tafust dǎɣ anglais tan Raoni ən silma ta təktabat franco-belge iga Jean-Pierre əd Lui Carlos Saldanha wa oxasan dǎɣ təmudre ən Raoni Metuktire əd asistan wan tamudre ən tizunawen ən indientan ən kal akal dǎɣ amas ən awza wan Brésil."
"In 1979, he made a rare television appearance in the miniseries Roots: The Next Generations, portraying George Lincoln Rockwell; he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for his performance.","Dǎɣ 1979, asohat ən silma dǎɣ mini-série Roots : The Next Generations, dǎɣ əšəxil wan George Lincoln Rockwell ; igraw Primetime Emmy Award watan ofan nəšixil wa sisin dǎɣ mini-série mex silma asahat ənes."
Brando was paid $1 million a week for 3 weeks work.,Brando izazal 1 million de dollars dǎɣ isa hadan ye 3 nogay nahad əd diyan nəšixil .
"In the documentary, Coppola talks about how astonished he was when an overweight Brando turned up for his scenes and, feeling desperate, decided to portray Kurtz, who appears emaciated in the original story, as a man who had indulged every aspect of himself.","Dǎɣ akatab, Coppola italaxat tarimex nahanay ən Brando maqaran igašanid batma əd, afray as warasakna, ina arisumutiy Kurtz, wa eqalan asididan dǎɣ tanfust tan tidit, sund ahalis ifan imanes ye təmašaxalenes."
"However, he returned in 1989 in A Dry White Season, based on André Brink's 1979 anti-apartheid novel.","Əgudendǎɣ , iwalid dǎɣ 1989 dǎɣ alwaq ədwat tila harat əd dagur, tigat fan əlkitab anti-apartheid wan André Brink wan 1979."
"Brando received praise for his performance, earning an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor and winning the Best Actor Award at the Tokyo Film Festival.","Brando igraw təmmalen ən asahat ənes, igraw dawla dǎɣ Oscar wa ofan dǎɣ wasəsən əšəxil əd igraw alhak ən wa ofan dǎɣ magatan wən Festival tan silma wan Tokyo."
"""Variety also praised Brando's performance as Sabatini and noted, """"Marlon Brando's sublime comedy performance elevates The Freshman from screwball comedy to a quirky niche in film history.""""""","""Variety əntadǎɣ iga təmmal nəšixil wan Brando dǎɣ əšəxil wan Sabatini əd iktab : """"Tihusay nəšixil ən sista wan Marlon Brando emaxar The Freshman dǎɣ lay wan sista screwball ye edag wa namas ən tanfust tan cinéma."""""""
"The Island of Dr. Moreau screenwriter Ron Hutchinson would later say in his memoir, Clinging to the Iceberg: Writing for a Living on the Stage and in Hollywood (2017), that Brando sabotaged the film's production by feuding and refusing to cooperate with his colleagues and the film crew.","Emag wan Île namusan Moreau, Ron Hutšinson, ina agudiyan dǎɣ iniyat ənes, Clinging to the Iceberg : Writing for a Living on the Stage and in Hollywood ( 2017), as Brando exšad igi ən silma dǎɣ atkir əd ugay dertay ən midawanes əd aljamaxat tan igi."
This was his last role and his only role as a female character.,Eqal əšəxil ənes wa samando əd əšəxil iyadǎɣ wa deden.
"""The actor's son, Miko, was Jackson's bodyguard and assistant for several years, and was a friend of the singer. """"""","""Ara wa watagan, Miko, eqal amagaz əd emajeyhi wan Jackson dǎɣ wityan ajotnen, əd eqal amis namazzar."""""""
"Dad had a hard time breathing in his final days, and he was on oxygen much of the time.","Tis əndaras ufas dǎɣ hadanes wilkamnen dǎɣ təmudrenes, əd hanti dacortan nufas dǎɣ agud sa sagud."
So Michael got Dad a golf cart with a portable oxygen tank so he could go around and enjoy Neverland.,Michael ifa tis turafs tan golf ənta əd lulu nufas dǎɣ taxarat fal arudabat tekle əd duguš ən Neverland.
He also suffered from diabetes and liver cancer.,Tasimankati ənta dǎɣ diabète əd cancer tan ulh.
His single recorded line was included within the final game as a tribute to the actor.,Tənanes iyadǎɣ ta taqimat tatwazazgar dǎɣ adalan wi samando nətiqal ən wa itagan.
A distressed Brando told Malden he kept falling over.,Brando s-iɣšad ulh ənnes inna ye Malden itiɗu harkuk.
"Shortly before his death, he had apparently refused permission for tubes carrying oxygen to be inserted into his lungs, which, he was told, was the only way to prolong his life.","Dǎt iba nes, unjay ihuk ən tabarat n-iggi ən manatǎn wi hakkanen aɗu (unfaas) ye taruten, fǎl-awen, itawann-as, ənta ɣas ad addoben ašəšgrət ən tamudre nes."
"""In 1976, he told a French journalist, """"Homosexuality is so much in fashion, it no longer makes news.""","""Dǎɣ awatǎy wǎn 1976, inn aye zhurnalist ən frans : "" anmər n-addinat n-awsəf iyyǎn əjjət hullǎn har əmb-as katabǎn fǎl-as zhurnalistǎn """
"He also claimed numerous other romances, although he did not discuss his marriages, his wives, or his children in his autobiography.","Ijja dǎɣ as isuhaɣ ajotnen ənta a tan ilǎn, dǎɣ-as wǎr ijja majrad n-idubunǎn nes, ən tiɗeɗen nes meɣ n-aratǎn nes dǎɣ awa iktab dǎɣ attarex nes."
"Brando met actress Rita Moreno in 1954, and they began a love affair.","Brando amuqqas əd tanƭuƭ tan sinema s-itawanna Rita Moreno dǎɣ awatǎy wǎn 1954, təzzǎr əssəntǎn anmər."
"Years after they broke up, Moreno played his love interest in the film The Night of the Following Day.","Elǎn darǎƭ anəbɗ nǎsǎn, Rita Moreno təgaš dǎɣ sinema wǎn ehaɗ wan ešal-en edagg ən temarhit ənnes."
"She is said to have been the daughter of a Welsh steel worker of Irish descent, William O'Callaghan, who had been superintendent on the Indian State railways.","Itawanna ad t-əqqal elle-s n-emaššaɣǎl gallois ən taźoli tan taśśohet əd ihǎn əs Irland, William O'Callaghan, s-as kala iqqal emanaźrəf ən tabarat tan taźoli ən trintǎn n-addawlat n-Inde."
"Brando and Kashfi had a son, Christian Brando, on May 11, 1958; they divorced in 1959.","Brando əd Kashfi ərgawǎn barar, Christian Brando, ešal wǎn 11 mǎyo dǎɣ 1958 ; anmazayǎn dǎɣ awatǎy wǎn 1959."
They had two children together: Miko Castaneda Brando (born 1961) and Rebecca Brando (born 1966).,Ǝrgawǎn əssin aratǎn : Miko Castaneda Brando (iwan dǎɣ 1961) əd Rebecca Brando (təwwat dǎɣ 1966).
"Because Teriipaia was a native French speaker, Brando became fluent in the language and gave numerous interviews in French.","Ed Teriipaia təqqal tawalt ən mas ən tafransit, Brando ilmad tawalt ten ikfa dǎɣ-əs isalǎn ajotnen."
Brando and Teriipaia divorced in July 1972.,Brando əd Teriipaia anmazayǎn dǎɣ 1972.
"Brando had a long-term relationship with his housekeeper Maria Cristina Ruiz, with whom he had three children: Ninna Priscilla Brando (born May 13, 1989), Myles Jonathan Brando (born January 16, 1992), and Timothy Gahan Brando (born January 6, 1994).","Brando anəlkam s-alwaq šəgren ye temaššaɣalt ənnes Cristina Ruiz, is ijrawǎn karaɗ aratǎn : Ninna Priscilla Brando (təwat ešal wan 13 dǎɣ tallit tan maya 1989), Myles Jonathan Brando (iwǎn ešal wan 16 dǎɣ tallit tan zhanwǎr 1992) et Timothy Gahan Brando (iwǎn ešal wan 6 dǎɣ tallit tan zhanwǎr 1994)."
"His numerous grandchildren also include Prudence Brando and Shane Brando, children of Miko C. Brando; the children of Rebecca Brando; and the three children of Teihotu Brando among others.","Dǎɣ ihayawǎn nes i ajotnen ahantǎn Prudence Brando əd Shane Brando, bararǎn ən Miko C. Brando, Bararǎn ən Rebecca Brando əd karaɗ aratǎn ən Teihotu Brando, d-asal-awen."
His behavior during the filming of Mutiny on the Bounty (1962) seemed to bolster his reputation as a difficult star.,Esawe ən talə nes alwaq wǎn iji ən sinema Mutiny on the Bounty (1962) ikfe aśśahaƭ n-emaššaɣǎl aśśohen.
"Galella had followed Brando, who was accompanied by talk show host Dick Cavett, after a taping of The Dick Cavett Show in New York City.","Galella iɗast as ilkam ye Brando, i hin aśśofaɗ enamejrad ən talk-show Dick Cavett, dəffər adakal ən Dick Cavett Show dǎɣ New York."
"The filming of Mutiny on the Bounty affected Brando's life in a profound way, as he fell in love with Tahiti and its people.","Iji ən sinema ən des Mutins du Bounty asmalalay hullǎn talɣa ən Brando, fǎl-as arha hullǎn tahiti əd tawset ənnes."
The 1983 hurricane destroyed many of the structures including his resort.,"Aɗɗu wa maqqarǎn ən 1983 arźan haratǎn ajotnen, dǎɣ-as iha edagg wǎn addalǎn."
He was listed in the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) records as Martin Brandeaux to preserve his privacy.,Atiwaktab dǎɣ bukutǎn win Komison n-addawalaten n-ihuk n-isalǎn( commission fédérale des communications) (FCC) fǎl isəm ən Martin Brandeaux y-ad əffər iman nes.
He attended some fundraisers for John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election.,Ijaha ye umməɣ n-aźrəf ye John F. Kennedy alwaq wan umməɣ ən tumast ən fresidan n-awatǎy wǎn1960.
"In autumn of 1967, Brando visited Helsinki, Finland at a charity party organized by UNICEF at the Helsinki City Theatre.","Dǎɣ ewelǎn wan awatǎy 1967, Brando ikka Helsinki, dǎɣ Finland, y-ad ajayhi yetaɣimit n- umməɣ n-aźrəf ija UNICEF dǎɣ ehǎn wa maqqarǎn n-addal ənHelsinki."
He spoke in favor of children’s rights and development aid in developing countries.,Ija majrad n-alxaqqǎn n-aratǎn əd tilalt n-ikallǎn wi ahanen abara n-ikkuy əs-dǎt.
"""I felt I'd better go find out where it is; what it is to be black in this country; what this rage is all about,"""" Brando said on the late-night ABC-TV talk show Joey Bishop Show.""","""Ofrayaɣ as a ofǎn ad asaɣ awen ənhiyaq-i əs tiƭƭawen-in ; awa amos ad iqqal awadəm ikawalǎn dǎɣ addawlǎt-i ; awa amos adkər-i"", a inna Brando dǎɣ talk-show Joey Bishop Show, atiwasaknǎn dǎɣ samdo ən taɣimit fǎl ABC-TV."""
"""It was one of the most incredible acts of courage I ever saw, and it meant a lot and did a lot.""""""","""Amos akufər maqqarǎn əs kala wǎr t-əheyǎɣ, əd ikka tənna n-ajjen d-iji n-ajjen."""""""
"""In 1964 Brando was arrested at a """"fish-in"""" held to protest a broken treaty that had promised Native Americans fishing rights in Puget Sound.""","""Dǎɣ awatǎy wǎn 1964, Brando atwarmas dǎɣ alwaqq ən """"fish-in"""" atiwajjǎn fǎlad əɣšəd alkaɗ ikfǎn tabarat ye Amérindientǎn n-ukkəs n-imanǎn dǎɣ Puget Sound."""""
"""Brando ended his financial support for the group over his perception of its increasing radicalization, specifically a passage in a Panther pamphlet put out by Eldridge Cleaver advocating indiscriminate violence, """"for the Revolution.""""""",Brando assəbdad taɗhəlt ən tartit ən addinǎt-as ishakt ed əstənnəəm wǎr ənmannəkǎn asəssikəy wa ǎtwatban jazzulnen əllanen takmo assakay Eldridge Claeaver isaxnen a wǎr-en ahuskǎt ‘’Sassəmutəy itrabǎn ‘’ijjan fǎl kǎl ǎshaɣalǎn wi-n ǎlxəkum meɣ fǎl awadəm iyyan
Sacheen Littlefeather represented him at the ceremony.,Sacheen Littlefeather ijjash edagg ənnes ǎlwaq wǎn addal.
The event grabbed the attention of the US and the world media.,A wen atwajjan ermas anniyǎt n-imojjan ən isǎlan wi-n- Ameriəain əd kǎl əddəwəlǎn w-iyyattnen.
He was also an activist against apartheid.,Abəllan harwa əd azəmələy jer təməttawen.
He is listed by the American Film Institute as the fourth greatest male star whose screen debut occurred before or during 1950 (it occurred in 1950).,Ən Ameriəan film Institute ijje dǎɣ anmizǎr wa-s əkkoz dǎɣ meddən wi əllanen təmɣar əd-isam assəntanen ijji ən sənəmatǎn dat meɣ ɗarǎt awatay wa-n 1950 (ənta assənta dǎɣ ǎwatay wa-n).
"""Retrieved August 19, 2009.Encyclopedia Britannica describes him as """"the most celebrated of the method actors, and his slurred, mumbling delivery marked his rejection of classical dramatic training.""","""Retrieved August 19, 2009. Dǎɣ məlhaw kǎl Britanniəa əjjan šund awadəm wa offǎn dǎɣ tajjanen sənəmatan ila əmməkkan ajjootnen.”"
He was a development from the gangster leader and the outlaw.,Igla har eqqal amizar ən kǎl mojjan ən erk harǎt d-iba-n tukalt daɣ awa ihan ašareɣa
"His portrayal of the gang leader Johnny Strabler in The Wild One has become an iconic image, used both as a symbol of rebelliousness and a fashion accessory that includes a Perfecto style motorcycle jacket, a tilted cap, jeans and sunglasses.","Dǎɣ assəfham ənness ən tumast n-amizar ən kǎl mojjan ən erk harǎt Johnny Strabler daɣ The Wild on eqqal šund aƭƭaswer assisnanǎn, attiwaɗkalǎn ǎlwaq iyyan šund tamater ən tunjit əs waa-t-illan əd isuj wi-d-əšraynen amoosnen erasway wa-n motoltǎn ijjan daɣ elǎm, takumbut təfrayɣat jin əd timanhayen tin tafukt"
"""The """"I coulda been a contender"""" scene from On the Waterfront, according to the author of Brooklyn Boomer, Martin H. Levinson, is """"one of the most famous scenes in motion picture history, and the line itself has become part of America's cultural lexicon.""""""","Awa ‘’ittikiyǎm ’’I coulda benn a contender’’’’ amoos tanfust Waterfront, Brooklyn Boomer, Martin H. Levinson maqqarǎt daɣ isǎlan ən sənəma fǎl-as assudmǎr y-awen ed amoos amara ašrut ən tawalt əd assanɣat ən americain”"
"""You have to make 'em believe that you are dying ... Try to think of the most intimate moment you've ever had in your life.""""""","lizam kawaǎn ad uɣalǎn, səknəmtǎn as šund tamattant a təjjǎm… arammǎt asənəzjumu dǎɣ ǎwaq ən harǎt kawǎn d-eqqalǎn tajjam dǎɣ tamudre nawǎn “”"
In 1999 the American Film Institute ranked him eighth among its list of greatest male stars of the Golden Age of Hollywood.,"Dǎɣ awatay wa-n 1999, American Film Institute dǎɣ amiizar ən madden wi maqqornen anəfrannen dǎɣ melɣaw ən ašaɣalǎn nasǎn, eqqal wa-s-ətaam ən elǎn ən Holliwood."
"He spent several years in vaudeville as a dancer and comedian, until he got his first major acting part in 1925.","Ijja elan ajjootnen dᾰɣ vaudeville shund amadhal d-ere isaɗsen, ijraẓ y-addinᾰt ad ajjihᾰn y-awa ittaj har anmiwəɗ əd tumast ən emashaɣᾰl wa , maqqarᾰn dᾰɣ awatay wa-n 1925."
"After rave reviews, Warner Bros. signed him for an initial $400-a-week, three-week contract; when the executives at the studio saw the first dailies for the film, Cagney's contract was immediately extended.","Ɗarᾰt iməjridᾰn fᾰl-as attiwaajjanen amoosnen a- t-assokᾰt əs dat, warner Bros ᾰswajja eshwᾰl en ᾰmshəɣəl w-azzarᾰn ən karaɗᾰt əssayᾰten əs ᾰlqqim ənnes ikkat əd 400 ən dollar dᾰɣ hak əssayᾰt ;ᾰlwaq wa-d- ənhayᾰn imizarᾰn santo n-awa ashaɣal, taqqan ən amshəɣəl ən Cagney awwaɗ ᾰlwᾰq wen dᾰɣ."
He was nominated a third time in 1955 for Love Me or Leave Me with Doris Day.,Ijja atwəfrən wa-s karaɗ dᾰɣ awatay wan 1955 ye Love Me or Leave Me əd Boris Day.
"Cagney walked out on Warner Bros. several times over the course of his career, each time returning on much improved personal and artistic terms.","Cagney ifla warner Bros. Dᾰɣ ashaɣal ənnes, ijja-s-ad uɣlawᾰn ajjootnen d- iman ənnes d-ijjtᾰn ən ashaɣalᾰn offanen wi azzar nen."
"He worked for an independent film company for a year while the suit was being settled, establishing his own production company, Cagney Productions, in 1942 before returning to Warner seven years later.","Ashəɣəl dᾰɣ tartit tannehaɗᾰt y-ijji ən sənəmatᾰn hᾰr ikkrᾰsh awatay dᾰɣ-tartit tannehaɗᾰt y-ijji ən sənnəmatᾰnɗ har ikkrash awatay daɣ-əs y-ad ənhəy ɗarᾰt ammukən ən ᾰshareɣa, təzzar asɣayma tartit ən iman ənnes tan ammukən ən ᾰshaɣalᾰn ənnes s-itawanna ᾰmmukən ən ᾰshaɣalᾰn ən cagney dᾰɣ-awatay wa-n 1942 təzzar ad eqqal ɣor warner əssa elan ɗarᾰt awa"
"Cagney was the second of seven children, two of whom died within months of their births.",Cagney ᾰmmoos ara wa-s əssən fᾰl əssa dᾰɣ aratᾰn əs əssin dᾰɣ sᾰn ᾰmmun ɗarᾰt tiwit nᾰsᾰn shamad əkkrashᾰn harᾰt ən orᾰn
"The family moved twice while he was still young, first to East 79th Street, and then to East 96th Street.",ᾰlɣayᾰlᾰn əjjᾰn əssin hinan harwa məɗrəy əs tizzarᾰt kul ᾰhona əs East 79th ᾰhona harwa əs East 96th street.
I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it.,Tənnaq-ahi tahanint ən aratᾰn əjrawnen tᾰmudre təkkᾰt taɣrəst.
"He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, when necessary.",Emᾰkkenəs olaɣᾰn dᾰɣ tᾰsharet itigəẓ wan amᾰqqar ənnes Harry itteeajᾰn teɣᾰre ta-n lᾰxtortᾰn Alwᾰq əd ᾰttiwarha a wen.
"He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at Lenox Hill Neighborhood House (one of the first settlement houses in the nation) where his brother Harry performed and Florence James directed.",Ijjᾰsh Ashəɣəl wa-n teyatrətᾰn shund tumast ən ere itajjᾰn imatekwayᾰn shund wi-n shinwatᾰn ɣor edagg wa-s itawanna Lenox Hill Neighborhood House iyyᾰn dᾰɣ ihᾰnan wi ᾰzzarnen ᾰsibᾰrraknen dᾰɣ ᾰddᾰwlᾰt edagg dᾰɣ inaẓẓar ᾰ wa-s-itawanna Harry əd Florence James i-təyyart y-awen
The show began Cagney's 10-year association with vaudeville and Broadway.,Addᾰl en ᾰshəshwᾰl santo ən tartit ən maraw elan jer Cagney əd Vaudeville əd Broadway.
"Eventually, they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee, enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage.",Darᾰt a wen asmarwᾰsan ezraf aqqalan New York s-əammarden-əd Chicago əd Milwauke anmanhayᾰn d-iba –n-ajjaraw ən harat dᾰɣ tabarᾰt ᾰlwᾰq wa –d sawajen addalᾰn.
"As with Pitter Patter, Cagney went to the audition with little confidence he would get the part.","Ɣər Pitter Patter, Cagney ikka edagg wan asəsləyn- iman ənnes dᾰɣ iba-n ajjer ən attama n-ajjaraw ən ash:əɣəl-ən"
This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney; apart from the logistical difficulties this presented—the couple's luggage was in the hold of the ship and they had given up their apartment.,Amoos ye Cagney tamotayt ən šaɣšadᾰn timɣutar ajjootnen titwənhinᾰt fᾰl as Ilqlᾰn nasᾰn əhhan toraft tan aman unjᾰyᾰn es uɣəl ən ihanᾰn nasᾰn.
"""He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else.""""""",“Ijja dᾰɣ eɣᾰf ənnes əs ad əjrəy ᾰšəɣəl əs ijji ən hᾰrᾰt iyyᾰn.””
"Cagney also established a dance school for professionals, and then landed a part in the play Women Go On Forever, directed by John Cromwell, which ran for four months.",Cagney asṣəkrᾰs edagg ən teɣᾰre ye kᾰl musnᾰt ən dallol ɗarᾰt a wen ijjraw ᾰšəɣəl ɣor womem Go on forever wa issabdadᾰn awa ikkan ᾰtwəj a tamosᾰn John Cromwell ətwəšəɣəl a wen har ətwəjjən əkkoẓ orᾰn.
The show received rave reviews and was followed by Grand Street Follies of 1929.,Addᾰl en əjjannen ᾰddinᾰt awa hin əjrahᾰn fᾰl qs attiwakyᾰd hullᾰn daɣ street follie dᾰɣ awatay wa n 1929.
"Retitled Sinners' Holiday, the film was released in 1930.",Iwar t isəm wa n Sinners Holiday izjᾰr əd film en dᾰɣ awatᾰy wa n 1930.
"However, the contract allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40-week period, effectively guaranteeing him only 40 weeks’ income at a time.",Dᾰɣ awa asəbdadᾰn tərəɗawt əs amšəɣəl en ijraw ye Warners tərəɗᾰwt dᾰr əs ɣor samdo ən hak 40 ən əssayaten ᾰssiɗmᾰn a wen awa s annimahᾰl ad t əjrəw dᾰɣ 40 ən əssayaten
"Due to the strong reviews he had received in his short film career, Cagney was cast as nice-guy Matt Doyle, opposite Edward Woods as Tom Powers.",Fᾰl təsəba n iməjridᾰn olaɣnen ᾰtwajanen fᾰl as ijraw dᾰɣ təməɗrit ən tᾰqqᾰn jəzəlᾰt dᾰɣ ᾰšəɣəl ən sənnəmatᾰn ᾰnnifrᾰnnen Cagney y ijji n awa t id eqqalᾰn šund sarho ən Matt Doyle dat Edwar Woods dᾰɣ ᾰšəɣəl ən Tom Powers.
"Producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference; Wellman said the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot; and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed it was based on the real life of gangster Hymie Weiss, who threw an omelette into his girlfriend's face.",Darryl Zanuck wa ikkanᾰn awa mad en ətwəšəɣel ᾰsdatat dᾰɣ ᾰnnəzjum ən asəwəj ən təɣimit fᾰl awa ᾰtwašaɣalᾰn Wellman inna ikraš ᾰnnəzjum as inhay alwᾰq wa d ᾰšeɣalᾰn telajᾰẓt təwarᾰt tabəl Addinᾰt wi ᾰšeɣᾰlnen Glasmon əd Brigh ᾰsdᾰten as wᾰr t əjja ar fᾰl awa d əd taqqal əs tidət tᾰmudre n awadəm ən timašalen əbrarnen s itawanna Hymie Weiss əs kala ijjᾰr tamidit ənnes əs tikakiten dᾰɣ idəm.
I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie.,Kala wᾰr ᾰznᾰzjameɣ əs a-wen ad ətwəsəkən dᾰɣ sənəma.
"""He saw the film repeatedly just to see that scene, and was often shushed by angry patrons when his delighted laughter got too loud.""""""",Ijja ikayadᾰn ᾰjjootnen y-akkayad ənnes y-ad ənhəy edᾰgg en təzzar harkuk wᾰr ᾰnmannᾰk əd wi kayyadnen itajᾰš tᾰn ᾰlhᾰm ən təɗəẓẓa nes - i-t-aṣṣohet.
Warner Bros. was quick to team its two rising gangster stars—Edward G. Robinson and Cagney—for the 1931 film Smart Money.,Warner Bros arorᾰd tartit ən ᾰddinᾰt wi-n-əssin ən erk timašalen a-tᾰn amoosᾰn: Edward G Robinson əd Cagney y-ijji ən sənəma wa-s-itawanna Smart Honey ᾰtwᾰjjᾰn dᾰɣ awatay wa-n 1931.
"As he completed filming, The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all-night showings.","šamad imidu ammukən ənnes, The Public Energy, dᾰɣ ehaɗ-ən, idaggan kul wi dᾰɣ tajjᾰn sənəmatᾰn."
"The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films, even ones he was not in, which he opposed.",imizzarᾰn ən idaggan wi-n-n asəɣal asəbdadᾰn əs tahasilt Cagney əs assiəɗ ən tanfo ən əs dᾰt ən thé
The success of The Public Enemy and Blonde Crazy forced Warner Bros.' hand.,Public Enemy əd Blonde Eranzy ašašᾰlᾰn affus ən Zurner Bros.
The film was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Take All.,"The Crowd Roars əd Winner Take all, əkyadᾰn film- ən šik."
"Historians also debate the nature of history as an end in itself, as well as its usefulness to give perspective on the problems of the present.","Tinfusen, ammədaš hullen fᾰl əmmək ən tanfust šund- as awa attiwamaɣᾰn kul, wᾰr- atwawaɗ hak-əd tanfo nes y- assəkən ən timusnawen əs əmmək wa-s mad ətwəfhəm."
"However, ancient cultural influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today.","Masᾰn haratᾰn, ajjootnen əd attiwakaynen orawᾰn əmməkkan abɗanen ən esawa ən tanfust, aqqalan tiwaɗt dᾰɣ elan tikkyan əs ammutəy harwa ašal-i."
"""Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian, is often considered the """"father of history"""" in the Western tradition, although he has also been criticized as the """"father of lies"""".""","”Héradote, emaj ən tinfust hin okkaynen dᾰɣ addəwal wan gree dᾰɣ temaɗe ta-sdat J.C ᾰttiwaɗkᾰl šund “”amaraw ən bahu”” .”"
"""In Middle English, the meaning of history was """"story"""" in general.""",Dᾰɣ tawalt tan anglais hin tašmᾰt tanfust a has itawanen ”story.”
"""In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both """"history"""" and """"story"""".""","”Dᾰɣ Allemangne tan w-aynayᾰn ta fransit’əd harᾰt dᾰɣ kal tawalen t-in kᾰl germanie ədromanes, əknanᾰt mehaw hullen amoostᾰn ad annikaben, tafert- en itawᾰ-as harwa”” tanfust””əd”isᾰln””.”"
"""In the words of Benedetto Croce, """"All history is contemporary history"""".""",Dᾰɣ tənna ən Benedetto” tanfust kul t-amoos tanfust ən isᾰlan attiwajanen dᾰɣ azzaman iyyᾰn.
"""Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the """"true past"""").""",Dᾰɣ isᾰlan wi-d-əqqalnen asəməsədu fᾰl wi ətwᾰrnen ən emᾰj ən tənfusen əmmalᾰnt isᾰlan iyyᾰɗ d-ᾰlkəttabᾰn ( s-assəmutəy ən awa əkkqn əs asəkkən ən awa ᾰtwajjᾰn əs tidət ;
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at other times as part of the social sciences.,Ahanay ən əmmək ən tᾰnfust ᾰmoos ᾰlwᾰq iyyᾰn harᾰt ᾰttiwᾰɗkalᾰn dᾰɣ ummᾰɣ ən təmusnawen fᾰl agg-ᾰddəm ijja daɣ fᾰl timusnawen ajjootnen.
"In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.","Dagh awatay wan 2000,Fernand Braudel iyyan dagh kel attarex n France, eway id tamuttayt n teghare tan attarex s majal tan n s ajjama chund aqtisad, teghare n musnat n awadim d jografia dagh teghare n attarex wan alghalim"
"In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.",Fᾰl tiwit ən tanfust musnᾰt ənnes t-addobᾰt ad t-ajj tiẓunawen karaɗᾰt: awa ᾰtiwᾰktabᾰn awa ᾰtwᾰnnᾰn əd awa iɣalasᾰn kᾰl tənfusen kayadᾰn tᾰnᾰt fᾰl karaɗᾰt .
"Archaeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing its discoveries.",Ajaraw ən ᾰsəfukᾰr ən haratᾰn əfᾰrnen ay-illan afɗᾰn ən elan əgdahᾰn y-iman fall-as asiwəɗ a t-ajjᾰn isᾰlan ən awa-t-illan dat awa .
"""For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, USA, has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents idealizing """"liberty"""" and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total historical environment.""",“Almital iyyan Mark Leone ᾰnnumaɣ əd enᾰsfahᾰm ən tanfust ta-n Annapolis Maryland USA immᾰɣ y-ad əfhəm awa ᾰtiwᾰktabᾰn dᾰɣ ᾰlkəttabᾰn wi saknanen əmmək ən ajjaraw ən iman ənnes əd umᾰɣ ən wi ətwarnen amoosnen ay-isaknen.”
"It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization.",Uɗəf ən eclan əd ibq-igdᾰh dᾰɣ tanfo t-ᾰttiwajᾰt fᾰl umᾰɣ ən ajaraw ən timusnawen ajjootnen əjjanen fᾰl ᾰšaɣalᾰn ᾰjjootnen.
"Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the philosophy of history.",Wa-s-karaɗ ᾰddobᾰt ummᾰɣ ən ᾰsəbab wa fᾰl t-ᾰtwᾰjja tanfust : esawe nes.
By whom was it produced (authorship)?,(Mi tᾰt ikatabᾰn)?
What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)?,Əndek awa isiduten as-awa-t-ihan amoos (tidət) fᾰl.
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history.,Esawe n-asənfəs əhhanᾰt timusnawen əd haratᾰn ᾰmoosnen ᾰtiwasabdadᾰn ɣor kᾰl əs aɗkul ən santo nasnᾰt w-azzarᾰn d-ummaɣ ən timtᾰr təzzar a dᾰɣ təttawaktab tənfust .
"Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention (though Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself).",Mi tᾰt ikatabᾰn uɗəf ən eclan əd ibq-igdᾰh dᾰɣ tanfo t-ᾰttiwajᾰt fᾰl umᾰɣ ən ajaraw ən timusnawen ajjootnen əjjanen fᾰl ᾰšaɣalᾰn ᾰjjootnen.
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient and medieval China.,Kala–t-əllanᾰt assanɣaten ən tənfusen ellanen asənnəfəs ammutayᾰn hullan fᾰl əmmək nasnᾰt dqɣ ᾰddəwəl wa-n Chine .
"Chinese historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature.","Kᾰl tənfusen wi-n chinois ən tinayiwen ti əlkamnen dᾰɣ Chine, ᾰɗkalnᾰt awa-s itawanna (Shiji) nes šund awa ᾰtwasabdadᾰn fᾰl esawe y-ikətba n ən tanfust ed ajaraw əs teɣᾰre əs awa-t-illan fall-asnᾰt."
"Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach in historical study.","S-ibret ən iwətyan wi-n 1800 , awadəm ən-u-ᾰnnəzjum wq-s-itawanna Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ən ᾰddəwəl wa-n Allemagne n-ᾰnnaktib ən tənfusen , ijrᾰw əs akayad ən awa-t-illan fᾰl -asnᾰt dᾰɣ temeɗe n-awatay hin-t-okkayᾰt."
"The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly, to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past.","Dᾰɣ isᾰlᾰn ən asədətu n- Ibn Khaldoum orda as awa ebɗᾰn awa-t-illan dᾰɣ azzaman iyyan, ilzam-s-a-d ətwəxsəb awa-t-illan daɣ ilalᾰn wi əllanen ᾰlfayda əd ahanay ən əmmek ən tirmit -n-eket ennes, təzzar ad tətwənhəy tanoflayt əd derhan ən ajjaraw ən tᾰmusne y-ad ətwejrew axasab ən awa-d-ᾰtwakayᾰn."
"""His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,H. Mowlana (2001). """"""","“Esawe nes wa-n-ijji ən tenfusen, asiṣᾰjrᾰw-t- əs ujreh n-ᾰddawlᾰt dᾰɣ-ašəɣəl ən a-wen əd-anməkf en isᾰlan, tərəɗawt ən isᾰlan iyyaɗ ᾰtiwᾰɗkᾰlnen dᾰɣ tenfusen, H. Mowlana (2001)."""""""
"""Dr. S.W. Akhtar (1997). """"""",“Dr.S.W.Akhtar ( 1997).””””
"For Ranke, historical data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical rigor.","Fᾰl awa inna Ranke, awa-t-illan daɣ isᾰlan wi-n tənfusen, ilzam ad əmsədewᾰn əs sarho, ətwəkƴəd awa otasᾰn, təzzar əmsədewᾰn dᾰɣ-as -ᾰtiwaɗanan hullan."
"In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces.","Ɣor temeɗe ta-s 20 n-awatay,kᾰl tənfusen ən tiɣᾰr ti mᾰqqornen wᾰr-hin əknen ujreh hullan ən awa-t-illan fᾰl-isᾰlan wi-d-aqqalnen tinfusen, i-amoosnen harᾰt isamɣarᾰn ᾰddawlᾰt əd ᾰddinᾰt wi maqqornen s-unəɗ əs akayad ən amṣəṣsuhu ən təmusnawen ."
Many of the advocates of history as a social science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach.,Imagaẓᾰn ajjootnen ən tenfusen fᾰl-awa –d-eqqalᾰn timettawen əd asəssəjran nᾰsnᾰt .
So far only one theory of history came from the pen of a professional Historian.,"Har-ašᾰl-i-dᾰɣ, tinfusen t-id –aqqalnen timettawen, ad ᾰzjᾰrnat ere iknan tᾰmusne hullan."
"Intellectual historians such as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance of ideas in history.","Kᾰl tənfusen wi əknanen teɣᾰre, šund Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte əd George Mosse əknᾰn asəbdad ən timusnawen dᾰɣ tənfust ."
"Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany, especially in the Nazi period.","Kᾰl tenfusen šund Martin Broszat, Lan Keršhaw əd Detlev Peukert əmmaɣᾰn y-ad ənhəyᾰn awa-t-amoos tᾰmudre en ᾰddinᾰt wi-n bannan daɣ ᾰddəwəl za-n-Allemagne dᾰɣ hak ašᾰl ɣor temeɗe n-awatay ta-s 20 dᾰɣ ijji ən azzamanᾰn arunen."
"Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of studying the experience of women in the past.","Šᾰt tənfusen daɣ t-iyyaɗ, šund Joan Wallach Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Šeila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese əd Lynn Hunt, ədhalan hullan tanfo ta-n-ummaɣ ən təmusnawen ən ɗeɗen dᾰɣ -awa-d-ᾰtiwakayᾰn."
"Another defence of history from post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994 book, The Killing of History.","Australien iyyᾰn daɣ ən tənfusen, s-itawanna Keit Windschuttle,ənta dᾰɣ idhᾰl hullan awa ᾰnnəfasᾰn fᾰl tənnawen t-id-əšrᾰynen dᾰɣ əlkəttab ənnes wa-n 1994 s-itawanna The Killing Of History."
Historical omissions can occur in many ways and can have a profound effect on historical records.,"Awa hi-n-ᾰtwayyᾰn dᾰɣ tənfusen ,ᾰddoobᾰt ᾰtwəkken əs əmməkᾰn ᾰjjootnen, ᾰddoobᾰt harwa ajjaraw ən esawe mᾰqqarᾰn fᾰl əlkəttabᾰn wi-n tənfusen."
Ancient history: the study from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.,Tanfust tᾰruwᾰt : Teɣᾰre ən santo ən tanfust ta-n-addunya hᾰr ɣor awatay wq-s maraw əd əkkoẓ.
Comparative history: historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.,"Tanfust tᾰmmeẓlayᾰt : Akayad ən ad-okayᾰn fᾰl tənfusen əjjanen fᾰl timəttawen əd awa itawajjen ,amoosᾰn ad ᾰtiwagaẓᾰn wᾰr et qqel ay-ibdadᾰn ɣas ɣor isəɣlay ən ᾰddawlᾰt ."
Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.,Tanfust fᾰl awa-t-illan əd eqqalᾰn timəttawen : Ummᾰɣ ən awa ᾰtwasabdadᾰn dᾰɣ-əs .
Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time.,"Tanfust fᾰl musnᾰt : Akawad ən təyyətwen ed ahanay ən əmmək wa-s-t-ᾰtwajja tənfust dᾰɣ awa dᾰɣ-əs –t-illan , wi tᾰt janen əd əmmək wq-s təwwiɗ dᾰɣ ᾰzzamanᾰn."
"Modern history: the study of the Modern Times, the era after the Middle Ages.","Tanfust tᾰynayᾰt Teɣᾰre n-azzamanan wi əšraynen, ɗarᾰt awatay wq-n maraw əd əkkoẓ."
Palaeography: study of ancient texts.,Akayad ən harat aruwᾰn: Šund ən isalan -ikətban wi arunen
Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.,Ijji fᾰl tanfust : Asəməɗni fᾰl tanfust əd haratᾰn wi fall-as ᾰtwajjanen.
Women's history: the history of female human beings.,Tanfust fᾰl ɗeɗen : Tanfust təjjᾰt fal ᾰddinᾰt ( tiɗeɗen )
Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used.,"Timaɗ ən elan əd təmerwen nasᾰn , amooᾰan azzamanᾰn wi-d--atiwaɗkalnen ,ᾰlwᾰq dav wa saknanᾰt , ilkam y-əmmək wq-s mad ətwəj ."
"To do this, historians often turn to geography.","A wen dᾰɣ a fᾰl kᾰl tenfusen ,siɣulᾰn ᾰnniwᾰt nasᾰn s-ibret ən awa –d-eqqalᾰn tumast ən kᾰl akqll əd a-sal-a-wen."
"For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential.","Almital fᾰl awa asəbabᾰn tanoflayt ye kᾰl addawlᾰt ta taruwᾰt ən kᾰl Misr, ilzam ummᾰɣ ən isᾰlan fᾰl-as ."
"History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean.","Tanfust ta-n kᾰl Amerique ,t-amoos a-t-ohar Amerique tan--afalla əd ta-n-ajjus əd Amerique ta-n-ammas əd Caraibe ."
"History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.","Tanfust ta-n Caraibe ,tenta əs timtᾰr əknanen tarut ɣor ahanay ən awa-d-aqqimᾰn dᾰɣ haratᾰn əɣšadnen ,əllanen ᾰɗəkoɗ ən 7000 n-awatay ."
"History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.","Tanfust ta-n Eurasie ,t-amoos tanfust oharᾰn-ikallᾰn ᾰjjootnen wi mᾰqqornen ᾰmoosnen ; Moyent-Orient , Asie ta-n-ajjus ta-n-Alqqiblᾰt , ta-n jer ᾰjjus d-Alqqiblᾰt ed əddewəlᾰn wi-n Europe əd Asie ta-n-ammas əd Europe ta-n-Alqqiblᾰt ."
History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.,Tanfust ən Asie ta-n Alqqiblᾰt t-amoos tamsədawt ən isᾰlan tamsədawt ən isᾰlan ᾰtwᾰjjanen dᾰɣ ᾰzzamanᾰn əs ᾰzzamananfal-as .
History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.,"Tanfust ən Asie ta-n jer qjjus əd Alqqiblᾰt ,t-amoos harat ᾰtwašaɣalᾰn jer kᾰl ᾰkkal əd inaftaɣᾰn wi ta-n ojjarnen tᾰddabit."
"""The """"old"""" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were """"social"""" in the sense of being outside the elite system.""","Tanfust ta tᾰruwᾰt fal timəttawen dat awatay wa-n 1960, t-amoos a wᾰr-en-illa eɣaf , əhhantᾰt iməjridan ən kᾰl folitik šund as kala t-eqqal harᾰt ohqrᾰn –s-əmmək iyyᾰn wᾰr-enamoos wa olaɣᾰn ."
"It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people.","Təkkayᾰd alkəttabᾰn əd əmmək əᵑ tanfo ən timusnawen , assanɣᾰten , əd ašaɣalᾰn hin okaynen -ᾰlzhamaɣᾰt -iyyᾰt ən addinᾰt ."
This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time.,"Esawe ən tanfust ten ,ən kᾰl folitik , t-amoos akayad ən əmmək wa-s –t-əggla tassaɣt jer addəwəlᾰn meɣ a okkayᾰn isəɣlay nasᾰn dᾰɣ azzamanan ."
"It gained popularity in the United States, Japan and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.","Təjraw tamette t-ajjet ɣor əddəwəlᾰn wi artaynen-s-itawanna Etats-Unies, Japon, əd əddəwəlᾰn -iyyaɗ ajjootnen ɗarᾰt awatay wa-n 1980 əs əfhamᾰn as kᾰl teɣᾰre ta mᾰqqarᾰt , addorhanen asəkən ənnes y-asuk ən ᾰddunya əs dat ."
"Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history.","Kud amoos esawe olaɣᾰn dᾰɣ ,tanfust fᾰl awṣəf ,təsifhᾰm ajjen fᾰl isᾰlan wi-d-aqqalnen tanfust ."
"At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed.","Ɣor Oxford əd Cambridge,fᾰl awa-d-eqqalᾰn tiwaɗt ən tᾰmusne ,amoos ɣor sᾰn ay-iknan fənnəẓ hullan ."
The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War.,"Imanahaɗᾰn ennes , əntaneɗ a ojjarnen majrad fᾰl-as har ɗarᾰt Akkənnas wq-s əssin ᾰtwajjan aw- illan elan jer əddəwəlᾰn ."
"In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe.","Ɣor əddəwəlᾰn wi-s-itawanna Etats-Unis ,ɗarᾰt akkənnas w-azzarᾰn ijjan jer əddəwəlᾰn imᾰl-t ᾰmmatekway maqqarᾰn ən kᾰl teɣᾰre ta mᾰqqarᾰt ɣor dihad ɣarᾰn y-ihuk nasᾰn ye timusnawen y-ad əjrawᾰn wi ɣaranen əmmək ən takasit oharᾰn əddəwelan wi-n Europe."
Many view the field from both perspectives.,Ajjə awa addorhanᾰn ᾰlkum y-a-wen .
"In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.","Dᾰɣ əddəwəlᾰn , wi ᾰrtaynen-s-itawanna Etats-Unis , əlkəttabᾰn wi t-ᾰzzəzjᾰr jer ᾰlzhamaɣᾰt-en , ᾰlwᾰq- iyyan təmmalᾰn idᾰggan wᾰr-en oleh jer əddəwəlᾰn ."
"Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.","Kᾰl tənfusen wi əknanen teɣᾰre fᾰl-awen ,tabalanᾰn ᾰlwᾰq iyyan fᾰl y-ad wᾰr tətwəjin iməjridᾰn ən folitik fall-asnᾰt ."
"A civilization (or civilisation) is a complex society that is characterized by urban development, social stratification, a form of government, and symbolic systems of communication (such as writing).","Timəttawen ti annuflaynen ,aṣṣohᾰtnᾰt hullᾰn fᾰl-as a-wen , isᾰknenᾰt tiwwᾰɗt nasnᾰt , əllanᾰt idᾰggan fᾰl ᾰnimanᾰknᾰt ,əmmək ən ᾰlxəkum əd esawe wa-s-t-imsəslin (šund ᾰkatab) ."
"In this broad sense, a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies, including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists, Neolithic societies or hunter-gatherers; however, sometimes it also contrasts with the cultures found within civilizations themselves.","Dᾰɣ a wen , timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflaynen wᾰr-ᾰnmannaknᾰt əd tewsaten t-iyyaɗ wᾰr-en ertey dᾰɣ edagg iyyan šund idoman, iməgəla, timəttawen iman nᾰsnᾰt ."
"The fundamental treatise is Norbert Elias's The Civilizing Process (1939), which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period.","Tərəɗawt , awa fᾰl tatwaja , tanmənnᾰk t-amoosᾰt The Civilizing process (1939) ən Norbert Eliaks, isᾰknen awa –t-illan fᾰl təməttawen ti-n aru har ti-n-ašᾰl-i;"
"""Related words like """"civility"""" developed in the mid-16th century.""","“Tifer šund ti-n semɣar əd “”musnᾰt”” ən tᾰmudre ,ᾰwwiɗnᾰt ɣor temeɗe n-awatay ta-s marawᾰt əd saɗisᾰt (16).”"
"""In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French Revolution, """"civilization"""" was used in the singular, never in the plural, and meant the progress of humanity as a whole.""","“Ɣor samdo n-awatay wa-n 1700 əd ɣor santo n-awatay wa-n 1800 azzaman wq-d ənkarᾰn ikufar (faransetᾰn), awa “”oharnᾰt timəttawen”” ti ᾰsnaflᾰynen, eqqal əmmək ən iba-n-tənmənnak jer awadəm iyyan əd iyyan waden jer ᾰddinᾰt əd ᾰddinᾰt.”"
"""Only in this generalized sense does it become possible to speak of a """"medieval civilization"""", which in Elias's sense would have been an oxymoron.""","“Harᾰt šund wa dᾰɣ ay-isaknen əs təlle tᾰdabit ən majrad fᾰl-awa –d-eqqalᾰn “tamette tᾰnnuflayᾰt ən azzaman iyyan” , dᾰɣ isalᾰn ən a-wen, Elias, ijja esawe ən asəmənnək ən a-wᾰr-en oher harᾰt.”"
"""Here, civilization, being more rational and socially driven, is not fully in accord with human nature, and """"human wholeness is achievable only through the recovery of or approximation to an original discursive or prerational natural unity"""" (see noble savage).""","Diha, timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen oharnen ajjen ,amoosnat ay-isaknen esawe wa olaɣᾰn is ənta a annihᾰjjᾰn mašan wᾰr fᾰl-as tᾰtwaja tənmənnak, wen harᾰt ¬wᾰr ti kənnu edawᾰnni əs iba-ən təreɗᾰwt s-awa animahalᾰn."
"Civilizations have been distinguished by their means of subsistence, types of livelihood, settlement patterns, forms of government, social stratification, economic systems, literacy and other cultural traits.","Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen, asəknanᾰt iman nasnᾰt əs tadabit ən awa tattanᾰt əd uɗəf ənnes olaɣᾰn, tulaten n-imənsiwᾰn nasnᾰt ,esawe n-ᾰlxəkumᾰt nasnᾰt, tərše n-idᾰggan-iman nasnᾰt, əmmək ən awa hasnᾰt iha ᾰlfayda, tiɣər əd a-sᾰl-a-wen."
"All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, with the possible exception of some early civilizations in Peru which may have depended upon maritime resources.","TimEttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen ɣərəd, tamudre nasnᾰt a fᾰl tasihatᾰl isəjyᾰk as waden harat daɣ t-iyyaɗ arunen ən akall wa-n Perou əddarnen əs awa d-izzajarᾰn aman."
Grain surpluses have been especially important because grain can be stored for a long time.,"Awa-s-assakayan attaɣamᾰn, ikraš ᾰlfaydᾰt maqqarᾰt fᾰl-as addoben ad əknəntahajit dᾰɣ attawᾰr."
"However, in some places hunter-gatherers have had access to food surpluses, such as among some of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and perhaps during the Mesolithic Natufian culture.","Mašan dᾰɣ idᾰggan iyyaɗ ,iməhuya əd wi-d-əd takasnen tanfo iyyat dᾰɣ ihəkšan,assakayᾰn dᾰɣ ajaraw šund tamətte ta-d-əd tazzarᾰt daɣ ᾰddawlᾰt ən jer kᾰl jer kᾰl-afalla əd ataram ən Pacifique ed ammukᾰn as ədhalᾰn tanᾰt timusnawen t-iyyaɗ ."
"""The word """"civilization"""" is sometimes simply defined as """"'living in cities'"""".""","Tifer ti-s-itawanna Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen , itawᾰnnen ye tᾰmudre dᾰɣ aɣrəm ."
State societies are more stratified than other societies; there is a greater difference among the social classes.,"Timəttawen ti-n-addawlᾰt ,ojᾰrnat t-iyyaɗnen dᾰɣ təlla n-idᾰggan ; ille a ajjen tanᾰt ᾰssinᾰbɗᾰn."
"Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.","Timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflayneᵑ ,əllanᾰt əmmək ən imizzarᾰn əs ᾰsṣahᾰt esawe nasᾰn əd kᾰl Alxəkumᾰt tasimasadawᾰt y-asəwəj ən awa ᾰtwasabdadᾰn."
"Some people also acquire landed property, or private ownership of the land.",Addinᾰt iyyaɗ jarawᾰn idaggan meɣ edagg ən iman nasᾰn .
"By the early Iron Age, contemporary civilizations developed money as a medium of exchange for increasingly complex transactions.","Ɣor santo n-awatayd wᾰr hasᾰn igdeh wa-s-itawanna wa-n taẓoli ,timettawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen ən azzaman iyyan , ᾰssəbdᾰdnᾰt aẓrəf šund əmmək en amaskᾰl fᾰl isalan ən mamala ( essuk ) esawe nes daɣ , tiwwaɗt ay-ikkan ."
These people may not be personally acquainted with one another and their needs may not occur all at the same time.,"Addinᾰt en, addooben ad wᾰr ᾰnmazayᾰn , derhan nasᾰn daɣ, addoobᾰt ad wᾰr hasᾰn igdeh iket nasᾰns ."
The transition from simpler to more complex economies does not necessarily mean an improvement in the living standards of the populace.,"Ajaraw əs ikkuy ən ᾰlfayda raqqisᾰn əs-iyyan aṣṣohen , a-dᾰr-d-addila astamudre n-addinat tᾰwwiɗ ."
"The average stature of a population is a good measurement of the adequacy of its access to necessities, especially food.","Esawe wa hin išamᾰn we təmətte ,ad təjrəw əs ᾰttaɣamᾰn,y-imənsiwᾰn ənnes ."
"Like money, the writing was necessitated by the size of the population of a city and the complexity of its commerce among people who are not all personally acquainted with each other.","Šund amᾰskᾰl ,akatab kala amoos harᾰt əs annimahᾰl ad –t-illa fᾰl awa dᾰr t-ogdah təmətte n-ᾰɣrəm əd qṣṣuhu n-assuk ənnes jer addinᾰt wᾰr-en ᾰnmᾰzay iket nasᾰn."
"These include organized religion, development in the arts, and countless new advances in science and technology.","Isᾰlan əjjanen fᾰl ᾰddin ᾰmisadawᾰnanto s-iyyaɗ , tiwaɗt ən awa ᾰtiwašavalᾰn əd tiwaɗt tᾰjjet ən timusnawen ."
"""These cultures are called by some """"primitive"""", a term that is regarded by others as pejorative. """"""","Isəjyak-en , ᾰssihasken tᾰn ɣor santo s-iyyᾰɗ dᾰɣ sᾰn kul , ᾰmoosᾰn ᾰtiwarhᾰn."
"""Anthropologists today use the term """"non-literate"""" to describe these peoples.""","“Kᾰl inumᾰɣᾰn ən tᾰmusne fᾰl-Ag-addəm əd ᾰlzhamaɣᾰt ən ᾰddinᾰt , a-wen ᾰɗkalᾰn-t –šund ere wᾰr-en issen teɣᾰre d-akatab.”"
"But civilization is also spread by the technical, material and social dominance that civilization engenders.","Mašan timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen , tiɗaɗt a tajjanᾰt əs asəssikəy ən tamusne, ilallᾰn əd awa-d-əd tirəw ."
"Civilizations tend to develop intricate cultures, including a state-based decision making apparatus, a literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion and complex customs of education, coercion and control associated with maintaining the elite.","Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen ,olᾰhnᾰt əd aw-immaɣᾰn əmmək ən asiwəɗ ən isədduma wi aṣṣohᾰtnen amoosᾰn a-t-assibdad ᾰddawlᾰt teɣᾰre , ᾰšaɣalᾰn əknanen , timəkrusen ,Addin ᾰmisadawᾰn əd ᾰssᾰnɣaten aṣṣohᾰtnen fᾰl teɣᾰre,əmmək ən azəlzam ed tamaɗint ənnes ."
The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity.,"Timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen dᾰɣ izzaɣ awadəm, amoosnᾰt tumast ennes ta tojjarᾰt ."
"The aim is to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity and also the cultural identity, especially in the case of war and armed conflict.","Awa ᾰtiwamaɣᾰn, tagaẓt ən awa-t-illan y-ᾰddinᾰt əd tagaẓt harwa ən tumast ən awa eqqalᾰn imešlan nasᾰn hullan as əjjᾰn ikənnasᾰn əd iba-n-tənmənnak."
"""Early twentieth-century philosopher Oswald Spengler,Spengler, Oswald, Decline of the West: Perspectives of World History (1919) uses the German word Kultur, """"culture"""", for what many call a """"civilization"""".""","U Tᾰmusne wa-s-itawanna Oswald Spengler , Oswald Spengler ɣor temeɗe ən awatay ta-s sanatᾰt təmərwen ,inna fᾰl Of The West ; awa ᾰtiwᾰrɗᾰn fᾰl əjjanen (1919) ᾰddinᾰt ajjootnen Timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflaynen ."
"""Spengler states civilization is the beginning of the decline of a culture as """"the most external and artificial states of which a species of developed humanity is capable"""".""","Spengler ᾰsdatᾰt as timəttawen ti ᾰnnuflᾰynen , amoos a-wen santo ən tiɗut –en awa-d-eqqalᾰn ašᾰkšo šund ɣor əddəwəlᾰn wi-n- ijᾰmatᾰn əs esawe nasnᾰt eqqal ᾰwwiɗᾰn, illa tadabit ."
"""Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of the failure of a """"creative minority"""", through moral or religious decline, to meet some important challenge, rather than mere economic or environmental causes.""","Timəttawen ti annuflᾰynen , oɗanᾰt , a wen dᾰɣ ay- inna Toynbee fᾰl isalan ən iba-n tadabit əs ᾰmmukən wᾰr-en faror –s-assəken –s-awa-s ᾰtwᾰfnᾰẓ ,tebadde mᾰqqarᾰt fᾰl takmo uhun fᾰl ᾰssəbabᾰn ən bᾰnnanən tanfo məɣ ihənzuzaɣ nanᾰɣ"
"For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres.","Sund, taberaten tin səməskilan aqalnat, har ɣor XIXe elan, ajen iknan tihusay fal tibəlaɣen ən tiwsaten meɣ tibəlaɣen tin fulatik."
"During the Uruk period, Guillermo Algaze has argued that trade relations connected Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Afghanistan.","Ɣor alwaq wan Uruk, Guillermo Algaze alil as tinməzayen ən səməskilan assertaynat Égyɗte,Mésoɗotamie, Iran ad Afghanistan."
"Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways.","Tajute ən timusnawen ad tirtayen ən adunya kul aqalnat tidawt, fulatik ad deɣ tiwsaten jartanoflayt daɣ semɣaran."
"Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century.","Timusne tan amass tətwəsamɣar darat awen daɣ ajit ən Moyen-Orient ad Euroɗe,izar tətwəsamɣar ɣor təšəjrit ən adunya ad imudakən win kal Euroɗe, igašnen ameriəaten, Australiya, Chine ad Jaɗon ɣor 19 elan."
"This encouraged a secondary products revolution in which people used domesticated animals not just for meat, but also for milk, wool, manure and pulling ploughs and carts – a development that spread through the Eurasian Oecumene.","Awen ikfa assahat ye ašanzi ən haratan wis assin daɣ dakalan adinat imudarən atwajaynen fal edet issan ɣas,mašan deɣ fal aɣ,amzadən,iɣarajan ad ye arakab ən tigayaknen ad torkaten–tajute tazunat daɣ Oecumène wan Eurasie."
"""This area has been identified as having """"inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of the cursive script"""".""",""" Akal wen atiwəzay sund ijrawən"""" tirwa ən isjat iyad wiknanen tahuskət ən tənfust ən taməte,tənna ən iji ən tamajiyak,adamu ən məjyakan ən nalawən wi azarnen ad asjət ən akatab itrəban""""."
"This climate change shifted the cost-benefit ratio of endemic violence between communities, which saw the abandonment of unwalled village communities and the appearance of walled cities, associated with the first civilizations.","Aəhanzi wan azaman ašəkaš mertay iji-bunafis ən taləbast ən torhəna jar kalan,inhayan atwəy ən kalan naroj wer ila iɣalan ad azojor ən iɣərman assohatnen, artaynen ad timusnawen ti azarnen."
"The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentism, the domestication of grains and animals, the permanence of settlements and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors.","Amlili naɣrəm iknan ekaləd daɣ anəlkəm ən asjət ən taɣimit, ad atwijəz ən ataɣamən ad mudaran, ad asjit ən timoɣnawen ad asjit ən alməɣnatan ən tamudre sarɣasnen tisdawen ən təšəjrit ad asdəw ən səsukay ən iji fal tizunawen tiyad ən tərtayen."
"Some focus on historical examples, and others on general theory.","Iyad omaran fal segbaran arunen,iyad fal tamusne tajet."
"""For Gibbon, """"The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness.""","""Ye Gibbon, """"samdo wan Rome eqal iri iknan ad amuqassan daɣ təmɣare waren təfnez""""."
"""Theodor Mommsen in his History of Rome suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE and he also tended towards a biological analogy of """"genesis"""", """"growth"""", """"senescence"""", """"collapse"""" and """"decay"""".""","Theodor Mommsen, daɣ tanfust iness tan Rome, assikna as Rome toɗa ad egaɗel wan təmənya tan romain nagaɗal ən tafuk ɣor 476 ən azaman wananəɣ izar orak deɣ ibret ən assəməgdah ən tamudre tan"""" iji ən anyat"""",""""tadəwla"""",""""tušart"""",""""egaɗel"""", ad ""alkum ən élan""."""""
"Arnold J. Toynbee in his A Study of History suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen.","Arnold J. Toynbee, daɣ alkad iness A Study of History, assikna as ijraw meɗan ajen iknan amukən ən timusnawen, iha meɗan əndaran ən timusnawen ibdadnen, izar timusnawen kul ilanat aniyat ən ikuy as takən tətiwasanat as Mommsen."
"During the intermediate phase, the increasing population growth leads to the decrease of per capita production and consumption levels, it becomes more and more difficult to collect taxes, and state revenues stop growing, whereas the state expenditures grow due to the growth of the population controlled by the state.","Ɣor sənto ən jar anmijar, tadəwla nadinat taweɗat haku afənazat ən dagan ən ajaraw ad tətate ən amuzaɣ, eqalid as assahat asuhu ən amsədu ən təmzalen, izar ijarawan win alɣakum asmədan tadəwla,mašan išəša ən alɣakum tiwaɗan as fal tajute ən muzaɣan atiwakyadnen as alɣakum."
Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends.,Taqan ən timaɗ ən elan ad išrutən ən efdan ən wityan.
"The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire.","Iji was Rome tarha tirwa ən jarawən iknanen harkuk ye assəls ad ilus ən assəls ən kal karšayan wi aqalnen daɣ tizarat atwəɣanen daɣ imsuɣulan ajitnen fal eɣərɣər, ilway as ukəss ən məssawəs ən tanaya."
He argues that the collapse of the Maya has lessons for civilization today.,Alil as egaɗəl ən Mayatan eqal asohen ye ihuk ən tamusne ən tamusne tan išray.
The energy expended to energy yield ratio is central to limiting the survival of civilizations.,Ajaraw jar assahat izjaran ad assuɣəl ən assahat eqal ahusken ye asəbdad ən tamudre ən timusnawen.
"Koneczny claimed that civilizations cannot be mixed into hybrids, an inferior civilization when given equal rights within a highly developed civilization will overcome it.","Koneəzny inna as timusnawen war adobatnat adəqəlnat ertayan ye iji ən haratan azlaynen, tamusne madriat, as tinaəfa taberaten ogdahnen daɣ amass ən tamusne təknat tajute, atətəwar."
"Cultural Historian Morris Berman suggests in Dark Ages America: the End of Empire that in the corporate consumerist United States, the very factors that once propelled it to greatness―extreme individualism, territorial and economic expansion, and the pursuit of material wealth―have pushed the United States across a critical threshold where collapse is inevitable.","Aw tənfust ən təwset tan Morris Berman inna daɣ Dark Ages Ameriəa: the End of Emɗire as daɣ États-Unis ən maškan, inəmušal imaness witən əbhalnen ibret ən təmɣare ən atwidəm assisakayan,ajit ən akal ad tidawt,ad alakamat ən təlat ən harat nətaj assəmbaj ye États-Unis samdo labassan dihad egaɗəl ajen."
"The corrosion of these pillars, Jacobs argues, is linked to societal ills such as environmental crisis, racism and the growing gulf between rich and poor.","Asəqarawi ən təjətewen, ɣor Jaəobs,ertay ad takmoten ən adinat sund aɣašad ən akal, azalayat nadinat ad annu maqaran jar kal ahare ad məlaqaw."
"This need for civilizations to import ever more resources, he argues, stems from their over-exploitation and diminution of their own local resources.","Tahašilt ən təmusnawen ye agay harkuk ajit ən tisəwad, aləɣat, izjarəd fal adakal ad afanaz ən təsiwad ən adaj."
"""In the graphic, Ma means """"million years ago"""".)""","Daɣ akatab, inaw adartidila"""" ilanti milliontan ən wətyan""""."
Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism.,"Tašrut maqarat ən akal taqal daɣ tartit daɣ adətu ən ajət ən amoqəs ad iman iyad, awad diwayan amliliy nakal."
"Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period on the geological scale.","Adinat atiwazaynen izjarənid ilant daɣ ikuy 2 milliontan ən wətyan,taqən təknat təgəzle ɣor təzəjrət ən harat."
"It is estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion, have gone extinct.","Nəkat as 99%ən mudaran kul wi ədarnen fal akal, meɣ awojərən səmos milliartan, eqalan amiken."
"The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance.","Teɣermit ən akal war ašəzat ɣor iji iness,kul sund tamudre ɣor azajar iness wazaran."
The Moon is formed around this time probably due to a protoplanet's collision into Earth.,"Ayor ikaras ɣor azaman, adatu daɣ alkum ən amoqəs ən sənto ən etar ad akal."
The atmosphere is composed of volcanic and greenhouse gases.,Jənəj akal ertay ad adu ən amiləliy nakal ad adu akussan.
"Bacteria begin producing oxygen, shaping the third and current of Earth's atmospheres.","Imudaran assəntan iji ən adu, itajan jənəj akal was karad ad wan amaradəɣ."
"The early continents of Columbia, Rodinia and Pannotia, in that order, may have existed in this eon.","Ikalan wi azarnen ən columbia, Rodinia ad Pannotia, daɣ anəlkəm, iməlant ɣor azam."
"""Gradually, life expands to land and familiar forms of plants, animals and fungi begin appearing, including annelids, insects and reptiles, hence the eon's name, which means """"visible life"""".""","""Daɣ ikuy, tamudre təla ɣor akal ad iritan olahnen ən hə škan, imudaran izar tadalaten assətanat azagor, atkul ən təwəkawen,imugadan ad izlulam,dihen as issəm azaman, dar tidila ""tamudre titwənhiyat""."""
It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae.,"Eqal amertay dadu ad hélium ijan solan darat Big Bang,ila awen 13,8 Ga (milliartan ən iwətyan),et haratən azaynen atiwəzjarnen as tiwat ən efew."
"As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity, and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation.","Agud wad tejarək təssəta azal,anaka š ən tədnəq iness,terga še ad amass iness asfaltaɣən tat as lefe sənto etran janen tassaret toɣadat daɣ amass ən aɣalay."
"After more contraction, a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun.","Darat azamam aynayan,etar T Tauri erɣa izar okay ibret ən tafuk."
Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years.,"Akal ikrass daɣ alməɣnat wendaɣ ila awen 4,54 milliartan ən wətyan (ad iban təkətawt ən 1%) eqal daɣ təmɣare ən a šrut imdan daɣ 10 as 20 milliontan ən wətyan."
"The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals.",Sənto nakal idwal as assəməsədəw har as ɣor amass iness eqal ayknan takusse ye iji ən assəlyam ən tazoliyen azaynen ad mertay ən tazoli.
"From crater counts on other celestial bodies, it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite impacts, called the Late Heavy Bombardment, began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at the end of the Hadean.","Darat tajute ən amer fal haratan iyad ən šənawən, nənna as alwaq ən amoqəs məgədlan maqornen,sitawəna tewete tazayat, assənta ibret 4,1 Ga izar aməda ibret 3,8 Ga ɣor samdo ən Hadéen."
"By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly.","Ɣor sənto ən Arəhéen, akal eqal atiwəjan assəsmad."
"New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.","Issəkna aynaynen assimamənən as ayor ija harwa dəɣ ajilal, 4,48 +_ 0,02 Ga, meɣ 70 as 110 milliontan ən wətyan darat sənto ən akaras ən tafuk"
The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent Chicxulub impact that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.,"Tamoɣest toya aywadən 100 milliontan agud iyan assahat ajen as amoqəs aynayan wan Əhiəxulub,ad dorawən amyəqi ən mudaran waren itəfurit."
"The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material, explaining its abnormal composition.","Tadabit tamoqest maqarat ən akal ad ayor adartidila as ayor war tihen haratan ən tazoli,awa italaɣen mertay iness waren ikna."
"The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment.","Teɣermit tazarat, təjat ɣor assəssuhu wazaran ən fal akal, ikna amləwi daw iji adewən ən təmoɣət ən ɗlakaten ən Hadéen itrabən ad amoɣəs maqaran ən tewete tazayat todad."
These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.,Ikərumatən ən teɣərmit ən Hadéen todad izar ən Archéen waren imda tajan amassən edess ənwi ɣor ajətən kalan winamara.
Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of terranes.,Ikerədan aqalan amertayan ad assin iritan ən terranes anilkamən.
"For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean.","Ye tidit ten, tihun dalatnen aqalnat agud iyan sund issəkna ən alaku ɣor Archéen."
Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact.,War eha ach-ak amarad as madatun kim-iyat ajjotnen zajaran alwaq wan taxam s immik itiwassanan s asar n azajor n gaz dagh jasad tan wi tajjach nen fal asar
"Planetesimals at a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU), the distance of the Earth from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long.","Etran wi ujəjnen ilanen ɣər təzəjrət ən akal as tafuk,war dəweyan aman ye akal, falas takawalt ən tafuk takal ayknan takusse ye iji ən tahunt naman ad assəsmad ən təhun as aho naman itkal hulen taqal."
"Recent evidence suggests the oceans may have begun forming as early as 4.4 Ga. By the start of the Archean eon, they already covered much of the Earth.","Issəkna aynaynen annən as ibangan ajrəwan assət as iji ɣor 4,4 Ga. Ɣor sənto ən eket wan arəhéen, abirənbaken aru ašrut ajen ən akal."
"Thus, the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years.","Awen, tafuk taqal 30 % ən tiwat ən taraɣe ɣor 4,5 millirtan ən wətyan alkamnen."
"There are many models, but little consensus, on how life emerged from non-living chemicals; chemical systems created in the laboratory fall well short of the minimum complexity for a living organism.","Ilant iritan ajotnen, mašan tirədawen mariant, fal alməɣna was tamudre təzizjar ilalan win əhimique waren ider; haratan win əhimique janen daɣ ehan wan umɣawən aqalan ujij ən iwəd ən assuhu ifnazan ifan taqissa tədarat."
"Although atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules.","Harwa tartit ən jənəj akal taqal ezlayan ad tatəwajat as Miller ad Urey, tirmaten okaynen ad tartayen iknanen adatu olasnat ajaraw ən afanaz ən išrutən ən təɣəssa."
"RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have.","ARN ijraw daɣ tahajit ašanzi as ADN, iknan azaku izar adobat akarass ən salan zagrotnen sahrawnen deɣ ewalawəl ən tədabiten ən təɣəssa iyat."
A difficulty with the metabolism-first scenario is finding a way for organisms to evolve.,Assahat ən iji ən milhaw izar eqal ajaraw ən adabara ye tədawla ən mudaran.
"""Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of fatty acids into """"bubbles"""", and that the bubbles could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay.""","""Imaɣən atiwəjanen ɣor 2003 iwayənid as talaq tadobat deɣ assətrub ən assəməliliy ən ijitan ən tadhont as """"takufe"""", izar tikufawen adobat iji daɣ təšart ən ARN ikrassan as talaq""."
This LUA cell is the ancestor of all life on Earth today.,Tedajit ten LUA taqal amizar ən tamudre kul tan amaradəɣ fal akal.
The change to an oxygen-rich atmosphere was a crucial development.,Ikuy ən jənəj akal iha adu eqal ajit iknan.
"They used fermentation, the breakdown of more complex compounds into less complex compounds with less energy, and used the energy so liberated to grow and reproduce.","Tajan assəsmam, azəməzliy ən mertay iknan asuhu as mertay waren ikna assuhu ad assahat əadran,dakalan assahat atiwəyan ye tadəwla ad tirwa."
Most of the life that covers the surface of the Earth depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis.,Ajət ən iritan ən tamudre wi lassənen arori nakal ezlay daɣ iqud meɣ Iban equd as taberaten ən ašanzi.
"To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product.","Ye ihuk ən eleətrontan daɣ taberat,adu izjarəd aman, oya ofəss sund animal."
"The simpler anoxygenic form arose about 3.8 Ga, not long after the appearance of life.","Iri anoxygénique tatəknat tarəɣse tizjarid ibret 3,8 Ga, adaran ən alwaq darat azajor ən tamudre."
"At first, the released oxygen was bound up with limestone, iron, and other minerals.","Ɣor sənto, ufas atiwəyan eqal ayertan ad tesalit, tazoli ad təzoliyen tiyad."
"Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state.","Harwa tedajit kul təji ar andarən ən ufas,milhaw ertayan ən tidəjaten ajotnen fal taqan zəjret təšəzat jənəj akal as ini iness wan amaradəɣ."
"The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere.","Azaway wan ozone assomam, izar issumum harwa, ajət ajen ən afraran waren asohat wi nabajnen agud safəla."
"As a result, the Earth began to receive more heat from the Sun in the Proterozoic eon.",". Daɣ alkum, akal assənta ajaraw hulen ən takusse ən tafuk ɣor azaman ən azaman was karad."
"Glacial deposits found in South Africa date back to 2.2 Ga, at which time, based on paleomagnetic evidence, they must have been located near the equator.","Tinəssa ən tismad atiwəjrawnen ɣor Afrique tan tassaja nakal təwar ɣor 2,2 Ga, azaman tan ɣor, darat issəkna taruwat as altoɣ, ad atwəseɣədat edess ən tassaret."
"The Huronian ice age might have been caused by the increased oxygen concentration in the atmosphere, which caused the decrease of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere.","Azaman samedan huronienne adobat ajaraw ən ijji ən assiwad ən assəməssudu ən ufass daɣ jənəj akal, adorawən afanaz ən méthane (CH4) daɣ jənəj akal."
"However, the term Snowball Earth is more commonly used to describe later extreme ice ages during the Cryogenian period.","Ajuden, issəm akal tabəlaɣt ən aman ikna atwətkəl ye tənna ən alwəqatan samednen hulen asdarat ən alwaq ən əryogénienne."
"Carbon dioxide combines with rain to weather rocks to form carbonic acid, which is then washed out to sea, thus extracting the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere.","Dioxyde wan əarbone itamərtay ad ajənna ye ašanzi ən tihun ad iji ən aəide əarbonique, hin atiwajarən darat awen daɣ ebang, awen ijrawən ukiss ən gaz akussan ən jənəj akal."
"The Bacteria domain probably first split off from the other forms of life (sometimes called Neomura), but this supposition is controversial.",Takišt tan baəteritan taqal azunən daɣ tizarat ad iritan ən tamudre wiyaɗden (agud atiwaɣran as Neomura) mašan assənəhəj eqal amədiš.
"The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2.4 ago; these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis.","Ijilalan azarnen lanen timezlayen iri ən əhamɗiontan ilanen tahajit ən azaman tan Ɗaléoɗrotérozoïque, ila awen 2,4 elan; imudaran wi ən ider naman ajitnen ilan timoɣənen ən lajitan adobanen amortit."
Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses).,Tedajit ta maqarat ihaməš torəm tetate ən ta təknat təmədrit mašan idəras (ihaməš daɣ adətu ən tadəwla ən tigozen fal məsiwan).
"Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell's waste products and derived more energy.","Daɣ iji ən ufas, təjraw ašugiš ən anikal ən tedajit ta maqarat izar tərkabid assahat ajen."
"Soon, a stable symbiosis developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it.","Šikanen, tartit tazuket tədwəl jar tedajit ta maqarat ad tin daratnen tat hanen."
A similar event occurred with photosynthetic cyanobacteria entering large heterotrophic cells and becoming chloroplasts.,Imešlan olahnen aqalan iji agud ad timədriten ən baəteritan tajənen issəmutay agəšan daɣ tidajaten maqornen tatənen imudaran izar aqalnat timədulaten.
"Besides the well-established endosymbiotic theory of the cellular origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, there are theories that cells led to peroxisomes, spirochetes led to cilia and flagella, and that perhaps a DNA virus led to the cell nucleus, though none of them are widely accepted.","Tamusne iyat ən tartit təknat iji daɣ sənto ən tədagaten ən mitoəhondrie ad əhloroɗlastes,ilanət timusnawen tis intanated tidajaten awaynat as ɗeroxysomes, spirochètes ən ileyan ad zəmbay, ihaməš ɣirus ADN ən amass ən tedajit,harwa iyat dəsnat war təkna atwərd."
"Around 1.1 Ga, the supercontinent Rodinia was assembling.","Ibret 1,1 Ga, akal ahusken Rodinia eqal amsədu."
"Although the division between a colony with specialized cells and a multicellular organism is not always clear, around 1 billion years ago, the first multicellular plants emerged, probably green algae.","Harwa as akayad jar tamsədawt daɣ tedajit tatiwəɣkafat ad iman as ajətnat tidajaten waren eqel harkuk ayknan, ila awen 1 milliard ən wətyan, ihəškan wi azarnen lanen tidajaten izjarənid, daɣ asədətu ilatan dalatnen."
"Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as orogenic belts, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna.","Išrutən animətafnen awedan as timtar aləmad sund issəgbass ən ijitan, sašwalnen ijmawan tifaltaɣ arunen, ad tizunawen okaynen tin həškan ad imudaran."
"About 1000 to 830 Ma, most continental mass was united in the supercontinent Rodinia.","Ibret ən 1000 as 830 Ma, ajit ən tajute ən kalan aqalan amsədu daɣ akal ahusken Rodinia."
The hypothetical supercontinent is sometimes referred to as Pannotia or Vendia.,Ajət ən kalan ordan eqal atwəɣar as Ɗannotia meɣ Ɣendia.
The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.,Assahat ad tamoɣənt ən tismad tin sanatət ilanat harwa ɣor aləmad izar assohatnat ye alaɣi as akal tabəlaq ən aman ən Ɗrotérozoïque waren təmda.
"Because CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.","CO2 eqal gaz ahusken ən takusse, təkanen samednat ɣor edag nakal."
Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.,Ašəɣəl ən amliliy nakal awedan izjarid afrəki ən Rodinia daɣ ihaz ən azaman iyat.
"The new forms of life, called Ediacara biota, were larger and more diverse than ever.","Iritan ən tamudre aynaynen,sitawəna ajit ən Ediaəara,eqal ayiknan təmɣare ad ayknan tajute harkuk."
"It consists of three eras: The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.","Tamertay ad karad azəman: Paléozoïque, Mésozoïque, ad Cénozoïque, izar azam was tamudre ajət ən dagan ajit as təmɣare ye ihuk ən tirwa edess ən mudaran kul atiwazaynen ešali."
This causes the sea level to rise.,Awen orawid azaway ən edag nabang.
Traces of glaciation from this period are only found on former Gondwana.,Idraš ən tasəmde ən alwaq warhen ar fal Gondwana aruwan.
"The continents Laurentia and Baltica collided between 450 and 400 Ma, during the Caledonian Orogeny, to form Laurussia (also known as Euramerica).","Əkalan wən Laurentia əd Baltica aqalan ayertayan daɣ 450 har 400 Ma, ɣur anminak wan əalédonientan, fal igi wan Laurussie (intadaɣ sitawan Euramérique)."
"The collision of Siberia with Laurussia caused the Uralian Orogeny, the collision of Gondwana with Laurussia is called the Variscan or Hercynian Orogeny in Europe or the Alleghenian Orogeny in North America.","Tamuqest tan Sibérie dər Laurentie aygan tanminak tan ouralientan, tamuqest tan Gondwana dər Laurentie aqalan asitawan tanminak təmutuyat meɣ herəynienne daɣ Euroɗe meɣ tanminak ta fasusat daɣ Amérique tan Ataram."
"Whereas the Ediacaran life forms appear yet primitive and not easy to put in any modern group, at the end of the Cambrian most modern phyla were already present.","Mašan tənuɣrufen tiyad nəduniyat tan Édiacarien olahnat intanatedaɣ tə azarnen əd asusuhu nakatli daɣ tartit ta timutayat, daɣ samando ən Cambrien, agudiyan daɣ ƭəbidawen tumutaynen aqalnat dat awa atilan."
Some of these Cambrian groups appear complex but are seemingly quite different from modern life; examples are Anomalocaris and Haikouichthys.,"Iyad daɣ tənmirtayen tən cambrientan olahnat daśohen, mašan aqalnat astənim ɣas ayebdan hulen daɣ aduniyat ta taynayat ; atamosan eqalan Anomaloəaris əd Haikouichthys."
"A creature that could have been the ancestor of the fishes, or was probably closely related to it, was Pikaia.","Tamuɣluk ta tadobet uɣil ən tamarawt ən manan, meɣ tataqalat atamosan oɣadan daɣ atiruw, eqal Pikaia."
"Fish, the earliest vertebrates, evolved in the oceans around 530 Ma.","Əmanan, wi azarnen ilanen iɣasan, adaɣ təwaɗan daɣ girwan wi nibret 530 Ma"
"The oldest fossils of land fungi and plants date to 480–460 Ma, though molecular evidence suggests the fungi may have colonized the land as early as 1000 Ma and the plants 700 Ma.",Wi ogarnen tərut gulašan ən əhamɗignontan 480–460 Ma əgrawan adanahadan yakal wan 1000 Ma əd hiškan 700 Ma.
Fins evolved to become limbs that the first tetrapods used to lift their heads out of the water to breathe air.,Əfrewan amutayan fal adiqilan ifasan wəs wi dazarnen nəkoz ɗaran adakalan fal adidzazgaran iɣafawan daɣ aman əd asifusan daɣ sagama.
"Eventually, some of them became so well adapted to terrestrial life that they spent their adult lives on land, although they hatched in the water and returned to lay their eggs.","Daɣ samando, iyad daɣsan aqalan aylmadan təmudre tan nafala okaynen daɣ təmudre ən tiwšire tan daw akal, ahuskat as ihar daɣ aman əd aqalan aderkan ad təruwan təsadalen nasan."
"Plants evolved seeds, which dramatically accelerated their spread on land, around this time (by approximately 360 Ma).","Daɣ ihomiš alwaq wendaɣ (ibret 360 Ma) wəs ihiskan asidwalan isanban, awa asimɣaran armuɗ nəmširšir nasan daɣ akal."
Another 30 million years (310 Ma) saw the divergence of the synapsids (including mammals) from the sauropsids (including birds and reptiles).,Alwaq iyan ən 30 milliontan ən wityan (310 Ma) ahanay ən təbiɗawen gar synaɗsides (atamosan wi sakasnen) əd sauroɗsides (atamosan əgdad əd ɣunan nakal).
"The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates.","Asimiki ən Trias-Jurassique, daɣ 200 Ma, atwayan ajotnen dinosauretan, aqalnen šikšik ayernan daɣ awa ilan iɣasan."
60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.,60% ən nawa winan ila iɣasan daɣ griwan aqalan aməken əd izar 25% ən terweten dak.
"The third mass extinction was the Permian-Triassic, or the Great Dying, event was possibly caused by some combination of the Siberian Traps volcanic event, an asteroid impact, methane hydrate gasification, sea level fluctuations, and a major anoxic event.","Was karaɗ amiki ən nawa azayan, Permien-Trias, meɣ Grand Mort, atamosan awa igan tanmirtayt tan harat : amlilil nakal wan tankad ən Sibérien, udud ən harat, aɗutan ən awa ibdagan ən méthane, tənazamaren ən hadi nagaš əd haratan maɗroynen anoxique."
"This was by far the deadliest extinction ever, with about 57% of all families and 83% of all genera killed.","Daɣ igig ən nəsimiki wa ogaran daɣ əsimit daɣ alwaqan daɣ, dər ihomiši 57% ən terweten dak əd 83 % əd haratan wi amutaynen dak."
"By the early Paleocene the earth recovered from the extinction, and mammalian diversity increased.","Daɣ santo ən Paléoəène, akal anmaqal darat amiki wen əd ajit ən nawa isakasan awiɗ."
"Grassless savanna began to predominate much of the landscape, and mammals such as Andrewsarchus rose up to become the largest known terrestrial predatory mammal ever, and early whales like Basilosaurus took control of the seas.","Zaleɣat ta wariha alimoz təsinta tanhat daɣ edag maqaran daɣ akal, əd dawa isakasan sund Andrewsarəhus aqalan aykaran fal adiqilan wi ogarnen daɣ wi sankasnen ən musukal nakal atiwazaynen, əd wi dazarnen imanan sund Basilosaurus ikalan tanhat ən girwan."
Giant ungulates like Paraceratherium and Deinotherium evolved to rule the grasslands.,Irizegan maqornen dər askaran əndiratnen sund Paraceratherium əd Deinotherium idwalan fal adanahadan ye prairiestan.
The Tethys Sea was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.,Egarew wan Téthys eqal ayharan əs sikušu ən Afrique əd Europe.
"The land bridge allowed the isolated creatures of South America to migrate over to North America, and vice versa.","Azaway wa nakal alil ye təmaɣlaken əbdanen da Amérique tan Emaynag ye adahanin ibret na Amérique tan Ataram, əd sund dawendaɣ."
The ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion.,Alwaqan wi təsimdawen alwayan əs ƭəwaƭ nawadəm wa mutayan daɣ Afrique tan saharienne əd amiširšir ənes.
"It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along Beringia which is why, today, there are camels (which evolved and became extinct in North America), horses (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans.","Ajen aɣelan as emešwar maqaran iga daɣ efaday ən Béringie, awa italaɣen mafal, ešali, atiwagazan imnas ( wi awiɗnen əd izar aqalan aməken daɣ Amérique tan Ataram), ibijwan (wi awiɗnen əd izar aqalan aməken daɣ Amérique tan Ataram) əd Amérindientan."
"Brain size increased rapidly, and by 2 Ma, the first animals classified in the genus Homo had appeared.","Tebade ən naqilqil tiwad šikšik əd, ibret 2 Ma, wi dazarnen irizegan ahanen daɣ əmik wan Homo aqalan adizgaran."
"The ability to control fire probably began in Homo erectus (or Homo ergaster), probably at least 790,000 years ago but perhaps as early as 1.5 Ma.","Tudabate ye anəhid ya efew eqal atamosan adizgaran daɣ Homo ereətus (meɣ Homo ergaster), aywadan ihomiši 790 000 ən wityan mašan əstinəm 1,5 Ma."
It is more difficult to establish the origin of language; it is unclear whether Homo erectus could speak or if that capability had not begun until Homo sapiens.,Eqal ogaran aśohen dadag santo ən magrad ; warnisen as Homo ereətus adobat magrad meɣ mašan tadabət ten wartənta dat Homo sapiens.
"Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate.","Tədabiten tən təmudurt aqalnat ogarnen aśuhu, magrad wa ogaran aśuhu əd lalan ogarnen azagar."
"The first humans to show signs of spirituality are the Neanderthals (usually classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often with no sign of food or tools.","Wi dazarnen adinat asiknan əmikan wən naɣalakat aqalan Néandertalientan (aqalnen akitlen sund təmudurt tabdat winan tila terweten idarnen); nabalan inumutan nasan, sagudiyan daɣ iba nadriš ən nəminsi meɣ ilanan."
"As language became more complex, the ability to remember and communicate information resulted, according to a theory proposed by Richard Dawkins, in a new replicator: the meme.","Izar magrad itaqal ogaran aśuhu, tadabit ən nəsimiktu əd alaɣi ən salan ye huk ən nadag, daɣ awa ina Asostan wan Riəhard Dawkins, ye aynahan daɣ uniɗ : inta emanes."
"Between 8500 and 7000 BC, humans in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals: agriculture.","Gar 8500 əd 7000 dat Nabi Issa., kal aduniyat wi təwadnen daɣ ara, ɣur Moyen-Orient, asintan agayak agudendaɣ ən hiškan əd rizegan : imagyakan."
"However, among those civilizations that did adopt agriculture, the relative stability and increased productivity provided by farming allowed the population to expand.","Əgudendaɣ, daɣ aniyatan wi əlmadnen igayakan, iba namatekway wa ila əd igitan təwadnen wəs tədhilen iganat taməte aykan əsdat."
"This led to Earth's first civilization at Sumer in the Middle East, between 4000 and 3000 BC.","Daɣ awendaɣ adaɣ iwa aniyat wa azaran fal Akal, ye Sumer, daɣ Moyen-Orient, gar 4000 əd 3000 dat."
"Humans no longer had to spend all their time working for survival, enabling the first specialized occupations (e.g. craftsmen, merchants, priests, etc.).","Kal aduniyat warilen ukuy nalwaq nasan dak daɣ əšiɣil fal adidiran, awaygan azizgar ən əšiɣilan wi dazarnen atiwazayan (atamosnen, inhadan, imašanšan, imaɣran, diyad.)."
"By around 500 BC, there were advanced civilizations in the Middle East, Iran, India, China, and Greece, at times expanding, at times entering into decline.","Ibret ən 500 dat. Nabi Issa., ilanti aniyatan wi əšamnen daɣ Moyen-Orient, daɣ Iran, daɣ Inde, daɣ Əhine əd daɣ Grèəe, sagudiyan amišaršaran, agudiyan iwadan hadi."
"This civilization developed in warfare, arts, science, mathematics and in architect.","Aniyat wen eqal awidan daɣ tabaraten tən akinas, inhadan, kal təmusne, kal maɗinan əd kal dalagan."
The Roman Empire was Christianized by Emperor Constantine in the early 4th century and declined by the end of the 5th.,Taɣrəm tan romaintan atat igan əhretientan anamokal Əonstantin daɣ santo ən IƔe temede nawatay əd izar erkan daɣ samando ən Ɣe temede nawatay.
"The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era Baghdad, Iraq.","Ehan wa Nətiqal adaɣ eqan Bagdad, daɣ Irak, daɣ alwaq wan abbasside."
"In the 14th century, the Renaissance began in Italy with advances in religion, art, and science.","Daɣ 14e temede nawatay, Renaissanəe adaɣ tənta Italie dər dagan azarnen daɣ akal, inhadan əd təmusnawen."
"European civilization began to change beginning in 1500, leading to the scientific and industrial revolutions.","Tayite tan euroɗéentan təsinta amutiy daɣ ugud wan 1500, igan təwaɗnen tən təmusnawen əd usinetan."
"From 1914 to 1918 and 1939 to 1945, nations around the world were embroiled in world wars.","Daɣ 1914 har 1918 əd daɣ 1939 har 1945, təmitawen tən aduniyat dak aqalan aykaran daɣ kinasan daɣ kalan."
"After the war, many new states were formed, declaring or being granted independence in a period of decolonization.","Darat akinas, Étatan ajotnen aynaynen asdawan, asinan meɣ əgrawan tanhat nasan daɣ alwaq wan tənhaden ən kalan."
"Technological developments include nuclear weapons, computers, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology.","Tewaden ən təmusnawen amosnen əsiknas wi amutaynen, ordinateurtan, alšin wa génétique əd nanotechnologie."
"Major concerns and problems such as disease, war, poverty, violent radicalism, and recently, human-caused climate change have risen as the world population increases.","Ašalalatan əd asibaban wi madroynen atamosnen turhina, akinas, aləkiwan, terweten ti aśohatnen əd, aynayan, təmotayen ən alwaqan eɣšad awadəm, awidan daɣ akot wan aljamaxat tan aduniyat tiwaɗat."
"Human history, or recorded history, is the narrative of humanity's past.","Tanfust tan aduniyat, meɣ tanfust təqiymat, eqal tinawt nawa dədtokay aduniyat."
"The Neolithic saw the Agricultural Revolution begin, between 10,000 and 5000 BCE, in the Near East's Fertile Crescent.","Néolithique tənhay tiwit tan təwaƭ səgyak, gar 10 000 əd 5 000 dat alwaq wananaɣ, daɣ təwaƭ tan awa itiruwan daɣ Proche-Orient."
"As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons.","Daɣ aylan əd olas wan asigyik ətiwaɗan, sigyak wən nalawan aqalan ogaran aśuhu əd igan təbiɗawen nəšiɣil fal adisiqiymu əmisiwan gar alwaqtan wən gayakan."
Hinduism developed in the late Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent.,Hindouisme eqal awidan daɣ samando nelan wi bronze fal daw akal wan indientan.
"""Post-classical history (the """"Middle Ages,"""" c. 500–1500 CE,) witnessed the rise of Christianity, the Islamic Golden Age (c. 750 CE – c. 1258 CE), and the Timurid and Italian Renaissances (from around 1300 CE).""",""" Tanfust dat-əlassique (le """"Moyen Âge"""", ibret ən 500-1500 daɣ alwaq wananaɣ) inhay agan wa əhristianisme, elan wi nuraɣ wan anislam (ibret 750 nalwaq wananaɣ-ibret 1258 nalwaq wananaɣ), əd Renaissanəe timuride əd italientan (daɣ aywadan ihomiši 1300 nalwaq wananaɣ)."""
"By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution and began the late modern period, which started around 1800 and has continued through the present.","Daɣ 18e temede nawatay, asimusudiw wan təmusnawen əd təmotayen əwadnat tazayt ən tizmit ta tigat ƭəwaƭ tan usitan əd waykasan santo wan alwaq wamutayan ən tahagit, ta təsintat ibret 1800 əd taqal anilkaman hawendaɣ har ešalidaɣ."
"Anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 300,000 years ago, and achieved behavioral modernity about 50,000 years ago.","Kal aduniyat anatomiquement amutayan aqalan atiwanhayan daɣ Afrique aywadan ihomiši 300 000 nelan, əd iwadnat təmotayen ən talɣiwen aywadan 50 000 nelan."
"Perhaps as early as 1.8 million years ago, but certainly by 500,000 years ago, humans began to use fire for heat and cooking.","Ihomiši 1,8 milliontan nelan, mašan atamosan ɣur 500 000 nelan, kal aduniyat asintan adakal nafew fal asikisan əd asikuduwan."
"Paleolithic humans lived as hunter-gatherers, and were generally nomadic.",Kal aduniyat wən paléolithique idaran daɣ ahayu əd siduma əd aqalan deɣqanen kal hinan.
The rapid expansion of humankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent ice age.,Amširšir wa irmaɗan aduniyat daɣ Amérique tan Ataram əd daɣ Océanie adaɣ igan samando ta waylkamat alwaq wan təsimɗe.
"The Yellow River valley in China cultivated millet and other cereal crops by about 7000 BCE; the Yangtze valley domesticated rice earlier, by at least 8000 BCE.","Gar hilan wan ebang Waraɣan daɣ Chine ya digyikan telalet əd haratan iyad ibret ən 7000 dat alwaq wananaɣ ; gar tuhun wan Yangtze atihan tafaɣat daɣ šik, daɣ ihomiši 8000 dat alwaq wananaɣ."
"Metalworking, was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6000 BCE.",Əšiɣil wan tazoli adaɣ eqal atwikil daɣ təzaraten dak əgitan ən lalan əd dalagan daɣ boko ibret 6000 dat alwaq wananaɣ.
"Cities were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power.","Əɣirman aqalan idagan ən mašanšan, əd digitan əd ən tudabat ən tənayiwen."
The development of cities was synonymous with the rise of civilization.,Təwaɗen ən ɣərman taqal tanmuɣrut ən nəsihikik wan aniyat.
"These cultures variously invented the wheel, mathematics, bronze-working, sailing boats, the potter's wheel, woven cloth, construction of monumental buildings, and writing.","Əsigyak igan taɣalalwayt, əmaɗinan, əšiɣil wan bronze, əkrabawan wən ifrewan, aɣalay wan ɗotier, azamay, təmuqunt tan hinan maqornen əd kitban."
Typical of the Neolithic was a tendency to worship anthropomorphic deities.,Néolithique taqal talɣa tigat fal aśahat ən tumaden tən Masinaɣ anthropomorphes.
"These settlements were concentrated in fertile river valleys: the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus in the Indian subcontinent, and the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in China.","Təmuqunen tən aqalanat amisadawan daɣ gar tuhun wan fluviales fertiles : Tigre əd Euphrate daɣ Mésopotamie, Nil daɣ Misr, Indus daɣ daw akal wan indientan, əd ebang wan Yangtze əd Waraɣan daɣ Chine."
"Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs, whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract.","Akatab wan cunéiforme adaɣ asisinta əs səmik wan ɗiətogrammes, amos əsiknitan wən ɗiəturaltan asmadan daɣ afanazan əd duɣil nogaran atbut."
Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas.,Ədakalan ən lalan aqalan araqisan daɣ tabaraten tən naman ibangan əd girwan.
These developments led to the rise of territorial states and empires.,Təwadnen tən iganat təmotayen ən étatan wən kalan əd tədibyen.
In Crete the Minoan civilization had entered the Bronze Age by 2700 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe.,"Daɣ Crète, tayite tan minoenne igaš daɣ elan wi bronze daɣ 2700 dat alwaq wananaɣ əd eqal atiwagan sund taditazarat tayite tan Europe."
"Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world.","Daɣ alwaq wan millénairetan wilkanen, təyitwen aqalnat awidan daɣ aduniyat dak."
"In India, this era was the Vedic period (1750-600 BCE), which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE.","Daɣ Inde, alwaq wendaɣ adar olah alwaq védique (1750-600 dat alwaq wananaɣ), wa ijaran haratan wən hindouisme əd diyad ihanayan ən atwigaz wan aljamaɣat tan indienne wi dazarnen, əd aminda daɣ 6e temede nawatay dat alwaq wananaɣ."
"During the formative stage in Mesoamerica (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru.","Daɣ utud sa nalwaq wan igi ən Méso-Amérique (aywadan 1500 dat alwaq wananaɣ har 500 ən alwaq wananaɣ), təyitwen ogarnen aśuhu əd dugiš asitanat təwaƭ, atamosan daɣ awa eqal ešalidaɣ ye Mexique, Amérique tan amas əd Pérou."
"Karl Jaspers' Axial-Age theory also includes Persian Zoroastrianism, but other scholars dispute his timeline for Zoroastrianism.)","Tekanit tan awatay wan axial ən Karl Jasɗers iha intadaɣ zoroastrisme Perse, mašan iyad ənumaɣan wadarden əhronologie ənes fal zoroastrisme)."
"These were Taoism, Legalism, and Confucianism.","Amos taoïsme, wan légalisme əd wan Confucianisme."
The great empires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres.,Wimaqornen ədibyan as hasan inihadan wasisin asardasi ən nakal əd tanminak tan colonietan atiwagaznen fal adiqilan idagan ən sigyak.
There were a number of regional empires during this period.,Ilanti nombritan niyad daɣ dibyan nakal daɣ igi alwaq wendaɣ.
"The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian empires, including the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE), and the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE).","Aɣrim wan médian oya edag ənes ye ɣirman niranientan anilkanen, atamosan aɣrim wan aəhéménide (550-330 dat alwaq wananaɣ), aɣrəm wan ɗarthe (247–224 dat alwaq wananaɣ) əd aɣrəm wan assanide ( 224-651 nalwaq wananaɣ)."
"Later, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), of Macedon, founded an empire of conquest, extending from present-day Greece to present-day India.","Agudiyan, Alexandre wan Maqaran (356-323 dat Nabi Issa), wan Macédoine, inayan tadabayt tatiwaha ɣat, iwadan ɣur Grèce tanamara har Inde tan amarada."
"From the 3rd century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age.","Aditifilad 3e temede nawatay tan alwaq wanana ɣ, təguzt tan Guɗta təga aniyat ye alwaq wasitawan elan nura ɣ wan Inde ta taruwat."
The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in the golden age of Hindu culture in the 4th and 5th centuries.,Tedakit tad tilkamat talil sagad ən nawatay wan nura ɣ ən atwigaz wan hindoue da ɣ 4e əd 5e temede nawatay.
"By the time of Augustus (63 BCE – 14 CE), the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean.","Da ɣ alwaq wan August (63 dat Nabi Issa. – 14 ən alwaq wanana ɣ), widazarnen ənamokalan ən romain, Rome igan dat awa tarnanes fal a ɣil wogaran da ɣ Méditerranée."
"The Western empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under Odoacer.","Taɣrəm tan Oəəident atədu, da ɣ 476 nalwaq wananaɣ, daw adagal ən germanique ən Odoacer."
The Han dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road.,"Daɣ atwigaz wan Han eqal olahan dər aśuhu, əd adagal ən naɣrəm wan romain ihan samando iyan ən tabarat tan ənes."
"As with other empires during the Classical Period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others.","Sund diyad əɣirman nalwaq wan əlassique, Chine tan Han tiga təwadnen atəwasasfarnen da ɣ alwaq wan tənayiwen, ye teɣare madinan, astronomie, ən təmusnawen əd diyad haratan."
"Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE.","Widazarnen əɣirman ordanen amosan intadaɣ aqalan aygan daɣ Amériquetan, ədəfalnen iganen daɣ 2500 dat alwaq wananaɣ."
"The great Mayan city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the Yucatán and surrounding areas.","Wimaqornen Cités-Étatan wi mayas aqalan awidan solan əd izar igrawan daɣ tanfo, əd atwigaz wa maya eqal amšaršaran daɣ Yuəatán dak əd kalan wi ohaznen."
"There were, however, in some regions, periods of rapid technological progress.","Atwaga agudendaɣ, daɣ dagan iyad, alwaqan ən təwadnen tən təmusnawen ətrabnen."
"China's Han dynasty fell into civil war in 220 CE, beginning the Three Kingdoms period, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the Crisis of the Third Century.","Atwigaz wan əhinoistan wən Han igaš tiyan daɣ akinas nədinat wi banan daɣ 220 nalwaq wananaɣ, isaknanen santo nalwaq wan Trois Royaumes, mašan amidines eqal wa ogaran daɣ atiwisan əd təzunawen azunan sund awa nehanin, daɣ awa sitawana aśibab wan IIIe temede nawatay."
The development of the stirrup and the breeding of horses strong enough to carry a fully armed archer made the nomads a constant threat to the more settled civilizations.,Təwadnen tan tugust əd asidwal ən bijwan amosnen aśohen fal agay imajar ən siknas aqalan ahonan talimt ən harkuk fal təyitwen tə orgarnen taɣaymite.
"The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the Byzantine Empire.","Tasaga ta ditiqiymat daɣ Aɣrəm wan romain, daɣ Méditerranée wan alqiblat, okay fal əsim wan Aɣrəm wan byzantin."
"The era is commonly dated from the 5th-century fall of the Western Roman Empire, which fragmented into many separate kingdoms, some of which would later be confederated under the Holy Roman Empire.","Alwaq eqal intadaɣ aygan daɣ egadal wan Ɣe temede nawatay daɣ Aɣrəm wan romain Nagadal ən tafuk, eqalan aybdan daɣ ajotnen təɣarmaten abdanen, haywa iyad aqalan ayertayan agudiyan fal əsim wan Saint-Empire romain germanique."
"South Asia saw a series of middle kingdoms of India, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India.","Asie tan Ataram tizay inilkaman ən təɣarmaten əndiratnen ən Inde, silkam igitan ən təɣirmaten nanislam daɣ Inde."
"This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture.","Afrique təgraw atawid almaɣna wan šišitan daɣ Asie tan Ataram-daɣ Alqiblat, awa əs igrawan ugiš nanimdis d’Asie, mamos, daɣ atwigaz wan nisliman, toraw atwigaz wan swahilie."
"This was also a cultural battle, with the Byzantine Hellenistic and Christian culture competing against the Persian Iranian traditions and Zoroastrian religion.","Amos awen anmigaš ən nitwigaz, atwigaz wan hellénistique əd əhrétienne byzantine eqalan animarnan dər atwigaz wan iraniennetan ɗerses əd tumat tan zoroastrienne."
"From their centre on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the early Postclassical Era.","Daɣ amasnasan wan asirtay naraban, ənisliman asintan asimiširšir daɣ santo wan alwaq wan ɗostəlassique."
Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography.,Tasaga maqarat ən lamadan əd təwaden adoben adirtiyan daɣ géographie.
The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous.,Adagal wan mašašan wi nəsliman fal tabaraten tən nazan afro-arabes əd arabo-asiatique aqalan maqaran.
"Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, European leaders launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the Holy Land.","Arɗan fal tumat əd manawnawan ən tanhat, imanayan wi euroɗéentan asintan tiyad timoqasen aɗinen fal adariman igi naširgiš ən tanaya tan nəsliman əd adikilan Akal wa šidigan."
"Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia.","Tarna tan araban ən nakal adaɣ təminda amas ən 11e temede nawatay dər agad wan Turəs seldjoukides, ahonanen ibret nataram harwa əkalan wən turquetan n'Asie tan amas."
The region will later be called the Barbary Coast and will host pirates and privateers who will use several North African ports for their raids against the coastal towns of several European countries in search of slaves to be sold in North African markets as part of the Barbary slave trade.,Akal adiqil asitawan agudiyan Côte wan Barbarie əd tisintihin imahaɣan əd corsairetan wi taganen dortan ajotnen ən namaynag-nafricaintan ye ugiš nasan əd ɣərman wi ohaznen ən kalan ajotnen neuroɗeentan imaɣnen ye eklan imahin šišinin daɣ hebutan wi ataram-nafricaintan fal tabarat tan eklan wən Barbarie.
"In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east.","Daɣ ƔIIIe temede nawatay, Anislam asinta ugiš ən nakal əd eqal šik intaɣas asidutu wan ajen daɣ aljamaɣat, ahuskat as bouddhisme eqal aśohen daɣ alqiblat."
"After Genghis Khan died in 1227, most of Central Asia continued to be dominated by a successor state, Chagatai Khanate.","Darat tamatan tan Gengis Khan daɣ 1227, tasaga tan maqarat daɣ Asie ta amas tigla duɣil ən tanhat tan État wa has ilkaman, khanat San Chagatai."
The region then became divided into a series of smaller khanates that were created by the Uzbeks.,Akal eqal darat awen aybdan daɣ anilkam wan khanats ogaran təmidrit iganen əs Ouzbeks.
The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire.,Imahaɣan ajoratnen aharan təɣirmaten aynaynen imanasan daɣ adriš wan Aɣrəm wan romain ən Egadal ən tafuk.
"Christianity expanded in western Europe, and monasteries were founded.","Christianisme amšaršar daɣ Europe tan egadal ən tafuk, əd ilsanen aqalan atiwanaynen."
"Manorialism, the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labour service to nobles, and feudalism, a political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors, were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the High Middle Ages.","Manorat, sidawaten wən kal finta daɣ ɣillagetan təs anihaga adifinat təmzal əd alhak nəšiɣil ye namokalan, əd féodisme, tartit ən kal tənayiwen adaɣ kal bijwan əd namokalan wən əmik wa andiran inihaga adigin əšiɣil wan sardasitan daɣ suzeraintan nasan daɣ asimiskil ən tihašilen tən təmzal ənkalan əd manoirtan, aqalan sanatat tabaraten tən asimusudiw ən tərtit tan medieɣaltan awiɗnen daɣ alwaq wan Haut Moyen Âge."
Italian merchants imported slaves to work in households or in sugar processing.,Əmašanšan wi italientan tiwiyanid eklan fal nəšiɣil daɣ ihinan meɣ daɣ igitan wi nisukar.
"Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of western Europe.","Mana, ɗeste əd nakinas maqaran ən aljamaɣat tan Euroɗe tan egadal ən tafuk."
They eventually gave way to the Zagwe dynasty who are famed for their rock cut architecture at Lalibela.,"Asmandan daɣ tayawt nadag wan atwigaz wan Zagwe, aśohen daɣ təmusnawen nes əslabnen daɣ tahunt tan Laliblea."
"They controlled the trans-Saharan trade in gold, ivory, salt and slaves.","Anihadan ye nazan wən transsaharien ən nuraɣ, ən nivoire, ən tesimt əd deklan."
"Central Africa saw the birth of several states, including the Kingdom of Kongo.","Afrique tan amas tinhay təwit ən Étatan ajotnen, amosan taɣrəmt tan Kongo."
"They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Khami, capital of Kingdom of Butua, and Danangombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the Rozvi Empire.","Aqanan idagan maqornen ən tagaste daɣ tahun winan ila tende, sund Grand Zimbabwe, amas wan təɣrimt tan Zimbabwe, Khami, amas təɣrimt tan Butua, əd Danangombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), amas wan aɣrəm wan Rozɣi."
"The ninth century saw a Tripartite Struggle for control of northern India, among the Pratihara Empire, the Pala Empire, and the Rashtrakuta Empire.","Wastaza temede nawatay tinhay abilan ən karaɗ fal tanhat ən ataram ən Inde, gar aɣrəm wan Ɗratihara, aɣrim wan Ɗala əd aɣrəm wan Raštrakuta."
"""The Tang dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after half a century of turmoil the Song dynasty reunified China, when it was, according to William McNeill, the """"richest, most skilled, and most populous country on earth"""".""","Alxayal wan Tang assəmda aguden əs tazunt izar, darat tazunt ən tamede ən awatay ən tarəmax, gor William McNeil,""""axrəm wa ilan azrif,wa ilan tadabit ad wa ilan adinat ən akal""""."""
"After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty (1368).","Darat gor aywadan temede ən awatay ən tanaya tan kal mongol ən alxayal wan Yuan,chinewatan win ider olassane tənna ən aniyat dag tanaya ən alxayal wan Ming (1368)."
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the emergence of a strong Japanese state and is often portrayed as a golden age.,Azaman tan Nara wan 8e tamade awatay iga tamatert adəwəl ən təmənya tan japon tassohet izar alwaq iyan asikna sund azaman ən orax.
"The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional lords (daimyos) and the military rule of warlords (shoguns) such as the Ashikaga shogunate and Tokugawa shogunate, stretched from 1185 to 1868.","Azaman wa maqaran ən assənəfis wan Japon, atiwanay fal manokalan labasnen ən akal (daimyos) ad tafrənt tan militertan ən manokalan win akənas (shoguns) sund shogunat Ashikaga ad shogunat Tokugawa, maqar gor 1185 har 1868."
"Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the Northern and Southern States period (남북국시대), with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north.","Silla təgraw Baekje gor 660,ad Goguryeo gor 668,amitaran sənto ən tahagit ən kalan win tasaga nakal ad win tadnak nakal (남북국시대), ad Silla tartit dag tadnak nakal ad Balhae, ad akal wa ichrayan Gguryeo, gor tasaga nakal."
"Starting in the 9th century, the Bagan Kingdom rose to prominence in modern Myanmar.","Gor tamede ən awatay tas 9e, akal wan Bagan itkal tənfo dag Myanmar wad ichrayan."
"The Ancestral Puebloans and their predecessors (9th – 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century.","Pueblotan ən marawan ad mizaran ( IXe-XIIIe iwityan) aqanan edag haruwan waren imədu,sund təməqunt tan tihun tin taqal tigasmen ti maqornen ən Amerique tan Nord har iwityan win XIXe."
"In South America, the 14th and 15th centuries saw the rise of the Inca.","Gor Amerique tan sud,elan win 14e ad 15e ən hayan tanakra tan Inkas."
"The Scientific Revolution received impetus from Johannes Gutenberg's introduction to Europe of printing, using movable type, and from the invention of the telescope and microscope.",Achanzi ən tamusne iwa as igui dag Europe ye igui ən təmtar timutuynen as Johannes Gutenberg ad as ugich ən teleskope ad mikroskope.
"The late modern period continues either to the end of World War II, in 1945, or to the present.","Gor alwaq wan ichray an tahagit anəlkaman wa har gor saməndo ən akənas was asin ən adunya, gor 1945, mex har echali dag."
"The early Modern period was characterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics, and the nation state.","Sənto ən alwaq wan ichray ezlay ad itkal afəla ən tamusne,as acharay an timusnawen ti əknanen atrub,fal fulatik ən adinat hanen azaman ad adinat nakal."
"During the early modern period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes.","Gor sənto ən alwaq wan ichray,Europe təgrəw edag iness wa ogaran ;tunfassen taməgradnat harwa inəzgam."
It had developed an advanced monetary economy by 1000 CE.,Təsənta igui an asdu ən azrif okayan gor awatay wan 1000 ən azaman tan nanax.
"It enjoyed a technological advantage and had a monopoly in cast iron production, piston bellows, suspension bridge construction, printing, and the compass.","Təgraw bunafis ən tamusne izar təkrach tarna ən igui ən amanu,ashad wan piston,ad akaras ən admar animatafan,ye akatab ad emasekni."
One theory of Europe's rise holds that Europe's geography played an important role in its success.,Awen ikfa ye Europe tadwəlt iyat ən tigozt dag tagsəda ən imutkal ən Asie tan amas.
This gave Europe some degree of protection from the peril of Central Asian invaders.,Awen ijraw i Eroba iddikud n alghillas dagh xatar wan muxtalun tan win Asia tan Ammas.
The Golden Age of Islam was ended by the Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258.,Awatay wan orax ən tənəslima imda ənta ad chaku mongol wan Bagdad gor 1258.
Geography contributed to important geopolitical differences.,Taharut ən edag talil ye ebadin iknan ən tamusne ən fulatik.
"By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states.","Dag assugəl,Europe ich war tazun harkuk dag agət ən kalan iyad iknasnen."
Nearly all the agricultural civilizations have been heavily constrained by their environments.,Ich war timətawen ti gayaknen kul atwachalnat dag assahat fal ihzawan nasnat.
Technological advance and the wealth generated by trade gradually brought about a widening of possibilities.,Tizart ən tamusne ad tagute nazrif wa adoraw maməla assewadan agay ən taharut ən iguitan.
"Europe's maritime expansion unsurprisingly—given the continent's geography—was largely the work of its Atlantic states: Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands.","Taharut nebang wan Europe, daɣ iban taɣdərt as təkətawt ən alaɣi nakal,eqal daɣ a šrut maqaran iji ən ikalan win ihaz ən ebang wan Atlantique :Portugal, Espagne, Angleterre, Fransiya as Hollande."
"In North Africa, the Saadi Sultanate remained as an independent Berber state until 1659.","Gor Afrique tan Nord,tanya tan sultan wan Saadi taqal akal ən təwset tanuflayat har gor 1659."
The Swahili coast declined after coming under the Portuguese Empire and later the Omani Empire.,"Tachrut tan swahilie tinad darat as tokay daw təmənya tan Portugal,ad daw tan oman."
"The South African Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smaller kingdoms such as Mutapa, Butua, and Rozvi.","Akal wan sud-africain ad Zimbabwe oya edag ye kalan win daratnen sund Mutapa,Butua ad Rozvi."
Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period.,Timətawen tiyad ən afrique okaynat gor anməchri ən alwaq wen dag.
"Japan experienced its Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1603), followed by the Edo period (1603–1868).","Japon tizay alwaq iness Azuchi-Momoyama (1568-1603),silkam alwaq Edo ( 1603-1868)."
"The Johor Sultanate, centred on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region.","Təmənya tan sultan wan Johor,təlat gor samədo tan sud wan tadabayt tan darat,taqal tarna ta tazarat ən maməla nakal."
"Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784, and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812.","Russie təga ugich itraban fal achrut nord-ouest ən Amerique tan Nord, ad kalan wi azarnen dag Alaska tan amaradag gor 1784,ad date han wan Fort Ross dag Californie tan amaradag gor 1812."
"The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labour than previously required.","Təwat tan sigyakan adaɣ tənta daɣ Bretagne-Tamaqarat əd təsinta adakal əmikan aynaynen ən nigitan nusinetan, igitan wən azayan əd dalmaɣnatan fal arigin edag maqaran nahusken ogaran tərmiɗe əd idakalan andiran daɣ mašaɣalan dat awen."
"After Europeans had achieved influence and control over the Americas, imperial activities turned to the lands of Asia and Oceania.","Darat as kal europe igrawan ematali ad umax fal kal amerique, achigalan wi azarnen inadan ibret ən Asie ad Océanie."
"The British also colonized Australia, New Zealand and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies.","Kal britannique asmakənən Australie, Nouvelle-Zélande ad Afrique tan sud,ad tagute maqarat ən mudakan ən britannique assekalan ibret ən kalan win."
"Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of nation states, and ethno-linguistic groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy.","Gor Europe,assəməgdah ən asdəw ad militertan orawanid timkarawen an kalan,ad grupmatan ən tiwsaten assəntan anmizay sund ikalan abdanen imaxnen ye tamənahat an tamusne ad fulatik."
"Meanwhile, industrial pollution and environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically.","Gor alwaq wen,eger ad axachad an ihzawan,atilanen gor agaraw ən efew ad sənto ən tamsədawt,ochal dag almaxna ahuchalan."
Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan.,Achrut maqaran dag agilal nadunya təswad əs kalan wi əknanen assuhu əs europe : Etats-Unis ad Japon.
"World War I led to the collapse of four empires – Austria-Hungary, the German Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire – and weakened the United Kingdom and France.","Akənas wa azaran nadunya iwayd egadəl ən əkoz kalan – Autriche-Hongrie, akal wan allemand, akal wan Ottoman ad akal wan russe izar asməkadən Royaume-Uni ad Fransiya."
"Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II.","Timəchəgawen ən kalan tikinat, amənkadan əs midəxwas nasdu ən afanaz wan maqaran, akfan atrub ən akənas was assin nadunya."
"The Cold War ended peacefully in 1991 after the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent fall of the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall, and the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the Warsaw Pact.","Akənas wa samedan amənda əs sarho gor 1991 darat asəgəm-gəm wan kal euroɗe, egadal wan alkum ən ekaršay wan tazoli ən afarag wan Berlin, et egadəl ən ašrut wan alqiblat ad tartit tan Varsovie."
"In the early postwar decades, the colonies in Asia and Africa of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French, and other west European empires won their formal independence.","Alwaq wan elan wi azarnen ən darat akənas, ikalan win Asiya ad Afrikiya ən kalan win Belge, britannique, Holandtan,Fransiya ad kalan wi iyadnen ən europe tan egadəl ən tafuk igrawan tənna ən tanoflayt."
"The European Union's effectiveness was handicapped by the immaturity of its common economic and political institutions, somewhat comparable to the inadequacy of United States institutions under the Articles of Confederation prior to the adoption of the Constitution of the United States that came into force in 1789.","Assexat wan tartit tan euroɗe təbdan ən təmadrit ən iguitan ən asdu ad fulatik ertayan, amigdah əndaran əs iban agədahat ən təmsədaw ən Etats-Unis daw tənawen tin tartit dat adakal ən tidit tan Etats-Unis təsənta ugiš gor 1789."
"In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel, artificial satellites with innumerable applications including the Global Positioning System (GPS), and the Internet.","Daɣ elan wid dəlkamnen ye akənas wa maqaran, išənzitan iwayənd assikəl dag atiera tan assəkar, tahunt tatiwagat əs amikatən agotnen, əs harat wan assəbdad kul (GPS), ad ye internet."
"Worldwide competition for natural resources has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China, and Brazil.","Taməšiga ən adunya ye iguitan ahusktnen awed fal tagute ən adinat ad aguit ən izintan,adigan gor Inde, gor Šine ad gor Brésil."
An archive is an accumulation of historical records – in any media – or the physical facility in which they are located.,Alkad ekal tamsədawt ən alkadan arunen –fal idud kul-meg afatax ye daɣ wa iha.
"""They have been metaphorically defined as """"the secretions of an organism"""", and are distinguished from documents that have been consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity.""",""" Abdadnat daɣ ašanzi sund """"iguitan an mudaran"""", izar abdan ad alkadan wi atwaktabnen əs tamusne meɣ ganen ye tənna ən batu igan dat azaman."
"This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, although archival collections can often be found within library buildings.","Awen adaɣ tidila as alkadan iknan ebadi daɣ məngazatan ad ekalan gor tənfo nassan ad amsədu nassan, harwa timsədawen nalkadan adobatnat atwəgrəw dag tixəšmen tin alkadan."
"Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds (and sometime thousands) of clay tablets going back to the third and second millennia BC in sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusas, Ugarit, and Pylos.","Kal aru agrawan alkadan iwadnen timad (izr agud iyan efdan) ye tafəltak ən talaq tiwadat gor iwətyan wiw karad ad wis assin darat Nabi Issa. dag dagan sund Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Haƭusas, Ugarit ad Pylos."
"However, they have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus and paper deteriorated at a faster pace, unlike their stone tablet counterparts.","Aguden, atiwas sagalnat, falas alkadan wi iktabnen fal haratan sund alaflaf ad alkad ɣašadan šikanen, daɣ ebadi ən milhawen fal tafəltaq ən tahunt."
England after 1066 developed archives and archival research methods.,"Anglterre, darat 1066,təkraš alkadan ad adaratan win umax ən kal alkadan."
"While there are many kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types: academic, business (for profit), government, non-profit, and other.","Harwa as tilan iritan agotnen nalkadan, assidən wa iknan tinayt nalkadan gor Etats-Unis izay səmos afranen : alkadan win texare ta maqarat,alkadan win hebu (win agraw ən azrif), alkadan win alhakum, alkadan wi waren iha hebu ad alkadan wiyadnen."
Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only; some have posted hours for making inquiries.,Ugiš gor timsədaw nalkadan win tag ɣas fal takən ;iyad ilan alwaq wan amer izgaran ye tamadilt ən asestan.
"Examples of prominent business archives in the United States include Coca-Cola (which also owns the separate museum World of Coca-Cola), Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Services and Archives, and Levi Strauss & Co. These corporate archives maintain historic documents and items related to the history and administration of their companies.","Gar iritan ən alkadan ən ɣor Etats-Unis,naxra Əoəa-Əola (təlat deɣ edag azunan World of Coca-Cola), Procter and Gamble, Motorola Heritage Serɣice and Archives,ad Levi Straus & Co. Alkadan win ašəxal ogazan alkadan ad haratan arunen artaynen ad tafunst ad ašəxal ən tartit."
"Workers in these types of archives may have any combination of training and degrees, from either a history or library background.","Imašəxalan ən iritan nalkadan adoben agaraw mertay kul wan alamad ad takard, tizgarat almud ən tinfust mex dag tamusne edag wan alkadan."
"In the United States, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) maintains central archival facilities in the District of Columbia and College Park, Maryland, with regional facilities distributed throughout the United States.","Gor Etats-Unis, National Archive and Records Administration (NANA) tətaf ugatan nalkadan win amas daɣ tazunt tan Columbia ad College Park, daɣ Maryland, ad ugatan ən kalan azunen fal akal wan amerique."
"In the UK, the National Archives (formerly known as the Public Record Office) is the government archive for England and Wales.","Gor Royaume-Uni, alkadan ən kalan (atiwazaynen aru fal issəm wan Public Record Offiəe) aqalan alkadan win alɣaqum ye Angleterre ad akal wan Pays de Galles."
"Put together, the total volume of archives under the supervision of the French Archives Administration is the largest in the world.","Ɣor asedən, agət ən alkadan daw akayad ən mašagalan win Franəe wan alkadan eqal wa iknan tahuskət ən adunya."
"Archdioceses, dioceses, and parishes also have archives in the Roman Catholic and Anglican Churches.","Tazunt ən lagristan, lagristan ad tihənaten tin amud ilan dex alkadan daɣ lagristan win Katholiktan ad romaintan ad angliəatan."
Often these institutions rely on grant funding from the government as well as the private funds.,Timsədaw ten tazlay agud iyan ad tilalt ən alxaqum ad sund timsədaw afarnen.
Many museums keep archives in order to prove the provenance of their pieces.,Ihanan agotnen ogazan alkadan ye alamad ən diha ad difəlan ikarəmatan.
This was a separate figure from the 1.3% that identified themselves as self-employed.,"Amos ašəkel ebdan ad 1,3% atiwazaynen sund anuflayan."
"The archive's mission is to gather stories from women who want to express themselves, and want their stories heard.",Əsalan win alkadan ekal agaraw ən tunfast ən deden ti arhanen magrəd ad ti arhanen as tinfasen nasnat ad atwəsəlnat.
"The archives of an organization (such as a corporation or government) tend to contain other types of records, such as administrative files, business records, memos, official correspondence, and meeting minutes.","Alkadan win tamsədawt (sund tartit mex alxaqum) ilan anyat ən ugiš ən iri nalkadan iyad, sund alkadan win ašaxal, alkadan win hebu, tənawen ašaxal, tasasawit ən alxaqum ad sənəfas ən taximiten."
"Many of these donations have yet to be cataloged, but are currently in the process of being digitally preserved and made available to the public online.","Ihuk agotnen war atwasadənan harwa,mašan han amaradaɣ tin atawar izar atwafan ye adinat."
International partners for archives are UNESCO and Blue Shield International in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999.,"Imašaxalan gar kalan ye alkadan amosan UNESƏO ad Blue Shield International, milhaw daɣ tarədawt tan Haye ye igoz ən təla ən tamusne gor 1954 ad əs igui was assin ɣor 1999."
"""Page, Morgan M. """"One from the Vaults: Gossip, Access, and Trans History-Telling.""""""","""Page, Morgan M. """" One from the Vaults: Gossip, Aəəes, and Trans History-Telling."""""
"An example of this is Morgan M. Page’s description of disseminating transgender history directly to trans people through various social media and networking platforms like tumblr, Twitter, and Instagram, as well as via podcast.","Iri nawen ekal asənəfas wan Morgan M. ašrut ən amsuxəl ən tafunst waren tatwazay šik gor adinat waren atwazay axil ən salan ən adinat ad tedagit tan agət ən rozotan sund tumblr, Twiƭer ad Instagram, ad harwa as ɗodəast."
"""With the options available through counter-archiving, there is the potential to """"challenge traditional conceptions of history"""" as they are perceived within contemporary archives, which creates space for narratives that are often not present in many archival materials.""","""Daɣ təsiba tan timotayen ətilanen fal arakon wan təmuqunen, adobat ad """"adisisikit əsalan wən tinfas uurunen""atamosan eqalan atiwahayan daɣ amas ən tumuqunen tirunen, awa itagan edag ən əkitban wənan eqel agudiyan ayhan awinan iha alkadan ajotnen."""
"A biography, or simply bio, is a detailed description of a person's life.","Awa tanfust ən tamudre, mex qas tamudre, eqal ayatimalan əs ƭibiɗawen ən tamudre nawadəm."
"Biographical works are usually non-fiction, but fiction can also be used to portray a person's life.","Əlkitaban wən təmalen aqalan harkuk awənn amos atiwazgaman, mašan unuzguman adoben intanedaɣ uɣil nayfan fal adalag ən tamudre nawadim."
"""Another well-known collection of ancient biographies is De vita Caesarum (""""On the Lives of the Caesars"""") by Suetonius, written about AD 121 in the time of the emperor Hadrian.""","""Iyan əlkitab atiwazaynen ən təmalen arunen eqal De ɣita Saesarum (""""fal tamudre tan Sésars""""(wan Stuétone, əktaban daɣ 121 aɗ. Nabi Issa, ugud wa anamokal Hadrien."""
"Hermits, monks, and priests used this historic period to write biographies.","Kal finta, amaɣsadan əd kal usuk igan alwaq wendaɣ ən tənfas fal kitban ən təmalen."
One significant secular example of a biography from this period is the life of Charlemagne by his courtier Einhard.,Asəgbar alwaqan asisagrahnen ən təmalen nalwaq wa eqalan tamudre tan Šarlamagne fal amadhal ənes Einhard.
They contained more social data for a large segment of the population than other works of that period.,Ahantan haratan ogarnen daɣ garawan wən tərtit fal edag haruwan ən nədinat wəs iyad tirint daɣ alwaq wəndaɣ.
"By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented in Europe as biographies of kings, knights, and tyrants began to appear.","Dax samando ən Moyen Âge, biographitan aqalnat agizilan dax Eglistan ən Europe, falas biographitan tan namokalan, tan manayan əd tan mašanšan ilanati."
"Following Malory, the new emphasis on humanism during the Renaissance promoted a focus on secular subjects, such as artists and poets, and encouraged writing in the vernacular.","Darat Malory, waynayan azaway atwagan fal adunyat alwaq wan Renaissance infa texare tan salan wi əslaynen, amosnen imazaran əd mabotan, əd asuhusku nakatab dax magrad ən kalakal."
Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the printing press in the 15th century and the gradual increase in literacy.,Əsin simutiyan iyad aqalan ayktaban : dawla wan imprimerie dax 15e temede nawatay əd dasiwid ikan isdat na səxir.
"Influential in shaping popular conceptions of pirates, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), by Charles Johnson, is the prime source for the biographies of many well-known pirates.","Iha dǎɣ formatontan nuzguman dədinat wi tikirnen, A General History of the Pyrates (1724), wən Charles Johnson, eqal tatazarat tabarat ən biographitan ən ajotnen makradan atiwazaynen."
Carlyle asserted that the lives of great human beings were essential to understanding society and its institutions.,Carlyle ina as tamudre nədinat tagal harat adoben asəfihimi ən tənmitafen əd timsidawen nes.
"Boswell's work was unique in its level of research, which involved archival study, eye-witness accounts and interviews, its robust and attractive narrative, and its honest depiction of all aspects of Johnson's life and character – a formula which serves as the basis of biographical literature to this day.","Əlkitab wan Boswell eqal inta xas fal dawla numax ənes, dǎɣ taha taxare nəlkitaban, tinfas ən tujuhe nahanay əd batutan, dǎɣ tifas ənes asohatnen əd azigranat, əd timalines ən tidit dǎɣ haratan ən tamudre əd talxiwen tən Johnson - əmik wakanan santo ən texare tan biographie awendǎɣ ar ešalidǎɣ."
"However, the number of biographies in print experienced a rapid growth, thanks to an expanding reading public.","Əgudendǎɣ, hadi ən biographitan ədizgaran izay tiwat šik, dǎɣ təsəba nədinat wi maxran dǎɣ asihraw."
Periodicals began publishing a sequence of biographical sketches.,Alawaqan əsintan azizgar ən seritan ən theâtre tan biographitan.
"""Sociological"""" biographies conceived of their subjects' actions as the result of the environment, and tended to downplay individuality.""","Wi tagan biographie ""sociologitan"" samakten əšəxilan ən salan sund adizgaranid tamusuq əd tirmit ən əsimidriy nawa iyandǎɣ."""
The conventional concept of heroes and narratives of success disappeared in the obsession with psychological explorations of personality.,Tinawt tartayan ən musuha əd tiffas ən dawla nasan igmadanin dǎɣ tarah tan nəsišicil nəniyat nədinat.
"""Up until this point, as Strachey remarked in the preface, Victorian biographies had been """"as familiar as the cortège of the undertaker"""", and wore the same air of """"slow, funereal barbarism.""""""","Awendǎɣ had harwa, sund awa isan Strachey dǎɣ santo, biographitan wi digrawnen aqalan """"terwe dǎɣ tax axlasan nufasan-ən tamatant"""" əd ilsan iyandǎɣ adu ən ""talafen hin əlanen əd tihay""."
"The book achieved worldwide fame due to its irreverent and witty style, its concise and factually accurate nature, and its artistic prose.","Əlkitab iwadat ehandǎɣ nəsim dǎɣ adunyat dər tisiba ən temalsi ənes niba natiqal əd dinyat, ən xalaqa ənes tisanat əd damaradǎɣ əntadendǎɣ, əd dǎɣ magrad ənes wa namazar."
"""Robert Graves (I, Claudius, 1934) stood out among those following Strachey's model of """"debunking biographies.""""""","""Robert Graves (l, Claudius, 1934) eqal aybdan əd wi əlkamnen ye əmik wan Strachey wən """"əsiknan asirtay ən biographitan""""."
"By World War I, cheap hard-cover reprints had become popular.","Ugud wan Première Guerre Mondiale, asinilis ən hebu ahusken ən tamalsit tasogat aqalan ahoran ədinat."
"Along with documentary biographical films, Hollywood produced numerous commercial films based on the lives of famous people.","A olahan ən silmatan tən biographitan əktabnen, Hollywood iga ajotnen silmatan ən šanšan əganen fal tamudre nədinat əmarnan."
"Unlike books and films, they often do not tell a chronological narrative: instead they are archives of many discrete media elements related to an individual person, including video clips, photographs, and text articles.","Əbdanen dəlkitaban əd silmatan, wi tigin agudiyan tinfas na nilkaman : amosan wəndǎɣ əkitban ajotnen ən salan ifarnen artaynen dawadim iyandǎɣ, atamosan videotan, əmatkalan ən phatotan əd salan əktabnen."
"""General """"life writing"""" techniques are a subject of scholarly study.""","""Əmusanan ətbanen ən ""kətban naduniyat"" tagan harat ən taxare tan musan"
"""The information can come from """"oral history, personal narrative, biography and autobiography” or """"diaries, letters, memoranda and other materials"""".""","""Əsalan adoben tasawt dǎɣ """"tinfas ən magrad, tafust nawadim, dǎɣ tinfas ən tamudre əd dǎɣ tafust nawadim əktab "" mex dǎɣ """"salan əstarnen, letre, memoirtan əd diyad buktutan."""""
"European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes.","Enuwan wi nalmaxna europeen adǎɣ dizgaran 9e əd 10e dǎɣ timad ən wityan, darat egadal wan Empire carolingien əsibab ye budutan nakalines gar anamokalan əd dagnamokalan."
"Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source.","Enuwan wi naxrim aqalan atiwatkalan dǎɣ igi nəniyat ye ədinat ən kalakal əd tabaraten tən salan ənfanen, əd enuwan wi kal finta eqalan ugud iyan aohazan harat wi taganen amas ən tamudre tan ədinat, sund gnikagnika, akal abirjen mex ašašil naman."
"In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged.","Dǎɣ samando ən 12e temede nawatay əd santo ən 13e temede nawatay, aohazan ye maxran dǎɣ uguz nenuwan wi tilanen."
"These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences, such as Roman forts.","Əsimutuyan wən nuguz igan asirtay ən timusnawen tən nenuwan ədosanen dǎɣ tanmirtayt, sund asusuhu namas, əd tarha nuguz ta taruwat, sund wi asohatnen romaintan."
"Although gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls.","Ahuskat ejel wan canon igašan Europe dǎɣ 14e temede nawatay, wartigrew haratan ilanen tanfo fal tamuqunt tan nenuwan dat 15e temede nawatay, ugud wa imawan ən malfatan aqalan hulen asohen fal anabag ən xalan ən tuhun."
"Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for military service and the expectation of loyalty, the lord would grant the vassal land.","Feodalismiya eqal aylan gar anamokal ən demašaɣal ənes yur, dǎɣ asimiskil dǎɣ əšəɣil wan marnan əd asigid wan tidit, amanokal ihaku idagan imašaxalan."
"Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, and domestic.","Enuwan ilan əšəxilan ajotnen, wis wiogarnen tanfo aqalan əmarnan, burawtan əd hinane."
"As William the Conqueror advanced through England, he fortified key positions to secure the land he had taken.","Dǎɣ anilkaman Guillaume wa namanokal əmišwar sa Angleterre, isisuhut almaxnatan itbatnen fal uguz nakal wa grawan."
A castle could act as a stronghold and prison but was also a place where a knight or lord could entertain his peers.,Enu adobat arafu ye sasuhu əd kaso mašan aqal intadǎɣ edag yur emarn mex anamokal adobat adigriw imidawanes.
"In different areas of the world, analogous structures shared features of fortification and other defining characteristics associated with the concept of a castle, though they originated in different periods and circumstances and experienced differing evolutions and influences.","Dǎɣ təbidawt ən dagan na duniyat, tidawen oxadnen tuzanat talxiwen tən asusuhu əd tiyad talxiwen artaynen nəniyat wan nenuwan, ahuskat a saqalnat aywan hadagan əd dǎɣ təmuzuxen abdanen əd izaynat tiwat əd dagalan abdanen."
"By the 16th century, when Japanese and European cultures met, fortification in Europe had moved beyond castles and relied on innovations such as the Italian trace italienne and star forts.","Dǎɣ XVIe temede nawatay, ugud wa isigyak wən japonaitan əd europeentan timuqusan, adusuhu dǎɣ Europe okay ehandag wa enuwan əd sahatalan dǎɣ tiwaden ət tabarat tan italientan əd wi asohatnen dǎɣ etran."
"The excavation of earth to make the mound left a ditch around the motte, called a moat (which could be either wet or dry).","Eɣeš nakal fal uxin ən farajitan itiyu tagaša dǎɣ ahaz ən farajitan, sitawana tagaša ( eqalan aybdagan mex aquran)."
"It was a common feature of castles, and most had at least one.","Eqal talxa taoharan enuwan, əd diyad dak ilan əndar iyandǎɣ."
Water was supplied by a well or cistern.,Aman tawahaken senuwan mex əs turaft.
"Although often associated with the motte-and-bailey type of castle, baileys could also be found as independent defensive structures.","Ahuskat as ugudiyan artaynat denuwan wi əmik wan tagaš-əd-bailey, baileys adoben əntanedǎɣ uxil tidawen nuguz imanasan."
"""Keep"""" was not a term used in the medieval period – the term was applied from the 16th century onwards – instead """"donjon"""" was used to refer to great towers, or turris in Latin.""","Donjon"" wareqel isim amitkalan alwaq wan medievale – isim a dǎɣ eqal aygan ugud wan 16e temede nawatay dǎɣ edag, """"donjon"""" eqal amitkalan fal ariqil imaqornen irakonan, mex turris dǎɣ latin."""
"Although often the strongest part of a castle and a last place of refuge if the outer defences fell, the keep was not left empty in case of attack but was used as a residence by the lord who owned the castle, or his guests or representatives.","Ahuskat as agudiyan tasune ta togarat isuhu ən nanu əd tatilkat tugit nugud nagadal nuguz wan sagama, donjon wareqel iyiwayan ba dǎɣ ugud wa natuwgiš mašan taqalanat ihinan ən namokalan ilanen enuwan, ye naftaxan mex wi ahanen idag ənes."
"Walkways along the tops of the curtain walls allowed defenders to rain missiles on enemies below, and battlements gave them further protection.","Dagetan dǎɣ tizigrit nimawan ən dagan infanen imagazan atigin agina əs projectiltan fal mušunga ilanen sider, əd creneautan ət tan hakanen tagazt maqarat."
"The front of the gateway was a blind spot and to overcome this, projecting towers were added on each side of the gate in a style similar to that developed by the Romans.","Dat ashir eqal edag warahen idinat əd fal asafar, egilitan dǎɣ nazagar aqalan awidan safirdak nəshir dǎɣ əmik wa olahan əd wa maqiran əs Romaintan."
The passage through the gatehouse was lengthened to increase the amount of time an assailant had to spend under fire in a confined space and unable to retaliate.,Tabarat tatimarat ehan wa militairtan taqal asisagdahan fal asiwid nalwaq ye maxdaran anihaga arakiy daw afew dǎɣ edag atiwakatan əd waradobat asuxil.
"They were most likely used to drop objects on attackers, or to allow water to be poured on fires to extinguish them.","Aqalnat ugudak amitkalan fal igi nagadal ən harat fal maxdaran, mex fal arudaben ya sagilan aman dǎɣ fewan fal dǎɣ samando atan əgin."
A smaller horizontal opening could be added to give an archer a better view for aiming.,Ashir arigayragay ən wadiran adobat ariqil asewadan fal huk nere itijaran ahanay ahusken fal adisigdah.
"The earliest fortifications originated in the Fertile Crescent, the Indus Valley, Egypt, and China where settlements were protected by large walls.","Widazarnene imusuha adǎɣ dizgaran dǎɣ dagan abirjatnen, gartuhun wi Indus, Egypttan əd Chinetan, yur muzɣan aqalnen aogazan ɣalan maqornen."
"Many earthworks survive today, along with evidence of palisades to accompany the ditches.","Ajotnen alkitaban ən nakal itilanen ešalidǎɣ, dəd driš ən ɣalan adewnen ən tigašiwen."
"Although primitive, they were often effective, and were only overcome by the extensive use of siege engines and other siege warfare techniques, such as at the Battle of Alesia.","Ahuskat wa dazaran, aqalan agudiyan asohen əd aqalan awidan əs fal asišixil ən harkuk dǎɣ haratan wi siège əd diyad əmikan nakinas wan siège, sund ugud wa tanmigašt tan Alesia."
"Discussions have typically attributed the rise of the castle to a reaction to attacks by Magyars, Muslims, and Vikings and a need for private defence.","Batutan intanedǎɣ iganid əmik wan anu dǎɣ asisinkir na kinasan wi Magyars, Inislimann əd Vikings əd tarha nuguz ənmanes."
"Some high concentrations of castles occur in secure places, while some border regions had relatively few castles.","Iyad asohatnen timsuduwen ən nenuwan a yur ilana dǎɣ dagan əntiflist, mašan iyad edagan ən frontiertan ilan intanedǎɣ andiran dǎɣ enuwan."
Building the hall in stone did not necessarily make it immune to fire as it still had windows and a wooden door.,"Təmuqunt tan ehan wan tumat watitigu dǎɣ əsarho dǎɣ asitwir ye afew, falas tila harkuk tisakaroten əd dəshir ən našxer."
Castles were not just defensive sites but also enhanced a lord's control over his lands.,"Enuwan waraqelan xas idgan nuguzan, kanan intanedǎɣ ye namokalan dad digin nəniyat ye kalal nasan."
"In 864 the King of West Francia, Charles the Bald, prohibited the construction of castella without his permission and ordered them all to be destroyed.","Dǎɣ 864, anamokal wan Francie tan egadal ən tafuk, Charles wan Chauve, idgal təmuqunt tan castella aswaden əs tiridawt ənes əd ifa atwirzinhet fuk."
"Switzerland is an extreme case of there being no state control over who built castles, and as a result there were 4,000 in the country.","Suisse taqal edag izwayan yur État wiritugu əniyat ye təmuqunen ən nenuwan, əs ahuskat as akal adila 4 000."
"In 950 Provence was home to 12 castles, by 1000 this figure had risen to 30, and by 1030 it was over 100.","Dǎɣ 950, Provence sadan 12 enuwan, dǎɣ 1000 edan wen eqal okayan əs 30, əd dǎɣ 1030 okay 100."
"In the early 11th century, the motte and keep – an artificial mound with a palisade and tower on top – was the most common form of castle in Europe, everywhere except Scandinavia.","Dǎɣ santo ən 11e temede nawatay, farajitan əd donjon – tadmir nakal iwar axala əd tasaxlit - aqalan wogaran atwiziy dǎɣ enuwan wi Europe, dahatiked wənan amos dǎɣ Scandinavetan."
"Although stone construction would later become common elsewhere, from the 11th century onwards it was the primary building material for Christian castles in Spain, while at the same time timber was still the dominant building material in north-west Europe.","Ahuskat as təmuqunen aqalnat ugudiyan atiwazayan sax edag ihan, at tifilad 11e temede nawatay, ataqal ta tazarat əlil wa nəsusuxin ən nenuwan ən chretientan dǎɣ Espagne, izar dǎɣ alwaq iyandǎɣ, išaxeran aqiyman ye əlil wan nəsusuxin itbatan dǎɣ emaynag dǎɣ egadal ən tafuk ən Europe."
Before the 12th century castles were as uncommon in Denmark as they had been in England before the Norman Conquest.,"Dat XIIe temede nawatay, enuwan aqalan intanedǎɣ andiran sahan Danemark aqalan dǎɣ Angleterre dat tahaq tan normande."
"Their decoration emulated Romanesque architecture, and sometimes incorporated double windows similar to those found in church bell towers.",Adalag nasan adizgaran igitan wən romane əd itagaš ugudiyan tisankorotnen animatafnen olahnen dər clochertan wi neglisetan.
"Although superseded by their stone successors, timber and earthwork castles were by no means useless.","Ahuskat as tan əsigmadan mašrayan nasan ən tuhun, enuwan ən šaxeran əd ənakal waraqelan ayfan əs harat."
"Until the late 12th century castles generally had few towers; a gateway with few defensive features such as arrowslits or a portcullis; a great keep or donjon, usually square and without arrowslits; and the shape would have been dictated by the lay of the land (the result was often irregular or curvilinear structures).","Hawendǎɣ har samando ən XIIe temede nawatay, enuwan aqalan ugudiyan aylan harat ən təsixlay, nashir dər andiran dǎɣ harat wi nuguz ət tamosan išugušan mex herse, maqaran donjon, agudiyan ogdahan əd išugušan, əd əmik nasan eqalan atiwanan fal salan ən dagan (idigmadnen ugudiyan tidawt abdanen mex axirambaynen)."
The towers would have protruded from the walls and featured arrowslits on each level to allow archers to target anyone nearing or at the curtain wall.,Təsixlay okaynat i ɣalan əd ilanat išugušan hak edag fal arudaben archertan uduf dǎɣ harat wa manatan dahizəd dǎɣ tasitwir mex yur diha dilan.
"Where keeps did exist, they were no longer square but polygonal or cylindrical.","Diha yur ilan donjon, wareqel amara agdahan mašan tisugwen ajotnen mex sund takbat."
"Probably developed in the 12th century, the towers provided flanking fire.","Amos awidan dǎɣ XIIe temede nawatay, təsixlan infant igi ən tijir agud dak."
It seemed that the Crusaders had learned much about fortification from their conflicts with the Saracens and exposure to Byzantine architecture.,Ola as wimuqasnen ilan ajen dǎɣ timusne tan asusuhu ugud wa nəkinasan dər Sarrasins əd azagar nasan dǎɣ təmusnawen tən byzantine.
"Legends were discredited, and in the case of James of Saint George it was proven that he came from Saint-Georges-d'Espéranche, in France.","Legendtan aqalan imarwasan, əd dǎɣ sund Jacque wan Saint-Georges, eqal aduten as adifal Saint-Georges-Esperanche, ən France."
"""The castle builders of Western Europe were aware of and influenced by Roman design; late Roman coastal forts on the English """"Saxon Shore"""" were reused and in Spain the wall around the city of Ávila imitated Roman architecture when it was built in 1091.""","""Əmuxanan ən nenuwan dǎɣ Europe tan egadal ən tafuk əzaynat əd aqalnat asisimastal fal nuzguman romaine ; wi asohatnen cotiertan wi samando nalwaq wan romaintan, fal ""Saxon Shore"" nanglais aqalan anelas dǎɣ əšəxil əd dǎɣ Espagne, i ɣalan wən dedes naxrim wan Ávila asugbar ən təmisnawen ən romaintan yur təmuqunt dǎɣ 1091."""
An example of this approach is Kerak.,Olahan ən harat ədohazan eqal sund wan Kerak.
The castles they founded to secure their acquisitions were designed mostly by Syrian master-masons.,Enuwan wi iga fal adagiz əgarawan aqalan ənuguman ən niyadad dǎɣ namokalan-ən muxanan wi syrientan.
"While castles were used to hold a site and control movement of armies, in the Holy Land some key strategic positions were left unfortified.","Izar enuwan aqalan amitkalan fal uduf nadag əd digi nəniyat ye mutumušan dǎɣ armé, dǎɣ Akal Šidigan, iyad əmikan amutaynen ətbatnen waraqelnat asohatan."
"Design varied not just between orders, but between individual castles, though it was common for those founded in this period to have concentric defences.","Ənusguman abdan sa dag sa dag, mašan dǎɣ anu sə yan, ahuskat adisan as enuwan iganendǎɣ alwaq wendǎɣ ilan əmugazan adiwnen."
If assailants made it past the first line of defence they would be caught in the killing ground between the inner and outer walls and have to assault the second wall.,"Afal əmakradan garawan anabag ən tatazarat tabarat nuguz, əmitkalan dǎɣ amas ən gar ɣalan wi namas əd dagama əd arhan arawidan axala wa səsin."
"For instance, it was common in Crusader castles to have the main gate in the side of a tower and for there to be two turns in the passageway, lengthening the time it took for someone to reach the outer enclosure.","Olahan, eqalašalan dǎɣ enuwan artaynen as ashie wazaran ayha fal tasaga naxalay əd tabarat tila irakanan əsin, awa sahagawan alwaq infan awadim ye arawid edag wa namas."
"Although there were hundreds of wooden castles in Prussia and Livonia, the use of bricks and mortar was unknown in the region before the Crusaders.","Ahuskat as tila timad nenuwan ən šaxeran dǎɣ Prusse əd dǎɣ Livonie, adakal ən farajitan əd tende taqalat awinan atwazay dǎɣ edag dat mənhayan."
"Arrowslits did not compromise the wall's strength, but it was not until Edward I's programme of castle building that they were widely adopted in Europe.","Əmuhuya wazizgiran əsuhu ən ɣalan, mašan asgadan ye ayktaban ən təmuqunt tan enuwan wi Edouard fal ataqal dǎɣ təhurut aylmadan dǎɣ Europe."
"Although machicolations performed the same purpose as the wooden galleries, they were probably an Eastern invention rather than an evolution of the wooden form.","Ahuskat machicoulitan daqaran aolahan dǎɣ əšəxil dǎɣ dagan ən šaxeran , aqalan aoxadan atiwagan ihan alqiblat mex sund tiwat nəmik ən šaxeran."
"Conflict and interaction between the two groups led to an exchange of architectural ideas, and Spanish Christians adopted the use of detached towers.","Əkinasan əd tinmirtayen gar wi nəsin grouptan tilway əs tehake niniyatan ən nuzguman, əd chretientan espagnol ilmadan adakal ən xalayan abdanen."
"""French historian François Gebelin wrote: """"The great revival in military architecture was led, as one would naturally expect, by the powerful kings and princes of the time; by the sons of William the Conqueror and their descendants, the Plantagenets, when they became dukes of Normandy.""","""Awtinfas wan français François Gebelin əktab : """"wamaqaran aynayan anuzgum ən militairtan eqal aylway, sund adobat yemanes arisigid, fal namokalan wi asohatnen əd dag namokalan wi nahanin fal ara wan Guillaume wan Conquerant əd dawa watan dizgaran, plan.tagenets, ugud wa daqalan ducs de Notmandie."""""
"The new castles were generally of a lighter build than earlier structures and presented few innovations, although strong sites were still created such as that of Raglan in Wales.","Wiyaynaynen enuwan aqalan wi azarnen ən tamuqunt togarat tifise dǎɣ tidawen namas əd saknanen andiran tidawen, ahuskat as edagan wi asohatnen ilan intanedǎɣ igi, sund wi Raglan dǎɣ Pays wan Galles."
"These guns were too heavy for a man to carry and fire, but if he supported the butt end and rested the muzzle on the edge of the gun port he could fire the weapon.","Kanontan aqalan azayan ye halis ya arudabat alangi əd dahabu, mašan ilil ye crosse əd sinfu em fat efaday ən port wan canon, adobat igi nafew."
"This adaptation is found across Europe, and although the timber rarely survives, there is an intact example at Castle Doornenburg in the Netherlands.","Alamad wen iha dǎɣ dak Europe, əd Ahuskat as išaxeran tadarat dǎɣ awintila, iley aolahan intaman dǎɣ anu wan Doornenburg dǎɣ Pays-Bas."
"Other types of port, though less common, were horizontal slits – allowing only lateral movement – and large square openings, which allowed greater movement.","Əyad haratan ən port, Ahuskat as ifnaz dǎɣ salan, aqalan əsiturura arigayragaynen – waradoben as amtumiš dǎɣ tasaga- əd wimagornen imawan ogdahnene, taganen wi magornen əmikan."
"Ham is an example of the trend for new castles to dispense with earlier features such as machicolations, tall towers, and crenellations.","Ham eqal aolahan dəmik wan nenuwan aynaynen animakayan dǎɣ talxiwen namas atamosan machicoulitan, wi əzwaynen sixlay əd creneautan."
"In an effort to make them more effective, guns were made ever bigger, although this hampered their ability to reach remote castles.","Dǎɣ asuhušil fal adiqilan agaran asuhu, canontan daqalan wi ogarnen dak təmxire ahuskat as awen igal ye asahat nasan fal arawidan enuwan wi ogignen."
"While this sufficed for new castles, pre-existing structures had to find a way to cope with being battered by cannon.","Awen igdha fal enuwan wi aynaynen, təmuqunen tis kala ətilat anihaga adigrunat ilil wa nigi əndat dǎɣ tiwit ən canon."
A solution to this was to pull down the top of a tower and to fill the lower part with the rubble to provide a surface for the guns to fire from.,Adabara adoben tenaxe nem ən tasaxlit əd dadakar ən tizune tan ider dər gravatan Dal samando nigi nadag yur kanontan adoben ewet.
"From this evolved star forts, also known as trace italienne.",ɣur idagan wi ahanen win etran s itawan aɣalay wan italia
The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon.,Nefran wan issin isilmăd as izjar isim net hullan fal as war eha aš-ak tille titbaqqet andarrat taɣlasat sit wen daɣ tewete n albarod wa măqqoran
Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies.,šato tan tin tiditt idayan tanat daɣ Amerika addawla tan ti s kala ahanat atiwikraš n Frans ed Spania
"Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century.","Daɣ ihanan iyyad n ag-az (ehan ihanan wi s itawanna Fort tan ed sitadel tan) , šato tan ikras nat tolas daɣ Frans ta teynayat ɣur amindi n awatay wan 1700."
"The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner.",Ehan wa s itawan manor ed iɣalayan win ibijwan a han aɣalay issintaman ilahan esik ijilallawen daɣ edag fuk
"Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use.","Kuddeɣ as edey n šato ilach ɣur amindi n awatay wan 1600 , šato tan fuk nasnat war tanat issoda axadam nasnat"
In other cases they still had a role in defence.,Daɣ idagan iyyad ilan majrad daɣ awa id eqqalan ag-az
"In later conflicts, such as the English Civil War (1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently slighted to prevent them from being used again.",Daɣ ikinnasan wi išraynen šund ikinnas wan jir išaɣib wan britania (1641-1651) šato tan ajotnen issintaman tanat addinat kuddeɣ as tanat tigraw tagarzazzal has nat tigdalat alxidmat iyyat har ajudi
"Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture.",Asissini meɣ amasxir s ato tan eqqal harat izgaran eqqalan assilmad n tarha tan afor id abaraj daɣ iwityan win aru tolas ašrut n teynaya n asimɣar n gotik daɣ ikarosan
This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards.,Awen fal as a fal tarhed ad torakad s innugh wan kel aru a tayad ihanan sammednen ahanat tihay fal imugašan win iwityan wi daɣ naha
"Follies were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built.",Amaku ola kuddeɣ as izlay daɣ aɣašad n addinat daɣ awen war eqqel šund etaɣas igan immik mušan ola id a war n ila ittus s edey.
"A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce.","šato ta s iɣalayan wi tat aɣlafnen, egam, imastaran wi ihiskkan id ihanan wi maqqornen war tan he idayan addinat war n issen alxidmat"
The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material.,Alqim n edey n šato izlay s fal as tiyyat tim maqqornen tolas arhanat alqiman win asihunin n imutaj
"In the middle were castles such as Orford, which was built in the late 12th century for UK£1,400, and at the upper end were those such as Dover, which cost about UK£7,000 between 1181 and 1191.","Daɣ ammas illan ti chato tan šund Orford idayan daɣ 12 n efad n awatay wi hin okaynen s 1,400 £ n azruf wan britania tolas ɣur amindi net wan s afalla illan ti iyyad chund Dover ikrasan jir awatay wan 1181 ed 1191 s 7,000 £ n azruf wan Britania"
"The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from UK£1,000 to UK£10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances.","Alqim n šato maqqorat tidayat s azzaman wen ( edag fuk ɣur 1,000 £ har £10,000 n azruf wan Britania) erammas azruf n ihanan win manor tan ajjotnen ikmanen emannaɣaf n kel azruf"
"Medieval machines and inventions, such as the treadwheel crane, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden scaffolding were improved upon from Antiquity.","Maršin tan tin azzaman wan ibda d timaxluken nasan šund tarkertkert, aqqalan a ehušalan daɣ akaros, tolas musnaten n akaras wan asiftin iknan s ahišk ammutayan ɣur azzaman wen daɣ arruwan."
"Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick.",Addawla tan ajotnen ilanat chato tan n ihishkan id tikadayen as ijja awen addawla wan Danemark ila harat n difart
"For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick.","Ilmital alwaq wa id tiday šato tan Tattershall jir awatay wan 1430 id wan 1450, illanat ti edes has tikadayen ajjotnen mušan massis Lord Cromwell assofa ad idi s ilbilɣan"
"He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined.",Igda has tilal ta has ijjan addinat wi has ardaɣnen fal as a fal wadden s tilalt n addinat wi has ilkamnen emannaɣaf war itirid as tanaya net ad ilkam ad timda
"This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries.",Awen inta deɣ iwar tanaya tan tichit n rayis s alwaqqan iyyad ikarraš akal daɣ addawlat tan tiyyad
"Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious.",Timašɣulen tin arraxba n ehan wan rayis olahnat id tin wan rayis wa has illan sider kuddeɣ as aqqiman fal taxyamen maqqornen
As social centres castles were important places for display.,Ihanan n šato tan tin tamazduq n addinat aqqalan idagan n adal
"Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features.",šato tan ogdah nat id katedral tan as aqqalan ikarosan n tammal tolas tiyyad daɣ šato tan ahan tanat ifirjan aqqalnen šund adaloj
Courtly love was the eroticisation of love between the nobility.,Anmarha daɣ aɣalay wan rayis eqqal šund iji n iblis i abakad jir imissirha
The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages.,Tanfust n Tristan id Iseult taqqal ilmital n attarex n anmarha wa s itwana daɣ aɣalay n rayis dagh iwityan win aru.
The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land.,Ittus n adubin jir imuzaran win kel aru war ija ɣas ar fal ag-az n akal
"This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet.","Awen izjar id taswera n šato šund ehan n mušakil mušan šato tan ajjotnen daɣ Britania, France, Ireland, Ecosse kala war ijjehan ikinnasan daɣ awen tamudre tan ehan taqqal as itiwaja tagarzazzal"
"For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area.",Daɣ ilmital šato tan ajjoten ahanat edes n abara tan win Roma s kala aqqalan abara tan n ahunin assohaten daɣ iwityan win aru meɣ addoben a did aruwan iban anufham meɣ ikannan n ichikil n abara tana eynaynen daɣ akal wen.
"Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns.","šato tan win iɣirman aqqalan a olaɣan dagh iji n anniyat i tamazduq n išaɣib id immuk nasan assahat hullan daɣ anafaz daɣ ilmital idiršan n araman wa ijjan Norman tan i Britania ɣur awatay wan 1100, Ijjit n šato tan rayis ikrasnat daɣ meɣ edes n iɣirman"
"Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources.",šato tan tin amagon ahan tanat alwaq iyyan maršin tan id sistem tan i ijji n anniyat i akal wan rayis awen ikfen assahat fal tidarfiten
"Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain.",War eha aš-ak as i tajjin alxidmat tiknat fal as hak in addinat aman id imanan eynaynen mušan aqqalan šund tiset fal as assohat akros nasan id aɣalaf nasan
The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe.,Tinfa ta tahat akaros n šato edes n timizdaɣ war tibded ɣur Eroba ɣas
"Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences.",Timizdaɣ ojjar as addobat nat ad idwil nat edes n šato uhun adamu nasnat fal awa s tinfa ta tahat ahirij id idagan win tamudre daɣ amagon tolas alɣafiyat ta ti ikfan imagazan
"They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures occupying the desired site.",Harkuk ahan edes n mangazan tan aɣrim šund Iɣalayan win Roma kuddeɣ as alwaqqan iyyad uchray nasan egadal n ikarosan fuk wi ahanen sit wen idorhanan
"When the Normans invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle.","Alwaq wa id infazan Norman tan daɣ addawlat tan Ireland, Ecosse id Wales ghur awatay wan 1100 id wan 1200 , timizdagh daɣ addawla tan tin ojjar as wadden tin iɣirman tolas tenattawt n tiɣirmen osaɣ id akaros n chato"
"This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society.",Awen imos as tartit ta ijjan imannaɣafan win aru id ehan n kriken wan amud iyyan daɣ ihanan wa ojjaran daɣ tamazduq tan ibda
"Another example is that of the 14th-century Bodiam Castle, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining.","Ilmital iyyan imos wan šato tan Bodiam ɣur awatay wa 1400 daɣ Britania tolas, kuddeɣ as eqqal akal n inhadan, šato tan ti šajrotnen tahat sit war n ila assahat iyyat tolas eɣeš war šijrit tolas ajjar as ijja sit wen a huskiyan uhun awa ti ogazan daɣ alɣam tan."
Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important.,Taqqimen n alɣiskir ti ogaznen akal assohat asudir nasnat tolas alwaq iyyan tojjar tan šato tinfa
"In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective.","ɣur awatay wan 1403, 37 n militer tan win allaɣan iknan ag-az n šato tan Caernafon daɣ issin iftaqqi tan n imidiwan win Owain Glyndŵr's a ehojjan daɣ azzaman issilmadan as taqqimt andarrat taddobat a tabdid fal iman net"
Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class.,ɣur azzaman wan net a ti imalan kel ibijwan imoyanen i teɣare n alɣiskir ta ijjan ad ajjin alxidmat n dumu n anušam
"It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites.",Ojjar as raqqis asijru n laz taqqimt n alɣiskir uhun aftaqqi fal as hullan daɣ sit tan wi iknanen atwigiz
"A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later.",Aɣafal ehojan addobat ikus n assahat daɣ alghiskir har id ariw awen tadhilen meɣ i emazangaw ad issidu assahat i a ilkaman
"If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers.","A fal eqqal aftaqqi fal chato a ilkaman i assahat, illan ti addabara tan ajjotnen i inadlaman"
"The trebuchet, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons.","Tetanbawt s war eha ach-ak as sa s Petraria a did tifal ɣur awatay wan 1300, taqqal albarod issohen i aɣafal n militer data tiwit tin albarodan"
Ballistas or springalds were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows.,Ballista id springald aqqalan tazoli ti tajjit alxidmat chund tan tišangay
They were more commonly used against the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle.,Ojjar awa iwatan taqqimen tin alɣiskir uhun awa ijjašan ihanan win šato
"A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned.","Alɣam ta tikkat siha s aɣalay ad teɣešt alwaq wata id ewad awa eqqalan ittus , ad igiš efew ahišk wa igdalan i anu ad aftaqqat"
"A counter-mine could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat.","Alɣam wa iknan i inadlaman ad eɣeš siha sarsan s a fal tijja tamuqqest, a did ariw akinnas wan ifassan"
"They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect.","Kala s alxidmat nasan war taqqel ar amiri n albaban win šato tan, kuddeɣ as alwaqqan iyyed t iw axdaman iɣalayan war taha assahat."
"A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a siege tower, sometimes called a belfry.",Addabara wa eha alxer i addinat wi tiftaqqitnen fal šato war eqqel ar asaxdim n awa s itawan belfry
"The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe.","Ikallan wi ahanen daɣ tanaya tan rayis,megh karad ikallan aqqalan alxaq daɣ tamazduq assigla iddin wan ikufar ( ikufar win euroba) ɣur iwityan win aru har Euroba tan ušray."
"The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).","Almalikiya ehet almalik id almalikat as ijja sistem artayan daɣ is kahanat tan ( Amuzar n akal), imissirha (kal akal wi ilkamnen) tilaqqawen id addinat win ammas (kel akal win karad)"
"""In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with """"commons"""" as the second estate.""","“Daɣ Britania, akal ilan issin sistem tan issirtayan imissirha id kahanat tan daɣ edag iyyan n tanaya n almalik with “common tan” as aqqalan kel akal win issin”"
"""In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or """"burghers"""" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class.""","“Daɣ addawla tan Ecosse, kel akal win karad aqqalan qahanat ( amuzar n akal), imissirha ( kel akal win issin), id komiser wa iwikalan akal meɣ ““burgher tan”” (Win karad) imosnen inušaman, addinat win ammas id wi war taha assahat”"
"Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation.","Alwaq wa s kahanat war addoben adubin , tamašarwayat ten tizzukat ɣur tawlid iyyat"
"Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47).","Huizinga afanaz n iwityan wi arunen (1919, 1924:47)."
Commoners were universally considered the lowest order.,Commoner tan itiwassan daɣ alɣalim as aqqalan addinat wi darat daɣ tamazduq
In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.,Daɣ rejion tan id ikallan ajjotnen imalan ti daɣ idagan daɣ exlaq išaɣib daɣ tifirray n idagan win
"The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect.","Amutti wan tamudre id folitik assaxra tan idnayan daɣ azzaman wen tiwat n išaɣib, tiw-at n alfayda tan tiwijjast, medran tan teknoloji id idagan win aɣrim; issamutiyan n talghiwen id asissini ijjanen daɣ asimil n uzlay jir qahanat tan id aljuhal id tanaya ta fal erda egliz inta deɣ tila awa tinfa"
"The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous.","Addinat wi ilkamnen, win imikkunasan , aqqalan wi ahanen edag awa iknan assahat daɣ folitik, ilanen ittusan tolas i labasnen"
"In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring.","Har ajjudi, Missawis n kel akal wi azzarnen id win issin ijjan fella nasan fal addinat wi war taha assahat aqqalnen win darat daɣ tamazduq"
Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it.,Ajjen axlakan id daɣ taqqimt ten hi tolas ammutan daɣ as aqqalan ašrut net.
"In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms.","Daɣ ayor n awzem wan issin daɣ awatay wan 1776, ministir wan azruf Turgot itawakkas daɣ edag net fal as indar ad egu ejwal net fal ad erawan amutti n talgha"
"When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation.","Alwaq wa id war addobat a tan essardu fal “brogram wa otas”, Louis XVI ittar ad ifti tagayt ta s itawan estate-general mušan addinat win darat daɣ tamazduq ittaran alxaq nasan i ad igišan"
"Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons.","Fal as assemble tan Ecosse taqqal a ilan ehan iyyan, dibiti tan net fuk ehan iyyan a daɣ tayghimin awen izlay id assemble tan britania tilat ehan wan Lord tan id wan common tan."
"""As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium """"great council"""" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots).""","""Išmad daɣ Britania, assemble tan Ireland tinkaš in sa s Magnum Concilium ““edag n taɣimit ta maqqorat”” isayɣim Gafar wa ezzaran n Ireland daɣ as ti idhal komsey (curia regis), magnate tan (imannaɣafan win akal), id imuzaran n egliz (bomber tan)."""
"In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them).","Daɣ awatay wan 1297, tiɣarmaten imuzaran nasnat kel ibajawan immitkalnen “sherif tan as kala hasan tizarnen)"
"Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates.",Iyyan fuk nasnat aqqalan meddan ilanen alxoriya nasan tolas iyyan fuk ila alxaqan id timazalen n iman net id alxaq n ad isissiwi addinat s RiKsdag n ikallan
"Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly.","Data awatay wan 1800, almalik ila alxaq n ad itkil addabara n a fal ikallan azzunan s tigdat"
"However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863.","Had id ijja awen, darat Diet wan Provoo , Diet wan addawla tan Finland tijja fal tariddawt ɣur awatay wan 1863"
"Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land.","ɣur awatay wan 1400, imal ti baya, ɣur 1561 rank tan id Baron tan ijjašan tolas ɣur awatay wan 1625 ehan wan imannaɣafan ikodat as eqqal wa ezzaran daɣ akal"
Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles.,Imuzaran n ihanan win imannaɣafan aqqalan addinat id itranen takasit n assmeble tan imannaɣafan
This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.,Awen eraw id assahat n folitik maqqoran fal Imannaɣafan win afalla
"In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools.","Daɣ iwityan win ušray, akal ahan moši tan win lakkolan wi maqqornen id lakkolan iyyad n addawla"
"Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds.",Mamala ille daɣ tiɣarmaten alwaq wen ta-ite tan ijji asahat daɣ alxakumat tojjar hullan tolas Burgh tan ilan alxaqqan n iman nasan i ijji n mamala daɣ abara wan tagayen
"In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights.","A fal tarha tamazduq a taqqil šund taɣrimt , ahušal ad ikrašš alkad n almalik ikfan turhagat s asimil n hebu tolas mamala wan jir addawla tan ahušal ad ila alkad wan alxaqan win port tan"
"Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries.","Alwaq wa s ijjit n išaɣib aqqalan addinat n tiwigas ilalen alistexlal nasan har awatay wan 1900 wadden serf tan wala villein tan, ille jar essan attarex izlayan id wan addawla tan tin eroba."
Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district.,"Imuzaran n tanaya war tan dikkilan addinat , taɣrimt fuk a tasisaway kel wote tan net i ad itkilan imuzaran daɣ wote tan kapital."
They had no political rights and could not vote.,War ilen alxaqan n folitik tolas war addoben ijji n wote
"In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property.","Daɣ addawla tan Suede , Riksdag wan ikallan kala ti illa har ti išray Riksdag wan issin ihanan ɣur awatay wan 1866 ikfan alxaqan n folitik i awadim fuk ilan a daɣ ikarraš tamudre net meɣ ilan tila"
"In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772.","Daɣ addawla tan Finland, tazunt ten daɣ ašareɣa kala ti tilla har awatay wan 1906 har ajjudi iktab daɣ konstitusyon tan awatay wan 1772"
"Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system.","Har ajjudi, inaxdiman win izin tan izzaɣnen dagh aɣrim war ilen imuzaran daɣ sistem wan kel akal win akkoz"
Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled.,Darat awa ɣur awatay wan 1500 id 1600 addawla tan Beljik taqqal edag wan tiɣaymaten tin State General
"As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands.","Awa ikma tartit tan Utrecht daɣ awatay wan 1579 id haratan wi has ilkamnen darat awa, state general illaghat as ibas issodmaran i rayis wan Spania Philip wan 2 eqqalan har ajjudi rayis n addawla tan Pays-bas"
It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands.,ɣur edag wan alxakum inta ad kannin haratan wi id aqqalnen tiɣarmaten tin assayat artaynen id addawlat tan Pays-Bas
"In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632.","Daɣ emaynaj n Pays-Bas, tiɣaymaten tin darat n States General ilkamnen i Habsburgs ijjan- at daɣ ɣur awatay wan 1600 id wan 1632 daɣ Estate General"
"It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution.","Ibas ti ahan imuzaran n addawla tan , aqqiman ɣas Estate tan: Addinat fuk ogdahan alxaq daɣ achareɣa wan 1798"
"In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber.","ɣur awatay wan 1815, alwaq artayan kel Pays-bas id Belgik id luxemburg, State General tan azunan s issin tehanniten: tehannit ta tazzarat id tehannit tan sanatat."
"From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial.","ɣur awatay wan 1848, Ašareɣa wa maqqoran n Danemark ikfa addinat win tehanniten tan sanatat s ijjan addinat wote ( s tizarat harat n iddikud n išaɣib ɣas n meddan , wote wan meddan id deden imal ti ɣur awatay wan 1919) as ijja awen addinat wi ahanen tehannit ta tazzarat sinafranantan addinat win tiɣarmaten tin addawla tan."
"The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries.",Imuzaran win qahanat war imosan ar bomber tan ijalanen fal iman nasan
"Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages.",Addinat ajjoten s ikallan nasan daɣ Roma tan talwilit n aru ijrawnen alistexlal nasan a ilan timad n iwityan war ilen imuzaran daɣ tanaya tan rayis tolas awen ahan ti kel ibijwan wan rayis id vilaj tan ilanen alistexal nasan
"The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein.","Ikallan win akkoz maqqornen amosan: Imassarha (dvoyanstvo), qahanat, kel amagon id kel iɣirman ijjan tamazduq timmerat"
"The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities.","Burjwazi daɣ almaɣna net wan alasal ijja temet id emel wan tiɣarmaten tiwazdaynen fal tikardiwen nasnat (ilmital,tikardiwen tin meri, semɣaran win tiɣarmaten , achareɣa n aɣrim wan germany) daɣ awen war ti tilla burjwazi tizlayat id tišit n awadim n akal daɣ tiɣarmaten"
"""Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted """"the bourgeoisie"""".""","“”Daɣ attarex, issim wa s jannin fransi tan bourgeois imos addinat wi izzaɣnen daɣ Bourg ( ighirman ijjan ighalayan) inhadan,kel mamala tan, id iyyad awen daɣ as itiwin “”bourgeoisie””"
"Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed.",Tagayen n akkarnat alwaq id kel taɣuchay iyyad fuk (šund inhadan id kel mamala) iknasan id imannaɣafan n akal wi tattarnen timzal wi tattarnen timzal ojjarnen ti fal ijja anifham
They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations.,Arhan a tan ila egadaš s kala eqqal Bourgeois a ilan karad meɣ ajjen daɣ iwityan
"The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history.",Ismawan n igidchan win ttiwazzayan daɣ aɣrim wa daɣ izzaɣan tolas addinat wi id izjaran dahalan daɣ akaros n attarex wan akal
"These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time.",Addinat win daɣ izzaghan daɣ tanaflit ilkaman hassan kel isuhaɣ win azzaman wen daɣ
"In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible.","Daɣ tafransit , awa s itawan bourgeoisie eqqal isim n tawset kud erha as tiwat n addinat id tamudre nasan tijja"
"Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.",Hilter iftay kapitalizm fal as ila taflasat fal awa s ifarras addinat tolas assof addawla s tamudre net infa talɣiwen tin ichaɣib
"""Hitler also said that the business bourgeoisie """"know nothing except their profit. '""",“Hilter illaghat har ajjudi as kel bourgeoisie win biznes tan ““ war issenan ghas ar awa karrašan””
The utility of these things was inherent in their practical functions.,Tinfa n haratan win eqqal a ilkaman i timašghulen id illanen
"Belle de Jour (Beauty of the day, 1967) tells the story of a bourgeois wife who is bored with her marriage and decides to prostitute herself.","Belle de Jour ( tihussay tin achal, awatay wan 1967) it alaghat tanfust n tamat n bouregois ijraw a labasan dagh adubin net ehušal as taqqal talkaxbat"
"In Europe, the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages, considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of the Catholic part of Western Europe.","Dagh euroba, isim wan Emperor wa andarran inta as kala ijla dagh iwityan wi arunen eqqal dagh azzamanan win dagh a ogdahan megh darogh ogdah id tichit n Pope fal edag wan ušray šund amuzar n egliz id aw addin n achrut n katolik tan win ataram n eroba"
"In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation.","A dar togdah afissil n awa s itawan emperor, awen imos as emperor war ila a osaghan harat id tijra n amanokal iyyan fuk tolas exkam fal a ojjaran addawlat iyyat."
"Their status was officially recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547.","Tišit nasan exyaz tat Emperor wan alwali n Roma dagh awatay wan 1514, kuddegh as war izdjer as issaxdaman imanokalan win Russia awen har awatay 1547"
"Such pre-Roman titles as Great King or King of Kings, used by the Kings of Persia and others, are often considered as the equivalent.",Ismawan šund win oraknen s Roma šund rayis wan moaqqoran megh rayis wan rayis tan s tawaghrin rayis tan win Persia id iyyad aqqalan alwaq iyyan a ogdahan
Empire became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.,Empire ešwal as eqqal a ilan akal maqqoran wadden ghas isim wan amanokal ghur awatay wan 1800
"""Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex (""""king""""), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule.""",“Kel Roma win aru ifragan isim wan Rex (““rayis””) tolas war olegh i kel folitik ag-az n ichikilan id isoran n ašaregha win addawlat
"Augustus, considered the first Roman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man.","Augustus eqqalan emperor n Roma a ezzaran iday assahat net dagh asidu fal iman net n biro tan, ismawan, id semgharan n addawlat tan Roma s dagh attarex aqqalan a ituzanan i addinat , iduf n assahat n addinat fuk dagh afus n awadim iyyan"
"""However, it was the informal descriptive of Imperator (""""commander"""") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors.""","“Hak id ijja awen dagh,awen war eqqel titimal n jeneral (“”kumanda””) eqqalan isim iknan imakkusa net tarha”"
This is one of the most enduring titles: Caesar and its transliterations appeared in every year from the time of Caesar Augustus to Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria's removal from the throne in 1946.,Awen eqqal iyyan dagh ismawan wa issohen: Caesar id ikataban net zajaran id awatay fuk dagh azzaman wen dagh n Caesar Augustus har wan Tsar Simeon wan 2 n amukkis n Bulgaria dagh taxyamt ghur awatay wan 1946
"Exceptions include the title of the Augustan History, a semi-historical collection of Emperors' biographies of the 2nd and 3rd century.",Haratan fuk ahan isim wan attarex wan August hak id asidu n ašrut n attarexan n emperor tan win awatay wan 2 id wan 3.
"Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning Emperors would receive it.","Harat daɣ san ikrašan dagh ismawan win tolas war eha aš-ak as wadden ašaregha a illaɣen as deden n emperor tan win axka,en fuk a ijriwan awen"
"In the late Republic, as in the early years of the new monarchy, Imperator was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the Roman Senate after a great victory, roughly comparable to field marshal (head or commander of the entire army).","Daɣ republik ta tišrayat, hak id dagh iwityan wi azzarnen n almalikiya , kumanda eqqal isim karrašan jeneral tan win Roma i taqqimen nasan id Assemble n Roma darat as ornan id, ogdah awen id marešal daɣ jala (Amuzar megh kumanda wan alɣiskir imdan)"
"The succeeding Nervan-Antonian Dynasty, ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the Empire.","Egadaš n Nervan-Antonia wi tidas tanaya, ijjanen iddikud n sanat timat n awatay ewayan id tizgat s addawlat."
"Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire, the Britannic Empire, and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used rex more regularly.","Imalan ti karadat iššikil n addawla tan war n ahoj s kala ilan emperor tan n iman nasan: Gallic Empire, Britania Empire i Palmyrene Empire kuddeɣ as wan ušray ɣarrint hullan s isim wan Rex"
"At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the imperium (see: Tetrarchy).","Dagh titbaqqet iyyat, illan ti iddikud n sammos addinat wi tuzannen Imperium (ikyid: Tetrachy)"
The city is more commonly called Constantinople and is today named Istanbul).,Aɣrim isim net wa s itawaghir hullan Constantinople s achal id isim net Istanbul)
"""These Later Roman """"Byzantine"""" Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as an absolute monarch.""",“Kel Roma ta win ušray s itawan Iminokalen n ““Byzantin”” issimdan jir anasjum wan Amanokal as eqqal ašrut n amuzar dagh republik s amanokal eqqalan amuzar imadan”.
"""Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word """"autokrator"""", meaning """"one who rules himself"""", or """"monarch"""", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin dictator.""",“Azzaman wan Byzantin tan emperor tan tawaghrin s isim n Greek wan “”autokrator”” amosan “”awadim wa exkaman fal iman net”” megh “”monark”” eqqalan dagh attarex isim s gharrin inaktuban win Greek Diktator dagh akatab wan Latin””
"In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.","s tiditt,war ti illa dagh win megh iyyed) tisiwad id ismawan s kala tin ankuran fuk net."
"""Following the tragedy of the horrific sacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new """"Empire of Romania"""", known to historians as the Latin Empire of Constantinople, installing Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders, as Emperor.""","“” Dagh albana wa labasan eghšadan aɣrim, addinat wi ornanen issilmadan s emel n “”Empire n Romania”” wan eynayan ɣarrim musanan n attarex dagh Latin s Empire n Constantinople, daɣ exkam Emperor Baldwin IX n Flanders””"
"From the time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire.",ɣur azzaman wan Otto ijjit n tanaya tan Carolingia tan win alqablat Francia taqqal Empire n Roma tan talwilit
This junior King then bore the title of Roman King (King of the Romans).,Rayis wan wen amawad darat awa tiwarti takabut tan Rayis wan Roma ( Rayis wan Rayis tan)
The Holy Roman Emperor was considered the first among those in power.,Emperor n Roma wan alwali ijjan ti addinat amuzar dagh addinat fuk wi ahanen tanaya
Geography is often defined in terms of two branches: human geography and physical geography.,Jografia n akal tila almaghna ijjan s sanatat tigittawen: jografia tan addina id jografia tan taghissa n akal
"Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names.",Dagh attarex jografia n akal tartay id tikarde net id ismawan n idagan
"Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.","Fal s arori n akal id edag idasan majradan ajjotnen chund ekonomi, assexat, amuti n azzaman, ihishkan id arizzej,jografia eqqal a issirtayan haratan ajjotnen"
"The former largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space.","Anniyaten ti arunen ajjotnen fal edey n ahinzazagh id immik wa s id axlakan addinat, akayad, axakam id tarna n arori n akal"
"It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, like the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment.",Tachušal musnat n immikan win attarex n jographia tan taɣissa n akal id tan addinat šund immikan wi aqqalnen afaham n addinat i ahinzazaɣ nasan
The study of systems larger than the Earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology.,Teghare n sistem tan ojjarnen akal iman et timghare harkuk taha ašrut n falaq id qoniat wan alɣalim
"Regional science: In the 1950s, the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs.","Musnat n alghalum wan akal: dagh awatay wan 1950, amarumar wan musnat n alghalum n akal s ezzar Waltr Isard tikfa alwazab olaghan tolas immuyazan n isistanan win jografia n akal, a war n olah id program tan win alasal aghilan addinat"
Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.,Asikkirdi iw-id ɣur asidu n teknik tan tin bruyon tan har eqqal musnat tan ašal id
"In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems.",Daɣ asiwad n haratan fuk iyyad artaynen daɣ aw id eqqalan jografia imusanan win GIS iwar tan ad ifhaman musnat tan ordinater id sistem tn win isalan net
"Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields, including hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology.","Alxisab ikna atwaxdum hullan daɣ idagan ajjotnen eha itur n aman daɣ akal, farak fal musnat n išrutan n akal, itur n fatrol , amiyiz n azzaman, assuqiyat id teɣare n amiyiz n tazunt n mušakil tan win assexat dagh addinat"
"""The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a """"bitter river"""" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star.""","“Karti ta iday Eckhard Ungar har ajjudi tisakin Babylon fal Euphrates taghlayas tajilillawat n akal tassuknat Syria , Urartu id tiɣirmen ajjotnen id eghlay har ajjudi “ejarew samman” ( Oceanus) ilan assa ijilmaman has aɣlaynen aqqalan chund atri ilan assa iskawan”"
"In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent.","A izlayan id Imago Mundi, karti tan n alghalim tan Babylon tijja ghur awatay wan 900 data annabi ghisa idlaj Babylon as taqqal a orakan s ajjama n ammas n alghalim kuddeɣ as war ti ila i ikkasan aš-ak daɣ awa dar iddilal ammas"
Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses.,Thales inta deɣ animaghra id as inta a ikyadan tilkamat as ilkaman itarmisan n ayor
"There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras.","Ile majrad ijjan fal awa eqqal awadim wa ezzaran illaɣen as akal eqqal a ijilallawen ,addinat oyyad jannin Parmenides megh Pythagoras"
One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.,Iyyan dagh mirda tan n radius ijja fal akal ijjay Eratosthenes
"The meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided into 60 (minutes).",Mieridan tan azunan jir 360 n degre s hak degre degh azun s 60 n (minit tan)
"He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56.5 miles for a degree.",Issewad alxidmat tan Hipporchus as exdam s sistem wan griyaj fl karti tan net tolas eghwad 56.5 n tazzijrit n kilometir i degre
"During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world.","Dagh azzaman wan aru, atarmis wan empire wan Roma eway id tamattit n jografia wan ghur Euroba s alghalim wan inisliman"
"Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and the Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose.","Har ajjudi , imaghran win inisliman iffisaran alxidmaten n Roman tan id Greek tan wi azzarnen tolas idayan ehan wan alxikmat daɣ Bagdad fal ittus wen daɣ"
Abu Rayhan Biruni (976–1048) first described a polar equi-azimuthal equidistant projection of the celestial sphere.,Abu Rayhan Biruni (awatay wan 976 har wan 1048) illagɣat samal n akayad ogdahan n takirurut n išinnawan
"He also developed similar techniques when it came to measuring the heights of mountains, depths of the valleys, and expanse of the horizon.","Išannašjamat id har ajjudi teknik tan olaɣnen i alwaq wa id ikkat awadim tichijrit n idaɣan, tichijrit n aroj id tahrike n akal"
The problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location.,Mušakil tan wi ijrawnen kel mustakšif tan id kel jografia eqqalan ad issinan iddikud n tahrike id iddikud n degre tan n jografia n edag
"The 18th and the 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline, and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin).",ɣur awatay wan 1800 id wan 1900 aqqalan alwaqqan s jografia taqqal matir n teɣare tolas taqqal ašrut n teghare tan lakkolan wi maqqornen daɣ Eroba ( hullan daɣ Paris id Berlin)
"Over the past two centuries, the advancements in technology with computers have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools.","Daɣ 2 afdan n iwityan wi hin okaynen, iki n teknolji sa s data id ordinater tan erawan id efes n aljiomantik id imugašan eynaynen šund akayad n awadim id alxisab n isalan win išinnawan ijjašnen fartama wan jografia"
"Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow.",Arnold Hery Guyot (awatay wan 1807 har 1884) - iktab uɣna n aɣiris n glacier tan id afaham hullan n immik wa s išawankat glacier hullan daɣ anji n aman sammednen
William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion.,William Morris Davis ( awatay wan 1850 har 1934) - ibba n jografia tan Amrik tolas amizar n efes n immik wa s tigla tamattit akal
Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932) – first female president of the Association of American Geographers.,Ellen Churchil Semple ( awatay wan 1863 har 1932) tamat tan tizarat daɣ an a hid n tagayt n Amrik tan jografia tan
Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – human geographer and inventor of Central place theory.,Walter Christallier ( awatay wan 1893 har 1969) - aw jografia wan addinat tolas amaxlak n nazriyat tan edag wan ammas
"David Harvey (born 1935) – Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography, winner of the Vautrin Lud Prize.","David Harvey ( iwa ghur awatay wan 1935) - Aw jografia n Marxist tolas eqqal massis n nazriya tan tin jografia tan fal akal , inta deɣ ijrawan marušat tan Vautrin Lud"
"In some cases, a distinction is made between the official (constitutional) capital and the seat of government, which is in another place.","Daɣ idagan iyyad, tille tazuzlayt tijjat jir Kapital ( daɣ ašareɣa) id edag n taɣimit tan alxakum ehan edag iyyan"
"Examples are ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, ancient Athens, Rome, Bratislava, Budapest, Constantinople, Chang'an, ancient Cusco, Kyiv, Madrid, Paris, Podgorica, London, Beijing, Prague, Tallinn, Tokyo, Lisbon, Riga, Vilnius, and Warsaw.","Ilmitalan aqqalan Babylon tan aru , Abbasid Baghdad, Athen tan aru, Roma, Bratislava, Budapest, Constantinople, Chan’an, Cusco tan aru, Kyiv, Madrid, Paris, Podgorica, Londre, Beijing, Prague, Tallinn, Tokyo, Lisbon, Riga, Vilnius id Warsaw"
"In some countries, the capital has been changed for geopolitical reasons; Finland's first city, Turku, which had served as the country's capital since the Middle Ages under the Swedish rule, lost its right during the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1812, when Helsinki was made the current capital of Finland by the Russian Empire.","Dagh addawla tan tiyyad, kapital tammutay fal iddililan n jografia ajjotnen; taghrimt n Finland, ta tazzarat s inta s kapital ta tazzarat dagh iwityan win aru ghur azzaman wa id taxkam Swede, ittirmas dagh is alxaq net wen ghur tanaya tan Grand Duchy wan Finland ghur awatay wan 1812 alwaq wa id ijja empire wan Russia Helsinki kapital n Finland tan amarad"
"In Canada, there is a federal capital, while the ten provinces and three territories each have capital cities.","Dagh canada, tille kapital iyyat n addawla tan as ijja awen tigharmaten tin 10 id ikallan win 3 iyyan fuk ila kapital n iman net"
"""In Australia, the term """"capital cities"""" is regularly used to refer to those six state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra, and Darwin, the capital of the Northern Territory.""","“Dagh Australia , isim wan ““ Kapital tan tigharmaten”” inta a iglan harkuk i kapital tan tin sadisat fal tawwid kapital Canberra id Darwin, kapital tan akal wan tamasna”"
"Unlike in federations, there is usually not a separate national capital, but rather the capital city of one constituent nation will also be the capital of the state overall, such as London, which is the capital of England and of the United Kingdom.","Awa war n imos addawla tan ti oharnen,war ti illa kapital tazunat id ti yadnen mušan taghrimt tan kapital n iyyan fuk n addalwa taqqal har ajjudi kapital addawla tan ti yadnen šund awa tijja Londre taqqal kapital tan Britania id almalikiya tan United Kingdom"
The national capitals of Germany and Russia (the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the federal city of Moscow) are also constituent states of both countries in their own right.,Kapital tan tin Germany id Russia ( Stadtstaat tan Berlin id taɣrimt ta tassirtayat n Moscou) aqqal nat kapital tan n addawlat ta tin daɣ alxaq n iyyat fuk
"Frankfort, Kentucky, midway between Louisville and Lexington.","Frankfort, Kentucky, Midway jir Louiville id Lexington"
"Tallahassee, Florida, chosen as the midpoint between Pensacola and St. Augustine, Florida – then the two largest cities in Florida.","Tallahassee, Flordia, ifrannat as aqqal nat jareyjarey n Pensacola id St Augustine, Flordia- dagh awen tigharmaten n 2 ti ojjarnen dagh Florida"
Changes in a nation's political regime sometimes result in the designation of a new capital.,Imuttiyan dagh annizam wan folitik n addawla tawayan id alwaq amitkal n kapital n addawlat teynayat
"When the Canary Islands became an autonomous community in 1982, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria were both given capital status.","Alwaq wa addawla s itawan ijirwan win Canary tijraw alistexal net ghur awatay wan 1982,Santa Cruz de Tenerife id Las Palmas de Gran Canaria aqqal nat fuk nasnat kapital tan"
Estonia: the Supreme Court and the Ministry of Education and Research are located in Tartu.,Estonia: Ehan n ašareɣa net wa maqqoran id ehan n alxidmat n Ministir net wan Teɣare id ittur idayan daɣ Tartu
"In case of emergency, the seat of the constitutional powers can be transferred to another town, in order for the Houses of Parliament to sit in the same location as the President and Cabinet.","Alwaq wan tamaɣatert tarmadat, edag wan tiɣaymaten n tigittawen ti fal tiday addawla addobat ahunin nasnat s taɣrimt iyyan i a ijrawan i ihanan win alxidmat n debite tan taɣaymit edag chund wa eha amanokal id inaxdiman net"
The entire state machinery shifts from one city to another every six months.,Ahunin fuk n marchin tan ghur akal iyyan s wa yadan dagh 6 oran fuk
"Dharamshala, which is also the headquarters of the Central Tibetan Administration, is the second winter capital of the state.",Dharamshala eqqalan kartiye n alxakumat tan Tibeti eqqal har ajjudi kapital tan sanatat n addawla azzaman wan esamed
The city itself is administered as a Union territory.,Taghrimt iman net ijja dagh is axakam n akal ertayan
"Uttarakhand: Dehradun is the administrative and legislative capital, while the high court is located in Nainital.",Uttarakhand: Dehradun taqqal kapital tan sarwis id tan dibiti tan as ijja awen ehan n ašareɣa wa maqqoran eha Nainital
Its construction started in 1960 and was completed in 1966.,Edey net issinta ɣur awatay an 1960 imda ɣur awatay wan 1966
The presidential palace (Malacanang Palace) and the Supreme Court are located within the capital city but the two houses of Congress are located in separate suburbs.,Biro wan amanokal n addawla ( Malacanang Place) id ehan n ašareɣa wa maqqoran ahan ammas n kapital mušan ihanan win issin n dibiti tan azuzan daɣ tiɣarmaten
"""Sri Lanka: Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is designated the administrative capital and the location of the parliament, while the former capital, Colombo, is now designated as the """"commercial capital"""".""",“Sri Lanka: Sri jayawardenepura kotte taqqal kapital tan sarwis id edag ehan n alxidmat wan dibiti tan as ijja awen kapital tan aru Colombo taqqal amarad “”kapital tan mamala””
"South Africa: The administrative capital is Pretoria, the legislative capital is Cape Town, and the judicial capital is Bloemfontein.","Afrikiya tan tamasna: Pretoria as Kapital net tan sarwis , Cape Town as kapital net tan ehan n alxidmat wan dibiti tan har ajjudi Bloemfontein inta s kapital tan ašeraɣa"
Switzerland: Bern is the Federal City of Switzerland and functions as de facto capital.,Switzerland: Bern inta s kapital toharat tan Switzerland dagh awen taqqal degh kapital n addawla
"Also similar to Illinois and New York State, most statewide elected officials and officers who are based in Southeast Pennsylvania (City of Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery County, Delaware County, and Chester County) prefer working mostly in Philadelphia.","Har ajjudi dagh as olahan id Illinois id New York, imassarha fuk wi tamatkalnen izzaghnen dagh tamasna s alqiblat n Pennsylvania ( taghrimt tan Philadelphia, Bucks County, Montgomery county, Delware county id Chester county) assofan alxidmat dagh Philadelphia"
Israel and Palestine: Both the Government of Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim Jerusalem as their capital.,Izrail id Falastin: Alxakum wan Izail id wan falastin fuk nasan ijjan tamghinnant fal Jerusalem as kapital n iyyan fuk
A symbolic relocation of a capital city to a geographically or demographically peripheral location may be for either economic or strategic reasons (sometimes known as a forward capital or spearhead capital).,šund tiset i ahuhin wa tijja kapital s edag s jographia id addinat net ahan isilman net ittus war eqqel ar ilan iddililan ijjanen fall timašɣulen tin tamudre n addinat meɣ iddilian n fakra ( alwaqqan iyyad itawan has kapital tan s data megh kapital tan allaɣ
The Ming emperors moved their capital to Beijing from the more central Nanjing to help supervise the border with the Mongols.,Emperor tan win Ming s ahonan kapital nasan s Beijing tifal id ammas n Nanjing i ad tidhil daɣ iji n anniyat i alxdadudan win Mongols
"Delhi finally became the colonial capital after the Coronation Durbar of King-Emperor George V in 1911, continuing as independent India's capital from 1947.",Daɣ ušray Delhi taqqal Kapital tan isteɣmar darat ar tiwar takabbut Rayis Durbar George V ɣur awatay wan 1911 daɣ as taqqal Kapital n India tigrawat alistexal net ɣur awatay wan 1947.
"Sometimes, the location of a new capital city was chosen to terminate actual or potential squabbling between various entities, such as in the cases of Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington and Managua.","Alwaqqan iyyad, edag wan kapital ta teynayat it-anafran i asimdu n muškil tan ijjanen meɣ ilkamnen jir tawseten ajjotnen šund awa s kala ijja daɣ Canberra, Ottawa, Washington, Wellington id Managua"
"In the Three Kingdoms period, both Shu and Wu fell when their respective capitals of Chengdu and Jianye fell.","Dagh karad azzamanan n almalikiya tan, Shu id Wu fuk nasan toda tanaya nasan alwaq wa id aftaqqat nat kapital tan nasan Chengdu id Jianye"
"After the Qing dynasty's collapse, decentralization of authority and improved transportation and communication technologies allowed both the Chinese Nationalists and Chinese Communists to rapidly relocate capitals and keep their leadership structures intact during the great crisis of Japanese invasion.","Ghur azzaman wan aftaqqi n assal-alat tan Qing, desentralizasyon n tanaya id amutti n teknoloji tan tin annaqalat id tan asissiki n isalan eraw id s nasyonalist tan id kominist tan win chine ad s ahuhinan kapital tan dihen agizan tigittawen n tammanukila nasan s immik nasnat azzaman n tewete ta maqqorat n anafaz wan Japon"
It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.,Addobat ad eqqil as eqqal edag s harkuk idnay addinat s ibda alxakum alxadudan net s addinat net xaddaman s tizarat timašghulen war n imos tiwijjast
"Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability.","Daɣ attarex, imazzaɣan win iɣirman aqqalan takbizzet andarrat daɣ alɣalim fuk net mušan daɣ issin afdan n awatay s kala war ijjen daɣ tarmad tamazduq tan ighirman, a ojjaran tazune n išaɣib wan alɣalim izzaɣan daɣ iɣirman,harat awen ikman uglal n addinat daɣ alxalim"
"This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming and global health.","Assahat tihen daɣ taw-i-dat timos as iɣirman ikrašan assahat fal mušakil tan n alɣalim šund efes n uɣlal, tukise n alɣalim id assexat n alɣalim"
"Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change.",Har ajjudi tigharmaten ti ammisasnen itawan hassanat harat assohen dagh tabillant id amutti n azzaman
"For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations.","Dagh almital, kapital tan chund Beijing, Londre, Mexico City, Moscou, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Roma, Athene, Seoul, Tokyo id Whasington D.C eqqal kartidant id isik n addawla tan nasan"
"The city may be looked on as a story, a pattern of relations between human groups, a production and distribution space, a field of physical force, a set of linked decisions, or an arena of conflict.","Aghrim daɣ akayad imos šund tanfust fal tartit jir taqqimen n addinat, edag n ammad id tazunt, edag n assahat tan taghissa, edag n tartit n addabara tan, megh batma n ikinnass."
"National censuses use a variety of definitions - invoking factors such as population, population density, number of dwellings, economic function, and infrastructure - to classify populations as urban.","tuddanen n addawlat hakkinat almaɣna tan ajjotnen- jannin issibaban šund išaɣib, ijjit n ichaɣib, iddikud n timazduɣen, timašɣulen tin tamudre id ikarosan- a fal arhan ad aɣzinan ichaghib fal isim wan imaɣazzan n aɣrim"
"The mutual interdependence of town and country has one consequence so obvious that it is easily overlooked: at the global scale, cities are generally confined to areas capable of supporting a permanent agricultural population.","Anmilal wa illan jir taghrimt id addawlat ila tikma war injer harat s raqqis ad war tila ijjari:Daɣ tahirik , tiɣarmaten aqqalat idagan addobat nen harkuk aɣabal n išaɣib wan tiwijjast"
"As cities grew in complexity, the major civic institutions, from seats of government to religious buildings, would also come to dominate these points of convergence.","Išmad tiɣarmaten tiw-ad nat daɣ armud, tigittawen ti maqqornen n kel akal ɣur alxakumat har ihanan win addin a hid assin arnahan titbaqqa ti fal tijja anifham"
Physical environment generally constrains the form in which a city is built.,Taɣissa n ahinzazaɣ alwaqqan iyyad taqqal tahašilt i iššikil wa s idday aɣrim
And it may be set up for optimal defense given the surrounding landscape.,Har ajjudi addobat ad egu edey i ag-az ilan almaɣna fal as taghlay has tamaxluk ajjet
"This form could evolve from successive growth over a long time, with concentric traces of town walls and citadels marking older city boundaries.",Iššikil wen addobat ad ammuti ɣur tiw-at net daɣ azzaman sajren id idiršan n iɣalayan n aghrim id sitadel tan ešwalnen alxadudan n aɣrim win aru
"In cities such as Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible.","Daɣ tiɣarmaten šund Moscou, adaloj šund wen ikna anafilal har ajjudi"
"Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion.","Iɣešan dagh idagan win ijrawan id idiršan n tiɣarmaten ilmadnen mamala, folitik meɣ addin"
China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms.,Tiɣarmaten ti tijja China addabara ikras nat dagh semɣar n firidan i ad aqqilan ifirras dagh išinnawan
"These sites appear planned in a highly regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes.",Sit tan win ijjan daɣ dumu n iknan atiwizzi id anmillal ilan griyaj andarran n tehanniten tin inaxdiman id ihanan ajjotnen ijjanen eket olaɣan n addina win kel assahat
"In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city.","Timad n iwityan wi ilkamnen , ikallan n Greece ilanen alistexlal nasan,hullan athenes issimalan Polis, tagayt n kel akal win meddan wi atarynen daɣ akal tin samarwasnen"
"Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (coloniae), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society.","ɣur tanaya tan empire net, Roma tasammutay tolas tiday tiɣarmaten ajjotnen (colonae) s teway sirsan firidan net ikarosan, ahanay net id timazduɣen n addinat"
The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru.,"Attabia n Norte Chico ahan ti iddikud n 30 ihanan n išaghib dagh awa eqqalan ašal id Norte Chico , rejion n tamasna dagh ammas n Perus"
"The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba.","Edag wan tanaya daɣ ataram orak sa s Constantinople id alxadarat tan anislam ilan tiɣarmaten ajjotnen Badgdad, Cairo id Cordoba"
"By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires.","Ghur awatay wan 1300 har wan 1400 , tigharmaten tiyyad ikraš nat assahat , armasnat idagan hassanat aghlaynen meɣ idaynat empire tan fal ijiran"
Western Europe's larger capitals (London and Paris) benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade.,Kapital tan ti maqqornen n Eroba tan ataram (Londre id Paris) izhar nat daɣ tiw-at n mamala fal ejarew wan atlantik
England led the way as London became the capital of a world empire and cities across the country grew in locations strategic for manufacturing.,Britania tora abara alwaq wa id taqqal Londre kapital n empire wan alɣalim tigharmaten issintanat edey daɣ idagan n addawlat win tikarsiwen net
"Entrepreneurial leadership became manifest through growth coalitions made up of builders, realtors, developers, the media, government actors such as mayors, and dominant corporations.","Ta-ite tan ajjaraw n asafar i timɣutar n addinat taqqal a inifalalan s tartit n addinat wi idaynen, wi sarɣanen inifhaman, wi sasakaynen isalan, kel alxakum šund mer tan id sosiye tan."
"""The results were efforts at downtown revitalization; inner-city gentrification; the transformation of the CBD to advanced service employment; entertainment, museums, and cultural venues; the construction of sports stadiums and sport complexes; and waterfront development.""""""","“Ittusan wi ewad war imos ar tebadde i asudir n aghrim har ajjudi; amutti n akayad n hebu n aghrim; amutti n CBD s sarwis assixdaman ; dallolan, muze tan id idagan win tighaymaten ; ideyan n teren tan id ihanan win takrikra id efes n edey n edes n ijirwan”””"
"Until the 18th century, an equilibrium existed between the rural agricultural population and towns featuring markets and small-scale manufacturing.","Har awatay wan 1800 ,ogdah ichaghib wan amagon id wan ighirman issibdadan hebu tan id izin tan ti madroynen"
The cultural appeal of cities also plays a role in attracting residents.,Akure n agna wan tigharmaten eqqal alxidmat net dagh iji n awna dagh inaftaghan
"Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishu, Somalia, Xiamen, China and Niamey, Niger, are considered among the world's fastest-growing cities, with annual growth rates of 5–8%.","Batam, Indonesia, Mogadishio, Somalia, Xiamen, China id Niamey, Niger, aqqalan addawla ten dagh alghalim s ermad efes nasnat s dagh awatay iddikud n tiwwad illa jir 5 har 8%."
"The UN predicts an additional 2.5 billion citydwellers (and 300 million fewer countrydwellers) worldwide by 2050, with 90% of urban population expansion occurring in Asia and Africa.","Tagayt n alɣalim ta maqqorat s itawan UN tallaɣat as a ti imilan daɣ tilkamat 2.5 n milyar n imazzaɣan n iɣirman (300 n milyon daɣ san ad ifalan assaxra tan) diha daɣ s awatay wan 2050, s 90% n efes n išaɣib wa he iskinan daɣ aɣrim ojjar daɣ Asia id Afrikiya"
"A deep gulf divides rich and poor in these cities, with usually contain a super-wealthy elite living in gated communities and large masses of people living in substandard housing with inadequate infrastructure and otherwise poor conditions.",Ille terist šajren jir kel assahat id tilaqqiwen dagh tiɣarmaten s alwaqqan iyyad war tanat eha ɣas ar kel assahat izzaghnen daɣ tawseten id addinat ajjotnen izzaghnen daɣ ihanan alliqwnen ijjanen akaros war n intem id talɣiwen tiyyad labasnen
"""Yet municipalities routinely enact sweeping by-laws directed at open ended (and ill-defined) offences such as loitering and obstruction, requiring permits for protests or requiring residents and homeowners to remove snow from the city's sidewalks.""""""",“Meri tan saddegh tajjinat wote n aššaregha tan win ifaradan otas nen asimdu n albasan šund jafa tan ahušal nen turhagaten i išiwankitan meɣ ahušalnen dagh imazzaɣan id massawis n ihanan ikus n snow daɣ ibaratan win aɣrim”””
"These are provided more or less routinely, in a more or less equal fashion.",Haratan win tuzanan s ijjit meɣ s andarran s iššikil izlayan
"""These production oriented criteria often give rise to """"service deliver rules"""", regularized procedures for the delivery of services, which are attempts to codify the productivity goals of urban service bureaucracies.""","“Išširitan oraknen sa s tafrit alwaq iyyan sawadan i ““ašareɣa tan tin imašalan n alxidmat””, timašalen iskatnen n imašalan win timašɣulen arramanen iji kode ittusan n tafrit n birokrati tan timašɣult tan aɣrim"
"""""""Robert L. Lineberry, """"Mandating Urban Equality: The Distribution of Municipal Public Services""""; in Hahn & Levine (1980).""","“”””Robert L. Lineberry “” Mandating Urban Equality: Tazunt daɣ tadhilt n n meri tan aɣrim”” daɣ Hahn & Levine (1980)."""
"However, financing municipal services, as well as urban renewal and other development projects, is a perennial problem, which cities address through appeals to higher governments, arrangements with the private sector, and techniques such as privatization (selling services into the private sector), corporatization (formation of quasi-private municipally-owned corporations), and financialization (packaging city assets into tradable financial instruments and derivatives).","Had ik ijja awen, asaraf n timašɣulen n meri tan hak id froje tan win asissayni d efes n aɣrim awen eqqalan harkuk mušakil s jarraw nat timaɣarmaten addabara s akure i alxakumaten, inufhaman n sekter wa ijjan tekle n iman id teknik tan šund asimmilku ( achinch n timašɣulen daɣ sekter wa ijjan tekle n iman net) korporatizasyon (asissaɣir n tagayen ti tikna meri akarach) id asaraf (tewaɣne n ilalan n aɣrim daɣ imutaj win mamala id awa tan id izajjaran)"
"""The impact of globalization and the role of multinational corporations in local governments worldwide, has led to a shift in perspective on urban governance, away from the """"urban regime theory"""" in which a coalition of local interests functionally govern, toward a theory of outside economic control, widely associated in academics with the philosophy of neoliberalism.""",“Tikma n globalizasyon id alxidmat tan tagayen tin addawla tan dagh aharoj nasnat id alxakuman dagh alghalim eway id amutti dagh axxakamat dagh aghrim s a ujijan “urban regime theory” dagh axkaman afor tan artaynen s mirda n axakam dagh ekonomi osaghan dagh akademiks s awa hasan jannin ighafawan nasan imos liberalizm wa eynayan
"Planning tools, beyond the original design of the city itself, include public capital investment in infrastructure and land-use controls such as zoning.","Isuj win iji n addabara tan, awar n imos edey wan alasal n aghrim iman net eha anaghal n azruf dagh ikarpsan id awikkil n alxidmat n akal chund eket n aghrim"
"""Also available to cities in their implementation of planning objectives are municipal powers of zoning, subdivision control and the regulation of building, housing and sanitation principles.""""""","“Tanaya i aɣrim tille i tiɣarmaten dagh achimmichil n ittusan wi id aqqalnen iketan, awikkil n tizinawen tin id amukin n ašareɣa tan win ihanan wi maqqornen, id wi madroynen id awa id eqqalan assexat””"
"People living relatively close together may live, work, and play, in separate areas, and associate with different people, forming ethnic or lifestyle enclaves or, in areas of concentrated poverty, ghettoes.","Addinat wi iknanen ahirij addoben tamazduq id alxidmat daɣ idagan azunnen,daɣ as artayan id addinat iyyad izlaynen jir oharan tawset megh iššikil n tamudre megh ahanen idagan dɣh tojjar tillaqqiwa"
"""Suburbs in the west, and, increasingly, gated communities and other forms of """"privatopia"""" around the world, allow local elites to self-segregate into secure and exclusive neighborhoods.""",‘ Suburb tan win ataram hullan tawseten id iššikilan iyyad n “”privatopia”” daɣ alɣalim oyyahan kel assahat win akal i ad iskitan iman nasan s idagan n iman nasan taha alɣafiat”
"This outcast proletariat—perhaps 1.5 billion people today, 2.5 billion by 2030—is the fastest-growing and most novel social class on the planet.","proletaria wa daɣ itiwankaren ehamiš ewad 1.5 n milyar n awadim ašal id , 2.5 n milyar daɣ awatay wan 2030 eqqal edag wa ojjaran armud daɣ alghalim"
It is ontologically both similar and dissimilar to the historical agency described in the Communist Manifesto.,Ikna daɣ tilat d iban tilat id tagayt ta tiktabat dagh alkad wan Kominist tan
As hubs of trade cities have long been home to retail commerce and consumption through the interface of shopping.,Išmad hub tan win tiɣarmaten ahojan aqqalan ehan n mamala wan detay id amakiš n inach-an
A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals.,Hebu andarran n inaxdiman erda s tigdat n musnat jir tagayen id addinat
"Cultural elites tend to live in cities, bound together by shared cultural capital, and themselves playing some role in governance.","Kel assahat win attarex zaddaghan amarad dagh tigharmaten ,oharan kapial saddeq axdaman idagan iyyad daɣ axxakamat n akal"
"""Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, """"Rethinking Place Identities"""", in Kavaratzis, Warnaby, & Ashworth (2015).""","“Greg Kerr & Jessica Oliver, “”amuqqil n anasjum fal kartidant tan n edag”, dagh Kavaratis, Warnaby,& Ashworth (2015)."""
"Patriotic tourists visit Agra to see the Taj Mahal, or New York City to visit the World Trade Center.",Turist tan win imarhan n akal osan Agra i ad ikyidan Taj Mahal meɣ New York i ad asin World Trade Center
"Why do anonymous people—the poor, the underprivileged, the unconnected—frequently prefer life under miserable conditions in tenements to the healthy order and tranquility of small towns or the sanitary subdivisions of semirural developments?","Mafel addinat wi s istaran ismawan nasan- tilaqqiwen , wi war n ila udim, wi war n ija konekte - assofan harkuk erk tamudre daɣ ihanan war taha assexat id tazagut n tiɣarmaten ti madroynen meɣ assexat n tizunawen tin ifesan n assaxra?"
Those who came to live in them did so in order to participate and compete on any attainable level.,Addinat wi tan id osan i tamazzuq ijjan awen i ad ijjišan meɣ ammadašan daɣ edag ilan ag-ad
Sports also play a major role in city branding and local identity formation.,Sport tan intaned deɣ axdaman edag daɣ echwal n aɣrim id teɣare n kartidant tan akal
"More importantly, there is also huge long term potential for both tourism and investment (Kasimati, 2003).","Awa ojjaran hullan as ile tinfa maqqorat daɣ turizm id tanaɣla n azruf (kasimati, 2003)"
"""War brought concentration of social leadership and political power in the hands of a weapons-bearing minority, abetted by a priesthood exercising sacred powers and possessing secret but valuable scientific and magical knowledge.""""""",“Akinnas eway id akukulu n ta-ite tan tamazduq id tanaya tan folitik dagh ifassan n addinat madroynen ewaynen albarodan fal ardan alfaqqi tan win egliz tan ilalen tanaya ten iffarnen tolas ilanen musnat n iji wan issaxir tiffarat””
"During World War II, national governments on occasion declared certain cities open, effectively surrendering them to an advancing enemy in order to avoid damage and bloodshed.","Daɣ akinnas n alɣalim wan issin , alxakumaten alwaqqan iyyad illaɣen as tiɣarmaten tiyyad ammeranat oyyan tanat i inasjafa tan i a igdalan šaɣšadan id anaɣal n aši"
"Such warfare, known as counterinsurgency, involves techniques of surveillance and psychological warfare as well as close combat, functionally extends modern urban crime prevention, which already uses concepts such as defensible space.","Ikinnas šund wen eqqalan asudmir i tanakra ahan ti teknik tan tin iji n anniyat id akinnas wan ta-ite had ik akinnas wan anmihaz isewad agluy dagh emel n gafa tan daɣ iɣirman , s amarad gharrin ismawan šund edag ogazan"
"Because of the higher barriers to entry, these networks have been classified as natural monopolies, meaning that economic logic favors control of each network by a single organization, public or private.","Fal marsalan ajjotnen i ijuch, rezo tan win aqqalan as monopole tan imos awen as ekonomi wa ilan almaghna erda i tagayt n alxakum megh ti tijjat tekle n iman net awikkil nasnat"
"""Kath Wellman & Frederik Pretorius, """"Urban Infrastructure: Productivity, Project Evaluation, and Finance""""; in Wellman & Spiller (2012).""","“Kath ellman & Frederik Pretorius, """"Ikarosan win aghrim:tafrit , Proje wan farak id azruf””” dagh Wellmzn id Spiller (2012)”"
"Sanitation, necessary for good health in crowded conditions, requires water supply and waste management as well as individual hygiene.",Izazdugan i taghliwen tin assexat olaghnen ahušal as emel n aman id iji n anniyat i ighašadan hak id tizdige tan wan awadim
"Modern urban life relies heavily on the energy transmitted through electricity for the operation of electric machines (from household appliances to industrial machines to now-ubiquitous electronic systems used in communications, business, and government) and for traffic lights, streetlights and indoor lighting.","Tamudre ta did tišrayat n aɣrim tijja fal emel n efew okayan daɣ enerji tan(imutaj win ehan har maršin tan tin izin tan s sistem tan iglanen s efew axdamnen dagh asissiki n isalan, alxakumat) id efew wan torfen, efew wan tišariten hak id efew wan ammas n ihanan"
"""Tom Hart, """"Transport and the City""""; in Paddison (2001).""","“Tom Hart, “””Talasfor id aghrim”” dagh Paddison ( 2001)”"
"Many big American cities still operate conventional public transit by rail, as exemplified by the ever-popular New York City Subway system.",Tigharmaten ajjotnen n Amrik saddeq sa s akay nat addinat fal rail tan šund awa ijja sistem n awen wa ojjaran eqqalan wan New York
"Anthropogenic buildings and waste, as well as cultivation in gardens, create physical and chemical environments which have no equivalents in wilderness, in some cases enabling exceptional biodiversity.",Ihanan wi maqqornen id ighašodan wi itaj awadim had ik agayak daɣ ifirjan erawan id ihinzazaɣan s tiɣiswen id fazon tan nasan war n ila daɣ tamaxluk daɣ idagan iyyad arrizej iknan tulaɣay
"From one perspective, cities are not ecologically sustainable due to their resource needs.","Daɣ akayad , tiɣarmaten war daɣ is net ilen ihishkan taɣrist zajret awa ijjan tarhaten nasan"
"Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates, due to concrete, asphalt, and other artificial surfaces, which heat up in sunlight and channel rainwater into underground ducts.",Tiɣarmaten ti id išraynen tiwazzay nat fal as iknanat azzamanan n iman nasnnats asphalt id haratan iyyad rammas nen efew daɣ tafukt saddeq zazjara n aman n ajjina sider n akal
Aerial particulates increase rainfall by 5–10%.,Ifirras win s afalla sawadan ajjinna har 5 har10%
"For example, within the urban microclimate, less-vegetated poor neighborhoods bear more of the heat (but have fewer means of coping with it).","Ilmital, dagh azzamanan madroynen ahanen aghrim, timizdaɣ war ilsen ihishkan dalatnen ajjotnen tijraw tan tukise hullan ( mušan ilan assahat andarrat s tat in iwaɣan)"
"Generally they are called Urban open space (although this word does not always mean green space), Green space, Urban greening.","Tawaɣrin harkuk s isim wan idagan n aɣrim wi ammeranen ( kuddeɣ as awen wadden isim wa s itawaɣir edag wa dalen, taddalat tan aɣrim"
"The study used data from almost 20,000 people in the UK.",Farak ijja fal 20.000 n awadim daɣ Britania
People who did not get at least two hours — even if they surpassed an hour per week — did not get the benefits.,Addinat wi s kala war ilen kuddeɣ 2 alwaqqan- kud okayan alwaq iyyan daɣ issiboɣ war he ijriwan tinfa tan net
"""The study didn't count time spent in a person's own yard or garden as time in nature, but the majority of nature visits in the study took place within two miles from home. """"""",“Farak war issedan alwaq wa ijja awadim daɣ aɣalay n addinat meɣ afaraj mušan ijjit wa ewad farak wa ijja dagh edag ewadan 2 kilometir tan i ehan”””
"""Saskia Sassen used the term """"global city"""" in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo to refer to a city's power, status, and cosmopolitanism, rather than to its size.""","“Saskia Sassen taxdam s isim wan ““aɣrim assirtayan”” dagh alxidmat net tan 1991. Aghrim wa issartayan: New York, Londre, Tokyo eqqal asissaɣir n assahat id amaširway wa ijjan addinat daɣ ikallan win uhun timɣare nasan”"
"3 (1982): 319 Global cities form the capstone of the global hierarchy, exerting command and control through their economic and political influence.","3 (1982): 319 tiɣarmaten ti assurtaynen aqqal nat šund tekadayt daɣ anmillal daɣ alɣalim , kimandat nat tolas og-az nat assahat nasnat tan ekonomi id tan folitik"
Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power and interchange.,Addinat wi ammijrad nen isim wen har idagan n assahat id amaskal izlaynen
Multinational corporations and banks make their headquarters in global cities and conduct much of their business within this context.,Tagaynen tin alɣalim id bank tan ikrasan kartiye tan nasan daɣ ikallan n alɣalim fuk daɣ abara wen daɣ assiglan timašɣulen nasan.
"""Nancy Duxbury & Sharon Jeannotte, """"Global Cultural Governance Policy""""; Chapter 21 in The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture; London: Ashgate, 2013.""","“Nancy Duxbury d Sharon Jeannotte ““Folitik tan attarex n axakam dagh alghalim”” dagɣ titbaqqet net tan 21 farak n amaidi n Ashgate fal iji n addabara tan d attarex; Londre: Ashgate, 2013”"
"""The Habitat I conference in 1976 adopted the """"Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements"""" which identifies urban management as a fundamental aspect of development and establishes various principles for maintaining urban habitats.""",“Taɣimit fal tamazduq daɣ awatay wan 1976 tassibdat ““majrad wan Vancouver ijjan timazduɣen tin addinat”” assilmad nen s awikil n aɣrim eqqal titbaqqet n efes tolas iday ašareɣa tan ajjotnen i ag-az n timizdaq daɣ aɣrim””
"In January 2002 the UN Commission on Human Settlements became an umbrella agency called the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or UN-Habitat, a member of the United Nations Development Group.","Daɣ awatay wan 2002 tagayt n UN tan Timizdaɣ n addinat taqqal tagayt tan tele s itawan Program n Nations Unies wan timizdaɣ addinat meɣ UN-Habitat, iyyan daɣ taqqimen n Nations Unies wan efes"
The Bank's policies have tended to focus on bolstering real estate markets through credit and technical assistance.,Folitik tan ti Bank tan ijjanat alxidmat nasnat tisalsit fal hebu ta win akal s imarwasan d tadhilt.
"Cities figure prominently in traditional Western culture, appearing in the Bible in both evil and holy forms, symbolized by Babylon and Jerusalem.",Imušaran n tigɣarmaten daɣ attrex wan kel ataram iktabnen daɣ alinzil daɣ innuɣ wan alchin d wan alwili imosan Babylon d Jeruzalem
"Cities can be perceived in terms of extremes or opposites: at once liberating and oppressive, wealthy and poor, organized and chaotic.","Tigharmaten addobat nat ad ilanat akayad intaman megh i imlallayan; dagh edag iyyan ehak in alxoriya megh isaknin aghana, ehare d tillaqiwa ,oghadan d ifraghan"
This and other political ideologies strongly influence narratives and themes in discourse about cities.,Wen d ittusan iyyad n folitik iknan tarna n majrad ijjan fal tiɣarmaten
Classical and medieval literature includes a genre of descriptiones which treat of city features and history.,Akatab wan amarad d wan aru ahan ti ikitban ijjanen fal išikilan n aɣrim d attrex net
Other early cinematic representations of cities in the twentieth century generally depicted them as technologically efficient spaces with smoothly functioning systems of automobile transport.,Isamilan iyyad wi azzanen n sinema dagh tigharmaten ghur awatay wan 1200 idlajan tan as aqqalan idagan s teknoloji nasan tidgah id sistem tan saxdamnen torfen
A country is a distinct territorial body or political entity (i.e. a nation).,Addawla taqqal akal izlayan megh edag taxkam folitik ( awen imos addinat olahnen ittus)
It is not inherently sovereign.,War eqqel ad itran alistexlal
"The largest country in the world by geographical area is Russia, while the most populous is China, followed by India, the United States, Indonesia, Pakistan and Brazil.","Russia taqqal addawla ta tojjarat dagh alɣalim s jografia net as ijja awen chine taqqal addawla ta tojjarat addinat, ilkam as India, Amrik, Indonesia, Pakistan d Brazil"
"In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the national territory, as in the German Bundesländer, as well as a less formal term for a sovereign state.",Daɣ ikkalan n eroba ajjotnen ismawan ijjan i tizunawen tin ašrut n addawla chund Bundeslander wan Germany war eqqel isim s itawaɣir s isim wan akal ilan alxoriya
"""There is no universal agreement on the number of """"countries"""" in the world since a number of states have disputed sovereignty status.""",“War ti illa anifham dagh alxalim fal iddikud n “addawla tan” dagh alghalim fal as iddikud n addawla tan ajjen ijjan takalt fal tumust n alistexal”
The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely.,Degre wan alxoriya n addawla tan ti n ijrew alxoriya nasnat izlay ghur addawla s iyyat
The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI).,Alkad ifras awa s itawan efes n addawla s gross national income ( GNI)
"The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, and Asia and the Pacific.","Alkad wan 2019 erda as addawla tan tin Amrik tan tamasna , Eurobe, Asia d tin pasifik ɣhas as itawan addawlat tan ifasnen"
"The World Bank defines its regions as East Asia and Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, Middle East and North Africa, North America, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.","Bank tan alɣalim ghur is rejion tan tin Asia tan alqablat d tin Pasifik, Eroba d Asia tan ammas, Amrik Latin d Caribbean, Middle East d Afrikiya tan tamasna, Amrik tan tamasna, South Asia d Afrikiya tan sahara"
"Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources, especially in the context of geography or space, rather than research and development that is usually not centred on earth sciences or astronomy.",Farak war eqqel ar imuɣ daɣ ittus n ajjaraw n isalan meɣ tidarfiten tin akal hullan daɣ talɣa tan jografia meɣ tan išinnawan uhun imuɣ d efes war fal ijjen science tan akal meɣ science tan akayad daɣ etran
Only the one done by emperor Nero seemed to be a preparative for the conquest of Ethiopia or Nubia: in 62 AD two legionaries explored the sources of the Nile river.,"Wa ijjan Emperor Nero ɣas a eqqalan asilmid s asidu i aramas wan Ethiopia meɣ Nubia: Daɣ awatay wan 62 datat annabi ɣisa ,ilan ti issin imassukal ittarnen tidarfite n akal ɣur ejarew wan Nile"
"The Romans also organized several explorations into Northern Europe, and explored as far as China in Asia.",Kel Roma tan ijjan saddegh farak ajjen daɣ Eroba tan tamasna tolas ewadan har Chine daɣ Asia
100 AD-166 AD Romano-Chinese relations begin.,Daɣ 100 n awatay har 166 n awatay data annabi ɣisa alwaq wen daɣ ad tissinta timmiduwa tan Roma d Chine
"The key invention to their exploration was the outrigger canoe, which provided a swift and stable platform for carrying goods and people.",A wa id eraw farak nasnat inta s bato ta s itawan canoe eqqalan toruft tan ilalan d addinat
2011 studies at Wairau Bar in New Zealand show a high probability that one origin was Ruahine Island in the Society Islands.,Imughan win 2011 dagh Wairau Bar dagh akal wan New Zealand isikna as war eha ach-ak as awa dagh id ighna eqqal Ruahine Island dagh Society Islansd
There are cultural and language similarities between Cook Islanders and New Zealand Maori.,Ilan samalan agna d awal olahnen jir Cook Islanders d New Zealand Maori
"During 1328–1333, he sailed along the South China Sea and visited many places in Southeast Asia and reached as far as South Asia, landing in Sri Lanka and India, and he even went to Australia.","Jir awatay wan 1328 har 1333, issaghlay fal aman n South China tolas osa idajan ajjotnen dagh ajala-dagh-alqablat n Asia dihen osa har South Asia, azzubat dagh Sri Lanka d India tolas osa har Australia"
"Portugal and Spain dominated the first stages of exploration, while other European nations followed, such as England, Netherlands, and France.","Portugal d Spania ornan daɣ tišilen azzarnen n farak alwaq wen daɣ a hasan ilkaman addawla tan n eroba tiyyad chuud England, Neherlands d France"
The extreme conditions in the deep sea require elaborate methods and technologies to endure them.,Talɣiwen issohatnen n ejarew chajren inhajjanat id tikarsiwen d teknoloji tan has nat addobat nen
"An administrative subdivision, instead, is understood to be a division of a state proper.",Akal n alxakum andarran imos ašrut n addawla
The dependent territories that currently remain in the world today generally maintain a very high degree of political autonomy.,Ikallan ahanen alisteɣmar ti illanen daɣ alɣalim achal id ilan degre maqqorat daɣ alistexlal nasan wan folitik
"Cook Islands' status is considered to be equivalent to independence for international law purposes, and the country exercises full sovereignty over its internal and external affairs.","Tišit tan Cook Isands togdah id alistexlal fal ittusan n ašareɣa wan jie ikallan, tolas addawla ila tanat fuk fal timašɣulen net tin ammas hak id tin ebarid"
"Under the terms of the free association agreement, however, New Zealand retains some responsibility for the foreign relations and defence of Niue.","ɣur anifham wan tagayen in alxoriya, New Zeland tittaf išarajan iyyad dagh tammiduwa tan jir addawlat tan d ag-az n Niue"
"This list is generally limited to entities that are either subject to an international treaty on their status, uninhabited, or have a unique level of autonomy and are largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs.","List ta dagh war taqqel ghas ikallan wi ašareɣa wan alɣalim fal tišit nasan, iban tamazzuq nasan tolas ogdahan dagh alistexal dagh as axkaman hullan daɣ haratan nasan uhun win addawla tan iyyad"
"They are independently administrated jurisdictions, although the British Government is solely responsible for defense and international representation and has ultimate responsibility for ensuring good government.",Aqqalan fuk nasan ikallan axkamnen daɣ iman nasan s immik wa arhan kuddeɣ as alxakum wan Britania inta a awikkal awa id eqqalan ag-az d tanammejrit dagh isalan win ijir ikalan d awikil n alxakum olaɣan
No crown dependency has representation in the U.K. Parliament.,War tilla takabult tamišaškat ta tilat tanammejrit daɣ ehan dibiti tan wan U.K
New Zealand and its dependencies share the same governor-general and constitute one monarchic realm.,New Zealand d addawlat wi taxkam oharan Gafar tolas taqqal almalikiya iyyat
The mutually negotiated Covenant to Establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) in Political Union with the United States was approved in 1976.,Kontra wa fal tijja taridawt i asidi n Commonwealth wan Mariana Islands tan tamasna (CNMI) dagh tartit tan folitik id Amrik ešwal ɣur awatay wan 1976
"This is a constant source of ambiguity and confusion when trying to define, understand, and explain Puerto Rico's political relationship with the United States.","Awen eqqal harat id itarawan tewaɣne n eɣaf alwaq wa id erram awadim ad ellaɣat, ifhim dihen efassar tammiduwa n folitik tan Puerto Rico id Amrik"
"""However, the status of its """"constituent countries"""" in the Caribbean (Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten) can be considered akin to dependencies or """"associated non-independent states.""""""","“Hak id ijja awen, tišit tan ““ addawla tan artaynen”” daɣ Caribbean ( Aruba, Curacao d Sint Maarten) olahan id addawla tan n imadhalnen megh ““addawlat tan artaynen war n ikreš alistexlal nasnat””"
"Borders are geographic boundaries, imposed either by geographic features such as oceans, or by arbitrary groupings of political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other subnational entities.","Alxadudan win jografia imosan samalan ilzamnen n jografia šund Ijirwan meɣ taqqimen n folitik n addawla tan šund alxakumat, addawla tan ilanen alistexlal, addawla tan artaynen megh rejion tan"
"Most external borders are partially or fully controlled, and may be crossed legally only at designated border checkpoints and border zones may be controlled.",Ijjit n alxadudan win ebarid itiwajja anniyat andarran meɣ s assahat tolas tajjašan addinat daɣ ašareɣa ghur chekpoint tan n alxadud dihen daɣ ad awikalan alxadudan
"Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit the movement of people, animals, and goods into and out of the country.","Aš-am n addawla tan ilanat išikil n awikkil wan alxadudan nasan fal asassarhu meɣ afanaz n imitikwiyan n addinat , arrizej d ialan s ebarid n akal"
To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign persons) may need special immigration documents or permits; but possession of such documents does not guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border.,A fal arha (awadim wan anftagh) ad eqqam megh ad exdim daɣ alxadudan ilzam ti ad ila ilkadan n imassukal meɣ ilkadan win turhagaten n awen muchan tila n ilkadan win war ehik awadim turhagat n aki alxadud
Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered animals across their borders.,Addawla tan ajjotnen imnaghan fal awadim ad eway taba ta labasat egh arizzej erhinan s alxadudan nasan
"In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures.","Daɣ idagan taha trafik, išikilan n addinat d taɣdiren aqqalan marsal , addawla tan ajjotnen tajjin assahat daɣ alxadudan s iɣalayan n tazoli griyaz tan tolas izizakken ašareɣa tan i awikkil n alxadudan"
This is common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United States border.,Awen ijjit daɣ addawla tan win edag wan Schengen daɣeroa d ihandagan n asuf win alxadud wa jir Canada d Amrik
Rivers: some political borders have been formalized along natural borders formed by rivers.,"Ijirwan, alxadudan iyyad n folitik ijja fal hassanat anifham hak id alxadudan wi ijjan ijirwan"
"In the Hebrew Bible, Moses defined the middle of the river Arnon as the border between Moab and the Israelite tribes settling east of the Jordan.","Daɣ alinzil wan alyahud, annabi Musa illaghat as ammas n ejarew wan Arnon eqqal alxadud jir Maob d tawseten tin Izrail daɣ alqablat n Jordanie"
"Examples are Lake Tanganyika, with the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia on its west shore and Tanzania and Burundi on the east; and the Great Lakes which form a substantial part of the border between Canada and the United States.","Ilmitalan imosan ejarew wan Tanganyaka s taha jamahiriya tan Congo Demokratik d Zambia ataram n asilim net ,Tanzania d Burundi fal ašrut wan alqablat d ijirwan wi maqqornen aqqalnen achrut wa maqqoran n alxadud jir Canada d Amrik"
"Mountain ranges: Many nations have their political borders defined along mountain ranges, often along a drainage divide.",Itattaran n tidɣaɣen : Addawla tan ajjotnen ilanat alxadudan n folitik nasnat ijjanen dagh assagh id itattaran win idaɣan alwaqqan iyyad tazunt n ajilmam
One example is the defensive forest created by China's Song Dynasty in the eleventh century.,Almital iyyan eqqal aroj wan amagaz tikna China’s song dynasty dagh awatay wan 1100
"For instance, the boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical markers on the landscape, and it is still a cultural and economic division in Germany.","Almital, alxadud jir Germany tan alqablat d tan ataram ibas eqqal alxadud n jir addawla tan mušam dagh akayad eqqal ti fal ešwalan win kel attarex fal edag wen saddeq eqqal tazune n attarex d ekonomi wan Germany"
"Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters, contiguous zones, and exclusive economic zones; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered within the context of land boundaries.","Alxadudan win isikilan fal ijirwan illan ti dagh ezarag wan aman fal tila addawla alxaqqan, idagan osaghnen d idagan n ekonomi; saddeq tasassaghrawt ten war taqqel fal alxadudan n ijirwan s win ijlan al ezarag wan alxadudan win amadal"
Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from the coast of a country and it holds responsibility for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection.,Airspace ijja eghtas iddikud n 12 kilometir fal aman i alxadud n addawla tolas iwar ti addaman n aɣalas n airspace net dagh tilalt n ašareɣa wan NATO n addaman s alwaq wan alɣafiat
"However, there is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the point of the Kármán line.","Hak id ijja awen, ille anifham ijjan fal airspace eghtan imaddin ghur titbaqet tan iyaka wan Kaman"
Overall border regulations are placed by national and local governments and can vary depending on nation and current political or economic conditions.,Addaman n alxadudan fuk iwar alxakumat tolas izlay ghur addalwa s iyyat d talghiwen tin folitik d tin ekonomi
Working across borders – Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands .,Alxidmat dagh alxadudan - tinaq assahat n timachghulen tin alxadudan i asammuti n tamudre alxer dagh isik wan Africa drylands
Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping) may involve mass commuting between workplaces and residential settlements.,Amatikwi n ekonomi wan addinat daɣ alxadudan ( awa war n imos tikra) ahan ti tamašarwayt jir idagan n alxidmat d n win tamazduq
"It can enable and stop movement, across as well as along borders.",Addobat tehakke n turhajat d asibdid n imatikwiyan hak id dagh alxadudan
Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as well as cross-border economic development strategies.,Rejion tan ajjotnen ahanen edes n alxadudan iknanat tebadde dagh asissiki n isalan win jir agna tan d majrad hak id tikarsiwen n efes n ekonomi dagh alxadudan
"Since its conception in the mid-80's, this artistic practice has assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland, borders, surveillance, identity, race, ethnicity, and national origin(s).","Ghur ighannan net dagh tazune n awatay wan 1980 , alxidmat ten tidhal dagh efes n isistanan wi id aqqalnen akal, alxadudan, awikil, kartidant, techne, tawseten d akal wan iddiwil"
"Borders can include but are not limited to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity.","Alxadudan ehen awal, agna, tumast dagh tamazduq , addin, d kartidant tan iddiwil"
"""These artists are often """"border crossers"""" themselves.""",“Kel isuhagh win alwaq iyyan “takayan alxadudan” intaned iman nasan
"In general, a rural area or a countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities.",Akal wan assaxra megh wan isilman eqqal edag n jografia ehan asilim n tigharmaten d ighirman
Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements.,Idagan win assaxra s tiditt ilan išaɣib andarran d timizdaɣ madroynen
Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their population living in a rural community.,Rejion tan aghrim ojarnen ilanat a id orakan i 15% n išaghib nasan dagh tawseten tin asaxra
"Rural northern regions are predominantly rural census divisions that are found either entirely or mostly above the following lines of parallel in each province: Newfoundland and Labrador, 50th; Quebec 54th; Ontario, 54th; Manitoba, 53rd; Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, 54th.","Rejion tan n assaxra tin tamasna aqqal nat a daɣ tojjar tuddant tan n divizion izdaghnen s ijjit nasnat meɣ hullan s afalla i iyaka tan n akal fuk: NewFoundLand d Labrador, 50th; Quebec 54th;Ontario, 54th, Manitoba, 53rd, Sasktchewan, Alberta d British Columbia , 54t."
"The U.S. Census Bureau, the USDA's Economic Research Service, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) have come together to help define rural areas.","Biro n Amrik wan tuddant , sarwis wan imugh ekonomiwan USDA d Biro wan axakam d azruf (MOB) osan id artayan i ad idhilan idagan win assaxra"
"The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107–171, Sec.","Ašareɣa wan tiwijjas n awatay wan 2002 (P.L. 107-171, Sec"
"""According to the handbook, Definitions of Rural: A Handbook for Health Policy Makers and Researchers, """"Residents of metropolitan counties are generally thought to have easy access to the relatively concentrated health services of the county's central areas.""","“s alkittab Handbokk, almaghna tan n assaxra: Alkittab i kel folitik win assexat d win kel farak, ““ imazzaghan n addawla tan ti maqqornen aghilan addinat raqqis hassan ajjaraw n sarwis tan win assexat n ammas n aghrim”"
"""This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural. """"""",“Awa eqqal amutti n almaghna wa ikfa enhad i assaxra”””
"""President Emmanuel Macron government launched an action plan in 2019 in favour for rural areas named """"Agenda Rural"""".""",“Alxakum n Amanokal wan France Emmanuel Macron issamatakway addabara i timaɣutar i idagan win assaxra daɣ awatay wan 2019 s isim net ““ Ajenda wan assaxra””
In Scotland a different definition of rural is used.,Daɣ Scoltland ille almaɣna n assaxra izlayan
"RBI defines rural areas as those areas with a population of less than 49,000 (tier -3 to tier-6 cities).",RBI sir is idagan win assaxra imosan idagan s išaghib nasan orak id 49.000 n awadim (ad orak an i 3 har ad orakan i 6 tiɣarmaten)
Rural areas in Pakistan that are near cities are considered as suburban areas or suburbs.,Idagan n assaxra daɣ Pakistan wi ahanen edes n tiɣarmaten itawan hassan idagan n suburb tan meɣ suburb tan
"Suburbs might have their own political or legal jurisdiction, especially in the United States, but this is not always the case, especially in the United Kingdom where most suburbs are located within the administrative boundaries of cities.","Suburb tan intaned deɣ inhajja as ilan folitik tan ašareɣa tan nasan hullan dagh Amrik mušan awen ijja , hullan daɣ United Kingdom s ijjit n suburb tan net ahan ammas n alxadudan n tiɣarmaten"
"In others, such as Morocco, France, and much of the United States, many suburbs remain separate municipalities or are governed locally as part of a larger metropolitan area such as a county, district or borough.","Daɣ iyyad chund Maroc , France d daɣ ijjit n Amrik , suburb tan ajjotnen aqqalan ikallan azunnen meɣ ijlan fal axxakamat tan as aqqalan ašrut n aɣrim maqqoran šund county , district meɣ borough"
"The terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density areas in proximity to the city centre (which would not be referred to as 'suburbs' in most other countries), and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area.",Ismawan win ammas n suburb d asilim n suburb tawaghrin i d izlayan jir idagan wi s ijjitan addinat nasan ahoznen ammas n aghrim ( s war itwin suburb tan dagh addawla tan ajjotnen) d suburb tan wi s madroyan addinet net n karke tan win edag wan aghrim
"In New Zealand, most suburbs are not legally defined, which can lead to confusion as to where they may begin and end.","Dagh New Zealand, suburb tan ajjotnen war ilenat almaghna dagh acharegha , awen isajraw tewaghne n eghaf sa s taqqal s edag wan asinti d wan amindi nasan"
The word suburbani was first employed by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas and estates built by the wealthy patricians of Rome on the city's outskirts.,Isim wan Suburbani inta s isim ezzaran s eghra amanokal n Roma Cicero villa tan ti maqqornen d ihanan wi idayan imissirha win kel ehare n Roma dagh karke tan n aghrim
"By the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city (then the largest in the world) became more overcrowded and unsanitary.","Ghur tazune n awatay wan 1900 , idagan wi azzarnen n suburb tan wi maqqornen chajaran id akal edes n Londre fal as aghrim ( dihen wa ojjaran dagh alghalim) idnay addinat d iban assexat"
The line reached Harrow in 1880.,Iyaka ewad Harow dagh awatay wan 1880
"""The Met's marketing department coined the term """"Metro-land"""" in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide, priced at 1d.""",‘’ Sarwis n marketing wan Met iwat isim wan “Metro-land”” dagh awatay wan 1915 alwaq wa id gid har iyaka eqqal gid wan Metro-land ijjan alqim daɣ ašal 1.
"""In part, this was a response to the shocking lack of fitness amongst many recruits during World War One, attributed to poor living conditions; a belief summed up in a housing poster of the period """"you cannot expect to get an A1 population out of C3 homes"""" – referring to military fitness classifications of the period.""","“Daɣ ašrut iyyan, awen eqqal alwazab n tikma fal iban assexat i inaxdiman win akinnas n alɣalim wa ezzaran, assijra talɣiwen n tamudre labasnen; ta-ite id išinšaš alkad dagh ammas n ehan s azzaman wen ““ war tordem ajjaraw n A1 n išaɣib daɣ 3 ihanan””- majrad ijjan fal assexat n ilier tan azzaman wen””"
"The Report also legislated on the required, minimum standards necessary for further suburban construction; this included regulation on the maximum housing density and their arrangement and it even made recommendations on the ideal number of bedrooms and other rooms per house.","Alkad saddeq eɣtas ašeraɣa ta tilzamat i awa id eqqalan ikarosan daɣ suburb tan; awen ehay ašareɣa wan iddikud n ijjit n ihanan d ikannan nasan, saddeq ijja addabara tan i iddikud wa s inhajja daɣ tehannit d dagh ammas n tehanniten n ehan ti yadnen"
Within just a decade suburbs dramatically increased in size.,Daɣ iddikud n maraw iwityan suburb tan ijjan ijjit ermadan
Levittown developed as a major prototype of mass-produced housing.,Levitton egɣna id išikil n ehan wa maqqoran
"Shopping for different goods and services in one central location without having to travel to multiple locations, helped to keep shopping centers a component of these newly designed suburbs which were booming in population.","Išanši tan n ilalan ajjotnen d timašɣulen dagh edag iyyan deɣ as war tissekala s idagan ajjotnen, idhal i aghalas n bitigi tan daɣ suburb an wi eynaynen ijjitnen daɣ išaɣib"
"The Highway Act of 1956 helped to fund the building of 64,000 kilometers across the nation by having $26 thousand-million to use, which helped to link many more to these shopping centers with ease.",HighWay Act wan awatay wan 1956 idhal s asaraf wan edey 64.000 n kilometir dagh addawla aqqalnen 2600.000 n dollar wan Amrik idhalnen s asarghis n assagh n bitigi tan win
Some suburbs had developed around large cities where there was rail transportation to the jobs downtown.,Suburb tan iyyad aghnan id edes n tigharmaten ti maqqornen edag wan abara tan tin tazoli s alxidmaten nasan tin ammas n aghrim
The product was a great housing boom.,Harat eqqal ijjit maqqoran n ihanan
"With 16 million eligible veterans, the opportunity to buy a house was suddenly at hand.",Taffawt i ašinš n ehan raqqis hullan dagh addawla ilan 16 n milyon n alɣiskir win aritret
"Developers purchased empty land just outside the city, installed tract houses based on a handful of designs, and provided streets and utilities, or local public officials race to build schools.","Kel efes išinšan akal war n idey dagh ebarid n aghrim, idayan daɣ is ihanan ijjanen fal takbizzet n desin tan, ikkasan tišariten d sarwis tan megh imuzaran win akal amiramaran dagh edey n lakkolan"
Veterans could get one with a much lower down payment.,Kel alɣiskir win aritret addoben akarach n iyyan s iddikud daɣ azruf andarran
"The growth of the suburbs was facilitated by the development of zoning laws, redlining and numerous innovations in transport.","Tiw-ad n n suburb tan issarɣas ti id efes n ašareɣa tan win iketan n akal, eway id awen haratan ajjotnen eynaynen dagh tamatakwayt"
African-Americans and other people of color largely remained concentrated within decaying cores of urban poverty.,Kel Afrikiya win Amrik d addinat iyyad ijji tan daɣ ammas n ihanan alliqawnen arkahnen n suburb
"After World War II, availability of FHA loans stimulated a housing boom in American suburbs.","Darat akinnas n alɣalim wan issin, emel n tadhilt tan FHA eraw id ijjit n suburb tan daɣ Amrik"
Economic growth in the United States encouraged the suburbanization of American cities that required massive investments for the new infrastructure and homes.,Tiwwat tan ekonomi dagh Amrik tikfa assahat i asiwid n suburb tan dagh tigharmaten n Amrik azzilzam nen tinaghla n izurfan ajjotnen i ikarosan d ihanan
"""An alternative strategy is the deliberate design of """"new towns"""" and the protection of green belts around cities.""",“Tikarsay iyyat taqqal edey n ““iɣirman eyaynen”” d addaman n timintikawen dalatnen edes n tiɣarmaten”
Federal subsidies for suburban development accelerated this process as did the practice of redlining by banks and other lending institutions.,Tidhilen tin Alxakum i efes n suburb tan issarmad awen chund awa ijja echwalan šajjaɣnen wi ijjanat bank tan d tagayen ajjotnen s amarwas nen akal
"Virginia Beach is now the largest city in all of Virginia, having long since exceeded the population of its neighboring primary city, Norfolk.","Virgina Beach taqqal amarad taghrimt ta maqqorat n Virgina fuk net, tillat ta šajret alwaq wa id okay ichaɣib net wi taɣrimt tan edes net, Norfolk"
"A greater percentage of whites (both non-Hispanic and, in some areas, Hispanic) and lesser percentage of citizens of other ethnic groups than in urban areas.",Iddikud maqqoran n išig-gaghan ( Hispanic tan hak id wi war imos Hispanic tan) d id iddikud andarran n kel akal n tawseten tiyyad ojjar wan idagan iyyad
"Compared to rural areas, suburbs usually have greater population density, higher standards of living, more complex road systems, more franchised stores and restaurants, and less farmland and wildlife.","Daɣ tigdaht nasan id idagan win assaxra, suburb tan ilan iddikud ajjen n išaghib ,iknan tanuflayt, sistem tan n abara tan ajjotnen, bitigi tan d restoran tan ijjraw nen turhagat d akal n tiwijjat d arizzej andarran"
"""However, of this metropolitan population, in 2001 nearly half lived in low-density neighborhoods, with only one in five living in a typical """"urban"""" neighborhood.""","“Hak id ijja awen, daɣ išaɣib wen aɣrim wa maqqoran, daɣ awatay wan 2001 a hin ohazan tazune nasan tizzaɣ daɣ ikallan war daɣ ijjit n ichaɣib s iyyan daɣ sammos izzaɣ daɣ a olahan id “akal n ““aɣrim””"
"Throughout Canada, there are comprehensive plans in place to curb sprawl.","Daɣ canada fuk net, illan ti addabara tan ajjotnen i afanaz n edey nasan"
"The majority of recent population growth in Canada's three largest metropolitan areas (Greater Toronto, Greater Montréal, and Greater Vancouver) has occurred in non-core municipalities.","Ijjit n išaɣib daɣ karadat tiɣarmaten n canada ti maqqornen (Greater Toronto, Greater Montreal d Greater Vancouver) ijja daɣ tigharmaten war n infa harat"
This is due to annexation and large geographic footprint within the city borders.,Awen war ti id erew ar attarmis d adiriš maqqoran n jografia daɣ alxadudan n aɣrim
"In the 2016 census, the City of Calgary had a population of 1,239,220, whereas the Calgary Metropolitan Area had a population of 1,392,609, indicating the vast majority of people in the Calgary CMA lived within the city limits.","Daɣ tuddant tan 2016, aghrim an Calgary ila iddikud n 1.239.220 n išaɣib as ijja awen aɣrim n Calgary wa maqqoran ila iddikud n 1.392.609 n ichaɣib issilmadan fal ijji n addinat n Calgary CMA izzagnen daɣ isilman n aɣrim"
"In the UK, the government is seeking to impose minimum densities on newly approved housing schemes in parts of South East England.","Daɣ UK, alxakum erha ad izilzim afanaz n ijjit n addinat daɣ addabara tan net eynaynen n ideyan n ihanan daɣ išrutan n tamasna daɣ alqiblat i England"
"Suburbs can be found in Guadalajara, Mexico City, Monterrey, and most major cities.","Suburb tan illan ti dagh Guadalajara, aghrim wan Mexico, Monterry d dagh tigharmaten ti maqqornen"
"""As the growth of middle-class and upper-class suburbs increased, low-class squatter areas have increased, most notably """"lost cities"""" in Mexico, campamentos in Chile, barriadas in Peru, villa miserias in Argentina, asentamientos in Guatemala and favelas of Brazil.""","“Alwaq wa id tiwadnat suburb tan dagh timizdagh tin tilaqqawen d kel assahat, ikarbanan win tilaqqawen awidan hullan “”lost cities”” dagh Mexico, campamentos dagh chili, barriadus dagh Peru, Villa miserias dagh Argentina, Asentamientos dagh Guatemala d favelas dagh Brazil”"
"In an illustrative case of South Africa, RDP housing has been built.","Awen ijja hullan dagh South Afrika , ihanan win RDP idayan"
"In certain areas such as Klang, Subang Jaya and Petaling Jaya, suburbs form the core of these places.","Dagh idagan iyyad hund Klang, Subang Jaya d Pelaing Jaya, Suburb tan aqqalan tinfa n idagan win"
"In the suburban system, most trips from one component to another component requires that cars enter a collector road, no matter how short or long the distance is.","Dagh sistem wan suburb tan, isikilan ajjotnen ghur iyyan s wa yadan azzilzaman i torfen ijjuch n abara tan s itawan ‘collecotr road’ war izlay maqqor megh madroy iddikud net"
"If a traffic crash occurs on a collector road, or if road construction inhibits the flow, then the entire road system may be rendered useless until the blockage is cleared.",A fal toda toruft fal ‘collector road’ megh a fal edey wan abara imnagh anmisis n torfen dihen sistem n abara tan fuk ad eghfil har aki marsal
This encourages car trips even for distances as low as several hundreds of yards or meters (which may have become up to several miles or kilometers due to the road network).,Awen omar s isikilan n torfen s idagan ewadnen timad ajjotnen n yard tan meɣ n iɣallan ( addobat nen ad awidan har kilometir tan ajjotnen meɣ kilometir tan fal awa ijja rezo wan abara).
"Taken together, these two groups of taxpayers represent a largely untapped source of potential revenue that cities may begin to target more aggressively, particularly if they're struggling.","A fal ammitkal daɣ edag iyyan, taqqimen tin sanatat n imazalan n baya tan aqqalan edag n asidu n albarakat s issintanat tiɣarmaten edes nasnat s assahat hullan alwaq wa id miɣannan"
"French songs like La Zone by Fréhel (1933), Aux quatre coins de la banlieue by Damia (1936), Ma banlieue by Reda Caire (1937), or Banlieue by Robert Lamoureux (1953), evoke the suburbs of Paris explicitly since the 1930s.","Isuhaɣ win kel France chund la zone wan Fréhel (1933), Aux quatre coins de la banlieue wan Damia ( 1936), Ma banlieue wan Reda Caire ( 1937) megh Banlieue wan Robert Lamoureux (1953) immijradan n Suburb tan tin Paris har awatay wan 1930."
"French cinema was although soon interested in urban changes in the suburbs, with such movies as Mon oncle by Jacques Tati (1958), L'Amour existe by Maurice Pialat (1961) or Two or Three Things I Know About Her by Jean-Luc Godard (1967).","Sinema wan France ijjach ichaɣil net isalan win amutti n suburb tan daɣ s film tan šund Mon oncle wan Jacques Tati ( 1958), l’Amour existe wan Maurice Pialat (1961) meɣ Two or Three Things I Know About Her wan Jean-Luch Godard ( 1967)"
"""The 1962 song """"Little Boxes"""" by Malvina Reynolds lampoons the development of suburbia and its perceived bourgeois and conformist values, while the 1982 song Subdivisions by the Canadian band Rush also discusses suburbia, as does Rockin' the Suburbs by Ben Folds.""",“Asahagh wan 1962 ““Little Boxes”” n Malvina Reynolds lampoon efes n suburbia d sarho tan net ghur bourgeois tanas ijja awen dagh awatay wan 1982 asahagh wan subdivizion tan ijja Band Bush wan Canada illaghat s Suburbia chund Rockin’ the suburbs wan Ben Folds”
Over the Hedge is a syndicated comic strip written and drawn by Michael Fry and T. Lewis.,S afalla fuk ille strip ijrazan wa iktab tolas s ijja Michael Fry d T. Lewis desin net
"British television series such as The Good Life, Butterflies and The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin have depicted suburbia as well-manicured but relentlessly boring, and its residents as either overly conforming or prone to going stir crazy.","Serie tan n Talavizion tan Britania chund The Good life, Butterflies dhe Fall d Rise wan Reginald Perrin idlajan Suburbia hullan mušam išildaš harkuk tolas imazzaɣan net ilkaman hullan meɣ jannin isibuddal tan"
"A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand.",Vilaj eqqal taqqimt n amazaɣ n addinat meɣ tawset tojjarat hullan harat n iɣaw natan muchan orak id taɣrimt ( kuddegh as war ti illa isim n teɣare n n harat n ighaw natan d taɣirmen) ilan išaɣib illan jir harat n timad meɣ efdan.
"This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts, and development of many trades.",Awen dagh ikfa turhajat s tighir dagh ezaraj in alxidmat iyyan d efes n mamala tan ajjotnen
The size of these villages varies considerably.,Timghare n vilaj tan win tizlay hullan
Desa are generally located in rural areas while kelurahan are generally urban subdivisions.,Desa harkuk izzaghan dagh idagan n assaxra as ijja awen Kelurrahan izzaghan dagh ighirman
"A desa or kelurahan is the subdivision of a kecamatan (subdistrict), in turn the subdivision of a kabupaten (district) or kota (city).","Desa megh Kelurahan aqqalan tizunawen n Kecamatan (subdistrict) , edag iyyan tizunawen n Kabupaten (district) megh Kota ( taghrimt)"
"In Malaysia, a kampung is determined as a locality with 10,000 or fewer people.","Dagh Malaysia , Kampung eqqal aqqal n 10.000 n awadim megh ad orakan"
"All Muslims in the Malay or Indonesian village want to be prayed for, and to receive Allah's blessings in the afterlife.",Inasliman fuk nasan n taɣrimt tan Malaysia meɣ Indonesia arhan amud i ad ikrišan tisuraf n Allah daɣ alzannat
Mainland Singapore used to have many kampung villages but modern developments and rapid urbanisation works have seen them bulldozed away; Kampong Lorong Buangkok is the last surviving village on the country's mainland.,"Akal wan Singapore kala ila tiɣarmaten ajjotnen mušam efes wa eynayan d armud n alxidmaten tin ijjuš n aɣrim, eway id sarsan teraze, Kampong Lorong Buangkok inta s vilaj wan uchray eqqiman fal akal wan addawlat"
Vietnam's village is the typical symbol of Asian agricultural production.,Vilaj wan Vietnam eqqal hullan tiset n ammad wan tiwijjas daɣ Asia
"In Slovenia, the word selo is used for very small villages (fewer than 100 people) and in dialects; the Slovene word vas is used all over Slovenia.","Daɣ Slovenia, isim wan Selo ijja i vilaj tan madroynen ( id oraknen i 100 n awadim) d daɣ awalan; isim vas dagh awal wan slovene inta a itawaɣrin daɣ Slovenia"
It could be relative to a Sanskrit like Afgan word deh and Indonesian word desa.,Addobat as ohar harat id Sanskrit chund isim n Afgan Deh d wan Indonesia desa
Approximately 46% of all migrated people have changed their residence from one city to another.,A hin ikkan 46% n addinat i imassukal win jir ikallan sammutayan tamazduq nasan ghur addawla iyyat s ta yadat
"The lowest administrative unit of the Russian Empire, a volost, or its Soviet or modern Russian successor, a selsoviet, was typically headquartered in a selo and embraced a few neighboring villages.","Harat wa andarran dagh Empire wan Russia, Volost megh amachray net wan Soviet Union megh wan Russia, selsoviet, iday dagh Selo tolas eqqal isasan vilaj tan hanen edes net"
"While peasants of central Russia lived in a village around the lord's manor, a Cossack family often lived on its own farm, called khutor.","Hak id ijja as kel tiijjas win Russia izzaghan dagh vilaj tan edes n lord manor, egadaš n Cossack alwaq iyyan izzaɣ daɣ tawajjos net s isim net Khutor"
"There is, however, another smaller type of settlement which is designated in Ukrainian as a selysche (селище).",Ilan išikil n tamazdu andarran s isim net daɣ awal wan Ukraine selysche (селище).
"They represent a type of a small rural locality that might have once been a khutir, a fisherman's settlement, or a dacha.","Aqqalan šund sokni n edag n assaxra andarran s kala eqqal Khutir , amazzaɣ n anafrad n imanan meɣ dacha"
"However, ambiguity is often avoided in connection with urbanized settlements by referring to them using the three-letter abbreviation smt instead.",Hak id ijja awen daɣ tewaɣne n eɣaf war taha timizdaɣ tin aɣrim tawaɣrinen s karad iɣasan artaynen smt.
They became really popular during the Stolypin reform in the early 20th century.,Aqqalan a ilan isim ɣur reform tan stolypin ghur išilan azzarnen n awatay wan 1900
Larger villages can also be referred to as a Flecken or Markt depending on the region.,Vilaj tan maqqornen addoben atiwaghir s isim wan Flecken megh Markt as izlay s rejion tan
"For example, in areas such as the Lincolnshire Wolds, the villages are often found along the spring line halfway down the hillsides, and originate as spring line settlements, with the original open field systems around the village.","Ilmital, daɣ idagan šund Lincolnshire Wolds, taɣrimt ta iddayan edes n iyaka n tăkaswart, ahninat as timizzaɣ edes n iyaka ilanen sistemt tan n alasal edes n taɣrimt"
"Some villages have disappeared (for example, deserted medieval villages), sometimes leaving behind a church or manor house and sometimes nothing but bumps in the fields.","Tiɣarmaten tiyyad imasnat in (ilmital, tiɣarmaten tin kel eru) , alwaqqan iyyad tayyin in egliz tan meɣ ehan maqqoran d alwaqqan iyyad awar n imos tiɣiš daɣ abara tan"
"Other villages have grown and merged and often form hubs within the general mass of suburbia—such as Hampstead, London and Didsbury in Manchester.","Tiɣarmaten tiyyad idnaynat tolas aqqalan idagan daɣ ammas n addinat n suburbia - šund Halpstead, Londre d Didsbury dagh Manchester"
"Seen as being far from the bustle of modern life, it is represented as quiet and harmonious, if a little inward-looking.","Ujjijan daɣ akayad tamudre tan amarad, eqqal a issosaman tolas inhajjan daɣ akayad n ammas net"
"These (such as Murton, County Durham) grew from hamlets when the sinking of a colliery in the early 20th century resulted in a rapid growth in their population and the colliery owners built new housing, shops, pubs and churches.","Win (šund Mrtin, County Durham) idwalan daɣ harat iɣawnatan alwaq wan anji n min tan timakaten daɣ iwityan azzarnen n 1900 eway id awen tiwwat daɣ armud n ichaɣib d massawisn n min ten idayan ehan, bitigi, pub d egliz tan eynaynen."
Maltby was constructed under the auspices of the Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company and included ample open spaces and provision for gardens.,"Mattby tiday ti Sheepbridge Coal and Iron Company , ahan ti idagan ajjotnen d win ifirjan"
"The typical village had a pub or inn, shops, and a blacksmith.","Taɣrimt tan tiditt ila Pub meɣ hotel tan , bitigi tan d enhad"
"However, some civil parishes have no functioning parish, town, or city council nor a functioning parish meeting.","Hak id ijja awen,ihanan n aɣabad iyyad war axdeman, aɣrim, aɣrim wan andarran war ilen ihanan n tiɣaymaten nasan axdamnen"
"In Scotland, the equivalent is also a community council, however, despite being statutory bodies they have no executive powers.","Daɣ Scotland, tigdah net eqqal komsay wan tawset,awa war n imos as aqqalan idagan wi ɣanninen addabara tan, war ilen assahaten tin addabara tan"
"The district of Danniyeh consists of thirty-six small villages, which includes Almrah, Kfirchlan, Kfirhbab, Hakel al Azimah, Siir, Bakhoun, Miryata, Assoun, Sfiiri, Kharnoub, Katteen, Kfirhabou, Zghartegrein, Ein Qibil.","Distrikt wan Danniyeh ila karadat timirwen n taɣrimt d sadisat eha Almrah, Kfirchlan, Hakel Al Azimah, Siir, Bakhoun, Miryata, Assoun, Sfiiri, Kham,oub, Kateen, Khirhabou, Zghartegrein, Ein Qibil"
"Dinniyeh has an excellent ecological environment filled with woodlands, orchards and groves.","Dinniyeh ila ahizazaɣ iknan milɣaw idnayan akal n ihiškan, Orchard tan d grove tan"
"Villages in the south of Syria (Hauran, Jabal al-Druze), the north-east (the Syrian island) and the Orontes River basin depend mostly on agriculture, mainly grain, vegetables, and fruits.","Taɣrimt daɣ tamasna i Syria ( Hauran, Jabal al-Druze) ,agala -i-alqiblat (Syrian Island) d tagacha tan ejarew wan Orontes tamudre nasan fuk tijja daɣ tixijjas, hullan attaɣam, aratan n akal, aratan n ihishkan"
"Mediterranean cities in Syria, such as Tartus and Latakia have similar types of villages.",Iɣirman n syria tin Mediterranée šund Tartus d Latakia olah nat iššikil n tiɣarmaten
"""Every urbanization is a """"pueblo"""" unless is elevated by decree to the next category.""",“Urbanizasyon fuk eqqal ““Pueble”” har hin inkiz s edag iyyan n afalla has “
"However, this is a generality; in many states, there are villages that are an order of magnitude larger than the smallest cities in the state.","Awen harat ilsan ikallan, dagh addawla tan ajjotnen, illan tiɣarmaten ojjarnen hullan iɣirman madroynen ahanen addawla"
"In some cases, the village may be coterminous with the town or township, in which case the two may have a consolidated government.","Daɣ idagan iyyad, taɣrimt tohar iyaka id aɣrim edag wen issin fuk addoben ad ahoran alxakum"
"Hempstead, the largest village, has 55,000 residents; making it more populous than some of the state's cities.",Hampstead taɣrimt a ojjaran fuk izzaghan daɣ is 55.000 n awadim; awen ijje a ilan addinat ojjarnen wi tiɣarmaten n addawlat tiyyad
"The village of Arlington Heights, Illinois had 75,101 residents as of the 2010 census.","Taɣrimt tan Arlington Heights, Illinois izzaghan daɣ is 75.101 n awadim awa id izjaran daɣ tuddant tan 2010"
Villages can incorporate land in multiple townships and even multiple counties.,Tiɣarmaten ti addobat nen adkul n akal dagh iɣarman ajjotnen hak id addawla tan ajjotnen
"The largest village is Menomonee Falls, which has over 32,000 residents.",Taɣrimt ta tojjarat isim net Menomonee Falls daɣ izzaghan 32.000 n awadim
"""In Maryland, a locality designated """"Village of ..."""" may be either an incorporated town or a special tax district.""","“Daɣ Maryland , akal s isim net ““teghrimt tan.... taqqal aɣrim assirtayan megh distrikt n timzal n baya”"
At that time Traditional rulers used to have absolute power in their administrative regions.,Azzaman wen imuzaran win attarex kala ilan tanaya timdat daɣ rejion tan nasan
Every Hausa village was reigned by Magaji (Village head) who was answerable to his Hakimi (mayor) at the town level.,Hak taɣrimt n Haoussa tan aminakal jas Maigaji (amuzar n taɣrimt) s inta daɣ amuzar net war eqqel ar Hakimi (mer) n aɣrim
"They have mud houses with thatched roofing though, like in most of the villages in the North, zinc roofing is becoming a common sight.","Ilan ihanan ideynen s akal ilsa alammuz šund awa ijjanat taɣrimen n tamasna , zinc roofing eqqal a oharan"
Others are lucky to have wells within a walking distance.,Iyyad irrizaɣ as ilan tersen daɣ edag tan ehozan
An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of maps of Earth or a region of Earth.,Atlas eqqal karti tan artaynen; eqqal šund akamus n karti tan n akal meɣ n rejion n akal
"This title provides Mercator's definition of the word as a description of the creation and form of the whole universe, not simply as a collection of maps.","Isim wen ehak almaɣna i awa s illaɣat Mercator as eqqal samal n axalak d iššikil n alɣalim fuk , wadden ghas karti tan artaynen"
A desk atlas is made similar to a reference book.,Biro n atlas olah id alkittab wan iɣanni net
"""In cartography, a contour line (often just called a """"contour"""") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea level.""","“Daɣ kartografi, iyaka eɣlayan (s alwaq iyyan isim net ““taɣelit” assirtay titbaqqa n tigdat (tizzijrit) s a ojjaran edag šund edag wan ejjarew”"
The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines.,Griyaj wa olaɣan harkuk ozɣaɣ i iyaka tan win taɣelit
"Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes.","Iyaka tan win taɣelit akrambayan , oɣad meɣ tartit n iyaka tan fuk fal karti tassuknat ammas n arori n tiditt ilan iyyan meɣ abyon tan ajjotnen ozɣaɣnen."
"In 1701, Edmond Halley used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.","Daɣ awatay wan 1701, Edmond Halley ijja iyaka tan šund win daɣ ( isogons) fal karti tilat magnetik variation"
"In 1791, a map of France by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section.","Daɣ awatay wan 1791, karti tan France ijja J. L. Dupain-Triel ijja iyaka tan jir ila 20 n metir, hachure tan,hachure,spot-height tan d edag ibdadan"
"Isobaths were not routinely used on nautical charts until those of Russia from 1834, and those of Britain from 1838.",Isobath tan intaned harkuk a ijjanen fal karti nautik tan har win Russia ɣur awatay wan 1834 d win Britania daɣ awatay wan 1838
"As late as 1944, John K. Wright still preferred isogram, but it never attained wide usage.","ɣur amindi awatay wan 1944, John K Wright assof isogram mušan kala war ewed alxidmat ajjen"
"Despite attempts to select a single standard, all of these alternatives have survived to the present.","Erem fuk wa ijja i nefran n harat iyyan azzuken , fella tan wi yadnen win fuk illa ti har amarad"
"Weather stations are seldom exactly positioned at a contour line (when they are, this indicates a measurement precisely equal to the value of the contour).","Stasyon tan akayad n azzamanan charnaš tajjin tenasse taɣadat ghur iyaka wan taɣelit ( alwaq wa ti ijjan , awen isakin iddikud n awa tinfa taɣelit)"
"In meteorology, the barometric pressures shown are reduced to sea level, not the surface pressures at the map locations.","Daɣ meteo, iddikudan win adu id izjarnen ifnazan har wan ejarew mušan wadden iddikudan win arori fal karti"
Isallobars are lines joining points of equal pressure change during a specific time interval.,Isallobar tan aqqalan iyaka tan osaghnen titbaqqa n amutti n iddikud daɣ jir alwaq
Isallobaric gradients are important components of the wind as they increase or decrease the geostrophic wind.,gradient tan win Isollobar tan aqqalan harata olaɣnen n adu fal as tiwwadan meɣ fannazan ašiwninki n adu
An isotherm at 0 °C is called the freezing level.,Isotherm ɣur 0 °C isim net edag wa sammedan
"From these contours, a sense of the general terrain can be determined.","Ghur tigheliyen tin ,ittur n general terrain addobat ad it w aghil"
"In cartography, the contour interval is the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines.","Daɣ kartografi, awa ilan jir taghelit imos tizzijrit ta tizlayat iyaka tan n taɣelit win sider"
Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff.,Issin megh tiɣeliyen ajjoten n iyaka olanat id adaɣ
"Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but there are exceptions.",Harkuk taqqan jir taɣelit tila alɣma fal karti mušan ille mušan
Whether crossing an equipotential line represents ascending or descending the potential is inferred from the labels on the charges.,Jir ɣas a okayan fal taɣelit tida id ogdanat megh a issewadan meɣ ifnazan eqqal anachach ɣur label tan wi fal šarj tan
Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.,Asirmad n acid precipitation tiwar fal karti tan s isoplat tan
Contour lines are also used to display non-geographic information in economics.,Taɣeliyen n iyaka sakninat har ajjudi isalan n a war n aqqel jografia daɣ ekonomi
Such isolines are useful for representing more than two dimensions (or quantities) on two-dimensional graphs.,šund tagheliyen n iso tin daɣ aqqal nat a olaɣan i asukni n a ojjaran tahiriken sanatat (meɣ tazzayen ) fal graph tan win issin.
"In interpreting radar images, an isodop is a line of equal Doppler velocity, and an isoecho is a line of equal radar reflectivity.","Dagh afaham n taliwen tin radar tan, isodrop taqqal taɣelit n Dppler velocity togdahat d isoecho eqqal taɣelit n radar reflectivity togdahat"
Line color is the choice of any number of pigments that suit the display.,Dumu n taghelit eqqal nefran n iddikud fuk n tisilmagh ti inhajjanen id asukni
"Line type refers to whether the basic contour line is solid, dashed, dotted or broken in some other pattern to create the desired effect.","Išikil iyaka imos as taghelit tan iyaka tassohat, titbaɣtabaɣ megh tarza daɣ desin iyyan i a tijru innugh wan otasan"
Numerical marking is the manner of denoting the arithmetical values of contour lines.,Ešwal wan iddikud eqqal immik s itiwajraw arithmetic value wan iyaka wan taɣelit.
"If the contour lines are not numerically labeled and adjacent lines have the same style (with the same weight, color and type), then the direction of the gradient cannot be determined from the contour lines alone.","A fal iyaka tan win taɣelit war eššelan tolas iyaka tan win sider olahan ichikil ( olahan tazzayt , dumu d ichikil) dihen asatoɣ wan gradient war addobat ad ej ɣur iyaka tan win taɣelit ɣas"
A properly labeled contour map helps the reader to quickly interpret the shape of the terrain.,Taɣelit n karti tijjat ešwal iknan taddobat ad tidhil emaghir net i ad ifhim daɣ armud tulat n terrain
Then the coordinates of other places are measured from the nearest control point through surveying.,Dihen coordonate tan win idagan i yadnen itkadan ɣur titbaqqet n awikkil ta tojjarat ehiz s tan akayad n iddikud
This phenomenon is called datum shift.,Immik šund wen isim net datum shilft
"More ambitious undertakings such as the Struve Geodetic Arc across Eastern Europe (1816-1855) and the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India (1802-1871) took much longer, but resulted in more accurate estimations of the shape of the Earth ellipsoid.",Alxidmaten ti iknanen uglay šund tann Struve Geodetic Arc daɣ alqiblat tan Eroba ɣur awatay wan (1816 har 1855) d Farak n Tigonometrical maqqoran n India ɣur awatay wan (1802 har 1871) ahoj mušam ewad ittus n mirda tan n dumu wan Ellipsoid wan akal
"An approximate definition of sea level is the datum WGS 84, an ellipsoid, whereas a more accurate definition is Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008), using at least 2,159 spherical harmonics.","Almaɣna hin ikkan iddikud wan ejarew inta s datum WGS 84, ellipsoid, as ijja awen almaɣna wa oɣadan hullan inta s Earth Gravitational Model 2008 ( EGM2008) isaxdaman 2.159.spherical harmonics"
"When used without qualification, the term latitude refers to geodetic latitude.",Alwaq wa ti exdam awadim wala musnat net isim wan latitude itawan i geodetic latitude
"The datum shift between two particular datums can vary from one place to another within one country or region, and can be anything from zero to hundreds of meters (or several kilometers for some remote islands).",Datum shift jir issin datum tan izlay s edag s iyyan daɣ addawla megh rejion iyyat addobat ad eqqil harat ghur bannan har timad n metir tan ( meɣ metir tan ajjotnen i island tan wi ajjujnen)
"For example, in Sydney there is a 200 metres (700 feet) difference between GPS coordinates configured in GDA (based on global standard WGS 84) and AGD (used for most local maps), which is an unacceptably large error for some applications, such as surveying or site location for scuba diving.","Ilmital, daɣ Sidney illan ti 200 n metir (700 n atkul) izlaynen jir isalan win GPS wa ehan GDA ( iknan fal standard WGS 84 wan alɣalim) d AGD ( exaddaman hullan i karti tan tin akal) harat eqqalan tajjarzazzal maqqorat i aplikasyon tan iyyad chund win eket n iddikud meɣ ajarw n edag s alamaɣ daɣ aman"
"Since reference datums can have different radii and different center points, a specific point on Earth can have substantially different coordinates depending on the datum used to make the measurement.","Alwaq wa id datum tan addoben ad ikrichan radii izlayan d titbaqqa n ammas izlaynen, titbaqqet fal akal taddobat akaraš n coordinate tan izlaynen fal datumm ijjan eket"
"The most common reference Datums in use in North America are NAD27, NAD83, and WGS 84.","Datum tan oharnen axdamnen daɣ tamasna n Amrik imosan NAD27, NAD83, dWGS 84"
"""This datum, designated as NAD 83 ...is based on the adjustment of 250,000 points including 600 satellite Doppler stations which constrain the system to a geocentric origin.""""""",“Datum wen itawan in i NAD 83...ijja fal aqqad n 250.000 n titbaqqet han 600 n satelit tin stasyon Doppler assibdadnen system ghur geocentric origin”””
"It is the reference frame used by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and is defined by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) (formerly the Defense Mapping Agency, then the National Imagery and Mapping Agency).",Awen eqqal ilan adiriš s Department of Defense wan Amrik (DoD) exdam siris tolas ikfe National Geospatial-intelligence Agency (NGA) almaɣna (a eruwan Defene Mapping Agency dihen National Imagery and Mapping Agency)
"It was used as the reference frame for broadcast GPS Ephemerides (orbits) beginning January 23, 1987.",Eqqal a fal ijja anifham i Broadcast GPS Ephemerides ( orbits) issintan ɣur ayor wan tindufan daɣ achal wan 23 n awatay wan 1987.
"It became the reference frame for broadcast orbits on June 28, 1994.",Eqqal a fal ijja anifham i Broadcast orbits ɣur ayor wan awzem wan karad n achal wan 28 n awatay 1994.
"WGS 84 (G873) was adopted as the reference frame for broadcast orbits on January 29, 1997.",WGS 84 (G873) eqqal a fal ijja anifham i broacast orbits daɣ ayor wan tindufan dag ašal wan 29 n awatay wan 1997
WGS 84 is the default standard datum for coordinates stored in recreational and commercial GPS units.,WGS 84 eqqal Default Standard datum i coordinate tan aghzannen daɣ GPS tan win dallol d mamala
"For example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the equator in Uganda, on the African Plate, and a point on the equator in Ecuador, on the South American Plate, increases by about 0.0014 arcseconds per year.","Ilmital, uzlay n tichijrit jir tatbaqqet ghur equator s Uganda daɣ Afrikiya d titbaqqet ɣur equator daɣ achrut n Amrik wan ajala iwwid s 0.0014arcseconds dagh awatay"
"Most mapping, such as within a single country, does not span plates.",Ijji n Karti tan ajjotnen šund daɣ ammas n addawla iyyat war ilsa plate tan
"Ptolemy credited him with the full adoption of longitude and latitude, rather than measuring latitude in terms of the length of the midsummer day.",Ptolemy iflas ti s atkul n tizzijrit hak id tahrike uhun eket n tahrike daɣ tizzijrit n ašrut n achal n awelan
Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes' recovery of Ptolemy's text a little before 1300; the text was translated into Latin at Florence by Jacobus Angelus around 1407.,Kartografi tan matematik tolas amasughal dagh Eroba ghur ajjaraw ijja Maximus Planudes i akatab wan Ptolemy ad orakan i 1300: akatab wen iffisar ti Jacobus Angelus dagh Latin dagh akal wan Florence ghur awatay wan 1407
"They then choose the most appropriate mapping of the spherical coordinate system onto that ellipsoid, called a terrestrial reference system or geodetic datum.",Dihen sannafranan ijji n karti wa ofan i sistem n coordiate tan fal ellipsoid s isim net Terrestrial Sistem meɣ Geodetuic datum
"φ, or phi) of a point on Earth's surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through (or close to) the center of the Earth.","φ, or phi) n titbaqqet fal arori n akal eqqal harat wa illan jir equatorial plane d taɣelit toghadat ta hi tikkat ɣur titbaqqet ten d tokay (meɣ tahoz in) s ammas n akal"
"All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often called great circles), which converge at the North and South Poles.",Meridia tan fuk ilan tizunawen n itarmisan maqqornen ( tawaghrinen s tijjililluwa maqqornen) ahalnen siha s pole tan win tamasna d win ajala
"The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E. This is not to be conflated with the International Date Line, which diverges from it in several places for political and convenience reasons, including between far eastern Russia and the far western Aleutian Islands.",Antipodal meridian wan greenwich eqqal 180°W and 180°E dagh edag iyyan. Awen war oher harat n taɣelit ta s itawan International Date Line ta id tifalat s idagan ajjotnen fal iddililan n folitik d n bannan eha jir alqiblat n Russia d Aleutian Islands win ataram
Coordinates on a map are usually in terms northing N and easting E offsets relative to a specified origin.,Coordinate tan fal karti harkuk iktaban isim tamasna wan N d E i alqiblat i asilmad n iɣinni
"In geography, latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north–south position of a point on the Earth's surface.","Daɣ jografia , tahrike taqqal coordinate n jografia tisalmadat s edag n tamasna-daɣ ajala n titbaqqet fal arori n akal"
Latitude is used together with longitude to specify the precise location of features on the surface of the Earth.,Tahrike inta id tizzijrit alwaq iyyan tajinat atiwaɣir iyyan i asilmad n edag s tiditt n samalan fal arori n akal
The second step is to approximate the geoid by a mathematically simpler reference surface.,Tikkelt tan sanatat inta s itur n ahiz wan Geoid s referens raqqisan n matematik
Lines of constant latitude and longitude together constitute a graticule on the reference surface.,Iyaka tan win tahrike d tišijrit aqqalan fuk nasan graticule fal arori n referens
"""Since there are many different reference ellipsoids, the precise latitude of a feature on the surface is not unique: this is stressed in the ISO standard which states that """"without the full specification of the coordinate reference system, coordinates (that is latitude and longitude) are ambiguous at best and meaningless at worst"""".""","“Alwaq ti illanat ellipsoid tan ajjotnen izlaynen , tahrike tan tiditt n samal fal arori war taqqel iyyat ghas. Awen itiwaɣal dagh ISO Standard allaghat nen as “a fal wadden s amasirsar imdan n system wan coordinate, coordinate tan ( taha tahrike d tišijrit) aqqanan eɣaf hullan tolas war ilen almaɣna””"
The plane through the centre of the Earth and perpendicular to the rotation axis intersects the surface at a great circle called the Equator.,Abyon wa ɣur ammas n akal eqqalan a ozɣaɣan i rotation axis azun arori ghur tajjililwayt ta maqqorat s itawan Equator
The time variation is discussed more fully in the article on axial tilt.,Amutti n alwaq ijja fal majrad ajjen dagh artikl fal axial tilt
"The situation is reversed at the June solstice, when the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer.",Talgha timutti ɣur awzem wa darat alwaq wa id tafukt taha edes n Tropic of Cancer
"Since latitude is defined with respect to an ellipsoid, the position of a given point is different on each ellipsoid: one cannot exactly specify the latitude and longitude of a geographical feature without specifying the ellipsoid used.","Alwaq wa id tahrike tila almaɣna daɣ semɣar n ellipsoid, edag n titbaqqet iyyan izlay fal ellipsoid fuk: war ti illa i addoben ad izli tahrike d tišijrit n samal n jorgafia daɣ war imel ellipsoid war s exdam"
Geographic latitude must be used with care.,Tahrike tan jografia t inhajja id axadam iijan esawey
The evaluation of the meridian distance integral is central to many studies in geodesy and map projection.,Aminšiš n ujjij wan meridian eqqal a ehan ammas n farak tan daɣ geodesy d asukni wan karti
There are two methods of proceeding.,Illanat sanatat tikarsiwen i anuttif net
"When converting from isometric or conformal to geodetic, two iterations of Newton-Raphson gives double precision accuracy.","Alwaq wa id tisammaskala Isometric meɣ conformal s geodetic, illan ti issin iteration tan n Newton-Raphson hakkinen isalan oɣadnen"
The differences shown on the plot are in arc minutes.,Tamezlayt ta fal terrain tiwar tišangay tan minit tan
The transformation between geodetic and Cartesian coordinates may be found in Geographic coordinate conversion.,Amutti n coordinate tan win geodetic Cartesian addoben ad tiwajriwan daɣ amakal n coordinate tan win jografia
In general the true vertical at a point on the surface does not exactly coincide with either the normal to the reference ellipsoid or the normal to the geoid.,Titbaqqet ta tiknat aqqad fal arori war tijiyit id alwaq wa id ellipsoid talgha net ta tolaghat meɣ geoid net wa olaghan
"Longitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body.",Tišijrit tan coordinate tan win jografia isladan alqiblat-dagh-ataram n titbaqet fal arori n akal megh fal arori n atri n išinnawan
"The prime meridian, which passes near the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, is defined as 0° longitude by convention.","Prime meridian wa itikiyan edes n Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, itawaghir s 0° dagh tišijrit s anifham"
"Local time (for example from the position of the sun) varies with longitude, a difference of 15° longitude corresponding to a one-hour difference in local time.","Alwaq wan akal ( ilmital ghur edag wan tafukt) izlay s tišijrit, ila tezazlit n 15° n tišijrit togdahat id alwaq iyyan izlayan n n akal"
"The principle is straightforward, but in practice finding a reliable method of determining longitude took centuries and required the effort of some of the greatest scientific minds.",Mabda i raqqisan mušan s tiditt ajjaraw n tikarse n taflist i almud n tišijrit ijja timad n iwityan tolas azilzam musnaten maqqornen n ešaraj wan science
His prime meridian passed through Alexandria.,Prime meridian itiki fal Alexandria
"He used a prime meridian through the Canary Islands, so that all longitude values would be positive.",Assaxdam prime meridian daɣ Canary Islands har id isalan win tišijrit ad alaɣan
"Hindu and Muslim astronomers continued to develop these ideas, adding many new locations and often improving on Ptolemy's data.","Falăki tan win Indu tan d inăslimăn har ăjjudi okăyăn daɣ efes n anniyăten tin, issewdan idăgăn eynaynen tolas alwăq iyyan simuttiyăn isălăn fal Ptolemy"
"In the later Middle Ages, interest in geography revived in the west, as travel increased, and Arab scholarship began to be known through contact with Spain and North Africa.","Daɣ ămindi n iwityan win aru, afor daɣ jogrăfia amităkwăy ɣur Ikufăr win atărăm šund ijjit n isikilăn d răsiya tan tin teɣare ilmădan fal assănăt addinăt ɣur aratay wa ijjăn id Spania d Afrikiya tan tămăsna"
"Christopher Columbus made two attempts to use lunar eclipses to discover his longitude, the first in Saona Island, on 14 September 1494 (second voyage), and the second in Jamaica on 29 February 1504 (fourth voyage).","Christopher Columbus erăm har issin ihăndagăn ad exdăm s tiseten tin akăyăd n atărmăs n tăfukt i ad is-sin tišijrit net, awa ezzăran daɣ Saona Island daɣ ayor wan sutămbăr n ašal wan 14 n awătăy wan 1494 ( asikil wan is-sin) d wan is-sin daɣ Jamaica daɣ ayor wan tindufăn n ašal wan 29 daɣ awătăy wan 1504. ( asikil wan akkoz)"
"Initially an observation device, developments over the next half century transformed it into an accurate measurement tool.","s tizărăt amutăj n akăyăd, ifesăn daɣ tăzune n temede n awătăy wan ilkămăt amutti s amutăj n eket olăɣăn"
"On land, the period from the development of telescopes and pendulum clocks until the mid 18th-Century saw a steady increase in the number of places whose longitude had been determined with reasonable accuracy, often with errors of less than a degree, and nearly always within 2-3°.","Fal akal, ɣur azzaman wan efes n telescope tan d muntar tan pendulum har tazune n awatay wan 1800 issewad iddikud n idagan wi s tišijrit nasan tiskat s aqqud n tiditt , alwaq iyyan ahan marsalan id oraknen i degre s harkuk illan jir 2 d 3 °"
"Making accurate observations in an ocean swell is much harder than on land, and pendulum clocks do not work well in these conditions.",Ijji n ikăyădan oɣădnen dagh ejjărew wan maqqorăn hullan ojjăr wan akal assăhat d muntar tan tin pendulum ar xăddim nat hullan daɣ tălɣiwen in
"It offered two levels of rewards, for solutions within 1° and 0.5°.",Ehak issin ihăndăgan n timzal i addăbăra tan daɣ 1° har 0.5°
"This work was supported and rewarded with thousands of pounds from the Board of Longitude, but he fought to receive money up to the top reward of £20,000, finally receiving an additional payment in 1773 after the intervention of parliament.","Alxdimăt ten idhăl tat tolas tila timzăl n timăd n azruf wan pounds ghur Board of Longitude mušăm eghil d ijru azruf ewădăn a ojjăran 20,000 n dollar, as išrăy ijjraw timzăl awidnen daɣ awătăy wan 1773 darat majrăd wan dibiti tan"
Lunar distances came into general use after 1790.,Ujjij wan ayor eqqal a fal tijja alxdimăt ɣur darăt n awătăy wan 1790
It was quickly realised that the telegraph could be used to transmit a time signal for longitude determination.,Ijran a hin addinăt daɣ armud as telegraph addobăt axădăm daɣ asissiki n sinyăl wan alwăq i musnat n tišijrit
"The Survey established chains of mapped locations through Central and South America, and the West Indies, and as far as Japan and China in the years 1874–90.",Farăk iday isassărăn n idagan wr nen kărti daɣ Amrik tan ammăs har tan agăla d West Indies har Japon d Chine daɣ iwityăn win 1874 har win 90
This changed when wireless telegraphy became available in the early 20th-Century.,Awen ammutăy alwăq wa id telegraghy ta war n ila iɣunăn taqqăl a ti illan dagh iwityăn azzarnen n awatăy wan 2000
Radio navigation systems came into general use after World War II.,Sistem tan win amătikwi n Radio issintăn alxidmăt darat akkinăs wan issin n alɣălim
"With the exception of magnetic declination, all proved practicable methods.","A war n imos magnetic declination, awa yadăn fuk eqqal išujjišăn iknănen"
Longitude at a point may be determined by calculating the time difference between that at its location and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).,Tašijrit ɣur titbăqet addobaăt awădim alamăd net ɣur t issedăna azli n alwăq jir edăg wa eha d Cordinated Universal Time (UTC)
"The word near is used because the point might not be at the centre of the time zone; also the time zones are defined politically, so their centres and boundaries often do not lie on meridians at multiples of 15°.","Isim wan edes atiwăna fal as tatbăqet war n eha ammăs n alwăq wan edag: săddeq alwăq wan ihăndagăn almăɣna net folitik a ti tijjaăt, daɣ awen ammăssăn nasan d alxădudăn nasăn alwaq iyyan fal oherăn harat id meridan tan s inătfisăn n 15°"
"The international standard convention (ISO 6709)—that East is positive—is consistent with a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, with the North Pole up.",International Standard Convention (ISO6709)- n as alqiblăt toɣad - ila ujrah s aqqud n Cartesian Coordinate System id North Pole
They have since shifted to the standard approach.,S ammutăyan ɣur alwaq wen daɣ s ašujjš wa ijlăn
"The geoid is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth, including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent.",Geoid eqqăl dumu wa dar ola arori n ejarew i assăhăt tan ajjălilliwi wan amădal eha awa id erămmăs ajjălilliwi d aɣalilway n amădal fal war ti illen at assăhaten tiyyad šund adud tan d tinăzzamăren
It can be known only through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations.,Iket tan hin inkašnen win aɣălilway n amadal d iddikudăn nasan a addobăt nen fal asilmăd net
"Although the physical Earth has excursions of +8,848 m (Mount Everest) and −10,984 (Marianas Trench), the geoid's deviation from an ellipsoid ranges from +85 m (Iceland) to −106 m (southern India), less than 200 m total.","Kuddeɣ as amădăl s taɣissa net a han ti ifruɣăn n +8,848 m (Adaɣ wan Everest) d -10,984 (Marianas Trench), afruɣ wan geoid ɣur itărtăran win ellipsoid ɣur +85m (Iceland) har -106m (India tan tamasna), a orăkan fuk i 200m"
"If the continental land masses were crisscrossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in those canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid.","A fal tikunen n idăɣan win amădal eɣlăyan tan id tijursăyen n iɣešan, iddikud n ejjărew wa maqqorăn daɣ iɣešăn win inta deɣ a izli har hin ehaz geoid"
"That means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulations of the geoid; the local vertical (plumb line) is always perpendicular to the geoid and the local horizon tangential to it.","Awen almăɣna net a fal issekel awădim daɣ Bato, war hin za egra a hin awădim imitikwiyan n geoid; teɣate net (iyaka wan ammas) hrkuk ozɣaɣ i geoid d edag wa id immuqăs diris"
"That is because GPS satellites, orbiting about the center of gravity of the Earth, can measure heights only relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid.","Awen fal as satelit tn win GPS tan, aqqalnen šund ebănɣ n ammas wan aɣălilwăy n amadal, adobăt eket n iddikud n izuk net daɣ as orak sa s ammăs n ellipsoid"
"Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented in their software by which they obtain, from the current position, the height of the geoid (e.g. the EGM-96 geoid) over the World Geodetic System (WGS) ellipsoid.",GPS receivers win amarăd ilan griyaj ehan software tan s karrăšan ɣur edag wan ahan iddikud n izuk n geoid (almital EGM-96 Geoid) fal World Geodetic System (GWS) ellipsoid
"If that sphere were then covered in water, the water would not be the same height everywhere.","A fal akal islăn ti aman , aman war he ikkrišăn iddikud n izuk olahăn daɣ edag fuk"
This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level.,Awen daɣ as GPS Receiver tan ajjotnen win ifassăn ilan tabel n amătikwi tisalmadat iddikud n izuk n ejjărew
"The first products based on GOCE satellite data became available online in June 2010, through the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Earth observation user services tools.",Isuj wi azzărnen ijjanen fal Satelit GOCE iwarăn iternet daɣ ayor wan awzem wan darăt n awatay wan 2010 s European Space Agency (ESA) isuj win timăšɣulen tin akayăd n amadăl
"The geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute.",Geoid eqqal arori n iman net ogdahăn tolas s edag iyyan eha medănan
"A globe is a spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere.",Globe eqqal išikil n amadăl ilan taɣissa n išinnăwan meɣ n akal
A model globe of the celestial sphere is called a celestial globe.,Iššikil n globe wan akal eqqal globe wan išinnăwan
It might show nations and major cities and the network of latitude and longitude lines.,Addobat asukni n addawla tan d iɣirman măqqornen d rezo wan tăhrike d iyaka tan tin tiššijrit
"Typically, it will also divide the celestial sphere into constellations.",Ad uzan akal wan išinnăwan s edag n etran
"The first known mention of a globe is from Strabo, describing the Globe of Crates from about 150 BC.",Isim n globe wa ezzăran Strabo imălan samălan n globe wan Crates ɣur awătay wan 150 data annabi ɣisa
"Many globes are made with a circumference of one metre, so they are models of the Earth at a scale of 1:40 million.",Globe tan ajjotnen iknan s tajjililwayt n aɣil iyyan daɣ awen aqqălan iššikilăn n amadal fal 1:40 n milyon daɣ afiltăɣ
"Most modern globes are also imprinted with parallels and meridians, so that one can tell the approximate coordinates of a specific location.",Ijjit n Globe tan wi daɣ išraynen izjaran Parallel tan d meridian tan har addobăt ad ellaɣăt awădim coordinate tan n edag a eqqal
Early terrestrial globes depicting the entirety of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic world.,Globe n akal wi azzărnen dallăj nen tumast n alɣălim wa eru wan idayăn daɣ alɣălim wan inaslimăn
"Behaim was a German mapmaker, navigator, and merchant.","Behaim eqqal aw kărti tan n Germany, amassăkul fal aman d almusăbbib"
"Before constructing the globe, Behaim had traveled extensively.","Darat edey wan Globe, Behaim assekal hullan"
"Another early globe, the Hunt–Lenox Globe, ca.","Globe iyyan n tizarat , Hunt-Lenox, ca"
It may be the oldest globe to show the New World.,Addobat as eqqal globe wa ezzăran isiknan alɣălim wa eynăyan
A facsimile globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507.,Globe it iw asăgbar an isaknin Amrik ikne Martin Waldseemueller ɣur awatay wan 1507
"Globus IMP, electro-mechanical devices including five-inch globes have been used in Soviet and Russian spacecraft from 1961 to 2002 as navigation instruments.","Globus IMP, isuj n elektro-mekanik ahan sammosăt tikwitta n alɣulăm tan exdam nat daɣ Soviet d Spacecraft wan Russia ɣur awătay wan 1961 2002 as aqqălan imutaj n asikil fal amăn"
This method of globe making was illustrated in 1802 in an engraving in The English Encyclopedia by George Kearsley .,Aɣinni wen n globe ikna uktăb ti George Kearsley daɣ Encyclopedia tan Tăngilist ɣur awătay wan 1802
This is placed in a machine which molds the disk into a hemispherical shape.,Awen insa daɣ măršin ta ɣannit disk daɣ išikil wan akal
These globes were “enormous” and very costly.,Globe tan win iknan “tamɣare” d assahat hullan
The latter has a Soviet bullet hole through Germany.,Wan ušray ila alkurra timbăjat har Germany
"A great circle, also known as an orthodrome, of a sphere is the intersection of the sphere and a plane that passes through the center point of the sphere.","Tajililwăyt maqqorat s isim net Orthodrome , tilat arori eqqălan wan tămuqqest n arori d abyon tikinen daɣ ammas n titbăqet tan arori"
"This special case of a circle of a sphere is in opposition to a small circle, that is, the intersection of the sphere and a plane that does not pass through the center.",Alxălat ten n iman net n tajililwăyt tan arori taqqal a imlăllăyan fal tajililwăyt andarrat awen edag n tămuqqest n arori d abyon war n tiki daɣ ammas
"The exception is a pair of antipodal points, for which there are infinitely many great circles.",Iban tilat timos titbăqqa s ti illanăt tijililwăyen ajjotnen măqqornen
The length of the minor arc of a great circle is taken as the distance between two points on a surface of a sphere in Riemannian geometry where such great circles are called Riemannian circles.,Tiššijrit n tišangăy andarrat n tajililwăyt maqqorat tăqqal ujjij wa jir sanătat titbăqqa fal arori n akal daɣ tagămšak tan Riemannian s tijililwăyen tin măqqornen ismawan nasnat tijililwăyen tin Riemannian
Another great circle is the one that divides the land and water hemispheres.,Tajililwăyt iyyat maqqorăt taqqal ta tazunăt hemisphere tan wan akal d aman
"In cartography, a map projection is a way to flatten a globe's surface into a plane in order to make a map.","Daɣ kartogrăfi, akayad n karti eqqal ebarid i asăssigdi n arori wan globe daɣ i ijji n karti"
"Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-like body at the expense of other properties.","Daɣ ittus n karti, ifruɣan iyyad ilan atwăɣbil iyyad kala; adiš , isukni tan izlaynen n karti illan ti ag-az n tilaten šund tin akăl daɣ ti yădnen"
"Projections are a subject of several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry, projective geometry, and manifolds.","Isukni tan eqqălan šund tiwigăst n matematik ɣas fla ijja aduwinni eha tagămšaɣt n uzlay, tagamšaɣt n akayăd d tigursăyen"
"Rather, any mathematical function that transforms coordinates from the curved surface distinctly and smoothly to the plane is a projection.",Titbăqqet n matemătik fuk ta tisimuttiyăt coordinate tan fal arori ifrăɣan war n ola d sollăn s abyon eqqal asukni
"The Earth and other large celestial bodies are generally better modeled as oblate spheroids, whereas small objects such as asteroids often have irregular shapes.",Amadăl d tiɣiswen n išinnăwan măqqornen iknănat uɣna šund Oblate Spheroid tan as ijja awen harătan fuk wi mădroynen šund asteroid tan ilan alwăqqan iyyan erk iššikil
"Because the curved Earth's surface is not isometric to a plane, preservation of shapes inevitably leads to a variable scale and, consequently, non-proportional presentation of areas.","Fal as arori n amdal ikrambay war eqqel a ogdahan id abyon , aɣalas n iššikilan itiwi s esăssar izlăyan d aɣălas war n ogdah i idăgan"
The purpose of the map determines which projection should form the base for the map.,aIttus n karti isalmăd iššikil n akăăyad as inhajja ad eqqil tănittawt i karti
Data sets are geographic information; their collection depends on the chosen datum (model) of the Earth.,Isug n Data aqqălan isalan n jografia ; asidu nasan ilkăm i datum n amădal wa innufrănan
"Like Tissot's indicatrix, the Goldberg-Gott indicatrix is based on infinitesimals, and depicts flexion and skewness (bending and lopsidedness) distortions.","šund Tissot’s Indicatrix, Goldberg-Gott Indicatrix ijja fal infinitesimals d adaloj n akrămbi d iban tigdăht n tuzant ( akrămbi d anamijar ) ikrămbiyan"
Sometimes spherical triangles are used.,Alwăqqan iyyad tegămšaken ijjanen iššikil n akal a axdămnen
Another way to visualize local distortion is through grayscale or color gradations whose shade represents the magnitude of the angular deformation or areal inflation.,Immik iyyan i akăyad akrămbi war i tij ar s grayscale megh isuftăn n dumu tan s telay nasan taha edan n tahrike n amkrămbi n tasăjja meɣ tiw-at s tiditt
"Because the Earth's actual shape is irregular, information is lost in this step.","Fal as dumu wan amădal war izzukăt , isalan tisugilăn daɣ tikkelt en daɣ"
"To compare, one cannot flatten an orange peel without tearing and warping it.)",War addobat awădim asigdăh n harat wir daɣ ikyed dihen isammăsulɣilt)
Tangent means the surface touches but does not slice through the globe; secant means the surface does slice through the globe.,Tangent t imos arori wa ewad edes mušam war it uzan globe ; secant imos arori war it uzan globe
"If these lines are a parallel of latitude, as in conical projections, it is called a standard parallel.","A fal iyaka tan win aqqălan animallal nat daɣ tăhrike šund conical projections, isim net anmillal war n akrămbay"
This applies for any cylindrical or pseudocylindrical projection in normal aspect.,Awen ijja i akayăd n silindir meɣ pseudocylindrical daɣ ašrut
Scale is constant along all straight lines radiating from a particular geographic location.,Asuj eqqal a ilan iyak tan war n timutti daɣ edag n jografia
"Whether spherical or ellipsoidal, the principles discussed hold without loss of generality.","Jir ɣas n akal wala n ellipsoid, išširitan fal ijja majrad daɣ as war tassujal awa idutten"
The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.,Iššikil n ellipsoid exdăm harkuk daɣ edey n kărti tan n dumu tan d samălan n karti tan d karti tan maqqornen d n ammas arhănen adaloj n arori n akal
"Compared to the best fitting ellipsoid, a geoidal model would change the characterization of important properties such as distance, conformality and equivalence.","Daɣ asigdah net id ellipsoid wa ilan ijuš wa ofan,iššikil n geoid itimutti daɣ samalan n tilaten šund ujij ,aqqad d tilat"
"For irregular planetary bodies such as asteroids, however, sometimes models analogous to the geoid are used to project maps from.","Tiɣiswen fal akal war n azzukkăt šund asteroid tan, hak id ijja awen, alwaqqan iyyad iššikilăn olahnen id geoid tawăxdăman i asukni n karti tan"
"The projections are described in terms of placing a gigantic surface in contact with the Earth, followed by an implied scaling operation.",Isukni tan iffisăran daɣ asidis n arori maqqorăn al amădal s tilkăm tamăšɣult n asuj
"""Where the light source emanates along the line described in this last constraint is what yields the differences between the various """"natural"""" cylindrical projections.""",“Edag wa id ifal efew daɣ edes n iyaka iktăban daɣ tsibdăt tan darat awa id it iruwăn uzlayan jir isukni tan ijjan igimšătnen”
"This cylinder is wrapped around the Earth, projected onto, and then unrolled.","Silindir wen ilsa amădal , it aw akayad fal at dihen ammera"
"""North-south distances neither stretched nor compressed (1): equirectangular projection or """"plate carrée"""".""",“ujijan win tamasna-daɣ-agala kala war annărkabăn wala isesan (1) akayad ogdăhan meɣ ““plate carée””
"Since this projection scales north-south distances by the reciprocal of east-west stretching, it preserves area at the expense of shapes.","A ijjan isuj win akăyad wen ujijan win tamăsna-daɣ-agala n anirkăb wan alqiblăt-daɣ-ataram , eɣallas edag daɣ iššikilăn"
"Other meridians are longer than the central meridian and bow outward, away from the central meridian.",Meridian tan iyyad ojjarăn meridian wan ammas tolas iššijăn s ajjăma daɣ ujij n merdiain wan ammăs
"Therefore, meridians are equally spaced along a given parallel.",Adiš merdian tan ogdăhan idăgan daɣ anmillăl ijjan
"The resulting conic map has low distortion in scale, shape, and area near those standard parallels.","Karti konic ta id tizjărat ehet afruɣ andărran daɣ asuj,iššikil d edag ehan edes n anmillălan win"
Can be constructed from a point of perspective an infinite distance from the tangent point; r(d) = c sin .,"Addobat edey daɣ akayăd ujjijăn andăran daɣ titbăqqet tan tiššijrit, r (d)= c sin"
"Near-sided perspective projection, which simulates the view from space at a finite distance and therefore shows less than a full hemisphere, such as used in The Blue Marble 2012).",Akayad n tasăja edes iskbăran akayăd daɣ išinnăwan s edag ujijăn daɣ awen issikna a id orakan i hemisphere imdan šund wa ijjăn daɣ Blue Marble 2012)
The special point or points may get stretched into a line or curve segment when projected.,Titbăqqet n iman net meɣ titbăqqa addobat nat anărkib s iyaka meɣ asuj ikrămbăyan alwaq wa id itiwăsăkin
Azimuthal equidistant: Distances from the center and edge are preserved.,Tigdaht n Azimuth: ujijăn ɣur ammăs d isik aɣlăsan
"Thus, many projections exist to serve the many uses of maps and their vast range of scales.",Daɣ awen isukni tan ajjotnen illăn ti i ad idhilăn daɣ timăšɣulen ajjoten n karti tan d esassar harikan n isuj tan
Reference maps of the world often appear on compromise projections.,Karti tan ti fal ijla alɣălim alwăqqăn iyyăd zajjăr nat id fal isukni tan mixălxălnen
The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569.,Asukni wan Mercator eqqal asukin n kărti olahăn id silindir issikyăd Flemish wan aw jografia d aw karti tan Gerardus Mercator daɣ awătay wan 1569.
"As a side effect, the Mercator projection inflates the size of objects away from the equator.","šund awa ikma, asukni wan Mercator issewad iijit n harătan daɣ ujjij n equator"
"However, given the geometry of a sundial, these maps may well have been based on the similar central cylindrical projection, a limiting case of the gnomonic projection, which is the basis for a sundial.","Hak id ijja awen, akayăd n tagămšakt tan sundial, karti tan tin addobăt as iday nat fal asukni n ijan immik n silindir olahan, tazăzzkut n asukni wan gnomonic eqqălan tăsedit tan sudial"
"However, this was a simple, and common, case of misidentification.","Hak ijja awen, awen eqqal erk ajămol raqqisăn tolas assirtăyan"
"""Mercator titled the map : """"A new and augmented description of Earth corrected for the use of sailors"""".""",“” Mercator ijja karti “” afissar eynayan tolas iwidăn n amădal iknăn i alxidmăt tan imassukăl win aman”””
"Various hypotheses have been tendered over the years, but in any case Mercator's friendship with Pedro Nunes and his access to the loxodromic tables Nunes created likely aided his efforts.",Mirda tan ajjotnen ijjan daɣ iwityan mušăm tămmiduwa tan Mercator id Pedro Nunes d turhăjjat ta ijjraw s tabel tan loxodromic id eɣna Nunes idahălan ti daɣ tamăšɣulen net
"However, the mathematics involved were developed but never published by mathematician Thomas Harriot starting around 1589.","Hak id ijja awen, matematiks ti ahănen efes nasnăt ijja mušăm kala war ti izizjar matematisyen Thomas Harriot issintăn edes n awătay wan 1589"
"Two main problems prevented its immediate application: the impossibility of determining the longitude at sea with adequate accuracy and the fact that magnetic directions, instead of geographical directions, were used in navigation.",Issin muškila tan igdalan assăxdim net daɣ armud: Iban tudăbat n musnat n tašijrit daɣ eɣašar s iqqud d awa fal tisdăg magnetic a axdămnen daɣ asikil fal amăn uhun tisdăg tin jografia
"However, it did not begin to dominate world maps until the 19th century, when the problem of position determination had been largely solved.","Hak id ijja awen, war issinta tărna n karti tan tin alɣălim har awătay wan 1900 alwaq wa id mušăkil wan musnat n edag ammuknăn hullăn"
"Due to these pressures, publishers gradually reduced their use of the projection over the course of the 20th century.","Fal tilzamăten tin daɣ, Publisher tan ifnăzan hullan axădăm n asukni daɣ awătay wan 2000"
"In accomplishing this, the unavoidable east–west stretching of the map, which increases as distance away from the equator increases, is accompanied in the Mercator projection by a corresponding north–south stretching, so that at every point location the east–west scale is the same as the north–south scale, making it a conformal map projection.","Daɣ ijji n awen, anărkab n alqiblăt daɣ atarăm ehušălan n karti issewădan ujjij fal equator , iddew daɣ asukni wan Mercator id anărkab wa dir ogdăh n tamăsna daɣ agala har edag fuk n titbaqet ,aɣan wan alqiblăt daɣ ataram ogdăh id wan tamăsna daɣ emăynăg, ti ijjan asukni n karti olahăn"
"At latitudes greater than 70° north or south the Mercator projection is practically unusable, because the linear scale becomes infinitely large at the poles.",Daɣ tahrike tojjarăt 70° tamasna meɣ emăynăg asukni wan Mercator war exdem fal as aɣan wa imnănădan maqqor hullan ɣur pole tan
"Ellesmere Island on the north of Canada's Arctic archipelago looks about the same size as Australia, although Australia is over 39 times as large.",Ellesmere Island fal tamăsna n Artic archipelago wan Canada ogdăh id wan Australia kuddeɣ as Australia tijja 39 n anitfăs fal canada
Greenland's real area is comparable to the Democratic Republic of the Congo's alone.,Eda n Greenland wan s tiditt ogdăh id jamahiriya tan Congo demokratik
"Alaska appears to be the same size as Australia, although Australia is actually 4½ times as large.",Alaska inta deɣ togdăh id Australia kuddeɣ as tat tojjăr Australia timɣare s 4½
Sweden appears much larger than Madagascar.,Swede inta deɣ tojjar Madagascar timaɣre
"""A World Map on a Regular Icosahedron by Gnomonic Projection.""""""",“Karti n alɣalim fal Icosahedron s asukni n Gnomonic””
"As a result of these criticisms, modern atlases no longer use the Mercator projection for world maps or for areas distant from the equator, preferring other cylindrical projections, or forms of equal-area projection.","Awa id erawan majrădăn win, atlăs tan wi ušray ibas axdămăn s Mercator projection i kărtit tan tin alɣalim meɣ idăgan ujijnen equator, issofănen isukni tan iyyad n silindir meɣ išikilăn n asukni n edag ogdăhan"
"Arno Peters stirred controversy beginning in 1972 when he proposed what is now usually called the Gall–Peters projection to remedy the problems of the Mercator, claiming it to be his own original work without referencing prior work by cartographers such as Gall's work from 1855.",Arno Peters eraw majrăd issintăn daɣ awătăy wan 1972 alwăq wa id ikfa addăbara n awa eqqălan ašal id Gall-Peters Projection i asăfăr n mušăkil tan tin Mercator s isilmăd as eqqal alxidmăt net tan alăsal daɣ as war issewăl daɣ alxidmăt ta ijjan aw karti tan šund alxidmăt tan Gall daɣ awătay wan 1855
"The range for a amongst the possible choices is about 35 km, but for small scale (large region) applications this variation may be ignored, and mean values of 6,371 km and 40,030 km may be taken for the radius and circumference respectively.",Etartar daɣ wi ilănen nefran hullăn eha 35 n kilometir mušăm i aɣan andărrăn (rejion maqqorat) n aplikăsyon tan amutti wen addobăt a hin ettăwad in tolas ewăd tichiten n 6371 n kilometir d 40.030 n kilometir addobat ad immukăs daɣ radius d taɣălalwăyt n iyyan fuk
A cylindrical map projection is specified by formulae linking the geographic coordinates of latitude φ and longitude λ to Cartesian coordinates on the map with origin on the equator and x-axis along the equator.,Asukni n karti ijjăn s silindir tibde formulae ta tosăɣăt coordinate tan n jografia win tahrike φ d tišijrit  λ s coordinate tan win Cartesian fal kărti s iwar uɣna net equator d alwaq daɣ oran fal equator
"Since the cylinder is tangential to the globe at the equator, the scale factor between globe and cylinder is unity on the equator but nowhere else.","Išmad silindir idas globe daɣ equator, aɣan wa jir globe d silindir eqqal tartit fal equator mušam war ti illa edag iyyan"
The difference (λ − λ0) is in radians.,Uzlay wa jir λ har λ0 eha radian tan
"Even more extreme truncations have been used: a Finnish school atlas was truncated at approximately 76°N and 56°S, an aspect ratio of 1.97.","Kud daɣ as inăfazăn ajjotnen ijjăn: atlas n lakkol wan Finland ifnăz har hin uhaz 76°N d 56° S, samal n 1.97 daɣ iddikud"
"Narrower strips are better: sec 8° = 1.01, so a strip of width 16° (centred on the equator) is accurate to within 1% or 1 part in 100.","Băndar tan iknănen uhiz iknan tufit : sec 8°= 1.01, daɣ awen băndar harikăn 16° (eha ammas n equator) oɣad har 1% meɣ ašrut 1 daɣ 100."
The value of e2 is about 0.006 for all reference ellipsoids.),Tišit n e2 timos 0.006 i ellipsoid tan fuk
"For the above model 1 cm corresponds to 1,500 km at a latitude of 60°.","I išikil wan afălla 1 cm ogdah id 1,500 n kilometir daɣ tahrike n 60°"
This chord subtends an angle at the centre equal to 2arcsin(cos φ sin ) and the great circle distance between A and B is 2a arcsin(cos φ sin ).),Anminnăk wen eqqal tangălt n as tasaja tahat ammăs togdăh id 2 arcsin (cos φ sin ) tolas tajililwăyt ta maqqorat jir A d B taqqal 2a arcsin cos φ sin )
"For other bodies a fixed surface feature is usually referenced, which for Mars is the meridian passing through the crater Airy-0.","I tiɣiswen tiyyad, samăl n arori azzukken hărkuk ila ašămol net s Mars taqqal merdian itikiyăn fal crater Airy-0"
"By convention for the Earth, Moon, and Sun it is expressed in degrees ranging from −180° to +180° For other bodies a range of 0° to 360° is used.","Daɣ anifhăm wa ijjan fal amădal, ayor d tăfukt, ijja s degre tan illănen jir -180° har +180 i tiɣiswen tiyyad etărtăr n 0° har 360° a ijlan"
The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.,Aɣan n kărti eqqal iddikud n ujij fal karti har ujij wa dar ogdăh fal akal
The first way is the ratio of the size of the generating globe to the size of the Earth.,Abăra wa eqqal iddikud n izuk n globe eɣnăn har izuk wan amădal
Many maps state the nominal scale and may even display a bar scale (sometimes merely called a 'scale') to represent it.,Karti tan ajjotnen assilmăd nat isim n aɣan tolas addobăt asukni n griyăj n aɣan (alwăqqan iyyad isim wa răqqisan “aɣan”) i ad ijjiš edăg net
In this case 'scale' means the scale factor (= point scale = particular scale).,Daɣ awen “aɣăn” imos scale factor (titbaqqet n aɣan= aɣan n imăn net)
The map projection becomes critical in understanding how scale varies throughout the map.,Asukni wan karti eqqăl a fal ijja majrăd daɣ afăhăm n immik wa s itimutti aɣan fal kărti
This is a survey of virtually all known projections from antiquity to 1993.,Awen farăk n isukni tan fuk issănăn addinăt daɣ iwityăn win aru har awătay wan 1993
Small scale refers to world maps or maps of large regions such as continents or large nations.,Aɣan andărrăn itiwăn i karti tan n alɣălim meɣ karti tan n rejion tan maqqornen šund imidlăn meɣ addăwla tan măqqornen
"Large-scale maps show smaller areas in more detail, such as county maps or town plans might.",Karti tan ti măqqornen sakninat idăgan mădroynen daɣ isălan dărosnen hullan šund addaăbăra n karti tan tin county meɣ tin ăɣrim
"""However, as explained above, cartographers use the term """"large scale"""" to refer to less extensive maps – those that show a smaller area.""","“Hak id ijja awen daɣ afissăr wa ijjan s afălla, aw kărti tan janin isim wan “”aɣan măqqoran”” i karti tan ammerănen - ti săkninen edag iknan tammădrit”"
This is commonly illustrated by the impossibility of smoothing an orange peel onto a flat surface without tearing and deforming it.,Awen assilmăd ti iban tudăbăt n ašingif n elam n orange daɣ arori n eɣărɣăr daɣ war s aqqărrăw ed d asămmuti net
Conversely isotropic scale factors across the map imply a conformal projection.,Marsălăn n aɣan wan isotropic fal karti ehay conformal projection
The qualification 'small' means that at some given accuracy of measurement no change can be detected in the scale factor over the element.,Aɣ aras n isim wan “andarran” imos awen as daɣ iqqudăn iyyad n eket war ti illa amutti addoben ad izjir daɣ aɣan n marsăl fal titbăqet
We say that these coordinates define the projection map which must be distinguished logically from the actual printed (or viewed) maps.,N ăllăɣat as coordinate tan allăɣen s karti n asukni ta s inhăjja almud net daɣ karti tan tin amărad iwărnen ilkădan
Since the point scale varies with position and direction the projection of the circle on the projection will be distorted.,Alwaq wa s aɣan wan titbăqqa itimutti s edg d tasidikt n taɣălilwăyt fal asukni ad ikrămbăy
Superimposing these distortion ellipses on the map projection conveys the way in which the point scale is changing over the map.,Amisiwăr n ikrămbiyăn win ellipse tan win fal asukni wan kărti eway abăra wa daɣ aɣan n titbăqqet itimutti fal karti
The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is .,Iddikud n axis wa măqqoran s axis wa andărrăn eqqal
The scale is true (k=1) on the equator so that multiplying its length on a printed map by the inverse of the RF (or principal scale) gives the actual circumference of the Earth.,Aɣan eqqal tiditt (k=1) fal equator har anătfăs n tišijrit net fal karti t iwarat alkăd s ašrut wa yadăn n RF (meɣ aɣan wan assahat) ehak tăjililwăyt n amădăl
The top plot shows the isotropic Mercator scale function: the scale on the parallel is the same as the scale on the meridian.,Edăg wan s afălla assukin aɣan wan Isotropic Mercator: aɣan fal anmillăl olah id aɣan fal meridian
"Therefore, the tangent Mercator projection is highly accurate within a strip of width 3.24 degrees centred on the equator.",išmad amuqqis n asukni wan Mercator ikna aqqad daɣ bandar wan tahrike 3.24 n degre ahanen ammas n equator
These observations prompted the development of the transverse Mercator projections in which a meridian is treated 'like an equator' of the projection so that we obtain an accurate map within a narrow distance of that meridian.,Ikăyădan win s armădăn efes n Isukni tan wi azunen Mercator daɣ eqqal meridian šund equator” n asukni i ad n ijru karti tolaɣăt daɣ ujjij n meridian wa
"The four cardinal directions, or cardinal points, are the four main compass directions: north, east, south, and west, commonly denoted by their initials N, E, S, and W respectively.","Tisidăg tin akkozăt n akal meɣ titbăqqa n akal, aqqal nat akkozăt tisidăg n akal: tamăsna, alqiblăt, agala d atărăm s ešwălan nasan N,E,S d W iyyan fuk"
"When travelling East or West, it is only on the Equator that one can keep East or West and be going straight (without the need to steer).","Alwaq wa id tissekăla s alqiblat meɣ atărăm , fal equator ɣas as addobăt awădim ad issăn alqiblăt meɣ atărăm daɣ as oɣad daɣ tekle net (daɣ war ehušăl amatikwi)"
The north pole of the magnetic needle points towards the geographic north pole of the earth and vice versa.,Pole wan tamăsna n anăzmăy wan magnetic ehal s pole n jografia wan tamăsna n amădăl d hak ašrut wa yadăn
"In the middle of the day, it is to the south for viewers in the Northern Hemisphere, who live north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the north for those in the Southern Hemisphere, who live south of the Tropic of Capricorn.","Daɣ tăzune ašal, eqqal emăynăg i imăkyădan n hemisphere wan tamăsna wi izzăɣnen daɣ tamăsna n Tropik wan Cancer d tamăsna i win hemisphere wan emăynăg izzăɣnen daɣ tropik wan Capricorn"
"In these locations, one needs first to determine whether the sun is moving from east to west through north or south by watching its movements—left to right means it is going through south while the right to left means it is going through north; or one can watch the sun's shadows.","Daɣ ihăndăgan win, awădim kul ehišăl ti daɣ tizărat ad issin kud inta tăfukt tišănkaš s alqiblăt daɣ as tokay s emăynăg meɣ tamăsna s akăyăd n imitikwiyăn net- tišalgăy s aɣil imos awen ti tak s emăynăg as ijja awen aɣil s tišălgăy imos tikka s tamăsna ; meɣ s akăyăd n telay tăfukt"
"Because of the Earth's axial tilt, no matter what the location of the viewer, there are only two days each year when the sun rises precisely due east.","Fal as eneš wan amădal, war izlăy id ila amăkyad , illan ti is-sin išilăn daɣ awătay alwaq wan anăkar n tăfukt fal udim n alqiblăt"
"For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north.","I asixdăm n tikărse ten daɣ hemisphere wan agala, 12 ehal s tăfukt tolas tazune n titbăqet jir alwaq wan issikăd id midi (12h00) ad ahilăn s tamasna."
"This axis intersects the Celestial Sphere at the North and South Celestial poles, which appear to the observer to lie directly above due North and South respectively on the horizon.",Axis wen azun Celestial Sphere ɣur pole tan win tamăsna d emăyăg olăhnen i amăkyăd id a insan s afălla daɣ tamăsna d emăynăg fal išinnăwan
"The resulting photograph reveals a multitude of concentric arcs (portions of perfect circles) from which the exact center can be readily derived, and which corresponds to the Celestial pole, which lies directly above the position of the true pole (North or South) on the horizon.",Telăy ta did tizjărat t assilmăd s tišăngiwen ajjotnen ( ifrusan n tijililwăyen oɣad nen)s addobăt ammas wan tiditt a daɣ is nat id izjir tolas ogdăhnen i Celestial pole insănen fal afalla n edag n pole wan tiditt (tamăsna meɣ ataram) fal išinnăwan
The exact position of the pole changes over thousands of years because of the precession of the equinoxes.,edag wan tiditt n pole it imutti daɣ timăd n iwityan awa ijja amitikwăy n equinox tan
"""The asterism """"Big Dipper"""" may be used to find Polaris.""",“Asterism”’Big Dipper”” addobăt axadam i ajărăw n Polaris”
"Since it finds true, rather than magnetic, north, it is immune to interference by local or shipboard magnetic fields.",Alwaq wa id eqqal tiditt ohun magnetic n tamăsna
"Most maps in medieval Europe, for example, placed east (E) at the top.",Karti tan ajjotnen n Eroba tan aru daɣ almital ijjănăt alqiblăt (E) daɣ s afălla
"Topographic maps include elevation, typically via contour lines.",Karti topografik tan ehenăt adkul s iyăka tan n tăɣelit
The North point will then be the point on the limb that is closest to the North celestial pole.,Titbăqet tan tamăsna dihen ad taqqil titbăqet fal teyt ta tiknăt ihiz n pole n etran wan tamăsna
"Going around the disk clockwise from the North point, one encounters in order the West point, the South point, and then the East point.","Aɣălay n disk s tekle tan muntăr ɣur titbaqet tan tamăsna, itaj amuqqis daɣ titbăqet tan atăram, titbăqet tan emăynăg d tan alqiblăt."
"In pre-modern Europe more generally, between eight and 32 points of the compass – cardinal and intercardinal directions – were given names.",Daɣ Euroba tan tizărat i ta tišayat jir atttam d 32 n titbăqqa n tisidag tin akkozat n amădal- ilanat ismăwăn
"Systems with five cardinal points (four directions and the center) include those from pre-modern China, as well as traditional Turkic, Tibetan and Ainu cultures.","Sistem tan ilănen simmosăt titbaqqa (akkozăt tisidăg d ammas ) ahan win China tan tizărat i tan ušrăy hak id agna tan win Turkic, Tibetan d Ainu"
"""Some may also include """"above"""" and """"below"""" as directions, and therefore focus on a cosmology of seven directions.""",“iyyad tăj in ““s afălla”” d ““sider”” šund i tisidăg d kosmology tan tisidăg tin assăyat”
North is associated with the Himalayas and heaven while the south is associated with the underworld or land of the fathers (Pitr loka).,Tamăsna tosaɣ id Himalayas d alzănnăt as ijja awen emăynăg osaɣ id underworld meɣ amădăl win abba tan ( Pitr loka)
North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions.,Tamăsna taqqal iyyat daɣ titbăqqa n tisidag tin akkozăt
"""Septentrionalis is from septentriones, """"the seven plow oxen"""", a name of Ursa Major.""","“Septentrionalis izjar id sepentriones, “”Plow oxen wan assa””, isim n Ursa Major"
"""For example, in Lezgian, kefer can mean both """"disbelief"""" and """"north"""", since to the north of the Muslim Lezgian homeland there are areas formerly inhabited by non-Muslim Caucasian and Turkic peoples.""","“Almităl daɣ Lezgian, Kefer addobăt ad imos “takkufira”” d tamăsna”” fal as dav tamăsna n akal n Lezgian tan win inăslimăn ,illan ti ihăndăgan izzăɣăn addinăt n Cuacase d Turkic wi war n aqqel inăslimăn”"
"On any rotating astronomical object, north often denotes the side appearing to rotate counter-clockwise when viewed from afar along the axis of rotation.","Harăt fuk fal taj tăjililwăyt , tamăsna taqqal tăsăjja tizjarat i aɣălilwăy šund wan muntăr alwaq wa daɣ is ikyad awădim daɣ ujij n lakkumăt i axis wan taɣălilwăyt"
"But simple generalizations on the subject should be treated as unsound, and as likely to reflect popular misconceptions about terrestrial magnetism.",Mušăm tisărtiyen fal harat ahušăl amukin nasnăt šund a war n ila emăsli d a ehan edăg n erk ikayădan labasnen ijjănen fal terrestrial magnetism
"This convention has developed from the use of a compass, which places north at the top.",Anifhăm wen iw-id ɣur axădăm wan kompa ijjănen tamăsna s affăla
"95% of the Global North has enough food and shelter, and a functioning education system.",95% n tamăsna alɣălim tila tetate d tehănnit d sistem n teɣare exdăman
"""Use of the term """"South"""" may also be country-relative, particularly in cases of noticeable economic or cultural divide.""",“Asăxdim n isim wan “emăynăg” addobăt ad ijja fal addăwla hullan daɣ ihăndăgăn daɣ inibăša tămudre d agna”
"Rarely does the meaning broaden to Bolivia, and in the most restricted sense it only covers Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.","šarnaš almăɣna ewad har Bolivia tolas daɣ almăɣna wa id ifnăzăn ilsa chili, Argentina d Uruguay."
"West is the direction opposite that of the Earth's rotation on its axis, and is therefore the general direction towards which the Sun appears to constantly progress and eventually set.",Atărăm eqqal tăsidik tănmišrăyat id tan aɣălilwăy wan amădăl fal axis tolas daɣ awen taqqel tasidik s inta a daɣ tissikna tafukt amătikwăy net d egădăl net
"In Ancient Egypt, the West was considered to be the portal to the netherworld, and is the cardinal direction regarded in connection with death, though not always with a negative connotation.","Daɣ Egypt tan aru, atărăm kala eqqal albab i wan jăhannăma tolas tăsidik tohărat harat id tamăttănt harkuk s isim net wa labăsan"
"In Judaism, west is seen to be toward the Shekinah (presence) of God, as in Jewish history the Tabernacle and subsequent Jerusalem Temple faced east, with God's Presence in the Holy of Holies up the steps to the west.","Daɣ judaism, atăram eqqal a ehălan s Shekinah wan amăxlăk šund daɣ attărex wan alyăhud tan daɣ tabernacle tolas daɣ awen daɣ as ehan n aɣăbad wan Jeruzalem illa albb net s alqiblat ,, s emel n amăxlăk daɣ alwăli n alwăli tan har tikkăl tin atăram"
The Arctic Circle is one of the two polar circles and the most northerly of the five major circles of latitude as shown on maps of Earth.,Tăjililwăyt tan Artic taqqal iyyăt daɣ tijililwăyen n polar d tijililwăyen ti măqqornen hullan n sămmosat hăroknen oraknen s tamăsna s immik wa s iwar nat karti tan tin amădal
A circle of latitude or line of latitude on Earth is an abstract east–west small circle connecting all locations around Earth (ignoring elevation) at a given latitude coordinate line.,Tajililăyt n tahrike meɣ iyaka n tahrike fal amădal eqqal tăjililwăyt war n ila akayad torăkat s alqiblăt daɣ atăram tassirtayat ihăndagăn fuk (daɣ in eqqim adkul) daɣ tăhrike n tăjililwăyt n coordinate.
"Circles of latitude are unlike circles of longitude, which are all great circles with the centre of Earth in the middle, as the circles of latitude get smaller as the distance from the Equator increases.",Tijililwăyen n tahrike war olenat id tijililiwăyen tin tišijrit aqqalnen fuk nasnat tijililwăyen s ammas n amădal jarey šund tijililwăyen tin tahrike taqqal nat ti mădroynen diha s ujij ɣur equator it imɣăr
A circle of latitude is perpendicular to all meridians.,Tăjililwăyt n tăhrike taqqal a ozɣăɣan i merdian tan fuk
The Equator is the longest circle of latitude and is the only circle of latitude which also is a great circle.,Equator eqqal tăjililwăyt ta tojjărat tišijrit tan tăhrike tolas taqqal tăjililwăyt ɣas n tăhrike taqqal tăjililwăyt măqqorat
"On a map, the circles of latitude may or may not be parallel, and their spacing may vary, depending on which projection is used to map the surface of the Earth onto a plane.","Fal karti, tijililwăyen tin tahrike addobat meɣ war addobat anmillăl tolas ihăndăgan jar essanat izlăyan s asukni wa exdăman i akirdi n arori n amădal daɣ abyon"
"For instance, on a Mercator projection the circles of latitude are more widely spaced near the poles to preserve local scales and shapes, while on a Gall–Peters projection the circles of latitude are spaced more closely near the poles so that comparisons of area will be accurate.","Daɣ almităl, fal asukni wan Mercator tijililwăyen tin tăhrike ilănat ihăndăgan hăroknen edes n pole tan i aɣălas n iɣunăn d išikilăn daɣ as ijja awen fl asukni wan Gall-Peters tijililwayen tin tăhrike illan ihăndăgan osăsnen edes pole tan har aɣid nat iketăn win edag"
"There are many smaller terms, resulting in varying daily shifts of some metres in any direction.",Illan ti ismăwăn ajjotnen mădroynen id izjarnen daɣ imutiyăn n metir tan n iyyad daɣ tăsidik fuk
54°40'N The border between 19th century Russian territories to the north and conflicting American and British land claims in western North America.,54° 40’N alxădud jir ikallăn n Russia daɣ awătay wan 1800 har tamăsna d ikinnas wa jir Amrik d Britania daɣ atăram i tamăsna n Amrik
"43°30'N In the US, the border between Minnesota and Iowa.","43°30’ daɣ Amrik, alxădud jir Minnesota d Lowa"
42°N Originally the northward limit of New Spain.,42°N daɣ alăsal eqqal tăsibdat n New spania tan tamăsna
"41°N In the US, part of the border between Wyoming and Utah, the border between Wyoming and Colorado, and part of the border between Nebraska and Colorado.","41°N daɣ Amrik ašrut n alxădud jir Wyoming d Utah, alxădud jir Wyoming d Colorado d achrut n alxădud jir Nebraska d Colorado"
"38°N The boundary between the Soviet and American occupation zones in Korea, and later between North Korea and South Korea, from 1945 until the Korean War (1950–1953).",38°N alxădud wa jir Soviet Union d ikallan daɣ taxkăm Amrik daɣ addăwla tan Korea d daɣ ušrăy jir Korea tan tamăsna d Korea tan emăynăg ɣur awătay wan 1945 har akinnăs n Korea wan (1950 har 1953)
Geographically it is a Westward extension of the border between Virginia and North Carolina and part of the border between Kentucky and Tennessee.,Daɣ jografia eqqal tăsittilbăyt s atăram n alxădud wa jir Virginia d Carolina tan tamăsna d ašrut n alxădud wa jir Kentucky d Tennessee.
"Also, part of the border between North Carolina and Georgia.",Tolas ašrut n alxădud jir Carolina tan tamăsna d Georgia
"32°N In the US, part of the border between New Mexico and Texas.","32°N daɣ Amrik, ašrut n alxădud wa jir New Mexico d Texas"
25°N Part of the border between Mauritania and Mali.,25°N ašrut n alxădud wa jir Mauritania d jir Mali
17°N The division between Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) and Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) during the Vietnam War.,17°N tăzunt jir jamahiriya tan Vietnam (vietnam tan agala) d jamahiriya tan vietnam demokratik (Vietnam tan tamasna)ɣur awătay wan akkinăs wan Vietnam
8°N Part of the border between Somalia and Ethiopia.,8°N ašrut n alxădud wa jir Somalia d Etiopa
7°S A short section of the border between Democratic Republic of the Congo and Angola.,7° tehăndigit găšulat jir alxădud wan jamahiriya tan Congo demokratik d Angola
"The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation.","Tamăšɣult tan inhădan taqqal harat daɣ etărtăr n alxidmăten n iɣănnăn aqqalnen tisimăl , tinfusen d ijuš n agna"
"They can employ skill and imagination to produce objects, performances, convey insights and experiences, and construct new environments and spaces.","Addoben ad assăxdam musnăt d anazjum i ad aɣnin harătan, ittusăn olaɣnen, asirtăy n ikayadan d ifăhăman d edey n ihinzuzăɣ eynăynen d ihaăndăgan"
"They can also develop or contribute to some particular aspect of a more complex art form, as in cinematography.",Addoben har ajjudi efes meɣ asiwăd n titbăqet iyyat n dumu n tamăšɣult ajjen maqqoran šund daɣ sinematografi
The first meaning of the word art is « way of doing ».,Almăɣna wa ezzăran n isim wan tamăšɣult tan inhădan inta s «abăra i amukin».
"In its most basic abstract definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view, hear or experience it.","Daɣ almăɣna net wa war n ila akăyăd , tamăšɣult tan aw n ahăd taqqal tasăssăɣrăwt fal ijja farak meɣ daɣ jarey s addobăt awădim fuk akyad net , tesăle net meɣ afăhăm net"
Such public rating is dependent on various subjective factors.,šund ta-ite ten n addinăt ilkam i titbăqqa ajjotnen
"In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, techne.","Daɣ Greece tan aru, tamăšɣult tan inhădan fuk tohar isim olahan , techne."
"Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features (e.g. Zeus' thunderbolt).","Tamăšɣult n inhadan n Roma tan aru tidlaj imăxlakăn aqqălnen šund addinăt sakninen samălan (almital Zues, thunderbolt)"
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,Samal n išikil wen inta dumu almăɣna tijjay tăɣelit (a ogdăhan daɣ azzăman wa daɣ id cartoon)
"In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities.","Daɣ academia tan ušray, timăšɣulen n inhadan artay nat harkuk id meɣ tigittest n alɣulăm"
"""The word architecture comes from the Greek arkhitekton, """"master builder, director of works,"""" from αρχι- (arkhi) """"chief"""" + τεκτων (tekton) """"builder, carpenter"""".""","“isim wan edey izjar id Greek arkhitekton, “”albanna n amusăn, amizăr n timăšɣulen”” izjăran αρχι- (arkhi) """"amizar” + τεκτων (tekton) “”albănna, aw n ahăd””"
"In modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline of creating, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of, a complex object or system.","Daɣ axădam net wa eynăyan, edey eqqal tamăšɣult d alxidmăt n iɣănnan meɣ ikus n addăbăra anifălălan n harat meɣ sistem măqqoran"
"Planned architecture manipulates space, volume, texture, light, shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve pleasing aesthetics.","Edey wa eqqalan addăbara akkokăl akal, emăsli, taɣissa net, efew, telăy, meɣ titbăqqa war n ila akayad i ad awid adăloj ijrăzan"
"While some ceramic products are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial, or applied art objects.","Kuddeɣ as isuj iyyad ijjan s amădal t ăwăɣrin s isim wan fine art, iyyad aqqalan win idălojan, n maršin tan meɣ isuj n timašɣulen"
"In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, and decorate the pottery.","Daɣ izin tan win ikannan n ilikkăn meɣ win akal, tăqqimt n addinat t aɣan,tolas d allăjan ilikkăn"
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.",Ehey harkuk išišwilăn n arori s azugi n asuj meɣ ašinkiš n asuj fal arori
"The main techniques used in drawing are line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending.","Tikărsiwen ti axdămnen daɣ iji n desin tan aqqălan iyaka n desin, hatching, crosshatchig, random hatching, scribbing, izzagnen tolas mišarwaynen"
"Paintings can be naturalistic and representational (as in a still life or landscape painting), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism), or political in nature (as in Artivism).","Fantir tan addoben ad aqqilan n harat eɣnan id iman meɣ eqqălan a ehan edag (šund harat ammutan meɣ fantir n ahinzăzaɣ, n telay, war n ila akayad, itaj in tinfusen, eqqalan sokni (šund symbolist art), ilan tăfrit (šund daɣ expressionism) meɣ n folitik (šund Artivism)"
"""The noun """"literature"""" comes from the Latin word littera meaning """"an individual written character (letter).""""""",“Isim wan “litterature”” izjar id daɣ Latin littera s almăɣna net “emasle iyyan iktăban (emasle)”””
"Each discipline in the performing arts is temporal in nature, meaning the product is performed over a period of time.",Hak alxidmăt daɣ amukin n tamăšɣulen net ti inhădan tilkăm i alwaq almăɣna n awen asuj ikna daɣ azzăman daɣ alwaq.
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (e.g. bee dance, mating dance), motion in inanimate objects (e.g. the leaves danced in the wind), and certain musical forms or genres.","Dallol inta deɣ a itălaɣen immikan n majrad war n aqqel win em (awal wan taɣissa) jir addinăt meɣ irizzej (e.g dallol wan išan, dallol wan iji n anăbakkăd) , ašiwinki n harătan wi ammutnen (e.g ifrinkittăn taddal nen daɣ adu) d dumu tan n isuhaɣ meɣ išikilăn iyyad"
"The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context.","Iɣanni,almăɣna hak id afissir n asăhaɣ izlay s agna tan d timizdăɣ"
"""The composer Richard Wagner recognized the fusion of so many disciplines into a single work of opera, exemplified by his cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (""""The Ring of the Nibelung"""").""","“Coposer Richard Wagner erdah fal anăɣimbăl n tiɣir ajjotnen daɣ alxidmăt iyyat n opera, s almităl net Der Ring des Nibelungen (““Asăhaɣ wan Nibelung””)."
"Other works in the late 19th, 20th and 21st centuries have fused other disciplines in unique and creative ways, such as performance art.","Alxidmăten tiyyad n ušray n awatay wan 1900, 2000 d wan 2021 sabbuqen tiɣir tiyyad daɣ abara tan iyyad d n uɣna šund performance art."
"John Cage is regarded by many as a performance artist rather than a composer, although he preferred the latter term.",John Cage ijjan ti addinat iyyad ag-gu issănan ilan musnăt ohun composer kuddeɣ as assof isim wan ušrăy
"The applied arts includes fields such as industrial design, illustration, and commercial art.","Applied Arts ahan ti izaragan šund design win izin tan, win taliwen d tamašɣult n mamala"
"Within social sciences, cultural economists show how video games playing is conducive to the involvement in more traditional art forms and cultural practices, which suggests the complementarity between video games and the arts.","Daɣ sciences social tan, ekonomist tan agna issiknăn immik wa s sulh in video tan tin dallol itiwi id s amutti s dumu tan n timăšɣulen tin alăsal n inhădan d timăšɣulen n agna azzilzămnen aharoj n videyo tan tin dallol d timăšɣulen tin inhădan"
"""Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton """"architect"""", from ἀρχι- """"chief"""" and τέκτων """"creator"""") is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures.""","“Edey (Latin architectura, id ifalan Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton """"architekt"""", from ἀρχι- """"amanokal"""" and τέκτων """"amaxlak"""") aqqalan fuk tamăšalt d asuj n iji n addăbara, aἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton """"architect"""", from ἀρχι- """"chief"""" and τέκτων """"creator"""") aɣanni d edey n ihănan wi maqqornen meɣ tijităwen tiyyad”"
"The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing culture for civilizations on all seven continents.",Alxidmăt ta tassintăt daɣ iwityăn n attarex wan tizărat ijjnat xadăm n immik n alaɣi n agna i alxălan olaɣnen fal imidlăn win assa.
"""In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that """"form follows function"""". """"""","“Daɣ awătay wa 1900, Louis Sulivan illăɣat as “dumu ilkam i axădam net”””"
"Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication.",Edey issinta daɣ amăgon s majrad n addinat edey ta s ijja efes net s erem har uɣna olaɣăn
"During the European Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name.","Daɣ iwityan n Eroba win aru, iššikilăn n Pan-Eroba win Katedral d bombertan win Roman d Gothic izjaran id as ijja awen Renaissance t assof dumu tan win alăsal ijjan albana tan ilănen isim"
"Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures.","titbăqet tijja fal tikărsiwen ti eynăynen, isuj d dumu tan n tagămšaɣt răqqosnen ijjanen abara i ideyan wi šăjrotnen"
A unifying or coherent form or structure.,Dumu asirtăyan meɣ ilan almăɣna meɣ tijittăwt.
"The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognisable truths.","Titbăqet ta t ojjărat n tihusay taqqal ašrut n harat ohun harat iltăɣan tolas ijja fal tiditen ilsanen alɣalim, fal tijja taridăwt"
"In the 16th century, Italian Mannerist architect, painter and theorist Sebastiano Serlio wrote Tutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (Complete Works on Architecture and Perspective).","Daɣ awătay wan 1600, albănna n Mannerist wan Italia, amădloj d Sebastiano Serlio iktăban Tutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva (alxidmăten imdanen fal Architecture d Perspective)"
"""Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only """"true Christian form of architecture.""""""","“Edey wan Gothic, Pugin orda as eqqal “””dumu n edey wan tiditt n kriken tan”””."
"Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction and Phenomenology.","Daɣ tiɣir tin išikil n musnăt ti ornanen albănna tan win amărad d tazujišt n iɣănnan win ideyăn imosan Rationalism, Empiriciism , Structuralism; Poststructuralism, afatay n ideyan d Phenomenology."
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged.,Edey d aqqud nasan n alxălan wi olaɣnen n alasal šund Greek Roman izjaran id anniyăten n addinat ohun win kel addin tolas išikilăn ideyan eynăynen izjăran id
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time.,Ikitbăn fal edey iktăban daɣ alwaq wan aru
"Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity.",Edey hullan wan Buddist isikna ijjit n uzlay daɣ rejion tan
"The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.",Tazilzimt tan albănna taqqal harkuk tan master mason meɣ Magister lathomorum šund immik wa s affisaran alwăqqan iyyad daɣ alkittăban win amărad
"Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio – and the cult of the individual had begun.","Ihanan wi măqqornen tawaɣrin s isim n albănna tan - Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio - tolas issinta id amman s awădim"
"Formal architectural training in the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility.","Teɣăre tan edey daɣ awătay wan 1900 , s almităl daɣ Ecole des Beaux-Arts wan France ikfa titbăqet i iɣanni n idalojan huskitnen d i mădroynen d tudăbat n iji net"
"Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine-made objects.",Wa it aw assănan hullan daɣ win amos Deutscher Werkbund eɣran daɣ awatay wan 1907 i eɣnu isuj n maršin tan ikanen tulăɣay.
"When modern architecture was first practised, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings.","Alwaq wa id i taw axdam edey s tizarat, eqqal tamătikwayt tilat tijittăwen n almăɣna, n išikil n musnat d tihusăy"
"The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functional details.",Tazujišt tan albănna tan win ušray taqqal afănaz n ideyan n ihănan maqqornen s duu tan ɣas itakăsan samalan win attărex d idălojan s tufit n titbăqqa axdămnen
"Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures.","Albănna tan šund Mies van der Rohe, Philip Jonhson d Marcel Breuer axdăman i aɣanni n tihussăy ijjanen fal išikilan n isuj win ihanan wi maqornen d tikărsiwen tin edey wan ušrăyan, ijjanen mamăla n dumu tan n attarex wan alasal i dumu tan n tagămšakt s exyaz almaɣna d tišujišen id i s arɣas tamattit tan maršin tan eha edey wan ehan wan tazoli id erawan ideyan šăjrotnen"
"The preparatory processes for the design of any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws.","Timitikwăyen tin tizarat i aɣanni n ehan fuk maqqoran iknanat asimmăɣitar hullan tolas azilzamnat tiɣir azzarnen n haratan chund tahajjit, ichikil, taɣris, azruf d semɣar i achăreɣa tan win akal"
"Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with a profound effect on the architectural profession.",Taɣrist n ahinzăzaɣ taqqal mušăkil maqqorat t ornăh at alxidmăt tan edey
This major shift in architecture has also changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment.,Amutti wen maqqoran daɣ edey inta deɣ s ammutăy ideyan win lakkolăn fal ag-az n ahinzăzaɣ
The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.,Green Building Council n LEED n Amrik wa dalen ( Tizrt daɣ energi d iɣanni n ahinzăzaɣ) sistem net wan ešwal issewăd wen
"It can also be the initial design and plan for use, then later redesigned to accommodate a changed purpose, or a significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell.",Addobăt ad eqqil iɣanni wan tizarat d addăbara i axadăm meɣ iɣanni iknan amutti i a ej i alxidmat net tan ideyan
"Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved.","Iɣanni n vessel wa ezzaran, iɣanni net wa , edey , erem net, axadam, d amukin,asilmad d asibad net aqqalan timăšɣulen ti ahanen"
"Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public.","Ideyan win alwăli tan šund win ihanan win alxăram addoben ad war olen, awa war n itihij, tolas iskatan hullan, war oheran"
"With the rise of Christianity and Islam, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer and meditation.","Tiw-at tan addin wan kriken tan d al-islam , ihanan win aɣăbad aqqalan hullan ihanan win aɣabad, amud d asuɣal n inăsjam."
"India was crisscrossed by trading routes of merchants from as far away as Siraf and China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles.",India aɣlăyan tat id abara tan n mamăla n ălmusăbbiban id ifalnen Siraf d Chine hak id inafazan n inaftăɣan daɣ azzamanan išrayan s assăhaten ajjotnen n idiršan n inaftăɣan fal išikilan win kal akal
An existing example is at Nalanda (Bihar).,Almităl it illan eqqal Nalanda (Bihar)
"In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (stupa halls).","Daɣ semɣar n tamăttit n axadam n addin , stupas tajaš nat šaitya-grihas tan (stupa halls)"
"Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar.","Ihanan n aɣăbad win Buddist ijja efes nasan daɣ ušray tolas daɣ ajjama n Asia tan agala s inta a daɣ id ifannăz Buddism ɣur iwityan azzărnen n CE, kuddeɣ as almital ezzăran eqqal ehanan n aɣăbad wan Mahabodhi daɣ Bodh Gaya wan Bihar"
"In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as well as the microcosm of inner space.","Daɣ addin wan Hindu tan, ehan wan addin eqqal timɣare n alɣălim hak id tan n ammas n išinnăwan"
It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years.,Ammuttăy daɣ azzăman s ojjaran 2000 n awătay
"In addition, brick replaced stone, classical order was less strictly observed, mosaics replaced carved decoration, and complex domes were erected.","Tolas ,Iblag išray tahunt, anmillal wan alăsal wr ilkem i ašăreɣa, mosaik tan ijjaš nat edag n adaloj injafan d dome tan maqqornen idayan"
The earliest styles in Islamic architecture produced 'Arab-plan' or hypostyle mosques during the Umayyad Dynasty.,Išikilan wi azzărnen n ideyan win a-islam erawan id “addăbara n araban” meɣ timizdjidwen wara ni la afala daɣ malikiya tan Umayyad.
"In iwan mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall.","Daɣ timizjidăwen tin Iwan , iyyan meɣ iwan tan ajjotnen ikyadan siha s aɣalăy eqqalan wan amud"
"The top of the minaret is always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area.",Isik n tamizjidă eqqal harkuk edag wa ojjaran hullan tišijrit daɣ timizjidăwen ilanen iyyan d alwaqqan iyyad edag wa ojjarăn tišijrit daɣ edag ehozăn
"Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the same purpose – calling the faithful to prayer.",Albanna tan wi timizjidăwen igrăwan id dumu n tazoli tan emăsli i isik n timizjidăwen s kala axdăman daɣ ittus olahan n inaɣbădan s amud
"Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia and Persia.","Kuddeɣ as dome tan itkălan dumu tan n hemisphere , Mughals daɣ India izizjar ismăwan n dome tan wi ijjanen dumu wan albăsal daɣ Asia tan agala d Persia"
"Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer hall is the qibla wall, which is the visually emphasized area inside the prayer hall.",Harkuk em wan ujjiš n amilallăy fal edag wan amud imosan aɣălay wan alqiblat eqqalan edag wa ilan akayad hullan daɣ edag wan amud
"In the qibla wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the'qibla wall.","Daɣ aɣalay wan alqiblat ,harkuk daɣ ammas net ille Mihrab, edag meɣ adabon issikan aɣalay wan alqiblăt"
The mihrab serves as the location where the imam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.,Mihrab edag wa daɣ itaj al-imam imaddăn win sammos daɣ ašal
"It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end (see cathedral diagram).","Ehe nave, transepts d altar azzuken siha s ašrut wan alqiblat (ikyid daɣ Katedral diagram)."
"Most architectural historians regard Michelangelo's design of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style; this can be recognized by broader interior spaces (replacing long narrow naves), more playful attention to light and shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and frequently, a dramatic central exterior projection.","Kel attărex fuk win ideyan eha Michelangelos’s design wan St Peter’s Basilica daɣ Roma eqqalan imuzar daɣ išikil wan Baroque:awen addobat timăzzuyt net s ihandăgan win ammas maqqornen (šarreynen nave tan darosnen) iiji n anniyat hullan i efew d telay, adăloj inkašan, fresco tan maqqornen, ijji n anniyat daɣ tamăšɣult tan ammas d asukni daɣ ajjăma"
"While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious buildings of the 20th century.","Kuddeɣ as ideyan war oheran harat id addin ilan assăhat maqqorat fal efes n ideyan win ušray, almitălan ajjotnen olaɣnen n ideyan win ušray addoben ad a t ajrăwan daɣ ihanan n addin maqqornen n awătay wan 2000"
"""It has been described as a """"phalanx of fighters"""" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward.""",“It aw aɣir s isim wan “phalanx wan imakkunnăs”” šiwăkkat nen fal tidimbuwen nasan ahalan sa s alzănnat”
"The Temple at Independence, Missouri was conceived by Japanese architect Gyo Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus.","Ehan ɣur alistexlăll ,Missouri ikne albănna n Japon s isim net Gyo Obata darat isim wan chambered nautilus"
The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more traditional edifice.,Basilica tan Our Lady tan Lichen taqqal s edag iyyan hullan ehan wan alăsal
An architectural style is a set of characteristics and features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable.,Išikil n edey eqqal takămmust n samalan immojăɣnen edey meɣ a ti ikfan akayad daɣ attărex
"Most architecture can be classified within a chronology of styles which changes over time reflecting changing fashions, beliefs and religions, or the emergence of new ideas, technology, or materials which make new styles possible.","Ideyan fuk addoben ad azunan daɣ anmillăl n iššikilan timutinen daɣ azzaman ahanen idăgan n dumu tan, mirda tan nasan d addin tan nasan meɣ ajjăraw n anniyaten eynaynen, teknoloji meɣ isuj sarɣas nen išškilan eynăynen."
"At any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas.","S alwaq fuk išikilan ajjotnen addoben ad aɣnin tolas alwaq wa id ammutăy išikil , alwaqqan iyyad itaj awen sollan fal as albănna tan aɣran tols ijjrăwan ta-ite teynăyat"
"For instance, Renaissance ideas emerged in Italy around 1425 and spread to all of Europe over the next 200 years, with the French, German, English, and Spanish Renaissances showing recognisably the same style, but with unique characteristics.","Daɣ almităl, anniyaten tin Renaissance, t aw ajjraw nat tan Italia edes n awatay wan 1425 dihen ad ilsanat Eroba daɣ 200 n awatay ti ilkămnen id Renaissance tan France, Germany,Britania d Spania sakninen išikil olahan mušan s samălan iyyad"
"After an architectural style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur.","Darat as ibas infa edey harat, isissiniyan d igamăkan iyyad ad ajjin"
"The Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival.",Iššikil n erakăf wan Spania inkar id daɣ 100 n awatay darat awa fal tanakra n erakăf dihen inkach sa s bere n tanăkra n takkiluwa n Spania
An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola in the rugged country side outside of Rome.,Almital n edey n Mannerist eqqal Villa Farnese daɣ Caprarola daɣ ašrut n addawlat wa ešɣad akinnas daɣ ajjama n Roma
"Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were widely introduced in England, Germany, and northern and eastern Europe in general.","S Antwerp, iššikilan win Renaissance d Mannerist iknan ijjuš hullan n England, Germany d tamasna d alqiblat n Eroba"
The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms.,Ittus n Renaissance ijja abara i alxoriya d imitikwiyăn id anăzjum hullan
"Architectural theory is the act of thinking, discussing, and writing about architecture.","Mirda wan edey imos azănnisjumi, asiwil d akatab fal edey"
"Architectural theory is often didactic, and theorists tend to stay close to or work from within schools.",Mirda wan edey alwaq iyyan n teɣare tolas kel mirda tan orakan hullan s meɣ axdăman daɣ lakkolăn
"This does not mean, however, that such works did not exist, given that many works never survived antiquity.",Awen war eqqel as alxidmaten šund tin war ti illenat išmad alxidmăten ajjotnen išraynat id iwityan win aru
"Probably written between 27 and 23 BC, it is the only major contemporary source on classical architecture to have survived.","Ehamiš iktab jir 27 d 23 n awatay data annabi ɣisa , eqqal taguhe ɣas tan iyyat maqqorat daɣ ušray fal edey n alasal wa id igaɣăran"
"It also proposes the three fundamental laws that architecture must obey, in order to be so considered: firmitas, utilitas, venustas, translated in the 17th century by Sir Henry Wotton into the English slogan firmness, commodity and delight (meaning structural adequacy, functional adequacy, and beauty).","Ijja har ajjudi addăbara tan n karădat aššareɣa s ilzam a hasnat erdaɣ edey a fl erha ad eqqal: Firmitas, utilitas, venustas, iffăsar daɣ awatay wan 1700 Henry Wotton daɣ tangilist s agluy n tangalt, ilalan d tazude (s almɣna net aqqad n tijittawt, aqqad exdaman d tihussay)"
"Since the architectural theories were on structures, fewer of them were transcribed.","Alwaq wa mirda tan win edey aqqalan fl tijittawen, i madroynen daɣ san ɣas afisar nen"
These theories anticipated the development of Functionalism in modern architecture.,Mirda tan win aš-aran id i efes n Functionalism edey wan ušray
"This in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau in the UK, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced the Vienna Secession.",Awen eqqal tinattit i Art Nouveau daɣ UK s eqqal alxidmăt wan Charles Rennie Mackintosh almital d asaru hullan daɣ akinnas n tazunt wan Vienna
The generation born during the middle-third of the 19th century was largely enthralled with the opportunities presented by Semper's combination of a breathtaking historical scope and a methodological granularity.,Addinat wi s tijja tiwit nasan daɣ ammas n awatay wan 1900 asidawat tan hullan taffawen tin asarti wa ijja Semper i tahirik n atkul n unfas i attarex d iddikud ilkaman i almăɣna
The Modern Movement rejected these thoughts and Le Corbusier energetically dismissed the work.,Taqqimt tan ušray tanqur ta-ite tan tin tolas Corbusier ibda id alxidmat ten
"Another influential planning theorist of this time was Ebenezer Howard, who founded the garden city movement.",Aw mirda n addăbara iyyan n azzăman en eqqal Ebenezer Howar a eɣnan garden city movement
"An early use of the term modern architecture in print occurred in the title of a book by Otto Wagner, who gave examples of his own work representative of the Vienna Secession with art nouveau illustrations, and didactic teachings to his students.",Alxidmăt ta tazzrat s isim n edey wan ušray iwaran ilkădan ijja fal tasassăɣrăwt n alkittab wan Otto Wagner ikfan almitălan ajjotnen n alxidmăt net tijjat fal akinnas wan tazunt n Vienna id asidditi tan n art nouveau d asassaɣir n attalaba
"Frank Lloyd Wright, while modern in rejecting historic revivalism, was idiosyncratic in his theory, which he conveyed in copious writing.","Frank Lloyd Wright , kuddeɣ as išray daɣ ankur n asankar n attarex eqqal idiosyncratic daɣ attărex s asilmad daɣ akatab ajjen"
Wright was more poetic and firmly maintained the 19th-century view of the creative artist as unique genius.,Wright eqqal awadim n tinfusen hullan tolas ikna ag-az n akayad n awatay wan 1900 awnahad eqqalan alchin
"This has also been the case with educators in academia like Dalibor Vesely or Alberto-Perez Gomez, and in more recent years this philosophical orientation has been reinforced through the research of a new generation of theorists (E.G. Jeffrey Kipnis or Sanford Kwinter).",Awen daɣ idas imasăɣran daɣ academia šund Dalibor Vesely meɣ Alberto-Perez Gomez d daɣ iwityan hin okaynen tasidik n teɣare n musnat ten tassohat s farak n taqqimt n addinat n aw mirda tan eynaynen ( E.G Jeffrey Kipnis meɣ Sandford Kwinter)
"Others, like Beatriz Colomina and Mary McLeod, expand historical understandings of architecture to include lesser or minor discourses that have influenced the development of architectural ideas over time.",Iyyad šund Beatriz Colomina d Mary McLeod issewadan afaham n attarex wan edey eha afanaz meɣ a andarran daɣ majrad aqqalnen asaru i efes n ta-ite tan n edey daɣ azzaman
"In their theories, architecture is compared to a language which can be invented and re-invented every time it is used.","ăDaɣ mirda tan nasan, edey animakka id awal addoben ad eɣnu tolas alis eɣanni azzaman fuk id exdam"
"Since 2000, architectural theory has also had to face the rapid rise of urbanism and globalization.","A ijja awatay wan 2000, mirda wan edey ilzam ti akayad daɣ aramad n tiw-at n ideyan daɣ iɣirman d annamittăf wa ijjan jir addawla tan"
"""In the past decade, there has been the emergence of the so-called """"Digital"""" Architecture.""","“Daɣ maraw iwityan wi hin okaynen, imal ti tiw-at n awa s itawan edey wan ““Digital””"
Architects also design organic-looking buildings in the attempt to develop a new formal language.,Albanna tan tolas aɣnan id ihanan maqqornen oraknen s ihiškan daɣ erem n efes wan awal eynayan
"Since these new architectural tendencies emerged, many theorists and architects have been working on these issues, developing theories and ideas such as Patrick Schumacher's Parametricism.","Alwaq wa s anniyaten tin eynaynen n edey iw-wid nat , aw mirda tan ajjotnen d albanna tan ajjotnen axdaman fal marsălan win , s ijjan efes n mirda tan d t-ite tan šund Parametricism wan Patrick Schulacher"
"Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire.",Edey wan Byzantin tan eqqal edey wan malikiya tan Byzantin ta meɣ malikiya n Roma tan alqiblat
Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches.,Mosaik tan ajjotnen olaɣnen s adaloj nasan raqqos itaway id efew d tukise daɣ olhawan n egliz tan
Some of the columns were also made of marble.,Itartaran iyyad ijjan s tekadayt
"Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors.","Isuj n ahišk wi olaɣnen hullan šund tasiftaq, taxyamen, iskak win alkittăban d azruf meɣ kub tan n ura id ikallan huskat nen, ammasan ijjan adaloj wan Byzantin tan"
"For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept.","I ideyan win alasal eqqal ajjama nasan edag wa assohen fal as inta s tajjašan bomber tan ,edag s inta a tilla statue tan aɣabad s eqqal as inta a taɣlasat edey"
"Those in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice (1071) specially attracted John Ruskin's fancy.","Wi ahanen Katedral tan Saint Mark, Venice (1071) arkaban anazjum n John Ruskin"
"On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally.","Fal itărtarăn win alqiblat egadar, ahir d tehele harkuk injafan mušam taj in asafar ehan edag net"
Composite columns line the principal space of the nave.,Iyaka wan itartaran artaynen eqqal edag wan nave
The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations.,Itartaran idnayan ifrinkittăn daɣ iššikil n imutiyan fuk
"Other structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople, the innovative walls of Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns).","Ideyan iyyad eha iɣašadan n Gret Palce wan Constantinople, iɣalayan aɣnanen n Constantinople (ilan 192 n tower) d Basilica Cistern ( ilan timad n itartaran n alasal olasnen teynaya)"
"The Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos.",Azzaman wan Paleologan ikna emel daɣ maraw egliz tan aru nen daɣ Istanbul hullan St Saviour daɣ Chora d St Mary Pammakaristos
The Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki) is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics.,Egliz wan bomber tan win alwali tan (Thessaloniki) it aw emel as eqqal a olahan id edey wan azzamăn n ušray ilan iɣalayan n ajjăma iknanen adaloj s iššikil n ibilɣan maqqornen meɣ ceramics tan iwar vernis
"At Saint Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to the octagon.","Daɣ Saint Sergius, Constantinople d San Vitale, Ravenna, egliz tan n iššikil wan ammas edag ehan sider n dome harik s tisiwad n aspse tan ijjanen har Octagon"
"This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces.","Edag wen war ides teraze ijja tišijrit n 260 n atkul (80 n aɣil), ašrut wa maqqoran s daɣ is 100 n atkul (30 n aɣil) harik, ilse fuk net sistem n arori tan n dome"
At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest.,"Daɣ bomber tan n alwali tan (awatay wan 6) , sammos dome tan ijjanen i addăbara wan išikil wan croix, dome wan ammas eqqal wa ojjaran hullan"
"Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion.","Alwaqqan iyyad edag wan ammas ogdah, alwăqqan iyyad šund octagon meɣ awa id orakan illan ti attamat tijjittawen it afnen dome war akkozat d nave d transept tan sadodnen"
Still in front put a square court.,Har ajjudi daɣ s dta ijja aɣalay ogdahan
"Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo, from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers.",Sider n ammăs wan dome ille ambo s inta a ɣur t aw aɣrin ikitbăn tolas sider n ambo s akal ille edag wan isahaɣan
Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon.,Itartaran n taxyămen edes n apse wa ikrambăyan t iwar taxyămt tan awichar daɣ ašrut wan alqiblat eqqalan Synthronon
The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of the Roman variety.,Dome tan d tijittawen ti ajjama ilsanat s lead meɣ tiling n annuɣan win Roma
There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709–715).,Tille assăhat maqqorat n Byzantin tan s ti illa ajamol net daɣ ideyan win tizarat ijjan inasliman daɣ Syria (jir awatay wan 709 har 715)
"Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick.",Ibilɣan n 70 n cm x 35 cm x 5 cm a axdamnen tolas ibilɣan win iltaɣan daɣ edag iyyan s simaw n 5 cm tan
Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design.,Ehamich samal wa imdan fuk n Irene Hagia imos anamišrăy jir iɣanni wan ammas d wan ajjăma.
"This style influenced the construction of several other buildings, such as St. Peter's Basilica.",Iššikil wen eqqal a ornahan edey n ihanan iyyad maqqornen šund Basilica tan St. Peter
"The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian.",Edey wan s amindi n Hagia Sophia ti illan har ašal id ijjas has Emperor Justinian anniyat
"Gothic architecture (or pointed architecture) is an architectural style that was particularly popular in Europe from the late 12th century to the 16th century, during the High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas.",Edey wan Gothic (meɣ edey wa izzagan) eqqal iššikil n edey ikna tila n isim hullan daɣ Eroba ɣur ušray n awatay wan 1200 har 1600 ɣur iwityan win data annabi ɣisa har win darat net s tišray tămudre net har awatay wan 1700 d 1800 daɣ ihăndagan iyyad.
The style at the time was sometimes known as opus Francigenum (lit.,Iššikil wan azzăman wen eqqal as isim net Opus Francigenum (lit)
The primary engineering innovation and one of the other characteristic design components is the flying buttress.,Iɣanni wan anjenier tan ezzaran d iyyan daɣ titbaqqa n iššikil eqqal flying buttress
"However, there is no evidence to indicate that there was a connection between Armenian architecture and the development of the Gothic style in Western Europe.","Hak id ijja awen , war t illa taguhe s ad ellaɣat awadim as tille a ohar wan edey n Amrik d efes n ichikil wan Gothic daɣ Eroba tan ataram"
"Thus the Gothic style, being in opposition to classical architecture, from that point of view was associated with the destruction of advancement and sophistication.","Iššikil wan Gothic, an mašrăyan id edey wan attarex, daɣ akayad ertay id aɣašad wan iki n s data d milɣăw"
"The term ‘Saracen’ was still in use in the 18th century and it typically referred to all Muslim conquerors, including the Moors and Arabs.",Isim wan “Saracen” ille exdam har awatay wan 1800 tolas eqqal tasimalt n inasliman fuk win imakkunas ahan Moors d Araban
"His aversion of the style was so strong that he refused to put a Gothic roof on the new St. Paul's, despite being pressured to do so.",Mikda net id iššikil ikna assahat har unjay ad ej tanda n Gothic fal St.Paul wa eynayan kuddeɣ s azzigen ti addinat i ad ej awen.
"Several authors have taken a stance against this allegation, claiming that the Gothic style had most likely filtered into Europe in other ways, for example through Spain or Sicily.",Illan ti addinat ajjotnen war n axyez s majrad wen daɣ allaɣen as iššikil wan Gothic ik n amiš hullan as izjar id Eroba s immikan iyyad daɣ almital sa s Spania meɣ Sicily.
It was also influenced by theological doctrines which called for more light and by technical improvements in vaults and buttresses that allowed much greater height and larger windows.,Ornan ti mirda tan win kel addin ɣarrinen s efew ajjen d isammutiyan n tikarsay daɣ tijittawen d buttress tan ikf-anen s tišijrit hullan d fanetir tan maqqornen
Rib-vaults were employed in some parts of the cathedral at Durham (1093–) and in Lessay Abbey in Normandy (1098).,Rib-vault tan axdăman daɣ išrutan n Katedral tan Durham ɣur awtay (1093) d daɣ Lessay Abbey daɣ Normandy (1098)
"The Duchy of Normandy, part of the Angevin Empire until the 13th century, developed its own version of Gothic.","Dutchy an Normandy, ašrut n Angevin Empire har awatay wan 1300 eɣna iššikil n Gothic wan iman net."
One example of early Norman Gothic is Bayeux Cathedral (1060–70) where the Romanesque cathedral nave and choir were rebuilt into the Gothic style.,Almital iyyan n Gothic wan Norman wi azzarnen eqqal Katedral tan Bayeux ɣur awatay wan (1060 har wan 70) s inta ad tiday katedral Nave tan Roman d edag wan isuhaɣ daɣ iššikil n Gothic
Coutances Cathedral was remade into Gothic beginning about 1220.,Katedral Coutances tiday har ajjudi daɣ asinti n Gothic ɣur awatay wan 1220
Suger reconstructed portions of the old Romanesque church with the rib vault in order to remove walls and to make more space for windows.,Ihandagan n Suger wi olasnen edey n egliz tan Roman n aru tidayat s rib vault i ad ammukisan iɣalayan tolas emel n edag i fanetir tan
"In addition, he installed a circular rose window over the portal on the facade.","Tolas, iday fanetir šagaɣan taɣilalwayat fal albab wan ujjiš"
"Durham Cathedral was the first cathedral to employ a rib vault, built between 1093 and 1104.","Katedral tan Durham taqqal katedral tan tizarat ta s axadamat rib vault, tidayat jir awatay wan 1093 d wa 1104."
"One of the builders who is believed to have worked on Sens Cathedral, William of Sens, later travelled to England and became the architect who, between 1175 and 1180, reconstructed the choir of Canterbury Cathedral in the new Gothic style.","Iyyat daɣ albanna tan eɣilan as exdam fal Sens Cathedral , William wan Sens, issokal darat awa s England dihen eqqal albanna wa s olasan edey n edag wan isuhaɣ daɣ katedral Canterbury s iššikil n Gothic wa eynayan."
"French Gothic churches were heavily influenced both by the ambulatory and side-chapels around the choir at Saint-Denis, and by the paired towers and triple doors on the western façade.",Egliz tan n Gothic tan wi takfirt iknan tan tarna chapel tan fuk wi šawankat nen d win edes n edag wan isuhaɣ daɣ Saint-Denis d Tower tan tin tiknewen d albaban win karat fal em wan ijjuš s ataram.
"The builders of Notre-Dame went further by introducing the flying buttress, heavy columns of support outside the walls connected by arches to the upper walls.","Albanna tan win Notre-Dame ikachan i hullan har id ijjan buttress flying , itartaran n iduf n iɣalayan win ajjama osaɣnen id tichangiwen n iɣalayan win afalla"
His work was continued by William the Englishman who replaced his French namesake in 1178.,Alxidmat net issewad tat William wan England isammutiyan isim net wan akal net wan france ɣur awatay wan 1178.
"Tiercerons – decorative vaulting ribs – seem first to be have been used in vaulting at Lincoln Cathedral, installed c.1200.",Tierceros- vault-rib tan idlajnen - olah nat id tijittawen ti s taxdam Kadetral tan Lincoln tidayat ɣur awatay wan 1200.
"The first building in the High Gothic was Chartres Cathedral, an important pilgrimage church south of Paris.","Edey wa ezzaran daɣ Gothic šajren imos wan Katedral Chartres, egliz maqqorat n ahujij daɣ agala i Paris"
"The walls were filled with stained glass, mainly depicting the story of the Virgin Mary but also, in a small corner of each window, illustrating the crafts of the guilds who donated those windows.","Iɣalayan itkaran alkasan idlajnen hullan tanfust tan Maryama mušam hak id daɣ tasaja fuk andarrat n fanetir fuk, isilmadan s tamašɣult n inhadan n tag-gayen ti ikfanen fanetir tan"
"In central Europe, the High Gothic style appeared in the Holy Roman Empire, first at Toul (1220–), whose Romanesque cathedral was rebuilt in the style of Reims Cathedral; then Trier's Liebfrauenkirche parish church (1228–), and then throughout the Reich, beginning with the Elisabethkirche at Marburg (1235–) and the cathedral at Metz (c.1235–).","Daɣ Eroba tan ammas, iššikil n Gothic wa šajren izjar id daɣ Empire n Roma wan alwili, s tizarat daɣ at Toul ɣur awatay wan (1220-) s katedral net tan Roman tolas edey iyyan daɣ iššikil wan katedral tan Reims;dihen egliz tan Trier's Liebfrauenkirche parish daɣ awatay wan (1228- ) tolas id daɣ Reich fuk net issintan s Elisabethkirche daɣ Marburg ɣur awatay wan (1235- ) d katedral tan Metz ɣur awatay wan (c. 1235)"
Lancet windows were supplanted by multiple lights separated by geometrical bar-tracery.,Fanetir tan win Lancet išrayan tan efewan ajjotnen s bar-tracery ijjan tegamšakt
"Other characteristics of the High Gothic were the development of rose windows of greater size, using bar-tracery, higher and longer flying buttresses, which could reach up to the highest windows, and walls of sculpture illustrating biblical stories filling the facade and the fronts of the transept.","Samalan iyyed n Gothic ta šajrotnen aqqalan efes n fanetir tan šajjaɣnen n azuk maqqoran, ijjan s'ibagan, buttress šajren, tolas ad awid har fanetir tan wi ojjarnen tišijrit d iɣalayan talaɣat nen tinfusen tin alinjil idnayan data tan n transept."
"The high and thin walls of French Rayonnant Gothic allowed by the flying buttresses enabled increasingly ambitious expanses of glass and decorated tracery, reinforced with ironwork.",Iɣalayan wi maqqornen d wi sadidnen n Gothic tan French Rayonnant id eraw id flying buttress issewadan hullan asahrik n ilkasan d tracery tidlajat tasisahat tazoli
Masons elaborated a series of tracery patterns for windows – from the basic geometrical to the reticulated and the curvilinear – which had superseded the lancet window.,Albanna tan iknan iššikilan n tracery ajjotnen i fanetir tan - ɣur tegamšakt nasan tesalsit d iyaka tan akrambaynen- išraynen fanetir wan lancet
"Churches with features of this style include Westminster Abbey (1245–), the cathedrals at Lichfield (after 1257–) and Exeter (1275–), Bath Abbey (1298–), and the retro choir at Wells Cathedral (c.1320–).","Egliz tan ilanen samalan n iššikil wen ehan Westminster Abbey (1245–) awatay wan (1245–) Katedral tan daɣ Lichfield (darat awatay wan 1257- ) d Exter daɣ awatay wan (1275- ) , Bath Abbey daɣ awatay wan (1298) d chorale tan ruwen daɣ Wells Katedral (c. 1320)."
Use of ogees was especially common.,Asaxdam n Ogees ijja hullan
"Examples of French flamboyant building include the west façade of Rouen Cathedral, and especially the façades of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s) and choir Mont-Saint-Michel's abbey church (1448).","Almitalan n Edey wan French Flamboyant eha data wan ataram n Katedral tan Rouen, d data tan n Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes daɣ awatay wan (1370) d egliz wan choir Mont-Saint-Michel’Abbey daɣ awatay wan (1448)"
It first appeared in the cloisters and chapter-house (c. 1332) of Old St Paul's Cathedral in London by William de Ramsey.,Izjar id s tizarat daɣ cloisters d chapter-house (c.1332) tan Katedral n Old St Paul daɣ London ijja William de Ramsey
"Perpendicular is sometimes called Third Pointed and was employed over three centuries; the fan-vaulted staircase at Christ Church, Oxford built around 1640.","Tazɣaqt isim net alwaqqan iyyad titbaqqet tan karadat tolas exdam sisim wen har ijja 300 n awatay; fan-vaulted staircase daɣ egliz tan Christ, idayan daɣ Oxford edes n awatay wan 1640."
"The Kings of France had first-hand knowledge of the new Italian style, because of the military campaign of Charles VIII to Naples and Milan (1494), and especially the campaigns of Louis XII and Francis I (1500–1505) to restore French control over Milan and Genoa.",Almalik tan win France ilan musnat tan tiditt n išikil wan Italia fal isaɣliyan n militer tan win Charles VII har Naples d Milan daɣ awatay wan (1494) d isaɣliyan win Louis XII d Francis I (1500 har 1505) i asuɣil n tila tan France fal Milan d Genoa
The Château de Blois (1515–24) introduced the Renaissance loggia and open stairway.,Chateau de Blois daɣ awatay wan (1515 har 24) t ijja id Renaissance Loggia d asiftan wa s itawan stairway.
"Under Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, England was largely isolated from architectural developments on the continent.","Azzaman wan Henry VIII d Elizabeth I, England tikna amuzzi n id efes wan ideyan fal amadal wan eroba."
Shute published the first book in English on classical architecture in 1570.,Shute isilmad fal alkittab net daɣ tangilist wa ezzaran fal edey wan alasal daɣ awatay wan 1570
"The pointed arch did not originate in Gothic architecture; they had been employed for centuries in the Near East in pre-Islamic as well as Islamic architecture for arches, arcades, and ribbed vaults.","Tišangay ta tizzagat war eqqel alasal net edey wan Gothic; t aw axdam nat daɣ timad n iwityan edes n alqiblat daɣ edey wan data al-islam d wan al-islam i tišangiwen, arcade tan d tijittawen."
"They were also sometimes used for more practical purposes, such as to bring transverse vaults to the same height as diagonal vaults, as in the nave and aisles of Durham Cathedral, built in 1093.",Alwaqqan iyyad t aw axdaman daɣ ittusan ajjotnen šund ag-ay n transverse vault tan s edag ogdahan vault tan win diagonal šund daɣ nave d tišariten n Katedral tan Durham tidayat daɣ awatay wan 1093.
"Unlike the semi-circular barrel vault of Roman and Romanesque buildings, where the weight pressed directly downward, and required thick walls and small windows, the Gothic rib vault was made of diagonal crossing arched ribs.","A war n imos tijittawt takrambayat n ideyan win Roman id Romanesque s edag wan azuk net ehal sider, tolas azzilzam ibilɣan sadednen id fanetir tan madroynen, tijittawt tan Gothic tijja s tijittawt tikiyat fal tišangay."
The outward thrust against the walls was countered by the weight of buttresses and later flying buttresses.,Tasintakt tan iɣalayan imhal as azuk n buttresses d wan flying buttresses
"They were very difficult to build, and could only cross a limited space.",Assohat edey nasan tolas war addoben tikit ɣas ar daɣ edag kauzan.
"The alternating rows of alternating columns and piers receiving the weight of the vaults was replaced by simple pillars, each receiving the same weight.","Itartaran d win an mašrayan d tijittawen ti imhal nen azuk n vault tan išrayan ti tijittawen raqqosnen , iyyat fuk iwar tat azuk olahan"
"The first of these new vaults had an additional rib, called a tierceron, which ran down the median of the vault.",Wa ezzaran daɣ vault tan win eynaynen ila tijittawt n tasiwit s isim net tierceron tišilat fal tigdaht n vault
These vaults often copied the forms form of the elaborate tracery of the Late Gothic styles.,Tijittawen tin alwaqqan iyyad asigbar nat dumu tan n tacery tan išikilan win ušray n Gothic
"A second type was called a reticulated vault, which had a network of additional decorative ribs, in triangles and other geometric forms, placed between or over the traverse ribs.",Iššikil wn issin isim net tijittawt tan tesalsit tila rezo n tijittawen n tisiwad ijjanen adlij n tegamšakt d dumu tan iyyad n tegamšakt ilanen jir meɣ s afalla n tijittawen tin traverse
An example is the cloister of Gloucester Cathedral (c. 1370).,Almital iyyan arraxba n katedral tan Gloucester (c.1370)
"They were used later at Sens, at Notre-Dame de Paris and at Canterbury in England.","At aw axdaman darat awa daɣ Sens, daɣ Notre-Dame-dde Paris d daɣ Canterbury ɣur England"
"In the High Gothic period, a new form was introduced, composed of a central core surrounded several attached slender columns, or colonettes, going up to the vaults.","Daɣ azzaman wan Gothic wa chajren, dumu eynayan ijjaš id ijjan s core ehan ammas eɣlayan i itartaran artaynen ajjotnen meɣ colonette tan ahal nen s afalla i tijittawen"
"In England, the clustered columns were often ornamented with stone rings, as well as columns with carved leaves.","Daɣ England, itartaran artaynen alwaqqan iyyad idlajan s tazabut n tahunt hak id itartaran n tilafasen injafnen"
"In place of the Corinthian capital, some columns used a stiff-leaf design.","Daɣ edag wan Kapital tan Corinthia, itartaran iyyad as axdaman s eɣanni n talafast tassohet."
"In later structures, the buttresses often had several arches, each reaching in to a different level of the structure.","Daɣ ideyan win ušrayn buttress tan alwaqqan iyyad ilanat tišangiwen ajjotnen , iyyat fuk t ewad edag izlayan daɣ edey"
The arches had an additional practical purpose; they contained lead channels which carried rainwater off the roof; it was expelled from the mouths of stone gargoyles placed in rows on the buttresses.,Tišangiwen ilanat ittus n tasiwit ; ahan tan isarsaran wi takkasnen aman win ajjinna fal s afalla n tanda; zajaran s em n tahunt tan gargoyles tahat itartaran fal buttress
"They also had a practical purpose; they often served as bell towers supporting belfries, whose bells told the time by announcing religious services, warned of fire or enemy attack, and celebrated special occasions like military victories and coronations.","Ilan ti har ajjudi ittus iyyan; taqqalan bell tower tan imhal nen Belfrie tan s tizoli ten nasan s almad nat s alwaq ijjan i timašɣule tin addin, raqqam nat fal efew meɣ tadlimt n anasjafa d alwaqqan win dallolan šund in tarna ten tin militer tan d taɣaymaten fal taxyamen."
"Since cathedral construction usually took many years, and was extremely expensive, by the time the tower were to be built public enthusiasm waned, and tastes changed.","Alwaq wa id edey wan katedral i taj iwityan ajjotnen , tolas assohat, daɣ azzaman achojja tan idday nat s afanaz n agluy n addinat, id imuttiyan n tarha ten nasan."
Chartres would have been even more exuberant if the second plan had been followed; it called for seven towers around the transept and sanctuary.,Chartres ad ekin tedawit a fal addabara wan issin ilkaman has addinat ; ijja fal teɣare n assayat tower tan edes n transept d edag n alwili.
The early and High Gothic Laon Cathedral has a square lantern tower over the crossing of the transept; two towers on the western front; and two towers on the ends of the transepts.,Katedral ta tazzarat tolas šajret n Gothic Laon tila tefatelt fal transept; sanatat tower tan fal ašrut wan ataram ; d sanatat tower tan daɣ amindi tan n transept tan
"In Normandy, cathedrals and major churches often had multiple towers, built over the centuries; the Abbaye aux Hommes (begun 1066), Caen has nine towers and spires, placed on the facade, the transepts, and the centre.","Daɣ Normandy, Katedral tan d Egliz tan wi maqqornen ilan ichojjan tan ajjotnen, idaynen daɣ timat n iwityan ; Abbaye aux Hommes (issinta daɣ awatay wan 1066), Caen tila taza tower tan d iskawan ahanen sa s data net , transept tan d ammas"
"A variation of the spire was the flèche, a slender, spear-like spire, which was usually placed on the transept where it crossed the nave.","Anmizli n isik eqqal fleche , isik šund allaɣ sadidan s harkuk eha fal transept id it imuqqis id nave."
Amiens Cathedral has a flèche.,Katedral tan Amiens tila fleche
"It was removed in 1786 during a program to modernise the cathedral, but was put back in a new form designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc.",Ammukkas daɣ awatay wan 1786 daɣ talɣa n asimmuti n Katedral mušam eqqal id edag net s dumu izlayan eɣna Eugène Viollet-le-Duc
"In English Gothic, the major tower was often placed at the crossing of the transept and nave, and was much higher than the other.","Daɣ Gothic tan England, tower ta maqqorat tila harkuk diha id ammuqas transept d Nave tolas anmajar nat"
"A crossing tower was constructed at Canterbury Cathedral in 1493–1501 by John Wastell, who had previously worked on King's College at Cambridge.",Tower tan ammas tiday daɣ Katedral tan Canterbury daɣ awatay wan 1493 har 1501 ijja John Wastell s kala exdam fal lakkol wan almalik daɣ Cambridge
An unusual double arch had to be constructed in the centre of the crossing to give the tower the extra support it needed.,Tišangay tannitfasat tizlayat id ti yadnen ilzam ad tidi daɣ ammas n tamuqqest i ad ekfu tower assahat.
"Construction began again in 1724 to the design of Nicholas Hawksmoor, after first Christopher Wren had proposed a design in 1710, but stopped again in 1727.","Edey issinta har ajjudi daɣ awatay wan 1724 daɣ uɣna n Nicholas Hawksmoor , darat s ezzar Christopher Wren uɣna n iyyan daɣ awatay wan 1710 mucham azzukat tolas daɣ awatay wan 1727."
"Cologne Cathedral had been started in the 13th century, following the plan of Amiens Cathedral, but only the apse and the base of one tower were finished in the Gothic period.",katedral tan Cologne t issinta daɣ awatay wan 1300 t ilkam i addabara n Katedral tan Amiens mušam apse d tadamalut n tower iyyat imdan daɣ azzaman wan Gothic
"The tower of Ulm Minster has a similar history, begun in 1377, stopped in 1543, and not completed until the 19th century.","Tower tan Ulm Minister tila attarex olahan , tissinta daɣ awatay wan 1377, tazzukat daɣ awatay wan 1543 tolas war t imda har awatay wan 1900."
Burgos Cathedral was more inspired by Northern Europe.,Katedral tan Burgos tolah id tin Eroba tan tamasna
"Plate tracery was the first type of tracery to be developed, emerging in the later phase of Early Gothic or First Pointed.","Tracery tafitallasat taqqal iššikil wa ezzaran n tracery eɣnan, id izjaran daɣ tikkelt tan ušray n Gothic meɣ tan tizarat tizzagat"
"Tracery is practical as well as decorative, because the increasingly large windows of Gothic buildings needed maximum support against the wind.",Tracery eqqal daɣ edag iyyan a ti illan d harat n adaloj fal as fanetir tan n ideyan win Gothic maqqornen arhan a issohen daɣ adu.
"""Plate tracery reached the height of its sophistication with the 12th century windows of Chartres Cathedral and in the """"Dean's Eye"""" rose window at Lincoln Cathedral.""",“Ibagan ta tifitallasat tewad azuk net wan milɣaw ɣur fanetir tan iknanen daɣ awatay wan 1200 n Katedral tan Chartres d fanetir wa šagaɣan n ““Dean’s Eye”” daɣ Katedral tan Lincoln”.
"Stone bar-tracery, an important decorative element of Gothic styles, first was used at Reims Cathedral shortly after 1211, in the chevet built by Jean D'Orbais.","Tracery n ablaɣ n tahunt, iyyan daɣ titbaqqa n iššikilan n adaloj assohen n Gothic, wa ezzaran ijja daɣ Katedral tan Reims darat 1211 a andarran, daɣ Chevet iday Jean D’Orbais"
"Bar-tracery became common after c.1240, with increasing complexity and decreasing weight.",Bar-tracery eqqal a oharan darat c.1240 s tiw-at tizlayat d afanaz daɣ azuk
"Rayonnant also deployed mouldings of two different types in tracery, where earlier styles had used moulding of a single size, with different sizes of mullions.","Rayonnant exdam s issin iššikilan n mul tan n tracery, a ijja awen iššikilan wi azzarnen axdaman s iddikud olahan , ilan mullion tan s izlayan iddikudan nasan."
The mullions of Geometrical style typically had capitals with curved bars emerging from them.,Mullion tan n iššikil wan tegamšakt ila kapital tan net id tizoli ten akrambaynen id izajarnen daɣ san.
The mullions were in consequence branched into Y-shaped designs further ornamented with cusps.,Mullion tan ijjan isud wan Y daɣ iɣanni tan idlaj nen s cusp tan
"Second Pointed (14th century) saw Intersecting tracery elaborated with ogees, creating a complex reticular (net-like) design known as Reticulated tracery.","Izzug wan issin (daɣ awatay wan 1400) issikna tracery tammuqqasat tiknat s ogees, tikna iɣanni n taselsit maqqoran ilan isim tracery tan taselsit"
"These shapes are known as daggers, fish-bladders, or mouchettes.","Dumu tan win it iwazzayan s isim wan tisudifen, tasayas n eman, mouchette tan"
"Perpendicular strove for verticality and dispensed with the Curvilinear style's sinuous lines in favour of unbroken straight mullions from top to bottom, transected by horizontal transoms and bars.","Strove tan ammuqqas nen daɣ tacšijrit tolas azunnen id išikil n iyaka tan akrambaynen s mullion tan oɣadnen s afalla har s ider , azunnen transom tan d tiburijen"
The transoms were often topped by miniature crenellations.,Transom tan alwaqqan iyyed eha s an crenellation s afalla.
"It frequently covered the facades, and the interior walls of the nave and choir were covered with blind arcades.",Ilsa harkuk s data tan d ammas n iɣalayan n nave d choir ilsan s arcade tan adirɣalnen
2 Vaults Barrel or groin Ribbed Ribbed vaults appeared in the Romanesque era and were elaborated in the Gothic era.,2 vault barrel tan meɣ groin Ribbed vaults ahan daɣ azzaman wan Romanesque tolas aɣnan daɣ azzaman wan Gothic
"They have a long nave making the body of the church, where the parishioners worshipped; a transverse arm called the transept and, beyond it to the east, the choir, also known as a chancel or presbytery, that was usually reserved for the clergy.","Ilan nave šajren ijjan taɣissa n egliz edag wa daɣ ɣabbadan bombertan ; afus n transverse s sism net transept d afalla net s alqiblat, choir s isim net iyyan chancel meɣ Presbyterry s kala taqqal edag imizaran n kel addin"
A passage called the ambulatory circled the choir.,Edag s isim net choir tan taɣilliwayt timatakwayat
"The early cathedrals, like Notre-Dame, had six-part rib vaults, with alternating columns and piers, while later cathedrals had the simpler and stronger four-part vaults, with identical columns.","Katedral tan tin tizarat šund Notre-Dame, tila daɣ ašrut sidisat tijittawen ,id itartaran tinamušraynen d tijittawen as ijja awen Katedral tan tin ušray ilanat akkozat tijittawen raqqosnen tolas assohat nen s olahan itartaran nasnat"
"Transepts were usually short in early French Gothic architecture, but became longer and were given large rose windows in the Rayonnant period.",Transept tan harkuk igašolnen daɣ edey wan tizarat n France mušam chajrotan tolas ikrašan fanetir tan chajjaɣnen daɣ azzaman wan Rayonnant
"In England, transepts were more important, and the floor plans were usually much more complex than in French cathedrals, with the addition of attached Lady Chapels, an octagonal Chapter House, and other structures (See plans of Salisbury Cathedral and York Minster below).","Daɣ England, Transept tan aqqalan a assohen tolas addabara tan nasan aqqalan harkuk a harikan hullan fal Katedral tan win France s tasiwat n Lady Chapel tan osaɣnen, Ehan išimamagan tolas ideyan iyyad ( ikyid daɣ Katedral tan Salisbury d York Minster s ider)"
An elevation typically had four levels.,Tišijrit harkuk tila akkoz ihandagan
"Above that was a narrower gallery, called the triforium, which also helped provide additional thickness and support.",S afalla tille teɣešt karozat s isim net triforium tidhalat daɣ tasiwit n tassidit d asassuhi
"This system was used at Noyon Cathedral, Sens Cathedral, and other early structures.","Sistem wen exdam daɣ Katedral tan Noyon, Katedral tan Sens d ideyan iyyad azzarnen"
"The tribune disappeared, which meant that the arcades could be higher.",Batma assujalan awen amos as arcade tan ad šijritan
"A similar arrangement was adapted in England, at Salisbury Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, and Ely Cathedral.","Amukin olahan ijja daɣ England, daɣ Katedral tan Salisbury,Katedral tan Lincoln d Katedral tan Ely"
"This was made possible by the development of the flying buttress, which transferred the thrust of the weight of the roof to the supports outside the walls.",Awen assarɣas id efes n flying buttress siki azuk n tanda s isigbal win ajjama n iɣalayan
Beauvais Cathedral reached the limit of what was possible with Gothic technology.,Katedral tan Beauvais t ewad tasibdit n awa ilan almaɣna daɣ teknoloji tan Gothic
Gothic facades were adapted from the model of the Romanesque facades.,S data tan Gothic asigbaran iššikil n s data tan win Romanesque
"The sculpture of the central tympanum was devoted to the Last Judgement, that to the left to the Virgin Mary, and that to the right to the Saints honoured at that particular cathedral.","Sculpture tan tympanum wan ammas eqqal i ašal wa tilkamat , s tišalgay net Maryama tan talwilit tolas s aɣil alwali tan ijraw nen semɣar daɣ Katedral tihen daɣ"
"""They followed the doctrine expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas that beauty was a """"harmony of contrasts.""""""",“Ilkaman i mirda s allaɣat Thomas Aquinas s tihussay eqqal nat ““ aharoj n haratan izlaynen”””
In England the rose window was often replaced by several lancet windows.,Daɣ England fanetir wa šagaɣan alwaqqan iyyad šarrayan ti fanetir tan n lancet ajjotnen
"The portals were crowned with high arched gables, composed of concentric arches filled with sculpture.",Albaban ilsan tan arched gable tan chajrotnen artaynen tišangiwen idnay sculpture
"The towers were adorned with their own arches, often crowned with pinnacles.","Tower tan idlajan tan tišangiwen nasan , alwaqqan iyyad pinnacle tan"
"While French cathedrals emphasised the height of the facade, English cathedrals, particularly in earlier Gothic, often emphasised the width.","Kud inta Katedral tan tin France ijjan at anniyat i azuk wan data tan, Katedral tan tin England hullan tan Gothic tazzarat inta tajja anniyat i tahrike"
"He broke away from the French emphasis on height, and eliminated the column statutes and statuary in the arched entries, and covered the facade with colourful mosaics of biblical scenes (The current mosaics are of a later date).","Azun id anniyat ta tijja France i azuk, ikkas a hin tamsil tan tin itartran daɣ ujij n tišangay , isilsa s data s dumu tan ajjotnen n tinfusen tin alinjil (mosaic tan tin amarad ijjan at daɣ iwityan win ušray"
The sculptor Andrea Pisano made the celebrated bronze doors for Florence Baptistry (1330–1336).,Andrea Pisano ijja albaban n bronze i Florence Baptistry ɣur awatay wan (1330-1336)
"There is usually a single or double ambulatory, or aisle, around the choir and east end, so parishioners and pilgrims could walk freely easily around east end.","Ille harkuk, harat iyyan meɣ isiin t i šiwinkit nen meɣ abara edes n choir s alqiblat n amindi net, i a ijrawan i bomber tan d imashujaj ašiwinki raqqisan edes n amindi n alqiblat"
"""Abbot Suger first used the novel combination rib vaults and buttresses to replace the thick walls and replace them with stained glass, opening up that portion of the church to what he considered """"divine light"""".""","‘ Abbot Suger exdam s tizarat s alkittab n rib vault d buttress i ad išri iɣalayan sadednen d ašaray nasan s alkasan idlajnen, tarhinen em n egliz s awa s itawan “”efew n amaxlak””"
"There are three such chapels at Chartres Cathedral, seven at Notre Dame de Paris, Amiens Cathedral, Prague Cathedral and Cologne Cathedral, and nine at Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua in Italy.","Illan ti šund karad chapel tan win daɣ Katedral tan Chartres , assa daɣ Notre Dame de Paris, daɣ Katedral tan Amiens, Katedral tan Prague d Katedral tan Cologne d taza daɣ Basilica tan Anthony wan alwili n Padua daɣ Italia"
"""An edict of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 had declared: """"The composition of religious images is not to be left to the inspiration of artists; it is derived from the principles put in place by the Catholic Church and religious tradition.""",“Ile dekre taɣaymit tan sanat n Nicea daɣ awatay wa 787 tallaɣet “asirtay n taswera tan tin kel addin war he tanat aɣdiman artist tan ɣas; majrad wen izjar id iširitan wi tijja Egliz Katolik d alasal wan addin”
"Gradually, as the style evolved, the sculpture became more and more prominent, taking over the columns of the portal, and gradually climbing above the portals, until statues in niches covered the entire facade, as in Wells Cathedral, to the transepts, and, as at Amiens Cathedral, even on the interior of the facade.","Alwaq wa id iššikil itimittiy, sculpture tan assin tanat tamɣare , šarray nat itartaran win albab tolas fattan at albaban har statue tan ti ahanen inabajjan ilsan at s data fuk šund daɣ Katedral tan Wells har Transept tan d šund daɣ Katedral tan Amiens hak id daɣ ammas n s data."
This set a pattern of complex iconography which was followed at other churches.,Awen ikna iššikil n ikonografi s ilkaman egliz tan
"The tympanum over the central portal on the west façade of Notre-Dame de Paris vividly illustrates the Last Judgement, with figures of sinners being led off to hell, and good Christians taken to heaven.","Typanum fal albab wan ammas n s data wan ataram n Notre-Dame de Paris eqqal hullan a isudatten ašal wan tilkamat, iwaran taliwen n adddinat win inasbekkidan ikkanen efew d kriken tan wi olaɣnen ikkanen aljannat"
The torments of hell were even more vividly depicted.,Alɣazaban win efew intaned deɣ iknan adalaj
"They were part of the visual message for the illiterate worshippers, symbols of the evil and danger that threatened those who did not follow the teachings of the church.","Aqqalan achrut n majrad ilan akayad i inaɣbadan win imajhalan, išikilan n alšin d talbas wi asjraw nen amittisu addinat wi war n ardeɣ s teɣare tin eglliz"
"They were replaced with figures in the Gothic style, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc during the 19th-century restoration.",Ichrayan tan addinat iyyad daɣ ichikil wan Gothic eɣna Eugène Viollet-le-Duc daɣ amasuɣal n awatay wan 1900
"Religious teachings in the Middle Ages, particularly the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, a 6th-century mystic whose book, De Coelesti Hierarchia, was popular among monks in France, taught that all light was divine.","Teɣare tan addin daɣ iwityan win aru hullan ikitban wi ijja Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, harat daɣ alšinan win awatay wan 6 s alkittab net , De Coelesti Hierarchia, eqqal a ilan isim daɣ bombertan n France, issaɣra as annur fuk eqqal a id ifalan amaxlak."
"The windows on the north side, frequently in the shade, had windows depicting the Old Testament.","Fanetir tan n ašrut wan tamasna s ijjit daɣ telay, ilan fanetir tan idlaj nen Alkittab wan Attawrat."
"The details were painted onto the glass in vitreous enamel, then baked in a kiln to fuse the enamel on the glass.",Ifassiran idlajan fal alkas ijjan fantir dihen ibsay daɣ fur i ad ibsay fal alkas
Sainte-Chapelle became the model for other chapels across Europe.,Sainte-Chapelle taqqal dumu i chapel tan ti yadnen daɣ Eroba
"Clear glass was dipped into coloured glass, then portions of the coloured glass were ground away to give exactly the right shade.","Alkas zar ad ilmaɣ daɣ alkas n dumu tan , dihen išrutan n alkas wan dumu ad izidan i ad akf in telay tan tolaɣat"
"One of the most celebrated Flamboyant buildings was the Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes (1370s), with walls of glass from floor to ceiling.",Iyyan daɣ edeyan n Flamboyant ilanen isim hullan ehen Sainte Chapelle de Vicennes (awatay wan 1370) ilan iɣalayan n alkas ɣur sider har s afalla
The stained glass windows were extremely complex and expensive to create.,Fanetir tan n alkas wi ijjanen signi iknan tamɣare hullan tolas assohat eɣanni nasan
"The rose was a symbol of the Virgin Mary, and they were particularly used in churches dedicated to her, including Notre-Dame de Paris.",Tašuɣe taqqal ešwal n Mariyama tan talwilit tolas war ahen ar elgiz tan ɣas has asitbat nen eha Notre-Dame de Paris
"The Palais de la Cité in Paris, close to Notre-Dame de Paris, begun in 1119, which was the principal residence of the French kings until 1417.","Daɣ Palais de la Cité wan Paris, ehozan Notre-Dame de Paris, issinta daɣ awatay wan 1119 eqqalan edag wan tiditt n tamazduq n almalaki tan win France har awatay wan 1417"
"However, it was soon made obsolete by the development of artillery, and in the 15th century it was remodelled into a comfortable residential palace.","Hak id ijja awen, ikkas daɣ is efes n albarodan timbe tolad daɣ awatay wan 1500, olas ijji n dumu iyyan i ad eqqil edag n tamazduq olaɣan"
"The oldest existing example in England is probably the Mob Quad of Merton College at Oxford University, constructed between 1288 and 1378.",Almital wa eru wan iti illan daɣ England war ehamiš as eqqal Mob Quad wan Merton College dav Oxford Unversity idayan jir awatay wan 1288 d awatay wan 1378
"A similar kind of academic cloister was created at Queen's College, Oxford in the 1140s, likely designed by Reginald Ely.",Išikil olahan n academic cloister eɣna id daɣ Queen’s College daɣ Oxford daɣ awatay wan 1140 s ehamiš Reginald Ely a ti id eɣnan
"Some colleges, like Balliol College, Oxford, borrowed a military style from Gothic castles, with battlements and crenolated walls.","Lakkol tan iyyad šund lakkol an Ballio, Oxford, s amarwasan id iššikil n militer daɣ chato tan tin Gothic ilan iɣalayan ti aɣlas nen d asihadad nen"
"""He wrote in 1447 that he wanted his chapel """"to proceed in large form, clean and substantial, setting apart superfluity of too great curious works of entail and busy moulding.""""""","“Iktab daɣ awatay wan 1447 as erha chapel net ““isinta s iššikil maqqoran , zaddigan tolas maqqoran, izlayan ijjit war n infa harat n alxidmaten maqqornen n taflist d ikannan azigatnen”””"
"The walls had two levels of walkways on the inside, a crennellated parapet with merlons, and projecting machicolations from which missiles could be dropped on besiegers.","Iɣalayan ilan issin ihandagan n ašiwinki daɣ ammas , parapet asihadadan s merlon tan tolas tazizjarat machicouli tan s addobat nat misil an ad t awijir nat fal inadlaman"
"Castles were surrounded by a deep moat, spanned by a single drawbridge.",šato tan eɣlay tanat id teɣešt šajret akkokal baraj wa s itiwan Drawbridge
"One good surviving example is the Château de Dourdan, near Nemours.",Almital iyyan olɣan iddaran eqqal Château de Dourdan edes n Nemours
The conversion implied compromises since Latin churches are oriented towards the East and mosques are oriented towards Mecca.,Amutti ahan ti in afhaman ašmad egliz tan win Latin ahal an sa s alqiblat tolas timizjiddawen ahal nat s as Makkat
"Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque, in Famagusta, Northern Cyprus.",Tamizjidda tan Lala Mustafa Pasha daɣ Famagusta daɣ Tamasna n Cyprus
"The Gothic style began to be described as outdated, ugly and even barbaric.","Išikil wan Gothic issinta azajar n as infa harat , ilaš tolas odan in daɣ ta-ite"
"Ireland was an island of Gothic architecture in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the construction of Derry Cathedral (completed 1633), Sligo Cathedral (c. 1730), and Down Cathedral (1790–1818) are other examples.","Ireland taqqal akal n edey wan Gothic jir awatay wan 1700 d wan 1800 id tiday Katedral tan Derry (timdat daɣ awatay wan 1633), Katedral tan Sligo (c.1730) d Katedral tan Down (1790 har 1818) aqqalan almital an"
"The two western towers of Westminster Abbey were constructed between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, opening a new period of Gothic Revival.","Tower tan tin sanatat ataram n Westminster Abbey iday tanat Nicholas Hawsksmoor jir awatay wan 1722 d 1745, orahan azzaman eynayan n asudar eynayan n Gothic"
"This period of more universal appeal, spanning 1855–1885, is known in Britain as High Victorian Gothic.",Azzaman wen n iɣaran daɣ alɣalim ijjanen jir awatay wan 1855 har 1885 issanan ti addinat daɣ Britania s isim wan Gothic wa maqqoran n Victoria
"From the second half of the 19th century onwards, it became more common in Britain for neo-Gothic to be used in the design of non-ecclesiastical and non-governmental buildings types.","Daɣ tazune n awatay wan 1900, oharan addinat daɣ Britania axadam n neo-gothic daɣ iɣan an nasan i iššikilan n ihanan wi war n aqqel wi n addin d wi n alxakum"
"""Landscape architects work on structures and external spaces in the landscape aspect of the design – large or small, urban, suburban and rural, and with """"hard"""" (built) and """"soft"""" (planted) materials, while integrating ecological sustainability.""","“Albanna tan win amagon fal ideyan d ihandadan win ajjama daɣ amagon n iɣanni- maqqoran meɣ madroyan, ehan aɣrim, suburb d assaxra tolas id isuj “assohat nen (idaynen) d “”lammednen”” (sangat) , daɣ as tan aɣalas n ahinzazaɣ”"
They can also review proposals to authorize and supervise contracts for the construction work.,Addoben ad sammutiyan addabara tan i ad akf in turhagat d awikkil n inifhaman win alxidmat tan edey
The first person to write of making a landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712.,Awadim wa ezzaran iktaban iji n amagon war eqqel ar Joseph Addison daɣ awatay wan 1712
"During the latter 19th century, the term landscape architect began to be used by professional landscapes designers, and was firmly established after Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and Beatrix Jones (later Farrand) with others founded the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 1899.","Daɣ ušray n awatay wan 1900, isim wan amagon issintan sirs kel iɣanni tan win amagon alxidmat tolas iknay Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr edey hullan d Beatrix Jones ( darat awa Farrand) id iyyad aɣnan id American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) daɣ awatay wan 1899"
Their projects can range from site surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management purposes.,Froje tan nasan ijjan ɣur farak tan win sit tan d amiyiz n ahinzazaɣ n ihandagan wi maqornen i addabara meɣ ittusan n adaman
"Their work is embodied in written statements of policy and strategy, and their remit includes master planning for new developments, landscape evaluations and assessments, and preparing countryside management or policy plans.","Alxidmat nasan taha majradan iktab nen n folitk d tikarsay tolas tamšɣult nasan ehet musnat n iji n addabara i efes eynayan, amiyiz n amagon d asidu i ag-az n assaxra meɣ addabara ta win folitik"
In recent years the need and interest of therapeutic gardens have been increasingly rising.,Daɣ iwityan eynaynen derhan n d afor daɣ ifirjan win assexat iknan tiw-at
"Among these were Central Park in New York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system.","Daɣ win ehen sistem wan Central Park daɣ New York City, Prospect Park daɣ Brooklyn, New York d wan Emerald Necklace Park wan Boston"
"She was design consultant for over a dozen universities including: Princeton in Princeton, New Jersey; Yale in New Haven, Connecticut; and the Arnold Arboretum for Harvard in Boston, Massachusetts.","Taqqal tanušamt daɣ musnat tan eɣan daɣ maraw lakkolan maqqornen id issi eha: Princeton daɣ Princeton, New Jersey, Yale daɣ New Haven, Conneticut d Arnold Arboretum i Harvard daɣ Boston, Massachussetts"
"Urban Planners are qualified to perform tasks independent of landscape architects, and in general, the curriculum of landscape architecture programs do not prepare students to become urban planners.",Kel musnat win aqqud n iɣirman ilan musnat tan ijji n alxidmaten daɣ war oheran id albanna tan win amagon tolas teɣare tan musnat tan edey war taj attalaba tan kel musnat n aqqud n iɣirman
Roberto Burle Marx in Brazil combined the International style and native Brazilian plants and culture for a new aesthetic.,Roberto Burle Marx daɣ Brazil assirtay iššikil wan jir ikallan d emăɣt wan Brazilia d agna i adaloj eynayan
He popularized a system of analyzing the layers of a site in order to compile a complete understanding of the qualitative attributes of a place.,Izizjar isim n sistem n amiyiz n layer tan n sit i d assarti afaham imdan n iššikilan olaɣnen n edag
"Once recognized by AILA, landscape architects use the title 'Registered Landscape Architect' across the six states and territories within Australia.","Alwaq wa fal as erda AILA, albanna tan in amagon s axdaman isim wan ‘Registered Landscape Architect’ daɣ addawla tan sadisat d ikkallan n Australia"
"Within NZ, Members of NZILA when they achieve their professional standing, can use the title Registered Landscape Architect NZILA.","Daɣ NZ, addinat wi ahanen NZILA alwaq wa id ewadan musnat tan tiditt addoben axadam s isim wan Registered Architect Landscape"
"ILASA's mission is to advance the profession of landscape architecture and uphold high standards of professional service to its members, and to represent the profession of landscape architecture in any matter which may affect the interests of the members of the institute.",Tamašalt n ILASA taqqal a hin tinkiš alxdimat tan edey n amagon tolas taɣlis iširitan wi s tijla tamašɣult tan inaxdiman net d asimal n alxidmat tan edey wan amagon daɣ harat fuk id eqqal a ikman inaxdiman win tagayt ten
At present there are fifteen accredited programmes in the UK.,Har amarad illan ti maraw program tan id samos fal erdaɣ alxakum wan UK
"""In 2008, the LI launched a major recruitment drive entitled """"I want to be a Landscape Architect"""" to encourage the study of Landscape Architecture.""","“Daɣ awatay wan 2008, LI t ijja derhan n adakal n addinat isim net “arheɣ ad aqqila albanna n amagon”” i ad issiwidan derhan n teɣare tan edey wan amagon”"
Several states require passage of a state exam as well.,Addawla tan ajjotnen azilzam nat tolas iji n egzamit n addawla
"By the 6th century BC, the sand already covered the statues of the main temple up to their knees.","Daɣ awatay wan 6 data n annabi ɣisa , akal ilsan ti timsal tan n ehan n aɣabad ɣur afalla net har tinsawen nasan"
"One scheme to save the temples was based on an idea by William MacQuitty to build a clear freshwater dam around the temples, with the water inside kept at the same height as the Nile.",Addabara iyyan i aɣalas n ihanan win aɣabad ijja fal mirda wan William MacQuitty i ad idi baraj n aman win tesase edes n ihanan win aɣabad s ahan aman aɣlasnen ogdahnen id Nile tišijrit
They considered that raising the temples ignored the effect of erosion of the sandstone by desert winds.,Ijja ɣur san as edey n ihanan win aɣabad isatawa in ešer n tihun s adudan win amagon
"Between 1964 and 1968, the entire site was carefully cut into large blocks (up to 30 tons, averaging 20 tons), dismantled, lifted and reassembled in a new location 65 metres higher and 200 metres back from the river, in one of the greatest challenges of archaeological engineering in history.","Jir awatay 1964 d 1968, sit fuk ijja tazune toɣadat n ifrusan maqqornen (har 30 n ton, awa id orakan 20 n ton) ,iftayan, itkalan tolas olas amasidaw daɣ edg eynayan n 65 n metar d 200 n metar siha s ejarew , iyyan daɣ tasisindart i kel teɣare n agna wan alxidmaten tin addinat daɣ attarex"
"Many visitors also arrive by plane at an airfield that was specially constructed for the temple complex, or by road from Aswan, the nearest city.","Inaftaɣan ajjotnen osan id daɣ abyon eɣarɣar wan abyon tan idayan ɣas ehan wan aɣabad meɣ abara s Aswan , aɣrim wa ehan edes hullan"
"The colossal statues along the left-hand wall bear the white crown of Upper Egypt, while those on the opposite side are wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent).",Timsal tan ti maqqornen daɣ ašrut n aɣalay wan tišalgay iwar tanat takabut ta mallat n Upper Egypt as ijja awen ti n ašrut wan aɣil takabut ta t annitfasat n Upper d Lower Egypt (pschent)
"The most famous relief shows the king on his chariot shooting arrows against his fleeing enemies, who are being taken prisoner.",Tedawit tan hullan taqqal asukni n almalik fal torka net ijjar in allaɣan net s inadlaman net wi ošalnen aqqal nen kel kasaw.
There are depictions of Ramesses and Nefertari with the sacred boats of Amun and Ra-Horakhty.,Illan ti idalojan n Ramesseses d Nefertari id bato tn tin talwiliten n Amun d Ra-Horakhty
"These dates are allegedly the king's birthday and coronation day, respectively.",Išilan win aqqalan win tiwit n almalik d ašal wan eqqim fal texyamt
"In fact, according to calculations made on the basis of the heliacal rising of the star Sirius (Sothis) and inscriptions found by archaeologists, this date must have been October 22.","Daɣ medanan ijjanen fal atkul n tatrit tan sirius (Sothis) d ikitban ijrawan kel farak win agna n tamuzduq n addinat, ašal wen addobat as eqqal ašal wan 22 n ayor wan eid el fitr."
This was in fact the second time in ancient Egyptian history that a temple was dedicated to a queen.,Awen eqqal alwaq wan issin daɣ attarex wan aru n Egypt ehan wan aɣabad ijja almalikat
"Traditionally, the statues of the queens stood next to those of the pharaoh, but were never taller than his knees.","Daɣ alasal, timsal tan tin almalikat tan azzukat nat edes n tin Farɣauna mušam kala war ijjenat tišijrit tokayat ifaddan net"
The capitals of the pillars bear the face of the goddess Hathor; this type of column is known as Hathoric.,Kapital tan tin tijittawen iwar tanat udim n Hathor; iššikil n etartar wen itawan has Hathoric.
"On the south and the north walls of this chamber there are two graceful and poetic bas-reliefs of the king and his consort presenting papyrus plants to Hathor, who is depicted as a cow on a boat sailing in a thicket of papyri.",Daɣ iɣalayan win agala d win tamasna n tehannit ten illan ti imagonan issin n almalik d šund inta sakninen ihiškan win papyrus har Hathor idlajan šund tas fal bato daɣ tanabajt n papyri
"None of the current buildings are believed to date from before the 17th century, but they were likely built with the same construction methods and designs as had been used for centuries before.",War ti illa daɣ ideyan s iwar mirda n as ijjan ad orakan i awatay wan 1700 mušam ehamiš as idayan s išikil d iɣanni tan olahan šund immik wa s axdaman a ilan timad n awatay data awa
"Other kasbahs and ksour were located all along this route, such as the nearby Tamdaght to the north.","Kasbah tan iyyed id ksour ahan fuk nasan abara wen, šund wan edes n Tamdaɣt s tamasna."
The village's buildings are grouped together within a defensive wall that includes corner towers and a gate.,Ideyan win taɣrimt iddewan daɣ edag iyyan daɣ aɣalay tan eɣlasan ahan tower tan tin tisijen d albab
"The village also has a number of public or community buildings such as a mosque, a caravanserai, a kasbah (castle-like fortification) and the Marabout of Sidi Ali or Amer.","Taɣrit inta deɣ tila iddikud n ideyan n addinat meɣ n tawseten šund tamizjidda, caravanserai, kasbah (edey chund chato) d alfaqqi n Sidi Ali meɣ Amer"
"It was made of compressed earth and mud, usually mixed with other materials to aid adhesion.",Ikna s kal d talaq artaynen s harkuk artayan id isuj iyyad i asarɣis n alatoɣ
"The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1960s, the Aswan High Dam, is the world's largest embankment dam, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970.","Baraj wan Aswan meɣ a ijja awatay wan 1960 , baraj n Aswan wa maqqoran eqqal baraj n alɣalim wa ojjaran adidi idayan fal Nile daɣ Aswan, Egypt jir awatay wan 1960 har 1970"
"Like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt.","šund edey net wan tizarat, Baraj wa maqqoran ila tifa maqqorat daɣ tamudre n addinat d agna wan Egyt"
"However, this natural flooding varied, since high-water years could destroy the whole crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought and consequently famine.","As ijja awen, anajay n aman wen izlay, alwaq wa id iwityan wi daɣ ijjit n aman eɣašad tadamut fuk net as ijja awen aman n iwityan wi darosnen ɣan in tasiɣeɣt maqqora d manna"
"Instead the Nile Valley Plan by the British hydrologist Harold Edwin Hurst was favored, which proposed to store water in Sudan and Ethiopia, where evaporation is much lower.","Addabra wan Eɣar wan Nile ijja Hydrologist Harold Edwin Hurst wan England inta a ofan, ijjan addabara aɣalaf n aman daɣ Sudan d Ethiopia ihandgan s afanaz n aman i madroyan"
"Initially, both the United States and the USSR were interested in helping development of the dam.",S tizarat addawla tan Amrik d USSR kala eqqal išaɣil tadhilt n efes wan baraj tan
"At that time the U.S. feared that communism would spread to the Middle East, and it saw Nasser as a natural leader of an anticommunist procapitalist Arab League.","Agudendaɣ, États-Unis armaxan fal asinimirtay wa ditihraw daɣ Moyen əd hanayan as Nasser as anamokal ədexlakan ən Ligue naraban wənan erda asinimirtay əd pro capitaliste."
"After the UN criticized a raid by Israel against Egyptian forces in Gaza in 1955, Nasser realized that he could not portray himself as the leader of pan-Arab nationalism if he could not defend his country militarily against Israel.","Darat as ONU ozam akinas wa lanatan tən Israël dər marnan wi Misrtan daɣ Gaza daɣ 1955, Nasser iga as waradobat uguz əs mmilitaitan nakal ənes fal Israël."
"Nasser did not accept these conditions, and consulted the USSR for support.",Nasser wadirudu haratan wən əd isastan dər tadhil tan URSS.
"Dulles was angered more by Nasser's diplomatic recognition of China, which was in direct conflict with Dulles's policy of containment of communism.","Dulles eqal azarat iha əs timuzye ta alkadan wən Chine ye Nasser, əknasan agudendaɣ əd tanaya tan nukus ən nimirtayan wi Dulles."
He was also irritated by Nasser's neutrality and attempts to play both sides of the Cold War.,Eqal daɣ ayhan teraze ən Nasser əd diruman nəs nugiš daɣ dagan wi nəsin daɣ akinas wan tisimde.
The enormous rock and clay dam was designed by the Soviet Hydroproject Institute along with some Egyptian engineers.,Wamaqaran akinas ən tuhun əd talaq adaɣ iga Institut soviétique wan aman ən dawla dər harat daɣ musanan wi egyptientan.
"Conversely, the dam flooded a large area, causing the relocation of over 100,000 people.","Ənimiskalan, akinas ilsa edag maqaran, igan ihinan na iwadan 100 000 nədinat."
The assessment of the costs and benefits of the dam remains controversial decades after its completion.,Tiwat ən nezawe əd garawan nakinas ilant daɣ məgridan awadnen timirwen nelan darat tamuqunt ənes.
"Not taking into account the negative environmental and social effects of the dam, its costs are thus estimated to have been recovered within only two years.","Daɣ warahen əgitan wi nakal əd terweten wi nan ogdeh nakinas, ordan adiš as ezawe wen adaɣ dizgar əsin elan ɣas."
Another observer disagreed and he recommended that the dam should be torn down.,Iyan amanhay wad derda əd ina agmidin akinas.
"The dam mitigated the effects of floods, such as those in 1964, 1973, and 1988.","Akinas ifnaz ixašadan naman, sund wən 1964, 1973 əd 1988."
"A new fishing industry has been created around Lake Nasser, though it is struggling due to its distance from any significant markets.","Taynayat təmukrust nukis ən manan adaɣ tiga dedes ən Lac Nasser, ahuskat as taha asohen fal salan nigig ən hebutan wi tanfo dak."
About half a million families were settled on these new lands.,Aywadan tizune ən milliyaw ən terweten aqalan aydakan akal waynayan.
"On other previously irrigated land, yields increased because water could be made available at critical low-flow periods.","Yur kalan iyad aynaynen dubdag, agaraw awid falas aman adoben arəqəlan atilan alwaqan asohatnen əd witila tanfo."
"In Sudan, 50,000 to 70,000 Sudanese Nubians were moved from the old town of Wadi Halfa and its surrounding villages.","Daɣ Soudan, 50 000 à 70 000 Nubiens soudanaitan ahonan daɣ axrəm wan Wadi Halfa əd fintatan daɣ ahaz nasan."
"The government developed an irrigation project, called the New Halfa Agricultural Development Scheme to grow cotton, grains, sugar cane and other crops.","Guvernema asewadan dawla tan asigal naman, axratat New Halfa Agricultural Development Scheme, fal adigyikan habu, ataxam, ajabal wan asukar əd sigyak iyad."
Housing and facilities were built for 47 village units whose relationship to each other approximated that in Old Nubia.,Ihnan əd dagan aqanan ye 47 tənmitafen ən kal finta əs awa ilan garesan eqal sund wa ruwan ən Nubie.
"The nutrient value added to the land by the sediment was only 6,000 tons of potash, 7,000 tons of phosphorus pentoxide and 17,000 tons of nitrogen.","Tanfo sadwalan tawidat daɣ akal əs crimcraman eqal 6 000 tonnetan ən śośo, 7 000 ən tonnetan pentoxyde wan phosphate əd 17 000 ən tonnetan nazote."
Soil salinity also increased because the distance between the surface and the groundwater table was small enough (1–2 m depending on soil conditions and temperature) to allow water to be pulled up by evaporation so that the relatively small concentrations of salt in the groundwater accumulated on the soil surface over the years.,"Hadi ən tesimt daɣ akal intadaɣ awid falas awa ilan gares dafala əd tesalt tan aman eqal hulen adiran (1 har 2 m əs badan nakal əd takast) far arudaben aman adamaswal sadu, awendaɣ har təmsudiwen tən wənan ila aśahat ən tesimt daɣ aman wi nidernakal aqalnat adiwan fal afala nakal daɣ anəlkim nelan."
By the 1950s only a small proportion of Upper Egypt had not been converted from basin (low transmission) to perennial (high transmission) irrigation.,"Daɣ wityan wi 1950, iyandaɣ edag adiran ən Haute-Egypte wareqel atwasamalayan səswitan wən bassin (hən ilanen ihuk) had asəsu aśohen (ihakan śaśhat)."
S. haematobium has since disappeared altogether.,"Aru, S. Haematobium dakines amlawat."
This means that the dead storage volume would be filled up after 300–500 years if the sediment accumulated at the same rate throughout the area of the lake.,Awen adardila hadi ən təmsudut ən temalalt taqal aytkaran daɣ 300 har 500 nelan as əcrimcraman təmsuduwan əs olan daɣ dagan fuk wən ebang.
"After construction of the dam, aquatic weeds grew much faster in the clearer water, helped by fertilizer residues.","Darat təmuqunt tan tabagawt, alimaz wayjaran naman idwalanid səjit ogaran urmaď daɣ aman šadignen, sililan rimcraman ən barjitan."
Mediterranean fishing and brackish water lake fishery declined after the dam was finished because nutrients that flowed down the Nile to the Mediterranean were trapped behind the dam.,"Ukis ən manan daɣ Mediterrane əd daɣ ebaģ naman wan saumâtre ifnaz darat təmuqunt tan tabaģawt, fas išiška wi difalnen Nil əd sibret ən Mediterrane aqalan ayftayan darat tebaģawt."
A concern before the construction of the High Dam had been the potential drop in river-bed level downstream of the Dam as the result of erosion caused by the flow of sediment-free water.,Ašalalat dat təmuqunt tan Haut Barrage taqal ayfanaz aśohen ən hadi nasarere wan ašašil wa sabadayan daɣ tebaģawt fal salan naxašad iganen fal tənazamaren wirhiha erkišxil.
"The red-brick construction industry, which consisted of hundreds of factories that used Nile sediment deposits along the river, has also been negatively affected.","Ehan wa təmuqunen ən farajitan šajaxnen, wa itagan timade nusintan dakalnen təmsuduwen nerkišixil wan Nil fal em nabanģ, intadaɣ eqalan ayjaran."
Because of the lower turbidity of the water sunlight penetrates deeper in the Nile water.,"Fal salan ən tənazamaren naman, tanure ən tafuk tigash ider naman wi Nil."
"Construction work began in 1995 and, after some US$220 million had been spent, the complex was officially inaugurated on 16 October 2002.","Ašiɗil ən təmuqunen adaɣ asinta 1995 əd, daraƭ tetate ən 220 milliontan ən dollars wan ameriəaintan, əšiɣil ƭaqal atiwazayan daɗ 16 oətobre 2002."
"The recreation of the ancient library was not only adopted by other individuals and agencies, it garnered support from Egyptian politicians.","Asəmusuɣil ən wa aruwan edag wan alkadan wareqel atwalmadan sədinat iyad əd dagan nəšiɣil, taqal intadax ayerdan ye tənumukila tan misrtan."
UNESCO's involvement beginning in 1986 created a great opportunity for the project to truly be international in focus.,Ugiš wan UNESCO daɣ 1986 iga ye dawla atəqil əs tidit daɣ asiryayan ikalan.
This architectural team consisted of ten members representing six countries.,Tidaw tan təmuɣanan taqal aywadan maraw idinat ahanen edag ən saɗis kkalanm.
"The first pledges were made for funding the project at a conference held in 1990 in Aswan: USD $65 million, mostly from the MENA states.","Widazarnen mordatan ən tadhil tan dawla aqalnat aygan ɣur tidawt təgat daɣ 1990 ɣur Assouan : 65 milliontan ən dollars US, ədifalan intadax akal nadag wan MENA."
"In 2010, the library received a donation of 500,000 books from the National Library of France, Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF).","Daɣ 2010, ehan wa nalkaɗan igraw tadhil ən 500 000 alkitab wən hinan nalkaɗan nakal wan Franəe (BnF)."
"The main reading room stands beneath a 32-meter-high glass-panelled roof, tilted out toward the sea like a sundial, and measuring some 160 m in diameter.","Ehan wan taɣare azaran ayha daw tasankrot ən tiset ən 32 metretan daɣ tabade, takutar səbret nagarew sund tesayt ən tafuk, əd təwaɗ agdahan əd 160 m daɣ amas."
"Holding approximately 1,316 artifacts, the Antiquities Museum collection provides a glimpse into Egyptian history from the Pharaonic era to the conquest of Alexander the Great to the Roman civilizations before the advent of Islam across Egypt.","Iha aywadan 1 316 ən harat, isalan wi Musée tan Ehanin haku ahanay ən təfusen negyɗtientan, wən alwaq wan faraotan daɣ akinas wan Alexandre wa Maqaran, daɣ asimar əniyatan wən romaintan, dat agaɗ ən Islam daɣ Misr."
"Microfilm: This section includes microfilms of around 30,000 rare manuscripts and 50,000 documents, as well as a collection from The British Library of around 14,000 Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manuscripts, which is considered the largest collection in Europe.","Microfilms : tedagit ren tila silmatan anɗiratnen əwadnen 30 000 iktaben safus wənantila əd 50 000 nakadan, əd salan wi Britiš Library nigomiš 14 000 əkitban nafus narabe, ɗersantan əd turətan, aqalan sund wi ogarnen əsalan ən Europe."
"However, in 2010 the library received an additional 500,000 books from the Bibliothèque nationale de France.)","Agudenda, daɣ 2010, ehan wan alkadan igraw 500 000 nəlkitaban maqornen ən ehan wan alkadan wən edag wan Fransiya.)"
The Great Mosque of Djenné is a large banco or adobe building that is considered by many architects to be one of the greatest achievements of the Sudano-Sahelian architectural style.,Tamizgida ta Maqarat ən Djenne ataqal ehan maqaran ən talaq meɣ Ɗise ta taqalat ye ajen muɣanan sund harat wa ogaran igi təmuqunen soudano-saheltan.
"The earliest document mentioning the mosque is Abd al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan which gives the early history, presumably from the oral tradition as it existed in the mid-seventeenth century.","Waruwan akatan taha tamizgida eqal Tarikh al-Souda ən Abd al-Sadi wa ifan tanfust taturuwan, tolahat əd tedagit tan tənfas ən magrad amosnen atilan daɣ amas ən 17 temede nawatay."
His immediate successor built the towers of the mosque while the following Sultan built the surrounding wall.,Amašray ənes ugudendaɣ eqan ahazan ən tamizgida awendaɣ sultan wa əlkaman eqan aɣala namas.
This would have been the building that Caillié saw.,Ataqalan ehan way ənhay Əaillié.
"The new mosque was a large, low building lacking any towers or ornamentation.","Tamizgida ta taynayat taqalat ehan maqaran idar, wi iha aɣalay mex adalag."
"The rebuilding was completed in 1907 using forced labour under the direction of Ismaila Traoré, head of Djenné's guild of masons.","Təmuqunt adaɣ təminda 1907 daɣ əšiɣil ən tahašilt daɣ tizart ən Ismaila Traoré, anamokal wan dawla tan mašaɣalan wən Djenné."
There has been debate as to what extent the design of the rebuilt mosque was subject to French influence.,Asostan wan adilməd mamos almaɣna wan anikmam ən tamizgida taqalat asidargan ye šuhišil wan françaistan eqal atiwagradan.
He thought that the cones made the building resemble a baroque temple dedicated to the god of suppositories.,Aɣel haratan tagan aolahan ye ehan fal edag ən tamusne tatiwafat ye Yallah wan aśohen.
"He also says that local people were so unhappy with the new building that they refused to clean it, only doing so when threatened with prison.","Ələɣat ɗekqanen as imudakan aqalan as wadarhen ehan way aynayan sugayan ya tafridan, as witətigin ugud wadaqala atiwasahašalan ye kaso."
"The larger tomb to the south contains the remains of Almany Ismaïla, an important imam of the 18th century.","Asaso wa ogaran təmɣire daɣ emaynag nakal awadiqiyman daɣ Almamy Ismaïla, alimam iwar sarho wan 18e temede nawatay."
"In some cases, the original surfaces of a mosque have even been tiled over, destroying its historical appearance and in some cases compromising the building's structural integrity.","Daɣ hadagan iyad, ədagan wi dazarnen ən tamizgida aqalan atwasalsan əs əarrotan anganen əmik ənes wan tanfust əd izazgaran daɣ handagan iyad dak ən tihusay nahane."
"In 1996, Vogue magazine held a fashion shoot inside the mosque.","Dax 1996, magaza Vogue igan tidawt ən fatotan iknanen daɣ amas ən tamizgida."
"It is accessed by six sets of stairs, each decorated with pinnacles.","As itawagaš saɗis sukunkan, əstasa ədlag əs ɗinaəle."
The prayer wall or qibla of the Great Mosque faces east towards Mecca and overlooks the city marketplace.,"Aɣala wan tumat mex qibla wan Tamizgida Tamaqarat astinaɗ alqiblt, sibret ən Makate, əd təmuqunt tan edag wan hebu nəɣrim."
The cone shaped spires or pinnacles at the top of each minaret are topped with ostrich eggs.,Əmoran meɣ amsud wan əonik ɣur em wan hak daɣ səɣlay aqalnen atiatiwaran daɣ tasadalt nagayis.
"The small, irregularly-positioned windows on the north and south walls allow little natural light to reach the interior of the hall.","Tisankaroten təndiranten, ahanen səmik ebdan aɣala wan ataram əd demaynag, tiyinatid tanure əndirat"
The imam conducts the prayers from the mihrab in the larger central tower.,Alimam itizar daɣ tumat harwa ɣur mihrab tahat daɣ aɣalay wa maqaran namas.
"To the right of the mihrab in the central tower is a second niche, the pulpit or minbar, from which the imam preaches his Friday sermon.","Edag wa mihrab naɣalay wa maqaran namas ilay wa səsən ən niəhe, esasar mex minbar, ɣur aliman əganu əsimines wa səsən ən naljumaɣat."
The walls of the galleries facing the courtyard are punctuated by arched openings.,Əɣalan wi nəmawan hakanen fal aɣala aqalan aytbatan daɣ tarawt ən tədiwt.
"Rather than a single central niche, the mihrab tower originally had a pair of large recesses echoing the form of the entrance arches in the north wall.","As iyadaɣ niəhe namas, aɣalay ən mihrab ila daɣ santo əsən maqornen śuśuha taganen emasli olahan əd moranan wi nugiš naɣala sataram."
"It requires several days to cure but needs to be periodically stirred, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the mixture, thus stirring up the contents.","Asaden ajotnen ihadan fal aśuśuhen, mašan asaden atwisimililiy salwaqan, tadaɣat təlsat intadaɣ tamədrit ta medin wi taganen əsirtayan, səmliliyan awa tihan."
A race is held at the beginning of the festival to see who will be the first to deliver the plaster to the mosque.,"Daɣ santo nadalan, tagu tamašaga fal adətwisin mi eqalan wa azaran ye adawid taswiƭ ən tamizgida."
"In 1930, an inexact replica of the Djenné Mosque was built in the town of Fréjus in southern France.","Daɣ 1930, magrad wənan oɣed ən tamizgida tan Djenné taqal aygan daɣ aɣrəm wan Fréjus, daɣ emaynag ən Fransiya."
"The original mosque presided over one of the most important Islamic learning centers in Africa during the Middle Ages, with thousands of students coming to study the Quran in Djenné's madrassas.","Tamizgida ta tidit tazarat ta iyat daɣ tiogarnen tanfo adag wan lamadan ən Islam daɣ Efrikiya tan Moyen Âge, dər afdan ən maɣran əd dikanen teɣare tan Alquran daɣ madrasatan tən Djenné."
On 20 January 2006 the sight of a team of men hacking at the roof of the mosque sparked a riot in the town.,"20 Janɣier 2006, ahanay ən medin adewnen igašan afala ən tamizgida asikaran atqir daɣ aɣrəm."
In the mosque the mob ripped out the ventilation fans that had been presented by the US Embassy at the time of the Iraq War and then went on a rampage through the town.,"Daɣ tamizgida, əmasangan natqir ikasan ɣentilatertan atwagrawnen daɣ ambassade wan États-Unis ɣur akinas wan Irak, darat awen aqalan amšaršaran daɣ aɣrəm."
"The Great Sphinx of Giza, commonly referred to as the Sphinx of Giza or just the Sphinx, is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx, a mythical creature.","Wamaqaran Sphinx wan Gizeh, daɣ atwizay sitawan Sɗhinx wan Gizeh mex qas Sphinx, eqal tabaraƭ ən talaq tolahat əd sɗhinx əsan, tamaɣlaq wən təwinhiy."
"Furthermore, the angle and location of the south wall of the enclosure suggests the causeway connecting Khafre's Pyramid and Valley Temple already existed before the Sphinx was planned.","Aguden, edang əd dahadila aɣala wan emaynag namas tabarat ta təsirtayat ɗyramide wan Khéphren əd dehan wan gar tuhun təlay datawa dat igitan wən Sphinx."
"When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed.","Ugud wa stèle ataqal ayɣašan daɣ 1925, alɣurufan wi sənmiɣilnen əd Khafre atmasadawan əd aqalan asgadan."
The cult of the Sphinx continued into medieval times.,Tumat tan Sphinx tatwalkam hawendaɣ har ugud wan medieɣaltan.
"Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo and the Giza Pyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively.","Alexandrie, Roseƭe, Damieƭe, Əaire əd ɗyramidtan wən Gizeh aqalan ayktaban səjit olasan, mašan waden salmaɣna ən salan fuk."
"""Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) described the Sphinx as """"the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter"""".""","""Əsa elan darat iki ən Gizeh, André Thevet ( Cosmographie tan Levant, 1556) təktabat Sphinx sund ""eɣaf ən tabarat maqarat, tataqalat Isis, eles ən Inaəhus, izar atiwarha daɣ Jupiter""""."
"Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with a straight haired wig; the only edge over Thévet is that the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress.","Sphinx wan Johanne Helferich (1579) ataqal tama ƭ tasninat, egirgar aɣilalwaynen, ən takumbut namzadan aqurnen ; hara iyandaɣ astila Théɣet eqal as amzadan tiyin tifaten animakašenen daɣ ajabunes."
"Although certain tracts on the Stela are likely accurate, this passage is contradicted by archaeological evidence, thus considered to be Late Period historical revisionism, a purposeful fake, created by the local priests as an attempt to imbue the contemporary Isis temple with an ancient history it never had.","Ahuskat as harat ən tabaraten tiyad ən stèle adiqəlat aoɣadan, tabarat asimadašantat yanayan wi numaɣan əd taqal adiš sund askala dokay daɣ tinfas alwaq wahin ahogan, anasbahu erdan, igan kal asuk wi nakal daɣ igi ən śolo wan Isis nahanin daɣ tanfust taruwat əs kala watətgrew."
"""Recent discoveries, however, strongly show that it was really not built before the reign of Khafre, in the fourth dynasty.""""""","“Atwinhiy aynayan, undendaɣ, əsakan śaśahat as wareqel waykrasan dat tanaya tan Khafre, daɣ ta sukoza ƭ tənayiwen."""""""
"""Maspero believed the Sphinx to be """"the most ancient monument in Egypt"""".""","“Maspero aɣel as Sphinx eqal """"tamuqunt ta togarat tarut daɣ Misr""""."""
"Part of its headdress had fallen off in 1926 due to erosion, which had also cut deeply into its neck.","Tasaga iyat najabunes taqal awdan daɣ 1926 fal təsəba tan adutan, ikradnen daɣ amas intanedaɣ er ənes."
The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder.,Tesayt ta daɣ iga ətikat eɣaf taqal aśohen hulen.
Other tales ascribe it to being the work of Mamluks.,"Ənan kitban iyaɗ, ataqal alkitab wan Mameluks."
"According to al-Maqrīzī, many people living in the area believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was retribution for al-Dahr's act of defacement.","Təna al-Maqrīzī, adinat ajotnen ədaran daɣ akal aɣelan təwa ƭ ən tamalalt tilsa edag wan Gizah eqalan adagal nazagar ən al-Dahr."
Al-Minufi stated that the Alexandrian Crusade in 1365 was divine punishment for a Sufi sheikh of the khanqah of Sa'id breaking off the nose.,Al-Minufi ina as tanmirtay tan Alexandrie 1365 taqal adagal ən Yallah ye Šeikh Soufi wan Khanqah ən Sa'id eqalan arzan tənšar.
"The idea is considered pseudoarchaeology by academia, because no textual or archaeological evidence supports this to be the reason for the orientation of the Sphinx.","Anuzgum wen eqal amos sund təmuqunen arunen daɣ aduniyat təmdat, falas wala iyat tabuhe təktabat meɣ tənifasag wartidgel igi nuniɗ wan Sphinx."
"There is a long history of speculation about hidden chambers beneath the Sphinx, by esoteric figures such as H. Spencer Lewis.","Təlay tanfust zigret atiwanazgamatnen fal ehan wa ifara daw Sɗhinx, sə adinat aɣranen sund H. Spencer Lewis."
It is believed to be the second most visited historical site in Egypt; only the Giza pyramid complex near Cairo receives more visits.,"Aɣelan Sphinx eqal wa səsin edag ən tanfusen tə ogarnen tinaw ne Misr; intaɣas wa aśohen daɣ ɗyramidtan wən Gizeh, ohaznen Kairo, garawan wi ogarnen ənaftaɣan."
"The three other parts, the Precinct of Mut, the Precinct of Montu, and the dismantled Temple of Amenhotep IV, are closed to the public.","Təzunen tən iyad ən karadat, Əité tan Mout, Əité tan Montou əd śolo waygmadan ən Amenhotep IƔ, aqalan ayharan ye adinat."
"The original temple was destroyed and partially restored by Hatshepsut, although another pharaoh built around it in order to change the focus or orientation of the sacred area.","Śolo wan tidit eqal aɣšadan əd agudiyan ayknan as Hatšeɗsout, ašuskat ferɣawna iyan adiqin dax ahazanes fal adisimutiy amas meɣ arakan nadag way isuwan."
Construction of temples started in the Middle Kingdom and continued into Ptolemaic times.,Təmuqunt tan śolo adaɣ tənta Moyen Empire əd dulkaman nes alwaq wan Ptolémaïquetan.
The deities represented range from some of the earliest worshiped to those worshiped much later in the history of the Ancient Egyptian culture.,Tənfusen tə olahnen adaɣ iganat aruwan ye tə təwarhanen səjit darat awa daɣ tənfas tən atwigaz wan Misrtan aruwan.
These architraves may have been lifted to these heights using levers.,"Əkitban wən adoben agaraw nuɣil nafala , daɣ azaway nasa səs tidhil tan amalway."
"If stone had been used for the ramps, they would have been able to use much less material.","Afal tšunt taqal amitkalan fal aydarn, nadobat adakal najen daɣ andəran ən lalan."
Final carving was executed after the drums were put in place so that it was not damaged while being placed.,Atiki wan samando eqal atwagan darat igi ən ƭiɗaɗawen fal adwi ɣišiwnat ugud wa nigi.
"The city of Thebes does not appear to have been of great significance before the Eleventh Dynasty and previous temple building there would have been relatively small, with shrines being dedicated to the early deities of Thebes, the Earth goddess Mut and Montu.","Aɣrəm wan Tèbes eqanan aqalan intanedaɣ andiran, idagan wi tumat aqalan agrawan widazarnen maɣran ən Thèbes, tanamokalte tan Terre Mout əd Montou."
Amun (sometimes called Amen) was long the local tutelary deity of Thebes.,Amon ( ugudiyan itawaɣren əs Amo) eqal ahogan daɣ təmusne nagaraw nakal wan Thèbes.
"Major construction work in the Precinct of Amun-Re took place during the Eighteenth Dynasty, when Thebes became the capital of the unified Ancient Egypt.","Ifanen əšiɣilan ən təmuqunt daɣ Əité Amon-Rê adaɣ igan 18 ən tənumukla,ugud was Thèbes taqal aɣrəm namas wan Égyɗte təruwat tartayan."
"Another of her projects at the site, Karnak's Red Chapel or Chapelle Rouge, was intended as a barque shrine and originally may have stood between her two obelisks.","Iyan daɣ dawlatan wən edag, Capelle Rouge tan Karnak, eqalan aykan ad adəqil ədagan wi tumaden əd aɣur ətila ihomiši santo əgar wi nəsin olahnen təmuqunen."
"Known as the unfinished obelisk, it provides evidence of how obelisks were quarried.","Atiwazay fal əsim təmuqunt wərəminda, asjayha səmik was dizgqarnat təmuqunen."
"The last major change to the Precinct of Amun-Re's layout was the addition of the First Pylon and the massive enclosure walls that surround the whole precinct, both constructed by Nectanebo I of the Thirtieth Dynasty.","Waylkaman tamotayt maqaran təwahid ye tabarat tan amas ən Amon-Rê eqal ƭiwa ƭ ən wazaran fogyas əd ɣalan wi namas azaynen əd waɣlaynen tədawt tan amas, dak tən sanatat aqanat fal Neətanebo 1er wan taskaraɗ tanaya."
"The Karnak temple complex is first described by an unknown Venetian in 1589, although his account gives no name for the complex.","Aśuhu ən śolotan wi Karnak eqal ayktaban daɣ tabarat tatazarat ən Ɣénitien wənan atwazay daɣ 1589, ahuskat as awadokay warifa dak əsim aśohen."
"Protais' writing about their travel was published by Melchisédech Thévenot (Relations de divers voyages curieux, 1670s–1696 editions) and Johann Michael Vansleb (The Present State of Egypt, 1678).","Əkitban wən Ɗrotais fal asikil atan dəzizgaran Melšisédeš Théɣenot ( tartit ən siklawen abdanen nawnaf, alwaq 1670-1696) əd Johann Mišael Ɣansleb ( Misr tan 1678)."
"Following excavation and restoration works by the Johns Hopkins University team, led by Betsy Bryan (see below) the Precinct of Mut has been opened to the public.","Darat əšiɣil wa numaɣ əd dəsiduw tazar tartit tan Uniɣersité Johns Hoɗkins, sanihad Betsy Bryan ( ənhiy ider), Əité tan Mout tamera ye adinat."
"In 2006, Betsy Bryan presented her findings of one festival that included apparent intentional overindulgence in alcohol.","Daɣ 2006, Bersy Bryan asikna awa dinhay daɣ adal ahan hulen musukay ən tesase niba nanuzgum nəsmid."
"These findings were made in the temple of Mut because when Thebes rose to greater prominence, Mut absorbed the warrior goddesses, Sekhmet and Bast, as some of her aspects.","Təmunhuyen tən adaɣ iganat daɣ śolo wan Mout, falas ugud wa Thèbes eqal ogaran tanfo, Mout iswa təmusuha tən akinas, Sekhmet əd Bast, fal igi ən niyad ahanay."
"In a later myth developed around the annual drunken Sekhmet festival, Ra, by then the sun god of Upper Egypt, created her from a fiery eye gained from his mother, to destroy mortals who conspired against him (Lower Egypt).","Daɣ śolo namas idwalan daɣ ahazan nadal wan awatay ən Sekhmet, Rê, izar Yallah wan tafuk wan Maqaran-Égyɗte, igan əs ƭə ƭ taśohet igraw fal mas, fal adəšid təfikwen titisamaɣnen ( Tandirat-Misr)."
The Luxor Temple is a large Ancient Egyptian temple complex located on the east bank of the Nile River in the city today known as Luxor (ancient Thebes) and was constructed approximately 1400 BCE.,Śolo wan Louxor eqal imaqaran aśohen śolo ən Misr tan nuru tahat efaday wan Nil daɣ aɣrəm was e šali atiwazayan fal əsim wan Louxor ( wanuru Thèbes) əd ayqal eqanan daɣ aywadan 1400 dat alwaq wananaɣ.
"Four of the major mortuary temples visited by early travelers include the Temple of Seti I at Gurnah, the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri, the Temple of Ramesses II (i.e., Ramesseum), and the Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu.","Əkoz daɣ śolotan wən tamatant tisin wi dazarnen imusukal amosan śolo wan Séti Ier Gurnah, śolo wan Hatəheɗsout ən Deir el Bahri, śolo wan Ramsès II ( wasitawan Ramesseum) əd śolo wan Ramsès III ənɣur Medinet Habu."
"To the rear of the temple are chapels built by Amenhotep III of the 18th Dynasty, and Alexander.",Darat śolo əlanti siɗinan aganen əs Amenhoteɗ III wan tan 18e tənayiwen əd Alexandre.
This sandstone is referred to as Nubian sandstone.,Talaq ten taqal atiwakasan fal əsim wan talaq tan Nubitan.
"""Alexander Badawy, """"Illusionism in Egyptian Architecture,"""" Studies in the Ancient Oriental Civilization, 35 (1969): 23.""","""Alexandre Badawy, """"Awinan itiwinhiy daɣ təmusnawen tən misrtan"""" ,Studies in the Ancient Oriental Civilization, 35 (1969) : 23."""
Along the avenue the stations were set up for ceremonies such as the Feast of Opet which held significance to temple.,"Efaday ən nadag, idagan wən tabade aqalan aftaɣan ye tidawt tamosat adal wan Opet, eqalan ayfan ye śolo."
"Lalibela is a town in Lasta district of North Wollo Zone in Amhara Region, Ethiopia.","Lalibela ataqal aɣrəm daɣ tazune ta Lasta, daɣ edag wan Wollo Nord, daɣ akal wan Amhara, daɣ Éthiopie."
"To Christians, Lalibela is one of Ethiopia's holiest cities, second only to Axum, and a center of pilgrimage.","Ɣur kretientan, Lalibela ataqal aɣrəm wagaran alɣafiyat daɣ Éthiopie, wasəsin ɗaraƭ Axum, əd amas nuhugig."
The names of several places in the modern town and the general layout of the rock-cut churches themselves are said to mimic names and patterns observed by Lalibela during the time he spent as a youth in Jerusalem and the Holy Land.,Əsimawan ən dagan ajotnen daɣ aɣrəm waynayan əd dəmik nasan wadaɣ ən eglisetan iknanen daɣ tahunt sigburnat əsmawan əd haratan atiwan haynen əs Lalibela ugud wan təmidrit ənes daɣ Jérusalem əd Akal šadigan.
Christian faith inspires many features with Biblical names – even Lalibela's river is known as the River Jordan.,Taflist tan əhretientan taha haratan ajotnen iwaran isəmawan ən bibliquetan – daɣ iha a ša šil wan Lalibela eqal atiwazayan fal əsim wan Jourdain.
"Portuguese priest Francisco Álvares (1465–1540), accompanied the Portuguese Ambassador on his visit to Dawit II in the 1520s.","Əmusan wan ɗortugais Francisco Alvares ( 1465-1540), adew dambasader wan ɗortugais ugud wan tasawt ye Dawit II daɣ awatay wan 1520."
"The next reported European visitor to Lalibela was Miguel de Castanhoso, who served as a soldier under Cristóvão da Gama and left Ethiopia in 1544.","Wadimalan amasakul ən neuroɗeen atwalaɣen daɣ Lalibela eqal Miguel wan Əastanhoso, eqalan sund emarn daɣ Cristóvão da Gam əd ədifalan Éthiopie daɣ 1544."
"""Its pillars were likewise cut from the mountain.""""),""","""Təgitewan aqalnat intanatedaɣ adislaban daɣ ekaraf.""""""),"""
There is some controversy as to when some of the churches were constructed.,Ilanti təmada š tiyat ugud wan alwaq wan təmuqunt tan eglisetan tiyad.
His report described two types of vernacular housing found in the area.,Ə šiɣil ənes iktab əsin ənitan ən hinan ən kalakal atwagaznen daɣ akal.
"Saint Catherine's Monastery, officially Sacred Monastery of the God-Trodden Mount Sinai, is an Eastern Orthodox monastery located on the Sinai Peninsula, at the mouth of a gorge at the foot of Mount Sinai, near the town of Saint Catherine, Egypt.","Ami šir wan Sainte-Catherine, eqalan Ami šir wənan ƭəwiɗis tan mont Sinaï, eqala ami šir oɣadan daɣ alkiblat ən nahazan ən Sinaï, asagiy ən tabarat daw mont Sinaï, daɣ ahazan nəɣrim wan Sainte-Catherine, daɣ Misr."
"""The Saint Catherine monastery is located in the shadow of a group of three mountains; Ras Sufsafeh (possibly """"Mount Horeb"""" c.1 km west), Jebel Arrenziyeb and Jebel Musa, the """"Biblical Mount Sinai"""" (peak c.2 km south).""","""Amišir wan Sainte- Catherine taqal ayhan tele ən tamsudut ən kirfan : Ras Sufsafeh (adobat uɣil ən ""mont Horeb"" daɣ 1km daɣ egadal ən tafuk), Jebel Arrenziyeb əd Jebel Musa, ""mont Sinaï biblique"" (em daɣ 2 km emaynag).(em ən 2km biblique""."
Catherine herself ordered the execution to commence.,Catherine inta emanes tifa tabarat nas s əntinhet tenaɣe.
"""The monastery was built by order of Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565), enclosing the Chapel of the Burning Bush (also known as """"Saint Helen's Chapel"""") ordered to be built by Empress Consort Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, at the site where Moses is supposed to have seen the burning bush.""","""Amišir ayqal eqanan əs t əriɗawt ən nanamokal Justinien Ie (527-565), əd daɣlanen ehan wan tumat ən nufur aśohen (intadaɣ atiwazayan fal əsim wan "" əhaɗelle Sainte-Hélène"") əs t əmuqunt atat erdan anamokal əonsort Helen, mas ən Əonstantin wa Maqaran, daɣ edag ɣur Moïse inihaga ad ənhiy tanufart ta taśohet."""
"The site is sacred to Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.","Edag eqal ən tumat tan əhristianisme, Anislma əd judayism."
"During the seventh century, the isolated Christian anchorites of the Sinai were eliminated: only the fortified monastery remained.","Ɣur ugud wan temede nawatay, inaɣbalan wi Khretientan abdanen əd Sinaï atwakasanin : w ən kal əmšar ɣas aśiśhatnen adiqimanen."
"From the time of the First Crusade, the presence of Crusaders in the Sinai until 1270 spurred the interest of European Christians and increased the number of intrepid pilgrims who visited the monastery.","Dax alwaq wan ugud wan tatazarat tanmirtayt, daɣ tajayhit ən wi artaynen daɣ Sinaï hawendaɣ har 1270 as ədwal tanfo ye əhretientan w ən euroɗéentan əd asewaɗ hadi hugugan iflasnen osanid əmšar."
"The exact administrative status of the church within the Eastern Orthodox Church is ambiguous: by some, including the church itself, it is considered autocephalous, by others an autonomous church under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem.","Əhnan n əšil ətbatan ən lagris daɣ amas ən lagris t ətbatat tan alqiblat taqal asirtayan : fal iyad, daɣ taha lagris inta emanes, atitiwag sund auto céphale, fal iyad sund lagris imanes daɣ tanaya tan lagris ən gre əquetan ətbanen daɣ Jérusalem."
But in 2003 Russian scholars discovered the donation act for the manuscript signed by the Council of Cairo Metochion and Archbishop Callistratus on 13 November 1869.,"Daɣ 2003, ənumaɣa ən russetan ənhayan igi ən tahake nay əktaban ošwalan əs Conseil wan Caire Meto əhion əd anamokal Callistratus wan 13 noɣembre 1869."
Palimpsests are notable for having been reused one or more times over the centuries.,Palimpsestetan aqalan atiwazayan fal uɣil n əšiɣil iyandaɣ meɣ ajen hadagan daɣ anmikiy ən timad ən wityan.
Each page took approximately eight minutes to scan completely.,Asiɗin dak ən hak tasaga itkal aywadan ahamiš ətam minutan.
"The large icon collection begins with a few dating to the 5th (possibly) and 6th centuries, which are unique survivals; the monastery having been untouched by Byzantine iconoclasm, and never sacked.","Wamaqarat asidiw ən harat əntanen əs iyad ɣur 5 ( ihomiš) əd wan 6 temede nawatay, aqalnen ayzaɣan intaned ɣas; amišir waratwadas əs i əono əlasmetan ən byzantin əd əskala warešed."
"The conservation of its architectural structures, paintings, and books comprise much of the Foundation's purpose.","Atawar ən t əmuqunt, ən initan nasnat əd alkitaban amos awa anihagan daɣ santo."
Its size reflects the relative prosperity of the time.,Tebadenes saknus əsuduhal olahnen danuru.
"It was built on the site of an earlier, smaller temple also dedicated to Horus, although the previous structure was oriented east-west rather than north-south as in the present site.","Adaɣ eqan edga ən śolo wanamas, ogaran t əmidrit, eqala ye Horus, ahusken as tartit t ənin ataqal aynadan salqiblat daɣ egadal tafuk waden ataram daɣ emaynag sund awadaɣ ən edag wen amaradaɣ."
The temple of Edfu fell into disuse as a religious monument following Theodosius I's persecution of pagans and edict banning non-Christian worship within the Roman Empire in 391.,Śolo wan Edfou uɗa daɣ tayawt daɣ tumast nahan ən tumat darat asirmaɣ wan ɗaïentan əs Théodose Ier əd wasitawan adagal ən tumaden t əwidilen əhretientan daɣ Emɗire wan romain daɣ 391.
"Over the centuries, the temple became buried to a depth of 12 metres (39 ft) beneath drifting desert sand and layers of river silt deposited by the Nile.","Anilkam ən t əmaɗ ən wityan, śolo eqal aybalan daɣ ider aywadan 12 metretan daw temalalt tan zaliɣat əd t əswat nerkišiɣil əsinsa Nil."
"In 1860 Auguste Mariette, a French Egyptologist, began the work of freeing Edfu temple from the sands.","Daɣ 1860, Auguste Mariette, anumaɣ ən françaistan daɣ Misr, asdaw ye ukis ən śolo wan Edfou ən t əmalalen."
Great Zimbabwe is a medieval city in the south-eastern hills of Zimbabwe near Lake Mutirikwe and the town of Masvingo.,"Waqaran Zimbabwe taqal edag ən tidawen ihan daɣ Kirfan w ən emaynag daɣ egadal ən tafuk wan Zimbabwe, darat ebag Mutirikwe əd aɣr əm wan Masɣingo."
Great Zimbabwe is believed to have served as a royal palace for the local monarch.,Aɣelan as Grand Zimbabwe eqal śolo wan nanamokal fal tanaya tan nakal.
They were constructed without mortar (dry stone).,Aqalan ayeqanan daɣ wala tende ( tahunt taqurat).
"The first confirmed visits by Europeans were in the late 19th century, with investigations of the site starting in 1871.","Widazarnen əmusukal atwalaɣatnen ən Européentan daɣ samando ən 19e temede nawatay, umaɣan fal edag intanat daɣ 1871."
The Great Zimbabwe area was settled by the 4th century AD.,Akal wan Grand Zimbabwe adaɣ atwana 4e temede nawatay tan alwaq wananaɣ.
"David Beach believes that the city and its state, the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, flourished from 1200 to 1500, although a somewhat earlier date for its demise is implied by a description transmitted in the early 1500s to João de Barros.","Daɣid Bea əh aɣel as aɣr əm əd dakal ənes, taɣr əm tan Zimbabwe, ikasan 1200 əd 1500, ahusken as alwaq əndiran aruwan fal ibanes taqalat fal asitbat ən salan ədosanene daɣ santo ən wityan 1500 daɣ João wan Barros."
"They are known as the Hill Complex, the Valley Complex and the Great Enclosure.","Aqalan atiwazayan fal əsim wan Hill Complex, Valley Complex əd Great Enclosure."
"The Valley Complex is divided into the Upper and Lower Valley Ruins, with different periods of occupation.","Aśuhu nagad wan gartuhun eqal aybdan ən aɣšadan ən gartuhun t ənafala əd gartuhun t ənider, daɣ alwaqan ən t əmuzɣe abdanen."
"The focus of power moved from the Hill Complex in the 12th century, to the Great Enclosure, the Upper Valley and finally the Lower Valley in the early 16th century.","Ehan wan t ənumukila atwasahana daɣ Aśohen wan takaraft ən 12 temede nawatay, izar Wamaqaran śolo, ən Wayzwahan əgartuhun əd daɣ samando ən samando ən Waydara gartuhun ən 16e temede nawatay."
"Other artefacts include soapstone figurines (one of which is in the British Museum), pottery, iron gongs, elaborately worked ivory, iron and copper wire, iron hoes, bronze spearheads, copper ingots and crucibles, and gold beads, bracelets, pendants and sheaths.","Wəyadnen harat alanen tənuɣrufen daɣ təhun ( təs iyat atah Britis Museum), ələkan, taɗawɗawt ən tazoli, aśohen asimandan atiki, tiɣunen ən tazoli ən əuiɣre, əd akoman ən tazoli, inataran ən tijir ən bronze, əkruma əd ɣeran ən cuivre, əd zakaten, išigban, tidiwen əd andalan nuraɣ."
"That international commerce was in addition to the local agricultural trade, in which cattle were especially important.","Hebu wen nadinat dak asewaƭi hebu wan sigyak nakal, daɣ amos ehare eqalan hulen ayfan."
"Portuguese traders heard about the remains of the medieval city in the early 16th century, and records survive of interviews and notes made by some of them, linking Great Zimbabwe to gold production and long-distance trade.","Imašanšan wən ɗortigaitan islan itawan adriš wan edag ən médiéɣal daɣ santo ən 16e temede nawatay, əd əley adriš nuguz əd salan am ətkalnen əs iyadaɣsan, wi taganen tanmitaft gar Grand Zimbabwe əd ukisawan nuraɣ əd hebutan ogignen."
"He asserted that the figurine instead appeared to date to the subsequent Ptolemaic era (c. 323–30 BC), when Alexandria-based Greek merchants would export Egyptian antiquities and pseudo-antiquities to southern Africa.","Il əɣat as tanuɣruft tolah daruwan nalwaq wan Ptolémaïque ( ibret ən 323-30 Aɣ. J.- Ə.), izar kal hebutan w ən gre ətan ahanen Alexandrie tiwiyan əd daɣ aru əd wən dat wi nuru Misrtan daɣ Afrikiya tan emaynag."
"Bent had no formal archaeological training, but had travelled very widely in Arabia, Greece and Asia Minor.","Bent wadila tamusne ən təmuqunen tatiwasanat, mašan iga isikilawan ajotnen daɣ Arabiya, daɣ Grèce əd daɣ Asie Mineure."
They have a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line.,Əlan uguz əd dizgaran juiɣetan wi runen mex sud-arabe fal anilkam nasan wan medin.
"The Lemba claim was also reported by a William Bolts (in 1777, to the Austrian Habsburg authorities), and by an A.A. Anderson (writing about his travels north of the Limpopo River in the 19th century).","Asostan wan Lemba eqal intadaɣ adiway William Bolts (daɣ 1777, ye namokalan wi autri əhientan w ən Habsbourg), əd A.A. Anderson (əktaban isikilawan ənes wi nataram ən nabag Limpopo daɣ 19 temede nawatay)."
"She had first sunk three test pits into what had been refuse heaps on the upper terraces of the hill complex, producing a mix of unremarkable pottery and ironwork.","Taɣaš izar karad enuwan nahanay daɣ awa eqalan təmsudiwen nənəkalan fal dat hinan izwaynen ən śolo wan təkirfen, taganen aytaryan ən talaq əd tizoliawinen winan ertey."
Caton Thompson immediately announced her Bantu origin theory to a meeting of the British Association in Johannesburg.,Caton Thompson agudendaɣ adil əɣat tamusnen nes tan ditizgarat bantoue ugud ən tidawt tan British Association daɣ Johannesburg.
"The radiocarbon evidence is a suite of 28 measurements, for which all but the first four, from the early days of the use of that method and now viewed as inaccurate, support the 12th-to-15th-centuries chronology.","Asidutu wan arajo tan ufas eqal adilkaman daɣ 28 nakot, əs kul, atikas wi nukoz azanen, iganen daɣ santo n əšil n əmik wendaɣ əd eqalan ešalidaɣ sund awinan oɣed, ədhalan alwaqan w ən 12e har 15e temede nawatay."
"The removal of gold and artefacts in amateurist diggings by early colonial antiquarians caused widespread damage, notably diggings by Richard Nicklin Hall.","Ukisawan wi nuraɣ əd gulašan daɣ umaɣawan wi marhan ən widazarnen ənumaɣan ən kalan fal ɣašadan ajotnen, atamosan daɣ umaɣawan w ən Ri əhard Ni əklin Hall."
"Preben Kaarsholm writes that both colonial and black nationalist groups invoked Great Zimbabwe's past to support their vision of the country's present, through the media of popular history and of fiction.","Preben Kaarsholm əktab as grouɗtan w ən ɣ ərman əd w ən kalakal kawalnen aɣran ye awadokayan daɣ Grand Zimbabwe fal adidhilan ahanay nasan alwaqendaɣ daɣ akal, daɣ ƭəśiba tan tanfust tatiwazayat əd dayha bahu."
Pikirayi and Kaarsholm suggest that this presentation of Great Zimbabwe was partly intended to encourage settlement and investment in the area.,Pikirayi əd Kaarsholm igan daɣ aniyatan as tajayhit tan Grand Zimbabwe taqal daɣ tazune aykan ad d ədhil tanaya əd huktan daɣ akal.
"In 1980 the new internationally recognised independent country was renamed for the site, and its famous soapstone bird carvings were retained from the Rhodesian flag and Coat of Arms as a national symbol and depicted in the new Zimbabwean flag.","Daɣ 1980, waynayan akal ən tanhat ənes atwazay daɣ kalan eqal aygan əsim wan nadag, əd aśuhu negdaɗ əslabnen daɣ tahunt aqalan aytwaran daw draɗeau əd t ənimuklawen tən Rhodésie sund ašikel nakal əd iha edag daɣ draɗeau tataynayat ən Zimbabwe."
"An example of the former is Ken Mufuka's booklet, although the work has been heavily criticised.","Əlkitab wan Ken Mufuka eqal nehal ən adabara wad dazaran, ahuskat as əlkitab wen eqal śaśahat aytawazan."
It was created to preserve the rich history of this country which was facing a dark future due to globalisation.,Atwaga fal aɗitif tabaɣor tan awadokayan daɣ akal wa inadan əs təmudrenes daɣ tihay fal salan ən tiwaƭ.
"The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the Northern Maya lowlands.","Edag eqal t əmuqunen ajotnen, ədidsaknanen əmikan wa atiwanhayan daɣ amas ən Mexique əd əmikan w ən Ɗuu ə əd Əhenes wan kalan wi darnen ən mayas daɣ ataram."
"The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site.","Aɣr əm igomiši igran tamite ta togarat ajit daɣ aduniyat tan maya, harat adoben agaraw nas iha tadhil tan asijit ən t əmuqunen abdanen daɣ edag."
"""One possible translation for Itza is """"enchanter (or enchantment) of the water,"""" from its (itz), """"sorcerer"""", and ha, """"water"""".""","""Aliɣi wadoben ye Itza eqal """"enadabar (mex adabara) wan aman"""", ən its (itz), ""azima"", əd ha, ""aman""""."
"This form preserves the phonemic distinction between chʼ and ch, since the base word chʼeʼen (which, however, is not stressed in Maya) begins with a postalveolar ejective affricate consonant.","Tanaɣruft ten tətware ibaɗan ən lafizan en gar əh' ən əh, falas əsim wan santo əh’e’ daɣ ( amos, agudendaɣ, warijit daɣ maya) əntan əs alɣaruf affri ətiɣe ( š meɣ sh daɣ Tamašeq) alɣarufan anilkanen."
"""Of these cenotes, the """"Cenote Sagrado"""" or Sacred Cenote (also variously known as the Sacred Well or Well of Sacrifice), is the most famous.""","""Daɣ maslan win, """"Emasli Sagrado"""" meɣ Emasli Sa əré ( əd atiwazayan səjit fal əsim wan Anu Sacré meɣ Anu wan Takute), eqalan wogaran aśuhu."""
"""Instead, the city's political organization could have been structured by a """"multepal"""" system, which is characterized as rulership through council composed of members of elite ruling lineages.""","""Asiga awen, əmsudiw ən tənumukila daɣ aɣrəm adobat adiqil aygan səmik """"multeɗal"""", iganen fal tarna tan t ənmihelt daɣ ertayan adinat ən tawset tan namokalan ən wahusken."""
"It was, however, toward the end of the Late Classic and into the early part of the Terminal Classic that the site became a major regional capital, centralizing and dominating political, sociocultural, economic, and ideological life in the northern Maya lowlands.","Agud wan ibret ən samando wan Classique ahoganən əd wan Classique ən samando as edag adaqal amas nakal wa maqaran, asidaw izar erna tamudre tan t ənumukila, tədawt nadinat, nazrif əd dəniyatan wi santo daɣ akal wan maya tan emaynag."
Hunac Ceel supposedly prophesied his own rise to power.,Hunac Ceel aminawnaw tanumuklanes śaśahat.
"While there is some archeological evidence that indicates Chichén Itzá was at one time looted and sacked, there appears to be greater evidence that it could not have been by Mayapan, at least not when Chichén Itzá was an active urban center.","Ahuskat as tiditen ən təmokinaten tiyad saknenat as Chichén Itná eqalan harat ayšadan əd əgmaɗan, olah das ila tiditen izar amos awinan eqel aygan daɣ Mayaɗan, ifnazan daɣ ugud wa hi əhén Itzá eqal edag tadabayt tədarat."
"After Chichén Itzá elite activities ceased, the city may not have been abandoned.","Darat tebade ten nəšiɣil wən amusan wan Chichén Itzá, aɣrəm wareqel ihomiš atiwayan."
Montejo returned to Yucatán in 1531 with reinforcements and established his main base at Campeche on the west coast.,Montejo eqal əd ɣur Yu əatán daɣ 1531 dər təlalt izar iga edag ənes wazaran daɣ Campe əhe daɣ tasaga tan egadal ən tafuk.
"Montejo the Younger eventually arrived at Chichen Itza, which he renamed Ciudad Real.","Montejo The Younger (Montejo wanamawad) asmada dav agad cn Chichen Itza, scgan csim Ciudad Real."
"Months passed, but no reinforcements arrived.","Uran okaynen, mašan waladaɣ iyat tadhil wadit tosa."
"By 1535, all Spanish had been driven from the Yucatán Peninsula.","Daɣ 1535, Espagnoltan dak aqalan atwašagan daɣ péninsule wan Yukatán."
"In 1860, Désiré Charnay surveyed Chichén Itzá and took numerous photographs that he published in Cités et ruines américaines (1863).","Daɣ 1860, Désiré Charnay ikat Chiəhén Itzá izar ikal ɗhotograɗhitan ajotnen əd dizazgar daɣ Citetan əd miširšaran wi amerikintan ( 1863)."
"""Augustus Le Plongeon called it """"Chaacmol"""" (later renamed """"Chac Mool"""", which has been the term to describe all types of this statuary found in Mesoamerica).""","""Auguste wan Plongeon eɣray """"Chaacmol"""" (iwar agudiyan """"Chac Mool"""", waqalan tətəmal fal salan ən haratan tən təbaraɗen ahanen daɣ Méso-Amérique)""."
"In 1894 the United States Consul to Yucatán, Edward Herbert Thompson, purchased the Hacienda Chichén, which included the ruins of Chichen Itza.","Daɣ 1894, emanahad wan États-Unis daɣ Yukatán, Edward Herbert Thompson ašinša Hacienda Chichén, ahanat miširšaran wən Chiəhén Itza."
"Thompson is most famous for dredging the Cenote Sagrado (Sacred Cenote) from 1904 to 1910, where he recovered artifacts of gold, copper and carved jade, as well as the first-ever examples of what were believed to be pre-Columbian Maya cloth and wooden weapons.","Thompson eqal atiwazayan daɣ tarha ən Cenote Sagrado ( Cenote Sacré) wan 1904 har 1910, ɣur grand haratan ən nuraɣ, ən əuiɣre əd tuhunt tətiket, əd widazarnen nehalan nawa aɣel awadəm daɣ taswit tan mayas ən dag Kolombientan əd siknas ən šaɣeran."
"The Mexican Revolution and the following government instability, as well as World War I, delayed the project by a decade.","Tanakra tan mexikintan əd əba ən tedakit ən tənayiwen taditilkamat, əd Wazaran Akinas Nakal dak, iwaɣin tawlat ən maraw elan."
"At the same time, the Mexican government excavated and restored El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcán) and the Great Ball Court.","Agudendaɣ, imanahapan wi mexikintan imaɣan əd iknan El Castillo (śolo wan Kukulkán) əd Wamaqaran Aɣal ən Nadalan."
"Thompson, who was in the United States at the time, never returned to Yucatán.","Thompson, ihan ɣur États-Unis daɣ ehanin, kala wadirken ɣur Yukatán."
In 1944 the Mexican Supreme Court ruled that Thompson had broken no laws and returned Chichen Itza to his heirs.,"Daɣ 1944, Aɣala waqaran ən Mexique eɣra Thompson winan eɣšed wala izar atwasaka Chiəhén Itza ɣur mukusanes."
"The first was sponsored by the National Geographic, and the second by private interests.","Wadazaran eqal aydhal əs National Géographic, əd wasəsin əs lalan ənmanes."
"The city was built upon broken terrain, which was artificially levelled in order to build the major architectural groups, with the greatest effort being expended in the levelling of the areas for the Castillo pyramid, and the Las Monjas, Osario and Main Southwest groups.","Aɣrəm adaɣ eqan edag akutaran, wa asagdahan adinat fal adudaben uɣin ən wi azarnen grouptan ən təmuqunen, awa ogaran aśahat adaɣ atwaga asəsigda ən dagan wi śolo Kastillo əd grouɗtan wən Las Monjas, Osario əd Main Southwest."
"Many of these stone buildings were originally painted in red, green, blue and purple colors.","Ajen daɣ hinan wən ən təhun aqalan aygan fintur wan ini šajaɣan, dalen, dalen əd dabaran."
"Just like gothic cathedrals in Europe, colors provided a greater sense of completeness and contributed greatly to the symbolic impact of the buildings.","Dak sund kathédraletan ən gothique wən Europiya, initan hakanen wa ogaran təmɣire ən tahanint tatogarat əd ihaku hulen salmaɣna nemik wan təmuqunen."
"The Puuc-style building feature the usual mosaic-decorated upper façades characteristic of the style but differ from the architecture of the Puuc heartland in their block masonry walls, as opposed to the fine veneers of the Puuc region proper.","Təmuqunen tən əmik wan Puuc saknenat awatiwazaya daɣ təsigwen nafala ədlagnen saytawanhayan, talɣiwen ən əmik, mašan abdan ən təmuqunt tan ulh wan Puuc əs ɣalan nasnat daɣ ayertayan ən muɣana, daɣ Iban ən taminak daɣ samando ihan akal wan Puuc sitawan imanes."
At the base of the balustrades of the northeastern staircase are carved heads of a serpent.,Daɣ santo wan təmuqunen ən sukunkan daɣ ataram daɣ alqiblat aqalnat atiken daɣ qafawan ən našalan.
"After several false starts, they discovered a staircase under the north side of the pyramid.","Darat ajotnen igilitan ən bahu, ənhayan isukunkan daw tasaga tan ataram ən śolo."
"The Mexican government excavated a tunnel from the base of the north staircase, up the earlier pyramid's stairway to the hidden temple, and opened it to tourists.","Əmizaran wən mexiəaintan aɣašan tabarat tifalatəd santo ən sukunkan wan ataram, iwanan əsukunkan ən śolo wəndaɣ hawendaɣ har śolo wa ifaran, əd izar amera ye musukal."
"In one panel, one of the players has been decapitated; the wound emits streams of blood in the form of wriggling snakes.","Fal iyad daɣ təfulusen, iyad daɣ masalan falas aratwanga; ahayog atway igmaɗ tisərad nəšni nalmaɣna ən tašilen təmliliynen."
"At the south end is another, much bigger temple, but in ruins.","Daɣ samando wan emaynag ilay iyan śolo, ajitan daɣ təmɣire, mašan eɣšad."
"Inside there is a large mural, much destroyed, which depicts a battle scene.","Daɣ amas iley ini maqaran fal aɣala, səjit ənes eɣšad, ihan edag ən tartit nəkinas."
"It is built in a combination Maya and Toltec styles, with a staircase ascending each of its four sides.","Adaɣ eqan daɣ tanmirtayen tən əmik wan maya əd toltèque, dər asakakin wa owanan fal hak tasaga daɣ əkozaƭ təsigwen."
"In its interior archeologists discovered a collection of large cones carved out of stone, the purpose of which is unknown.","Daɣ amas, ənumaɣan ənhayan tamsudut maqaran ən harat əslabnen daɣ təhun, əs awa aqalnat waratwazay."
"""Its name comes from a series of altars at the top of the structure that are supported by small carved figures of men with upraised arms, called """"atlantes.""""""","""Əsim ənes adizgar śolo anilkanen ɣur samando ən tənmirtayt aqalnen ədhalan fal təniɣrufen əndiratnen əslabnen daɣ medin ən fasan izwaynen, ahasan itawanen """"atlantes""""."""
"This complex is analogous to Temple B at the Toltec capital of Tula, and indicates some form of cultural contact between the two regions.","Śolo wen eqal olahan əd śolo B wan namas ən toltèque wan Tula, əd isakna əmik iyad nənmidəs daɣ awa dogazan kalan wən nəsin garesan."
This temple encases or entombs a former structure called The Temple of the Chac Mool.,Śolo wen asirtay meɣ udadaɣaɣ tənmirtayt taruwat sitawana śolo wan Chac Mool.
"To the south of the Group of a Thousand Columns is a group of three, smaller, interconnected buildings.","Ɣur emaynag ən Groupe wan Mille Colonnes ilay tamsudut ən karad hinan ogarnen təmidrit, animatafnen garesan."
A section of the upper façade with a motif of x's and o's is displayed in front of the structure.,Tasule ən tasaga tan afala dər əmik wan xəd wan o eqalan ayzgara dat tənmirtayt.
The Temple of Xtoloc is a recently restored temple outside the Osario Platform is.,Śolo wan Xtoloə eqal śolo aynayan əd kanan daɣ agama nadag wan Osario.
"Between the Xtoloc temple and the Osario are several aligned structures: The Platform of Venus, which is similar in design to the structure of the same name next to Kukulkan (El Castillo), the Platform of the Tombs, and a small, round structure that is unnamed.","Gar śolo wan Xtoloc əd Osario ahanatan təharatiten ajotnen anilkanen : nadag wan Vénus, əs ahanay ənes eqal adisiktan tanmirtay tolahan dəsim ən tasaga daɣ Kukulkan (EI Castillo), nadag wan Tombeaux, əd tənmirtayt əndirat təbilalaɣat winan tila əsim."
"""The Casa Colorada (Spanish for """"Red House"""") is one of the best preserved buildings at Chichen Itza.""","""Casa Colorada (daɣ espagnol, """"Ehan wa Shagavan"""") eqal harat daɣ hinan wi ogarnen taɣlift ən Chichén Itza."""
"In 2009, INAH restored a small ball court that adjoined the back wall of the Casa Colorada.","Daɣ 2009, INAH ikna edag əndiran ən nadalan ən balo ohazan aɣala wan izdarat ən Casa Colorada."
"This building's name has been long used by the local Maya, and some authors mention that it was named after a deer painting over stucco that doesn't exist anymore.","Əsim wan ehan wen eqal aytawanen harwa ye Mayas wən nakal, əd iyad ənumaɣan aganen as itawanen darat ini wan əert fal stuə əs səbas təlan."
"""The Spanish named this complex Las Monjas (""""The Nuns"""" or """"The Nunnery""""), but it was a governmental palace.""","""Espagnoltan igan əsim ye śolo Las Monjas (""Nonnetan"" meɣ ""Asitayan""), mašan ayeqal ehan ən namokalan."""
These texts frequently mention a ruler by the name of Kʼakʼupakal.,Əkitban wən gananen salwaq dak anamokal wan nəsim K'ak'uɗakal.
It gets its name from the stone spiral staircase inside.,Əsim ənes adər inihaga asakankin ən amšuquqru ən tahunt ihan amas.
"The long, western-facing façade has seven doorways.",Təzigrit ən tasag tatinadaƭ səbret nagadal ən tafuk tila əsa əšar.
The southern end of the building has one entrance.,Daɣ samando wan nahan ila em.
"Inside one of the chambers, near the ceiling, is a painted hand print.","Daɣ amas niyad daɣ hinan, daɣ dedes nafa, ilay adriš nafus idlagan."
The location of the cave has been well known in modern times.,Edag wa taha tekrak eqal ahusken atiwazayan daɣ alwaq wan nahanin.
E. Wyllys Andrews IV also explored the cave in the 1930s.,E.Wyllys Andrews 4 intadaɣ ikyad tekaraft daɣ wityan wən 1930.
"On 15 September 1959, José Humberto Gómez, a local guide, discovered a false wall in the cave.","Daɣ 15 septembre 1959, José Humberto Gómez, emasakan nakal, inhay aɣala ibraran daɣ tekaraft."
"Even before the book was published, Benjamin Norman and Baron Emanuel von Friedrichsthal traveled to Chichen after meeting Stephens, and both published the results of what they found.","Dat azogor imanes ən əlkitab, Benjamin Norman əd anamokal Emanuel Von Friedrichsthal əlmadan as Chichen darat amuqis ən Stephens, əd izar daknasan fal əsin əsiknan awa dəgrawan daɣ umaɣ nasan."
"In 1923, Governor Carrillo Puerto officially opened the highway to Chichen Itza.","Daɣ 1923, emanahad Carrillo Puerto oran daɣ atwisan tabarat tan əbret Chichen Itza."
"In 1930, the Mayaland Hotel opened, just north of the Hacienda Chichén, which had been taken over by the Carnegie Institution.","Daɣ 1930, ehan wan Maryland ora əmawanes, daɣ ataram wan Hacienda Chichén, wa eqalan ašinša Carnegie Institution."
"In 1972, Mexico enacted the Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arqueológicas, Artísticas e Históricas (Federal Law over Monuments and Archeological, Artistic and Historic Sites) that put all the nation's pre-Columbian monuments, including those at Chichen Itza, under federal ownership.","Daɣ 1972, Mexique təzizgar Ley Federal Sobre Monumentos y Zonas Arquellógicas, Artísticas e Históricas (aširiɣa wan tartit təbaraden əd təmuqunen tənuru, manzaran əd kal tənfusen) ihan śolotan wən dat əolombientan wən akal, daɣ iha wən Chichen Itza, daw tədit tan tartit."
"Tour guides will also demonstrate a unique the acoustical effect at Chichen Itza: a handclap before the in front of the staircase the El Castillo pyramid will produce by an echo that resembles the chirp of a bird, similar to that of the quetzal as investigated by Declercq.","Əmizaran wən musukal tagan intanedaɣ əsiknitan ən harat wa səmutuyan ɣas daɣ Chichen Itza: tiwit nəfus dat asakankin wan śolo ən El Castillo itakasəd aytanalasan olahan əd maslan ən nigdat, olahnen əd sund wən quetzal atwaɣran əs Declercq."
"INAH, which manages the site, has closed a number of monuments to public access.","INAH, inayan edag, ihar idagan iyad ajotnen ihnan ye adinat."
"Originally a project of real estate developer and former New York State Senator William H. Reynolds, the building was constructed by Walter Chrysler, the head of the Chrysler Corporation.","Daɣ santo ən dawla tan mahakan ən hinan əd waruwan anamokal wan État wan New York William H. Reynolds, ehan atekanan Walter Chrysler, anamokal wan Chrysler Corporation."
"An annex was completed in 1952, and the building was sold by the Chrysler family the next year, with numerous subsequent owners.","Tasanatat adaɣ təminda 1952, əd ehan eqal ayšan fal terwe tan Chrysler awatay way əlkaman, dər misawsan ən harat iyad ajotnen."
The era was characterized by profound social and technological changes.,Alwaq ila əmikan ən təmotayen əlmaznen ən tərtit əd timusnawen.
"""The following year, Chrysler was named Time magazine's """"Person of the Year"""".""","""Awatay wadimalan, Chrysler eqal wa əgmadan daɣ magazine Time sund ""awadəm wan awatay""."
"Following the end of World War I, European and American architects came to see simplified design as the epitome of the modern era and Art Deco skyscrapers as symbolizing progress, innovation, and modernity.","Darat samando wan Wazaran Akinas ən Kalan dak, əmusanan ən euroɗéentan əd ameriəaintan aqalan adosan ye arigin amukas wa sirɣasan sund asugbaran alwaq wan təmusnawen əd makradan-ən šinawan Art Deco sund ašikel wan ikinəsdat, təmotayen əd təmusnawen."
"Prior to his involvement in planning the building, Reynolds was best known for developing Coney Island's Dreamland amusement park.","Dat ugiš ən adabaratan wən nahan, Reynolds eqal intadaɣ atiwazayan ye igi ən ƭəwat ən tədmir tan narakab ən Dreamland wan Coney Island."
"In 1927, after several years of delays, Reynolds hired the architect William Van Alen to design a forty-story building there.","Daɣ 1927, darat elan ajotnen ən tahagit, Reynolds ina ye amusan William Van Alen fal igi śolo ən əkozat təmirwen nahan."
"Van Alen and Severance complemented each other, with Van Alen being an original, imaginative architect and Severance being a shrewd businessperson who handled the firm's finances.","Van Alen əd Severance tənmilalan, Van Alen eqal amusan atiwazayan izar isamakta əd Seɣeranəe ahalis ən adabaratan Oɣadnen anihad ye azrif wan dawla."
"The proposal was changed again two weeks later, with official plans for a 63-story building.","Təna taqal amutayan daɣ tiyniye daɣ əsin əsatan darat awa, adabaratan hanaynen hena ən 63-ihinan."
The adjacent 56-story Chanin Building was also under construction.,Chanin Buinding ohazan wan 56 ihinan eqal intadaɣ daɣ təmuqunt.
These plans were approved in June 1928.,Adabaratan adaɣ atwasaknan daɣ juin 1928.
"He instead devised an alternate design for the Reynolds Building, which was published in August 1928.","Daɣ edag, iga dawla iyat fal ye Reynolds Building, eqalan adizgaran daɣ août 1928."
"A contract was awarded on October 28, and demolition was completed on November 9.","Tanmirdaw taqal atwafan daɣ 28 Octobre, əd teraze adaɣ təminda 9 novembre."
"From late 1928 to early 1929, modifications to the design of the dome continued.","Daɣ samando nawatay wan 1928 daɣ santo nawatay 1929, təmotayen ən əmik wan dome anilkanen."
"Lower down, the design was affected by Walter Chrysler's intention to make the building the Chrysler Corporation's headquarters, and as such, various architectural details were modeled after Chrysler automobile products, such as the hood ornaments of the Plymouth (see ).","Daɣ ider, tanminak taqal atwawayan fal aniyat wan Walter Chrysler ye igi nahan wan tidawt ən Chrysler Corporation, əd əsim wen, ajotnen timotayen daɣ təmuqunen aqalnat amutayan daɣ lalan nuɣin wən Chrysler, sund ədalagan wən atiwadgalnen ye Plymouth (ənhiy)."
"Construction of the building proper began on January 21, 1929.",Təmuqunt tan ehan sitawan əs tidit adaɣ tənta 21 janvier 1929.
"Despite a frantic steelwork construction pace of about four floors per week, no workers died during the construction of the skyscraper's steelwork.","Mašan daɣ əmik ən tebade ən təmuqunt tan tartit ən tizoliyawinen iwadnen ikoz hinan daɣ əsa haɗan, wala iyan emašaɣal wartaba daɣ ugud wan təmuqunt ta tartit tan tizoliyawinen tən akirkir-ən šinawan."
"""40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building started competing for the distinction of """"world's tallest building"""".""","""40 ən Wall Street əd Chrysler Building adaɣ əsintanat magrad fal təbiɗawt ən """"nehan wa ogaran təmɣire daɣ aduniyat""""."
"On October 23, 1929, one week after surpassing the Woolworth Building's height and one day before the catastrophic Wall Street Crash of 1929 started, the spire was assembled.","Daɣ 23 oətobre 1929, əsa haɗan darat ukuy ən tebade tan Woolworth Building əd ašal iyan dat santo nasuɣsid naɣašad wan Wall Street wan 1929, amor eqal ayertayan."
"Even the New York Herald Tribune, which had virtually continuous coverage of the tower's construction, did not report on the spire's installation until days after the spire had been raised.","New York Herald Tribune emanes, waygan tašart səšwar ika əsdat ən təmuqunt tan aɣalay, əsan daɣ igi wan amor əs harat ən haɗan darat təwaƭ ənes."
"""In the lobby of the building, a bronze plaque that read """"in recognition of Mr. Chrysler's contribution to civic advancement"""" was unveiled.""","""Daɣ hall wan śolo, taswiƭ tan boko iwar əmik """"daɣ təmuzye ən təmuqunt tan M.Chrysler daɣ iki nəsdat ən tartit""""eqal atwanan."""
"The Chrysler Building was appraised at $14 million, but was exempt from city taxes per an 1859 law that gave tax exemptions to sites owned by the Cooper Union.","Chrysler Building eqal awiɗan əs 14 milliontan ən dollars, mašan eqal asiknan lamɗo nəɣrm ye asuhusku nəširiɣa wan 1859 erdan adisifil lamɗo ye dagan əlan Cooper Union."
Van Alen's satisfaction at these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee.,Tigidaht tan Van Alen fal igitanes ən nəsibaban eqal aygmad aśahat fal tungit daɣ afala ən Walter Chrysler ya dizil hadi nalwaq nəšiɣil ənes.
"However, the lawsuit against Chrysler markedly diminished Van Alen's reputation as an architect, which, along with the effects of the Great Depression and negative criticism, ended up ruining his career.","Agudendaɣ, aširiɣa aśohen wan Chrysler asinta sa oɣadan nanmaɣna wan Van Alen as eqal emašaɣal, mamos, dər lalan wən Tamaqarat Tamagrizt əd təzmiten əjarnen, asmanda daɣ aɣašad nəšiɣil ənes."
"In 1944, the corporation filed plans to build a 38-story annex to the east of the building, at 666 Third Avenue.","Daɣ 1944, tartit təsinsa adabaratan fal uɣin ən wa səsin ən 38 ihinan daɣ alqiblat ən nahan, daɣ 666 ən waskarad tadabayt."
"The stone for the original building was no longer manufactured, and had to be specially replicated.",Tahun tan ehan wan santo əbas taqal aytawagen.Tahun tan ehan wan santo əbas taqal aytawagen.
The family sold the building in 1953 to William Zeckendorf for its assessed price of $18 million.,Terwe təšinšahid ehanes daɣ 1953 ye William Zeəkendort fal alhak awiɗan əs 18 milliontan ən dollars.
"At the time, it was reported to be the largest real estate sale in New York City's history.","Daɣ ehanin, amos wa ogaran təmɣire nəsuk ən təmuqunen daɣ awa dokayan daɣ əɣrim wan New York."
"In 1961, the building's stainless steel elements, including the needle, crown, gargoyles, and entrance doors, were polished for the first time.","Daɣ 1961, haratan wən tazoli wad təgiš tenek ən nahan, atamosan talaq, takumbut, imawan əd əšar wi nugiš, aqalan ayknan daɣ tihusay daɣ ehandag wan santo."
The company purchased the building for $35 million.,Tədawt təšinša ehan ən 35 milliontan ən dollars.
The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995.,Amor igraw ikanan əmindanen daɣ 1995.
The cleaning received the New York Landmarks Conservancy's Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award for 1997.,Ifaraɗan igrawan Luəy G. Moses Ɗreserɣation Award wan New York Landmartks Conservancy daɣ 1997.
"In June 2008, it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest, a 15% interest from Tishman Speyer Properties in the building, and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$800 million.","Daɣ juin 2008, eqal agrawan as Əonseil wan tədhilen tən Abu Dhabi eqal daɣ təmdal fal adišanšu tadhil tan tewaden ən 75% wan TMW, tadhil ən 15% ən Tišman Sɗeyer Ɗroɗerties daɣ ehan, əd edagar wan tənmitaft tan ašinše daɣ baɗan en Trylons daɣ dedes ən 800 milliontan ən dollars US."
"This resulted in a 21% decrease in the building's total energy consumption, a 64% decrease in water consumption, and an 81% rate of waste being recycled.","Awen alil yaɣašad ən 21% nadakal dak naśahat wan ehan, wan 64% ən nadakal naman əd 81% hadi wan nəsimusuɣil ninikalan."
"""The Ethics of Philosophical Practice.""""""","""""Magrad wan igi ən nuzguman""""."
"""""""Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value).""","""""""Əmigridan aqalan anuzgum oɣadan daɣ tizmit, daɣ almaɣna ogaran meɣ madriy daɣ əmik ninitan fal akal nalmaxna aduniyat (ənizgam meɣ almaɣna wan təmudre), asidutu ən alɣibadat (almaɣnatan meɣ əmik wan temuzut), əd asisiɣid ən tamudre (magrad meɣ əmik wan aƭiqal)."""""""
Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole.,Daɣ awa ətawanhayan iha edag ən maɣulan ən məgridan ahanen daɣ afahamat ən taɣisa nigi nadabara əd almaɣna ən asidawnen ye alɣibadat daɣ aduniyat daɣ tartit ənes.
"In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.","Daɣ 19e temede nawatay, ƭiwaƭ ən uniɣersitetan daɣ umaɣawan amutaynen ye təzart ən magrand ən maɣran əd iyad əmikan wi ogarnen təmusne əd dazaway ənes."
"In Against the Logicians the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics.","Daɣ alkitaban nes ‘Against the Logicians, enamegrid ɗyrrhoniste Sextus Empiricus iktab təzunawen ən təbiɗawen ən əmikan wəs ənamagradan wən Grèəe tan nuru abdan əmigridan, atamosan tazune tendaɣ daɣ karadat təzunawen taqal ayerdan əs Platon, Aristote, Xénocrate əd stoïcientan."
"Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Stoicism, and Academic Skepticism.","Daɣ atwigaz niyad ən məgridan arunen sədgal Socrate, nanahet əynisme, əyrénaïcisme, stoïcisme əd scepticisme ən təmusnawen."
"Some key Medieval thinkers include St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon.","Daɣ wi dazarnen kal nuzguman wən nahanin ihen Saint Augustin, Thomas wan Aquin, Boèce, Anselme əd Roger Bocon."
"Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.","Wi dazarnen ənamegridan ən musanan aqalan Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume əd Kant."
Babylonian astronomy also included much philosophical speculations about cosmology which may have influenced the Ancient Greeks.,Emaɣar wan etran əd šinawan babylonien ila intadaɣ inuzgam ajotnen daɣ məgridan fal taɣare tan zaleɣat təšalalat Grectan wi arunen.
"Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism, and Reform Judaism.","Agudiyan, əmigridan wən juiɣetan təgraw əšilelan ən təmusne ajotnen ən nagadal ən tafuk əd təla əšiɣilan wən Moses Mendelssohn, wa atwazayan əs Haskalah (tanure tan juiɣetan), təmuduren tən juiftan əd judaïsme atiwasamatayan."
Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating in the Islamic tradition and is mostly done in Arabic.,Əmigridan wən anislam eqal əšiɣil ən magrad ədifalan awa ditəwagazan daɣ anislam əd igan intadaɣ daɣ tarab.
Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions.,Əmigridan nanislam aruwan daɣ ƭəwaƭ tan atwigaz ən məgridan wən greəquetan daɣ salan agudendaɣ ən təmotayen.
"The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as Al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037) and Averroes (12th century).","Əšiɣilan wən Aristote agrawan ašalalat maqaran fal nəmigridan atamosnen Al-Kindi (9e temede nawatay), Aɣiəienne (980 – juin 1037) əd Aɣerroès (12e temede nawatay)."
Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.,Ibn Khaldoun eqal azanazgam ašlalan daɣ əmik wan məgridan ən tənfas.
"Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions.","Ətwigazan wən məgridan nindientan tuzan nəniyatan əd nuzguman ətbatnen, aqalnen atiwazay əs təbiɗawen əmikan əd təriɗaw meɣ tungit fal təbiɗawen ən natwigazan."
Indian philosophy is commonly grouped based on their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them.,Əmigridan wən indientan aqalan amosan ayertayan daɣ təbiɗawt əmikan dər Vedas əd nuzguman ətanahanen.
"""The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called """"orthodox"""" or """"Hindu"""" traditions, are often classified into six darśanas or philosophies:Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.""","""Liəoytan tə amitartarnen fal anuzgum wan Upanišads, ətwigazan wi sitawana """"orthodoxes"""" meɣ """"hindoues"""", aqalan agudiyan akitlen daɣ saɗis darśanas meɣ əmigridan wən Sãnkhya Yoga, Nyãya, Vaišešika, Mimãmsã əd Vedãnta."""
They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.,Asimalaylay intadaɣ alɣafiyat daɣ ajen ətibiɗawen ən məgridan daɣ amas ən hindouisme dak daɣ tuzant ən winindaɣ santo.
"""There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as """"Hindu"""", though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).""","""Ilanti deqanen iyad liəoytan ən nuzguman aqalnen agudiyan atiwagan sund """"indouistes"""", ahuskat as waraqelnat ayfan orthodoxes (falas adobatnat təriɗaw tan hadi ən kitban sund oɣadan, atamosan Agamas əd Trantras šiɣa), awen atihan hadi liəoytan tən šaɣisme atamosnen Pašuɗata, Shaiva Siddhanta, Shavisme tantrique winan eqel əsin (atamosan Trika, Kaula, iyaɗ)."""
"""The denial that a human being possesses a """"self"""" or """"soul"""" is probably the most famous Buddhist teaching.""","""Tina tan fal agudiya ila """"ənes"""" meɣ """"tele"""" eqal amosan asiɣir ən bouddhiste wa ogaran aśuhu."""
"""Jain philosophy is one of the only two surviving """"unorthodox"""" traditions (along with Buddhism).""","""Əmigridan wən jaïntan eqal iyan daɣ wənisin atwigazan ɣas """"winan eqel orthodoxes"""" ilkamnen (dər bouddhiste)."""
"Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.","Anuzgum wan jaïntan idgal as tamudre dak taqal aytanalasan, harkuk əd winan tiwugu."
"In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like Tibetan, Chinese and Pali).","Daɣ kalan iyad, anəzgum wan bouddhistan agət daɣ gar təwsaten tiyətawen dakəlnen timuəhax agətnen ( sund tibétain, taəhinuat ad ɗali)."
"The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand.","Tayəte tan liəoy Theravada togər dax kalan win Asie tan eməynag-alqiblat sund Sri Lanka, Birmanie ad Thaïlande."
"After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed Abhidharma.","Darat tamətan ən Boudha, gruɗtan agətnen assəntan asəmədəw təmusnawen ti azarnen,ye asgət imdan ye amərty ən tiyətawen imdanen əs itwəni Abhidharma."
"There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India.","Ilanət liəoyten agotnen, daw liəoyten ad təwsaten ən tayəte tan Kurdistan dax Inde tatəruwat ad médiévale."
"These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li.","Tiwsaten tin tayəte asgətan timkarawen en timusnawen,fulatik ad timogiten sund Tao,Yin ad Yang, Ren ad Li."
"Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the Song dynasty (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the imperial exams for the scholar official class.","Tinayt tan təmənda əs almaxna wan təxare agud wan alxayal ən Song ( 960-1297),izar tənaten alilnat ider ən məgrədan gor iruman ishəmnen ən taxašamt tan kal musənan naxaqum."
"During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial state.","Gor terwe win əhinuatan tad-dimalat sund terwe tan Ming (1368-1644)ad terwe tan əoréentan Joseon (1392-1897),un néo-konfusianisme izgaranid, animawalnen əs wi zinuzgumitnen sund Wang Yangming (1472-1529), eqal likoy tan anuzgum wa ogaran izar asorda fal akal wa ogaran."
"In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy.","Gor azaman wan ishray, izinuzgam win əhinoitan igashan inuzgam win magrad wan kal egadal ən tafuk."
"For example, New Confucianism, led by figures such as Xiong Shili, has become quite influential.","Gor sund,tinya tan konfusianisme,as anehadan adinat sund Xiong Shili, eqalid ayknan Adgul."
"""Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the """"National Studies"""" (Kokugaku) tradition.""","""Assuhu iyan ən imagridan win jaɗon aynayan eqal tigozst tan ""teqarawen nikalan"""" ( Kokugaku).(Kokugaku)tigozst ""."
"During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob.","Ɣor 17e temede nawatay, magrad wan Ethiopie asimɣar ən tigozst nikaban tasohet,sund azuzi Zera Yaəob."
Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.,Ebadi iyan ən hanayan nadunya imuzaɣan win amerique aqalan afataɣ ən magrad ye mudaran ad ihishkan waren eqel adinat.
The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.,Tamusne tan Teotl tadobat ataqil sund iri wan panthéisme.
"Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy, and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.","Awendak, isalan win edag wan ameriəaintan ən teɣare tan elan win 1990 asiknanen as andaran daɣ deden hanat magradan,izar magradan akalan taberat tan timusnawen nadinat diha ad ajit ən ɗeɗen tifnaz hulen, ɗeɗen tiwaɗnen jar 17% ad 30% ən imasaɣar ən magrad ɣur teɣarawen tiyaɗ."
"""See also """"Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities.""""""",""" Anhiy harwa""""talɣiwen ad talɣa tan imasaɣra ad adinat daɣ aduniat."""""""
Its primary investigations include how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality.,Umaɣawan maqornen ilant fal əmik agay ən tamudre tahusket ad uziy ye tidit ən magrad.
"Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including perceptual experience, reason, memory, and testimony.","Epistologues kayadan idagan atiwazaynen ye tamusne, daɣ tiha musnat tatiwagrawat,tidit, takitawt ad taguhe."
"It arose early in Pre-Socratic philosophy and became formalized with Pyrrho, the founder of the earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism.","Tizgarid shik daɣ migridan win dat Soərate izar tatwazay ad Ɗyrrho,amizar ən liəoy tazarat tan egaɗel ən tafuk ye ashabag ən magradan."
Empiricism places emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.,Musnat tibdad fal tidit nahanay fal musnat niman sund edag ye tamusne.
"Rationalism is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience (such as logic and mathematics).","Tidit tartay ad tamusne daɣ tizart,tasinaflayat ye tamusne ( sund tidit ad eɗanan)."
"Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.","Métaphysique təla kosmologie almud nadunya dak ad ontologie, almud ən mudaran."
"Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity.","Mənhuy tidawt ən ihuk win taganen daɣ harat awa eqal səde əntaneɗ asba muzyat ɣor egaɗal eqal takrišt ta ila harat,tas ənta harat adobat harwa igoz muzyat iness."
"Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences, social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science.","Falas magrad wa šadigan eqal harat maqaran ən timusnawen kul,timusnawen ən tartit ad aməkatan nadinat, tidit taqalid tamusne təknat."
New York: Oxford University Press.,New York : Oxford University Press.
"However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.","Aguden,ajut ən kal teɣare daɣ magrad ən musanan alilan darat awa ye taberat, ye jornaltan,ye tənəslima,ye timusnawen,ye fulatik, ye haratan meɣ timusnawen agotnen."
"In analytic philosophy, philosophy of language investigates the nature of language, the relations between language, language users, and the world.","Daɣ magrad iknan,magrad wan batu eɣra iri ən batu,tartit jar batu, imatkalan ən batu ad adunya."
"These writers were followed by Ludwig Wittgenstein (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus), the Vienna Circle as well as the logical positivists, and Willard Van Orman Quine.","Imanahaɗan atwəlkaman ye Ludwig Wiƭgensƭein (Traətus Logiəo-Ɗhilosoɗhiəus),afaraj wan Ɣienne ad inəflas oɣadnen, ad Williard Van Orman Quine."
He criticized conventionalism because it led to the bizarre consequence that anything can be conventionally denominated by any name.,Ozəm tarədawt falas isakna ɣor ihuk waren təkna as adobat adəkəl tərɗa ihuk ən issim kil.
"To do this, he pointed out that compound words and phrases have a range of correctness.","Ye igui,iga segrah as tifer ad tifer agətnen lanen tagute ən amukən."
"However, by the end of the Cratylus, he had admitted that some social conventions were also involved, and that there were faults in the idea that phonemes had individual meanings.","Aguden, ɣor saməndo ən Əratyle,ila tarda as tirədawen ən timətawen tiyad aqalnat deɣ ay-han, izar anəzgum was iguitan ilanen tənawen ən awadəm ikraš timokənaten abrarnen."
He separated all things into categories of species and genus.,Azun iritan ən haratan tiwsaten ad milhawan kul.
"""However, since Aristotle took these similarities to be constituted by a real commonality of form, he is more often considered a proponent of """"moderate realism"""".""","“Aguden,sund Aristote iga as milhawen aqalnat artaynen fal adawlat tadutet ye aseɣat,eqal agud iyan sund massis ən """"asədətu ifnazan."""""
This lektón was the meaning (or sense) of every term.,Lektón wa eqal assəkən ( meɣ səkno ) ye magrad kul.
There were several noteworthy philosophers of language in the medieval period.,Ilant kal magrad ajutnen magrad ilan təmɣar daɣ azaman išamən.
"The scholastics of the high medieval period, such as Ockham and John Duns Scotus, considered logic to be a scientia sermocinalis (science of language).","Kal teɣare win jinəj azaman aruwan,sund Oəkham ad Jean Duns Səot,jan tidit sund scientia sermocinalis ( musnat wan magrad )."
"The phenomena of vagueness and ambiguity were analyzed intensely, and this led to an increasing interest in problems related to the use of syncategorematic words such as and, or, not, if, and every.","Alwaqatan win iban alaɣi ad ufar atwakiadan hulen, awen daɣ ad orawan tiwaƭ ən tənfo ye taraqatan artaynen ad iji ən iritan ən tifer sund ad, meɣ, war, ad kul."
The suppositio of a term is the interpretation that is given of it in a specific context.,Torda ən magrad taqal alaɣi atiwakfan daɣ taberat tahusket.
"Such a classification scheme is the precursor of modern distinctions between use and mention, and between language and metalanguage.","Ikətab wan assəməsədəw eqal amizar ən baɗiwan išraynen jar iji ad assəkən,ad jar magrad ad jənəjmagrad."
"One part of the common sentence is the lexical word, which is composed of nouns, verbs, and adjectives.","Ašrut ən təfer artaynen eqal tefert Tanzort,tartayat ad ismawan,ad magradan ad iməlaɣi."
Philosophical semantics tends to focus on the principle of compositionality to explain the relationship between meaningful parts and whole sentences.,Assəkən ən magrad orak ye ajalay fal tahašilt tan ijitan ye alaɣi ye timidiwa jar idajan win alaɣi ad tifer əmdanen.
It is possible to use the concept of functions to describe more than just how lexical meanings work: they can also be used to describe the meaning of a sentence.,Adobat iji tan musnat ye assəkən ojaran ašaɣalan win ilaɣitan tanzort : adobatnat deɣ ad atwətəlnat ye assəkən tənna ən tifer.
"""A propositional function is an operation of language that takes an entity (in this case, the horse) as an input and outputs a semantic fact (i.e., the proposition that is represented by """"The horse is red"""").""",""" Temašaɣalt tinna taqal enahaj ən magrad ikalan muzɣat ( daɣ alwaq wen,ebaje) sund ugiš ad tirawt ən iji tənna (adaɣ-ti-dila tənna tasiknat fal """"ebaje sagaɣan"""")."""
Is language acquisition a special faculty in the mind?,Agaraw ən magrad eqal musnat maqarat ye anyat?
"The first is the behaviorist perspective, which dictates that not only is the solid bulk of language learned, but it is learned via conditioning.","Ta tazarat taqal amək nalmud ən talɣa,waren ijin ɣas agədahat ən magrad atwalmad,mašan atwalməd as amək."
Nativist models assert that there are specialized devices in the brain that are dedicated to language acquisition.,Iritan ən kal tirwa alaɣen as ilant haratan afranen daɣ eɣaf aqalnen aykan musnat ən magrad.
"""Linguists Sapir and Whorf suggested that language limited the extent to which members of a """"linguistic community"""" can think about certain subjects (a hypothesis paralleled in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four).""","""Kal magrad Saɗir ad Whorf innən as magrad ezayd alməɣnat daɣ tan məssawis """"tartit ən magrad""""adoben ad afənsin ye batutan iyad ( tords tigašat amsidaɣ daɣ alkitab wan George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four)."""
"The stark opposite to the Sapir–Whorf position is the notion that thought (or, more broadly, mental content) has priority over language.","Daɣ ənməšri ən edag wan Saɗir-Whorf ile anyat as anəzgum (meɣ,tahurut hulener,mertay nanyat) daɣ tizart fal magrad."
Another argument is that it is difficult to explain how signs and symbols on paper can represent anything meaningful unless some sort of meaning is infused into them by the contents of the mind.,Tidit iyat taqal as assohat alaɣi nalmaɣnat was timtar ad šəkelan Dal alkaɗ adoben assəkən harat ən alaɣi aris amək tənna waren taqel iji fal mertay nanyat.
Another tradition of philosophers has attempted to show that language and thought are coextensive – that there is no way of explaining one without the other.,Tigza iyat ən magrad toram assəkən nas magrad ad anyat aqalan amzigri-as wartila adabarat ən alaɣi niyan wala wayadan.
"To an extent, the theoretical underpinnings to cognitive semantics (including the notion of semantic framing) suggest the influence of language upon thought.","Daɣ amək iyan, issənyawan ən tamisne wan tənna nalmud (tša musnat tan anhəj tənna) assinahəjan adgul ən magrad fal anəzgum."
There are studies that prove that languages shape how people understand causality.,Tiɣar tiyaɗ assiknənat as timušaɣ taganət alməɣna was adinat assanən iji.
"""However, Spanish or Japanese speakers would be more likely to say """"the vase broke itself"""".""","""Aguden,kal esɗagnoltan meɣ jaɗontan aqal hulen əsman nassən tənna ""aəoss erza ad maness""."""
Spanish and Japanese speakers did not remember the agents of accidental events as well as did English speakers.,Eɗagnoltan ad jaɗonaitan war kətəwan məssawəs ən mešlan ad harwa inglishtan.
In one study German and Spanish speakers were asked to describe objects having opposite gender assignment in those two languages.,"Daɣ teɣare iyat,nasistan germantan ad kal esɗagnoltan səknən haratan wis alməɣna animəšray daɣ timušaɣ tassənen."
"""To describe a """"bridge"""", which is feminine in German and masculine in Spanish, the German speakers said """"beautiful"""", """"elegant"""", """"fragile"""", """"peaceful"""", """"pretty"""" and """"slender"""", and the Spanish speakers said """"big"""", """"dangerous"""", """"long"""", """"strong"""", """"sturdy"""" and """"towering"""".""","Ye assəkən ən ""admar,""eqalan wan ɗeɗen ɣor allamagne ad wan medan ɣor esɗagnol, germantan ənnan ""ahuskat"", ""teləse"",""tələmɗe"",""erazi"",""ikna"", izar ""sadid"", izar esɗagnoltan inən ""maqər"", ""warahuskat"", ""zəgrət "", ""asohat "", ""haru"" , izar ""ašahašal ."""
Whether each alien was friendly or hostile was determined by certain subtle features but participants were not told what these were.,"Talɣa ən təmidiwa meɣ azalay ən alšin kul atiwəlmad əs timezlayen tiyad sadidnen,mašen imugašan war əlmedan ɣor tin alkum."
"For the rest, the aliens remained nameless.","Ye awa ədaqiman, alšinan aqiman wala issəm."
It was concluded that naming objects helps us categorize and memorize them.,Atwəsabdad as iji nissəm ye haratan alilanaɣ ye ebaɗi nassən tənna ad almud nassən.
"Within this area, issues include: the nature of synonymy, the origins of meaning itself, our apprehension of meaning, and the nature of composition (the question of how meaningful units of language are composed of smaller meaningful parts, and how the meaning of the whole is derived from the meaning of its parts).","Daɣ edaj wen,issəstan warən aktub fal iri daɣ milhaw,səntotan ən awa dərtidila ənta imanes,atkul nanaɣ ən alaɣi ad iri wan akatab ( assestan wan musnat nalmaɣnat tirtay atiwəsənen ən magrad artaynat ad tidagaten atiwəsənen maɗroynen ad almaɣna wa dərtidila kul izgarid ye alaɣi ən tidəgaten ness)."
"The ideational theory of meaning, most commonly associated with the British empiricist John Locke, claims that meanings are mental representations provoked by signs.","Tamusne ən tamənhuyt ye aləɣi,ertay alwaq ad termit tan britannique John Loəke,aɣel ilaɣitan aqalan imənahadan ajoratnen atiwaɗlamnen əs timtar."
(See also Wittgenstein's picture theory of language.),(Ahanay deɣ ən tamusne taqalat assura ən magrad wan Wiƭgenstein).
"Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.","Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press."
"The reference theory of meaning, also known collectively as semantic externalism, views meaning to be equivalent to those things in the world that are actually connected to signs.","Tamusne tan tamuzye ən alaɣi,eqal atiwazayan səjət,daw issəm wan azagor ən tənna,ija as alaɣi ogdah ad haratən daɣ adunya eqalnen əs tidit ešwalan."
The traditional formulation of such a theory is that the meaning of a sentence is its method of verification or falsification.,Magrad atiwagazan ən tamusne eqal tənna ən təfer eqal tamkəre tan umaɣ meɣ aɣašad.
"In this version, the comprehension (and hence meaning) of a sentence consists in the hearer's ability to recognize the demonstration (mathematical, empirical or other) of the truth of the sentence.","Daɣ tefert ta,alamadat (ad tənna) ən tafert eqal ɣor tadabit ən eməssagadat tarədawt ən assəkən (imaɗinan,tirma meɣ iyan)wan tidit tafert."
A pragmatic theory of meaning is any theory in which the meaning (or understanding) of a sentence is determined by the consequences of its application.,Tamusne ən tissit ən alaɣi eqal tamusne kul tayha alaɣi (meɣ ajarahat) ən tafert almud ən
Gottlob Frege was an advocate of a mediated reference theory.,Gottlob Frege eqal emərh ən tamusne tan muzyat waren tartey.
"Such a thought is abstract, universal and objective.","Anəzgum wen ifar,maqar ad adətu."
Referents are the objects in the world that words pick out.,Ihuk amosən haratan win adunya wi dəjarawan ad dijarawnat təfer.
"""He viewed proper names of the sort described above as """"abbreviated definite descriptions"""" (see Theory of descriptions).""",".""Ija ismawan wi ahuskatnen ən iri atiwalaɣen safəla sund """"itwəlaɣitan alaɣi gəzəlan).""ahanay ən tamusne tan itwəlaɣitan)."""
Such phrases denote in the sense that there is an object that satisfies the description.,Alɣarufan iyaɗ war dəkəlan awakəl diha ətila harat wa ifənn alaɣi.
"On Frege's account, any referring expression has a sense as well as a referent.","Fal eɗan wan Frege, magrad kul atiwassənan ila musnat sənehal."
"Despite the differences between the views of Frege and Russell, they are generally lumped together as descriptivists about proper names.","Ɣor izalayan jar idəjan win nahanay ən Frege ad Russell,aqalan sund ilaɣitan ən ismawan ahuskatnen."
"""Consider the name Aristotle and the descriptions """"the greatest student of Plato"""", """"the founder of logic"""" and """"the teacher of Alexander"""".""","""Atkəlatanaɣ issəm wan Aristote ad ilaɣitan emaɣar wa maɣəran ən Platon"""", ""emənahaɗ məssaɣar"" ad""eməssaɣar ən Alexandre ""."""""
He may have existed and not have become known to posterity at all or he may have died in infancy.,Adobat agaraw nəmel əs warigrew muzyat tan ajilan meɣ abat ɣor təmadrit.
But this is deeply counterintuitive.,Maəhan awen zəgrət fal-musnat.
Questions inevitably arise on surrounding topics.,Assəstanan zagarənid daɣ iban tənhat fal batutan ohaznen.
David Kellogg Lewis proposed a worthy reply to the first question by expounding the view that a convention is a rationally self-perpetuating regularity in behavior.,David Kellogg Lewis asinəhəja assudmar ikrašan issəm ɣor assestan wazaran daɣ tənna ye anəzgum ye tərədawt eqal milhaw tadutet ən tahajit daɣ teməšalt.
"Noam Chomsky proposed that the study of language could be done in terms of the I-Language, or internal language of persons.","Noam Əhomsky assinəhəja azaway ən magrad adobat iji daɣ magrad,meɣ magrad daɣ amass nadinat."
"One fruitful source of research involves investigation into the social conditions that give rise to, or are associated with, meanings and languages.","Taberat təfat ye umaɣ sartay umaɣ ən almaɣnatən ən tamudrawen wi həkanen edaj ɣor, meɣ artayan ɣor, ilaɣitan ad magradan."
The presumptions that prop up each theoretical view are of interest to the philosopher of language.,Inəhəjitan wi alilnen alməɣna nahanay ən tamusne aqalan ahusken fal migridan ən magrad.
"Rhetoric is the study of the particular words that people use to achieve the proper emotional and rational effect in the listener, be it to persuade, provoke, endear, or teach.","Tamusne ən magrad taqal almud ən təfer abɗanen tidakalan adinat ye agaraw iji namətusu ad adətu iknan ɣor eməsagad,ye təfləst,taɗləmt,tərha meɣ assəɣar."
"It also has applications to the study and interpretation of law, and helps give insight to the logical concept of the domain of discourse.","Təla deɣ ən ijitan daɣ almud ad alaɣi ən torhajat, izar igraw ən almud ən musnat tadutet edaj ən magrad."
"""The idea of language is often related to that of logic in its Greek sense as """"logos"""", meaning discourse or dialectic.""","Aniyat ən magrad ertay alwaq iyan ad wan tidit daɣ musnat wan greə ən """"llogos"""", daɣ tidila batu meɣ alməɣna ən tidit."
Heidegger combines phenomenology with the hermeneutics of Wilhelm Dilthey.,Heidegger assərtay haratan tajanen daɣ alwaq iyan ad alaɣi wan Wilhelm Diilthey.
"For example, Sein (being), the word itself, is saturated with multiple meanings.","Sund, daɣ ( uɣəl),tefert iman ness,təməda laɣitan ajotnen."
"""Heidegger claims writing is only a supplement to speech, because even readers construct or contribute their own """"talk"""" while reading.""","""Heidegger aliɣat as aqətatab eqal assiwəɗ ye tənna, falas iməɣra imaness karəssan meɣ tiwyənid """"magrad"""" nassən daɣ teɣare."
"""In Truth and Method, Gadamer describes language as """"the medium in which substantive understanding and agreement take place between two people.""","""Daɣ tidit ad təmkare,Gadamer italaɣat magrad sund """" teɣərit daɣ tan almud ad tarədawt ən harat artay jar assən adinat""""."
"""Paul Ricœur, on the other hand, proposed a hermeneutics which, reconnecting with the original Greek sense of the term, emphasized the discovery of hidden meanings in the equivocal terms (or """"symbols"""") of ordinary language.""","Paul Ricoeur, quanui, inna alaɣi wa, assimassaɣal ad aləɣi ən greə ahusken ən tifer, jan idud fal agaraw ən alaɣi ifaran daɣ tifer ogdahnen (meɣ """"ešwal"""") ən magrad waren assakay""."
It allows them to take advantage of and effectively manipulate the external world in order to create meaning for themselves and transmit this meaning to others.,Təgrawasən arakab našrut ad oɗɗəf assohen nadunya tan agəma ye iji ən alaɣi ye manəssan ad ihuk ən alaɣi ye wiyaɗnen.
"Some important figures in the history of semiotics, are Charles Sanders Peirce, Roland Barthes, and Roman Jakobson.","Issəknitan iyaɗ iknanen ən təfunst tan alaɣi aqalan Charles Sanders Pierre, Roland Barthes ad Roman Jakobson."
19th century romanticism emphasised human agency and free will in meaning construction.,Romantisme wan 19e ən təmeɗe nawatay ija assiwaɗ fal ehan ən adinat ad emənəhaɗ daɣ akarass ən tənna.
Humanistic views are challenged by biological theories of language which consider languages as natural phenomena.,Ihanayan nadinat atiwəsaɣalan daɣ assəstan fal timusnawen ən təla ən magradan ijanen iməgridan sund harət iknan.
"In Neo-Darwinism, Richard Dawkins and other proponents of cultural replicator theories consider languages as populations of mind viruses.",Daɣ tamusne ən assənəfrən Richard Dawkins ad kal təmusnawen iyad ən asudmər ijan magradan sund adəwələn win eməlsi anyat.
"""Some have said that the expression stands for some real, abstract universal out in the world called """"rocks"""".""","""Iyaɗ innən as tənna tasikna ilan adətu ad ufər daɣ adunya sitawəna """"tihun""""."
"""The issue here can be explicated if we examine the proposition """"Socrates is a Man"""".""","Atarəqa diha adobat adəkəl atwələɣi as nəkyad tənna as ""Soərate eqal ahaləs""."""""
These two things connect in some way or overlap.,Haratan win assin adewan ye alməɣnat iyat meɣ timəqusan.
"""Another perspective is to consider """"man"""" to be a property of the entity, """"Socrates"""".""",".""Daɣ mənhuy iyat taqal atkul """"ahaləss"""" sund tatwəkrašt ən harət, """"Socrate""."""""
"Some of the most prominent members of this tradition of formal semantics include Tarski, Carnap, Richard Montague and Donald Davidson.","Jar adinat wi əknanen ojarnen ən tigza tan tənna tadutet han Tarski, Əarnaɗ,Riəhard, Montague, ad Donald Daɣidson."
They did not believe that the social and practical dimensions of linguistic meaning could be captured by any attempts at formalization using the tools of logic.,War aqel-as iketan nadinat ad ijitan ye tənna ən magrad adoben atwərmas fal irum kul ən azəzgar idakalan haratan win tidit.
"Many of its ideas have been absorbed by theorists such as Kent Bach, Robert Brandom, Paul Horwich and Stephen Neale.","Ajut ən inəzjam atwəgašan fal mussənan sund Kent Baəh, Robert Brandom, Paul Horwich ad Stephen Neale."
"In Word and Object, Quine asks readers to imagine a situation in which they are confronted with a previously undocumented, group of indigenous people where they must attempt to make sense of the utterances and gestures that its members make.","Daɣ Word and Object, Quine assistən iməɣran yad zənəzjumin tedajit ta daɣ amjayhan ye tartit ən muzəɣan waren ila harwa alkaɗan ad dihad iəmadarmənn'est ən tənna ye tənna ad issəkna ye adinat iness."
"All that can be done is to examine the utterance as a part of the overall linguistic behaviour of the individual, and then use these observations to interpret the meaning of all other utterances.","Awadoben kul iji ekal ahanay ən tənna əs taqal ašrut ən talɣa ən magrad maqaran ən awadəm, izar iji ən tənna ən tənna tan tənawen tiyaɗnen."
"For Quine, as for Wittgenstein and Austin, meaning is not something that is associated with a single word or sentence, but is rather something that, if it can be attributed at all, can only be attributed to a whole language.","Ye Quine, sund ye Wittgenstein ad Austin, tənna war təqel harat,as waren adobat ad atwəhək, war adobet atəqal aris magrad imdan."
"""The specific instances of vagueness that most interest philosophers of language are those where the existence of """"borderline cases"""" makes it seemingly impossible to say whether a predicate is true or false.""",""" Idagan wi əknanen oɣed ijrazan hulen ye migridan ən magrad aqalan wi əs daɣ ahalakat ye """"daɣ səmdo""""itaj milhaw ye iban tənna as tefert tadutet meɣ tabihawat""."
"The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics.","Magrad wan maɗinan eqal tezewt tan magrad lamədat timusnawen, ijitan ad tərtay ən maɗinən."
"Today, some philosophers of mathematics aim to give accounts of this form of inquiry and its products as they stand, while others emphasize a role for themselves that goes beyond simple interpretation to critical analysis.","Aəhəli, inəməgrad iyaɗ ən maɗinan tənaɗ əs təkətawt ye iri numəɣ ad ijitan as awəmossən, alwaq wen iyaɗ tajan ašəkel fal ašəɣal nassən hin okayan alaɣi har ɣor umaɣ asohen"
Greek philosophy on mathematics was strongly influenced by their study of geometry.,Mgrad wan greəque ən maɗinan iwar as assahat fal aləmad wan assəkən ən haratan.
"""Therefore, 3, for example, represented a certain multitude of units, and was thus not """"truly"""" a number.""",""" Daɣ ikuy,sund, 3, asiknan harat ən tərtay ajitnen, izar war aqelnat ""hulen amadin""."
These earlier Greek ideas of numbers were later upended by the discovery of the irrationality of the square root of two.,Inəzjam wi azarnen ən grecque fal maɗinan amdaɣwasən daɣ əsdat fal ajəraw ən iba tidit ən amaɗin maqaran nəssin.
"According to legend, fellow Pythagoreans were so traumatized by this discovery that they murdered Hippasus to stop him from spreading his heretical idea.","Ɣor tafunst, Pythagortan wiyaɗden armaɣan fal təjrəwt fal ənɣan Hittasus ye adajal ən əsjət ən aniyat iness atiwənhayan."
"""It is a profound puzzle that on the one hand mathematical truths seem to have a compelling inevitability, but on the other hand the source of their """"truthfulness"""" remains elusive.""","""Tassəsədart tatiləqet əs, daɣ ašrut,tidit ən maɗinan tolah diban adagal war asohat, mašan ad,daɣ ašrut iyan,taberat """"ən tidit"""" təqal awaren iƭətwəƭəf""."
"Three schools, formalism, intuitionism, and logicism, emerged at this time, partly in response to the increasingly widespread worry that mathematics as it stood, and analysis in particular, did not live up to the standards of certainty and rigor that had been taken for granted.","Karadat liəoyten, isəkna, ilmudan ad iguyan,izgaranid daɣ azaman, daɣ edaj daɣ asudmar ən tarəmeɣt təjətat fal maɗinan əs awaqalan,ad akayad daɣ tizart, war eqel ɣor asiwaɗ migdahat ye asdətu ad"
"As the century unfolded, the initial focus of concern expanded to an open exploration of the fundamental axioms of mathematics, the axiomatic approach having been taken for granted since the time of Euclid around 300 BCE as the natural basis for mathematics.","Ɣor ikuy nelan,edag ən tənfo wan sənto haruw ye umaɣ ameran ən nahəjan azarnen win maɗinan, ihoz ən nəhəjatan atiwəjanen sund atiwajan daɣ azaman tan Euəlide, ibret 300 darat J.-Ə.sund edag iknan wan maɗinan."
"In mathematics, as in physics, new and unexpected ideas had arisen and significant changes were coming.","Daɣ maɗinan, ad daɣ muzyat mudaran, inəzjam aynaynen waren atwəssən izjarənid ad səmutay əknanen aqalan adimalan."
"""I do not think that the difficulties that philosophy finds with classical mathematics today are genuine difficulties; and I think that the philosophical interpretations of mathematics that we are being offered on every hand are wrong, and that """"philosophical interpretation"""" is just what mathematics doesn't need.""","."" War aɣelaɣ as asuhutan wi daɣ təməqusan magradan ešəli ad maɗinan iknənen aqalan asuhutan adutətnen; izar anizjameɣ as ilaɣutan ən magradan wi hanəɣ hakən ɣor ijəm ən edaj okayən, izar ""alaɣi ən magrad"" eqal awa war adərərar maɗinan""."
Many working mathematicians have been mathematical realists; they see themselves as discoverers of naturally occurring objects.,Inəmuɗan ajətnen əfranen eqalan imənan ən tidit ən maɗinan; animətkalan sund imagrawən ən haratan iknanen.
"Certain principles (e.g., for any two objects, there is a collection of objects consisting of precisely those two objects) could be directly seen to be true, but the continuum hypothesis conjecture might prove undecidable just on the basis of such principles.","Tənaten tiyaɗ (sund, ye amossən assin haratan, ilet amsədəw ən haratan artaynen atəmossən daɣ haratan win assin)adoben atwənhay agudendaɣ sund tidit, mašan alaway ən tuɣalt tan tədawt tadobat oɣəl waren itbet fal iyan nədaj wan tənaten."
"Both Plato's cave and Platonism have meaningful, not just superficial connections, because Plato's ideas were preceded and probably influenced by the hugely popular Pythagoreans of ancient Greece, who believed that the world was, quite literally, generated by numbers.","Aməšar wan Platon ad batu wan Platon ilan assinən tirtay ən tənawen, əden ɣas musnaten,falas anəzgam wan Platon atwəlkamanid ad tijra tadutet fal wi iknan atwəzy ən kal Pythagore win Grèce taruwat, aɣelnen adunya təkal"
"This view bears resemblances to many things Husserl said about mathematics, and supports Kant's idea that mathematics is synthetic a priori.)","Edag ən mənhuy issakna milhawen daɣ haratan ajitnen inna Husserl fal maɗinan, izar alil anyat wan Kant as maɗinan amərti as tizarat)."
"Full-blooded Platonism is a modern variation of Platonism, which is in reaction to the fact that different sets of mathematical entities can be proven to exist depending on the axioms and inference rules employed (for instance, the law of the excluded middle, and the axiom of choice).","Iməgrid əmdanen eqal amləli išrayan ən migridan, daɣ asoɣəl əs amək awadəm adobat assəkən ən təmudre ən haratan ətəlanen ən magradan dəɣ ibret nəssəkən ad tənaten janen ən tidit (sund, tahašilt tən amass təzjarat, ad amək wan atkul)."
"Set-theoretic realism (also set-theoretic Platonism) a position defended by Penelope Maddy, is the view that set theory is about a single universe of sets.","Assədətu ye tədawt ən tamusne (ad tədawt ən tamusne tan Platon), edaj atiwagazan fal Penelope Maddy, eqal tənna as musnat ən tidawen eqal zaleɣat ən tidawen."
"""They attributed the paradox to """"vicious circularity"""" and built up what they called ramified type theory to deal with it.""","""Akfən assəbəhu ye """"ajləlwi eɣšadan"""" izar əkrassan awas janen tamusne ən iritan azunen ye anəbadad ""."
Even Russell said that this axiom did not really belong to logic.,Russell imaness inna tənna war tətwakrəš əs tidit ɣor tidit.
"Frege required Basic Law V to be able to give an explicit definition of the numbers, but all the properties of numbers can be derived from Hume's principle.","Frege erha tahašilt maqarat Ɣ ye tadabit ən ihuk ən tənna təknat ən maɗinan, mašan təlaten kul ən maɗinan adobətnat ad izjərnat tənna tan Hume."
But it does allow the working mathematician to continue in his or her work and leave such problems to the philosopher or scientist.,Mašan awen ijraw ye kal maɗinan daɣ ašəɣəl ən alkum ən ašəɣəl ad tiya ən tarəqatan ye aw magrad meɣ ye amussən.
"""Hilbert aimed to show the consistency of mathematical systems from the assumption that the """"finitary arithmetic"""" (a subsystem of the usual arithmetic of the positive integers, chosen to be philosophically uncontroversial) was consistent.""","Hilbert ikayad ye assəkən ən assahat ən asdiwən maɗinan daɣ atkul ən tuɣalt """"saməndo """"inəmudan (daw-tərtay tin imudan atwəjanen ən maɗinan maqornen,anifrənen ye oɣəl iməgridatən waren amədaš) aqalan assohen."
"Thus, in order to show that any axiomatic system of mathematics is in fact consistent, one needs to first assume the consistency of a system of mathematics that is in a sense stronger than the system to be proven consistent.","Sund, ye assəkən asdəw nəmək wan maɗinan eqal azayan,alməd amək ən tazayt ən maɗinan təqalat daɣ edag assohen amək was nərha asəlmad ən tazayt."
"Other formalists, such as Rudolf Carnap, Alfred Tarski, and Haskell Curry, considered mathematics to be the investigation of formal axiom systems.","Inəsəlmaɗ iyaɗ,sund Rudolf Carnaɗ, Alfred Tarski ad Haskell Curry, ijan imaɗinan sund amək ən almud iknan."
"The more games we study, the better.","Tahajit ən almud ən adal, eqal ašamən."
The main critique of formalism is that the actual mathematical ideas that occupy mathematicians are far removed from the string manipulation games mentioned above.,Tezmit tazarat nalmud taqal as inəzjam ən maɗinan adutətnen əkalnen inəmudan aqalan ayknan ijəj ən adalan win iɗsawən ən iɣunan.
"Brouwer, the founder of the movement, held that mathematical objects arise from the a priori forms of the volitions that inform the perception of empirical objects.","Brouwer, emənahaɗ ən amrumar, alil as harətan win maɗinan izjarənid iritan ye təzart ən aməkətan talaɣatnen almud ən haratan fal tirmawen."
"The axiom of choice is also rejected in most intuitionistic set theories, though in some versions it is accepted.","Tənna tan assənəfrən taqal deɣ atiwəksanən daɣ ajit ən timusnawen atiwəlmadnen ən tartay, harwa as atwətkalən tənaten tiyaɗ."
"In this view, mathematics is an exercise of the human intuition, not a game played with meaningless symbols.","Daɣ tamənhuyt ten, imaɗinan aqalan iji ən aləmad nadinat,iden adal idalan daɣ ešwal itiwədgalan ən tənna."
"Likewise all the other whole numbers are defined by their places in a structure, the number line.","Sund, imaɗinan kul wiyaɗden atiwəsanen fal edaj nassən daɣ tedajit, taberat ən maɗinan."
"However, its central claim only relates to what kind of entity a mathematical object is, not to what kind of existence mathematical objects or structures have (not, in other words, to their ontology).","Aguden, alaqi ness namass war eqel iri ən taɣlət ən harət ən maɗin, əden iri namel ən haratan meɣ tidəjaten ən maɗinan (daɣ tifer tiyaɗ, amək nassən)."
Structures are held to have a real but abstract and immaterial existence.,Timəqunen aqalnat sund ayilan emel aduten mašan ifaran izar warazay.
Structures are held to exist inasmuch as some concrete system exemplifies them.,Timəqunen aqalnat sund atilan daɣ torda ɣor aratay aduten tan assinəmahalən.
"Like nominalism, the post rem approach denies the existence of abstract mathematical objects with properties other than their place in a relational structure.","Sund idakalan,ihaz ilkəmən ye rem asibahaw emel ən haratan maɗinan afarnen ilanen ikrušən iyaɗ waren amos edag nassən daɣ tedajit tatiwazayat."
"It is held that mathematics is not universal and does not exist in any real sense, other than in human brains.","Nətkal as imaɗinan war aqelan assisaharan izar wartəlen daɣ tənna tədutet, afəl idet daɣ akəlkəl nawadəm."
"However, the human mind has no special claim on reality or approaches to it built out of math.","Aguden, tayəte nawadəm war tila taberat təknat fal tidit meɣ fal tihzawen tin-ta takənat ɣor imaɗinan."
"The most accessible, famous, and infamous treatment of this perspective is Where Mathematics Comes From, by George Lakoff and Rafael E. Núñez.","Ajaraw wa iknən atwəssən, wa iknən ad wa iknən tizma ən alməɣnat eqal Where Mathematics Comes From, ən George Lakoff ad Rafael E. Núñez."
"""Franklin, James (2014), """"An Aristotelian Realist Philosophy of Mathematics"""", Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke; Franklin, James (2021), """"Mathematics as a science of non-abstract reality: Aristotelian realist philosophies of mathematics,"""" Foundations of Science 25.""","."" Franklin, James(2014), """"An Aristotelian Realist Philosophy of Mathematics """", palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke; Franklin, James (2021), """"Mathematics as a science of non-abstract reality: Aristotelian realist philosophies of mathematics"", ""Foundations of Science 25""."
The Euclidean arithmetic developed by John Penn Mayberry in his book The Foundations of Mathematics in the Theory of Sets also falls into the Aristotelian realist tradition.,Tamusne ən maɗin win Euclid John Penn Mayberry daɣ alkaɗ iness The Foundations of Mathematics in the Theory of Sets iktab deɣ daɣ igoz aduten ən Aristote.
"""Edmund Husserl, in the first volume of his Logical Investigations, called """"The Prolegomena of Pure Logic"""", criticized psychologism thoroughly and sought to distance himself from it.""","""Edmund Husserl, daɣ tajute tazarat tan umɣawen iknanen, sitawəna """"Prolégomènes tan tidit tasohet"", tizma daɣ atləqi ən aniyat ad umaɣ ən assənimijəj""."
"That is, since physics needs to talk about electrons to say why light bulbs behave as they do, then electrons must exist.","As itawəna, fəlas mənhuy tərha ataməgrad fal eleətrontan ye tənna ən mafəl amɗolən win koran itaj initən sund tajənat, maəhan eleətrontan atəmlən."
"It argues for the existence of mathematical entities as the best explanation for experience, thus stripping mathematics of being distinct from the other sciences.","Tigəz emel ən haratan ən maɗinan sund alaɣi iknan ən musnat, tədgalət ye maɗinan ye talɣa təbɗat ad təmusnawe tiyaɗnen."
This grew from the increasingly popular assertion in the late 20th century that no one foundation of mathematics could be ever proven to exist.,Alməɣnat nahanay wen aweɗ ɣor tənna təkna atwəziy ɣor samdo ən 20e timaɗ nelan awastamos emel ən sənto ən maɗinan war ilkem adədobat atwəsəkən.
A mathematical argument can transmit falsity from the conclusion to the premises just as well as it can transmit truth from the premises to the conclusion.,Səkno ən maɗinan adobat ihuk ən bahu ən samədo ye ihukan kul ye tadabit deɣ tənna ən tidit ən ihukan ɣor samədo.
He gave a detailed argument for this in New Directions.,Ikfa səkno imdan ɣor batu wa daɣ New Directions.
"If mathematics is just as empirical as the other sciences, then this suggests that its results are just as fallible as theirs, and just as contingent.","As imaɗinan aqalan kul deɣ irum sund timusnawen tiyaɗnen, awen ihaku as ilkuman aqalan kul deɣ imtilitan ye winasən, izar agaɗan deɣ kul."
For a philosophy of mathematics that attempts to overcome some of the shortcomings of Quine and Gödel's approaches by taking aspects of each see Penelope Maddy's Realism in Mathematics.,"Ye magrad ən magridan wa itirmən ewer ən iban təlaten tiyad ən ihozan ən Quine ad Gödel daɣ atkul ən iritan win iyat, akayad Realism in Mathematiəs wan Penelope Maddy."
"""He started with the """"betweenness"""" of Hilbert's axioms to characterize space without coordinatizing it, and then added extra relations between points to do the work formerly done by vector fields.""",""" Assənta fal jar-iyan tənnaten tin Gilbert ye ebaɗi ən edaj əs war amsədaw,izar assewaɗ ibaɗitab aweɗden jar dəgan ye iji ən ašəɣəl wa ijan aru fal idəgan win təssəraɗ""."
"By this account, there are no metaphysical or epistemological problems special to mathematics.","Ɣor asseɗən,war təlen tarəqan ən timusnawen meɣ tinhaɗen olahnen ad maɗinan."
"""However, while on an empiricist view the evaluation is some sort of comparison with """"reality"""", social constructivists emphasize that the direction of mathematical research is dictated by the fashions of the social group performing it or by the needs of the society financing it.""",""" Aguden, as ija awen daɣ tirma nahanay assəkən eqal amək nasənimijar daɣ """"tidit"""" ,imuɣanən adewnen innən as unaɗ wan umaɣ ən maɗinən atiwəna fal alməɣna amsədu ən tərtit titajət meɣ tərhaten tartit tahas təlilat""."
"But social constructivists argue that mathematics is in fact grounded by much uncertainty: as mathematical practice evolves, the status of previous mathematics is cast into doubt, and is corrected to the degree it is required or desired by the current mathematical community.","Mašan tartit ən imuɣanən alilən as imaɗinan aqalan ayjan fal iban torda maqarat : daɣ ikuy ən iji maɗinan itiwaɗ, muzyat ən maɗinan azarnen igaš iban adatu, izar ikna daɣ ikuy ən dihad ahušəl meɣ tərha ən tənfo maɗinan nišray."
The social nature of mathematics is highlighted in its subcultures.,Iri ən tartit tan maɗinan igaš mənhuy daɣ daw-ijitan.
"""Social constructivists see the process of """"doing mathematics"""" as actually creating the meaning, while social realists see a deficiency either of human capacity to abstractify, or of human's cognitive bias, or of mathematicians' collective intelligence as preventing the comprehension of a real universe of mathematical objects.""","Imuɣanən artaynen ijan as taberat tan iji ən maɗinan itaj əs tidit tənna, aguden iməduta artaynen ijan as iba asuhu eqal tadbit nawadəm ye ebaɗi, meɣ ən ašrut ən muzyat nawadəm,meɣ tayite tajet ən maɗinan tədgal alamad ən təməɣluq tadutet ən haratan ən maɗinan."
More recently Paul Ernest has explicitly formulated a social constructivist philosophy of mathematics.,"Daɣ išray, Paul Ernest aməgrad daɣ tənna ən magrad ən tidawt-təməqunt ən maɗinan."
"For example, the tools of linguistics are not generally applied to the symbol systems of mathematics, that is, mathematics is studied in a markedly different way from other languages.","As sund,harətan win magrad war iknen hulen iji ɣor aratay ən ešwalan ən maɗinan, adar-ti-dila as imaɗinan atiwəɣran daɣ alməɣnat iknan ebaɗi dəɣ migridan wiyaɗden."
"However, the methods developed by Frege and Tarski for the study of mathematical language have been extended greatly by Tarski's student Richard Montague and other linguists working in formal semantics to show that the distinction between mathematical language and natural language may not be as great as it seems.","Aguden,timkarawen aweɗnen as Frege ad Tarski ye taɣare ən magrad ən maɗinan aqalnat tahurut as Riəhard Montague,atalib ən Tarski, as kal magrad iya ašeɣalnen daɣ taberat tan magrad atiwazayan, ɣor assəkən ebaɗi jar magrad ən maɗinan ad magrad ahusken war adobat deɣ təmɣare as awa adobat."
"""The assertion that """"all"""" entities postulated in scientific theories, including numbers, should be accepted as real is justified by confirmation holism.""",""" Alaxi was inta ""kulnasnat"" adinat dalnen daɣ timkarawen ən timusnawen, ad artayan maɗinan,adəqəlnat atiwardan sund aduten atiwəlaqət daɣ agaɗ aduten""."
Field developed his views into fictionalism.,Field asəmɣar timənhuyen ness daɣ tigozst.
The argument hinges on the idea that a satisfactory naturalistic account of thought processes in terms of brain processes can be given for mathematical reasoning along with everything else.,Səkno ilet fal anyat ən tənfust taqalat tidit təgrazat ən assəmətuy ən tayəte tadobat atwəhək ye sakno maɗinan sund daɣ ašrut kul.
"Another line of defense is to maintain that abstract objects are relevant to mathematical reasoning in a way that is non-causal, and not analogous to perception.","Tassaret iyat ən igoz taqal tilalt as haratan wi afəenen anihəjan daɣ adətu ən maɗinan daɣ alməɣna waren ija, ad waren igdeh daɣ musnat."
"By way of example, they provide two proofs of the irrationality of .","Ɣor eɣaf milhaw, hakən assin sədutan waren ikna."
"""Paul Erdős was well known for his notion of a hypothetical """"Book"""" containing the most elegant or beautiful mathematical proofs.""","« Paul Erdős ikna atwəzy daɣ aləmad ən ukəss """"Alkaɗ"""" hanat tənaten ən maɗinan wi əknanen tahuskət meɣ wi əknanen tihusay""."
"By the same token, however, philosophers of mathematics have sought to characterize what makes one proof more desirable than another when both are logically sound.","Mašan, fal iyat, inəmugrad ən maɗinan əmaɣan ye ebaɗi awa ihəkan tamatert amukən ən tarha fal iyat agud wad tin sanatət aqalnat ayknan asuhu."
Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the ontology and nature of the mind and its relationship with the body.,Magrad ən anyat eqal ašrut wan magrad wa ikyadən ufar ad alməɣnat ən aniyat ad tartit ines daɣ iman.
"Dualism and monism are the two central schools of thought on the mind–body problem, although nuanced views have arisen that do not fit one or the other category neatly.","Anhəraj ad aqalan liəoyten tišəmnen ən anəzgum fal tarəqan iman-aniyat,harwa edagan nahanay azlaynen izjarənid war olahən daɣ iyat meɣ iri iyat ən alməɣnat təknat."
"""Hart, W.D. (1996) """"Dualism"""", in Samuel Guttenplan (org) A Companion to the Philosophy of Mind, Blackwell, Oxford, 265-7.""",""" Hart,W.D. (1996)""Dualism"""", in Samuel Guttenplan (org) A Comttanion to the Philosophy of Mind, Blackwell,Oxford,265-7""."
"Pinel, J. Psychobiology, (1990) Prentice Hall, Inc. LeDoux, J. (2002) The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are, New York:Viking Penguin.","Pinel, J. Psychobiology (1990) Prentice Hall,Inc. LeDoux, J. (2002), Synaptic Self: Indek immik wa s eqqal akilkil nanagh awa n amos,New York: Viking Penguin."
"""Psychological Predicates"""", in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill, eds.,""","Ihukatan nəniyat, daɣ W. H. Əaɗitan ad D. D. Merrill, azjor."
"Secondly, intentional states of consciousness do not make sense on non-reductive physicalism.","Ɣor edag was assin, idagan win aləmadat ən aniyat warlen tənna ɣor təɣəssa waren fənaz."
"Someone's desire for a slice of pizza, for example, will tend to cause that person to move his or her body in a specific manner and in a specific direction to obtain what he or she wants.","Tarha ən awadəm ye tətate ašrut ən ɗizza, sund,ikraš taberat ye agay awadəm assəmətəkwi ən iman daɣ alməɣnat təknat ye ajaraw nawa tarha."
"""Robinson, H. (1983): """"Aristotelian dualism"""", Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy 1, 123–44.""","Robinson, H. (1983) : """"anməhərəj win Aristote"""", Oxford Studies in Anəient Ɗhilosiɗhy 1,123-44""."
"They would almost certainly deny that the mind simply is the brain, or vice versa, finding the idea that there is just one ontological entity at play to be too mechanistic or unintelligible.","War səbihuwan sund tidit as aniyat eqal ɣas tayəte, meɣ milhaw,togazat aniyat as war tila arəyat təmaɣluk təfarat daɣ adal iknan amukən meɣ asohen."
"So, for example, one can reasonably ask what a burnt finger feels like, or what a blue sky looks like, or what nice music sounds like to a person.","Sund, daɣ milhaw nadobat assəstan ən asədətu awa sofray assəkaɗ erɣan, meɣ awadar olahən išənawan dalatnen, meɣ milhaw ən anəzar ahusken ye awadəm."
There are qualia involved in these mental events that seem particularly difficult to reduce to anything physical.,Ilanti qualia hanen daɣ ijitan ən aniyat wi olahnen hulen as asohatnat ye afanaz ye awa eqal daɣ assahat.
Dualism must therefore explain how consciousness affects physical reality.,Anhəraj ad aləxət deɣ alməɣnat was aniyat iɣašad tidit tan iman.
"Knowledge, however, is apprehended by reasoning from ground to consequent.","Tamusne, inta, tamətkal fal alaɣi ən akal ən akal as təmɣare."
"The basic idea is that one can imagine one's body, and therefore conceive the existence of one's body, without any conscious states being associated with this body.","Anəzgum wa maqaran eqal as adobat awadəm tuɣalt ən taɣəssa ad deɣ aramas ən tamudre ən taqəssa, daɣ war assərtay əs təqəssa."
"Others such as Dennett have argued that the notion of a philosophical zombie is an incoherent, or unlikely, concept.","Iyaɗ, sund Denneƭ, alilən as muzyat ən enəmetən ən magrad eqal aləmad waren adew, meɣ waren adutət."
"It is the view that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, causally interact with physical states.","Eqal assəmumən was ənta as aməqətan naniyat, sund tifləssen ad tarhaten, tamərtaynat as alməɣnat ijan daɣ aməkətan assohətnen."
"""Descartes' argument depends on the premise that what Seth believes to be """"clear and distinct"""" ideas in his mind are necessarily true.""","""Səkno wan Desəartes eqaləd as tənna tas ənta as Seth aɣel taqal inəzjam """"adutətnen ad abɗanen"""" daɣ aniyat iness aqalan tahašilt tadutet""."
"Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Bradford) For example, Joseph Agassi suggests that several scientific discoveries made since the early 20th century have undermined the idea of privileged access to one's own ideas.","Cambridge, MA : MIT Press (Bradford) sund, Joseɗh Agassi ijanu as ijarawan ajətnen ən tamusnawen janen bor sənto wan 20e elan aqšədən ye ugiš alilal ye inəzjam aridnen."
This view was most prominently defended by Gottfried Leibniz.,Alməɣnat wan ahanay eqal hulen atwigəz as Goƭfried Leibniz.
"These emergent properties have an independent ontological status and cannot be reduced to, or explained in terms of, the physical substrate from which they emerge.","Təlaten izjarnen lanat iniy ufar anuflayan izar war adobatnat afənaz as amel Asohen daɣ zajarnat, war alaɣat səmdotən iness."
Epiphenomenalism is a doctrine first formulated by Thomas Henry Huxley.,Amədəɣwis eqal tamusne təjat fal alwaq wazaran as Thomas Henry Huxley.
This view has been defended by Frank Jackson.,Alməɣnat wan ahanay eqal atiwagazan as Frank Jackson.
"Panpsychism is the view that all matter has a mental aspect, or, alternatively, all objects have a unified center of experience or point of view.","Ašrut təməɣluk eqal tənna tas harat kul ila iri ən tayəte, meə, anəlkam, garətan kul ilan edag ən tirma meə təmənhuyt tartayat."
"""An example of these disparate degrees of freedom is given by Allan Wallace who notes that it is """"experientially apparent that one may be physically uncomfortable—for instance, while engaging in a strenuous physical workout—while mentally cheerful; conversely, one may be mentally distraught while experiencing physical comfort"""".""","Milhaw ən idəgan ən tənuflit tamədat tatiwəkfat ye Allan Wallaəe,ijanen eqal atwəhiy daɣ """"tamusne as adobat awadəm oɣəl waren ikna səsahat-sund, ɣor ugiš daɣ tahašilt təknat asuhu-daɣ oɣəl ən aniyat tedawit; assəməlikli, nadobat aniyat əntiya daɣ irum ən tərəɣse tasohet""""."
Mental states can cause changes in physical states and vice versa.,Idagan naniyat adoben ihuk ən šanzitan daɣ idagan asohatnen ad milhaw.
Experiential dualism is accepted as the conceptual framework of Madhyamaka Buddhism.,Anhərəj atwəsənan atiwərɗa sund edaj waren ikna ən tənəslima tan Madhyamaka.
"In denying the independent self-existence of all the phenomena that make up the world of our experience, the Madhyamaka view departs from both the substance dualism of Descartes and the substance monism—namely, physicalism—that is characteristic of modern science.","Asəbuhu aməɣlək anuflayan ən ijitan kul wi təjanen adunya tan təmusne nanaɣ, ahanay San Madhyamaka inakəš ajud iyan fal anhəraj harat wan Descartes ad aləmad ən harat-atamosan taɣəssa-təbɗdat ad tamusne tan išray."
"Indeed, physicalism, or the idea that matter is the only fundamental substance of reality, is explicitly rejected by Buddhism.","Falas, taɣəssa,meɣ anəzgum as harat eqal emel maqaran ən tidit, eqal tənna tatiwəksanat as tənəslima."
"While the former commonly have mass, location, velocity, shape, size, and numerous other physical attributes, these are not generally characteristic of mental phenomena.","Adal si azarnen ilan tazayt, edag, atrub, taɣissa, tenade ad ibaɗitən iyan ajətnen ən taɣissa, ətaneɗ war iknen azalayat ad ijitan ən aniyat."
The fundamentally disparate nature of reality has been central to forms of eastern philosophies for over two millennia.,Iri azaran aməda ən tidit iha amass niritan iyaɗ ən magradan oɣadnen ɣor harwa daɣ assin efɗan ən awatay.
"Physicalistic monism asserts that the only existing substance is physical, in some sense of that term to be clarified by our best science.","Alamad ən taɣəssa aləɣat as harat iyan eɣlakan eqal asahat, daɣ tənna iyat amaren tədutət əs tamusne tatəknat."
"Although pure idealism, such as that of George Berkeley, is uncommon in contemporary Western philosophy, a more sophisticated variant called panpsychism, according to which mental experience and properties may be at the foundation of physical experience and properties, has been espoused by some philosophers such as Alfred North Whitehead and David Ray Griffin.","Harwa as anazjum aduten, sund wan George Berkeley, war ikna ugiš daɣ magrad wan egadal ən tafuk tazuyen,tənna təknat sitawəna ašrut ən təmaɣluk, tan irum ad təlaten an aniyat adobatnat ad aqalnat adilan ɣor tirma ad təlaten taɣissa, atewaynat as kal magradan iyad sund Alfred North Whitehead ad Daɣid Ray Giffrin."
A third possibility is to accept the existence of a basic substance that is neither physical nor mental.,Tadbit tas qaraɗat təlet as tarədawt ən aɣakat ən harat maqarat waren taqel edess wala aniyat.
Introspective reports on one's own interior mental life are not subject to careful examination for accuracy and cannot be used to form predictive generalizations.,Tənaten akyadnen fal tamudre naniyat namass nawadəm war atwanat tirma jat əs minutan daɣ milhaw ad war adoben atwətkal ye iji ən akarašaten tənaten.
"Parallel to these developments in psychology, a philosophical behaviorism (sometimes called logical behaviorism) was developed.","Daɣ təmsideɣt ən isjat daɣ tayəte,temɣšaɣalt ən magrad (agud iyan tawəɣra as Temašaɣalt təknat) tədwal."
"These philosophers reasoned that, if mental states are something material, but not behavioral, then mental states are probably identical to internal states of the brain.","Inəmugrad asdaten as, afal idagan ən aniyat aqalan harat ikna, mašan war titəla taməšaɣalt, adiš idagan naniyat aqalan ayknan milhaw ɣor idagan win ajama ən alkəlkəl."
"According to token identity theories, the fact that a certain brain state is connected with only one mental state of a person does not have to mean that there is an absolute correlation between types of mental state and types of brain state.","Darat tamusne tan ešwal ən milhaw,alməɣnat was edag ən tayite artayan as edag iyan ən aniyat ən awadəm war tidila səsahat as ilet iji ən tartit maqarat jar iritan ən edaj naniyat ad iritan ən edaj nakəlkəl."
"Finally, Wittgenstein's idea of meaning as use led to a version of functionalism as a theory of meaning, further developed by Wilfrid Sellars and Gilbert Harman.","Ɣor samdo, aniyat wan Wittgenstein ən aləɣi sund iji ikfa tənna ən ašəɣəl sund tamusne ən aləɣi tajətat as Wilfrid Sellars ad Gilbert Herman."
"Hence, the question arises whether there can still be a non-reductive physicalism.","Alwaq wen daɣ, assestan ija fal aləmad nas adoba harwa emel ən təɣəssa waren təfnez."
"""Davidson uses the thesis of supervenience: mental states supervene on physical states, but are not reducible to them. """"""","Davidson itkal asəmumən wan supervénience: idagan naniyat kayadan idagan asohatnen, mašan war tan fənəzan."""""""
The brain goes on from one moment of time to another; the brain thus has identity through time.,Akəlkəl itazəgrat agud ən alwaq siyan; akəlkəl ila muzyat as alwaq.
An analogy of the self or the “I” would be the flame of a candle.,"Asəməgdah ən kay meɣ ""nak"" eqal tabləglagət ən tezewt."
"The flame displays a type of continuity in that the candle does not go out while it is burning, but there is not really any identity of the flame from one moment to another over time.","Tabləglagət sakna iri ən tikuyt daɣ amək was tezewt war təmikət ɣor taraɣe ness, mašan war adutət muzyat ən tabləglagət daɣ agud siyan daɣ alwaq."
"Similarly, it is an illusion that one is the same individual who walked into class this morning.","Sund deɣ, eqal bahu azənəgumi as agadəm eqal awadəm wa embalan daɣ taɣašamt daɣ tidawt"
This is analogous to physical properties of the brain giving rise to a mental state.,Awen eqal olah ɣor tikraš asohatnen ən akəlkəl hakəne edaj naniyat.
"The Churchlands often invoke the fate of other, erroneous popular theories and ontologies that have arisen in the course of history.",Kal akal wan Churchill ɣaran agud amək timusnawen tiyad ad alməɣnat atiwazayan okayan ad izjarnen ɣor tanfust.
Some philosophers argue that this is because there is an underlying conceptual confusion.,Kal magrad iyad janen as falas təle milhaw təfarat daw emel ən harat.
"Rather it should simply be accepted that human experience can be described in different ways—for instance, in a mental and in a biological vocabulary.","Tahašilt hulen tarədawt as irum nawadəm adobat ad atwən daɣ alməɣnatan azlaynen sund, daɣ magrad naniyat daɣ magrad tamudre."
The brain is simply the wrong context for the use of mental vocabulary—the search for mental states of the brain is therefore a category error or a sort of fallacy of reasoning.,Akəlkəl eqal ɣas awaren oɣed ye adakal ən magrad naniyat-umaɣ ye idagan naniyat ən alkəlkəl eqal ematal ezlayan meɣ amək ən ematal aduten.
"And it is characteristic of a mental state that it has some experiential quality, e.g. of pain, that it hurts.","Izar ertay ad amək naniyat as ila tafrət ən irum, sund tassəne, as itaj assəsnan."
"The existence of cerebral events, in and of themselves, cannot explain why they are accompanied by these corresponding qualitative experiences.",Emel n darabat iman net war eqqel a asifhaman awa fal iddewan id musnaten tin ogdahnen tulaghay
This follows from an assumption about the possibility of reductive explanations.,"Aɣalakat adalan ən tayəte, daɣ man, war adobat alaɣi mafəl adewan ad iruman afranen olahən."
"The 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger criticized the ontological assumptions underpinning such a reductive model, and claimed that it was impossible to make sense of experience in these terms.","Magrad wan allemand ən 20e élan,Martin Heidegger,ozəm timusnawen əknanen tihakanen iri ifnazan,izar inna as adobat ihuk tənna ɣor irum daɣ tifer."
This problem of explaining introspective first-person aspects of mental states and consciousness in general in terms of third-person quantitative neuroscience is called the explanatory gap.,Atarəqa wan alaɣi ən iri akayad səniyat daɣ awadəm wazaran ən amək naniyat ad aləmad maqaran daɣ amək wan tamusne ən assafar ajen daɣ awadəm was karaɗ sitawəna teɣešt Janet.
There are two separate categories involved and one cannot be reduced to the other.,Ilant iritan assin abɗanen hanen izar iyan warədobat adəfnaz wayadan.
"For Nagel, science is not yet able to explain subjective experience because it has not yet arrived at the level or kind of knowledge that is required.","Ye Nagel, tamusne war tadobat harwa alaɣi ən irum nawadəm falas war təweɗ harwa edag me iri ən tamusne tatiwadalat."
This property of mental states entails that they have contents and semantic referents and can therefore be assigned truth values.,Takrəšt tan ijitan naniyat təgaš as ilan uguš ad hukan aleɣətnen as nadobat ihuk anhəj ən tidit.
"But mental ideas or judgments are true or false, so how then can mental states (ideas or judgments) be natural processes?","Mašan tiyətwen meɣ aqalan tidit meɣ bahu, adiš əndek alməɣnat ən edag ən aniyat (anəzgum meɣ itkulan)adoben ad aqəlan alməɣnat ahusken."
"If the fact is true, then the idea is true; otherwise, it is false.","A fal harat wen addutat daɣ awen anazjum wen amos tiditt , a fal immik iyyan daɣ awen bahu"
"Since mental processes are intimately related to bodily processes, the descriptions that the natural sciences furnish of human beings play an important role in the philosophy of mind.","Alwaq wa id timitkwayen tin ta-ite orak nat hullan s tin taɣissa, afissar n samalan wi hak natural sciences n addinat ahan edag assohen daɣ afaham wan ta-ite"
"Within the field of neurobiology, there are many subdisciplines that are concerned with the relations between mental and physical states and processes: Sensory neurophysiology investigates the relation between the processes of perception and stimulation.","Daɣ abara wan neurobiology, illanat subdiscipline tan jjotnen id aqqal nen tartit tan t-te d taɣissa d timitikwayen : Sensory Neurophysiology tijja imuɣ net fal tartit tan timitikwayen n akayad d taxfiz"
"Lastly, evolutionary biology studies the origins and development of the human nervous system and, in as much as this is the basis of the mind, also describes the ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of mental phenomena beginning from their most primitive stages.","Daɣ uchray biology taɣar inattan d efes n sistem wan ta-ite n awadim tolas awen eqqal tajittawt n ta-ite ,olas har ajjudi asilmad n efes wan ontogenetic d phylogenetic wan ta-ite issintan ɣur tikkelen nasan tin aru"
A simple example is multiplication.,Almital wa raqqisan amos anatfas
This question has been propelled into the forefront of much philosophical debate because of investigations in the field of artificial intelligence (AI).,Assistan wen ikf-e assahat hullan daɣ s data n tamădašt ajjen n afaham fal farak tan ijjanen daɣ abara wan artificial intelligence (AI)
"The objective of strong AI, on the contrary, is a computer with consciousness similar to that of human beings.",Ittus wan AI assohen eqqal ordinater ilan tǝnǝfruyt tolahat id tan addinat
"The Turing test has received many criticisms, among which the most famous is probably the Chinese room thought experiment formulated by Searle.",Erem wan Turing ijraw majrad ajjen eha wa ojjaran azajor hullan s war eha ach-ak as eqqal amedran wan tehannit tan China ijja Searle
Psychology investigates the laws that bind these mental states to each other or with inputs and outputs to the human organism.,Psychology taj farak fal achareɣa tan ti assurtay nen ta-ite tan jir iman nasnat meɣ ijjuchan d izajoran n keynun hayyu n awadim
A law of the psychology of forms says that objects that move in the same direction are perceived as related to each other.,Achareɣa n psychology n dumu tan allaɣat haratan wi ahhal nen s tasdik iyyat aqqalan a orakan s jir iman nasan
"It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers).","Ehay farak fal ta-ite d alxal hullan wa ijjan fal immik wa s bassaran, iknan tolas amuttiyan isalan (daɣ tubaten chund akayad, awal,takatawt, anazjum d tafrit) daɣ sistem tan win eɣaf (awadim meɣ amudar iyyan) d marchin tan almital (ordinater tan)"
"Nonetheless, Hegel's work differs radically from the style of Anglo-American philosophy of mind.",Alxidmat ta ijja Hegel t anmazlay id ich-ikil n filozofi n ta-ite tan Anglo-ameriken tan
"Phenomenology, founded by Edmund Husserl, focuses on the contents of the human mind (see noema) and how processes shape our experiences.",Phenomenology eɣna Edmund Hussert tijja fal awa ehan ta-ite n awadim (ikyid noema) d immik wa s kan in musnat nanadaɣ
This is the case for materialistic determinists.,Awen eqqal immik i materialistic determinist tan
Some take this reasoning a step further: people cannot determine by themselves what they want and what they do.,Iyyad taj in anasjum wen s sihen: addinat war addoben musnat id iman nasan n awa arhan d awa taj in
"""Those who adopt this position suggest that the question """"Are we free?""""""",“ Addinat wi ɣur ijja awen assistanan “ajjen n ila alxoriya?”
It is not appropriate to identify freedom with indetermination.,War huskit lammudat n alxoriya s iban musnat
The most important compatibilist in the history of the philosophy was David Hume.,Compatibilist wa ojjaran hullan daɣ attarex n filozofi isim net David Hume
"These philosophers affirm the course of the world is either a) not completely determined by natural law where natural law is intercepted by physically independent agency, b) determined by indeterministic natural law only, or c) determined by indeterministic natural law in line with the subjective effort of physically non-reducible agency.","Philosopher tan win allaɣen as achwinki n alɣalim eqqal ) a war t asilmad achareɣa fuk net edag s achareɣa jarraw nat taggayen ilanen axxakumat n iman nasan,b) almud net s achareɣ war n at almad ɣas meɣ c) asilmad achareɣ war n at almad daɣ abara wan tikkelt n taggayen war n ila afanaz"
"They argue as follows: if our will is not determined by anything, then we desire what we desire by pure chance.",Allaɣen as: A fal derhan nanaɣ war t asilmad harat dihen n aderhan awa n aderhan bannan ɣas
The idea of a self as an immutable essential nucleus derives from the idea of an immaterial soul.,Anasjum wan nakk as esab wan ofan ifanazan daɣ anasjum n iman war n aqqel asuj
"Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King.","Mantranga, abarnamich wan axakam n addawla tan tin ehay almalik, Amuzar n ministar tan, amuzar n militer tan, amuzar n bomber tan win almalik"
"The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state.","Arthashastra ehak kont n musnat tan folotik i amanokal wan semɣar, folitik tan n chawara tan addawla tin ajjama d ikinnasan, sistem n addawla n jasus d awikkal d n astiqrar wan aqtasad wan addawla"
"The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools.","Filozofi tan ti maqqornen daɣ azzaman wan Confucianism, Legalism, Mahism, Agrarianism, d Taoism, iyyan fuk ilan tijittawt net tan folitik n lakkol tan nasan wi filozofi"
Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws.,Legalism ikna tebadde i alxakumat tisasat hullan tijat fal acharɣa tan d tisnant iknanen assahat
"""By the late ancient period, however, the """"traditionalist"""" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed.""","“ Daɣ amindi n azzaman wan aru, hak id ijja as akayad n Ashrite wan “kel alasal” n al-islam ornan fuk”"
"However, in Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes).","Hak id ijja awen, daɣ amedran wan ikufar, eqqal ɣur san edag eqqanan eɣaf i filozof tan wi maqqornen n al-islam: al-kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Abunaser), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) d Ibn Rushd (Averroes)"
"For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought.","Almital, inasjam win Khawarij daɣ iwityan wi zzarnen n attarex wan al-islam fal Khilafa d Ummah meɣ wan Al-islam wan chit tan fal isim wan Imamah aqqalan isidutta n amedran n folitik"
Aristotleanism flourished as the Islamic Golden Age saw rise to a continuation of the peripatetic philosophers who implemented the ideas of Aristotle in the context of the Islamic world.,Aristotle anfaz ɣur azzaman wa id iw-id al-islam daɣ akkay n filozof tan wi chawankat nen ijjanen inasjam win Aristotle daɣ alɣalim wan al-islam
"""Other notable political philosophers of the time include Nizam al-Mulk, a Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuq Empire who composed the Siyasatnama, or the """"Book of Government"""" in English.""","“ Filozof tan iyyad n folitik n azzaman wen eha Nizam al-Mulk , emaɣri n perse d Vizier n Seljuq empire wa iknan Siyasatnama alkittab wan alxakum” daɣ tangilist"
"Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes.",Ehamich filozof n folitik wa ojjaran hullan daɣ Eroba medieval eqqal Thomas Aquinas wan alwali idhalan i azujich n alxidmaten tin Aristotle ti tijraw Eroba tan katolik s Spania tan al-islam eha majrad daɣ is ijja Averroes
"Others, like Nicole Oresme in his Livre de Politiques, categorically denied this right to overthrow an unjust ruler.",Iyyad chud Nicole Oresme daɣ alkittab net wan folitik asbahaw hullan alxaq wan atarmas n amanokal war n oɣed
"That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of classical antiquity, did much to influence modern political thought in the West.","Alxidmat ten hak id idiwini tan , amiyiz assohen n azzaman wan aru ijja ajjen i ad ikrich assahat fal amedran wan folotik daɣ addawla tan win ikufar"
"At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the acquisition and maintenance of absolute power.","S iddikud fuk, Machiavelli alllaɣat s akayad folitik oɣadan s ɣur is tulaɣay d albas aqqalan isuj wi id t araw nen akimmal chund akarach d ag-az n tamanukila t assohet"
"These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be.","Theorist tan win war tan ewey ar issin isitanan: wa ezzaran, indek alxak meɣ derhan wa s ɣan in addinat addawla tan tolas wan issin , ma imos dumu wa olaɣn hullan s addobat addawla a ti taqqal"
"""The term """"government"""" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound.""",“ Isim wan “alxakumat” amos taqqimt n addinat axkam nen daɣ tijittawen n addawla tolas tj in wote tan n achareɣa tan fal ardahan addinat fal axkaman a han intaned iman nasan
It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade.,Addobat ad at aw afham chund ansjum n hebu ijjan i mamala wa jir addawla tan
"The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment.","Awadim wa issewalan hullan fal egliz tan France amos Francois Marie Arouet de Voltaire, harat daɣ addinat win azzaman wa s itawan wan annur"
"""My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out.""""""","“ Harat wan iyyan hin ikman daɣ tamattant amos as war addobed a kay idhilad daɣ tamachɣult ten, wa lammidat tolas n semɣar s taddobat ta-ite n awadim a tat allaɣat””"
Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system.,Locke azzukat i ad unjiy i as Robet Filmer a id eɣnan theory n folitik ta tardat fal sistem ijjan fal ahinzazaɣ n sistem it illan
"Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa.",Akayad n Aquinas wan alɣillas n iman daɣ akabad wa ezzaran war olah id wan Locke ordan as t-ite n awadim toas id adduniya chund tabula rasa
"Though one could be worried about restrictions on liberty by benevolent monarchs or aristocrats, the traditional worry is that when rulers are politically unaccountable to the governed they will rule in their own interests, rather than the interests of the governed.","Kuddeɣ as addobat awadim a ti assurmaɣ tigdil aman fal alxoriya ijjan imanokalan n monark meɣ aristokrat tan, tarimmeq tan alasal t amos as alwaq wa id imanokalan war tn eqqel harat daɣ axakam wa ijjan fal timittawen nasan ad axkiman daɣ afor nasan ohun afor wan timittawen ti fal axkaman"
"Justice involves duties that are perfect duties—that is, duties that are correlated with rights.",Achareɣa ahan ti izilzam aqqalnen izilzam oɣadnen awen amos as izilzam d alxaqqan osaɣan
"He uses, On Liberty to discuss gender equality in society.",S On Liberty issewal fal tigdaht n meddan d deden daɣ tamazduq
"The Liberty of the Ancients was participatory republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly.","Alxoriya n kel aru eqqal alxoriya oharan addinat , ikf-an kel akal alxaq n arɣum d addabara tan n folitik s isiwiiland wote tan daɣ tiɣaymaten n addinat"
"Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous societies, in which the people could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs.",Alxoriya wan aru azzukat ɣur tamizdaɣ madroynen tolas artaynen daɣ addoben addinat ad artayan s immik wa s arhan daɣ edag iyyan i chawara tan nasan
"Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from the necessity of daily political involvement.",Kel wote tan ad aj in wote i addinat addobat nen asiwil daɣ ehan wan dibiti tan fal ismawan n addinat tolas ad agizan addinat daɣ izilzam n win folitik n achal fuk
"In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality.","Daɣ Leviathan,Hobbes ikna mazhab net n akaros wan addawla tan d alxakuman win tiditt tolas ikna ittus n axluk"
"In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world.","Daɣ addawla ten, awadim fuk ila alxaq meɣ alkad n turhajat i harat fuk daɣ alɣalim"
"Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition.","Id izjaran daɣ awatay wan 1762, eqqal iyyan daɣ alximdaten ta tojarat hullan daɣ filozofi n folitik tan tumast tan ikufar"
"""Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they.""""""",“ Addinat wi ijjanen medran s as aqqalan massawis n iyyad ojjaran win atakrich””
The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought.,Industrial revolution t eraw id parallel revolution daɣ medran wan folitik
"In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class.","Daɣ tazune n awatay wan 1800 , Marxism ijja efes tolas socialism ikrach alkum n addinat s assahat hullan addinat wi tilaqqawen"
"Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit.",Hegel asiflas daɣ Phenomenology ta ta-ite a anmazlayan id Marx asiflasan s Historical materialism
"In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.","Daɣ alɣalim wan Anglo-Ameriken , anti-imperialism d pluralism issitan tiw-at ɣur awatay wan 1900"
"This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968, led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left.",Awen eqqal azzaman wan Jean-Paul Sartre d Louis Althusser d antisar tan tin Mao Zedong d Fidel Castro hak id timadache ti ijjanen ɣur ayor wan awzem wan issin n awatay wan 1968 issewadan afor daɣ ta-ite tan imutiyan n folitik s assahat hullan daɣ s achrut wan New Left
Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose.,Alisteɣmar d anmizlay n addinat aqqalan marsalan maqqornen id inkar nen
"The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant.","Tanakra tan feminism , taggayen tin LGBT d amindi n achareɣa wan alisteɣmar d foltik ta tiskatat addinat chund tawseten ti madroynen war taha assahat chund kel afrikiya win amerik d sexual minorities daɣ alɣalim wan efes maqqoran eway id medran n feminist,n darat alisteɣmar d n agna tan assohen"
"Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance.","Rawls eram amedran , edag wan alasal daɣ sanafranan ichrutan tisittaɣhal tin achareɣa i edey n tamazduq data ekarchay n taljuhala"
"Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe, several new lines of philosophy directed at the critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s.","ɣur emel n analytic ethics daɣ amedran wan anglo-ameriken , daɣ Eroba , iyaka ajjotnen eynaynen n filozofi fal ijja majrad n taimizdaq inar id jir awatay wan 1950 d wan 1980"
"""Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a """"return to Hegel"""".""","“ Daɣ isalan n iyaka tan izlaynen, iddikud n imusanan iyyad n amadal har ajjudi iknen Marxism tarna hullan- ijjan titbaqqa eynaynen fal structuralism d fal “uɣil s Hegel”"
"Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor.","Adiwinni iyyan ijjan edes n majrad fal political theory ijja Michael Walzer Michael Sandel d Charles Taylor,"
Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.,Tawseten ilkam nat hullan i awikkal hak id folitik tan tin tamudre d tamazduq ti hakkin nen assahat i tiw-at n alfayda
A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach.,Ittusan n tilkamat aqqala nen n folitik tin amachraynen id ankar nen ɣur amindi 1900 amosan republicanism (meɣ neo- meɣ civic- republicanism) d tazujicht tan tudabat
"To a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable.",I awadim wan repibliken tummast n akli war n aqqul daɣ sarho wa ijraw war ila aɣabal
Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced.,Tazujicht tan tudabat d republicanism ijjan nefran chund harat s ilzam masruf fal as
"Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals.",I theory tan ti s ɣur ijja as addinat aqqalan arizzej izdaɣan d polis wen (addawla n aɣrim wan Greek tan aru) ille i ad ijru tamudre tolaɣat i arizzej wen
Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution.,Burke eqqal iyyan daɣ inalkaman wi maqqornen i American Revolution
"Chomsky is a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media.","Chomsky eqqal harat daɣ imuzaran wi amijrad nen folitik Amerik tan s ajjama , neoliberalism d Kapializm wan addawla , akinnas wan jir Izrail d Falestin d isalan ajjotnen n media tan"
"William E. Connolly: Helped introduce postmodern philosophy into political theory, and promoted new theories of Pluralism and agonistic democracy.",William E. Connolly: idhal daɣ ijjuch n postmodern philsohpy daɣ political theory d asiwad n mirda tan eynaynen n Pluralism d demokrati daɣ azzukat unfas
Thomas Hill Green: Modern liberal thinker and early supporter of positive freedom.,Thomas Hill Green: emaɣri n liberal tolas eqqal inalkam wa alxoriya ta tolaɣat
His early work was heavily influenced by the Frankfurt School.,Alxidmat net ta tazzarat t amos a ikna lakkol wan Frankfurt tarna hullan
He advocated free-market capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the rule of law and let spontaneous order develop.,Allaɣat s Kapitalizm n hebu ammran s edag n addawla amos ag-az n achareɣa tolas toyya aqqud ad ej id iman net
David Hume: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement.,Dzvid Hume: Hume majrad fal theory n anifham wan tamazduq n John Locke d iyyad aqqim nen fal n taɣilt n anifham n amarad
Most famous for the United States Declaration of Independence.,Awa izjar isim net daɣ amerik hullan amos Majrad wan Alistexlal n Amerik
Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace.,Allaɣat taggayt n jir addawla tan tilzam id alɣillas n alxer daɣ alɣlim
"He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property.","Ifal Hobbes fal awen ijjan fal anhaja n tamazduq daɣ alqim tan wi achareɣa amosan axxakamat n alxakumat fal iman net tolas ikna awen tuzant , allaɣat s alxakumat tilat tanaya tazukket ɣur alɣillas n ehare n addinat"
One of the founders of Western Marxism.,Iyyan daɣ addinat wi aɣna nen Marxism wan addawla tan ikufar tin ataram
Gave an account of statecraft in a realistic point of view instead of relying on idealism.,IKf-a kont n tudabat n alxakum daɣ titbaqqet n akayad ohun a ijjan fal idealism
"As a political theorist, he believed in separation of powers and proposed a comprehensive set of checks and balances that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the tyranny of the majority.","Theorist tan n folitik , asiflas n tuzant n tanaya tan tolas ijja addabara n checks and balances ilzam nen i alɣillas n alxaqqan n awadim daɣ taqin n ijjit n addinat"
"""Introduced the concept of """"repressive desublimation"""", in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire.""",“ Ujjich n isim wan “repressive desublimation” s addobat awikkal oɣad s addinat meɣ s edes n derhan nasan “
Created the concept of ideology in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions.,Eɣan n isim wan ideology daɣ almaɣna n amedranan (tiditt meɣ bahu) iknanen dumu d alxidmaten tin tamazduq
"Mencius: One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled.","Mencius: Iyyan daɣ imusanan wi assohat nen daɣ allkol wan Conficius , eqqal theorist wa ezzaran ijjan majrad oɣadan i tilzamat n imuzaran wi fal ijja axakam"
"""Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of the people by a """"balance of powers"""" in the divisions of a state.""",“ Monstequieu: ammiyaz alɣillas n addinat s “ balance of powers” daɣ tizunawen n addawla”
His interpreters have debated the content of his political philosophy.,Tinamujrad net ijjan aljimat fal awa ehan filozofi net
Plato: Wrote a lengthy dialog The Republic in which he laid out his political philosophy: citizens should be divided into three categories.,Plato: Iktab adiwinni chajren Republik daɣ asilmad fal filozofi folitik net : addinat win akal ilzam ad aj in karadat tizunawen
Ayn Rand: Founder of Objectivism and prime mover of the Objectivist and Libertarian movements in mid-twentieth-century America.,Ayn Rand: inta a taɣnat Objectivism tolas t aqqal tamuzart n taggayen tin Objectivist d Liberarian daɣ tazune n 1900 daɣ Amerik
The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion.,Alxakum ilzam s immik wen daɣ ad uzan id economics iddililan chund wi s azun id addin
"""Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior (""""the invisible hand"""") of artisans and traders.""",“Adam Smith: alwaq iyyan allaɣat as inta a eɣnan modern economics; isafham as azajor n alfayda tan tin aqtisad daɣ alaxal wan afor n awadim (“”afus wa iffaran) n inhadan d ălmusăbbib tan”
"Socrates: Widely considered the founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.","Socrates: s atiwassan hullan as eqqal wa eɣnan filozofi foliik tan addawla tan n ikufar win ataram; alwaq wa id Socrate kala war ikteb harat fuk, ijjit n awa nissan fal at d tiɣir net ifal id attalaba net Platon,wa ilan isim hullan"
Max Stirner: Important thinker within anarchism and the main representative of the anarchist current known as individualist anarchism.,Max Stirner: Amusan assohen daɣ anarchism d emannaɣaf n anarchist tan s ismawan nasan individualist anarchism
"Other forms of social philosophy include political philosophy and jurisprudence, which are largely concerned with the societies of state and government and their functioning.",Dumu iyyad n filozofi tan tamazduq ehet filozofi tan folitik d amukin n achareɣa net wi aqqal nen hullan fal timizdaɣ n addawla d alxakumat d alxdimt nasan
"Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as early Greek philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates.","Filozofi ta tazzarat i Socrate s atiwassan as taqqal filozofi n greek ta tazzarat , t amos filozofi n Greek tan aru data Socrates"
Their work and writing has been almost entirely lost.,Alxidmat nasan d akatab assujalan fuk nasan
"Pre-Socratic philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.","Filozofi tan data n Socrate tasinta daɣ awatay wan 600 BCE id Milesian tan win karad: Thales, Anaximander d Anaximenes"
Xenophanes is known for his critique of the anthropomorphism of gods.,Xenophanes atiwassan fal majrad net fal anthropomorphism wan amaxlak
"The Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus) followed in the 5th century BCE.","Lakkol wan Eleatic (Parmenides, Zeno n Elea d Melissus) ilkam nen daɣ awatay wan 500 data annabi ɣisa"
Anaxagoras and Empedocles offered a pluralistic account of how the universe was created.,Anaxagoras d Empedocles ikfan almaɣna n immik wa s ikna alɣalim
"""It was first used by the German philosopher J.A. Eberhard as """"vorsokratische Philosophie''' in the late 18th century.""","“Exdam ti Filozof wan Germany s tizarat J.A Eberhard chund """"vorsokratische Philosophie'' darat amindi n awatay wan 1700”"
"The term comes with drawbacks, as several of the pre-Socratics were highly interested in ethics and how to live the best life.",Isim izjar id drawbacks fal as isimawan ajjotnen n data i Socrate omaran daɣ ethics tolas immik wan tamazduq n tamudre tolaɣat
"According to James Warren, the distinction between the pre-Socratic philosophers and philosophers of the classical era is demarcated not so much by Socrates, but by geography and what texts survived.","Daɣ awa allaɣat James Warren, anmizlay jir filozof tan win data n Socrate d filozof tan n azzaman wan alasal ijja iyaka war ijja Socrate hullan mucham a t ijja jografia d ikitban wi iddarnen"
"Scholar André Laks distinguishes two traditions of separating pre-Socratics from Socratics, dating back to the classical era and running through current times.",Emaɣri André Laks izlay sanatat tumasen n pre-Socratics har Socratics aqqal nen har azzaman wan alasal tolas ochal nen har azzaman wa daɣ naha
"Many of the works are titled Peri Physeos, or On Nature, a title probably attributed later by other authors.","Ajjen daɣ alxidmaten ijjanat albab wan Peri Physeos meɣ Or Nature , albab ijrawan darat awa ikfan inaktiban"
Adding more difficulty to their interpretation is the obscure language they used.,Asiwad n tamɣatert i afaham nasan eqqal awal ehan tihay wa s axdaman
"Theophrastus, Aristotle's successor, wrote an encyclopedic book Opinion of the Physicists that was the standard work about the pre-Socratics in ancient times.","Theophrastus, awadim wa ichrayan Aristotle , iktab alkittab encyclopedic Opinion of the Physicists eqqalan alxidmat fal Pre-Socratics daɣ azzaman win aru"
Scholars now use this book to reference the fragments using a coding scheme called Diels–Kranz numbering.,Imaɣran axdaman amarad s alkittab wen i ihuk n ifrusan s hak in kod s isim net Diels-Kranz
"""After that is a code regarding whether the fragment is a testimonia, coded as """"A"""", or """"B"""" if is a direct quote from the philosopher.""","“ Darat awen ille kod id eqqalan kud inta afrus eqqal tesimonia, akkoden s “”A”” meɣ “”B”” a fal eqqal majrad id ifalan filozof”"
"The pre-Socratic era lasted about two centuries, during which the expanding Persian Achaemenid Empire was stretching to the west, while the Greeks were advancing in trade and sea routes, reaching Cyprus and Syria.",Azzaman wan pre-Socratic ijja iddikud n 200 n awatay daɣ aw-id Persian Achaemenid Empire har s ataram as ijja awen Greek tan ikkan s data daɣ mamala tan d isikilan fal ijirwan ewadan har Cyprus d Syria
"The Greeks revolted in 499 BCE, but ultimately were defeated in 494 BCE.",Greek tan ankaran awatay wan 499 data annabi ɣisa mucham daɣ uchray aftaqqen daɣ awatay wan 494 data annabi ɣisa
Several factors contributed to the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece.,Marsalan ajjotnen idhalan daɣ tiwit n pre-Socratic filozofi daɣ Greece tan aru
"Another factor was the ease and frequency of intra-Greek travel, which led to the blending and comparison of ideas.",Marsal iyyan eqqal tarɣisay d ijjit n iddikud n asikil daɣ ammas n Greece ewayan s anmirtay d amikat n inasjuman
The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy.,Sistem n folitik wan demokrati n poleis exkaman daɣ iman net idhal daɣ asiwad n filozofi
"The philosophers' ideas, were, to a certain extent, answers to questions that were subtly present in the work of Homer and Hesiod.",Inasjuman win filozof tan aqqalan daɣ edag iyyan alwazaban i isistanan s akal ahan alkittab wan Homer d Hesiod
They are considered predecessors of the pre-Socratics since they seek to address the origin of the world and to organize traditional folklore and legends systematically.,Ijjan tan addinat imuzaran n pre-Socratics ichmad ittaran musnat n eɣanni wan alɣalim tolas iknan tamadacht n tumast d tinfusen
"The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, meaning that pre-Socratic thought had roots abroad as well as domestically.",Filozof tan win Pre-Socratic olasan asikil hullan s ikallan iyyad almaɣna n awen Pre-Socratic amedranan ikewan s ajjama hak id daɣ akal
The pre-Socratic philosophers shared the intuition that there was a single explanation that could explain both the plurality and the singularity of the whole – and that explanation would not be direct actions of the gods.,Filozof tan win Pre-Socratic oharan tafrit tan as ille almaɣna iyyan addoben afissar n ijjit d tichit n iyyan n harat fuk tolas almaɣna wa war he eqqil alxidmaten n imaxlakan
"Many sought the material principle (arche) of things, and the method of their origin and disappearance.",Addinat ajjotnen ittaran asuj n tisittaɣhal (arche) n haratan tolas tikarsay tan eɣanni nasan d asujjil
"In their effort to make sense of the cosmos they coined new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deductionism, reductionism, mathematicazion of nature and others.","Daɣ ittur nasan i almaɣna n alɣalim aɣnan id ismawan eynaynen tolas tisassaɣrawen chund rhythm, symmetry ,anaogy, deductionnism, reductionism, mathematicazion d haratan iyyad"
It could mean the beginning or origin with the undertone that there is an effect on the things to follow.,Addobat ad umas asinti meɣ eɣanni id emasli n s ille edes net fal haratan s ilkam
"This may have been because of a lack of instruments, or because of a tendency to view the world as a unity, undeconstructable, so it would be impossible for an external eye to observe tiny fractions of nature under experimental control.","Awen addobat fal iban n isuj meɣ fal alxal n kayad n alɣalim s a olahan, a war n ila afatay daɣ awen war taddobat tet n s ajjama akayad n ifrusan madroynen daw awikkal n amiyiz"
Systematic because they tried to universalize their findings.,eqqal n sistem fal as araman ad assalsin alɣalim ifukkiran nasan
"The pre-Socratics were not atheists; however, they minimized the extent of the gods' involvement in natural phenomena such as thunder or totally eliminated the gods from the natural world.","Pre-Socratics wr aqqel atheist tan; hak id ijja aen , sammadrayan ijjuch n amaxlak daɣ harat chund ejaj meɣ emes n imaxlakan fal arori n akal"
"The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy, mainly the Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus, consisted of rejecting traditional cosmogony and attempting to explain nature based on empirical observations and interpretations.","Tikkelt ta tazzarat n filozofi tan pre-Socratic hullan tan Milesians, Xenophanes d Heraclitus, eha tunjit s teɣare n eɣani n alɣalim d erem n afissar n ahinzazaɣ ijjan fal ikayadan d ifahaman"
The Eleatics were also monists (believing that only one thing exists and everything else is just a transformation of it).,Eleatics aqqalan intaned deɣ monist tan (ordanen as harat iyyan at illan tolas harat fuk iyyan eqqal amutti n net)
"He is considered the first western philosopher since he was the first to use reason, to use proof, and to generalize.",Ijjan ti addinat filozof wa ezzaran daɣ addawla tan tin ataram n ikufar fal as eqqal wa ezzaran exdaman s ta-ite n exdam s asidutti tolas anafaz net
Thales may have been of Phoenician ancestry.,Thales addobat ad ijjich iwicharan wi Phoenician
"Thales, though, advanced geometry with his abstract deductive reasoning reaching universal generalizations.",Thales assoka s data tegamchakt s ta-ite net tewadat inafazan ilsanen alɣalim
"Thales visited Sardis, as many Greeks then, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical matters (oil harvesting).",Thales assekal s Sardis chund awa ijjan Greek tan ajjotnen edag s iɣazanan win etran ogazan tolas exdam ikayadan win etran i haratan n tiditt ( aramas n esens)
He attributed the origin of the world to an element instead of a divine being.,Ikf-a eɣanni wan alɣalim i titbaqet ohun i amaxlak
"He was a member of the elite of Miletus, wealthy and a statesman.","Eqqal awadim n imissarha n Miletus , kel ehare d amanokal n addawla"
"In response to Thales, he postulated as the first principle an undefined, unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron), out of which the primary opposites, hot and cold, moist and dry, became differentiated.","Daɣ alwazab n Thales, ijja tasittaɣhal tan tizarat substance war n ila almaɣna, war t ila tazizakut wala tumasen (apeiron) id izjaran tukise d esamed, tanasmut d taɣurt eqqalan a izlayan"
He is also known for speculating on the origin of mankind.,Itiwassan tolas fal as ijja takalt al eɣanni wan alɣalim
He also wrote a book on nature in prose.,Olas akatab n alkittab s aya tan
He was a well-traveled poet whose primary interests were theology and epistemology.,Eqqal awadim n tisiway itasakalan hullan s afor wa ezzaran amos teɣare n musnat n eɣanni n amaxlak d epistemology
"He famously said that if oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions.","Allaɣat daɣ majrad izjaran hullan as a fal eswan, ibijwan meɣ iharran addoben adaloj, ad idlijan imaxlakan nasan chud eswan, ibijwan meɣ iharran"
"Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow and St. Elmo's fire.","Xenophanes intaned deɣ ikf-an almaɣna tan i harat chund tafukt, azal d efew wan St. Elmo"
"While Xenophanes was a pessimist about the capability of humans to reach knowledge, he also believed in gradual progress through critical thinking.","As Xenophanes eqqal a war n ifles s tudabat n addinat i ad ikrichan musnat, orda har ajjudi s efes ijjan s amedran isakastanan"
Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux.,Heraclitus asilmad as haratan fuk daɣ ahinzazaɣ ahan talɣa n amutti n harkuk
Fire becomes water and earth and vice versa.,Efew eqqal aman d akal tolas hak id immik wa yadan
"There, Heraclitus claims we can not step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan ta panta rhei (everything flows).","Heraclitus asilmad as war addobat ad ezzakat ejarew har issin ihandagan, edag aklukalaw ta panta rhei ( harat itiki)"
"Another key concept of Heraclitus is that opposites somehow mirror each other, a doctrine called unity of opposites.","Tasassaɣrawt iyyat n tasassarut n Heraclitus t amos as muɣakas tan s immik t in amikyidan jir iman nasan , mazhab s isim net tarit n muɣakas tan"
Heraclitus' doctrine on the unity of opposites suggests that unity of the world and its various parts is kept through the tension produced by the opposites.,Mazhab wan Heraclitus fl tartit n muɣakas tan t allaɣat as tartit n alɣalim d ichrutan net ajjotnen t ogaz s tensyon id erawan muɣakas tan
"A fundamental idea in Heraclitus is logos, an ancient Greek word with a variety of meanings; Heraclitus might have used a different meaning of the word with each usage in his book.","Anasjum wa assohen daɣ Heraclitus amos logos, isim daɣ greek wan aru ilan almaɣna tan ajjotnen; Heraclitus addobat ad ekf-u almaɣna izlayan n isim alwaq fuk id exdam alkittab net"
Some decades later he had to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum.,Timirwen n iwityan darat awa ilzam ti ad achil fal aɣrim wan Croton s wan Metapontum
"They advanced his ideas, reaching the claim that everything consists of numbers, the universe is made by numbers and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometrical relations.","Okayan inizjam net ,ewadan as allaɣen as harat fuk ahan ti iddikudan, alɣalim ijja s iddikudan tolas harat fuk telay n tulaten d iharojan n tegamchakt"
"Their way of life was ascetic, restraining themselves from various pleasures and food.","Immik wan tamudre nasan eqqal ascetic, ittafan id iman nasan fal izijraz ajjotnen d ichikcha"
Other pre-Socratic philosophers mocked Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation.,Filozof tan win Pre-Socratic ammisxaran s Pythagore fal asiflas net s tanakra iyyat
"Pythagoreanism influenced later Christian currents as Neoplatonism, and its pedagogical methods were adapted by Plato.",Pythogreanism ikrach assahat darat awa fal kriken tan chund Neoplatonism d tikarsiwen net tin teɣare iknenat Platon
"According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides' teacher, and it is debated whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.","Daɣ awa allaɣat Aristotle d Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes eqqal emasavar n Parmenides tolas ijja majrad s kud inta Xenophanes ad eqqil Eleatic"
He was the first to deduce that the earth is spherical.,Eqqal wa ezzaran id achinchanan as akal abilalaɣ
"Parmenides wrote a hard to interpret poem, named On Nature or On What-is, that substantially influenced later Greek philosophy.","Parmenides iktab tasawit s assohat afaham net s isim net On Nature me On What-is, ta tikrachat assahat hullan darat awa fal filozofi tan Greek"
"The poem consists of three parts, the proem (i.e., preface), the Way of Truth and the Way of Opinion.","Taswit tila karad ichrutan , proem ( amosa awen preface), Way of Truth d The Way of Opinion"
"The Way of Truth was then, and is still today, considered of much more importance.",The Way of Truth eqqal har achal ida ilan tinfa maqqorat
"Hence, all the things that we think to be true, even ourselves, are false representations.",Haratan fuk s n orda as aqqalan tiditt hak id nakkaned aqqalan tisimal n bahu tan
"The goddess teaches Kouros to use his reasoning to understand whether various claims are true or false, discarding senses as fallacious.",Goddess sasaɣir Kuro alxidmat s ta-ite ne i afaham n as haratan ajjotnen aqqalan tiditt meɣ bahu hin oyyanen almaɣna tan win bahu
Zeno and Melissus continued Parmenides' thought on cosmology.,Zeno d Melissus achinkachan in amedran wan Parmenides ijja fal teɣare tan uxlla n alɣalim
He tried to explain why we think various non-existent objects exist.,Eram asifham n awa fal naɣil haratan ajjotnen war n axlek alxalakan
"Anaxagoras was born in Ionia, but was the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens.",Anaxagoras ahu tan Lonia mucham eqqan filozof wa ezzaran maqqoran issekal s Athens
Anaxagoras was also a major influence on Socrates.,Anaxagoras eqqal anaktub wa omaran Socrates hullan
Interpretations differ as to what he meant.,Ifahaman izlayan s almaɣa a otasan
"All objects were mixtures of various elements, such as air, water, and others.","Haratan fuk aqqalan anɣambal n haratan ajjotnen chund adu, aman d haratan iyyad"
"Nous was also considered a building block of the cosmos, but it exists only in living objects.",Nous inta deɣ eqqal as amos tekadeyt tan akaros n alɣalim mucham war taha ɣas ar haratan wi iddarnen
"Anaxagoras advanced Milesian thought on epistemology, striving to establish an explanation that could be valid for all natural phenomena.","Anaxagoras assoka s data amedran wan Milesian espistemology, amaramar daɣ edey n afaham addobat at w aɣbal i harat fuk wan uxlak"
"According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: Peri Physeos (On nature) and the Katharmoi (Purifications).","Daɣ awa allaɣat Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles iktab alkittaban issin daɣ ich-ikil n tisiway: Peri Physeos (On Nautre) d Katharmoi (Purifications)"
"""He also continues Anaxagoras' thought on the four """"roots"""" (i.e., classical elements), that by intermixing, they create all things around us.""",“ Achinkach in s data amedra wan Anaxagoras fal “””ikewan” win akkoz (amos awen titbaqqa tin alasal) n as a fal anmartaynat ad aɣni nat haratan fuk edes hannaɣ”
"These two forces are opposite and by acting upon the material of the four roots unite in harmony or tear apart the four roots, with the resulting mixture being all things that exist.",Assahaten tin sanatat assahaten aqqal nen muɣakas tan tolas edes n asuj wan akkoz ikewan ijjanen artayan olaɣan meɣ ebaddi n ikewan win akkoz ad ej anmɣambal haratan fuk id axlak nen
"They are most famous for their atomic cosmology even though their thought included many other fields of philosophy, such as ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology.","Ilan isim izjaran hullan fal atomic cosmology kuddeɣ as amedran nasan ahan ti abara tan n filozofi chund ethics, mathematics, aesthetics d embryology"
"Democritus and Leucippus were skeptics regarding the reliability of our senses, but they were confident that motion exists.",Democritus d Leucippus war asiflasan s asintam n almaɣna tan nanaɣ mucham ardahan as amatikway ille
"Atoms move within the void, interact with each other, and form the plurality of the world we live in, in a purely mechanical manner.","Atoms chiwanken daɣ batil , t anakbalan jir iman nasan tolas t aqqalan ijjit n alɣalim wa daɣ n izzaɣ"
"Democritus concluded that since everything is atoms and void, several of our senses are not real but conventional.",Democritus asimda s ichmad harat fuk eqqal atoms d batil almaɣna tan ajjotnen nanaɣ war adutten mucham a fal ijja anafham
"They attacked traditional thinking, from gods to morality, paving the way for further advances of philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history.","Idlaman amedran wan alasal ɣur imaxlakan har uxlak ijjan abara i ikitan s data n filozofi d majal tan t iyyad chund drama, social sciences, mathematics d attarex"
The sophists taught rhetoric and how to address issues from multiple viewpoints.,Sophist tan sassaɣran immik wa s kan in muchakil tan daɣ ikayadan ajjotnen
"Gorgias wrote a book named On Nature, in which he attacked the Eleatics' concepts of What-is and What-is-not.",Gorgias iktab alkittab s isim net On Nature daɣ idlam Eleactics fal What-is d What-is-not
Antiphon placed natural law against the law of the city.,Aniphon achochal achareɣa war n ilkem i achareɣa wan aɣrim
He attempted to explain both the variety and unity of the cosmos.,Eram ad assafham ijjit hak id tartit tan aɣalim
"Diogenes of Apollonia returned to Milesian monism, but with a rather more elegant thought.",Diogenes wan Apollina eqqal s Milesian monism mucham id amedran olaɣan hullan
"While Pythagoras and Empedocles linked their self-proclaimed wisdom to their divinely inspired status, they tried to teach or urge mortals to seek the truth about the natural realm—Pythagoras by means of mathematics and geometry and Empedocles by exposure to experiences.","Alwaq wa id Pythagore d Empedocles osaɣan semɣar nasan s tichit nasan , araman asassaɣir meɣ azzugen addinat i ittur n tiditt fal almalikiya - Pythagore s mathematics d tagamchakt d Empedocles s abasar s musnaten net"
"They attacked the traditional representations of gods that Homer and Hesiod had established and put Greek popular religion under scrutiny, initiating the schism between natural philosophy and theology.",Idlaman tisimal tin alasal n imaxlakan ti ikras Homer d Hesiod tolas ijjan Greek addin s izjar isim net s egzamit asintan Schism jir filozofi d teɣare tan musnat n amxlak d addin
The theological thought starts with the Milesian philosophers.,Amedran wan musnat n ich-ikil n amaxlak d addin issinta ɣur filozof tan win Milesian
"Xenophanes set three preconditions for God: he had to be all good, immortal and not resembling humans in appearance, which had a major impact on western religious thought.","Xenophanes ijja karad ichiritan fal amaxlak:Ilzam ti ad eqqil harat fuk olaɣan , n uɣlal tolas war olah id addinat daɣ annuɣ ikrach awen tikelt maqqoran fal amedran n addin wan ikufar"
Anaxagoras asserted that cosmic intelligence (nous) gives life to things.,Anaxagoras allaɣat as cosmic intelligence (nous) ehak unfas i haratan
It was Hippocrates (often hailed as the father of medicine) who separated – but not completely – the two domains.,Hippocrates (alwaq iyyan atiwaj has asafu n as eqqal amuzar n medecine) azun issin abara tan mucham wadden fuk
Ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus' axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux).,Ahinzazaɣ wan harkuk aklulu ti Heraclitus axion panta rhei (harat fuk eha talɣa n amatikway)
"The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature by means of rationalism, observations, and offering explanations that could be deemed as scientific, giving birth to what became Western rationalism.","Pre-Socratics ittaran afaham n titbaqqa ajjotnen n ahinzazaɣ s alamaɣna wan rationalism, ikayadan d ihuk n almaɣna tan aqqal nen sicentifik, aɣna nen awa eqqalan rationalism wan ikufar"
"Anaximander offered the principle of sufficient reason, a revolutionary argument that would also yield the principle that nothing comes out of nothing.","Anaximander ikf-a tasittaɣhalt n tiditt tigdahat , amchikki he akf-in abara i tasittaɣhalt n as war t illa harat id izjaran harat"
Xenophanes also advanced a critique of anthropomorphic religion by highlighting in a rational way the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion.,Xenophanes inta deɣ assoka s data majrad wa fal anthropomorphic n addin s achichwil daɣ abara n tiditt iban tedarert daɣ idalojan n imaxlakan daɣ addin n Greek
"Other pre-Socratics also sought to answer the question of arche, offering various answers, but the first step towards scientific thought was already taken.","Pre-Socratic tan iyyad ittaran alwazab i asistan n arche, ikf-an alwazban ajjotnen mucham tikkelt ta tazzarat s amedran wan sicetifik ammitkal"
"The philosophic thought produced by the pre-Socratics heavily influenced later philosophers, historians and playwrights.","Amedran wan filozofi ijjan pre-Socratics oram hullan filozof tan win uchray , kel attarex d playwright tan"
"The naturalists impressed young Socrates and he was interested in the quest for the substance of the cosmos, but his interest waned as he became steadily more focused on epistemology, virtue, and ethics rather than the natural world.",Naturalist tan ijrazan i Socrates tolas ijra a hin asistan wan awa ehan alɣalim mucham afor net ifnaz fal as ijja alxidmat net fal epistemology d ethics ohun fal alɣalim
"""Cicero analyzed his views on the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, as he distinguished the theoretical nature of pre-Socratic thought from previous """"sages"""" who were interested in more practical issues.""",“ Cicero ammiyaz ikayadan net fal Pre-Socratics daɣ Tusculanae Disputationes net alwaq wa id isakkat theoretical nature n amedran wan pre-Socratic daɣ “sages” s intaned achaɣil nasan eqqal fal muchakil tan tin tiditt”
"Aristotle discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, as an introduction to his own philosophy and the quest for arche.",Aristotle issewal fal pre-Socratics daɣ alkittab net wa ezzaran n Metaphysics eqqalan asajich n filozofi net d asistan id arche
"Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher known for advancing the scientific method, was probably the first philosopher of the modern era to use pre-Socratic axioms extensively in his texts.",Francis Bacon eqqal filozof n awatay wan 1600 itawasan fal asuki n data i immik wan scientifik war eha-mich as eqqal filozof ezzaran daɣ azzaman wan uchray exdaman s Pre-Socratic axioms daɣ ikitban net
"""Friedrich Nietzsche admired the pre-Socratics deeply, calling them """"tyrants of the spirit"""" to mark their antithesis and his preference against Socrates and his successors.""","“ Friedrich Nietzche ijraz has Pre-Socratics hullan ,eɣarren s isim wan “”tyrants of the spirit” i achichwal n antithesis d iban tufit i Socrates d wi has ilkamnen”"
"According to his narrative, limned in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era was the glorious era of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was an age of decay, according to Nietzsche.","Daɣ majrad net , echwalan daɣ ilkittaban net ajjotnen , azzaan wan pre-Socratic eqqal azzaman n isim maqqoran daɣ Greece as ijja awen Golden Age wa has ilkaman eqqal awatay n markah daɣ awa allaɣtat Nietzche"
"Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely.","Kuddeɣ as azzman net itawassanan daɣ ahrut net wa ezzaran as eqqal azzaman wan akasa d ɣarat tolas azzaman wan addawla tan ti amchakat nen - daɣ achrut net wan darat talɣa tasas s ikinnas ahan iɣachodan d tanaɣla n achni, atiwassan s Golden Age an filozofi tan Chine fal as etartar n amedranan maqqornen d inasjam iknan tolas ijja fal assan asiwal daɣ alxoriya"
"Taoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction).","Taoism (s isim net Daoism) , filozofi tijjat fal daroɣ- an n Tao: tahanint,tazifnast d tuwadiɣ as ijja awen amedran wan Taoist ijja fal ahinzazaɣ, aharoj jir addinat d alɣalim : assexat d taɣrist tolas wu wei ( alxidamt s iban alxidmat)"
"Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism.",Agrarianism meɣ lakkol wan Agrarianism eɣran s utopian communanlis d egalitarianism
"Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.","Imaɣran win lakkol wen aqqalan imassewalan olaɣnen , kel aljimat d imakkursa"
"""The School of """"Minor-talks"""", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.""",“ Lakkol wan “Minor-talks” eqqalan lakkol wan iyyan n teɣare muham filozofi tikrasat fal amedranan wi fal ijja asiwal tolas id izjar nen addinat win tacharit”
"Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements.",Confucianism eqqal a assohen daɣ Han Dynasty s emaɣri nasan wa maqqoran hullan amos Dong Zhongshu ijjachan Conficianism s amedran n lakkol wan Zhongshu d theory tan sammosat titbaqqa
"In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.",Unjayan s mirda wan Conficius as eqqal a olahan id amaxalak tolas ijjan ti anasseɣmar wa maqqoran mucham awadim ɣas he ematil
"Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement.",Buddhism osa id China edes n awatay wan 100 data annabi ɣisa mucham war ijrew assahat d musnat daɣ tamasna d emaynaj har azzaman wan Sui and Tang Dynasties
This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things.,Awen eraw id imuɣ fal tamaxluk t aqqalat echwal n anmizlay n harat wan musnat d eɣanni n haratan fuk
"Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.","Assa Rishi tan- Atri, Bhanradwaja, Gautama, Jamadgni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra"
"Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC, marking the end of the Greek Dark Ages.","Filozofi tan aru n Greek t inkar id daɣ awtay wan 600 data annabi ɣisa,eqqala amindi n azzaman wi kawalnen n Greek"
"It dealt with a wide variety of subjects, including astronomy, epistemology, mathematics, political philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, ontology, logic, biology, rhetoric and aesthetics.","Taqqal fal ich-ikilan n haratan maqqornen eha teɣre n etra, epistemologyn mathematics, filozofi tan folitik, ethics, metaphysics, onlogy, logic, biology, rhetoric d aesthetics"
"Clear, unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers to Roman philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, Medieval Scholasticism, the European Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment.","Iyaka tan aftay nen n assahat ewayan s Greek tan aru d filozof tan win Hellenistic har filozof tan win Roma, filozofi n l-islam wa ezzaran, Medieval Scholasticism, European Renaissance d awatay wa s itawan wan annur"
But they taught themselves to reason.,Mucham sassaɣran iman nasan ijji n anasjum
"""Thales inspired the Milesian school of philosophy and was followed by Anaximander, who argued that the substratum or arche could not be water or any of the classical elements but was instead something """"unlimited"""" or """"indefinite"""" (in Greek, the apeiron).""","“ Thales oram lakkol n filozofi wan Milesian tolas ilkam has Anaximander allaɣen as substratum meɣ arche war addobat ad eqqil aman eɣ titbaqqa n alasal mucham eqqal harat “war n ila tasibdat’ meɣ “ tamadawt” ( daɣ greek , apeiron)"
"""Contrary to the Milesian school, which posits one stable element as the arche, Heraclitus taught that panta rhei (""""everything flows""""), the closest element to this eternal flux being fire.""","“ A izlayan id lakkol wan Milesian asilmadan s titbaqqet chund arche , Heraclitus isassaɣra panta rhei wen (“harat fuk itiki) , titbaqqet ta torakat hullan n amatikwi wen n uɣlal ijjach ti efew”"
"Being, he argued, by definition implies eternality, while only that which is can be thought; a thing which is, moreover, cannot be more or less, and so the rarefaction and condensation of the Milesians is impossible regarding Being; lastly, as movement requires that something exist apart from the thing moving (viz.","Allaɣat s almaɣna eha uɣlal as ijja awen awa addoben ad eqqil amedran ɣas, harat war n addobat ad ajjir meɣ ifna tolas iban tarɣisay net d aɣamam et n Milesians war addobat iji ,daɣ uchray ichmad achiwinki azilzam as harat it illan eqqal achrut n harat wa ichawanken (viz"
"In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist.","Daɣ tadhil n awe ,attalaba Zeno n Elea wan Parmenide eram asidutti as isim wan achiwinki eqqal i harayan tolas chund as achiwinki wen war id exlek"
Leucippus also proposed an ontological pluralism with a cosmogony based on two main elements: the vacuum and atoms.,Leucipppus olas iji n ontological pluraism s teɣare n musnat n uxlak n alɣalim tijjat fal sanatat titbaqqa: Vacuum d atoms
"""While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, Cicero credits him as """"the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil.""""""","“ Alwaq id filozofi taqqal ittur idayan ezzaran i Socrates, Cicero ijje “ Wa ezzaran id ewayan id filozofi daɣ alzannat n ijjet daɣ iɣarman, ijjet daɣ igidchan tolas azilzam tat a taj egazmit n tamudre d axalaq tolas tulaɣay d albas””"
"The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and Xenophon) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or aporetically, has stimulated debate over the meaning of the Socratic method.",Harat wa fal as isiwilan ajjotne eha Socrates ( immik wa s ijja Platon d Xenophon tanfust nasan) imdan war ewedan akkamalat nasan meɣ erawan id majrad fal almaɣna wan tamachɣult tan Socrate
"Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.","Socrates isassaɣra as war it illa awadim is adrhanan albas tolas a fal it illa awadim ijjan harat labasan ,Addobat a war it otes meɣ ijhal ti: tijittawt fuk aqqal musnat"
"The great statesman Pericles was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of Anaxagoras, however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious.","Amanokal wa maqqoran Pericles inta deɣ osaɣ id almud wen eynayan tolas amidi n Anaxagoras, hak id ijja awen tolas xasam tn net wi folitik ewadan ti s anuflay daɣ alwazab ijjan fal filozof tan; eqqal imuɣ n haratan chund tadlimt fal alzannat meɣ ider n akal"
"Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BCE (see Trial of Socrates).","Socrates eqqal awadim wa eɣzanan tidas achareɣa ten , attarmas tolas ijjach takarmut n harkuk daɣ awatay wan 399 data annabi ɣisa (ikyid achareɣa n Socrates)"
"Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his dialogues, deriving from them the basis of Platonism (and by extension, Neoplatonism).","Platon ijja Socrates awadim net wan majrad daɣ idiwinni tan net , id tizjar tajittawt n Platonism ( tolas s tamattant ,Neoplatonism)"
Zeno of Citium in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate Stoicism.,Zeno wan Citium isassagdah ethics wan cynicism i teɣare n Stoicism
"Along with Xenophon, Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two.","Id Wenophon, Platon eqqal awadim wa ahan isalan hullan n tamudre tan Socrates d amedran tan net tolas war raqqis harkuk anmizlay jir win issin"
"Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.","Kuddeɣ as achareɣa ijja awadim n anasseɣmr ofa wan achareɣa , anasseɣmar war addobat tadhilt ɣas ar aɣatas n achareɣ fal awadim war n aqqel anasseɣmar tolas achareɣa a ilzaman"
"Plato's dialogues also have metaphysical themes, the most famous of which is his theory of forms.","Majradan win Platon intaned deɣ ila muduɣ tan n metaphysics, wa s izjar isim net hullan inta s theory of forms"
"It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.",Olah s timaxluken har addinat ad aqqanan daɣ tachdeyt tolahat ɣ daɣ taliwen fal iɣalayan tolas war tila afaham iyyan fuk i tiditt
"If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.","A fal imassukal win olasan ijjuch n tachdeyt , addinat win ammas (wi almad net taliwen ) ad ijriwan asuj i taflist n majradan wi n alɣlim wan ajjam”"
"Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).","Betrand Russel, attarex n filozofi tan ikufar (New Yor: Simon d Schutter daɣ awtay wan 1972)"
"""He criticizes the regimes described in Plato's Republic and Laws, and refers to the theory of forms as """"empty words and poetic metaphors.""""""",“ Ammijrad fal regime tan wi afissar nen daɣ jamahiriya tan d achareɣa tan win Platon tolas eqqal fal theory n dumu tan chund ‘”ismawan n batil d tangalen”””
"Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.",Antisthenes omar ti acentism wan Socrates tolas allaɣat as Platon ikfar tolas itaj abaraj
"It was founded by Euclides of Megara, one of the pupils of Socrates.","Eɣnay Euclides wan Megara, iyyan daɣ attalaba tan n Socrates"
Pyrrhonism places the attainment of ataraxia (a state of equanimity) as the way to achieve eudaimonia.,Pyrrhonism ijja ag-ad n musna tan ataraxia (talɣa n tigdaht n iman) eqqalan abara i ag-ad n eudaimonia
"""His ethics were based on """"the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain"""".""",“ Ethics net tijja fal “”itur n izijraz d gaddulat n tazzurt”’”
Their logical contributions still feature in contemporary propositional calculus.,Tidhilen nasan har ajjudi ahanat calculus wan addabara n amarad
"This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the New Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a Middle Academy.","Azzaman wen iban asiflas n platonism wa aruwan, ɣur Arcesillaus har Philo wan Larissa atiwassan s New Academy kuddeɣ as inaktuban iyyad n aru issewadan tizunawen chund Middle Academy"
"While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective.","Alwaq wa id ijja as ittus n Pyrrhonist tan eqqal ag-ad n musnat tan ataraxia , darat Arcesilaus academics skeptics war ittef s ataraxia chund ittus wan ammas"
"In the Byzantine Empire Greek ideas were preserved and studied, and not long after the first major expansion of Islam, however, the Abbasid caliphs authorized the gathering of Greek manuscripts and hired translators to increase their prestige.","Daɣ Empire Byzantin inasjam win Greek tan aɣlasan tolas at w aɣran tolas war ehoj darat efes wa ezzaran n al-islam , hak id ijja awen,Abbasid wan Xalifa ikf-a turhajat n asidu n ikitban win Greek tolas issaxdam addinat win tafsir i ad issiwidan tihussay"
"Medieval philosophy is the philosophy that existed through the Middle Ages, the period roughly extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the Renaissance in the 15th century.","Medieval Philosophy taqqal filozofi tan Middle Ages, azzaman issintan ɣur Roman Empire wan ataram daɣ awaty wan 500 har Renaissance daɣ awatay wan 1500"
"With the possible exceptions of Avicenna and Averroes, medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as Plato and Aristotle.","Awa war n amos Avicenna d Averroes , imaɣran win aru war ijjen iman nasan filozof tan ; ɣur san, filozof tan amosan inaktuban win inammuchray n aru chund Platon d Aristotle"
One of the most heavily debated things of the period was that of faith versus reason.,Iyyan daɣ haratan wi fal ijja majrad hullan n azzaman wen amos addin d ta-ite
"It is generally agreed that it begins with Augustine (354–430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the high medieval period.",Ardahan addinat fuk as issinta fal Augustine (354 har 430) win azzaman wan alasal tolas imda ɣur tanakkra tn teɣare tahojat daɣ uchray awatay wan 1100 ɣur asinti n azzaman wan aru
"In later periods, monks were used for training administrators and churchmen.","Daɣ azzamanan win uchray, bomber tan kala taqqal alxidmat nasan inaxdiman n alxakumb d egliz tan"
Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period.,Ijjit alxidmat tan Aristotle war itawasan daɣ ikallan win Ikufar azzaman wen
Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the Church Fathers.,Augustine t amos tamat ta maqqorat n egliz wi s itawan Church Fathers
"For over a thousand years, there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority.","Iddikud n 1000 n awatay , ille axlidmat n Latin fal addin meɣ filozofi t ijjat war n amajrad daɣ ikitban net meɣ issewal nen fal axakam net"
He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths.,Eqqal Consul daɣ awatay wan 501 daɣ almalakiya tan Ostrogoths
"He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the Isagoge by Porphyry (a commentary on the Categories).",Iktab majradan fal alxidmaten tin tolas fal Isagoge s Porphyry ( majrad ijjan fal ich-ikilan)
"Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation.",Daɣ azzaman wen timazaɣen ajjotnen fal mazhab tan ijjanat chund asistan wan as amaxlak illan ti addinat ɣas wi eɣlis d addinat iyyad wi he izaqqizzab
Is the host the same as Christ's historical body?,Ajjen almudifa olah id taɣissa n attarex wan annabi ɣisa?
This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship.,Azzaman wen n taguhe n as n tanakkra n Bursatan tin teɣare
"Later, under St. Abbo of Fleury (abbot 988–1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age.","Darat awa, ɣur azzaman wan Abbo n Fleury wan alwali (abbot awatay wan 988 har 1004) amuzar n lakkol wan reformed abbey school , Felury ijraz has golden age wan issin"
The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy.,Tizart n awatay wan 1300 eqqal taguhe n tamazzit n filozofi tan Greek
Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.,Almalika tan assohat nen win Norman issedawan meddan n musnat daɣ Italy d iyyad n ihandagan iyyad daɣ iɣalayan nasan chund achamol n tihussay
"The universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the Church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life.",Lakkolan wi maqqornen ikrasan daɣ iɣirman wi maqqornen n Euroba daɣ azzaman wen tolas ixakaman amchakat nen daɣ egliz issintan s ikinnasan fal axakam wan folitik d ta-ite fal santartan win teɣare
"The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.",Imannaɣafan maqqornen n amedran wan Dominique daɣ azzaman wen aqqalan Albert Magnus d hullan Thomas Aquinas s aklulu net n rationalism wan Greek d Mazhab n kriken tan t amos almaɣna n filozofi tan katolik tan
"""Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the """"errors"""" of the Commentator Averroes.""",“Aquinas issikna immik wa s addobat ijjuch n ajjen n filozofi tan Aristotle daɣ war t aftaqeɣ daɣ marsalan” n Averroes”
"The problem of evil: The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing, loving God could create a system of things in which evil exists first arose in the medieval period.","Muchakil wan alchil: Filozof tan win alasal ijjan takalt fal annuɣ n alchin muchham muchakil n immik wa Amaxlak wan ojjaran harat fuk assahat, musnat, tarha addobat ad eɣnu sistem n haratan eha alchin isinta s tizarat daɣ azzaman wan aru"
"However, from the fourteenth century onward, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy prepared the way for the rise of science in the early modern period.","Hak id ijja awen, daɣ awatay wan 1400, ataxdam hullan n ta-ite tan mathematic daɣ filozofi ijja abara i tiw-at n science daɣ azzaman ezzaran"
"In the earlier period, writers such as Peter Abelard wrote commentaries on the works of the Old logic (Aristotle's Categories, On interpretation, and the Isagoge of Porphyry).","Daɣ azzaman wa ezzaran, inaktuban chund Peter Abelard iktab fal alxidmaten tin Old Logic (Aristotle Categories, On Interpretation d Isagoge of Porphyry)"
"(The word 'intentionality' was revived by Franz Brentano, who was intending to reflect medieval usage).",( Isim wan ittus’ assodar ti Franz Brentano otasan ad alah axadam net wan kel aru)
"""The designation """"Renaissance philosophy"""" is used by scholars of intellectual history to refer to the thought of the period running in Europe roughly between 1355 and 1650 (the dates shift forward for central and northern Europe and for areas such as Spanish America, India, Japan, and China under European influence).""","“ Isim wan “Renaissance Pilosophy” assaxdaman ti imaɣran win attarex eqqal fal amedran wan azzaman wa ochalan daɣ Eroba jir awatay wan 1355 har 1650 ( azzamanan amuttayan s data har Eroba tan ammas d emaynaj tolas id ihandagan chund Spania, Amerik, India, Japon, d Chine )"
"The assumption that Aristotle's works were foundational to an understanding of philosophy did not wane during the Renaissance, which saw a flourishing of new translations, commentaries, and other interpretations of his works, both in Latin and in the vernacular.",Mirda wan as alxidmaten tin Aristotle aqqal nat a assohen daɣ afaham n filozofi war ifnza daɣ Renaissance t asuknat efes n ifassiran eynaynen d ifahaman iyyad n alxidmaten net daɣ Latin d awal wa ochalan
"The latter, similar in some ways to modern debates, examined the pros and cons of particular philosophical positions or interpretations.","Wan uchray olah s immikan iyyad id isiwilan win amarad, ammiyazan kel exxay d kel booo n ihandagan n filozofi meɣ ifahaman net"
"Plato, known directly only through two and a half dialogues in the Middle Ages, came to be known through numerous Latin translations in fifteenth century Italy, culminating in the hugely influential translation of his complete works by Marsilio Ficino in Florence in 1484.","Platon itiwazzayan ɣas s two d tazune n asiwil daɣ Middle Ages, tawazzayan s ifassiran win Latin daɣ awatay wan 1500 n Italy ikmalan afissar wa ojjaran n alxidmaten imdan nen ijja Marsilio Ficio daɣ Florence awatay wan 1484"
"Not all Renaissance humanists followed his example in all things, but Petrarch contributed to a broadening of his time's 'canon' (pagan poetry had previously been considered frivolous and dangerous), something that happened in philosophy as well.","Wadden Humanist tan fuk win Renaissance a ilkam i almital net daɣ haratan fuk mucham Petrach idhal daɣ asiwad n alwaq net “canon” (tasawit tan anammachruy taqqal a war n infa harat d a labasan), harat ijjan daɣ filozofi iman net"
Other movements from ancient philosophy also re-entered the mainstream.,Taggayen t iyyad n filozofi tan aru intanated deɣ olas at ijjuch n awen
"This position came under increasing strain in the Renaissance, as various thinkers claimed that Thomas's classifications were inaccurate, and that ethics were the most important part of morality.",Edag wen issewad titbaqqet tan Renaissance fal as imaɣran ajjotnen allaɣen as amaskat wa ijja Thomas war oɣed tolas as ethics eqqal achrut wa ojjaran n uxlak
"As we have seen, they believed that philosophy could be brought under the wing of rhetoric.",S immik wa s t n ikyad n aɣiln as filozofi taddobat a tijjich daw afrut n rhetoric
"In 1416–1417, Leonardo Bruni, the pre-eminent humanist of his time and chancellor of Florence, re-translated Aristotle's Ethics into a more flowing, idiomatic and classical Latin.","Daɣ aaty wan 1416 har 1417, Leonardo Bruni, harat daɣ humanist tan wa ojjaran hullan daɣ azzaman net d Chancellor Florance, olasan afissar har ajjudi n Ethics wan Aristotle daɣ Latin ochalan, ilan almaɣna tolas n alasal"
The driving conviction was that philosophy should be freed of its technical jargon so that more people would be able to read it.,Fellah amos as filozofi ilzam tt a tabdu id timuchaɣ ti assohat ne i ad udaben addinat teɣare net
"Desiderius Erasmus, the great Dutch humanist, even prepared a Greek edition of Aristotle, and eventually those teaching philosophy in the universities had to at least pretend that they knew Greek.","Desiderius Earsmus , Humanist Danemark wa maqqoran inta deɣ ijja Edisyon daɣ Greek n Aristotle tolas isassaɣritan net win filozofi daɣ lakkolan wi maqqornen ijjan abaraj as issanan greek"
"Once it had been determined, however, that Italian was a language with literary merit and that it could carry the weight of philosophical discussion, numerous efforts in this direction started to appear, particularly from the 1540s onward.","Alwaq wa id atwasan , Italian wen eqqal awal ilan timzal n akatab tolas addobat ad awiy azuk n majrad n filozofi, addabara tan ajjotnen daɣ abara wen issintan id azjor hullan ɣur awatay wan 1540"
"We know that debates about the freedom of the will continued to flare up (for instance, in the famous exchanges between Erasmus and Martin Luther), that Spanish thinkers were increasingly obsessed with the notion of nobility, that duelling was a practice that generated a large literature in the sixteenth century (was it permissible or not?).","Nissan as majradan fal alxoriya tan derhan ad iw-adan (almital daɣ isiwilan wi ijja Erasmus d Martin Luther) as imaɣran win Espagne ikna daɣ san ag-ad hullan isi wan tammujaɣa , as amchakki eqqal achaɣil id erawan literature ajjet daɣ awatay wan 1600 (ajjen turhajat n awen t ille meɣ bo?)"
"We must not forget that most philosophers of the time were at least nominal, if not devout, Christians, that the sixteenth century saw both the Protestant and the Catholic reformations, and that Renaissance philosophy culminates with the period of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648).","Ilzam anaɣ ad wr hin n atiwah s filozof tan fuk win azzaman wen aqqalan kriken tan n isim war n addin, as awatay wan 1600 Reformations n bomber tan win Protestan d Katolik tan ojjaran daɣ azzaman wan akinnas n karadat timirwen n awatay (1618 har 1648)"
"In conclusion, like any other moment in the history of thought Renaissance philosophy cannot be considered to have provided something entirely new nor to have continued for centuries to repeat the conclusions of its predecessors.","Daɣ amindi, chund hak id daɣ alwaq n attarex n amedran filozofi tan Renaissance war addobat as tikf-a harat ikmalan eynayan meɣ tijja iwityan daɣ amasuɣal n ikimmilan n win data s"
Modern philosophy is philosophy developed in the modern era and associated with modernity.,Filozofi tan amarad taqqal filozofi t ijjat daɣ azzaman wa uchray tolas osaɣ id modernity
"By the 17th and 18th centuries the major figures in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and metaphysics were roughly divided into two main groups.","Daɣ amindi n awatay wan 1700 d wan 1800 kel musnat fuk maqqornen n filozofi tan ta-ite , epistemology d metaphysics azunan hullan s sanatat taqqimen"
"""The """"Empiricists,"""" by contrast, held that knowledge must begin with sensory experience.""",“Empiricist tan ijja ɣur san as musnat ilzam ad tantu s musnat tan tanafrit”
Other important figures in political philosophy include Thomas Hobbes and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.,Kel musnat iyyad assohat nen daɣ filozofi tan folitik ehen Thomas Hobbes d Jean-Jacques Rousseau
"Kant sparked a storm of philosophical work in Germany in the early nineteenth century, beginning with German idealism.",Kant issinkar id tadut n alxidmat n filozofi daɣ Allemagne daɣ tizarat n awatay wan 1900 isintan s German idealism
"Karl Marx appropriated both Hegel's philosophy of history and the empirical ethics dominant in Britain, transforming Hegel's ideas into a strictly materialist form, setting the grounds for the development of a science of society.","Kalr Marx ikf-a iman net filozofi tan Hegel n attarex d empirical etics ojjaran daɣ Britania , isammutay anasjum wan Hegel s materialist form, ijjan edag i efes n science daɣ tamazduq"
"Arthur Schopenhauer took idealism to the conclusion that the world was nothing but the futile endless interplay of images and desires, and advocated atheism and pessimism.",Arthur Schopenhauer itkal idealism s akamal n as alɣalim war eqqal wala ar dallol war n infa harat n taliwen d derhanan tolas eɣr s atheism d pessimisme
Descartes argued that many predominant Scholastic metaphysical doctrines were meaningless or false.,Descartes allaɣat as mazhab tan ajjotnen n scolastique d metaphysique war ilen almaɣna meɣ n bahu
"He tries to set aside as much as he possibly can of all his beliefs, to determine what if anything he knows for certain.",Eram ad ej s achrut s immik wa s addobat amedran tan net fuk nasan i ad ilmid harat fuk wa issan fal harat s tiditt
From this basis he builds his knowledge back up again.,S talɣa ten olas id akaros n musnat net har ajjudi
"While historicism also acknowledges the role of experience, it differs from empiricism by assuming that sensory data cannot be understood without considering the historical and cultural circumstances in which observations are made.","Alawaq wa id Historicism ardah fal edag wan musnat , anmazlay id empiricism exyazan as isalan win tanafrit war addobat at aw afhaman wala s attarex d agna daɣ ijjan ikayadan"
"""As such empiricism is first and foremost characterized by the ideal to let observational data """"speak for themselves"""", while the competing views are opposed to this ideal.""","“ Ichmad empiricism wen eqqal samal net wa ezzaran ittus n tayyit n isalan win akayad “ammajradan intaned iman nasan”, as ijja awen ikayadan wi amichwar nen unjayan s ittus”"
"In other words: Empiricism as a concept has to be constructed along with other concepts, which together make it possible to make important discriminations between different ideals underlying contemporary science.",Daɣ almaɣna iyyan: Empiricism ilzam akaros net edes n ismawan s a fal artayan asirɣasan tamiz tan maqqornen jir ittusan n science tan n amarad
"Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing.","Daɣ ezaraj wan epistemology, Idealism eqqal iban s asiflas fal tudabat n musnat n harat fuk s ta-ite"
"It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice.",Tafassar tamakiwayt daɣ edag id tizjar theory alxidmat n tiditt tolas t assoɣal fal alxidmat tan tiditt ikannan n awa s itawan alxidmat tan ta-ite
Brian Leiter (2006) webpage “Analytic” and “Continental” Philosophy.,Brian Leiter (2006) Webpage filozofi “analytic” d “continental”
Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the history of Western philosophy beginning at the early 20th century with the increasing professionalization of the discipline and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.,Filozofi tan amarad taqqal azzamanwan amarad daɣ attrex wan filozofi tan ikufar assintan ɣur tizarat n awatay wan 2000 s tiw-at n majal daɣ almaɣna n ijjuch n alxidmat d tiw-at n analytic d continental philosophy
Germany was the first country to professionalize philosophy.,Allemagne taqqal addawla ta tazzarat ijjan filozofi majal n alxidmat
"Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientific field to the general populace, works by professional philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare.","A anmazlayan id science tan ajjotnen fal id osa industri n alkittaban, magazine tan d talavizyon almaɣna n awen anafaz n science d asiwal fal ittusan net wi tewad daɣ abara wan science har ichaɣib imdan, alxidmaten ijjan filozof tan amlallaynen s addinat ahanen ajjama n alxidmat"
Each division organises a large annual conference.,Tazunt taj taɣaymit maqqorat daɣ awatay
"Among its many other tasks, the association is responsible for administering many of the profession's top honors.","Daɣ alxidmaten net t iyyad ajjotnen , taggayt ilzam tat axakam n inassemɣaran n alxidmat ajjotnen"
"""This development was roughly contemporaneous with work by Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new philosophical method based on the analysis of language via modern logic (hence the term """"analytic philosophy"""").""",“ Efes wen enhay hullan s alxidmat ijja Gottlob Frege d Bertrand Russel oran nen tikarsay n filozofi teynayat tijjat fal amiyiz n awal s modern logic (isim wan “analytic philosophy’’’)
"""Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon Glendinning, argue that this """"analytic–continental"""" divide is inimical to the discipline as a whole.""",“” Filozof tan iyyad chund Richard Rorty d Simon Glendinning allaɣat as awen “”analytic-continental’’’ war ammedaw id majal fuk
"Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers differ on the importance and influence of subsequent philosophers on their respective traditions.",Filozof tan win analytic d continental izlay daɣ tinfa d assahat n filozof tan fal attarexan nasan
"Although, since analytic and continental philosophy have such starkly different views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy is also often understood in an extended sense to include any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy.","Kuddeɣ as alwaq wa id analytic d continental philosophy ilan ikayadan chund win izlaynen n filozofi darat Kant, continental philosophy inta tila afaham s almaɣna chajreen i at ijjichan filozof tan fuk win darat Kant meɣ taggayen assohat nen i continental philosophy mucham wadden analytic philosophy"
"Thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism, where analytic philosophy tends to treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, capable of being analyzed apart from their historical origins.","Continental philosophy tahal s historicism edag s analytic philosophy tasafar philosophy s muchakil tan istarnen, addobat nen amiyaz edes n eɣani wan attarex"
The major orthodox schools arose sometime between the start of the Common Era and the Gupta Empire.,Lakkolan wi maqqornen n Orthodox ankar alwaq iyan jir amindi n Common Era d Gupta Empire
These religio-philosophical traditions were later grouped under the label Hinduism.,Tumasen tin jir addin d filozofi addew nat darat awa daw label wan Hinduizm
"Western scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no single founder.",Imaɣan win ikfuar ijja ɣur san as Hinduiszm eqqal anmartay d aklulu n agna tan d tumasen ajjotnen ilanen ikewan izlaynen tolas war ilen amaxlak
"Indian philosophers developed a system of epistemological reasoning (pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyata-Anatta), reliable means of knowledge (epistemology, Pramanas), value system (axiology) and other topics.","Filozof tan win India ijjan efes n epistemological reasoning (pramana) d muduɣ tan n almaɣna tolas n imuɣ chund Ontology (metaphysics, Brahman-Atman, Sunyta-Anatta) isuj n musnat n taflis (epistemology, Pramanas), sistem n alqim (axiology) d muduɣ tan iyyad"
Later developments include the development of Tantra and Iranian-Islamic influences.,Efes wan darat ehay efes n Tantra d assahat ikrach al-islam daɣ Iran
"Nyāya traditionally accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).","Nyaya ardah daɣ attarex fal akkoz Pramanas as aqqalan isuj n akarach n musnat - Pratyaksa (akayad), Anumana (inference), Upamana (eket d tulat) d Sabda ( isim, takasit n imusanan wi okaynen d win amarad)"
"This philosophy held that the universe was reducible to paramāṇu (atoms), which are indestructible (anitya), indivisible, and have a special kind of dimension, called “small” (aṇu).","Filozofi ten ijja ɣur is as alɣalim ogdah id paramanu (atoms) war n addobat terazze (anitya), tazunt , tolas ila dumu n iddikud s isim net ‘andarran’’ (anu)"
Later Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) added one more category abhava (non-existence).,Darat awa Vaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya) issewad edag iyyan abhava (iban uxlak)
"Because of their focus on textual study and interpretation, Mīmāṃsā also developed theories of philology and the philosophy of language which influenced other Indian schools.","Fal axaman wa ijja fal teVaiśeṣikas (Śrīdhara and Udayana and Śivāditya)are n akatab d afaham,Mīmāṃsā inta deɣ ikna theory tan n filozofi d filozofi tan awal ta tiknat omar n lakkol tan win India"
"The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy include a mind-body dualism, denial of a creative and omnipotent God, karma, an eternal and uncreated universe, non-violence, the theory of the multiple facets of truth, and morality based on liberation of the soul.","Samalan win tazunt n filozofi jain ehay amchikki n ta-ite tan , asabbahu n uxlak d musnat n amaxlak, Karma, alɣalim eɣlalan d i war n alxek, tasittaɣhal tan iban jafa, mirda n albaban ajjotnen n tiditt d axalak ijjan fal tayyit n iman"
It has also been called a model of philosophical liberalism for its insistence that truth is relative and multifaceted and for its willingness to accommodate all possible view-points of the rival philosophies.,Ijraw isim wan dumu wan philsophical liberalism fal awa s ɣur tiditt war t imda tolas tila albaban ajjotnen d iban derhan net i ad t ardah fal ikayadan ajjotnen n filozofi tan ti izlaynen
Cārvāka philosophers like Brihaspati were extremely critical of other schools of philosophy of the time.,Filozof tan Cārvāka chud Brihaspati iknan amijrad hullan n lakkol tan n filozofi tan azzaman wen
It is the dominant philosophical tradition in Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and Burma.,Eqqal tumast ta tojjarat daɣ Tibet d addawla tan tin tamasna-alqiblat i Asia chund Sri Lanka d Burma
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed complex phenomenological psychologies termed 'Abhidharma'.,Darat awa tumasen n filozofi tan Buddhist tan ijja efes n phenomenological psychologies s isim net “Abhidharma”
"""This tradition contributed to what has been called an """"epistemological turn"""" in Indian philosophy.""",“ Tumast ten tissewad awa s itawan “epistemological turn”” daɣ filozofi tan India
"Important exponents of Buddhist modernism include Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933) and the American convert Henry Steel Olcott, the Chinese modernists Taixu (1890–1947) and Yin Shun (1906–2005), Zen scholar D.T. Suzuki, and the Tibetan Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951).","Imuzaran assohat nen n Buddhist modernism eha Anagrika Dharmapala (1864-1933) Henry Steel Olcott wan Amerik, Modernist tan Taixa wan Chine (1890 har 1947) d Yin Shun (1906 har 2005), Imaɣri Zen D.T suzuki d Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951) wan Tibet"
"Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures and societies, in both the present and past, including past human species.","Anthropology taqqal teGendün Chöphel (1903–1951).are n science tan addinat taqqalat fal axal n awadim, abarkot n awadim, agna tan d timizdaɣ daɣ amarad hak id a hin okayan eha ich-ikilan n addinat win aru"
Biological or physical anthropology studies the biological development of humans.,Biological meɣ physical anthropology ɣar efes n abarkot n addibat
Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed.,Taggayen ajjotnen war n ikrech taɣrast chajret n anthropologist tan tijja gah
"When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the Société was abandoned.","Alwaq wa id timnaɣ tikiluwa daɣ France daɣ awatay wan 1848, Société t atwaya"
"For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect.","ɣur san, akatab wa ijja Charles Darwin fal uɣna wan ich-ikilan n imudaran eqqal amud wan Epiphany n harat fuk s issinta muchakat net"
There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences.,Imal ti ach-al ermadan i azujich net daɣ social sciences
"""His definition now became """"the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature"""".""",“Almaɣna net eqqal amarad “”teɣare n taqqimt n addinat artaynen daɣ titbaqqa net d daɣ tartit net id awa hin eqqiman daɣ ahinzazaɣ”””
"He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called Broca's area after him.",Isaffakar id ammas n majrad wan akalkil n addinat s isim net achal id azzaman wa darat Broca
The last two volumes were published posthumously.,Volume tan win uchray izjar id darat tamattant net
"He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation.",Asilmad hullan as isalan win eket ilzam a taqqal tin musnat assedaw erem n amiyiz n musnat
Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists.,Waitz eqqal a ilan assahat hullan daɣ ethnologist tan win Britania
"Representatives from the French Société were present, though not Broca.",Imuzaran win Société tan France illan ti kuddeɣ as war aqqalen Broca
"Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist.",Edward eɣra iman net data awa s ehtnologist id anthropologist
"One notable exception was the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (1869) founded by Rudolph Virchow, known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists.","Berlin Society ta Anthropology , Ethnology d Prehistory (1869) ikna Rudolph Virchow ɣas a t atwasanat fal tadlimt net i evolutionist tan"
The major theorists belonged to these organizations.,Theorist maqqoran hullan n taggayen tin
"Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene.","Practical anthropology, alxidmat n musnat n anthropology d tikarsay i amukin in muchakil tan , osa id, almital, emel n addinat i amut nen addoben ad aruwan alxidmat s forensic archaeologist i edey har ajjudi n final scene"
"This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from Boas' arguments against 19th-century racial ideology, through Margaret Mead's advocacy for gender equality and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of post-colonial oppression and promotion of multiculturalism.",Awen ikna ijiit hullan daɣ Amerik ɣur idiwinni tan win Boa fal racial ideology daɣ awatay wan 1900 s tebadde ta tijja Margaret Mead i tigdaht n meddan d deden s imajridan n asakin n aɣana wan darat alisteɣmar d achichɣal n multiculturalism
"In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of social anthropology tends to dominate.","Daɣ Britania d addawla tan tin Common Wealth, tumast tan Britania n social anthropology t aram at ajjar"
"Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships among individuals and groups.",Cultural Anthropology t aqqal teɣare n eket n abara tan ajjotnen daɣ ilan addinat almaɣna daɣ alɣalim edes has- san alwaq wa id socil anthropology taqqal teɣare n iharojan jir addinat d taqqimen
"There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree.",War t illa anmizlay assohen jir san tolas ihandagan win tin amikiyan s degre maqqoran
This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography.,War t illa froje i taj in awlaq iyyan daɣ abara wan ethnography
Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology.,Akayad wan addinat eqqal iyyan daɣ tikarsiwen ilzam nen n social d cultural anthropology
"The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal.",Teɣare n temedt d amukin n tamazduq eqqal titbaqet ta fal t ijja sociocultural anthropology fal as temedt taqqal a oharan addinat daɣ alɣlim*
Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important.,Ikayadan win Ethnography aqqalan musnat ta tazzarat talɣa n tamazduq t assohat
"Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.","Ethnomuscology t addobat alxidmat daɣ abara tan ajjoten chund teɣare, folitik, cultural anthropology"
"Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange.",Economic anthropology t aqqim s achrut net wan hullan t ijja fal amaskal
"""The first of these areas was concerned with the """"pre-capitalist"""" societies that were subject to evolutionary """"tribal"""" stereotypes.""",“ Wa ezzaran daɣ ihandagan win eqqal fal timazdaɣen tin “”precapitalist’’ fal t ijja tamatit ‘’tribal stereotypes””
Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer?,Mafal addint wi axdam nen daɣ isalan win efes raqqis daɣ san ankur n attarex d ta-ite tan ti s addobat a tan at ekf-u?
Within kinship you have two different families.,Daɣ temedt illan ti issin igidchan izlaynen
"Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere.","Anthropology t an-axdam id feminist tan n tumasen tin addawla tan war naqqel tin ikufar s ikayadan nasan d musnaten izlayan id win feminist tan win Eroba, Amerika d edag iyyan"
"""Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more """"complex"""" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena.""","“ Political anthropology ta s ijja efes net chund almajal t aqqal s tizarat fal folitik daɣ timazdaɣ war n ila akal, efes eynayan issinta daɣ awatay wan 1960 tolas har ajjudi war ammutay: anthropologist tan issintan hullan teɣare n ihandagan “maqqornen” s emel wan addawla tan, timachɣulen tin biraw tan d hebu tan ijjachan fuk nasan fal ethnography d amiyiz n harat n tarrayt tan akal”"
"Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions).","Wan issin, anthropologist tan issintan sollan akarach n tamɣatert id addawla tan d tijittawen nasan (tolas fal aharoj jir tijittawen tin folitik d t iwar tila folitik)"
"It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture.",Alwaqqan iyyad t artay id sociocultural anthropology tolas alwaqqan iyyad t aqqal achrut n agna n asuj
It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today.,Eqqal har ajjudi teɣare n attarex n taqqimen n tawset ajjotnen addobat nen meɣ war n addobat emel iwityan wi daɣ
"""Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the """"Third World"""" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of """"specialists in 'other cultures'"""" closer to their homes.""",“ Timikitwayen ajotnen dav alvalim wan ikufar hak id daɣ “Third Wordl” (wan uchray eqqalan wa fal ijja akayad n anthropologist tan) eraw id akayad “”imusanan n agna iyyad”” orak nen s ihanan nasan”
"It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology.","Eqqal abara assirtayan almajal tan it anmichrayan id iddikud n almajal tan eha anthropology, ethology, medecine, psychology, veterinary medecine d zoology"
"It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints.",Awen amos teɣare n addinat win aru s immik wa s at ajrawan iɣasan nasan hominid eqqal asidutti n iɣasan amuttay nen d idirchan n tinsawen
"In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe.","Daɣ awatay wan 1989, taqqimt n imaɣran n Eroba d Amerik daɣ abara wan anthropology iknan European Association of Social Athropologists (EASA) t aqqalat taggayt n alxidmat maqorat i anthropologist tan axdam nen daɣ Eroba"
"This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms.",Awen anasjum n as agna tan war oleɣ a fal as anat ej acharaɣ s alqiman meɣ ikayadan iyyad mucham ad ej amiyaz hullan s ismawan nasnat
"Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists.",Franz Boas unjay s ijjuch n ameriken tan daɣ akinnas n alɣalim wan iyyan tolas darat akinnas ijja majrad daɣ war assoraf i ijjuch wan archaeologist tan n Amerik daɣ tikra n isalan daɣ addalwa tan Mexique s as aqqalan sicentist tan
"At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies.","S alwaq wen daɣ, timzal n alxidmat tan David H. fal American Anthropology daɣ azzaman wan Cold War ikf-a isalan fal imuɣ d tachoj n athropologist tan ajjoten dav alxidmat nasan fal as odanan tahanint i Communist tan"
Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA).,Addabara tan jjotnen n iban n asurif n akinnas daɣ titbaqqa net fuk okay amaku daɣ azzaman n taɣaymit tan awatay n American Anthropological Association (AAA)
The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous.,Association n Social Anthropologist tan addawla tan Rwayom Uni d Commonwelath (ASA) taɣra bursatan n teɣare tiyyad s daɣ achareɣa ti labasnen
One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical.,Iyyan daɣ samalan win ammas eqqal as anthropology t aram ihuk n isalan hullan n harat wen tolas t aram a t aqqal empirical
"These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.","Iharojan win ochal nen jir awa ilan akayad fal akal anmazlayan id awa ilan tudabat n akayad s asartay n ikayadan ajjotnen eqqal a assohen daɣ dumu n anthropology fuk jir ɣas tan agna, tan abarkot, tan awal meɣ tan archaeological"
"On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs.","Daɣ achrut wan abarkot meɣ wan taɣissa, iketan n addinat, ɣa-ida tan n etri, isalan n imansiwan addoben ad iddawan tolas izjiran fal ilkadan chund ilfisil tan meɣ monograf tan"
"Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past.",I tizunawen n agna tiyyad s ich-ikilan n asuj chund Mlduwan meɣ Mouterian meɣ Levalloisian idhalan archaeologist tan d anthropologist tan iyyad daɣ afaham n isatoɣan daɣ tikit n awadim
"A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.","Achareɣa n agna akkodat alxal wa it-w-aɣbalan daɣ tamazduq; eqqal chund iyyaka tan i alxal , telasse, awal d alxal n talɣa taqqal at dumu i derhanan daɣ tamazduq"
"These include expressive forms like art, music, dance, ritual, religion, and technologies like tool usage, cooking, shelter, and clothing.","Win ahan tan dumu tan chund isuhaɣ, dallol, taqsin, addin d teknoloji tan chud axadam n asuj , ansaɣ, ehan d imalsan"
The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies.,Iddikud n tulaɣay n agna alwaqqan iyyad exdam daɣ anmizlay n civilizasyon tan tiyyad n timizdaɣ madroynen
Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of consumer culture that emerged in the 20th century.,Agna wan addinat ajjotnen amos n dumu tan ajjotnen n kel agna id ewadnen daɣ awatay wan 2000
"In the wider social sciences, the theoretical perspective of cultural materialism holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in evolved biological dispositions.","Daɣ social sciences, akayad wan mirda n cultural materialism ijja ɣur is as agna wan addinat izjar id talɣiwen n tamudre n awadim chund immik wa s xallakan addinat talɣiwen i tamudre taɣissa nasan tolas tijittawt tan agna t at ajraw daɣ addabara win abarkot"
"In this sense, multiculturalism values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet.","Daɣ almaɣna wen, multiculturalism ikf-a alqim aharoj n alxer d semɣar ogdahan jir agna tan izlayan izzaɣnen fal amadal olahan"
"""In 1986, philosopher Edward S. Casey wrote, """"The very word culture meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin colere, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and cultus, 'A cult, especially a religious one.'""","“Daɣ awatay wan 1968, Edward S. Casey iktab “ almaɣna n isim n agna wan tiditt s eɣaf net: Middle English tolas isim wen eqqal har Latin colere, ‘i tamazduq, awikkal, har, aɣabad d cultus’ aɣabad hullan wan addin”"
"""Thus a contrast between """"culture"""" and """"civilization"""" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.""",“Anmizlay jir “”agna ‘’ d ‘’civilizasyon’’ harkuk ijjan ti inatiban win tangalt hak id alwaq wa id war ikk awen”
"This ability arose with the evolution of behavioral modernity in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to humans.",Tudabet ten tinkar id ɣur iki n data wan behavioral modernity daɣ addinat edes n a ilan 50.000 n awatay tolas daɣ amedran war ila amidi i addinat
"Rein Raud, building on the work of Umberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu and Jeffrey C. Alexander, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their cognitive adequacy and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.","Rein Raud ikan in alxidmat net tan Emberto Eco, Pierre Bourdieu d Jeffrey C. Alexander ijjan addabara n tamattit n agna tijjat fal claims and bids amos nen daɣ achareɣa aqqud nasan n musnat tolas ilkam meɣ war has ilkem assahat n tawset n agna"
Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.,asiddagar wan agna almaɣna net amasuɣal daɣ edey n isim wan agna daɣ tamazduq
"Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action.",Akinnas daɣ tamazduq d efes n teknoloji tan addobat ad aru imutiyan daɣ tamazduq s tamattit n timitikwayen n tamzduq d achichɣal dumu tan n agna eynaynen tolas itiruwan meɣ ehak in turhajat n alxidmat tiruwat
Environmental conditions may also enter as factors.,Talɣiwen tin ahinzazaɣ tajjach nat intaned deɣ daɣ marsalan
War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics.,Akinnas meɣ tamadacht fal alfayda tan addobat ad ekmu efes wan teknoloji meɣ tamatikwayt n tamazduq
"""For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century. """"""","“ Almital, esassar n muxatta tan win ikufar d derhan n alkuzay tan nasan d jarruzat wa ijjan i Chinwa tan fal as aqtisad wan Chine ammera i mamala wan jir ikallan daɣ awatay wan 2000””"
"He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently.",Allaɣat as iban tenanɣe wadden iban afaham a id izajar muham iban asassuhi daɣ anasjum ijjan s alxoriya
"""Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of Bildung: """"For Herder, Bildung was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people.""""""","“Heder ijja addabara dumu oharan n Bildung “”i Herder, Bildung eqqal akimmal n musnaten ti hakkinen tumast toɣadat d almaɣna n taɣrist toharat i addinat”””"
"According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups.","Daɣ allaɣat lakkol net wan amedran, taqqimt n tawset fuk tila akyad net n alɣalim izlayan awen war ila iddikud i ikayadan n alɣalim n taqqimen ti yadnen"
He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements.,Ijja addabara anmigdah n addinat n timizdaq fuk ad esakin ikayadan n alɣalim wi izlaynen ahan titbaqqa olahnen
"""""""a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group.""""""","“””Imik n tamudre jir ɣas n addinat,azzaman meɣ n taqqimt””"
"""In other words, the idea of """"culture"""" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.""","“” Daɣ majrad iyyan, ta-ite tan “”agna’’ ta taqqalat efes daɣ Eroba daɣ awatay wan 1800 d 900 t asukna inmijaran daɣ timizdaɣ tin Eroba””"
"According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others.","Daɣ immik wa s ijja anasjum net, addobat awadim asakat n addawla tan tiyyad addinat chund as ojjaran wi yadnen ijarri tolas addinat iyyad as ilan agna ojjaran wan wi yadnen"
"Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature.","Daɣ critics win 1900, Rousseau ardah fal anmizlay wen jir agna wan s afalla d wan sider mucham ikyad as tihussay d milɣaw n agna n afalla as amos efes amixalxalan eha tihay tolas isimuti annuɣ n addinat"
In 1870 the anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the evolution of religion.,Daɣ awatay wan 1870 anthropologist Edward Tylor (1832 har 1917) ijja inasjam net n agna wan s afalla d wan sider i ad ej addabara n mirda n iki s data n addin
"""For sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918), culture referred to """"the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history.""""""","“ I Sociologist Georg Simmel (1858 har 1918), agna amos ‘ teɣare n addinat s Agency wan dumu win ajjama addutat nen daɣ attarex””"
"Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made.","Agna war n aqqel wan asuj amos inasjam war n ila taɣissa ilan addinat fal agna tan nasan eha alqim nasan, amedran tan, achareɣa tan, axluk tan,awal, taggayen, d tijittawen as ijja awen agna wan asuj amos asidduti n taɣissa n agna daɣ haratan d edey wa itajj meɣ wa ijjan"
"""Cultural sociology was then """"reinvented"""" in the English-speaking world as a product of the """"cultural turn"""" of the 1960s, which ushered in structuralist and postmodern approaches to social science.""",“ Cultural Sociology “”olas id iɣannan” daɣ alɣalim wa issewalan tangilist chund asuj n “cultural turn” daɣ awtay wan 1960 tiijach at tizujach tin structuralist d postmodern i social sciene”
"""Culture"""" has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like social stratification and social network analysis.""",“”Agna” ɣur azzaman wen eqqal isim assohen daɣ iliktan ajjotnen chund sociology ahan abara tan n science chund social stratificatio d amiyiz n rezo wan tamazduq
"They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by relations of production, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.",Ikyadan daɣ dumu tan n tetate d izijrz s immik wa s tan asilmadan iharojan n itaj tan id ewayan ad ej fal iharojan d amukin n intaj
"It has since become strongly associated with Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as Director.",ɣur azzaman wen daɣ a id osaɣ hullan id Stuart Hall ichrayan Hoggart as Direkter
These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching television or eating out) in a given culture.,"Alxidmten tin ahan tanat immikan wa s taj in addinat haratan (chund akayad n talavizyon meɣ tetate daɣ ajjama), daɣ agna iyyn"
"""Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to """"fit in"""" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice.""",“ Akayad n talavizyon i akayad n akayad n awadim fal attarex war oleɣ ad eqqil amedran n agna har umas a eqqalan fal asuj n talavisyon iman net addoben ad eqqil nefran n agna; hak id ijja awen ilyadan n lakkol wi kayadnen darat lakkol id imidiwan nasan” ad “”ichijan” alwaq wa id war t ila iddilil i ijjuch n alxidmat ten”
"""Culture"""" for a cultural-studies researcher not only includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture, but also everyday meanings and practices.""",“Agna” aw farak wan tiɣir n agna itaj agna n s afalla wan alasal (agna wan axakam daɣ taqqimen n tamazduq) d agna izjaran hullan mucham achal fuk almaɣna tan d alxidmaten”
Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s.,Imaɣran daɣ Rwayom Uni d Amerik ijjan efes n ich-ikilan n tiɣir war n olah darat amindi n awatay wan 1970
"The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.","Anmizlay jir anasjum wan Amerik d wan Britania, imzay"
The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of meaning.,Tazujicht tan Orthodox Marxist tan t ijja fal ihuk n almaɣna
"Other approaches to cultural studies, such as feminist cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view.",Tizujichen tiyyad n tiɣir tin agna chund tiɣir n agna wan feminist d darat awa efes wa ijjan Ameriken tan i abara assojajan iman nasan akayan wen
"Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between emotions and culture, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture.",Psychologist tan win agna issintan erem n imuɣ i aharoj jir tanafrit d agna tolas aj in alwazab n as kud inta ta-ite n awadim tijraw alxoriya net daɣ agna
"On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's personalities across cultures.","Daɣ achrut iyyan, kel farak iyyad araman ittuar i anmizlayan jir imuzarn n addinat daɣ agna tan"
"For example, people who are raised in a culture with an abacus are trained with distinctive reasoning style.","Almital, addinat wi idwalnen daɣ agna s abacus ijja teɣare s ichikil izlayan"
"Basically, the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of Cultural Diversity deal with the protection of culture.",Tanmerdut tan Haye fal Alɣillas n Agna Arizzej daɣ azzaman n akinnas n kel efew d tanmerdut tan UNESCO fal alɣillas n anmizlay n agna
"Under international law, the UN and UNESCO try to set up and enforce rules for this.","Daɣ achareɣa wa jar ikallan , UN d UNESCO eram ad ej tolas asaxdim n achareɣa tan fal awen"
"The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target.","Ittus n tadlimt ten amos tumast n xasim ,awen daɣ a fal ilalan ajjotnen n agna aqqalan ittus wa ojjaran"
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect of that community and its religion or cultures.,Tamadacht taqqal harat s taj tawset amud net tolas ijja fal harat n samalan n tawseten ten d addin meɣ agna tan
"Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural.",Attarex wan tiwwijjast inta a ilkman i wan addin dallol
"Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they're called patronal festivals.","Timadachen alwaq iyyan tajjach nat edag n ittusan n tawset hullan tichilen meɣ alxer i imaxlakan, timaxlaken meɣ alwali tn: Ismawan nasan timadachen tin alwali tan"
"In Ancient Greece and Rome, festivals such as the Saturnalia were closely associated with social organisation and political processes as well as religion.","Daɣ Greece d Roma win aru, timadachen chund Saturnalia iknanen assaɣ id taggayen n tamazduɣ d timitikwayen n folitik hak id tin addin"
"""In Middle English, a """"festival dai"""" was a religious holiday.""","“ Daɣ Middl English, ‘“tamadacht dai’’’eqqal achal n addin “”"
"""The term """"feast"""" is also used in common secular parlance as a synonym for any large or elaborate meal.""",“” Isim wan “”amud” int deɣ itawar daɣ teklay war n aqqel tan addin eqqalan n almaɣna olahan i amansi fuk maqqoran olaɣan”
"The most important religious festivals such as Christmas, Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha serve to mark out the year.","Timadachen n addin iknanen tulaɣay chund amud n kriken Rosh Hashanah, Diwali, Eid al-Fitr d Eid al-Adha aqqalan ehwal i awatay"
An early example is the festival established by Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Ramesses III celebrating his victory over the Libyans.,Almital ezzaran amos tamadacht ijjan Farɣawna n Masar tan aru Ramses III ijjan dallol n tarna fal kel Libya
There are numerous types of festivals in the world and most countries celebrate important events or traditions with traditional cultural events and activities.,Illan ich(ikilan ajjotnen n timadachen daɣ alɣalim tolas addawla tan ajjotnen t ajjinat amud n tumasen n xadas tan tin agna tan d timachɣulen
Ancient Egyptian festivals could be either religious or political.,Timadachen tin Masar n aru addobat nat ad aqqil nat tin addin meɣ tin folitik
"The Sed festival, for example, celebrated the thirtieth year of an Egyptian pharaoh's rule and then every three (or four in one case) years after that.",Daɣ almital tamadacht tan Sed i taj amud net daɣ 30 n awatay n axakam n Farɣawna wan Masar tolas hak karad (meɣ akkoz alwaq iyyan) iwityan darat awa
"In the Christian liturgical calendar, there are two principal feasts, properly known as the Feast of the Nativity of our Lord (Christmas) and the Feast of the Resurrection (Easter), but minor festivals in honour of local patron saints are celebrated in almost all countries influenced by Christianity.","Daɣ alquddas n kriken tan wan taqqan d ichilan , illan ti issin imaddan tiwassan nen s Amud wan Tiwit n Amaxlak nanaɣ (Christmas) d Amud wan baɣas (Easter) mucham timadachen ti madroynen i alwali tan win akal taj i nat daɣ addawla tan fuk daɣ ojjar addin wan kriken tan"
"Buddhist religious festivals, such as Esala Perahera are held in Sri Lanka and Thailand.",Timadachen tin addin wan Buddhist tan chund Esala Perahera taj i nat daɣ Sri Lanka d Thailand
"Film festivals involve the screenings of several different films, and are usually held annually.",Timadachen n Film tan eha asukni n film tan ajjotnen izlaynen tolas taj i nat awatay fuk
"There are also specific beverage festivals, such as the famous Oktoberfest in Germany for beer.",T-ille tamadacht n tesase chund tan alxamar s izjar isim net hullan daɣ Allemagne
"Ancient Egyptians relied upon the seasonal inundation caused by the Nile River, a form of irrigation, which provided fertile land for crops.",Daɣ Masar tan aru ijjan fal at iɣachodan n aman s addilil nasan ejarew wa maqqoran n Nile dumu n asiswi ehak in akal lammedan i tadamut
Dree Festival of the Apatanis living in Lower Subansiri District of Arunachal Pradesh is celebrated every year from July 4 to 7 by praying for a bumper crop harvest.,Tamadacht tan Dri n Apatanis izzaɣan daɣ Subansiri District wan Aunachal Pradesh itaj amud net awatay fuk daɣ achal wan 4 har wan 7 n ayor wan juwiliyat s amud i tadamut tiknat tulaɣay
"A holiday is a day set aside by custom or by law on which normal activities, especially business or work including school, are suspended or reduced.",Achal n tasanfut eqqal achal iskat agna meɣ achareɣa s alxidmaten tin almaɣna hulan chawara tan meɣ alxidmat tan lakkol tasikkar meɣ t ifnaz
"The degree to which normal activities are reduced by a holiday may depend on local laws, customs, the type of job held or personal choices.","Edag wa s ifnaz achal wan tasanfut alxidmaten tin almaɣna izlay daɣ achareɣa tan win akal ,agna tan, dumu n alxidmat meɣ nefran wa ijja awadim"
"In most modern societies, however, holidays serve as much of a recreational function as any other weekend days or activities.","Daɣ timizdaɣ tin amarad, hak id ijja as ichilan win tasanfut aqqalan hullan ittus n asuf chund ichilan wi yadnen id war t ila alxidmat"
"In some cases, a holiday may only be nominally observed.","Daɣ ihandagan iyyad, achal wan tasanfut addoben addinat a has aj in akayad s isim"
The modern use varies geographically.,Axadam wan amarad izlay s jografia tan
"For example, Monkey Day is celebrated on December 14, International Talk Like a Pirate Day is observed on September 19, and Blasphemy Day is held on September 30.","ALmital, Monkey Day i taj amud net daɣ achal wan 14 n ayor wan Disambir, International Talk chund Pirate Day i taj amud net daɣ achal wan 19 n ayor wan sutambar d Blasphemy Day i taj in daɣ achal wan 30 n ayor wan sutambar"
"""Jehovah's Witnesses annually commemorate """"The Memorial of Jesus Christ's Death"""", but do not celebrate other holidays with any religious significance such as Easter, Christmas or New Year's.""","“ Jehovah Witness taj in awatay fuk amud n ‘’Isikta n tamattant tan annabi ɣisa”” mucham war taj in amud wan ichilan wi yadnen n tasanfut s almaɣna n addin chund Easter, christmas meɣ teynaya n awatay””"
"Ahmadi Muslims additionally celebrate Promised Messiah Day, Promised Reformer Day, and Khilafat Day, but contrary to popular belief, neither are regarded as holidays.","Inasliman win Ahmadi issewadan amud n Promised Messiah Day, Promised Reformer Day d Xilafa Day mucham a izlayan id awa aɣilan addinat , war tan eha i eqqalan achal n tasanfut"
"Celtic, Norse, and Neopagan holidays follow the order of the Wheel of the Year.","Ichilan n tasanfut win Celtic, Norse d Neopagan ilkaman i Wheel of the Year"
"Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skill sets of human osteology, paleopathology, and archaeology, and often consider the cultural and mortuary context of the remains.","Kel farak daɣ bioarchaeology assirtayan musnat nasan n human osteology, paleopathology d archaeology tolas alwaq iyyan ijrahan in talɣa tan agna d iɣasan n inamuttan"
Evolutionary psychology is the study of psychological structures from a modern evolutionary perspective.,Evolutionary Psychology t amos teɣare n spychological structures n akayad wan amarad ikkan s data
"Human behavioral ecology is the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology).","Human Behavioral ecology amos teɣare n almud n alxal (imuɣ i tetate,akarac n aratan, tadawla ) daɣ ikayadan n iki s data d ecology ( ikyid ecology)"
"Paleoanthropology is the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.",Paleoanthropology amos teɣare n asiduttii n iɣasan win aru i iki s data n addinat hullan s axadam n iɣasan amutnen n hominin d ich-ikilan iyyad i musnat n imutiyan n taɣissa d alxal n nasab wan awadim hak id ahinzazaɣ wa daɣ ijja amutti wen
"The name is even relatively new, having been 'physical anthropology' for over a century, with some practitioners still applying that term.","Isim wen eynay , ila “physical anthropolagy” har ikrach temede n awatay har mumaris tan iyyad issintan teɣare n isim en"
"Some editors, see below, have rooted the field even deeper than formal science.","Editor tan iyyad, ikyid sider, issewadan ikewan n abara wzn hullan a ojjaran awa has t ijja science"
"This became the main system through which scholars thought about nature for the next roughly 2,000 years.",Awen eqqal sistem wan ammas s taj in imaɣran medran fal ahinzazaɣ i 2000 n awatay win tilkamat
"He also wrote about physiognomy, an idea derived from writings in the Hippocratic Corpus.","Olas akatab fal physiognomy , anasjum id izjaran ikitban daɣ Hippocratic Corpus"
"In the 19th century, French physical anthropologists, led by Paul Broca (1824-1880), focused on craniometry while the German tradition, led by Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902), emphasized the influence of environment and disease upon the human body.","Daɣ awatay wan 1900, Physical Anthropologist tan win France s ezzar Paul Broca ( awatay wan 1824 har 1880) ijjan axlidmat fal craniometry as ijja awen daɣ tumast tan allemagne s ezzar Rudolf Virchow (awatay wan 1821 har 1902) issewad assahat n ahinzazaɣ d torhinna fal taɣissa n awadim"
"He changed the focus from racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human evolution, moving away from classification towards evolutionary process.","Isammutay alxidmat net fal racial tpology i ad exdam fal teɣare n amutti n awadim , ichinkach fal amaskat s tamatikay tan iki n s data"
A race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical or social qualities into categories generally viewed as distinct by society.,Tawset taqqal taqqimt n addinat tijat fal immikan n taɣissa meɣ tamazduq s ihandagan anmazlay nen daɣ akayad wan addinat
"Modern science regards race as a social construct, an identity which is assigned based on rules made by society.","Science tan amarad ijja ɣur is as tawset t aqqal akaros n tamazduq, tumast tat ijraw at taɣnat s achareɣa tan tamazduq"
"Still others argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance because all living humans belong to the same subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.","Addinat iyyad har ajjudi jan in daɣ addinat, tawset war it ila almaɣna n asakat fal as addinat fuk izjaran id ich-ikilan olah nen n Homo sapiens"
"In South Africa, the Population Registration Act, 1950 recognized only White, Black, and Coloured, with Indians added later.","Daɣ South Africa, Population Registration Act daɣ awatay wan 1950 wae issen ɣas fal ikufar, imikwalan d addinat win dumu tan artaynen id ijjachan Indian tan darat awa"
"The United States Census Bureau proposed but then withdrew plans to add a new category to classify Middle Eastern and North African peoples in the U.S. Census 2020, over a dispute over whether this classification should be considered a white ethnicity or a separate race.",Biraw n Amerik wan Tudant itkal addabara mucham ikkas id addabara tan i asiwad n edag eynayan i eket n Addinat win Alqiblat d Emaynaj n Afrikiya daɣ tudant n Amerik tan 2020 fal amchikki n as amaskat wen eqqal n tawset tan ikufar meɣ tawset tazunat
"""The establishment of racial boundaries often involves the subjugation of groups defined as racially inferior, as in the one-drop rule used in the 19th-century United States to exclude those with any amount of African ancestry from the dominant racial grouping, defined as """"white"""".""",“ Asimal n alxadudan win tawset ehe alwaq iyyan achinich ijjanat taqqimen amos nen tawseten madroynen fal as daɣ achareɣa wan tatbaqet iiyyat n achni wan Amerik daɣ awatay wan 1900 i askut n addinat fuk wi ilanen iwicharan id ifal nen Afrikiya daɣ taqqimt n taset tan “”ikufar””
"""According to geneticist David Reich, """"while race may be a social construct, differences in genetic ancestry that happen to correlate to many of today's racial constructs are real.""""""",“Daɣ awa allaɣat Geneticist David Reich “”alwaq wa id tawset t addobat a t aqqil edey n tamazduq anmizlayan daɣ genetic ancestry i aharoj n ikarosan ajjotnen n tawset aqqalan tiditt amarad””
"Other dimensions of racial groupings include shared history, traditions, and language.","Iddikud tan iyyad n taqqimen n tawset ehen attarex, tumasen d awal oharnen"
"Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups.",Marsalan n socioeconomics daɣ artayan id ikayadan wi azzarnen n tawset ewayan id tisnant maqqornen s taqqimen n tawset ikma awen
"Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide.",Anmikad eraw id almital tan ajjotnen n aɣachad eha takiluwa d emes n taqqimt n addinat
"Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable.","Fal as daɣ timizdaɣ tiyyad taqqimen n tawset olah nat hullan id dumu tan n tabaqat tan n tamazduq fal as sociologist tan win tamazduq ɣarrin nen anchich-am n tamazduq, tawset t addobat a taqqil harat maqqoran"
"For example, in 2008, John Hartigan, Jr. argued for a view of race that focused primarily on culture, but which does not ignore the potential relevance of biology or genetics.","Almital , daɣ awatay wan 2008, John Hartigan,Jr allaɣat akayad n tawset ijjan s tizarat fal agna mucham war hin n atuwa aqqud n biology d genetics"
"In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.",Daɣ abara wen anasjum wan wa s n afham tawset achal id osa id alwaq wan tamatikwayt n attarex tan itur d ifukkiran id eway nen Kel Eroba ad ammuqisan id taqqimen n imadlan iyyad tolas fal medran n askut d ich-ikil wa i tajrawan daɣ natural sciences
"A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities.","Taqqimt n medran tan n addinat osaɣan anmizlayan n tiɣiswen aqqal nen yarisun tan jir taqqimen tin jawda tan tin ta-ite, alxal d almaɣna aqqalnen yarisun tan"
"The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human species Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer, each associated with a different humour: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic, respectively.","Amaskat wan 1735 ijja Carl Linnaeus, emaɣan n Zoological taxonomy azun ich-ikilan n addinat Homo sapiens s ich-ikilan n imidlan win europaeus, asiaticus, americanus tolas darat awa iyyan fuk osaɣan ila fukahat izlayan: n achni, n asuf, amattisu d tanasmut iyyan fuk"
"""Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that """"one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them"""".""","“ Bluemenbach inta deɣ iktab fal akkay n tulaten ɣur taqqimt iyyat s taqqimen n sider tolas ijja derhan n as ‘’’ ich-ikil iyyan n addinat war itiki s wi yadnen, as war addobat awadim achiwal n alxadudan jar essan’’’"
"It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups.",At w-a-laɣat sihen as taqqimen tiyyad addobat nat as aqqal nat ittus ewad amartay jir ichaɣib tan jir aru mucham teɣare tijat s almaɣna t addobat anmizlay n tawseten tin aru ti artay nen i akarach n taqqimen anɣambal nen
"New studies of culture and the fledgling field of population genetics undermined the scientific standing of racial essentialism, leading race anthropologists to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation.",Tiɣir eynaynen n agna d abara n genetics tan ichaɣib immar edag wan science tan racial essentialism ewayan id race anthropologist tan ad aqqilan daɣ igzamit n xatim tan fal attarex wan phenotypic variation
"Studies of human genetic variation show that human populations are not geographically isolated, and their genetic differences are far smaller than those among comparable subspecies.",Tiɣir n genetic variation tan awadim asuknan as ichaɣib tan win addinat war isketan daɣ jografia tolas anmizlayan win etari iknan tammadrit hullan daɣ wi ich-ikilan wi dar ogdahan
Andreasen cited tree diagrams of relative genetic distances among populations published by Luigi Cavalli-Sforza as the basis for a phylogenetic tree of human races (p. 661).,Andreasen eɣra karad diagram tan n genetic distances daɣ ichaɣib tan izizjar Luigi Cavalli-Sforza fal alkad chund as eqqall tijittawt n phylogenetic tree wan tawseten n addinat (P.661)
"Marks, Templeton, and Cavalli-Sforza all conclude that genetics does not provide evidence of human races.","Marks, Templeton d Cavalli-Sforza fuk nasan asilmadan as genetics war t aqqel asidutti n tawseten n addinat"
"For example, with respect to skin color in Europe and Africa, Brace writes:To this day, skin color grades by imperceptible means from Europe southward around the eastern end of the Mediterranean and up the Nile into Africa.","Almital, daɣ semɣar n dumu n taɣissa daɣ Eroba d Afrikiya , Brace ilktab: Achal id, dumu n taɣissa iskatan isuj war n ila akayad daɣ achrut n Eroba wan emaynag edes n achrut wa alqiblat n Mediterrannée tolas ɣur Ejarew wan Nile daɣ Afrikiya"
"""He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between """"race differences"""" and """"the race concept"""".""",“ Allaɣat darat awa as addobat awadim axadam n isim wan twset a fal izlay jir “””anmizlayan win tawset”” d “”isim wan tawset”
"In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention.","Livingstone d Dobzhansk ardahan as illan anmizlayan daɣ etari daɣ addinat; ardahan har ajjudi fal axadam n isim wan tawset i askut n addinat d immik wa s exdam isim wan tawset ,eqqal anafham n tamazduq"
"""As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, """"Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous"""".""",“Immik wa s ikyadan anthropologist tan Leonard Lieberman d Fatimah Linda Jackson “”dumu tan war n oɣed n heterogeneity isammutay afissar n ichaɣib fuk chund ɣas kala anmartay ‘’’
"""The mid-20th-century anthropologist William C. Boyd defined race as: """"A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses.""","“Daɣ tazune n awatay wan 2000, anthropologist William C. Boyd ijja almaɣna n tawset: “”ichaɣib izlayan hullan id ichaɣib tan iyyad siha s iddikud n gene iyyan meɣ ajjotnen ilah”"
"Moreover, the anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless.",Anthropologist Stephen Molnar inta deɣ allaɣat as iban aqqud n clines itaraw id anatfas n tawseten ijjanen isim iman net war n ila alxidmat
"Joanna Mountain and Neil Risch cautioned that while genetic clusters may one day be shown to correspond to phenotypic variations between groups, such assumptions were premature as the relationship between genes and complex traits remains poorly understood.","Joanna Mountain d Neil Rish ardahan as alwaq wa id genetic clusters t addobat achal iyyan ad tilu id phenotypic variations jir taqqimen ,mirda tan chund win arroradan fal as aharoj jir gene tan d samalan maqqornen war ikna at w afham hullan"
"""Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility.""""""",“ Edag fuk dar id osa awadim ad t aqqil a war n oɣed mucham war t agdal i awadim axadam net meɣ as taqqal harat ilan tinfa””
"This assumed three population groups separated by large geographic ranges (European, African and East Asian).","Awen amos karadat taqqimen n ichaɣib azunan itartaran n jografia maqqornen (n Eroba, n Afrikiya d n Asia tan alqiblat)"
"""Anthropologists such as C. Loring Brace, the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther, and the geneticist Joseph Graves, have argued that while there it is certainly possible to find biological and genetic variation that corresponds roughly to the groupings normally defined as """"continental races"""", this is true for almost all geographically distinct populations.""","“” Anthropologist tan chund C. Loring Brace , filozof tan Honathan Kaplan d Rasus Winther d geneticist Joseph Graves allaɣen as alwaq wa id addobat at ijraw n biological d genetic variation olah nen hullan id tqqimen s almaɣna nasnat “”continental races””, awen eqqal tiditt fal ichaɣib tan izlaynen daɣ jorgrafia”"
"Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials.","Weiss d Fullerton iktaban as a fal t illa Icelanders iyyan, Mayans d Maroris, karad ibarnamichan izlay nen ad aknin tolas ichaiban fuk wi yadnen addoben at w afasaran chund anɣambal n isuj n Maori, Icelandic d Maya"
"Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers).","Genomic Data asilmad kud inta ille i adurhanan akayad n tizunawen (awen amos ,Splitter) meɣ iki (awen amos, lumpers)"
"""Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with """"race"""", following the Second World War, evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery, and genocide.""","“ Muchakil tan win akayad d win ta-ite tan id “tawset” ,id osanen ɣur akinnas n alɣalim wan issin, evolutionar d Social scientis tan issanan hullan immik wa s medran tan fal tawset at axadam i ihu n almaɣna i anmizlay ,apartheid, takkiluwa d emes n tawset””"
Craig Venter and Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000.,Craig Venter d Francis Collins n National Institute wan assexat allaɣen s akirdi n genome wan awadim daɣ awatay wan 2000
It's not a scientific one.,War eqqel harat n science
"""Anthropologist Stephan Palmié has argued that race """"is not a thing but a social relation""""; or, in the words of Katya Gibel Mevorach, """"a metonym"""", """"a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference.""""""","“ Anthropologist Stephan Pamié allaɣat as tawset”” war t aqqel harat mucham aharoj n tamazduq”” meɣ daɣ majrad wan Katya Gibel Mevorach “”tangalt” , eɣanni n awadim s ichiritan net i anmizlay war amosan a ilsan alɣalim meɣ a azzuken mucham ijjan harkuk i axakam fal anmizlay””"
"There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the one-drop rule, as it was in the United States.",Tumast n tawset war fal as exkem achareɣa assohen chund achareɣa wan titbaqet n achni iyyat immik wa s ijja daɣ Amerik
"These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and not one category stands significantly isolated from the rest.",Ich-ikilan win iskatan jir iman nasan chund dumu tan n spectrum tolas war t illa edag ehan achrut fal wi yadnen
"New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984.","New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc, 1984"
"""In European context, historical resonance of """"race"""" underscores its problematic nature.""","“ Daɣ taɣa tan Eroba, emasli n attarex n “tawset” eqqal echwal n annuɣ n muchakil”"
"""The concept of racial origin relies on the notion that human beings can be separated into biologically distinct """"races"""", an idea generally rejected by the scientific community.""","“ Isim wan attrex n tawset ijja fal ta-ite tan as addinat addoben tuzant s “tawseten” n abakort izlaynen, ta-ite tankur aljamaɣat tan Science”"
"In the United States most people who self-identify as African American have some European ancestors, while many people who identify as European American have some African or Amerindian ancestors.",Daɣ Amerik addinat ajjotnen wi ɣarrinen iman nasan s kel Afrikiya win Amerik ilan iwicharan iyyad n Eroba as ijja awen addinat wi ɣarrinen iman nasan s kel Eroba win Amerik ilan iwicharan iyyad n Afrikiya meɣ Ameridien tan
The criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century.,Ichirit i ijjuch n tawseten tin war olah daɣ amindi n awatay wan 1900
"""Amerindians continue to be defined by a certain percentage of """"Indian blood"""" (called blood quantum).""",“ Ameridian tan har ajjudi t atwasanan s iddikud n “achni n endu tan” (s isim net achni wan quantum)”
This rule meant that those that were mixed race but with some discernible African ancestry were defined as black.,Achareɣa wen almaɣna net as addinat win tawseten artay nen mucham ilan iwicharan n afrikiya amosan imikwalan
"""The term """"Hispanic"""" as an ethnonym emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America to the United States.""",“ Isim” wan “”Hispanic”” amosan tasassaɣrawt n tawset dav awatay wan 2000 ɣur tiw-at n isikilan n inaxdiman ɣru addawla tan n Amerik Latin wi sawal nen Spania har addawlat tan Etazuni”
"Three factors, country of academic education, discipline, and age, were found to be significant in differentiating the replies.","Haratan karad n addawla tan teɣare , majal d awatay aqqalan as amosan asohen daɣ anmizlay n alwazaban"
"In 2007, Ann Morning interviewed over 40 American biologists and anthropologists and found significant disagreements over the nature of race, with no one viewpoint holding a majority among either group.","Daɣ awatay wan 2007, Ann tassitan a ojjaran 40 n biologist d anthropologist tan dihen tijraw iban tanmerdut maqqorat fal annuɣ n tawset s war t illa majrad ojaran win taqqimt ta yadat"
"""While he can see good arguments for both sides, the complete denial of the opposing evidence """"seems to stem largely from socio-political motivation and not science at all"""".""","“ Kuddeɣ as addobat akayad daɣ isidutta olaɣ nen daɣ ichrutan fuk, asabbahu ikmalan asidutti n achrut wa yadan “”s tannad izjar id tamatikwayt n tamazduq d folitik wadden science””"
"In partial response to Gill's statement, Professor of Biological Anthropology C. Loring Brace argues that the reason laymen and biological anthropologists can determine the geographic ancestry of an individual can be explained by the fact that biological characteristics are clinally distributed across the planet, and that does not translate into the concept of race.","Daɣ alwazab i majrad n Gill, Emassaɣar wan Biology tan Anthropology C. Loring Brace amchakkat as iddilil wa fal aljuhal d Anthropologist tan win Biology addoben musnat n iwicharan n jografia tan awadim addobat afaham s tajuhe n as samalan win biology azunan daɣ alɣalim tolas war addoben ad afassaran s isim wan tawset"
"Physical anthropology texts argued that biological races exist until the 1970s, when they began to argue that races do not exist.",Ikitban n Physical anthropology allaɣen as tawsaten tin abarkot illanat har daɣ awatay wan 1970 alwaq wa id issintan amchikki fal as tawseten war it illenat
"""In February 2001, the editors of Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine asked """"authors to not use race and ethnicity when there is no biological, scientific, or sociological reason for doing so.""""""","“Daɣ ayor wan Fibrayir n awatay wan 2001, editor tan n ilkadan win aru n Pediatrics d Adolescent Medecine ittaran daɣ“”inaktiban ad war aɣren isim n tawset alwaq wa id war t illa iddilil n abarkot, n science meɣ n sociology””"
Morning (2008) looked at high school biology textbooks during the 1952–2002 period and initially found a similar pattern with only 35% directly discussing race in the 1983–92 period from initially 92% doing so.,Morning (awatay wan 2008) ikyad daɣ alkittaban win biology n lakkol wan ammas daɣ awatay wan 1952 har 2002 tolas ijraw dumu olahan s 35% ɣas issewalan fal tawset daɣ awatay wan 1983 har 1992 s tizarat 92% ɣas a ijjan awen
"In general, the material on race has moved from surface traits to genetics and evolutionary history.",Asuj fal tawset inkach s ɣur samalan n arori s genetics d attarex wa ikkan s data
"""She notes, """"At best, one can conclude that biologists and anthropologists now appear equally divided in their beliefs about the nature of race.""""""",“Tiktab as “addobat awadim ad ekkammal s tulaɣay a biologist ta n d anthropologist tan ogdahan amarad tuzant daɣ medran tan nasan fal annuɣ wan tawset “””
33 health services researchers from differing geographic regions were interviewed in a 2008 study.,33 n Kel Farak fal assexat n rejion tan ajjotnen at-w-asastanan daɣ farak ijjan daɣ awatay wan 2008
"Many sociologists focused on African Americans, called Negroes at that time, and claimed that they were inferior to whites.",Sociologist tan ajjotnen ijjan alxidmat nasan fal kel Afrikiya win Amerik s ismawan nasan Negro tan azzaman wen tolas asilmadan war tan ojjaran ikufar
"In 1910, the Journal published an article by Ulysses G. Weatherly (1865-1940) that called for white supremacy and segregation of the races to protect racial purity.","Daɣ awatay wan 1910, Journal izizjar id Ilfisil ijja Ulysess G. Weatherly (awatay wan 1865 har 1940) eɣran s tijra n ikufar d amaskat n tawsaten i alɣillas n tizdije n tawset"
"In his work, he contended that social class, colonialism, and capitalism shaped ideas about race and racial categories.","Daɣ alxidmat net, erdaɣ as taqqimen n addinat daɣ tamazduq, alisteɣmar, kapitalizm iknan ta-ite tan fal tawset d iššikil n tawseten"
"By 1978, William Julius Wilson (1935–) argued that race and racial classification systems were declining in significance, and that instead, social class more accurately described what sociologists had earlier understood as race.","Daɣ awatay wan 1978, William Julius Wilson (1935-) amǝšakkat as tawset d sistem tan n amiskat n tawseten fannazan hullan tolas taqqimen n addinat daɣ tamazduq iknanat afissar n awa ifhaman kel farak s tizart daɣ tawset"
"""Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Sociology professor at Duke University, remarks, """"I contend that racism is, more than anything else, a matter of group power; it is about a dominant racial group (whites) striving to maintain its systemic advantages and minorities fighting to subvert the racial status quo.""","“ Eduardo Bonilla-Silva , emasɣar n socioloji daɣ lakkol ta maqqorat n Duke, assilmad,”” aredeɣ as anmizlay n addinat daɣ tijjart n harat fuk, eqqal harat n assahat n taqqimt;imos anmijar hullan n taqqimt n addinat (ikufar) axdamnen i ag-az n irabaxan nasan d akinnas jir tilaqqiwen i ad alɣaman alxalat tan anmizlay”"
"In clinical settings, race has sometimes been considered in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions.","Daɣ ihandagan win laɣtor, anmizlay a t aw ajr a hin daɣ amiyiz d asafar n torhinna awen"
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research.,Ille majrad ijjan jir kel farak tan fal almaɣna d tinfa n anmizlay daɣ imuɣ nasan
Members of the latter camp often base their arguments around the potential to create genome-based personalized medicine.,Addinat win uchray ijjan amšǝkki tan nasan fal tubabat n eɣanni n asifran ijjanen fal genome n amirhan
"They argue that overemphasizing genetic contributions to health disparities carries various risks such as reinforcing stereotypes, promoting racism or ignoring the contribution of non-genetic factors to health disparities.","Mǝšakken as tehakke n tamɣar maqqorat i isiwad n etari i anmizalyan n assexat ahan ti haratan ajjotnen assuksadnen šund asiwad n erk kayadan n addinat, asiwad n anmizlay meɣ tetawit n awa infa titbaqqa war n imos tin etari i anmizlayan win assexat"
"""IC"""" stands for """"Identification Code;"""" these items are also referred to as Phoenix classifications.""","“”IC”” amos “”kod wan alamad”, “”isuj win it awan has san Phoenix classifications”"
"""In many countries, such as France, the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like """"dark skin complexion"""", etc.""","“ Dav addawla tan ajjotnen chund France, igdal achareɣa i alxakum atkul n isalan win anmizlay n addinat, harat ijjan alwaq iyyan i muchakil tan tin bolistan a erhan isarɣam i addinat eha chund “”takkawalt”” etc”"
Many consider de facto racial profiling an example of institutional racism in law enforcement.,Addinat ajjotnen ijjan arabax n anmizlay n addinat almital n anmizlay daɣ tamatikwayt n achareɣa
"""Mass incarceration is also, """"the larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison.""""""","“ Ijji n addinat ajjotnen daɣ kaso ita deɣ eqqal “” web wa maqqoran n achareɣ tan, folitik tan d alxal wa inahadan daɣ inasjafa tan win daɣ ammas hak id ajjama n kaso””””"
Many research findings appear to agree that the impact of victim race in the IPV arrest decision might possibly include a racial bias in favor of white victims.,ijjarawan n farak ajjotnen ardaɣan fal as albas wan anmizlay daɣ addabara tan tin IPV wan atarmas addobat a tanat eha iban tigdaht n anmizlay assofan ikufar
"Some studies have reported that races can be identified with a high degree of accuracy using certain methods, such as that developed by Giles and Elliot.",Tiɣir tiyyad asilmad nat as anmizlay n addinat addobat at w-ilmad s iddikud chajren n iqqud s immikan iyyad chund wi s ijja Giles d Elliot efes nasan
"""The study concluded that """"The apportionment of genetic diversity in skin color is atypical, and cannot be used for purposes of classification.""""""",“ Teɣare t asilmad as “” tazunt tan anmizlay n etari daɣ dumu n taɣissa war ola tolas war addobat alxidmat s ittusan aɣazan””””
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans.,Teɣare tan agna taqqal elakat n anthropology ijjan fal teɣare n imuttiyan n agna jir addinat
"In addressing this question, ethnologists in the 19th century divided into two schools of thought.","Daɣ alwazab i asistan wen, ethnologist tan win awatay wan 1900 azunan s issin lakkolan n ta-ite"
"""Some of those who advocated """"independent invention"""", like Lewis Henry Morgan, additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of cultural evolution (See also classical social evolutionism).""","“ Iyyad daɣ wi og-az nen” uɣna ijjan s alistexal”” chund Henry Morgan , issewad as tulaten amos nat taaqimen n addinat izlaynen okay nat s ihandagan iyyad n amutti n agna ( ikyid social evolutionnism wan alasal)”"
"Morgan, like other 19th century social evolutionists, believed there was a more or less orderly progression from the primitive to the civilized.","Mogan , chund, addinat wi iflasnen s amutti n tamazduq n awatay wan 1900, orda s ille iki n s sata iw-idan meɣ ifnazan ɣur iwityan win aru har akarach n ta-ite tolaEvolutionat"
"""Although 19th-century ethnologists saw """"diffusion"""" and """"independent invention"""" as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most ethnographers quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities.""","“ KuddeEvolution as ethnoloist tan win awatay wan 1900 ikyadan as “ asilmad “ d uɣna wa ijjan s alistexal”” as aqqal nat fuk mirda tan war n oher harat tolas miɣanna nen, ijjit n kel teɣare win agna ewadan daɣ armud anifham n as timachalen tin fukvijjanat tolas fuk nasan addobat nat ijjuch n tulaten jir agna tan “”"
"""Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: """"...civilization is not something absolute, but ... is relative, and ... our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes.""""""",“ Boas a ezzaran s asilmad n ta-ite daɣ awatay wan 1887 “”... Akarach n ta-ite tolavat war eqqel harat imaddin mucham eqqal harat osaɣan tolas...anazjum nanaɣ d mirda tan addutat nat a ijja akarach n ta-ite tolaɣat nanaɣ ijla”””””
Cultural relativism involves specific epistemological and methodological claims.,Cultural relativism ahan ti mutarrabatan n epistemology d methodology
Cultural relativism was in part a response to Western ethnocentrism.,Cutural relativism eqqal alwazab i tufit n agna tan fal wi yadnen ijjan ɣur ikufar
"This understanding of culture confronts anthropologists with two problems: first, how to escape the unconscious bonds of one's own culture, which inevitably bias our perceptions of and reactions to the world, and second, how to make sense of an unfamiliar culture.","Afaham wen n agna asimoqqas Anthropologist tan id issin muchakil tan : Awa ezzaran, indek immik wa s he igmid awadim temedt n agna net s war ehamich an imajar id ikayadan nanaɣ n d alwazaban nanaɣ i alɣalim tolas wan issin , indek immik wa s he ijru agna wa war izzeyaɣ almaɣna"
"One such method is that of ethnography: basically, they advocated living with people of another culture for an extended period of time, so that they could learn the local language and be enculturated, at least partially, into that culture.",Immik iyyan chund wen eqqal wan teɣare n agna: asilmadan hullan s tamazzuq id addinat n agna iyyan har azzaman hin inkachan ; har ilmidan agna n akal d war he assujalan kuddeɣ s achrut daɣ agna iyyan
"His approach was empirical, skeptical of overgeneralizations, and eschewed attempts to establish universal laws.","Tazujich net tijja fal musnat, a ehamich d ereman i edey n achareɣa tan n alɣalim"
"He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the natural sciences, were not possible.","Orda as agna fuk ilzam teɣare net daɣ uzlay net tolas mǝšakken as isartiyan n jir agna tan chund wi ijjanen daɣ natural sicences, war addoben ijji"
"His first generation of students included Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Edward Sapir, and Ruth Benedict, who each produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures.","Attalaba tn net win tizarat eha Alfred Kroeber, Robert Lowie, Edward Spir d Ruth Benedict, s iyyan fuk ijja tiɣir taha alfaydat n agna tan tin kel akal wan Amrik tan emaynag"
The publication of Alfred Kroeber's textbook Anthropology (1923) marked a turning point in American anthropology.,Azajjor n alkittab n Anthrpology wan iktab Alfred Kroeber daɣ awtay wan 1923 eqqal titbaqqet maqqorat daɣ American Anthrpology
"Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists including Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up.","A id omaran Psychoanalytic psychologist tan eha Sigmund Freud d Carl Jung, Inaktuban win ittaran ad ifhiman immik wa s id aɣnanat tichiten n awadim daɣ assahaten n agna d tamazduq ti i daɣ idwal"
"Economic anthropology as influenced by Karl Polanyi and practiced by Marshall Sahlins and George Dalton challenged standard neoclassical economics to take account of cultural and social factors, and employed Marxian analysis into anthropological study.",Economic anthropology daɣ ezzar Karl Poanyi tolas axdam Marshall Sahlins d George Dalton asilmadan as war axyezan s majrad wan alasal ichryan n ekonomi i a hin agrahan in agna d tamazduq tolas id axdam n amiyiz wan Marx n Anthropological study
"In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the Algerian War of Independence and opposition to the Vietnam War; Marxism became an increasingly popular theoretical approach in the discipline.","Daɣ amutti n azzamanan, anthropology ijjet akinnas wan algeria n alistexlal net harat n folitik d anmichray wan akinnas wan Vietnam, Marxism eqqal tazujicht hullan n mirda daɣ teɣare"
"In the 1980s books like Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as Antonio Gramsci and Michel Foucault moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight.",Daɣ alkittaban win 1980 chund wan Anthropology d Colonial Encounter zanasjamen id temedt n anthropology s anmijar daɣ alistexmar as ijja awen azajor n isim n addinat win theorist tan chund Antonio Gramsci d Michel Foucault ichikachan marsalan n tanaya d tijraht har tan ikyadan addinat
"These interpretations must then be reflected back to its originators, and its adequacy as a translation fine-tuned in a repeated way, a process called the hermeneutic circle.","Almaɣna tan win ilzam ad ajjin fal massaw san tolas aqqud n afissar net izdajan daɣ amasuɣal net, tikkelt s isim net afaham ijjan daɣ tadrut"
David Schnieder's cultural analysis of American kinship has proven equally influential.,Amiyiz wan David Xhnieder i agna n temedt tan Amrik t asilmad s tigdaht tassohet
"The method originated in the field research of social anthropologists, especially Bronislaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of Sociology.","Immik wa id izjaran daɣ abara wan anthropologist tan win tamazduq , hullan Bronislaw Malinowski daɣ Britania, attalaba net Franz Boas daɣ Amrik d farak wan uchray ijja lakkol n Chicago School of Sociology"
"Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.","Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press"
"To establish connections that will eventually lead to a better understanding of the cultural context of a situation, an anthropologist must be open to becoming part of the group, and willing to develop meaningful relationships with its members.","Edey n iharojan za arunen s addinat afaham n talɣa tan agna, anthropologist ilzam ti ad ijjich achrut n taqqimt tolas daɣ erha ad ijja tammiduwa tilat almaɣna id addinat win"
"Before participant observation can begin, an anthropologist must choose both a location and a focus of study.","Darat asinti n akayad wan addinat, anthropologist ilzam ti ad asinnafran edg d ezaj wan teɣare"
This allows the anthropologist to become better established in the community.,Awen ijjraw i anthropologist ad izdaɣan hullan daɣ tawset
The majority of participant observation is based on conversation.,Ijjit n akayad n addinat ijja fal adwǝnni
"In some cases, ethnographers also turn to structured observation, in which an anthropologist's observations are directed by a specific set of questions he or she is trying to answer.","Daɣ ihandagan iyyad, ethnographer tan amlallayan s akayad ilan ichiritan, s addoben ikayadan n anthropologist a tan oɣadan isistanan s addobat meɣ taddobat a has san ej meɣ taj alwazab"
"This helps to standardize the method of study when ethnographic data is being compared across several groups or is needed to fulfill a specific purpose, such as research for a governmental policy decision.",Awen eqqal tadhilt i asibdad n immik n teɣare alwaq wa id isalan win ethnograph tan ogdahan daɣ taqqimen ajjotnen meɣ at war ha ag-ad ittus iyyan chund imuɣ i addabara n folitik tan alxakumat
"Who the ethnographer is has a lot to do with what he or she will eventually write about a culture, because each researcher is influenced by his or her own perspective.",Awa eqqal ethnographer ohar harat id awa he iktib meɣ tiktib daɣ tilkamat fal agna fal as aw farak fuk eqqal as akayad net assahat net
"However, these approaches have not generally been successful, and modern ethnographers often choose to include their personal experiences and possible biases in their writing instead.","Hak id ijja awen, tizujichen tin wadden alwaq fuk oɣad nat tolas ethnographer win uchray alwaq iyyan sanafranan ijji n musnaten nasan d anmichraan daɣ ikitban nasan"
"An ethnography is a piece of writing about a people, at a particular place and time.","Ethnography taqqal afrus akatab ijjan fal addinat, daɣ edag iyyan d alwaq"
"A typical ethnography will also include information about physical geography, climate and habitat.","Ethnography n alasal tajjachan tat isalan ijjanen fal taɣissa n jografia , azzaman d tamazduq"
"Boas' students such as Alfred L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead drew on his conception of culture and cultural relativism to develop cultural anthropology in the United States.","Attalaba win Boa chund Alfred L Kroeber, Ruth Benedict d Margaret Mead idlajan wan agna d cultural relativism i efes n cultural anthropology dav Amrik"
Today socio-cultural anthropologists attend to all these elements.,Achal Anthropologist tan win agna d tamazaduq ijjan anniyat i titbaqqa tin fuk
"""American """"cultural anthropologists"""" focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in symbolic forms, such as art and myths.""",“”Anthropologist tan win agna n Amrik”” ijjan alxidmat nasan fal abara tan wi daɣ saknin addinat iman nasan d alɣalim nasan hullan daɣ ichikilan chund timaknuwen d tinfusen “
"Monogamy, for example, is frequently touted as a universal human trait, yet comparative study shows that it is not.",Adubin n tamadt iyyat eqqal daɣ almital achamol n addina daɣ alɣalim harwa teɣare tasukna as awen war ijja
"Through this methodology, greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities.","S immik wen, akayad maqqoran addobat ad ittijru alwaq wa id immiyaz awadim sistem tan n alɣalim fal tawseten tin akal d alɣalim"
"""For example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a """"thing,"""" such as a particular commodity, as it is transported through the networks of global capitalism.""","“ Daɣ almital, ethnography ijjan fal sit tan ajjotnen addobat alkum i “”harat”” chund ilalan ammeway nen fal rezo tan n alɣalim wan kapitalism”"
An example of multi-sited ethnography is Nancy Scheper-Hughes' work on the international black market for the trade of human organs.,Almital n ethnography ijjan fal sit tan ajjotnen imos alxidmat n Nancy Scheper-Hughes fal hebu wan imikwalan n jir ikkalan i mamala wan isan n addinat
"Research in kinship studies often crosses over into different anthropological subfields including medical, feminist, and public anthropology.","Imuɣ n tiɣir fal temedt alwaq iyyan itiki fal izarajan izlaynen eha anthropolgy tan assexat, tan deden, d tan addinat"
"That is the matrix into which human children are born in the great majority of cases, and their first words are often kinship terms.",Awa tabalbot tan tiwit n ilyadan daɣ ihandagan ajjotnen tolas awalan nasan wi azzarnen amosan n temedt
"There are stark differences between communities in terms of marital practice and value, leaving much room for anthropological fieldwork.",Illan ti uzlayan s tiditt jir tawsaten daɣ awa id eqqalan isalan win adubin ijjanen edag maqqoran i teɣare n tamaxluk n alɣalim
"The marital practice found in most cultures, however, is monogamy, where one woman is married to one man.","Adubin daɣ agna tan ajjotnen,war ijja fal tanamekrist, ijja fal tamat iyyat adoban ahalis iyyan"
There are similar foundational differences where the act of procreation is concerned.,Illan ti haratan ajjotnen olahnen s tikkelt taha tan akarach n ilyadan
"The shift can be traced back to the 1960s, with the reassessment of kinship's basic principles offered by Edmund Leach, Rodney Neeham, David Schneider, and others.","Adirich amutti eqqal s data har awatay wan 1960, id ijja akulukulu n ichiritan wi fal tijla tamedt ijjan Edmund Leach, Rodney Neeham, David Schneider d iyyad"
"This shift was progressed further by the emergence of second-wave feminism in the early 1970s, which introduced ideas of marital oppression, sexual autonomy, and domestic subordination.","Amutti wen ichinkach in s data ɣur tenazzamart tan sanatat n tigdaht n alxaq wan tamadt d ahalis daɣ awatay wan 1970 s inta a id ijjan ta-ite tan alɣazab daɣ adubin, turhagat n atkul n techne d echinich daɣ adubin"
"""At this time, there was the arrival of """"Third World feminism"""", a movement that argued kinship studies could not examine the gender relations of developing countries in isolation, and must pay respect to racial and economic nuance as well.""","“ S alwaq wen, imal ti assa “Third World Feminism”””, tagayt tamǝɣannanat as tiɣir n temedt war addobat nat amiyiz n aharoj n addinat daɣ n addawla tan tin talaqqiwen iskatnen tolas iwar tan semɣar i tazizlayt ta jir tawset d ekonomi"
"In Jamaica, marriage as an institution is often substituted for a series of partners, as poor women cannot rely on regular financial contributions in a climate of economic instability.","Daɣ Jamaica, adubin eqqalan tijittawt tahat edag n addinat fal as deden tin tilaqqiwen war addobat nat ad ilkam nat ɣas i tadhilen n azruf daɣ azzaman id war tozga tamudre n addinat"
"With this technology, questions of kinship have emerged over the difference between biological and genetic relatedness, as gestational surrogates can provide a biological environment for the embryo while the genetic ties remain with a third party.",Teknoloji ten tissewad isistanan n temedt n awa izlayan temedt tan abarkot d tan etari fal as deden tiyyad karach nat tekakit n alyad daɣ abarkot as ijja awen temedt tan etari taqqim ɣur awatay wa s karad
"There have also been issues of reproductive tourism and bodily commodification, as individuals seek economic security through hormonal stimulation and egg harvesting, which are potentially harmful procedures.",Illan ti muchakil tan har ajjudi asaɣli wan reproductive tourism d amutti n taɣissa fal as addinat tattaran alxer wan tamudre s hormanal stimulation d afuqqi n tekakit aqqalnen haratan iknanen labasnen
"One critique is that, as its inception, the framework of kinship studies was far too structured and formulaic, relying on dense language and stringent rules.","Majrad iyyan imos as ichmad eqqal asinti net,ezarag wan tiɣir tin temedt ikna edey ijjan fal awal assohen d achareɣa tan oɣadnen"
Much of this development can be attributed to the rise in anthropologists working outside of academia and the increasing importance of globalization in both institutions and the field of anthropology.,Ijjit n efes wen addobat a ti ikrich tiw-at ta tijja alxidmat tan anthropologist daɣ ajjama n academia tolas tinfa ta maqoqorat n tartit alɣalim daɣ tijittawen net d abara wan anthropology
The two types of institutions defined in the field of anthropology are total institutions and social institutions.,Issin ichikilan n tijittawen ijjanen almaɣna daɣ abra wan anthropology aqqal nat tijittawen imdanen d tijittawen n tamazduq
"Anthropology of institutions may analyze labor unions, businesses ranging from small enterprises to corporations, government, medical organizations, education, prisons, and financial institutions.","Anthropology tan tijjittawen taddobat amiyiz n tagayen tin inaxdiman, kel taɣuchawen jir ti madroynen har ti maqqornen , alxakum, tagayen tin assexat, tin teɣare, tin kaso tan d tagayen tan azruf"
Institutional anthropologists may study the relationship between organizations or between an organization and other parts of society.,Kel anthropology tan win tagayen addoben teɣare n aharoj jir tagayen meɣ jir tagayt d ichrutan iyyad n tamazduq
"More specifically, anthropologists may analyze specific events within an institution, perform semiotic investigations, or analyze the mechanisms by which knowledge and culture are organized and dispersed.","Hullan anthropologist tan addoben amiyiz n timachɣulen daɣ tagayt, ajjin farak tan win ašămol meɣ amiyiz n immikan wi s msnat d agna oɣadan tolas nibachan"
"This new era would involve many new technological developments, such as mechanical recording.",Azzaman wa eynayan ad isammuti efes eynayan n teknoloji chund aɣazan n iman net
"Current Anthropology 43(Supplement):S5-17.Schieffelin, Bambi B. 2006.","Anthropology tan amarad 43 (Supplement): S5-17. Schieffelin , Bambi B. 2006"
"""Woolard, in her overview of """"code switching"""", or the systematic practice of alternating linguistic varieties within a conversation or even a single utterance, finds the underlying question anthropologists ask of the practice—Why do they do that?—reflects a dominant linguistic ideology.""","“ Woolard, daɣ akayad net n “”amutti n kod””, meɣ tamattit n anamichray n ichikilan n awal id iman nasan s adǝwǝnni meɣ s majrad iyyan , ijraw asistan wa dar asistanan anthropologist - mafal ijjan awa? - eha n ta-ite maqqoran n awal”"
"Other linguists have carried out research in the areas of language contact, language endangerment, and 'English as a global language'.","Kel awal iyyad ijjan imuɣ daɣ ihandagan n awal, asirmaɣ n awal, tangilist taqqalat awal n alɣlim”"
"The work of Joel Kuipers develops this theme vis-a-vis the island of Sumba, Indonesia.",Alxidmat tan Joel Kuipers tijja efes n awa fal ijjra majrad wen fal Island wan Sumba daɣ Indonesia
"He feels, in fact, that the exemplary center idea is one of linguistic anthropology's three most important findings.",Ofray i as mirda wan ammas eqqalan almital imos iyyan daɣ ijjrawan win karad iknanen tulaɣay n anthropology tan awal
"Therefore, after a couple generations these languages may no longer be spoken.",Ichmad as darat harat n iwityan awalan win war addoben a tit aw majradan har ajjudi
"To follow best practices of documentation, these records should be clearly annotated and kept safe within an archive of some kind.","Lakkumat n ijji tan olaɣnen n isuj wi n isalan , iɣazanan win iwar tan ad iknan afissar tolas aɣzanan daɣ edag n dar olah"
Language revitalization is the practice of bringing a language back into common use.,Ahuk n unfas i awal imos alxidmat tan axadam n awal har ajjudi
The course aims to educate indigenous and non-indigenous students about the Lenape language and culture.,Ittus n teɣare imos asissaɣir n attalaba tan win akal d wi war ila akal fal awal d agna wan Lenape
"Encouraging those who already know the language to use it, increasing the domains of usage, and increasing the overall prestige of the language are all components of reclamation.","Ehakki n assaha i addinat wi issannen axadam s tawalt, issewad nen izaragan win alxidmat net tolas issewadan temɣar n awal aqqalan fuk haratan tilzamnen"
Social anthropology is the study of patterns of behaviour in human societies and cultures.,Anthropology tan tamazduq taqqal teɣare n ichikilan win alxal n awadim daɣ tamizdaq d agna tan
British and American anthropologists including Gillian Tett and Karen Ho who studied Wall Street provided an alternative explanation for the financial crisis of 2007–2010 to the technical explanations rooted in economic and political theory.,Anthropologist tan n Britania d Amrik eha Gillian Tett d Karen Ho wi aɣranen Wall Street ikfan alwazab izlayan i tewete tan iban azruf n awatay wan 2007- 2010 har alwazaban wi ijjanen daɣ tamudre n addinat d mirda wan kel folitik
This development was bolstered by Franz Boas's introduction of cultural relativism arguing that cultures are based on different ideas about the world and can therefore only be properly understood in terms of their own standards and values.,Efes wen ilkam as Franz Boas s bismilla net wan cultural relatiism amǝɣannan as agna tan ijjan fal ta-ite tan izlaynen fal alɣalim tolas war addobat nat at wa faham hullan s titbaqqa n ichiritan nas nat
"""In 1906, Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was put by American anthropologist Madison Grant in a cage in the Bronx Zoo, labelled """"the missing link"""" between an orangutan and the """"white race"""" — Grant, a renowned eugenicist, was also the author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916).""","“ Daɣ awatay wan 1906, amagizzul n awadim wan Congo Ota Benga ije Anhropoligist wan Amrikain daɣ assakok daɣ Bronx Zoo ijjan isim “” temedt ta tissujalat”” jir orangutan d “ ikufar”” -Grant harat daɣ Eugenicist tan wa iknan tila n isim eqqal harwa inaktab n akkay n tawset ta maqqoorat “(1916)”"
"Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the 19th century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled A Hundred Years of Anthropology.","Anthropology tiw-id hullan daɣ as tazun jir attarex wan alasal d attarex wan amind n awatay wan 1900 teɣare t issinta efes s ichikil net wa eynayan daɣ awatay wan 1935, daɣ almital , raqqis i T. K Penniman ad iktib attarex n teɣare s isim net Temede n awtay daɣ Anthropology"
"""Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary """"living fossils"""" that could be studied in order to understand the European past.""",“ Timizdaɣ ti war n imos tin Eroba intanated deɣ it awan as ammutay nat “” iglichan n addinat win kel aru iddarnen”” addobat nen atiwaɣir i afaham n attarex n Eroba tan data”
"However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and he generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural change proposed by later anthropologists.","Kuddeɣ as stocking notes, Taylor isilmad iman net s afissar d akardi n tazunt n titbaqqa n agna ohun ittus net wa maqqoran tolas harkuk issikna as igluy n ta-ite n Victoria daɣ efes ohun ta-ite tan iban aqqud, amutti n agna wa allaɣen Anthropologist tan win uchray"
"His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of The Golden Bough, analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism globally.","Tiɣir net tin tigdaht hullan daɣ edition tan net wi ajjotnen n Golden Bough, ammiyaz nat tulaten daɣ mirda tan win addin d achamol imdan"
The findings of the expedition set new standards for ethnographic description.,Ijjarawan n isikilan issibdadan ichiritan eynaynen i afissar n ethnographic
"Other intellectual founders include W. H. R. Rivers and A. C. Haddon, whose orientation reflected the contemporary Parapsychologies of Wilhelm Wundt and Adolf Bastian, and Sir E. B. Tylor, who defined anthropology as a positivist science following Auguste Comte.","Imaɣran iyyad eha W. H. R Rivers d A. C Haddon, s asatoɣ wan nasan olah id wa eynayan n parapsychologies n Wilhelm Wundt d Adolf Bastian , d Sir E. B . Taylor ikfanen almaɣna n anthropology n as taqqal positivist science tilkamat i Auguste Comte."
A. R. Radcliffe-Brown also published a seminal work in 1922.,A. R. Radcliffe-Brown inta deɣ izizjar id alxidmat taɣnat daɣ awatay wan 1922
"""This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for """"Social Anthropology"""" by teaching at universities across the British Empire and Commonwealth.""",“ Awen eqqal chund talɣa tan Radcliffe-Brown infazan alwaq net “Social Anthropology”” s asassaɣir n lallkolan wi maqqornen daɣ Britania d Commonwealth”.
He believed that indigenous terms used in ethnographic data should be translated into Anglo-American legal terms for the benefit of the reader.,Orda s ismawan win kel akal axdamnen daɣisalan win ethnographi iwar tan ad affasaran daɣ ismawan win achareɣa n Anglo-Amerikin daɣ maruchat n emaɣar
Departments of Social Anthropology at different Universities have tended to focus on disparate aspects of the field.,Ihanan win Social Anthropology daɣ lakkolan wi maqqornen istannad ijjan fal titbaqqa izlaynen n edag
A people is any plurality of persons considered as a whole.,Addinat amosan ijjit n eyteda artaynen
"Four states — Massachusetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Kentucky — refer to themselves as the Commonwealth in case captions and legal process.","Akkoz addawla tan - Massachussetts, Virginia, Pennsylvania d Kentucky ɣar i nat imas nat s Commonwealth daɣ tinfusen d tamachalt tan achareɣa"
"In some parts of the world, ethnology has developed along independent paths of investigation and pedagogical doctrine, with cultural anthropology becoming dominant especially in the United States, and social anthropology in Great Britain.","Daɣ ichrutan n alɣalim iyyad, ethnology ijja efes net edes abara tan win farak d alqiddat tan teɣare, s anthropology wan agna eqqal a oran daɣ Amerik d social anthropology daɣ Britania"
"""The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occident (the Western world), such as the notion of the """"Other"""".""",“ asikil wa ijjan daɣ awatay wan 1500 daɣ Amerik ijjan imassukal win Eroba ilan edag maqqoran daɣ isimil n ismawan eynaynen daɣ Ikufar ( Alɣalim wan ataram) chund isim wan wi “yadnen”””
"""The progress of ethnology, for example with Claude Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear progress, or the pseudo-opposition between """"societies with histories"""" and """"societies without histories"""", judged too dependent on a limited view of history as constituted by accumulative growth.""","“ Efes n ethnology daɣ almital n Claudee Lévi-Strauss structural antropology, t eraw id majrad n mirda tan n efes ifraɣan meɣ immik n amšǝkki jir ‘’timizdaɣ id attarexan””” d “” timizdaɣ wala attarexan””, s ijja achareɣa n as ikna ijjuch n alisteɣmar fal akayad n attarex eqqal iddikud n efes””"
"However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th- and 20th-century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, and Deleuze.","Hak id ijja awen, derhanan n universalism chund wen ammijradan tikel musnat win tamazduq ajjotnen n awatay wan 1900 d an 2000, eha Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser d Deleuze."
"An ethnic group or ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups such as a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area.","Tawset taqqal taqqimt n addinat olahnen id iyyad haratan ajjotnen tan izlaynen id wi yadnen chund tumasen ajjotnen, iwissaran, awal, attarex, tamazduq, agna, addin, meɣ tigdaht n alxaq daɣ edag n tamazduq"
"Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a shared cultural heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland, language, or dialect, symbolic systems such as religion, mythology and ritual, cuisine, dressing style, art, or physical appearance.","Ijjuch n taqqimt n tawset tila almaɣna n etari n agna oharan, iwissaran, akal, awal, majrad, sistem tan olahnen chund addin,assatar d ichiridan, alkuzayna, telasse, eɣanni meɣ tulat tan taɣissa"
"By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, individuals or groups may over time shift from one ethnic group to another.","S amutti n awal, asujil n ana, adkul d asammutti n addin, addinat meɣ taqimen n addinat addobat nat as ammutti n tawset iyyat s ta yadat"
"Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis.","Jir ɣas s amuzzi meɣ axarok , tartit n tawseten azunnen it aw annas ethnogeneis"
"""In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense of disparate """"nations"""" which did not yet participate in the Christian oikumene), as the Septuagint used ta ethne (""""the nations"""") to translate the Hebrew goyim """"the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews"""".""","“ Daɣ iwityan n tingilist wi azzarnen d har achrut n awatay wan 1900, tawset heathen meɣ asǝmmǝgru (daɣ almaɣna wan ‘addawla tan’ n-ibachanen war n ijjech oikumene wan kriken tan) chund Septuagint exdaman ta ehne “addawla tan”” i afissar n goyim wan hebreu tan “”addawlat tan”, wi war n aqqel hebreu tan, wi war n aqqel alyahud tan””"
"""In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of """"peculiar to a race, people or nation"""", in a return to the original Greek meaning.""","“ Daɣ awatay wan 1900, isim ila almaɣna “ilachan i ini , addinat meɣ addawlat “””, daɣ tewaɣle n almaɣna net wan greek”"
"""ethnic, a. and n."""") Depending on context, the term nationality may be used either synonymously with ethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state).""","“tawset, a d n “) daɣ uzlay n talɣa, isim wan addawla tan tiwit it awan i tawset meɣ i tichit n aw addawla ( daɣ addawla n ebarid)”"
Whether ethnicity qualifies as a cultural universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used.,Kuddeɣ as tawset t amos agna n alɣalim eqqal a ilkam i almaɣna n wan tiditt igalahan
"According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently.","Daɣ majrad wa ijja Thomas Hylland Erikson, teɣare n tawset ojjaraan daɣ is issin idiwinni tan ijjanen har a eynayan"
"The instrumentalist approach, on the other hand, treats ethnicity primarily as an ad hoc element of a political strategy, used as a resource for interest groups for achieving secondary goals such as, for instance, an increase in wealth, power, or status.","Instrumentalist approach, s afar wa yadan, t ijja tawset tikkelt taɣnat i tikarsay tan folitik taqqalat titbaqqet i taqqimen oharnen afor i ad awidan ittusan nasan wi war n ozer amos nen tiw-at n ehare, tanaya meɣ tumast"
"Constructivists view national and ethnic identities as the product of historical forces, often recent, even when the identities are presented as old.","I Contstructivist tan akayad wan tumasen n tawseten n addawla aqqalnen assahaten n attarex , daɣ a eynayan hak id tumasen aqqal nat a wassaran"
"This is in the context of debates over multiculturalism in countries, such as the United States and Canada, which have large immigrant populations from many different cultures, and post-colonialism in the Caribbean and South Asia.","Daɣ almaɣna n idiwinni tan fal ijjit n agna tan daɣ addawla tan chund Amerika, d Canada ilanen ichaɣib n imassukal n inaftaɣan id ialnen agna tan ajjotnen d darat n alisteɣmar daɣ Caribbean d South Asia"
"Third, group formation resulted from the drive to monopolize power and status.","Wa s karad, aratay n taqqimen war ti id erew ar itur n akarach n tanaya d tumast"
Barth went further than Weber in stressing the constructed nature of ethnicity.,Barth ojjar Weber unkach daɣ isalan win annuɣ n edey n tawset
"""He wanted to part with anthropological notions of cultures as bounded entities, and ethnicity as primordialist bonds, replacing it with a focus on the interface between groups. """"""","“ Erha a ijjich ismawan n agna tan tin anthropolgy osaɣnen tolas tawset taqqalat temet tan tizarat,acharay net daɣ t iwar titbaqqet awa ilan jir taqqimen”””"
"""He agrees with Joan Vincent's observation that (in Cohen's paraphrase) """"Ethnicity... can be narrowed or broadened in boundary terms in relation to the specific needs of political mobilization.""",“ Erdaɣ fal akayad wan Joan Vincent daɣ (asuɣil n majrad wan Cohen) “”tawset.. t addobat ad tikraz meɣ ad timɣare daɣ alxadudan net daɣ as tahiraj id timɣutar n asidu wan folitik’’’
Ethnic groups came to be defined as social rather than biological entities.,Taqqimen tin tawset ijjan at almaɣnas n as aqqal nat a ijjan fal tmazduq ohun fal abarkot
"Examples of various approaches are primordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism, and instrumentalism.","Almitalan n tizujichen ajjotnen amosan prmordialism, essentialism, perennialism, constructivism, modernism d instrumentalism"
"""""""Essentialist primordialism"""" further holds that ethnicity is an a priori fact of human existence, that ethnicity precedes any human social interaction and that it is unchanged by it.""","“”Essentialist primordialism”” ijja ɣur is as tawset akayad n uxlak n addinat, as tawset t azzar i anmirtay n addinat daɣ tamazduq tolas war t addobat asammuti net”"
"""""""Kinship primordialism"""" holds that ethnic communities are extensions of kinship units, basically being derived by kinship or clan ties where the choices of cultural signs (language, religion, traditions) are made exactly to show this biological affinity.""","“”””Tizart n temedt’’’’’ ijja ɣur is as tawseten aqqal nat iɣunan n temedt daɣ alasal id izjar nen temedt meɣ taqqimt s inta a id tajjin isannafrinan win samalan n agna (awal, addin, tumasen) i asikni n tamedt tan abarkot”"
"""""""Geertz's primordialism"""", notably espoused by anthropologist Clifford Geertz, argues that humans in general attribute an overwhelming power to primordial human """"givens"""" such as blood ties, language, territory, and cultural differences.""","“”””Primordialism wan Geetz, wa ijrazan i anthropologist Clifford Geetz, isilmad as addinat fuk hak in assahat maqqorat i inalkam wa ezzaran ‘”ehak””” chund temedt n achni , awal, akal, d uzlayan win agna tan”"
"""Smith (1999) distinguishes two variants: """"continuous perennialism"""", which claims that particular nations have existed for very long periods, and """"recurrent perennialism"""", which focuses on the emergence, dissolution and reappearance of nations as a recurring aspect of human history.""","“”Smith daɣ awatay wan (1999) izlay issin haratan “” continuous perennialism””” allaɣen as addawala tan ti axlaknen a ilan azzamanan ajjotnen d “”reurrent perennialism””, ijjan fal efes, afatay d tewaɣle n addawla tan eqqalan titbaqet n attarex wan awadim”"
"This view holds that the concept of ethnicity is a tool used by political groups to manipulate resources such as wealth, power, territory or status in their particular groups' interests.","Akayad wen ijja ɣur is as tawset taqqal asuj i taqqimt n folitik i attidas chund ehare, tanaya, akal meɣ tumast daɣ afor n taqqimen nasan"
"""""""Instrumentalist perennialism"""", while seeing ethnicity primarily as a versatile tool that identified different ethnics groups and limits through time, explains ethnicity as a mechanism of social stratification, meaning that ethnicity is the basis for a hierarchical arrangement of individuals.""","“””Instrumentalist pernnialism”” , kuddeɣ as ikya tawset chnd asuj itimutiyan isalmadan fal taqqimen n tawseten d iyaka tan daɣ azzaman, afissar as tawset taqqal tikarsay n tamasduq almaɣna n awen as tawset taqqal anifham n anmizal n addinat”"
"According to Donald Noel, ethnic stratification will emerge only when specific ethnic groups are brought into contact with one another, and only when those groups are characterized by a high degree of ethnocentrism, competition, and differential power.","Daɣ ta-ite tan Donald Noel,tikarsay n tawset ad tahil s data alwaq wa id taqqimen n tawseten artay nat id ti yadnen tolas alwaq wa id taqqimen tin ojjar daɣ sanat anmizlay n tawsaten, takrikira d tanaya tizlayat."
"Continuing with Noel's theory, some degree of differential power must be present for the emergence of ethnic stratification.","Daɣ akkay id mirda wan Noel, degre tan iyyad n tanaya tizlayat ilzam a ti illan i efes n tikarsay tan tawset"
"The different ethnic groups must be competing for some common goal, such as power or influence, or a material interest, such as wealth or territory.","Taqqimen tin tawseten ilzam tamat takrikira fal ittusan iyyan oharnen, chund tanaya, tarna meɣ afor chund ehare meɣ akal"
"It holds that ethnic groups are only products of human social interaction, maintained only in so far as they are maintained as valid social constructs in societies.","Ijja ɣur is as taqqimen n tawset aqqalan isuj n anmiratay n addinat daɣ tamazduq, tosaɣat a ijja edey assaɣ n timizdaɣ ijja"
They hold that prior to this ethnic homogeneity was not considered an ideal or necessary factor in the forging of large-scale societies.,Ijja ɣur san as data i tartit ten anɣimbal war eqqel ittus meɣ tikkelt tinfat harat daɣ ikannan n timizdaɣ ajjotnen
"Members of an ethnic group, on the whole, claim cultural continuities over time, although historians and cultural anthropologists have documented that many of the values, practices, and norms that imply continuity with the past are of relatively recent invention.","Addinat win taqqimen n tawset, asilmadan fuk nasan as uɣlalan n agna daɣ azzaman, kuddeɣ as kel attarex d anthropologist tan win agna ikataban ilkadan s tumasen, alxidmaten, d ichiritan win aɣlul daɣ iwityan win tizarat aqqalan iɣanni id ichrayan."
"""It is based on the notion of """"culture"""".""",“ Ija fal isim wan “agna”
This view arose as a way to justify enslavement of African Americans and genocide of Native Americans in a society that was officially founded on freedom for all.,Akayad wen inkar id as eqqal abara i azilzam n akarach n Africain Americins d tamattant tan Americain tan win alasal daɣ tamazduq i taxlakad daɣ alxoriya i addinat fuk
Many of the foremost scientists of the time took up the idea of racial difference and found that white Europeans were superior.,Ajjen daɣ scientist tan win tizarat n azzaman itkalan ta-it tan uzlay n addinat tolas ijrawan as ikufar win Eroba ojjaran
"Instead of attributing the marginalized status of people of color in the United States to their inherent biological inferiority, he attributed it to their failure to assimilate into American culture.","As jarrawan addinat wi iskatnen tumast n addinat in ini daɣ Amerik har eres nasan daɣ abarkot, ifhay tagarzazzal nasan i ad alahan id agna wan Amerika"
They argue in Racial Formation in the United States that the ethnicity theory was exclusively based on the immigration patterns of the white population and did take into account the unique experiences of non-whites in the United States.,Michakken as daɣ tartit tan tawseten daɣ Amerik as mirda wan tawset ijja fuk net fal isikilan n ichaɣib wan ifukar tolas daɣ itkalan musnaten tin addinat wi war n aqqel ikufar daɣ Amerika
"Assimilationshedding the particular qualities of a native culture for the purpose of blending in with a host culturedid not work for some groups as a response to racism and discrimination, though it did for others.",Amaskal itiba has ichikilan n agna wan kel awal i ittus n tartit id agna n anaftaɣ war exdem i taqqimen n addinat chund alwazab i anmizlay n tawseten d amaza kuddeɣ as ijja i addinat iyyad
"""They culminated in the rise of """"nation-states"""" in which the presumptive boundaries of the nation coincided (or ideally coincided) with state boundaries.""",“ Iwi-idan daɣ tadawla n “nation-states” s alxadudan wi eha mich timuqqisan (daɣ ittus timuqqisan) id alxadudan win addawla”
"Nation-states, however, invariably include populations who have been excluded from national life for one reason or another.","Nation-states, ahan tan ichaɣiban hin iskatnen daɣ tamachɣult tan addawla fal iddilil iyyan meɣ wa yadan"
"Multi-ethnic states can be the result of two opposite events, either the recent creation of state borders at variance with traditional tribal territories, or the recent immigration of ethnic minorities into a former nation-state.",Addawla tan ajjotnen addoben ad aqqilan ad izjaran timaɣinnanen war n anmakyad axluk wa eynayan n alxadudan win addawla ilanen ikallan n tawset n alasal meɣ isikilan wi eynaynen n tawseten ti madroynen s addawla tan tin aru
"""States such as the United Kingdom, France and Switzerland comprised distinct ethnic groups from their formation and have likewise experienced substantial immigration, resulting in what has been termed """"multicultural"""" societies, especially in large cities.""","“Addawla tan chund United Kingdom, France d Switzerlnd ahan tan taqqimen n tawseten izlaynen ɣur tartit nasan tolas idasan tan fuk nasan isikilan ajjotnen id eraw nen awa s itawan “timizdaɣ”n agna ajjotnen” hullan daɣ iɣirman wi maqqornen"
"Though these categories are usually discussed as belonging to the public, political sphere, they are upheld within the private, family sphere to a great extent.","Kuddeɣ as ichikilan win ijja majrad n as aqqalan n addinat, kel folitik, iknan asuhi daɣ tagayan n iman nasnat , daɣ egadach hullan"
"Before Weber (1864–1920), race and ethnicity were primarily seen as two aspects of the same thing.",Data Weber (awatay wan 1864 har 1920) ini d tawset kala t=aqqalan sanatat titbaqqa n harat olahan
"According to this view, the state should not acknowledge ethnic, national or racial identity but rather instead enforce political and legal equality of all individuals.","Dav akayad wen , addawla war inhajja a t issin tumast n tawset ,, n addawla meɣ n ini ohu axadam n folitik d tigdaht daɣ achareɣa n addinat fuk"
"The 19th century saw the development of the political ideology of ethnic nationalism, when the concept of race was tied to nationalism, first by German theorists including Johann Gottfried von Herder.","Daɣ awatay wan 1900 issikna efes n anasjum n folitik tarha n tawset i addawal alwaq wa id ertay ini d nationalism, s tizarat theorist tan win germany eha Johann Gottried von Herder"
Each promoted the pan-ethnic idea that these governments were acquiring only lands that had always been inhabited by ethnic Germans.,Iyyan fuk eqqas i ta-ite t asirtayat tawseten s alxakumaten ijarraw ikallan ɣas s harkuk izzaɣan daɣ san tawseten n german tan
"The colonization of Asia was largely ended in the 20th century, with national drives for independence and self-determination across the continent.",Alisteɣmar wan Asia imda s ijjit net daɣ awatay wan 2000 s ijrawan n addawlaten n alistexlal n nasnat d axxakumat iman nasnat daɣ amadal
"A number of European countries, including France and Switzerland, do not collect information on the ethnicity of their resident population.",Iddikud n addawla te tin Eroba t aha France d Switzeland war sidiw nat isalan win tawsaten n ichaɣib nasnat wa izzaɣan
"During European colonization, Europeans arrived in North America.","Daɣ azzaman wan alistexlal , Kel Eroba osan Amerik tan eynaynag"
Digital ethnography allows for a lot more opportunities to look at different cultures and societies.,Digital ethnography t ikfa tafawen ajjotnen i akayad n agna tan d timizdaɣ anmazlayen
Relational Ethnography articulates studying fields rather than places or processes rather than processed people.,Relational Ethnography ijja tatbaqqet fal ihandagan win teɣare ohun ihandagan meɣ talɣiwen ohun addinat ammutaynen
The goal is to collect data in such a way that the researcher imposes a minimal amount of personal bias in the data.,Ittus war eqqel ar asidu n isalan chund abara wa s izalzam aw farak iddikud darosan n mirda n ichaki da isalan
"Interviews are often taped and later transcribed, allowing the interview to proceed unimpaired of note-taking, but with all information available later for full analysis.",Imijridan n isistanan alwaqqan iyyad aɣzanan tolas darat awa iktiban ijjarrawan i majrad a ej s aqqud n aɣazan net mucham id isalan wi ti illanen darat awa i amiyiz imdan
"Despite these attempts of reflexivity, no researcher can be totally unbiased.","Ereman fuk wi ijjaen n reflexitivity , war ti illa aw farak addoben as ej issin olh awan"
"These informants are typically asked to identify other informants who represent the community, often using snowball or chain sampling.",Kel isalan win at w arha daɣ san ad issinan kel isalan iyyad ahanen edag n addinat s alwaq iyyan asixdama snowball meɣ chain sampling
2010) examine the ontological and epistemological presuppositions underlying ethnography.,2010) ammiyaz mirda tan win n almaɣna n ontological d epistemological ijjanen titbaqqet fal ethnography
"""Critical theory researchers address """"issues of power within the researcher-researched relationships and the links between knowledge and power.""""""",“Kel farak win mirda wan isistanan issewalan fal “”” muchakil tan n tanaya daɣ iharojan n kel farak d temedt jir musnat d tnaya”””
"An image can be contained within the physical world through a particular individual's perspective, primarily based on that individual's past experiences.",Telay t addobat ijjuch n alɣalim wan taɣissa s akayad n awadim a ijjan s tizarat fal musnaten n awadim tin data net
The idea of an image relies on the imagination and has been seen to be utilized by children in a very spontaneous and natural manner.,Ta-ite tan telay tijja fal anasjum tolas a ti wajrah a hin as assixdaman tin ilyadan s immik ermadan meɣ n alasal
Cultural and social anthropologists today place a high value on doing ethnographic research.,Anthropologst tan win agna d tamazduq ahan achal id edag n semɣar hullan i umaɣ wan uttir wan ethnographic
"""Ethnographies are also sometimes called """"case studies.""""""",“”Ethographies aqqalnen alwaq iyyan “”Ihadagan n tiɣir
"The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life.","Edaɣ wan axidmat ehay harkuk ijji n awatay meɣ a ojjaran daɣ tamazduq iyyat , izzaɣnen id addinat n kel addinat d almud n addabara tan n tamudre"
Benedict's experiences with the Southwest Zuni pueblo is to be considered the basis of her formative fieldwork.,Musnaten tin Benedictinta id Zuni pueblo wan emaynag daɣ ataram ilzam ad eqqil tijittawt tan edag wan alxidmat
"A typical ethnography attempts to be holistic and typically follows an outline to include a brief history of the culture in question, an analysis of the physical geography or terrain inhabited by the people under study, including climate, and often including what biological anthropologists call habitat.","Ethnography tan alasal t arram a t assirtay haratan fuk tolas tilkam i abara he ijjich attarex andarran n agna iman net, amiyiz n taɣissa n jografia meɣ etaɣas war izzeɣan addinat wi fal ijja farak ha amutti n azzaman tolas eha awa s jan in antropologist tan win abarkot habitat"
"Kinship and social structure (including age grading, peer groups, gender, voluntary associations, clans, moieties, and so forth, if they exist) are typically included.","Temedt d edey n tamazduq (eha iwityan, taqqimen olahnen, ichikil, tagayen tin fi sabilillah, iskutan, ifrusan d haratan iyyad a fal ti illan) fuk nasan ahan"
"Rites, rituals, and other evidence of religion have long been an interest and are sometimes central to ethnographies, especially when conducted in public where visiting anthropologists can see them.","Chaɣira tan, chaɣa-ir tan d iditi tan iyyad n addin aqqal a ehojan a hin ijrahan addinat tolas alwaqqan iyyad a ehan ammas n ethnographies hullan alwaq wa id ijjanat daɣ addinat daɣ edag s addoben a tan ikyadan anthropologist tan"
"For example, if within a group of people, winking was a communicative gesture, he sought to first determine what kinds of things a wink might mean (it might mean several things).","Almital, a fal daɣ taqqimt n addinat, anazaj n tet eqqal immik n majrad, ittar s tizarat ad isilmad ichilan n haratan wi s imos anazaj n tet almaɣna ( addobat ad ila almaɣna tan ajjotnen)"
"""Geertz, while still following something of a traditional ethnographic outline, moved outside that outline to talk about """"webs"""" instead of """"outlines"""" of culture.""","“Geertz, as ilkam i harat n abara n ethnographic n alasal, okay s ajjama n abara wen i ad issiwil fal “””Web tan””” ohun “””abara tan “”” n agna"
"Writing Culture helped bring changes to both anthropology and ethnography often described in terms of being 'postmodern,' 'reflexive,' 'literary,' 'deconstructive,' or 'poststructural' in nature, in that the text helped to highlight the various epistemic and political predicaments that many practitioners saw as plaguing ethnographic representations and practices.","Akatab n agna idhal daɣ imuttiyan n anthropology d ethnography fuk nasan s alwaq iyyan affisar s ismawan win “postmoderm” reflexive” literary”, ifattayan” meɣ poststructural” s aɣana net , dav awen akatab idhal s azizjar n talɣiwen tin assohatnen n musnat d folitik s imusanan ajjotnen eqqal chund fazon i ideyan d timachɣulen tin ethnography"
"In regards to this last point, Writing Culture became a focal point for looking at how ethnographers could describe different cultures and societies without denying the subjectivity of those individuals and groups being studied while simultaneously doing so without laying claim to absolute knowledge and objective authority.","Daɣ akayad n titbaqqet tan darat, akatab n agna eqqal titbaqqet tan hullan i akayad n immik wa s addoben ethnogapher tan afissar n agna anmazlaynen d timizdaɣ deɣ war s abahawan tichit n addinat win d taqqimen fal ijja farak awen i taj daɣ war iɣal awadim fuk as ila musnat t imdat d assahat n tiditt"
"As the purpose of ethnography is to describe and interpret the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group, Harris, (1968), also Agar (1980) note that ethnography is both a process and an outcome of the research.","Daɣ eqqal ittus n ethnography afissar d afaham n tikkelen ti azunnen tolas at walmad nen n alqiman, alxalan, mirda tan d awal n tqqimt t oharat agna,Harris, (daɣ awatay wan 1968), d Agar ( daɣ awatay wan 1980) itkaban as ethnography t imos daɣ edag iyyan a imitakwayan d amindi n farak"
"""Sociologist Sam Ladner argues in her book, that understanding consumers and their desires requires a shift in """"standpoint,"""" one that only ethnography provides.""","“Sociologist Sam Ladner tallaɣat daɣ alkittab net as addinat wi faham nen d derhanan nasan azzilzaman amutti daɣ “”edag wan tabedde”” , iyyan s war addobat tehakke net ɣas ar ethnography”"
"""By assessing user experience in a """"natural"""" setting, ethnology yields insights into the practical applications of a product or service.""",“ A fal ammuyaz awadim musnat n anaxdim daɣ edag n “attabiɣan “ ethnology t ikfa ikayadan daɣ aaplikasyon tan win asuj meɣ n alxidmat
The Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC) conference is evidence of this.,Taɣaymit tan Ehnographic Praxis In Industry (EPIC) taqqal asiditti n awen
"""Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein's (1997) monograph, The New Language of Qualitative Method, discusses forms of ethnography in terms of their """"methods talk.""""""","“” Monograph wn Jaber F. Gubriu d James A. Holsteins”s (daɣ awatay wan 1997) , awal wa eynayan n Qualitaive Method, issewal fal dumu tan n ethnography s almaɣna wan ichikil n majrad”” nasan"
"""Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that """"each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know"""".""",“Fine asilmad as kel farak war ilkem i alqanun s immik wa s innan meɣ aɣilan - tolas “ alxidmat fuk ahan tat abara tan n iji n haratan s war oleɣ a tan issanan wi yadnen””
"""He maintains that """"illusions"""" are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences.""",“ asilmas as “” taflasaten n bahu “” aqqal nat a ilzaman i ag-az i isim n alxidmat tolas igdah awen albana tan labasnen”
"The code of ethics notes that anthropologists are part of a wider scholarly and political network, as well as human and natural environment, which needs to be reported on respectfully.",Alqanun n alxidmat iktab as anthropologist tan aqqalan achrut n rezo n imaɣran d folitik maqqoran hak id ahinzazaɣ wan addinat d wan attabiɣan adirhannen ad iktaban daɣ semɣar
Researchers take near-fictions and turn them into claims of fact.,Kel farak rammasan a war ti n illa tolas ajjin ti harat n tidit
"In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because of lacking omniscience.","Daɣ almaɣna, ethnographer harkuk odan a hin titbaqqa tiyyad fal as war ila musnat tikmalat"
"Indigenous peoples, also referred to as first people, aboriginal people, native people, or autochthonous people, are culturally distinct ethnic groups who are native to a place which has been colonised and settled by another ethnic group.","Addinat in akal, s itawan addinat wi azzarnen, addinat wi ahunen daɣ akal meɣ kel akal, aqqalan taqqimen n agna tan anmazlaynen aqqal nen kel akal n edag iyyan s kala eha alisteɣmar tolas izzaɣan taqqimt n addinat n tawset iyyat"
"""Peoples are usually described as """"indigenous"""" when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region.""",“” Addinat harkuk iwar tan isim wan “kal akal”” alwaq ogazan tumast nasan meɣ titbaqqa n agna wa ezzaran n akal iyyan”
"Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, ways of knowing, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend.","Addinat win kel akal har ajjudi ijraw n attan tisurmaɣ fal alistexal nasan, tamudre nasan, alxer nasan, awalan nasan, immikan nasan win musnat d ajjaraw nasan i alfayda tan akal idmannen agna tan nasan"
Estimates of the total global population of Indigenous peoples usually range from 250 million to 600 million.,Mirda tan n Iddikud wan ichaɣib n addinat win kel akal fu asan ila jir 250 n milyon n awadim har 600 n milyon
"As a reference to a group of people, the term Indigenous first came into use by Europeans who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from enslaved Africans.","Eqqal tasassaɣrawt n taqqimt n addint , isim wan indegenious aɣran ti kel Eroba s tizarat i ad izliyan addinat win kell akal n Amerik d kel afrikiya tan wi tawakrach nen"
"In the 1970s, the term was used as a way of linking the experiences, issues, and struggles of groups of colonized people across international borders.","Daɣ awatay wan 1970, isim itawaɣar s a imosan tartit n musnaten, muchakil tan d ikinnasan n taqqimen n addinat wi ahanen alisteɣmar daɣ alxaduda win jir ikallan"
"This situation can persist even in the case where the Indigenous population outnumbers that of the other inhabitants of the region or state; the defining notion here is one of separation from decision and regulatory processes that have some, at least titular, influence over aspects of their community and land rights.","Talɣa ten taddobbat a ti t illa har ajjir ichaɣib wan kel akal wan addinat wi izzaɣnen iɣirman meɣ iddiwil iyyan, almaɣna n isim diha daɣ eqqal iyyan n tazunt tan addabara d imitikwiyan s iyyad ornahan titbaqqa n tawset d alxaqan nasan win akal"
"A 2009 United Nations report published by the Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues stated: For centuries, since the time of their colonization, conquest or occupation, Indigenous peoples have documented histories of resistance, interface or cooperation with states, thus demonstrating their conviction and determination to survive with their distinct sovereign identities.","Daɣ tikarde n 2009 ONU fal asilmad Secretariat wan harkuk al muchakil tan win kel akal allaɣat: A ilan timad n iwityan , harwa daɣazzaman wan alisteɣmar nasan, aramas meɣ axakam , addinat win kel akal iktaban attarexan n tabillant daɣ anmachal id addawla tan , awen issikna asidduti d agluy nasan i ad ajjin tamazzuq tizlayat n tumasen nasan"
"These people were seen by ancient writers either as the ancestors of the Greeks, or as an earlier group of people who inhabited Greece before the Greeks.",Addinat i jan tan inatuban win kel aru iwicharan n greek tan meɣ taqqimt n addinat ta tazzarat tizzaɣat greece data Greek tan
The Crusades (1096-1271) were based on this ambition of a holy war against who the church saw as infidels.,Ikinnasan wi jar inasliman d ikufar daɣ awatay (1096 har wan 1271) ijjan fal derhan n akinnas n alwali fal addinat wi ti egliz as inabbediran
"However, the council upheld that conquests could 'legally' occur if non-Christians refused to comply with Christianization and European natural law.","Hak id ijja awen, council erda as iramasan addoben ad aj in “daɣ achareɣa” a fal addinat wi war n aqqel kriken tan unjayan s achareɣa tan kriken tan d tan attabiɣa wan Eroba"
"In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Indigenous peoples of what are now referred to as the Canary Islands, known as Guanches (who had lived on the islands since the BCE era) became the subject of colonizers' attention.","Daɣ awatay wan 1400 d wan1500, addinat win kel akal aqqalnen awa s itawan amarad Cabary Islands ( wi izzaɣnen fal Island tan ɣur azzaman wan BCE) aqqalan a hin ijrahan inasteɣmiran"
"In 1402, the Spanish began efforts to invade and colonize the islands.","Daɣ awatay wan 1402, Kel spania issintan inafazan d asittaɣmar n Island tan"
"The invaders brought destruction and diseases to the Guanche people, whose identity and culture disappeared as a result.",Alɣuza tan erawan id iɣachodan d torhina awen s addinat win Guanche s tichit nasan d agna nasan ias a hin
"""As stated by Robert J. Miller, Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt, and Tracey Lindberg, the doctrine developed over time """"to justify the domination of non-Christian, non-European peoples and the confiscations of their lands and rights.""""""","“ Vhund awa allaɣat Robert J. Jacinta Ruru, Larissa Behrendt d Tracery Lindberg, mathab ta s ijja efes daɣ azzaman “”i ad takfu almaɣna wan tijra tan addinat wi war n aqqel kriken tan, addinat wi war n aqqel kel Eroba d itarmisan n ikallan nasan d alxaqan nasan”””"
"Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella hired Christopher Columbus, who was dispatched in 1492, to colonize and bring new lands under the Spanish crown.",Almalik wan Spania Ferdinand d almalikiyat Isabella assaxdaman Christopher Columbus immochalan daɣ awatay wan 1492 i ad ej ikallan eynaynen daɣ alisteɣmar n amanokal wan Spania
"""Alexander granted Spain any lands that it discovered as long as they had not been """"previously possessed by any Christian owner.""""""",“ Alexander ikfa Spania ikallan fuk wi tijraw a ijja kala war “ilen massisan n kriken s tizarat”””
"Many conquistadors apparently feared that, if given the option, Indigenous peoples would actually accept Christianity, which would legally not permit invasion of their lands and the theft of their belongings.","Conquistador tan ajjotnen daɣ akayad ehen amattisu a fal ijrawan s awen, addinat win kel akal ad ardan aɣibilan addin wan kriken tan war he n aɣbil daɣ achareɣa aramas n ikallan nasan d tikra n ilalan nasan"
"Being Catholic countries in 1493, England as well as France worked to 're-interpret' the Doctrine of Discovery to serve their own colonial interests.",1493 England d France aqqal nen addawla tan n kriken tan win katolik tan axdaman i amasuɣal n afaham n Doctrine of Discovery i ad enfu afor nasan wan alisteɣmar
"""Land claims were made through symbolic """"rituals of discovery"""" that were performed to illustrate the colonizing nation's legal claim to the land.""",“Itur n akal ijja s “rituals of discovery” ijjanen i asidutti n itur n addawla tan ti s attaɣmr nen s acheraɣa akal”
"In 1774, Captain James Cook attempted to invalidate Spanish land claims to Tahiti by removing their marks of possession and then proceeding to set up English marks of possession.","Daɣ awatay wan 1774, Capitain James Cook eram ad ermis akal wan Spania har Tahiti i a hin amis idirchan n tila nasan tolas dihen essantu edey n idirchan win tila tan Britania"
This concept formalized the idea that lands which were not being used in a manner that European legal systems approved of were open for European colonization.,Tasassaɣrawt ten tizizjar ta-ite tan as ikallan war he attaxdaman s immik wan sistem tan n achareɣa wan Eroba s ammeran i alisteɣmar wan Eroba
"As the 'rules' of colonization became established into legal doctrine agreed upon by between European colonial powers, methods of laying claims to Indigenous lands continued to expand rapidly.","Alwaq wa id achareɣa tan tin alisteɣmar ijjach nat mathab wan achareɣa fa ardaɣan addawla tan n Eroba s attaɣmar nen , tikarsiwen n ittur n ikallan i kel akal iw-id daɣ armud"
"Precise estimates for the total population of the world's Indigenous peoples are very difficult to compile, given the difficulties in identification and the variances and inadequacies of available census data.","Iddikud wan tiditt n ichaɣib wan addinat win kal akal daɣ alɣalim fuk assohat asarti net, awa ijjan marsalan n tamizzit nasan d anmizlayan d iban aqqud n isalan win tudant"
"This includes at least 5,000 distinct peoples in over 72 countries.",Awen ahan ti 5.000 n awadim izlayan daɣ 72 n addawlat
Some have also been assimilated by other populations or have undergone many other changes.,Iyyad assujalan daɣ agna tan n ichaɣiban iyyad meɣ idassan tan imuttiyan ajjotnen
"The highly diverse and numerous ethnic groups that comprise most modern, independent African states contain within them various peoples whose situation, cultures and pastoralist or hunter-gatherer lifestyles are generally marginalized and set apart from the dominant political and economic structures of the nation.","Tiqqimen n tawseten iknanen uzlay tolas ajjotnen asirtaynen addawla tan n afrikiya eynaynen tolas illanen alistexlal nasnat ahan tanat addinat ajjontnen s talɣa nasan, agna tan nasan d ichikilan n tamadit meɣ ahuyi iskatan tolas war ahen abara n ideyan n folitik d tamudre n addawla"
"The impacts of historical and ongoing European colonization of the Americas on Indigenous communities have been in general quite severe, with many authorities estimating ranges of significant population decline primarily due to disease, land theft and violence.","Idirchan n attarex d alisteɣmar n Eroba daɣ Amerik tan fal tawseten tin akal eqqal harkuk a samoman , s alxakumaten ajjotnen ordanat as itartaran n ichaɣib ajjen imas a hin s tizarat awa s ijjanat torhinna awen , tikra n akal d iji n assahat"
"In the southern states of Oaxaca (65.73%) and Yucatán (65.40%), the majority of the population is Indigenous, as reported in 2015.","Daɣ addawla tan tin emaynag wan Oaxaca (65.73%) d Yucatan (65.40%), ijjit n ichaɣib eqqal n akal daɣ awa id izjaran alkad wan 2015"
"""The descriptors """"Indian"""" and """"Eskimo"""" have fallen into disuse in Canada.""",“Descriptor tan” Indian” d “Eskimo”” attimarsan daɣ san haratan nasan daɣ Canada”
"Most notable was the change of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) to Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) in 2015, which then split into Indigenous Services Canada and Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Development Canada in 2017.","Awa ilan ijirri hullan inta s amutti wan Aboriginal Affairs d Northern Developpement Vanada (AANDC) s Indigenous d Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) daɣ awatay wan 2015, wa izunan s Indegenous Services Canada d Crown-Indegenous Relations d Northern Developpement Canada daɣ awatay wan 2017"
"First Nations peoples signed 11 numbered treaties across much of what is now known as Canada between 1871 and 1921, except in parts of British Columbia.",First Nations Peoples ijjan echwalan nasan fal ilkadan win 11 fal ijja anifham s ijjit net imos awa eqqalan amarad Canada jir awatay wan 1871 d 1921 daɣ war ahen ichrutan win British Columbia
"The autonomous territory of Greenland within the Kingdom of Denmark is also home to a recognised Indigenous and majority population of Inuit (about 85%) who settled the area in the 13th century, displacing the Indigenous Dorset people and Greenlandic Norse.","Ikkalan n Greeland wi ijraw nen alistexak nasan daɣ almalikiyat tan Denmark inta deɣ tila ɣur ehan s ichaɣib n akal tolas ijjit nen n Inuit (iddikud n 85%) izzaɣnen edag daɣ awatay wan 1300, s ahonan nen addinat n akal win Dorset d Greenlandic Norse"
"In Spanish or Portuguese speaking countries, one finds the use of terms such as índios, pueblos indígenas, amerindios, povos nativos, povos indígenas, and, in Peru, Comunidades Nativas (Native Communities), particularly among Amazonian societies like the Urarina and Matsés.","Daɣ addawla tan ti issewal nen Spanish meɣ Portugese, itiwaɣal awadim as ismawan chund Indios, pueblos indigenas, amerindios, povos nations, povos indigenas d daɣ Peru, Comunidates Nativas (tawseten n akal), hullan daɣ timizdaɣ tin Amazonia chund Uranina d Matsés."
"Indigenous peoples are found in the entire territory of Brazil, although the majority of them live in Indian reservations in the North and Center-Western part of the country.",Addinat win akal ta tajrawan daMatsés akal imdan n Brazil kuddeɣ as ijjit nasan izzaɣ dɣ ikallan India daɣ achrut wan ajjama d amma-daɣ-ataram n addawla
There are currently more Armenians living outside their ancestral homeland because of the Armenian genocide of 1915.,Illan ti ameriken tan ajjotnen izzaɣnen daɣ ajjama n akal nasan wan iwicharan fal tadlimt n emes wan Armenien tan daɣ awatay wan 1915
"The argument entered the Israeli–Palestinian conflict in the 1990s, with Palestinians claiming Indigenous status as a pre-existing population displaced by Jewish settlement, and currently constituting a minority in the State of Israel.","amšǝkki ijjach akinnas wa jir Izrail d Falesin daɣ awatay wan 1990, as jan in kel falestin arhan alxaq nasan wan as aqqalan ichaɣib wa ezzaran s akal isahonan azubbi wa hin ijjan alyahud tan tolas amarad aqqalan tawset andarrat daɣ addawla tan Izrail"
"""In Russia, definition of """"indigenous peoples"""" is contested largely referring to a number of population (less than 50 000 people), and neglecting self-identification, origin from indigenous populations who inhabited the country or region upon invasion, colonization or establishment of state frontiers, distinctive social, economic and cultural institutions.""","“ Daɣ Russia, almaɣna wan “”addinat win akal”” amšeken ti addinat ajjotnen fal as itawan i iddikud n ichaɣib (ad orakan i 50000 n awadim) tolas idrag in i tumast n addinat, attarex wan ichaɣib wan kel akal wi izzaɣnen addawla meɣ rejion data atarmis net, alisteɣmar net meɣ edey wan alxadudan n addawla, anmizlay n tamazduq, tijittawen tin tamudre d agna”"
The Tibetans are indigenous to Tibet.,Tibetan tan aqqalan kel akal n Tibet
"In Hong Kong, the indigenous inhabitants of the New Territories are defined in the Sino-British Joint Declaration as people descended through the male line from a person who was in 1898, before Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory.","Daɣ Hong Kong, imazzaɣan n kel akal n ikallan wi eynaynen afissar almɣna nasan daɣ Sino-British Joint Declaration as aqqalan addinat id azzubat nen daɣ adarich wan ahalis eqqalan daɣ awatay wan 1898, data anfiham wa ijjan i achinkich n akal wan Hong Kong"
The Cham are the indigenous people of the former state of Champa which was conquered by Vietnam in the Cham–Vietnamese wars during Nam tiến.,Kel Cham aqqalan addinat win kel akal n addawla wan aru n Champa t armas Vietnam daɣ ikinnasan wi jir Cham d Vietnam daɣ azzaman wan Nam tiến
The Khmer Krom are the indigenous people of the Mekong Delta and Saigon which were acquired by Vietnam from Cambodian King Chey Chettha II in exchange for a Vietnamese princess.,Khmer Krom aqqalan addinat win kel akkal wan Mekong Delta d Saigon tikrach Vietnam ɣur Almalik wan Cambodia Chey Chettha II daɣ edag n amira tan Vietnam
This problem is shared by many other countries in the ASEAN region.,Muchakil wen oharan ti addawla tan ajjotnen daɣ rejion tan ASEAN
"The indigenous peoples of Mindanao are the Lumad peoples and the Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao and others) who also live in the Sulu archipelago.","Addinat win kel akal n Mindanao aqqalan addinat win Lumad d Moro (Tausug, Maguindanao Maranao d iyyad s intaned deɣ izzaɣan daɣ Sulu archipelago"
These groups are often together spoken of as Indigenous Australians.,Taqqimen tin itawan has san fuk nasan Australiyen tan win akal
"During the 20th century, several of these former colonies gained independence and nation-states formed under local control.","Daɣ awatay wan 2000, addawla tan win ajjotnen ahanen alisteɣmar n ijjrawan alistexlal nasan tolas addawla tan alxakumat fal ardahan addinat tiddew daɣ addawla tan tin"
"The remains of at least 25 miniature humans, who lived between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago, were recently found on the islands of Palau in Micronesia.",A ogdahan id 25 n eɣas n awadim s kala izzaɣan jir 1000 d 3000 tawajrawan daɣ Island tan win Palau daɣ addawla tan Micronesia
"According to the 2013 census, New Zealand Māori make up 14.9% of the population of New Zealand, with less than half (46.5%) of all Māori residents identifying solely as Māori.","Daɣ awa tasilmad tuddant tan 2013,daɣ New Zealand Marori ahan tat 14.9% n ichaɣib n New Zealand s tazune n (46.5%) n imazzaɣan fuk n Māori tiwazzay nen as aqqalan Māori"
"Many Māori national leaders signed a treaty with the British, the Treaty of Waitangi (1840), seen in some circles as forming the modern geo-political entity that is New Zealand.","Imuzaran ajjotnen n Māori ichechwalan alkad id Britania, alkad wan Waiangi ( daɣ awatay wan 1840) , s daɣ ihandagan iyyad eqqal akal n folitik wan New Zealand"
"These issues include cultural and linguistic preservation, land rights, ownership and exploitation of natural resources, political determination and autonomy, environmental degradation and incursion, poverty, health, and discrimination.","Muchakil tan ehen ag-az n agna d awal, alxaqqan win akal, tila d ukis wan alfayda tan akal, axakam wan folitik d alistexlal , amazay n ahinzazaɣ, tillaquwa , assexat d tammunziq"
"The situation can be further confused when there is a complicated or contested history of migration and population of a given region, which can give rise to disputes about primacy and ownership of the land and resources.","Talɣa taddobed anaxarbi alwaq wa it illa attarex n assikil s assohat immik net meɣ war fal ardeɣan addinat d ichaɣib n akal iyyan, addoben ad aru muchakil tan jir anmijar d tila n akal d alfayda n akal"
"Despite the diversity of indigenous peoples, it may be noted that they share common problems and issues in dealing with the prevailing, or invading, society.",Anmizlay n addinat win kel akal war igdel as addobat a hin agrahan addinat oharan muchakil tan d timaɣutar daɣ amukin n timizdaɣ anmajar nen meɣ t arammas at
"Notable exceptions are the Sakha and Komi peoples (two northern indigenous peoples of Russia), who now control their own autonomous republics within the Russian state, and the Canadian Inuit, who form a majority of the territory of Nunavut (created in 1999).",Haratan war n olah amosan addinat win sakha d komi ( addinat issin n kel akal wan Russia) s amarad awikalan daɣ alistexal n jamahiriya n akal wan Russia d Inuit wan Canada s intaed a ojjarnen daɣ akal wan Nunavut ( exlakan daɣ awatay waan 1999)
This rejection ended up recognizing that there was a pre-existing system of law practised by the Meriam people.,Tajjor ten tichray s tariddawt n as ille sistem wa ezzaran n achareɣa n addinat win Meriam
Retrieved on 11 October 2011.,Ittijraw daɣ achal wan 11 n ayor wan tessay daɣ awatay wan 2011
"Hindus and Chams have both experienced religious and ethnic persecution and restrictions on their faith under the current Vietnamese government, with the Vietnamese state confiscating Cham property and forbidding Cham from observing their religious beliefs.","Hindu tan d Cham tan fuk nasan idas tan fuk nasan as tan tijraw tadlimt fal addin d tawset d ugdal n addin nasan azzaman wan alxakumat tan amarad n vietnam, s alxakumat tan vietnam t arammas arizzej tolas raqqaman i Cham alxidmat n amedran nasan wan addin"
"In 2012, Vietnamese police in Chau Giang village stormed into a Cham Mosque, stole the electric generator, and also raped Cham girls.","Daɣ awatay wan 2012, Bolis tan Vietnam daɣ taɣrimt tan Chau Giang ijjachan daɣ tamizjidda tan Cham tan , okaran moter nasan wan efew tolas aftaqqen fal tilyadan tin kel Cham"
"In 2012, Indonesia stated that ‘The Government of Indonesia supports the promotion and protection of indigenous people worldwide ... Indonesia, however, does not recognize the application of the indigenous peoples concept ... in the country’.","Daɣ awatay wan 2012, Indonesia tallaɣat as ‘Alxakum tan Indonesia idhal efes d aɣalas n addinat win kel akal daɣ alɣalim...Indonesia t unjay s isim wan addinat win kel akal... daɣ addawla"
"The Vietnamese were originally centered around the Red River Delta but engaged in conquest and seized new lands such as Champa, the Mekong Delta (from Cambodia) and the Central Highlands during Nam Tien.","Daɣ alasal ,Kel vietnam ijjit tan edes n Delta wan Red river mucham ahan ikinnasan d iramasan n ikallan eynaynen chund Champa, Mekong Delta ( n Cambodia) d Highland tan win ammas daɣ azzaman wan Nam Tien"
The tremendous scale of Vietnamese Kinh colonists flooding into the Central Highlands has significantly altered the demographics of the region.,Tahrike tan hullan n astiɣmara tan win Kinh tan Vietnam naqqal nen s Highland tan win ammas ikman jografia tan rejion
And no elimination of one culture by another.”,Tolas war ti illa emes n agna s agna iyyan””
"Indigenous peoples have been denoted primitives, savages or uncivilized.","Addinat win kel akal itawan aqqalan kel aru, abuddalan meɣ war ilen ta-ite tolaɣat"
"""Some philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), considered indigenous people to be merely """"savages"""".""","“”Philosopher tan iyyad chund Thomas Hobbes (daɣ awatay wan 1588 hr 1679), ijja ɣur san as addinat win akal aqqalan ɣas “a abuddalan”"
Retrieved from Internet Archive 13 December 2013.,Itawajraw fal Internat Archive daɣ achal wan 13 n ayor wan tifaskay daɣ aatay wan 2013
"The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, established indigenous peoples' right to self-determination, implying several rights regarding natural resource management.","UN Declaration fal alxaqqan win addinat win kel akal s ijja General Assembly wote tan awatay wan 2007 tassilmad fal alxaqqan n addinat win kel akal ad axkiman daɣ iman nasan, ahan alxaqqan ajjotnen id aqqalnen s alfayda tan akal"
Oil drilling could destroy thousands of years of culture for the Gwich'in.,Enwan win esens addoben ad aɣchidan timad n awatay n agna i Gwich’in
"Development projects such as dam construction, pipelines and resource extraction have displaced large numbers of indigenous peoples, often without providing compensation.","Froje tan win efes chund ikarosan win baraj tan, xat anabib d ikus wan alfayda n akal s ahonanan iddikud n addinat n kel akal ajjotnen s alwaq iyyan wala timzal"
These women also become economically dependent on men when they lose their livelihoods.,Deden tin tolas ijraw nat sa s arizzej alistexlal nasan daɣ meddan alwaq wa id ammutan
For example the Munduruku people in the Amazon rainforest are opposing the building of Tapajós dam with the help of Greenpeace.,Almital addinat win Munduruku daɣ aroj wan Amazon unjayan s akaros wan baraj wan Tapajós s tan idhal Greenpeace
"Two main scenarios are proposed, an early expansion to Central Africa, and a single origin of the dispersal radiating from there, or an early separation into an eastward and a southward wave of dispersal, with one wave moving across the Congo basin towards East Africa, and another moving south along the African coast and the Congo River system towards Angola.","Issin addabara tan ijjan, achinkich har Afrikiya wan Ammas tolas attarex iyyan n anfizzak n amlulu dihen daɣ meɣ tazunt s achrut n tenazzamart tan anfizzak siha s alqiblat d s emaynag s tenazzamart iyyat tokay fal eɣachar wan Congo siha s Afrikiya tan Alqiblat d iyyat tikkat s emaynag n African coast d isitem ejjarew wan Congo siha s Angola"
"Cattle terminology in use amongst the relatively few modern Bantu pastoralist groups suggests that the acquisition of cattle may have been from Central Sudanic, Kuliak and Cushitic-speaking neighbors.","Tasassaɣrawt tan tihatten ta s ijlan harat n taqqimt n imadanan n Bantu win uchray allaɣen as akarach n tihatten addobat ad ej daɣ Central Soudanic, Kuliak d inarhajjan net fuk wi issewalnen Cushitic"
"Not far from the Mutirikiwi river, the Monomatapa kings built the Great Zimbabwe complex, a civilisation ancestral to the Kalanga people.","A war n ujij ejjarew wan Mutrikiwi , almalikatan win Monomatapa idayan ehan wa maqqoran n Zimbabwe , attarew n iwicharan i addinat win Kalanga"
"The Swahili culture that emerged from these exchanges evinces many Arab and Islamic influences not seen in traditional Bantu culture, as do the many Afro-Arab members of the Bantu Swahili people.",Agna wan Swahili wa id izjaran daɣ amaskalan win igdal assahaten ajjotnen n araban d al-islam fal agna wan alasal n Bantu chund immik wa ijjan addinat ajjotnen n Afrikiya d araban n addinat win Bantu Swahili
"""After World War II, the National Party governments adopted that usage officially, while the growing African nationalist movement and its liberal allies turned to the term """"African"""" instead, so that """"Bantu"""" became identified with the policies of apartheid.""","“ Darat akinnas n alɣalim wan issin, Parti folititik n alxkumaten t ijja wote net izjaran as ijja awen tagayen n kel afrikiya wi oman nen s ikallan nasan d imadhalan nasan itkalan isim wn “Kel Afrikiya”” ohun i ad aj in “ Bantu” a osaɣan harat id folitik tan tin aparheid"
"""Again association with apartheid discredited the term, and the South African government shifted to the politically appealing but historically deceptive term """"ethnic homelands"""".""",“ Tolas assaɣ id apartheid eɣchad isim tolas alxakumat tan afrikiya tan emayng okayan s tasassaɣrawt tan folitik mucham daɣ attarex isim n taɣdirt “ikallan win tawseten””
In Swati the stem is -ntfu and the noun is buntfu.,Daɣ Swari tekawt t imos -ntfu tolas isim eqqal buntfu
Not all Basques are Basque-speakers.,Wadden addinat fuk win Basques a issan nen awal wan Basque
"""modern Basque esan) and the suffix -(k)ara (""""way (of doing something)"""").""",“” Basque esan wan uchray) tolas suffix -(k)ara (‘’ abara (n iji n harat””)
He records the name of the Basque language as enusquera.,Eɣran isim wan awal n Basque chund enusquera
"Although they are genetically distinctive in some ways due to isolation, the Basques are still very typically European in terms of their Y-DNA and mtDNA sequences, and in terms of some other genetic loci.","Kuddeɣ as daɣ etari anmazlayan daɣ ihandagan iyyad fal askut net , Basques aqqalan kel Eroba win alasal daɣ awa id eqqalan Y-DNA d mtDNA tolas daɣ awa id eqqalan loci tan iyyad n etari"
"However, studies of the Y-DNA haplogroups found that on their direct male lineages, the vast majority of modern Basques have a common ancestry with other Western Europeans, namely a marked predominance of Indo-European Haplogroup R1b-DF27 (70%).","Hak id ijja awen, tiɣir n Y-DNA haplogroups ijraw nat as azajor nasan i ahalis, ijjit n Basque tan win amarad ilan ibba iyyan oharan id kel Eroba win ataram iyyad hullan daɣ as ojjaran Kel Indo-Eroba Haplogroup R1b-DF27 (70%)"
"""In spite of its high frequency in Basques, Y-STR internal diversity of R1b-DF27 is lower there, and results in more recent age estimates"""", implying it was brought to the region from elsewhere.""","“Kud erha ijjit net da Basques, Y-STR internal diversity wan R1b-DF27 i darosan dihen tolas ikayadan n awatay eynayan idkadan” ehe as immeway id s rejion daɣ edag iyyan”"
The collection of mtDNA and Y-DNA haplogroups sampled there differed significantly compared to their modern frequencies.,Asidu n mtDNA d Y-DNA haplogroups amiyazan anmizlay nasan daɣ as itkad s ijjitan nasan win amarad
"Rather, some 4500 years ago almost all Y-DNA heritage from Iberian admixture of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers was replaced by the R1b lineage of Indo-European herders from the steppe, and the Basque genetic distinctiveness is a result of centuries of low population size, genetic drift, and endogamy.","A ilan 4500 n awatay awa daɣ izjaran etari wan Y-DNA n anmirtay wan Inerian tan imahuya-inafridan win Mesolithic d kel tiwijas win Neolithic ichray ti R1b wan inammugaz win kel Hindo-Eroba n amagon d anmizlay wan etari n Basque tan eqqal a id erawan timad n iwityan n idikud n ichaɣib darosan , assahat n etari d adubin wan ammas n tawset"
"Mattias Jakobsson from Uppsala University in Sweden analysed genetic material from eight Stone Age human skeletons found in El Portalón Cavern in Atapuerca, northern Spain.",Mattias Jokobsson wan Uppsala Uniersity daɣ addawla tan Swede immiyaz asuj wan etari fal iɣasan n addinat win awatay wan tahunt atijraw nen daɣ Ajirer wan El Portalon daɣ Atapuerca s emaynaj n Spania
The findings were published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States.,Ijarawan izjaran daɣ alkadan wi National Academy tan Sciences n Amerika
"This admixed group was also found to be ancestral to other modern-day Iberian peoples, but while the Basques remained relatively isolated for millennia after this time, later migrations into Iberia led to distinct and additional admixture in all other Iberian groups.","Taqqimt ten tartayat itawan inta deɣ as t azzar i ta yadat n addinat win Iberian mucham kuddeɣ Basque tan aqqiman iskatan har ijjan efdan n iwityan darat alwaq wen, darat isikilan s Iberia i ad anmazli tolas i anmizlay n tiw-at daɣ tqqimen fuk ti yadnen n Iberia"
There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time and later they spoke old varieties of the Basque language (see: Aquitanian language).,Ille asidutti addoben ad eqqil asuikbal n mirda n alwaq wen d darat awa issewalan ichikilan win aru n awal wan Basque ( ikyid: awal wan Aquitnian)
"The Kingdom of Pamplona, a central Basque realm, later known as Navarre, underwent a process of feudalization and was subject to the influence of its much larger Aragonese, Castilian and French neighbours.","Almalikiyat tan Pamplona, edag n Basque tan win Ammas s darat awa itawaɣir s isim wan Navarre, ijjach tamatakwayt n alisteɣmar tolas ornan ti hullan inarhajjan net wi Aragonese, d France"
"Weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies (1512–1524).","Daɣ ikkas akinnas n Navarree wan jir ichaɣib , ijjit n addinat wi ogarnen edag odan fuk nasan data assa wan alɣaskir wan Spania (1512 har 1524)"
"Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a great deal of self-government until the French Revolution (1790) and the Carlist Wars (1839, 1876), when the Basques supported heir apparent Carlos V and his descendants.","Basque tan ijraz hassan hullan axakam daɣ iman nasan har tanakra tan kel France (daɣ awatay wan 1790) d ikinnasan in Carlist (1839, 1876), alwaq wa id Basque tan ilkaman i Carlos V d awa ti id izjaran"
"The autonomous community (a concept established in the Spanish Constitution of 1978) known as Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa or EAE in Basque and as Comunidad Autónoma Vasca or CAV in Spanish (in English: Basque Autonomous Community or BAC), is made up of the three Spanish provinces of Álava, Biscay and Gipuzkoa.","Tawset tilat alxoriya ( tasassaɣrawt tijjat achareɣa wa maqqoran n addwla daɣ awatay wan 1978) s isim net Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa meɣ EAE daɣ Basque tolas chund Comunidad Autonoma Vasca daɣ Spania (daɣ Tangiisit: Tawset n Basquet tijraw at alxoria net meɣ BAC), tija s karadat timɣarmaten n Spania amos nen Alava, Biscay, Gipuzkoa"
"""It is sometimes referred to simply as """"the Basque Country"""" (or Euskadi) by writers and public agencies only considering those three western provinces, but also on occasions merely as a convenient abbreviation when this does not lead to confusion in the context.""",“Alwaqqan iyyad ɣar in ti ɣas s isim wan “”addawla tan Basque”” (meɣ Euskadi) inakuban d tagayen n addinat ɣur ijja s tiɣarmaten tin karadat mucham har ihandagan iyyad ajjotnen alwaq wa id awen war isijriw tewaɣne n eɣaf
"""In particular in common usage the French term Pays Basque (""""Basque Country""""), in the absence of further qualification, refers either to the whole Basque Country (""""Euskal Herria"""" in Basque), or not infrequently to the northern (or """"French"""") Basque Country specifically.""",“”Daɣ majrad isim daɣ tafransit Pays Basque (“”addawla tan Basque””)daɣ iban tasassaɣrawt amos a eqqalan addawla tan Basque tan fuk net (‘’Euskal Herria”” daɣ Basque) meɣ wadden sa s emaynaj (meɣ tafransit”) hullan addawla n Basque”
"""Note that in historical contexts Navarre may refer to a wider area, and that the present-day northern Basque province of Lower Navarre may also be referred to as (part of) Nafarroa, while the term """"High Navarre"""" (Nafarroa Garaia in Basque, Alta Navarra in Spanish) is also encountered as a way of referring to the territory of the present-day autonomous community.""","“ Ilmid as daɣ attarex n Navarre t amos akal harokan tolas har achal id emaynaj n taɣrimt tan Basque n Navarre tan sider inta eqqal achrut n Nfarroa as ijja awen isim wan “”Navarre tan afalla “”” (Nafarroa Garaia daɣ Basque, Alta Navarra daɣ Spania) inta eqqal immik imosan akal n tawset taxkamat daɣ iman net achal id"
Knowledge of Spanish is compulsory under the Spanish constitution (article no.,Musnat n Spania tilzam ɣur awayan achareɣa wa maqqoran n spania
"Knowledge of Basque, after declining for many years during Franco's dictatorship owing to official persecution, is again on the rise due to favorable official language policies and popular support.","Musnat tan Basque tan , darat as unjayan a ilan iityan ajjotnen s axakam wan Francoid eraw s iban sarho i addinat n olas har ajjudi tiw-at fal awa ijjanat folitik tan tin awal d lakkumat tan addinat"
"Only Spanish is an official language of Navarre, and the Basque language is only co-official in the province's northern region, where most Basque-speaking Navarrese are concentrated.",Spanish ɣas as awal alxakum daɣ Navarre tolas awal wan Basque ohar ti alxakum daɣ tiɣarmaten n rejion tan emaynag edag s inta a daɣ ijjitan kel awal wan Basque
"Much of this population lives in or near the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) urban belt on the coast (in Basque these are Baiona, Angelu and Miarritze).","Ijjit n ichaɣib wen izzɣ daɣ meɣ edes n tamintika tan Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) daɣ ajjama n ejjarew (daɣ Basque awen Baiona, Angelu d Miarritze)"
"Millions of Basque descendants (see Basque American and Basque Canadian) live in North America (the United States; Canada, mainly in the provinces of Newfoundland and Quebec), Latin America (in all 23 countries), South Africa, and Australia.","Milyon tan n addinat id izjarnen Basque tan (ikiyid Basque daɣ Aermicain dBasque Canadian) izzaɣan daɣ Amerika tan tamasna (Amerik, Canada hullan daɣ iɣirman win Newfoundland d Quebec), Latin Amerika (daɣ addawla tan tin 23 fuk nasnat), addawla tan South Africa d Australia"
Estimates range between 2.5 - 5 million Basque descendants live in Chile; the Basque have been a major if not the strongest influence in the country's cultural and economic development.,"Iddikudan illanen jir 2.5 har 5 milyon n addinat id izjarnen Basque tan izzaɣan daɣ addawla tan Chile, Basque tan ikrachan assahat hulllan daɣ efes d agna wan addawla"
It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango.,Ehe hullan edag eqqalan achal id addawla tan tin Chihuahua d Durango
"In Guatemala, most Basques have been concentrated in Sacatepequez Department, Antigua Guatemala, Jalapa for six generations now, while some have migrated to Guatemala City.","Daɣ Guatemala, BBasque tan ajjotnen izzaɣan daɣ Sacatepequez, Antigua Guatemala, Jalapa har ijjan iwityan ajjotnen amarad as ijja awen iyyad issekalan s akal wan Guatemala"
"Bambuco, a Colombian folk music, has Basque roots.","Bambuco, asahaɣ n addinat win Colombia,alasal net Basque tan"
"Elko, Nevada, sponsors an annual Basque festival that celebrates the dance, cuisine and cultures of the Basque peoples of Spanish, French and Mexican nationalities who have arrived in Nevada since the late 19th century.","Elko, Nevada, sarrafan tamadacht tajjit awatay fuk i asukti n isuhaɣ, alkuzayn d agna tan n addiat win Basque tan n Spania, France d Mexico id osanen Nevada daɣ awatay wan 1900"
"Some of North America's largest ranches, which were founded under these colonial land grants, can be found in this region.","Harat daɣ ranch tan i maqqornen daɣ Amerik tan tamasna itajraw nen ɣur ijjarawan n akal azzaman wan alisteɣmar , addoben ad atjrawan daɣ rjion ten"
"There is a history of Basque culture in Chino, California.","Ille attarex n anga n Basque daɣ Chino, California"
They are mostly descendants of settlers from Spain and Mexico.,Azzuben id fuk nasan daɣ imazzaɣan id ifal nen Spania d Mexico
This sense of Basque identity tied to the local language does not only exist in isolation.,Amaɣna wan kartidant wan Basque osaɣan id awal wan akal war isket ɣas
"As with many European states, a regional identity, be it linguistically derived or otherwise, is not mutually exclusive with the broader national one.","Chund addawla tan tin Eroba, kartidant n rejion, kud erha tizjar id awal meɣ harat iyyan , war tisket iman net fuk id wa maqqoran n addawla"
I have friends who are involved in the political side of things but that is not for me.,Illeɣ imidiwan ahanen achrut n folitik tan haratan mucham awen war hi itij
There are extremely few Basque monolingual speakers: essentially all Basque speakers are bilingual on both sides of the border.,Illan harat n imusanan n awal wan Basque ɣas madroynen: imusanan n Basque issanan awalan ajotnrn daɣ ichrutan fuk n alxadud
"The Basque language is thought to be a genetic language isolate in contrast with other European languages, almost all of which belong to the broad Indo-European language family.","Awal wan Basque ordan ti addinat as eqqal awal n etari iskatan daɣ anmizlay n awalan iyyad n Eroba, s hullan ilen egadach wan awal maqqoran n Indo-Euroba"
Home in this context is synonymous with family roots.,Daɣ talɣa ta daɣ ehan eqqal ikewan n egadach
"As in other cultures, the fate of other family members depended on the assets of a family: wealthy Basque families tended to provide for all children in some way, while less-affluent families may have had only one asset to provide to one child.","Chund daɣ agna tan wi yadnen, sandaw n addinat win egadach ilkam i ehare n egadach: igidchan n Basque wi ilanen irizzejarraman ihuk n ilyadan s immik iyyan, as ijja awen igichan win tilaqqawen addobat as war ilen ɣas ar asuj iyyan ikf-an i alyad iyyad"
"Mostly after the advent of industrialisation, this system resulted in the emigration of many rural Basques to Spain, France or the Americas.","Darat n emel n marchin, sistem wen izjar id isikilan n Basque tan win assaxra s Spania, France meɣ Amerika"
Some scholars and commentators have attempted to reconcile these points by assuming that patrilineal kinship represents an innovation.,Imaɣran iyyad d imassewilan iyyad araman ad s annafhaman titbaqqa tin s aqbilan temedt n ibba tahat edag n uɣna
They emerged from the Franco regime with a revitalized language and culture.,Izjaran id tanaya tan Franco id awal d agna ammutaynen
The region has been a source of missionaries like Francis Xavier and Michel Garicoïts.,Rejion harkukbs t aqqal edag n inammuchal chund Francis Xavier d Michel Garicoits
Lasuén was the successor to Franciscan Padre Junípero Serra and founded 9 of the 21 extant California Missions along the coast.,Lasuén eqqal wa ichrayan Franciscian Padre Junipero serra tolas eɣna 9 daɣ 21 ahanen California fal edes n aman
"By the time Henry III of Navarre converted to Catholicism in order to become king of France, Protestantism virtually disappeared from the Basque community.","Daɣ azzaman wa id ijjach Henry III wan Navarre addin wan Katolik tan i ad eqqil almalik wan France , daɣ akayad addin wan protestant tan issujal daɣ taswet tan Basque"
"Nowadays, according to one single opinion poll, only slightly more than 50% of Basques profess some kind of belief in God, while the rest are either agnostic or atheist.","Iwityan wi daɣ, daɣ awa issilmad amiyiz n addinat , 50% n Basque tan ilan medran daɣ amaxlak as ijja awen awa hin eqqim amos agnostic meɣ atheist"
"According to one, Christianity arrived in the Basque Country during the 4th and 5th centuries but according to the other, it did not take place until the 12th and 13th centuries.","Daɣ awa allaɣat iyyan, addin wan kriken tan osa id daɣ addawla tan Basque tan daɣ awatay wan 400 hr 500 n awatay mucham daɣ awa allaɣen addinat iyyad, awen wae ijja har awatay wan 1200 d wan 1300"
"""In this sense, Christianity arrived """"early"""".""","“ Daɣ alamɣna wen,addin wan kriken tan osa id “”s tizarat””"
"According to one tradition, she travelled every seven years between a cave on Mount Anboto and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in Aloña, or Supelegor, or Gorbea.","Daɣ awat allaɣat attarex iyyan, tissokal assa iwityan fuk jir cave n adaɣ wan Anboto d iyyan fal adaɣ wa yada ( attarexan izlayan); Taqqan a tibjid alwaq wa id tosa Anboto , taqqar alwaq wa id tosa Alona, meɣ Supeleger meɣ Gorbea"
"It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms.","Atwan as alwaq wa id iddewan daɣ ijireran chajrotnen s afalla tan nasan n alali tan, erawan id ajjina"
"Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like jentilak (equivalent to giants), lamiak (equivalent to nymphs), mairuak (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally Moors), iratxoak (imps), sorginak (witches, priestess of Mari), and so on.","Tinfusen allaɣat nat har ajjudi s alchinan ajjotnen chund jentilak, (ogdahan id giant tan), lamiak (ogdahan id nymph tan),mariuak (albanna tan n cromlechs meɣ tijililliwayen tin tekadeyt, Moors) , iratxoak (imps), sorginak (timachwaten, tabomber tan Mari) d iyyad"
"""There is a trickster named San Martin Txiki (""""St Martin the Lesser"""").""",“Ille Trickster s isim net San Martin Txiki (“”” St Martin the lesser””)
"The jentilak ('Giants'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of Stone Age culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of iron.","Jentilak (giants), daɣ achrut iyyan , aqqalan addinat n tanfust wi hakkinen almaɣna n isujilan win addinat daɣ agna wan awatay wan tahont wi s kala izzaɣan daɣ imadlan wi chajrotnen tolas war n ila musnat n tazoli"
"For more than a century, scholars have widely discussed the high status of Basque women in law codes, as well as their positions as judges, inheritors, and arbitrators through ante-Roman, medieval, and modern times.","A ojjaran tamede n awatay , imusanan immijradan hullan daɣ isalan win edg wan deden tin Basque tan daɣ achareɣa tan hak id idagan nasnat win timaɣtasen n achareɣa tan, timikkusa d timahaɣen daɣ azzamanan win ante-roan, medieval d win uchray"
"Navarre has a separate statute of autonomy, a contentious arrangement designed during Spanish transition to democracy (the Amejoramiento, an 'upgrade' of its previous status during dictatorship).","Navarre tila edag azunan wan axxakamat , anifham wa imaxalxalan eɣnan daɣ efel wa tijja Spania transition s demokrati ( Amejoramiento, isalan eynaynen n edag net wan data awa daɣ azzaman wan dictatorship)"
"Questions of political, linguistic and cultural allegiance and identity are highly complex in Navarre.","Isistanan wi id aqqalnen folitik, awal d agna d kartidant amosan a maqqoran daɣ Navarre"
The majority of schools under the jurisdiction of the Basque education system use Basque as the primary medium of teaching.,Ijjit n lakkolan daɣ achareɣa tan Basque tan n sistem wan teɣare ijja Basque asuj wan teɣare
"In contrast, the desire for greater autonomy or independence is particularly common among leftist Basque nationalists.","Daɣ uzlay, derhan wan axxakamat maqqorat meɣ n alistexlal eqqal a oharan leftist Basque Nationalists"
They regard themselves as culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbours.,Ikyadan iman nasan chund as anmazlayan agna d hullan awal id inarhajan nasan win edes
Miguel de Unamuno was a noted novelist and philosopher of the late 19th and the 20th century.,Miguel de Unamuno eqqal anktib d philsopher n uchray n awatay wan 1900 d 2000
He also founded the Chilean Trade Union Association to promote a union movement based on the social teachings of the Catholic Church.,Olas eɣanni n tagayt tan Trade Association i efes n tagayt n inaxdiman tijja fal tiɣir nasan daɣ egliz tan katolik
The historical presence of the San in Botswana is particularly evident in northern Botswana's Tsodilo Hills region.,Daɣ attarex emel wan San daɣ Botswana war ti eha ach-ak daɣ rejion tan Tsodilo n Bostwana tan emaynaj
"From the 1950s through to the 1990s, San communities switched to farming because of government-mandated modernisation programs.","ɣur awatay wan 1950 har awatay wan 1990, tawsten tin San aqqal nat fal tiwijas fal program tan win isissini tan ijja alxakum"
"""Certain San groups are one of 14 known extant """"ancestral population clusters""""; that is, """"groups of populations with common genetic ancestry, who share ethnicity and similarities in both their culture and the properties of their languages"""".""","“Taqqimen tiyyad n San aqqal nat iyyat daɣ 14 s itiwassan as illanat harwa “””tqqimt nnichaɣib wan kel aru” awen eqqal “”taqimen n ichaɣiban oharnen iwicharan, wi ohar nen tawset d haratan id aqqal nen agna tan d irrizejan n awalan nasan””"
Representatives of San peoples in 2003 stated their preference of the use of such individual group names where possible over the use of the collective term San.,Dibiti tan win addinat win San daɣ awatay wan 2003 allaɣen as assofan asaxdim n ismawan n taqqimen chund win fal asaxdim n tasassaɣrawt n San t oharat
"I continued to use Bushman, and I was publicly corrected several times by the righteous.",Har ajjudi assixdamad isim wan Bushman tolas harkuk asissaɣadan a hi kel alɣadala
"""Instead, the San Council's representative was adamant that no hurt or harm was caused to them or the San community with the manner in which (Die Burger) published the word 'boesman'.""""""",“Edag n dibiti tan n San asilmad as war ti tilla tadlimt meɣ albas ta ijrawan meɣ tawset tan San dɣ immik wa s (De Burger) izjar isim wan ‘boesman”””
"San kinship is comparable to Eskimo kinship, with the same set of terms as in European cultures, but also uses a name rule and an age rule.","Temedt tan San togdah id temedt tan Eskimo, ilanen tiasassaɣrawen chund tin agna tan win Eroba mucham saxdaman tolas achareɣa wan isim d wan awatay"
"Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to San of all ages.",Ilyadan war ilen tizilzam daɣ tamazduq war n imos daalolan d izijraz iknan tulaɣalay i kel San n awatay fuk
They make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas.,Ijjan addabara tan n igidchan d taqqimen tolas allaɣen as man d ihandagan win aman d enwan innasan
Droughts may last many months and waterholes may dry up.,Manna tan addoben ad aj i oran ajjotnen d tolas tinibaj n aman addobat nat iɣur
Into this hole is inserted a long hollow grass stem.,Daɣ tanabaj ten tahet tezawt chajret n alammuz
"Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter.","ɣarat n tarahot taqqal azzaman wa iknan assahat: azzaman ikkusan aqquran ilkaman i tajrist sammedat ,taqqurat"
"Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption.","Deden sadaw nat ichikcha n akal, berry tan, tuber tan, albasalan,d isuj n iyyad n ahishk i tetate"
"Depending on location, the San consume 18 to 104 species, including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites.","Daɣ as izlayan ihandagan, San tat-in 18 har 104 n ichikil ahan ichwalan, ikinkaran, tiwikkawen, tilken, firacha tan d ta-itof"
"These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups A and B, the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome tree.","Haplogroup tan win aqqalan taqqimen madroynen n haplogroups A d B , iliktan win issin azzar nen fal ahishk wan Y-chromosome n awadim"
"The most divergent (oldest) mitochondrial haplogroup, L0d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.","Mitochondrial haplogroup wan iskatan (wa ojjaran tusaray), L0d, itawajraw daɣ iddikud n iji tan net daɣ taqqimen tin Afrikiya tan tamasna"
The San have been particularly affected by encroachment by majority peoples and non-indigenous farmers onto land traditionally occupied by San people.,Kel San iknen hullan ijjuch wa has-an ijjan addinat ajjotnen d kel ifirjan wi war n aqqel kel akal daɣ akal eqqalan daɣ alasal a izdaɣan addinat win San
"Loss of land is a major contributor to the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, including especially the San's eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve.",Atarmis n akal eqqal a isawadan hullan muchakil tan ti ijraw nen addinat win akal n Botswana eha asakat wan San daɣ Central Kalahari Game Reserve
This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge.,Awen ad ekf-u timzal n alxaqqan i San i tinfa n musnat nasan tan kel akal
"Van der Post grew up in South Africa, and had a respectful lifelong fascination with native African cultures.","Van der Post idwal daɣ South Afrikiya, tolas ikna has jaruzat hullan daɣ adduniya semɣar n agna tan win kel afrikiya win kel akal"
"""Driven by a lifelong fascination with this """"vanished tribe"""", Van der Post published a 1958 book about this expedition, entitled The Lost World of the Kalahari.""","“ Erkab jarruzat hullan n “tawset ta tasujalat’’, Van der Post izizjar alkittab daɣ awatay wan 1958 fal ikannan n awen s eɣaf n akatab net imos The Lost World wan Kalahari”"
"His early film The Hunters, released in 1957, shows a giraffe hunt.","Film net wa ezzaran The Hunters,id izjaran daɣ awatay wan 1957, isakin ahuyi n amdaɣ"
"His sister Elizabeth Marshall Thomas wrote several books and numerous articles about the San, based in part on her experiences living with these people when their culture was still intact.",Tamadrayt net Elizabeth Marshall Thomas iktab ilkittaban ajjotnen d albaban ajjotnen fal San ijjanen daɣ achrut iyyan fal musnaten net n tamazduq id addinat win alwaq wa id war amuttay agna nasan
"""This was reviewed by Lawrence Van Gelder for the New York Times, who said that the film """"constitutes an act of preservation and a requiem"""".""",“ Awen olas ti Lawrence Van Gelder akayad har ajjudi i New York Times allaɣen daɣ film wen as “”eqqal harat n alɣillas d requiem””
The BBC's The Life of Mammals (2003) series includes video footage of an indigenous San of the Kalahari desert undertaking a persistence hunt of a kudu through harsh desert conditions.,Serie tan tin The Life of Mammals (2003) n BBC ehay video footage n San win kel akal n Kalahari n assaxra ijjanen ahuyi assohen n kudu s talɣiwen n assaxra assohatnen
"Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings.","Fal tulat nasan, alxidmaten n San addoben asilmad s iddililan win idalojan n idaɣan win aru"
"The film was directed by Jamie Uys, who returned to the San a decade later with The Gods Must Be Crazy, which proved to be an international hit.","Film ezzar as James Uys, id eqqalan San iwityan darat awa id The Gods Must Br Crazy issiflasan s as eqqal irrizaɣ daɣ alɣalim"
"James A. Michener's The Covenant (1980), is a work of historical fiction centered on South Africa.","James A. Michener’s The Convenant (1980) , eqqal alxidmat n mirda n attarex ijjan fal South Africa"
Norman Rush's 1991 novel Mating features an encampment of Basarwa near the (imaginary) Botswana town where the main action is set.,Ikittab wan Norman Rush daɣ awatay wan 1991 asirtayan samalan n amazzaɣ n Basarwa edes n aɣrim wan Botswana id tijja tamachɣult ta t ojarat
"In 2007, David Gilman published The Devil's Breath.","Daɣ awatay wan 2007, David Gilman izizjar alkittab The Devil’s Breath"
The fiancé of the protagonist of The No.,Ahalis wan tamadt tan No
The Germanic peoples were a historical group of people living in Central Europe and Scandinavia.,Addinat win Germany aqqalan taqqimt n addinat n attarex izzaɣnen daɣ Eroba tan ammas d Scandinavia
"In discussions of the Roman period, the Germanic peoples are sometimes referred to as Germani or ancient Germans, although many scholars consider the second term problematic, since it suggests identity with modern Germans.","Daɣ majradan n azzaman wan Roma, addinat win germany aqqalan alwaqqan iyyad t awaɣrinen s isim wan Germani meɣ german tan win aru, kuddeɣ as imaɣran ajjotnen ijjan tasassaɣrawt tan sanatat tin muchakil fal as taqqal fal kartidant n german tn win amarad"
"In contrast, Roman authors first described Germanic peoples near the Rhine at the time the Roman Empire established its dominance in that region.","Daɣ anmizlay, inaktuban win Roma allaɣen s adinat win germany azzarnen edes n Rhine daɣ azzaman wa id Roman empire iday assahat net fal rejion ten"
"Roman efforts to integrate the large area between Rhine and Elbe ended around 16 CE, following the major Roman defeat at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE.",Timachɣulen n Roma i ad tijjich edag wa maqqoran jir Rhine d Elbe imda edes n 16 CE a ilkaman i egadal wa maqqoran n Roma daɣ akinnas n aroj wan Teutoburg daɣ 9 CE
"In the 3rd century the Germanic-speaking Goths dominated the Pontic Steppe, outside Germania, and launched a series of sea expeditions into the Balkans and Anatolia as far as Cyprus.","Daɣ awatay wan 300 Goth tan wi sawal nen germanic ikrachan assahat fal Pontic Steppe, ajjama n Germania tolas sassajan isikilan fal aman s Balkan tan d Australia har Cyprus"
Archaeology instead shows a complex society and economy throughout Germania.,Archaeology t asukna tamazduq maqqorat d iqtisad daɣ Germania fuk net
"Traditionally, the Germanic peoples have been seen as possessing a law dominated by the concepts of feuding and blood compensation.","Daɣ alasal, addinat win Germany it aw akyad as ilan achareɣa tojjarat n ismawan win timazal muchakil d achni"
"The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples probably shared a common poetic tradition, alliterative verse, and later Germanic peoples also shared legends originating in the Migration Period.","Addinat win aru s awal nen Germanic war eha ach-ak as oharan tumast , ayat tan aqqirar nen d addinat n germny oharnen tinfusen daɣ azzaman wan isikilan"
"Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute, with proposals of Germanic, Celtic, and Latin, and Illyrian origins.","Hak id awal wa id izjar inta deɣ t ijja fal as tamaɣinnant, s attarexan net amosan Germanic, Celtic, d Latin , d Illyrian"
"Regardless of its language of origin, the name was transmitted to the Romans via Celtic speakers.","A iijan fuk daɣ attarex n awal net, isim ijrawan ti Roman tan s imassawalan win Celtic"
"By late antiquity, only peoples near the Rhine, especially the Franks, and sometimes the Alemanni, were called Germani by Latin or Greek writers.","Daɣ uchrayan antiuity, addinat ɣas wi ahanen edes n Rhine hullan Frank tan d alwaqqan iyyad Alemanni ɣar in tan inaktuban win Germani s isim wan Latin meɣ Greek"
"While Roman authors did not consistently exclude Celtic speaking-people, or treat the Germanic peoples as the name of a people, this new definition, by using Germanic language as the main criterion, understood the Germani as a people or nation with a stable group identity linked to language.","Kuddeɣ as inatukban win Roma war ikkesan addinat wi sawal nen Celtic meɣ ijjan addinat win germany s isim wan addinat , almaɣna wen eynayan s asaxdam n awal wan germany chund titbaqet ta tojarat , ifhaman germani chund addinat meɣ addawla tilat addinat s tumast nasan tazzukat daɣ as tar tay id awal"
"""Some scholars studying the Early Middle Ages now stress the question of whether the Germanic peoples saw themselves as an ethnic unity, while others point to the existence of Germanic languages as a historical fact that can be used to identify Germanic peoples, regardless of whether they saw themselves as """"Germanic"""".""",“ imaɣran iyyad aɣran nen Early Middle Ages amarad ijjan titbaqet fal asistan wan as addinat win germanic ijjan iman nasan chund tawset tartayat as ijja awen iyyad ɣur san emel n awalan win germany chund harat n attarex addoben axadam i musnat n addinat win germany war izlay as ikyaadan iman nasan chund “”Germanic””
"""For such reasons, Goffart argues that the term Germanic should be avoided entirely in favor of """"barbarian"""" except in the linguistic sense, and historians such as Walter Pohl have also called for the term to be avoided or used with careful explanation.""","“ Fal iddililan wi daɣ , Goffart allaɣat as tasassaɣrawt tan Germanic ofa a tan a has ichliyan addinat s “””Barbarian”” ar s almaɣna net wan awal tolas kel attarex chund Wlater Pohl aɣran s a tiyit n tasassaɣrawt ten meɣ axadam net s almaɣna ijjan anniyat”"
"In Caesar's account, the clearest defining characteristic of the Germani people was that they lived east of the Rhine, opposite Gaul on the west side, an observation he made with historical digressions in his writing.","S Caesar, samal wa eqqalan hullan wa affissaran addinat win germani eqqal as izzaɣan daɣ alqiblat n Rhine, amlallayan fal Gaul daɣ achrut wan ataram, akayad ijja s isimmutiyan n tinfusen n attarex daɣ ikitban net"
"Tacitus was at times unsure whether a people were Germanic or not, expressing his uncertainty about the Bastarnae, who he says looked like Sarmatians but spoke like the Germani, about the Osi and the Cotini, and about the Aesti, who were like Suebi but spoke a different language.","Tacitus daɣ azzaman win war ikkes ach-ak n as addinat aqqalan Germnic meɣ bo,allaɣat s ibas ach-ak net fal Bastamae s inna as olahan id Sarmatian tan mucham issewal chund Germani , fal Osi d Cotini d fal Aesti olahnen id Suebi mucham issewalan awal izlayan"
The Upper Danube served as a southern border.,Upper Danube idhal s as eqal alxadud wan tamasna
"It is unclear if these Germani spoke a Germanic language, and they may have been Celtic speakers instead.",War izjer ach-ak kud inta Germani tan win sawalan awal n Germanic tolas addobat as aqqalan imasewalan n Celtic
"Tacitus continues to mention Germanic tribes on the west bank of the Rhine in the period of the early Empire, such as the Tungri, Nemetes, Ubii, and the Batavi.","Tacitus okay daɣ majrad har allaɣat as tawseten tin Germanic fal achrut n ejarew wan ataram n Rhine daɣ azzaman wan Empire wa ezzaran chund Tungri, Nemetes, Ubii, d Batavi"
"Inspired by this, these three groups are also sometimes used in older modern linguistic terminology, attempting to describe the divisions of later Germanic languages.)","Ikfa awen assahat, taqqimen tin karadat intaned deɣ attaxdam nat alwaqqan daɣ majrad wan amarad eruwan , erraman afissar n tizunawen n awalan win darat n Germany)"
"Herminones or Hermiones in the interior, included the Suevi, the Hermunduri, the Chatti, the Cherusci according to Pliny.","Herminones meɣ Hermiones daɣ ammas eha Suevi, Hemunduri, Chatti, Cherusci daɣ awa inna Pliny"
"""On the other hand, Tacitus wrote in the same passage that some believe that there are other groups which are just as old as these three, including """"the Marsi, Gambrivii, Suevi, Vandilii"""".""","“ Daɣ achrut iyyan Tacitus iktab daɣ edagg wen as addinat iyyad ordahan as illan ti taqqimen tiyyad ijjanen tusaray tan win karad eha “”Marsi, Gambrivili, Vandilii”””"
"""Strabo, who focused mainly on Germani between the Elbe and Rhine, and does not mention the sons of Mannus, also set apart the names of Germani who are not Suevian, in two other groups, similarly implying three main divisions: """"smaller German tribes, as the Cherusci, Chatti, Gamabrivi, Chattuarii, and next the ocean the Sicambri, Chaubi, Bructeri, Cimbri, Cauci, Caulci, Campsiani"""".""","“Strabo ijjan alxidmat ɣas fal Germani jir Elbe d Rhie tolas war eɣra aratan win Mannus , olas har ajjudi askut n ismawan win Germani war n aqqel Suevaian, daɣ taqqimen tiyyad ahanat tuzanawen karadat olahnen , “”tawseten madroynen n Germany chund Cherusci, Chati, Camabrivi, Chattuarii, d ejarew wa maqqoran Sicambri, Chaubi, Bructeri,Cimbri, Cauci, Caulci, Campsiani””"
"During the Pre-Germanic linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the proto-language has almost certainly been influenced by linguistic substrates still noticeable in the Germanic phonology and lexicon.","Daɣ azzaman wa ezzaran i awal wan germanic (jir awatay wan 2500 har 500 data annabi ɣisa), awal iknan substrate tan win awal tarna hullan harat eqqalan a ilan ijar i har ajjudi daɣ imaslan n awal wan Germanic d alkittab"
"There is also a great deal of influence in vocabulary from the Celtic languages, but most of this appears to be much later, with most loanwords occurring either before or during the sound shift described by Grimm's Law.",Tille assahat maqqorat daɣ ismawan n awalan win Celtic mucham daɣ ijjit net awen ijja daɣ uchray s ijjit n ismawan n assofadnen ijja data meɣ daɣ amutti n emasli s immik wa sti allaɣat Grimm’s Law
"Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed without dialects via the comparative method, it is almost certain that it never was a uniform proto-language.","Kuddeɣ as Proto-germanic tiday har ajjudi wala awalan s immik ikatan, igmad ach-ak as kala war eqqel awal olahan"
"The earliest attested runic inscriptions (Vimose comb, Øvre Stabu spearhead), initially concentrated in modern Denmark and written with the Elder Futhark system, are dated to the second half of the 2nd century CE.","Iɣazanan wi azzarnen n runc (Vimose comb, Øvre Stabu Spearhead) s kala ijja fal Sanmark tan amarad tolas iktaban s sistem wan aru n Futhark, ijjan daɣ tazune tan sanat n awatay wan 200 CE"
"However, the merging of unstressed Proto-Germanic vowels, attested in runic inscriptions from the 4th and 5th centuries CE, also suggests that Primitive Norse could not have been a direct predecessor of West Germanic dialects.","Har ajjudi, azajor wan imaslan n proto-germanic war n atbaqqat asudattat iɣazanan win runic daɣ awatay wan 400 d 500 CE tolas asilmad as Primitive Norse war he eqqil a ezzaran i awalan n Germany win ataram"
"""By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant -z had already occurred within the """"residual"""" Northwest dialect continuum.""","“ Daɣ uchray n awatay wan 300 CE, anmichrayan n awal chund iban eɣas wan Z daɣ awal wan Germanic tan ataram ijja daɣ ‘’ residual’ nawal wan emaynaj daɣataram"
"The inclusion of the Burgundian and Vandalic languages within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation.",Ijjuch n aalan win Burgundian d Vandalic daɣ taqqimt ta Germanic tan alqiblat har ajjudi war ti eha ach-ak fal iban adutti nasan
"A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.",Tamazduq taqqal taqqimt n addinat jir ila aharoj meɣ taqqimt mqqorat toharat amadal meɣ ahinzazaɣ olahan . ilkaman i alxakumat n folitik tolahat d mirda n agna tan
Societies construct patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or speech as acceptable or unacceptable.,Timizdaq iday nat ich-ikilan n alxal s acharaɣ n alxidmaten tiyyad meɣ majrad ilan aɣabal meɣ iwar t n ila
"Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap.","A ijja t ohar n alxidmat, tamazduq t addobat a tijru i addinat ad ajaraw s immikan assohatnen daɣ tajittawt tan iyyan fuk; fuk awadim d tinfawen (oharnen) addobat nat anmizlay meɣ dɣ ihandagan ajjotnen tinmichriyan"
"""This was in turn from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius (""""comrade, friend, ally""""; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil.""","“ Awen izjar id isim societas n awal wan Latin, s inta deɣ izjar id isim wan socius (“””anarhaj, amidi, amadhal””; dumu n adjektif tan socialis) eqqal asilmad n assaɣ meɣ aharoj jir ichrutan wi aqqal nen imidiwan meɣ awa id orakan mawatin”"
"""In the 1630s it was used in reference to """"people bound by neighborhood and intercourse aware of living together in an ordered community"""".""",“ Daɣ awaty wan 1630 eqqal marjaɣ i ‘”addinat osaɣ ta-ite tan aharoj d jimaɣ n tamazduq daɣ edag iyyan daɣ tawset toɣadat”””
"These structures may have varying degrees of political power, depending on the cultural, geographical, and historical environments that these societies must contend with.","Ideyan win addoben ad anmazlayan s degre tan n tanaya tan folitik ilkman i agna , jografia d ihinzuzaɣ win attarex s ilzam timizdaq tin a dar san artiyan"
Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.,Timizdaq tin tawseten daɣ war ijjitan almitalan n anmizar d semɣar
This cultural evolution has a profound effect on patterns of community.,Amutti n agna wen ila tikma chajret fal dumu tan n tawset
Cities turned into city-states and nation-states.,Iɣarman ammutayan s city-state tan d nation-states
"Conversely, members of a society may also shun or scapegoat any members of the society who violate its norms.",Addinat wi n tamazduq addoben ad achilan meɣ tadlimt n awadim fuk n tamazduq war n semɣar achareɣa tan win
Some societies bestow status on an individual or group of people when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action.,Timizdaɣ tiyyad hakkinat tichit i awadim meɣ taqqimt n addinat alwaq awadim meɣ taqqimt tijja alxidmat tolaɣat meɣ tan derhan
"Although humans have established many types of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power.","Kuddeɣ as addinat idayan dumu tan ajjotnen daɣ attrex, anthropologist tan omaran s askut n timizdaɣ s degre wa s n amajaran taqqimen s ajjaw n tinfa chud alfayda tan akal, seɣmar meɣ tanaya"
"However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as people of tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures such as chiefdom.","Hak ijja awen , ihuyi tan iyyad d isidiwan n timizdaɣ war n ila alfayda tan n akal (chund addinat win tlingit) tizzaɣat daɣ taqqimen ti maqqornen tolas aqqalan ideyan maqqrnen n anmilllal chund tammanukila"
"Statuses within the tribe are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement.",Tichit daɣ tawset taqqal a ogdahan tolas addara tan ewadan s anifhaman war issartayan
"There are no political offices containing real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal consolidations for collective action are not governmental.","War t illen biro tan n folitik taha tnaya tan tanat tolas amanokal eqqal ɣas awadim ilan assahat, chund wan addabara tan, i ad war aaqqelan assasan harat n alxakum"
"Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral societies can support larger populations.","Fal as ihuk n amansi nasan ila taflast hullan , timizdaq tin assaxra ddobat nat tadhhil tan ichaɣiban"
"For example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry, among other items of value.","Almital addinat iyyad taqqalan inhadan , kan in isuj, albarodan d izaban daɣ isuj tan ilanen alqim"
These families often gain power through their increased wealth.,Igidchan win alwaq iyyan karrachan tammanukila s ehăre nasan
"The wild vegetation is cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers.",Aroj wan asuf eraz tolas itajjach efew tolas ezad atixdaman chund iddoman
They may return to the original land several years later and begin the process again.,Addoben ad aqqilan akal nasan wan alasal iwityan ajjotnen darat awa tolas tissinta tamatikwayt
The size of a village's population depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few as 30 people to as many as 2000.,Iddikud n ichaɣib n addinat daɣ taɣɣrimt ilkam i iddikud n akal wa it illan i tiwijas; taɣirmen illanat jir 30 har 2000
"Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to refer to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating crops and raising farm animals.","Sociologist tan exadman agricultural revlution i ad asilmadan s imutiyn win teknoloji ijjan daɣ tahajit n a ilan 8,500 n awatay erawan s agayak n tawajos d asidwal n arizzej"
Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies.,Degre tan maqqornen n askut n addinat izjar id timizdaqntin agrarian
"However, as food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they increasingly became subordinate to men.",Hak id ijja awen ichmas bitigi tan win imansiwan timutiyan tolas deden ibas ilanat alxidmat ajjet daɣ ehan ilzam tanat ad achinach nat i meddan
A system of rulers with high social status also appeared.,Sistem n imanokalan ilanen tichit chajret olasan id azajor
Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for the development of capitalism.,Imuɣ wan Eroba i Americas idhal as eqqal ad erawan efes wan capitalism
This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency.,Awen eraw id tiw-ad daɣ milɣaw
This larger surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.,Tasiwat ten maqqorat taqqal iddilil n imutiyan fuk fal ijja majrad s tizarat daɣ domestication revolution i ad atub ajjen
"However, inequality became even greater than before.","Hak ijja awen, anmijar iijja ijjit wa s kala war t ijja daɣ data awa"
"Geographically, it covers at the very least the countries of Western Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand.","Daɣ jografi, awen ilsah addawla tan win Eroba tan ataram, Africa tan afalla, Australia d New Zealand"
One of the European Union's areas of interest is the information society.,Ihandagan win afor n Inyon Erobeyen eqqal isalan n tamazduq
"Some academic, professional, and scientific associations describe themselves as societies (for example, the American Mathematical Society, the American Society of Civil Engineers, or the Royal Society).","Taggayen n teɣare, alxidmat d ti Science ijjanat iman nasnat taggayen (almital American Mathematical Society, The American Society of Civil Engineers meɣ royal society"
"A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as norms, religion, values, customs, or identity.","Tawset taqqal taqqimt (n haratan iddarnen) id tulat chund achareɣa tan, addin, allqiman, tumasen meɣ kartidant net"
"In this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an ancient settlement - whether a hamlet, village, town, or city.","Daɣ almaɣna wen amos anammaɣraw n isim wan amazzaɣ wan aru -kuddeɣ eqqal taɣrimt, aɣrim meɣ aɣrim wa maqqoran"
Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical distance.,Ideyan ajjotnen n tawseten ijja archaeologist tan ijja fal tissitiɣilhal n aharoj daɣ a hin okayan tilzamat net ujij n taɣissa
No group is exclusively one or the other.,War t illa taqqimt taqqalat inta ɣas meɣ iyyad
"Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms.",Socialization ikrach fal as egadach assahat s inta as lammadan ilyadan s tizarat achareɣa tan win tawset
Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.,Mumaris tan win efes n tawset ilzam tan ad afhaman immik wa s axdaman addinat d immik wa s idas awen ihandagan win tawseten daɣ talɣa tan tijittawen n tamazduq maqqornen
At the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools.,ɣur edag wan tamuqqest n efes wan tawset d akaros n tawset ilan ti program tan d taggayen ilanen isju win efes n tawset
"Emptiness: Moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to human beings.","Etaɣas: Illa a hin sihen i erem wan tewaɣne , asafar d asammutti n albas alwaq wa s addinat fuk addoben musnat n ihayojan d tiriz nasan oharan addinat"
"""The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and """"institution-based community organizing,"""" (also called """"broad-based community organizing,"""" an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or Congregation-based Community Organizing).""","“Karad ich-ikilan win tijittawen i amukin n tawset amosan ikean n amukin, ikarosan fal ijja anafham d amukin n tawset ijjan fal tijittawt (s isim net “”akunin n tawset maqqoran, almital amukin n tawset ijjan fal addin meɣ amukin tawset ijjan fal taggayen)”"
"Retrieved on: June 22, 2008.",A tijraw daɣ achal wan 22 n ayor wan awzem wan karad daɣ awatay wan 2008
Community organizing can focus on more than just resolving specific issues.,Amukin n tawset addobat ad ej fal a ojaran ikannan n muchakil tan
Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.,Taqqimen chund tin assirɣas nat tolas ilkam nat i anafham fla atkul n addabara tan ijjanen fal assexat tan tawset ohun fal afor n taqqimt iyyat
"Identity-based Communities: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today.","Tawseten ti ijjanen fal tumast: Ifalan ɣur tarrayt tan addinat wi ijjanen eɣaf, daw agna, taqqimt n sivilizasyon tan addin meɣ tan agna tan ajjotnen meɣ agna n tawseten alɣalim wan achal id"
Relationships among members in a virtual community tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.,Iharojan daɣ addinat sa s tarrayt tan tawset orakan siha s anmija n isalan fal titbaqa it illanen
"""Scholars in the humanities are """"humanities scholars"""" or humanists.""",“ Imaɣran daɣ izarajan win humanities ismawan nasan imaɣran n humanities meɣ humanist tan
"The humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras.","Humanities tija fal teɣare n tumasen tin tarrayt tan akal s attarex, ikitban , isuhaɣ ijjanen titbaqet fal afaham n addinat, xadasan meɣ fal kana tan"
"Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.",Anthropology (chund abara tan iyyad n attarex) war t ijjich iyyan daɣ kategori tan tin tolas iliktan ajjotnen n anthropology ijjan fal iyyan meɣ abara tan win ajjotnen
"""The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the Greek word for """"human being"""" or """"person"""".""",“ Isim wan anthropos (άνθρωπος) izjar id isim n Greek wan “awadim”
"This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem.","Awen amos as kuddeɣ as anthropologist tan taj in teɣare daɣ abara iyyan ɣas, harkuk ogazan daɣ ta-ite nasan titbaqqa tin abarkot, awal, attarex d agna n muchakil fuk"
"The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.","Asistan id holism eway id s anthropologist tan a aɣrin addinat s aqqud s isalan win biogenetic, archaeological d awal id akayad oɣadan n tumasen tin amarad"
Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities.,Archaeology taqqal daɣ ihandagan fuk science n tamazduq d elakat n humanities
"A good deal of twentieth-century and twenty-first-century philosophy has been devoted to the analysis of language and to the question of whether, as Wittgenstein claimed, many of our philosophical confusions derive from the vocabulary we use; literary theory has explored the rhetorical, associative, and ordering features of language; and historical linguists have studied the development of languages across time.","Anifham olaɣan n awatay wan 1900 d wan 2000 ijja fal amiyiz n awal d asistan n awa s allaɣat Wittgenstein tiwaɣniwen ajjotnen n iɣafawan nanaɣ izjar nat id awal wa n amajrad, mirda wan akatab ijja farak fal samalan n awal wi s eɣna, n taggayt d aqqud; tolas attalaba tan win attarex aɣran efes n awalan daɣ azzaman"
"""It has been defined as a """"system of rules"""", as an """"interpretive concept"""" to achieve justice, as an """"authority"""" to mediate people's interests, and even as """"the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction"""".""","“ Ijraw almaɣna n as “sistem wan ahareɣa tan””, isim n asifham”” i ag-ad n achareɣa chund “amuzar” isanafhaman jir aforan n addinat tolas hak id chund “axakam tikmal tasarɣimt n tisnant”"
"Laws are politics, because politicians create them.",Achareɣa tan aqqalan haratan n folotik fal as kel folitik a tan eɣnan
"""As Immanuel Kant noted, """"Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three sciences: physics, ethics, and logic."""")""","“ Chund awa iktab Immanuel Kant “ Filozofi n Greek tan aru tijja karadat tizunawen: physics, ethics, d logic””)"
"Shinto, Daoism, and other folk or natural religions do not have ethical codes.","Shinto, Daoism d addinat iyyad meɣ addin tan wr ilen kod tan win achareɣa tan nasan"
"Belief systems imply a logical model that religions do not display because of their internal contradictions, lack of evidence, and falsehoods. .","Sistem tan win amedran ehe dumu n almaɣna as addin tan war bassaran fal awa ijjan imichikakan daɣ amas nasan, iban asidutti d bahu tan"
They are necessary for understanding the human predicament.,Aqqal a adurhanan i afaham n talɣa n awadim tassohet
"The non-founder religions are Hinduism, Shinto, and native or folk religions.","Addin tan win war n aɣna amosan Hinduism, Shinto, d addin tan win akal meɣ win addinat"
"When traditional religions fail to address new concerns, then new religions will emerge.",Alwaq wa id addin tan win alasal indar has-an amukin n timɣutar eynaynen dihen addin tan eynaynen ad ankiran
"Performing arts are also supported by workers in related fields, such as songwriting and stagecraft.",Eɣanni tan n haratan idhalan tan inaxdiman daɣ abara tan sar san oraknen chund akatab n isuhaɣ d masarax
This is called Performance art.,Awen isim net ada-un n eɣanni n haratan
"Dance is also used to describe methods of non-verbal communication (see body language) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating dance), and motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in the wind).","Dallol inta deɣ eqqal a afissaran immikan n majrad war n ija s em (ikyid awal wan taɣissa) jir addinat d irizejan (dallol wan ichan, dallol wan jansiy) d amatikway n haratan wi ammut nen (ifrinkittan dallaln daɣ adu)"
"In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths.","Eɣanni n haratan wan Byzantin d Gothic daɣ Middle Ages , assahat tan egliz azilzaman iji n titbaqet fal tiditen tin alinjil fal tin isuj"
A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary equivalent is the cartoon).,Samal n ich-ikil wen eqqal as dumu wan akal taqqal has taɣelit almaɣna (awa ehan edag net amarad amos cartoon)
"It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.",Ahan ti harkuk echwalan fal arori s ad-ad nasuj meɣ asimmitikway n asuj fal arori
"However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing, composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner.","Hak id ijja awen, alwaq wa id ijjach almaɣna wan eɣanni n haratan amos as alxidmat ten tartayat id rasim , amirtay d haratan iyyad n tihussay i ad asilmad fal ittus n mumaris wan majrad d eɣani"
"Black is associated with mourning in the West, but elsewhere white may be.",Takkawalt almaɣa net iba daɣ addawla tan n ikufar win ataram mucham daɣ edag iyyan timillay t addobat a taqqil awen
"""The word """"red"""", for example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum.""","“Daɣ almital, Isim wan “tachuɣe” addobat ad els imutiyan ajjotnen fal tachuɣe zaddijat n spectrum”"
This began with cubism and is not painting in strict sense.,Awen issinta s cubism tolas war idlej s almaɣna
"Consequently, many spend the first few years after graduation deciding what to do next, resulting in lower incomes at the start of their career; meanwhile, graduates from career-oriented programs experience more rapid entry into the labour market.","Addinat ajotnen taj in iwityan wi azzarnen darat akimmil nasan i teɣare daɣ musnat n awa he aj in daɣ tilkamat, has-an ijarrawan n timzal madroynen daɣ asinti nasan i alxidmat, imaɣran wi ilanen musnat daɣ program tan n alxidmat jarrawa alxidmat daɣ armud"
"However, the empirical evidence also shows that humanities graduates still earn notably higher incomes than workers with no postsecondary education, and have job satisfaction levels comparable to their peers from other fields.","As ijja awen, isalan win akayad saknin as imaɣran win humanities har ajjudi jarrawan timzal ojjarnen hullan tin inaxdiman wi war n ajjuj daɣ teɣare tolas karrachan ihandagan n alxidmat has-an ijraz nen chund tin imidiwan nasan win izarajan wi yadnen"
"As a percentage of the type of degrees awarded, however, the humanities seem to be declining.","Chund iddikud n dumu n ilkadan win timzal, as ijja awen, humanities istannad fannazan"
Federal funding represents a much smaller fraction of funding for humanities than other fields such as STEM or medicine.,Assiruf wan addawla eha edag n afrus andarran n assiruf meɣ humanities ohun izarajan iyyad chund STEM meɣ medecine
"This understanding, they claimed, ties like-minded people from similar cultural backgrounds together and provides a sense of cultural continuity with the philosophical past.",Afaham wen s allaɣen osaɣ addinat wi s olah nat ta-ite tan nasan daɣ abara wan agn tolas ikf -en almaɣna n akkay n agna s tizarat net wan filozofi
"Apart from its societal application, narrative imagination is an important tool in the (re)production of understood meaning in history, culture and literature.","Awar n amos iji net daɣ tamazduq, anazjum eqqal asuj assohen daɣ tiwit n afaham n amaɣna wan attarex , gna d akatab"
"Poststructuralism has problematized an approach to the humanistic study based on questions of meaning, intentionality, and authorship.","Postructuralism ikf-a muchakil tazujicht tan teɣare n humanity tijjat fal isistanan n alamaɣna , ittus d tichit tan abba"
"Furthermore, critical thinking, while arguably a result of humanistic training, can be acquired in other contexts.","Daɣ akkay n dihen,anazjum daɣ as eqqal ittus tewad teɣare tan humanity addobat ad etajraw daɣ talɣiwen tiyyad"
Such pleasure contrasts with the increasing privatization of leisure and instant gratification characteristic of Western culture; it thus meets Jürgen Habermas' requirements for the disregard of social status and rational problematization of previously unquestioned areas necessary for an endeavor which takes place in the bourgeois public sphere.,"Chund timɣutar n azijraz issewad asufid n alxidmaten tin tasanfut d tizal n samalan n agna wan ikufar, ogdah id izilzam win Jurgen Habermas i ankur n xala wan tamazduq d muchakil n ihandagan war ewedan isistanan s tizarat i masaɣ wa ijjan daɣ edag wan bourgeois tan"
Despite many humanities based arguments against the humanities some within the exact sciences have called for their return.,amšǝkki tan n humanities ajjotnen ijjanen fal humanities iyyad daɣ exact sciences aɣran s tewaɣlay nasan
It’s good to know the history of philosophy.”,I olaɣan musnat n attarex wan filozofi
"""Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning """"to share""""or """"to be in relation with"""") is """"an apparent answer to the painful divisions between self and other, private and public, and inner thought and outer word.""""""","“ Majrad ( izjar id communicre s almaɣna net ‘’ tazunt’ meɣ ‘tartit id ‘) eqqal ‘alwazab i tizunawen tin tazzurt jir addinat , win iman nasan d wi oharnen, d anazjum wan ammas d isim wan ajjama’’’"
Message composition (further internal or technical elaboration on what exactly to express).,Aratay n mesaj (ikannan net win ammas d win teknik fal awa he atwan in)
Noise sources such as natural forces and in some cases human activity (both intentional and accidental) begin influencing the quality of signals propagating from the sender to one or more receivers.,Takalt chund assahaten tin batil d daɣ ihandagan iyyad tamachɣult tan awadim ( ta otas d ta war otes) tassinta tarna n tadoganen ti naffaznen ɣur marasal har almursaliya tan ajjotnen
Interpretation and making sense of the presumed original message.,Afaham d almaɣna n mesaj wan alasal
"Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating.",Almitalan win ittus aqqalan timitikwayen n bannan chund ahuk n afus meɣ anazaj n tet hak id war n aqqel bannan chund tide
"Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, the spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion.","Ikitban ahan titbaqqa war n aqqel tin majrad chund ahuk n afus , aqqud n ismawan d axadam n emoticon tan i asissiki n tafrit n awadim"
"Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.","Ihandagan majrad iyyan war n ijja s em daɣ addinat aqqalan tisiwad d asilmad , asassuhi d echwal, asimmuti d achinnimichray , ag-az d amukin d asabbahu n mesaj"
"To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch, distance, timing, and other environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction.","Ajjaraw n majrad imdan , abara tan fuk wi wr n aqqel wi ijjanen s em chund taɣissa, udim, emasli,tulat, edes, ujij, alwaq, d assahaten n ahinzazaɣ ilzam ad aj in alwaq wan tartit"
"""""""Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system.""""""",“” Alxalan wi war n aqel wi ijjanen s em addoben ad aqqilan sistem n awal n alɣalim “””
Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood.,Almud n awal itaj hullan ɣur tammadrit n awadim
"Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.","Awalan wi idaynen chund Esperanto, awalan wi iknanen d fomalism tan n matematik ajjotnen amosan a war n ila tasibdat i irizzejan azunan awalan n addinat"
The properties of language are governed by rules.,Irizzejan n awal exkaman fal assanat achareɣa tan
"Contrary to popular belief, signed languages of the world (e.g., American Sign Language) are considered to be verbal communication because their sign vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic structures abide by all the necessary classifications as spoken languages.","A izlayan id amedran wa ijjan daɣ addinat , awalan n alɣalim win samal (almital awal n Amerik wan samal) aqqalan in majrad al as samal n ismawal, gramar, d ideyan n awal iyyad aɣbalan tan iskutan fuk win awalan ammijradnen"
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding.,Majrad eqqal tamatikwayt s inta ijraw almaɣna tolas itiwi s erem n eɣanni n afaham azunan
"A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission.",Abara wa ilmadan tadoganen tin asissiki n majrad
"A destination, where the message arrives.",Edag wa itiwid mesaj
No allowance for differing purposes.,War t illa turhajat i ittusan anmazlaynen
No allowance for situational contexts.,War t illa turhajat i talɣiwen
"These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication.","Tikkal tin addobat nat ad ikrich nat dumu tan ajjotnen, daɣ iyya n immikan n majrad"
Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).,Syntactic ( irizzejn n samalan d ramaz tan)
"In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication.","Daɣ iban assahaten tin, Barnlund (2008) ijja addabara n dumu n awal s itiki majrad"
"This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted.",Alxalat ten n sanatat n majrad taqqal s dumu meɣ akayad ijjan fal immik wa s isawal awadim as eqqal abara wa s addobat mesaj ad et afham
"The sender's personal filters and the receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents.","Filtar tan win almursal and filtar tan win almursaliya addoben ad anmzlayan s tumasen, agna tan meɣ jansi addobat nen asimmuti n ittus n almaɣna n mesaj"
"Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.","Kuddeɣ as harat chund kod wan alkittaban ikke almaɣn n dumu , war ti illa edag ahan daɣ dumu , harat id erawan timɣutar ajjotnen n isim"
"Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications.",Kompani tan ti ilanen alfayda tan darosnen addobat nat asinnafran i ijjuch n harat n alxidmaten as ijja awen taggayen ti maqqornen axdam nat s spectrum n majrad imdan
"The information environment is the aggregate of individuals, organizations, and systems that collect, process, disseminate, or act on information.","Isalan win ahinzazaɣ iddikud n addinat , taggayen, d sistem tan wi sadaw nen, s ammatakway nen meɣ idas nen isalan"
In verbal interpersonal communication there are two types of messages being sent: a content message and a relational message.,Daɣ majrad wan jir addinat illan ti issin dumu tan n mesaj tan wi gallinen: awa ehan mesaj d mesaj n aharoj
This is the study of how individuals explain what causes different events and behaviors.,Awen eqqal farakn immik wa s- afhaman addinat iddilil n haratan d axalan
Open and honest communication creates an atmosphere that allows family members to express their differences as well as love and admiration for one another.,Majrad wa immoran d wan alɣaldil eɣan edag ijarawan i addinat n egadach ad allaɣanen anmizlayan nasan hak id tarha d tigemt n jir iman nasan
Researchers develop theories to understand communication behaviors.,Kel farak ijjan efes n mirda tan i afaham n alxalan win majrad
"""This also includes a lack of expressing """"knowledge-appropriate"""" communication, which occurs when a person uses ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or environment that is not understood by the recipient.""","“ Awen ehay iban majrad “musnat toɣadat”” itaj in alwaq a id awadim allaɣat ismawan aqqanen eɣaf, tangalt meɣ afissar n talɣa meɣ ahinzazaɣ war ifhem muxattab”"
"Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems.","Isuj wi labanen meɣ wi wassar nen , hullan anadar i awikkal n azujich n teknoloji teynayat addobat a aru muchakil tan"
Examples might include an organizational structure which is unclear and therefore makes it confusing to know whom to communicate with.,Almital tan addobat a tan ijjich edey wan ikannan war n ikna at w afham tolas isajraw tewaɣne n eɣaf i musnat n awadim wa dar itaj majrad
It is better if such words are avoided by using alternatives whenever possible.,I olaɣan a fal ismawan chund win oyyan tan addinat s axadam n iyyan alwaq wa id addobat awen
"However, research in communication has shown that confusion can lend legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.","Hak id ijja awen, farak fal majrad asukna tewaɣne n eɣaf taddobet a t awy s taridawt fal fark alwaq wa id indar asiflas"
It is when the sender is expressing a thought or a word but the receiver gives it a different meaning.,Eqqal alwaq wa id almursal addobat ad allaɣat amedran net meɣ isim mucham almursaliya ikf-e almaɣna iyyan
"This has, in turn, led to a notable change in the way younger generations communicate and perceive their own self-efficacy to communicate and connect with others.",Awen eway s amutti maqqoran daɣ abara wa s tasawalan ichaɣiban wi id ichraynen tolas ikyidan daɣ tadabit nasan i majrad d aratay id wi yaden
Fear of being criticized – This is a major factor that prevents good communication.,Tiksida n majrad labasan awen eqqal harat wa igadalan majrad olaɣan
This will not only boost your confidence but also improve your language and vocabulary.,Awen ad issiwid taflis nak tolas isammuti awal nak d ismawan
Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult.,Alxalan iyyad war assirɣasan majrad
"The act of disambiguation regards the attempt of reducing noise and wrong interpretations, when the semantic value or meaning of a sign can be subject to noise, or in presence of multiple meanings, which makes the sense-making difficult.",Ikus n tewaɣne n eɣaf amos erem n afanaz n takalt d ifahaman war n oɣed alwaq wa id alqim wan almaɣna meɣ almaɣna n achamol addobat a ti tajru taakalt meɣ daɣ emel n almaɣna tan ajjotnen s assahat nen almaɣna
"For example: words, colours and symbols have different meanings in different cultures.","Almital: Ismawan , dumu tan d ramaz tan ilan almaɣna tan ajjotnen daɣ agna tan ajjotnen"
Understanding cultural aspects of communication refers to having knowledge of different cultures in order to communicate effectively with cross culture people.,Afaham n ismawan n asiwil daɣ agna aqqalan fal akarach n musnat n agna tan ajjotnen i majrad hullan daɣ agna tan win jir addinat
It also includes sounds from throat and all these are greatly influenced by cultural differences across borders.,Ahan ti imaslan ɣur tagorsayt tolas win fuk nasan iknan tan anmizlayan win jir agna tan tarna hullan s alxadudan nasan
This concept differs from culture to culture as the permissible space varies in different countries.,Isim wen izlay daɣ agna s agna fal as edag wan turhajat izlay daɣ addawla tan
"Some issues explaining this concept are pauses, silences and response lag during an interaction.",Marsalan iyyad aqqal nen afaham n isim wen amosan tisibdad ; isusiman d ahuji data alwazab alwaq wa ijja asiwil
"In different countries, the same gestures and postures are used to convey different messages.","Daɣ addawla tan ajjotnen, ibarajan d alxalan t aw axdaman i asissiki n mesaj tan"
"Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil.","Ikewan n ahishk sawalan id rhizome bacteria, biffen d imudaran daɣ akal"
In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores.,T-araw-an igdad iyyad id rakab nen farazit tan dallam nen imudaran win tatinen alammuz
"The biochemicals trigger the fungal organism to react in a specific manner, while if the same chemical molecules are not part of biotic messages, they do not trigger the fungal organism to react.","Biochemicals n attagan biffen i ad alwazab s immik as ijja awen chemical molecules war aqqel nat achrut n mesaj tan biotic, war n attagan fungal organism i ad alwazab"
"Through quorum sensing, bacteria can sense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly.","S tafrit tan quorum, bacteria addobat ad afri i anmisas n izirwan tolas aɣid gene tan s immik wen"
"Information, in a general sense, is processed, organised and structured data.","Isalan, daɣ almaɣna oharan , amosan a isikansaken , oɣadan tolas ikrasan"
Information is associated with data.,Isalan osaɣan id data
"Information can be transmitted in time, via data storage, and space, via communication and telecommunication.",Isalan addoben ad ikiyan daɣ alwaq s aɣazan n isalan d edag s majrad d telecommunication
"Information can be encoded into various forms for transmission and interpretation (for example, information may be encoded into a sequence of signs, or transmitted via a signal).","Isalan addoben ad akkoden daɣ dumu tan ajjotnen s iki d afaham (almital, isalan addoben akkudi daɣ iddikud n ichamolan meɣ akiyan s tadogant)"
Uncertainty is inversely proportional to the probability of occurrence.,Iban n ikus n ach-ak eqqal ikka a hin tudabat n iji net
"Furthermore, Latin itself already contained the word īnfōrmātiō meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is not clear.",Latin iman net ehay isim wan īnfōrmātiō s almaɣna net isim meɣ ta-ite mucham iddikud wa s addobat awen akarach n assahat fal efes n isim wan isialan daɣ tangilist war mallul
In modern Greek the word Πληροφορία is still in daily use and has the same meaning as the word information in English.,Daɣ Greek tan amarad isim wan Πληροφορία har ajjudi exdam tolas ila almaɣna olahan id wan isim wan isalan daɣ tangilist
"The field was fundamentally established by the works of Harry Nyquist and Ralph Hartley in the 1920s, and Claude Shannon in the 1940s.",abara iday hullan s alximaten tin Harry Nyquist d Ralph Hartley daɣ awatay wan 1920 d Claude Shannon daɣ awatay wan 1940
Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process.,Entropy d-akkad iddikud n iban n ikus n ach-ak ehan alqim n harat itimutiyan meɣ ittus t- ewad tamatikwayt
"Important sub-fields of information theory include source coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, and information-theoretic security.","Abara tan ajjotnen n mirda n isalan ehay kod musadari, algorithm complexity theory, algorithm information theory d information-theoritic security"
In his book Sensory Ecology biophysicist David B. Dusenbery called these causal inputs.,Daɣ alkittaban net Sensory Ecology Biophysicist David B. Dusenbery eɣra s intaj tan n iddililan
"In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system.",Isalan harkuk eway tan stimuli ibraran s ilzam musnat net s sistem tan n tanafrit tolas imɣarn s tirjiten n enerji data tudabat nasan i axadam i taɣissa meɣ sistem
The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.,Iddikud n nucleotides amos dumu ojjaran assahat tartit d efes n taɣissa wala derhan n ta-ite tilat tinifruyt
"In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.","Daɣ tifert iyyat, addobat ad atwan as isalan daɣ almaɣna wen amosan harat ilahan akayad n chund asimal kuddeɣ war id eɣna meɣ at-w-sakin daɣ ittus wen"
Whether the answer provides knowledge depends on the informed person.,Chund kud inta alwazab ehak musnat eqqal fal awadim wa han isalan
This is the informational equivalent of almost 61 CD-ROM per person in 2007.,Awen amos a ogdahan id 61 CD-ROM daɣ isalan s awadim fuk daɣ awatay wan 2007
Sound records management ensures that the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required.,Awikkal n iɣazanan n asahaɣ asitbat akamal n iɣazanan eɣlas a ijja aqqalan a ilzaman
Beynon-Davies explains the multi-faceted concept of information in terms of signs and signal-sign systems.,Beynon-Daives afassar almaɣna tifert tilat dumu tan ajjotnen n isalan siha s nehal tan d sistem tan n tadogant s nehal
Pragmatics is concerned with the purpose of communication.,Pragmatics t ijja fal ittus wan majrad
"In other words, pragmatics link language to action.","Daɣ tifert iyyat, Pragmatics t osaɣ awal d tamachɣult"
Semantics is the study of the meaning of signs - the association between signs and behaviour.,Semantics t amos teɣare n almaɣna wan nehal tan - taggayt jir nehal tan d alxal
Syntax as an area studies the form of communication in terms of the logic and grammar of sign systems.,Syntax t amos teɣare n dumu n majrad daɣ sistem n nehal oɣadan d grammar
"He introduces the concept of lexicographic information costs and refers to the effort a user of a dictionary must make to first find, and then understand data so that they can generate information.",Azojjach tifert tan alqim tan win isalan n lexicography tolas t aqqal fal assahat s ilzam a tat ej anaxdim s alkittab wa daɣ artay nat tifir i ad ijru tolas dihen ifham data tan i ad udaben ihuk n isalan
In a communicative situation intentions are expressed through messages that comprise collections of inter-related signs taken from a language mutually understood by the agents involved in the communication.,Daɣ ittusan n talɣa tan majrad at w alaɣat s mesaj tan ahan isidiwan n nehal tan osaɣ nen id ammitkal nen daɣ awal afhaman addinat fuk amijrad nen
"Information visualization (shortened as InfoVis) depends on the computation and digital representation of data, and assists users in pattern recognition and anomaly detection.",Asukin n isalan (InfoVis) ilkam i asimal wan computation d digital data tolas idahhal inaxdiman daɣ musnat n dumu d ajaraw n albas
The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences as well as in philosophy and bioethics.,Tifert taxdam hullan daɣ sociology d science tan tiyyad hak id filozofi d bioethics
"In developing societies it may be mainly based on kinship and shared values while more developed societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion.",Daɣ timizdaɣ ahal nen siha s data addobatt a ej hullan fal temedt d alqim tan azun nen as ijja timizdaɣ ti ajjuch nen daɣ efes issedaw nat mirda tan ajjotnen n awa eqqalan tirjit i anmadhal ohun tartit tolaɣat n tamazduq
Durkheim introduced the terms mechanical and organic solidarity as part of his theory of the development of societies in The Division of Labour in Society (1893).,Durkheim azojjach tifir tin anmadhal n as eqqal achrut n mirda net wan efes n timizdaɣ daɣ Division of Labour in Society (dav awatay wan 1893)
"Collins Dictionary of Sociology, p405-6.","Collins alkittab wa daɣ artay nat tifir tin sociology, p405 har 406"
Definition: it is social cohesion based upon the dependence which individuals have on each other in more advanced societies.,Almaɣna : Tartit tolaɣat tijat fal anmadhal wa illan jir addinat daɣ timizdaɣ ti ewad nen s data hullan
Early ancient philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotle discuss solidarity as a virtue ethics framework because in order to live a good life one must perform actions and behave in a way that is in solidarity with the community.,Filozof tan wi azzarnen n aru chund Socrates d Aristote issewalan fal anmadhal as eqqal emarked fal as tamudre t olaɣat t azilzam timachɣulen d alxal daɣ abara wan anmadhal id addinat
The modern practice of bioethics is significantly influenced by Immanuel Kant's concept of the Categorical Imperative.,Alxidmat tan amarad n bioethics tiknet tifert tan Emanuel kant n Category Imperative omar hullan
Foreign-area studies were virtually nonexistent.,Tiɣir tin edag wan ajjama daɣ akayad war t illenat
"The former became area-studies advocates, the latter proponents of modernization theory.",Wan aru eqqal tiɣir tin edag ansar tan win uchray n moderniation theory
From 1953 to 1966 it contributed $270 million to 34 universities for area and language studies.,ɣur awatay wan 1953 har 1966 idhal s 270 dolar 34 n lakkol wa maqqoran i tiɣir n edag d awal
Other large and important programs followed Ford's.,Program tan tiyyad maqqornen tolas assohat nen ilkam nat i Ford
"Others insisted, however, that once they were established on university campuses, area studies began to encompass a much broader and deeper intellectual agenda than the one foreseen by government agencies, thus not American centric.","Iyyad allaɣen as alwaq wa id ijjan fal tehaniten tin lakkolan wi maqqornen , tiɣir tin issintanat asirtay n xuttat tan n ta-ite hullan ohun ta aɣil nat taggayen tin alxakum wadden tin American centric"
"Other interdisciplinary research fields such as women's studies, gender studies, disability studies, LGBT studies and ethnic studies (including African American studies, Asian American studies, Latino studies, Chicano studies and Native American studies) are not part of area studies but are sometimes included in discussion along with it.","Izarajan tiyyad n farak jir majal tan chund tiɣir tin deden , tiɣir tin jansy tan, tiɣir tin alɣib , tiɣir tin LGBT d tiɣir tin tawset (eha tiɣir tin kel afrikiya win amerik, tiɣir tin kel Asia n Amerik, tiɣir tin Latino, tiɣir tin Chicano d tiɣir tin Ameriken win kel akal) war ahenat achrut n tiɣir edag mucham alwaqqan iyyad ahanat adiwinni ijjan"
"Demography (from prefix demo- from Ancient Greek δῆμος (dēmos) meaning 'the people', and -graphy from γράφω (graphō) meaning 'writing, description or measurement') is the statistical study of populations, especially human beings.","Demography (ɣur prefix demo-id izjaran Greek wan aru δῆμος (dēmos) s almaɣna net “” addinat” d graphy id izjaran γράφω (graphō) s almaɣna net “ akatab, afissar n samalan meɣ eket) amos teɣare n iddidkud n ichaɣib tan hullan addinat"
"Patient demographics form the core of the data for any medical institution,such as patient and emergency contact information and patient medical record data.",Patient demographics t amos olh n data i tijittawt fuk n assexat chund isalan wi arorad nen n amirhan d data wan assexat n aɣazan
The term Demography refers to the overall study of population.,Tifert tan Demography taqqal fal teɣare n ichaɣib fuk net
"In the Middle ages, Christian thinkers devoted much time in refuting the Classical ideas on demography.","Daɣ Middle Ages, imaɣran win kriken tan ijjan azzaman ajjen unjayan s ta-ite tan tin alasala n demography"
"One of the earliest demographic studies in the modern period was Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality (1662) by John Graunt, which contains a primitive form of life table.",Iyyat daɣ tiɣir n demography ta tazzarat daɣ azzaman wan uchray amos Natural d Political Observations ijjanen fal Bills of Mortality (1662) ijja John Graunt eha dumu aruwan n tabel n tamudre
"His work influenced Thomas Robert Malthus, who, writing at the end of the 18th century, feared that, if unchecked, population growth would tend to outstrip growth in food production, leading to ever-increasing famine and poverty (see Malthusian catastrophe).","Alxidmat net t ikna omar hullan n Thomas Maltus iktaban daɣ amindi n awatay wan 1800 as aksud a fal war ijjen addinat anniyat, tiw-at n ichaɣib at aki tan attaɣam harat id za aruwan manna d tilaqquwa (ikyid albanna wan Maltusian)"
A census is the other common direct method of collecting demographic data.,Tuddant t aqqal tikarsay iyyat t oharat n asidu n isalan win demography
Analyses are conducted after a census to estimate how much over or undercounting took place.,Imiyizan ijjanen darat tuddant i musnat n iddikud n tiw-at meɣ immik wa s ijja erk medan
"Other indirect methods in contemporary demography include asking people about siblings, parents, and children.","Tikarsiwen t iyyad war n oɣed daɣ demography tan amarad ehenat asistan n fal imaqqaran , imarawan d ilyadan"
"They include models of mortality (including the life table, Gompertz models, hazards models, Cox proportional hazards models, multiple decrement life tables, Brass relational logits), fertility (Hernes model, Coale-Trussell models, parity progression ratios), marriage (Singulate Mean at Marriage, Page model), disability (Sullivan's method, multistate life tables), population projections (Lee-Carter model, the Leslie Matrix), and population momentum (Keyfitz).","Ahan tan dumu tan n tamattant (eha tabel n tamudre, dumu tan n Gompertz, Hazards modles, cox proportional Hazards, tabel tan ajjotnen n afanaz n tamudre, Brass relational logists), tanalmut (dumu wan Hernes, dumu tan win Coale-Trussel, parity progression ratios), adubin (awatay n awadim war n adoban, Page model), alɣib (tikarsay tan Sullivan, tabel tan n tamudre ), ikayadan n ichaɣib (dumu wan Lee-Carter, Leslie Matrix) d imitikwayan n ichaɣib)"
"The age-specific fertility rates, the annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular age groups (usually age 15–19, 20-24 etc.)","Iddikud n tanelmut n awatay, iddikud n tiwiten daɣ awatay daɣ 1000 n tamadt daɣ taqqimen n awatay (awatay jir 15 har 19, 20 har 24)"
"The expectation of life (or life expectancy), the number of years that an individual at a given age could expect to live at present mortality levels.",Taɣrist t amos iddikud n iwityan s addobat awadim a tan orda i tamudre har ihandagan win tamattant
"A stationary population, one that is both stable and unchanging in size (the difference between crude birth rate and crude death rate is zero).",Ichaɣib azzuken amos wa ibdadan tolas war itimuti iddikud net ( anmizlay jir iddikud n tiwit d iddikud wan tamattant eqqal bannan)
Note that the crude death rate as defined above and applied to a whole population can give a misleading impression.,Almid as iddikud wan tamattant s immik wa s afissar s afalla tolas ijja fal ichaɣib fuk addobat ad eqqil axarok
Individuals who change their ethnic self-labels or whose ethnic classification in government statistics changes over time may be thought of as migrating or moving from one population subcategory to another.,Addinat wi addobat nen asimmuti n tehne tan nasan meɣ wi s amaskat nasan daɣ medan wan alxakum ammutay daɣ azzaman addoben ad aqqilan a imitakwayan meɣ a iffalan ɣur ichaɣib iyyan s wa yadan
"The figure in this section shows the latest (2004) UN projections of world population out to the year 2150 (red = high, orange = medium, green = low).","Esassar daɣ edag wen issikna ikayadan wi tija taggayt n alɣalim tan ichaɣib daɣ awatay wan (2004) har awatay wan 2150 (tachuɣe=ojjar, taruɣe= ammas, taddawlat= ifnaz)"
"Mortality is the study of the causes, consequences, and measurement of processes affecting death to members of the population.","Iddikud n tamattant amos teɣare n iddililan, tikmawen d eket n timitikwayen immar nen tamattant n ichaɣib"
Migration researchers do not designate movements 'migrations' unless they are somewhat permanent.,Addinat wi ijjanen farak fal ahunin war ɣur san aqqelan imitikwiyan “”ahunin” har umasan a eɣlalan
"Demography is today widely taught in many universities across the world, attracting students with initial training in social sciences, statistics or health studies.","Demography tiw-aɣar hullan daɣ lakkol tan wi maqqornen daɣ alɣalim,rakkab id attalaba tan tidas teɣare tan socila sciences, medan meɣ tiɣir tin assexat"
"""In this respect, one can see information science as a response to technological determinism, the belief that technology """"develops by its own laws, that it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources available and the creativity of its developers.""","“ Daɣ semɣar wen, addobat awadim akayad n science tan isalan chund alwazab i technological determinism, medran n as technology “”ta ijjan achareɣa tan net, as tewad assahat net, s aqqalan isuj wi it illanen iyaka d uɣna n addinat wi ijjanen efes net”"
"It is concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and utilization of information.","Eqqal fal taɣissa n musnat orakan s uɣna , asidu, amukin, aɣazan,achinchach, afaham, asissiki, amuti d axadam n isalan"
This is especially true when related to the concept developed by A. I. Mikhailov and other Soviet authors in the mid-1960s.,Awen eqqal tiditt alwaq wa id orak s tifert s ijja A. I. Mikhailov efes net d inaktuban iyyad n Unyon Sovietik daɣ tazune n awatay wan 1960
Definitions reliant on the nature of the tools used for deriving meaningful information from data are emerging in Informatics academic programs.,Ifissiran ijjanen fal annuɣ n isuj at axdamnen i ikus n isalan ilanen almaɣna daɣ data tan zajaran id program tan n teɣare tan Informatics
It can be used to reason about the entities within that domain and may be used to describe the domain.,Addobat ad eqqil iddilil fal taggayen ahanen ezaraj wen tolas addobat ad exdam i almud n samal n ezaraj wen
"Traditionally, their work has been with print materials, but these skills are being increasingly used with electronic, visual, audio, and digital materials.","Daɣ alasal, alxidmat nasan tija fal isuj wi iwarnen alkad mucham musnaten tin at aw axdam nat hullan daɣ isuj win elektronik, win akayad, win emasli d win digital"
"Institutionally, information science emerged in the 19th century along with many other social science disciplines.",Isalan win science izjaran id daɣ awatay wan 1900 hak id majal tan iyyad ajjotnen n social sciences
"In 1731, Benjamin Franklin established the Library Company of Philadelphia, the first library owned by a group of public citizens, which quickly expanded beyond the realm of books and became a center of scientific experiment, and which hosted public exhibitions of scientific experiments.","Daɣ awatay wan 1731, Benjamin Franklin assiday Library Company tan Phildaelphia , ehan n alkittaban wa ezzaran tikrach taqqimt n addinat t anfaz -at daɣ armud sihen i ezaraj wan alkittaban tolas t aqqal ammas n amiyiz wan sicence tolas isukni tan n imiyizan win science"
"In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a punched card system to control operations of the cloth weaving loom in France.","Daɣ awatay wan 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard eɣna id sistem n kart i awikkal n azamay n imalsan daɣ France"
"By 1843 Richard Hoe developed the rotary press, and in 1844 Samuel Morse sent the first public telegraph message.",ɣur awatay wan 1843 Richard Hoe ikna rotary press tolas daɣ awaty wan 1844 Samuel Morse isassaway mesaj n telegraph wa ezzaran
In 1860 a congress was held at Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule to discuss the feasibility of establishing a systematic and rational nomenclature for chemistry.,Daɣ awatay wan 1860 taɣaymit tijja daɣ Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule fal asiwil n tudabat n edey n nomenclature n chemistry
The following year the Royal Society began publication of its Catalogue of Papers in London.,Awatay wan ilkaman Royal Society t asinta izizjiran n Catalogue of Papers daɣ Londre.
Many information science historians cite Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine as the fathers of information science with the founding of the International Institute of Bibliography (IIB) in 1895.,Kel attarex ajjotnen n isalan win science aɣran Paul Otlet d Henri La Fontaine s abba tan n isalan win science ɣur akaros wan International Insitute of Bibliography (IIB) daɣ awatay wan 1895
Documentalists emphasized the utilitarian integration of technology and technique toward specific social goals.,Documentalist tan asilmadan fal ujjich n teknoloji d teknik n ittusan n tamazduq
"Otlet and Lafontaine established numerous organizations dedicated to standardization, bibliography, international associations, and consequently, international cooperation.","Otlet d Lafontaine iknan taggayen ajjotnen ijjanen i tuɣid , bibliography, taggayen tin jir ikallan d anaxdam n jir addawla tan"
This collection involved standardized paper sheets and cards filed in custom-designed cabinets according to a hierarchical index (which culled information worldwide from diverse sources) and a commercial information retrieval service (which answered written requests by copying relevant information from index cards).,Asidu wen ehay standarized paper sheets d karti tan idnay nen daɣ biraw tan aɣna nen s alasal s immik wan hierarchical index (wa immasan isalan daɣ alɣalim n almasdar tan ajjotnen) d sarwis wan asidu n isalan win mamala (ehak in alwazab isistanan iktab nen s asigbar n isalan n index cards)
"Additionally, traditional boundaries among disciplines began to fade and many information science scholars joined with other programs.",Alxadudan win alasal jir majal tan issintan as iban infan harat tolas isalan ajjotnen n imaɣran win science ijjachan program tan tiyyad
The 1980s also saw the emergence of numerous special interest groups to respond to the changes.,Awatay wan 1980 imal ti efes n taaqqimen n afor ajjotnen i alwazab n imuttiyan
"Zhang, B., Semenov, A., Vos, M. and Veijlainen, J. (2014).","Zhang. B, Semenov, A. Vos ? d Veijlainen, J (2014)"
"""Sharing through social media has become so influential that publishers must """"play nice"""" if they desire to succeed.""",“ Tuzant s social media eqqam a assohen har publisher tan ilzam tan “”dallol olaɣan” a fal aderhanan arabax”
"""It is for this reason that these networks have been realized for the potential they provide. """"""",“ Fal iddilil wen as rezo tan aɣnan fal assaha ta hak in”””
What about assigning privileges and restricting access to unauthorized users?,Indek awa a fal ijrawan addinat iyyad semɣaran d agdul n ijjuch i user tan war n ijrew turhajat?
It is an emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing together principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape.,Taqqal majal id tizajarat d aljamaɣat n tamachɣult tijat fal asirtay n tisittiɣhal n uɣna d edey s digital landscape
"""Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called """"information overload"""".""",“ Sistem tan n asidu isalan win iman nasan at w axdaman i afanaz n awa s itawan “”azuk n isalan”
An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system.,Tamatikwayt n asidu n isalan tissinta alwaq wa id user azojach asistan daɣ sistem
"Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy.","Haratan ajjotnen addoben ad alahan id asistan , ehamich s iddikud tan izlaynen n aqqud"
"Depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images, audio, mind maps or videos.","Ilkaman i aplikasyon , haratan win data addoben daɣ almital ad aqqilan ilkadan, taliwen,emasli, karti tan n ta-ite meɣ videyo tan"
"Information seeking is related to, but different from, information retrieval (IR).",Iyur n isalan orak asidu n isalan kuddeɣ as anmazlayan (IR)
Logic is used to supply formal semantics of how reasoning functions should be applied to the symbols in the KR system.,Mantiq exdam ihuk n formal semantics n immik wa s timachɣulen ilzam ad asaxdam nasnat i rams tan daɣ sistem wan KR
"It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.","Eqqal medran oharan n as albana tan chund manna d anji aqqalan timzal n alxalak ahanat timtar n iban tidawit n alzannat fal amanokal ,daɣ awen a ti imil nat tinakriwen ilkam nen i albana tan maqqornen fal as addinat ijja ɣur san as albana tan win amosan timtar n as Mandate of Havean at-w-arkab"
"The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule.","Tifert t olah s ihandagan iyyad id tifert tan Eroba n alxaq wan almalik tan, a izlayan id tifert tan Kel Eroba, war hak alxaq i axakam s iban iddililan"
"The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks.",The Mandate of Heaven ɣarrin ti filozof tan d imaɣran alwaq iyyan daɣ Chine chund immik n afanaz n tanaya n amanokal tokayat amaku daɣ sistem ilan harat n checks tan iyyad
"Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations.",Silalat tija azzaman ajjen daɣ anmachrayan 31 n almalik tanaya daɣ 17 n jil tan
"As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability.","Kuddeɣ as itiki azzaman,iban tigdaht daɣ achareɣa n amanoka fal tilaqqawen ti yadnen eraw id tinakriwen n addinat d iban tizgawt"
They created the Mandate of Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven.,Aɣnan id Mandate of Heaven i asifham n alxaq nasan n axakam tolas ordan as abara wan iyyan ɣas i akarach n mandate amos axakam olaɣan i amaxlak
"However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations.","I asismad n addinat iyyad, ikfan turhajat i mustafid tan win Shang i axakam ijlan n almalikiya tan madroynen daɣ lakkumat n achareɣa win Zhou"
"They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners.","Iknan milɣaw daɣ akaros fal aman ,ertayan id asafukkar nasan i celestial navigation,ijjan tan imassukal olaɣnen fal aman"
Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty.,Ajjen daɣ alxidmaten tin amosan almital tan fal iki n s data d amatikway n folitik wan silalat
"Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect, and their relationship with the lower class.","Alxidmaten nasan asilmad nat fal tinfa n imuzaran , semɣar d aharoj nasan id tilaqqawen"
"Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government.","Daɣ tiɣarmaten tin imannaɣafan wi itkal alxakum ,ilzam tan ixlas i alxakum wan ammas"
"Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust.","Alwaq wa id tanaya tan silalat tan Zhou tifnaz, imas tat in Qin ordan as Zhou ibas ti ha assahat tolas axakam net war ilkem i achareɣa"
"During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers.","Azzaman wan reformation, imutiyan ijjan tolas sistem n legalism eɣna,allaɣat as achareɣa tojjar awadim fuk hak id imanokalan"
The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China’s history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country.,Akaros wan silalat tan Han amos azzaman maqqoran daɣ attarex wan Chine ijjan imutiyan maqqornen siha s tarrayt tan folitik n addawla
A major purpose was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven through these five dynasties and thus to the Song dynasty.,Ittus maqqoran amos edey n asidittu n asissiwi n Mandate of Heaven s sammosat silalat tan tolas s silalat tan Song
They also held considerably more territory than any of the other Chinese states that had existed conterminously in the south.,Ikrachan tolas akal ojjaran hullan wan addawla tan fuk t iyyad n Chine s kala ti illanat daɣ emaynaj
"The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen and the Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate.","Alxal wa samoman n Zhu Wen d darat awa Liang amos iddilil n tamaɣatert maqqorat tolas timal ti tazagit i askut nasan daɣ Ma,date"
"However, Kublai Khan was the only indifferent ruler when he claimed the Mandate of Heaven over the Yuan Dynasty since he had a sizable military and was part of the Khitan people, as with many others from the same background since they did not have the same traditions and culture as their Chinese adversaries.",Kublai Khan amos amanokal wan iyyan anmazlayan alwaq wa id amajrad s Mandate of Heaven fal silalat tan Yuan fal as ila militer tolas amos iyyan daɣ addinat win Khitan chund iyyad ajjotnen n edag olahan fal as war olahan tumasen d agna tan chund xasam tan nasan win Chine
It was solely politics from beginning to end and an attempt from the emperor to maintain a favorable act towards Heaven.,Amos folitik ɣas ɣur asinti har amindi net tolas erem n almalik i ag-az n harat infan s alzannat
The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law.,Alxaq wan tamarud war akkodat daɣ achareɣa fuk n alxakum
"""Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of Victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying """"The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw"""" (Chinese: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”).""","“ Ichmad wa ornan amos wa itassanan mi ijrawan Mandate of Heavon tolas mi fal it aba, imaɣran n Chine iyyad ijja ɣur san as amos Victor’s Justice, ijja samal olaɣan daɣ tinna tan Chine “”Fa-iz i taqqal almalik, xasiru i taqqal ansjafa””” (Chinese: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”)."""
"The kingdom of Silla is also said to be adopted the Mandate of Heaven, but the earliest records are from Joseon Dynasty, which made the Mandate of Heaven an enduring state ideology.",Almalikiyat tan Silla at w allaɣat as inta deɣ tijja wote i Mandate of Heavon mucham iɣazanan wi azzarnen amosan silalat tan Joseon tijat Mandate of Heavon anasjum n addawla
"The later and more centralized Vietnamese dynasties adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, which led to the creation of a Vietnamese tributary system in Southeast Asia that was modeled after the Chinese Sinocentric system in East Asia.",Silalat tan n Vietnam tin uchray d ti ahanen ammas hullan atkal nat Confucianism chund anasjum wan addawla id erawan eɣan n sistem wan Vietnam daɣ Asia tan emaynaj daɣ alqiblat wa eqqal dumu darat Sinocentric sistem wan Chine daɣ Asia tan alqiblat
"In later times, this need was obviated because the Imperial House of Japan claimed to be descended in an unbroken line from the Japanese sun goddess, Amaterasu.","Daɣ azzaman wan uchray, derhan wen atwayya fal as Imperial House wan Japon allaɣat as azzubat id daɣ iyaka war n arriz n tamaxlak tan tafukt, Amaterasu"
"Even after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the emperor was placed back in the center of the political bureaucracy, the throne itself had very little power vis-à-vis the Meiji oligarchy.","Hak ik darat Meiji Restoration daɣ awatay wan 1868, alwaq wa id almalik ijjach ammas n biraw wan folitik, takabult iman net tila tanaya andarrat fal Meiji"
"Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media.","Teɣare tan Media t amos majal tolas abara n teɣare eqqalan fal muxtawi , attarex d asar tan n media ajootnen hullan mass media"
"Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, and in secondary schools in the mid 1960s.",Teɣare n Media daɣ Australia ijja efes wan as amos edag n teɣare daɣ Lakkolan wi maqqornen n Victoria daɣ s tizart n awatay wan 1960 d lakkolan win ammas daɣ tazune n 1960
"In secondary schools, an early film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s.","Daɣ lakkol tan win ammas, teɣare n film tazzarat tassinta at-w-aɣir chund a ehan manahij wan lakkol n Victoria wan ammas daɣ achrut n awatay wan 1960"
"It has since become, and continues to be, a strong component of the VCE.",Eqqal ɣur alwaq wen har amarad muqawinat assohen n VCE
Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level.,Teɣare tan media war tawaɣar lakkol wan ammas n addawla tan New South Wales
Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan are famous Canadian scholars for their contributions to the fields of media ecology and political economy in the 20th century.,Harold Innis d Marshall McLuhan aqqalan imaɣran s izjaran ismawan nasan daɣ Canada fal tirjiten nasan i abara tan win media ecology d political economy daɣ awatay wan 2000
"Carleton University and the University of Western Ontario, 1945 and 1946 prospectively, created Journalism specific programs or schools.",Lakkol wa maqqoran n Carleton d Lakkol wa maqqoran n Western Ontario daɣ awatay wan 1945 d 1946 aɣnan program tan n journalism meɣ lakkol tan net
"Today, most universities offer undergraduate degrees in Media and Communication Studies, and many Canadian scholars actively contribute to the field, among which: Brian Massumi (philosophy, cultural studies), Kim Sawchuk (cultural studies, feminist, ageing studies), Carrie Rentschler (feminist theory), and François Cooren (organizational communication).","Achal id, ijjit n laakol tan wi maqqornen n jamiɣi tan daɣ Media d tiɣir tin majrad d imaɣran ajjotnen n Canada idhalan abara tan eha:Brian Massumi (filozofi, tiɣir tin agna), Kim Sawchuk (tiɣir tin agna , feminist, tiɣir tin tusare), Carrie Rentchler (feminit theory) d Feminist Cooren (organizational communication)"
A medium is anything that mediates our interaction with the world or other humans.,Medium amos harat fuk isarɣasan tartit nanaɣ id alɣalim meɣ addinat iyyad
McLuhan says that the “technique of fragmentation that is the essence of machine technology” shaped the restructuring of human work and association and “the essence of automation technology is the opposite”.,McLuhan allaɣat as ‘’teknik tan tajazaw t amos banzinun n machine technology” eqqal dumu n edey n alxidmat n awadim d taggayt d banzinun n automation technology amos ɣakas”
The characteristic of all media means the “content” of any medium is always another medium.,Samal n media fuk amos “ muqawinat “ n medium harkuk amos medium iyyan
If the electric light is used for Friday night football or to light up your desk you could argue that the content of the electric light is these activities.,A fal efew exdam ehad n karay daɣ alzumaɣat meɣ as amlawlaw biraw nak t addobed at allaɣed as muqawinat n efew amos alxidmat ten tin
It is not until the electric light is used to spell a brand name that it is recognized as medium.,ɣur at axdam n efew id at w-akfa isim wan brand name ad atwassan s isim wan medium
The effect of the medium is made strong because it is given another media “content”.,Asar wan medium assohat alwaq fal as ijraw muqawinat n media iyyan
Hot media are low in participation and cool media are high in participation.,Media tan wi akkus nen azzayan daɣ ijjuch tolas media tan wi sammod nen isasan daɣ ijjuch
"Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, that dates back to 1954.",Communication University tan Chine s isim net wan aru Beijing Broadcasting Institute t ikras ɣur awatay wan 1954
"Bourdieu's analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, than we think.",Amiyiz wan Bourdieu amos as talavizyon hak alxoriya andarrat ohun wa n aɣil
"Within the field of Film Studies, again, both Frankfurt and Berlin were dominant in the development of new perspectives on moving image media.","Daɣ abara tan n tiɣir tin Film, Frankfurt d Berlin ojjaran da efes n ikayadan eynaynen meɣ amatikway n taliwen n media tan"
"One of the early publications in this new direction is a volume edited by Helmut Kreuzer, Literature Studies - Media Studies (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), which summarizes the presentations given at the Düsseldorfer Germanistentag 1976.","Iyyan daɣ alkittaban wi azzarnen ezaraj wen eynayan amos iddikud wa id izizjar Hilmut Kreuzer, tiɣir tin literature, tiɣir tin Media ((Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft) aqqalnen aklulu n tiqdim tan ijjanen daɣ Düsseldorfer Germanistentag daɣ awatay wan 1976."
"The German Institute for Media and Communication Policy, founded in 2005 by media scholar Lutz Hachmeister, is one of the few independent research institutions that is dedicated to issues surrounding media and communications policies.",Lakkol n allemagne wan folitik tan Media d Communication ikras imaɣri n Media tan Lutz Hachmeister daɣ awatay wan 2005 amos iyyan tijittawen n farak tilat alistexal net tijat alxidmat net fal muchakil tan tin folitik tan media d communications
"Medienwissenschaften is currently one of the most popular courses of study at universities in Germany, with many applicants mistakenly assuming that studying it will automatically lead to a career in TV or other media.",Medienwissenschaften eqqal iyya daɣ tiɣir ti ilanen isim hullan daɣ lakkol tan wi maqqornen daɣ Allemagne ahan attalaba tan ajjotnen allaɣat nen as teɣare net a tan takfu alxidmat daɣ Talavizyon meɣ media tan iyyad
It offers a five-year integrated programme and a two-year programme in Electronic Media.,Ehak program n sammos iwityan d program n issin iwityan daɣ Electronic Media
"Whereas communication sciences focuses on the way people communicate, be it mediated or unmediated, media studies tends to narrow the communication down to just mediated communication.","Alwaq wa id communication sciences taqqal fal abara wa s addoben addinat asiwil, jir ɣas asarɣas meɣ iban asarɣas , tiɣir tin media azzikraz nat id majrad s majrad n asarɣas n majrad"
"Communication sciences (or a derivative thereof) can be studied at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Radboud University, Tilburg University, University of Amsterdam, University of Groningen, University of Twente, Roosevelt Academy, University of Utrecht, VU University Amsterdam and Wageningen University and Research Centre.","Communication sciences tit awaɣar daɣ Erasmus University Rotterdam, Radboud University, Tilburg University, University tan Amsterdam, University tan Groningen, Unviersity tan Twentee, Roosevelt Academy, University tan Utrecht, VU University tan Amsterdam d Wageningen University d Santar wan imuɣ"
University of the Punjab Lahore is the oldest department.,University tan Punjab Lahore t amos edag aruwan
Media Studies is now taught all over the UK.,Media Studies itawaɣir daɣ Rwayom Uni fuk net
"However, the focus of such programs sometimes excludes certain media—film, book publishing, video games, etc.","Tarkiz fal program tan win alwaqqan iyyad ikkas a hin media - film, book publishing , dallolan win videyo tan"
"This is partly thanks to the acquisition of Professor Siva Vaidhyanathan, a cultural historian and media scholar, as well as the Inaugural Verklin Media Policy and Ethics Conference, endowed by the CEO of Canoe Ventures and UVA alumnus David Verklin.","Achrut n awen aeqqal amoya i emassaɣar Siv Vaidhyanathan , imaɣri n attarex wan agna d media hak id folitik n media tan Verklin d Ethics Conference ta idhal CEO wan Canoe Ventures d UVA alamus David Verklin"
"A media studies major at Radford still means someone concentrating on journalism, broadcasting, advertising or Web production.)","Tiɣir n media ti maqqornen daɣ Radford amos har ajjudi awadim ijjan teɣare net fl journalism, broacating , advertising meɣ web production)"
"Bergson contrasted an open society with what he called a closed society, a closed system of law, morality or religion.","Bergson taɣaradopen society id awa eɣra s closed society , sistem n achareɣa ,uxlak meɣ addin eɣfalan"
"""Soros, George, """"The Age of Fallibility,"""" Public Affairs (2006).""","“Soros, George - “” Awatay wan imtilli tan””, Public Affairs (2006)"
Totalitarianism forced knowledge to become political which made critical thinking impossible and led to the destruction of knowledge in totalitarian countries.,Totaliitarianism azilzam i musnat a taqqal harat n folitik asisahen anasjum hullan tolas eway id s aɣachod n musnat daɣ addawla tan tin totalirian
"In the closed society, claims to certain knowledge and ultimate truth lead to the attempted imposition of one version of reality.","Daɣ closed society, itur n musnat iyyat d tiditt tikmalat ewayan s azilzam n ich-ikil n tiditt iyyan"
"Because the electorate's perception of reality can easily be manipulated, democratic political discourse does not necessarily lead to a better understanding of reality.","Fal as akayad wan kel wote tan i tiditt raqqos , isiwilan win folitik n demokrat tan war t iwiyan s afaham olaɣan i tiditt"
"Popper however, did not identify the open society either with democracy or with capitalism or a laissez-faire economy, but rather with a critical frame of mind on the part of the individual, in the face of communal group think of whatever kind.",Popper war ɣur is ijja as open society t amos demokrati meɣ capitalism meɣ laissez-faire economy mucham eqqal ta-ite n awadim daɣ anasjum n taqqimt n addinat n ich-ikil fuk
Regulatory colleges are legal entities charged with serving the public interest by regulating the practice of a profession.,Regulatory Colleges amos taggayen ahanen achareɣa s alxidmat nasnat alkum i afor n addinat s aqqud n alxidmat
"For example, no worker in Ontario may work in a compulsory trade without membership in the Ontario College of Trades.","Almital , war t illa anaxdim daɣ Onatario addoben ad exdam daɣ mamala ilzaman a fal war eha Ontario College wan Mamala tan"
"For Weber, sociology is the study of society and behavior and must therefore look at the heart of interaction.","I Weber, Sociology t amos teɣare n tamazduq d alxal tolas ilzam tat akayad daɣ olh n tartit"
"""The term is more practical and encompassing than Florian Znaniecki's """"social phenomena"""", since the individual performing social action is not passive, but rather active and reactive.""",“Tifert tikna asirtay ohun “”social phenomena”” wan Florian Znanieck ichmad tamachɣult n tamazduq n awadim war eqqel a war n axdem mucham a exdaman tolas amos astijaba””
This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended.,Awen eqqal asuj iyyan n nefran alwaq wa id imdanat ɣaqibatan
"If the student chooses not to do well in college, they know that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer.","A fal attalaba tan wa s anafranan hullan daɣ lakkol, issanan as war he irɣas has-san ijjuch n llakol wan achareɣa toas war he awidan ittus wan tumast n muɣam"
Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands.,Alqim n tartit azun s tqqimen n ixakaman d ixakaman
These demands have posed several problems even legal formalism has been put to the test.,Izilzam win ikfan muchakil tan ajjotnen hak id i legal formalism inta deɣ atwaram
"To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers.",S iddikud wa s illanat taggayen n addin ajjotnen ijjanen tamadacht jir iman nasnat oram nat teɣare daɣ izarajan tolas ajjinat alwazab i derhnan n juz tan n kel addin
"It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining.",Atiwassan as egliz tan asasnen assohen tolas tiw-adan daɣ AAmerik alwaq wa id tin liberal fannaz nat
"Affectual action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to 'one's emotions, to express personal feelings.",Affectual action (s itawan alxidmaten tin tanafrait): alxidmaten id eraw nat tinafriten i asilmad fal tanafrit n awadim
In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion.,Daɣ astijaba war awikkal awadim war t illa tazidert tolas ille iban ifur
When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest.,Alwaq wa id derhanan n awadim war akkimmalan ille iban tizgat daɣ ehan ammas net
A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions.,Almital oharan amos isinhijji tan n alxal d nefran tan win tiditt
These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.,Tifir tin n sadisat asilmad fal as nat Aristote tolas amos nat har ajjudi muduɣ tan fal i taj in isiwilan ajjotnen
Micrological theories of economy consider acts of a group of individuals.,Microbiological theories n economy amos ɣur sanat aɣtabir timachɣulen n taqqimt n addinat
By doing this it causes providers to be competitive and therefore creates order in the economy.,Ijji n awen eqqal iddilil i kel mamala ad udaben i chawara wan hebu tolas aɣnin aqqud n al-aqtisad
"Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions.","Mirda n nefran wan tidtt kuddeɣ as axkaman daɣ is economist tan , war izlay id ikayadan win microeconomics"
"Traditional actions: actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations.",Alxidmaten tin alasal : alxidmaten ti ijjanen fal tuha n tumast fal as ijjanat harkuk daɣ immik i talɣiwen tiyyad
A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity.,Agna amos tamachɣult tahat ulmad
A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness.,Lammudat t amos tikkal ilmad awadim sollan tolas alwaqqan iyyad daɣ war hin ijrah in awen
The idea of Cooley's looking glass self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions.,Anasjum wan cooley ikyadan iman net daɣ alkas amos as almaɣna nanaɣ itiwad alwaq wa id n ikyad tolas idas awen wi yadnen d awa s addoben a ti iɣalan daɣ timachɣulen nanaɣ
"""Social capital is """"the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively"""".""","“”Social capital” amos rezo tan n iharojan jir addinat izzaɣnen tolas axdaman daɣ tamazduq , hak in turhajat i tamazduq ten axadam “”"
"In the first half of the 19th century, de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital.","Daɣ tazune ta tazzarat n awatay wan 1900, de Tocqueville ijja majradan fal tamudre tan amerik s tanad t amos telay tolas taqqal almaɣna n social capital"
"The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours.","Aljamaɣat taqqal tinfa s tanmerdut n ichrutan net fuk as ijja awen awadim iyyan ad ijru daɣ tinfa ten n taggayen net tadhilt, tahanint d lakkumat n inarhajan net"
"""In the words of Stein (1960:1): """"The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level.""""""",“ Daɣ majrad wan Stein (1960:1) “” alqim i ag-az n tamazduq ta hakit assahat n anmazlayan n agna d amiyiz war ila asistan s amos aɣabal n iddikud n afatay n edag wan awadim d wan tamazduq fuk nasan””
All of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades.,Inisjam win fuk aqqalan tirjit i efes i tifert tan social capital daɣ timirwen n iwityan wi ilkam nen
"Robert D. Putnam (1993) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime.","Robert D. Putnam (1993) ijja addabara as social capital ad isarɣas tnamerdut d iharojan oharnen daɣ tawseten d addawla tan tolas ad eqqil asuj olaɣan i akinnas n iban sarho tan ajjotnen daɣ timizdaɣ tin amarad, almital tadlimt"
"""Nan Lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: """"Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace.""""""",“Tifert Nan Lin tan social capital tila tazujicht : “”tanaɣla n azruf daɣ iharojan n tamazduq eha mirda n irabaxan daɣ hebu””
"The term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits.",Tifert tan capital t-aw-aɣar s tulat id dumu tan iyyad daɣ economic capital chund as at-aw- allaɣat as social capital ilan tinfa ten (kuudeɣ as ilanat eket andarran)
"Robison, Schmid, and Siles (2002) reviewed various definitions of social capital and concluded that many did not satisfy the formal requirement of a definition.","Robison, Schmid d Siles (2002) olas isteɣrad n almaɣna tan ajjotnen n social capital tolas akkimal majrad net s as war i ajjotnen war olahan id izilzam win almaɣna"
They propose that social capital be defined as sympathy: the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital.,Ijjan addabara as social capital ad amos almaɣna net tahanint: harat wan tahanint n iyyan ila social capital; wi ilanen tahanint i wi yadnen hak in social capital
Social capital is also distinguished from the economic theory social capitalism.,Social capital izlay id economic theory social capitalism
"""It """"creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well.""""""",“ Eɣan alqim i addinat wi osaɣnen d mutafarij tan “”
"""According to Robert D. Putnam, social capital refers to """"connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them.""""""","“ Daɣ awa allaɣat Robert D. Putnam, social capital amos “assaɣan jir addinat - rezo tan win tamzaduq d achareɣa tan tin anmiwal d taflist ta tan id tizajarat”””"
This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation.,Awen ila akayad daɣ ihandagan darosne n taflist daɣ alxakum d ihandagan darosnen i ijjuch n addinat
"Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is women's entry the workforce, which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations.",Putnam inta deɣ asilmad as iddilil wan ekew n afanaz wan social capital amos ijjuch i deden daɣ alxidmat addoben asirtay n izilzam n alwaq wi samɣatar nen ijjuch n taggayen chund taggayen tin imarawan d emassaɣaran
"Fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare.","Fukuyama ijja addabara as alwaq wa id eqqal social capital a ilan tinfa i efes , azilzam har ajjudi alqim fal addinat win war n aha taqqimt ilan ɣaqibatan war n ila utas i alxer n addinat fuk"
"This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network.",Xajam ten taqqal fal tinfa ten id izjar nen configuration of actor jir ɣas rezo n awadim meɣ n a oharan
This is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network.,Awen eqqal samal n tiditt n iyyad d tanmerdut nasan tolas almud n awadim daɣ rezo
"Research by Sheri Berman and Dylan Riley, as well as economists Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, and Hans-Joachim Voth, have linked civic associations to the rise of fascist movements.","Farak ijja Sheri Berman d Dylan hak id economist tan Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer d Hans -Joachim Voth, osaɣan taggayen n addinat har emel n taggayen tin fascist tan"
The negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging.,ɣaqibatan ti labasnen n social capital ikna nat assaɣ hullan id bonding d brdiging
"Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other.",Bonding d bridging social capital addoben axadam s tinfa a fal ijjachan almizan meɣ addoben iban n alxidmat jir iman nasan
The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation.,Asassuhi n temedt addobat ad aru id asar tan ajjotnen chund amaskat n tawset meɣ iban aharoj
"""Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler's rise to power.""""""","“ German tan ijaran iman nasan daɣ club tan, taggayen n batil d taggayen n alxidmat daɣ iban n alham fal fachal tan wi ijja alxakum d parti tan tin folitik s ughchad n Weimar Republic d asirɣas i Hitler akarach n tanaya”””"
They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic.,Iknan aɣafal fal iman nasan daɣ Weimar Republic
"Robert Putnam, in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities.",Robert Putnam daɣ alxidmat net tan uchray ijja addabara i Social capital d ti-wat n taflasat n addinat igdal tan immigation d tiw-at n anmizlay n tawseten
"Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community.","Iban amartay erwa id azjor n addinat daɣ taqqimen d iharojan nasan, eɣna id atomized society d tawset tijat tartit tolaɣat"
"Human capital, a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital.","Human capital, mawrid xas, addobat a tijru net s awa issedawan ichaɣiban win data s social capital"
"Even though Coleman never truly addresses Pierre Bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with Bourdieu's argument set forth in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture.","Kuddeɣ as Coleman ijja alwazab s tiditt i Pierre Boudieu daɣ adiwinni net, awen aziyat id i majrad ijja Bourdieu daɣ Reproduction in Education, Society d Culture"
"Thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to.",Awen minasat iman net hak it awadim isalan n tamazduq win tiditt ta ilmadan
"To illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society.","I asidittu n awen, n asitbat as awadim fuk ijja derhan edag olaɣan hullan daɣ tamazduq"
Is Civil Society an Adequate Theory?,Ajjen akinnas wa jir tawsaten amos folitik toɣadat?
"Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital.",Almital tan amosan as inasjafa tan aɣnan id bonding social capital as ijja awen choirs d bowling clubs (eɣaf chund awa s ikasnanat Putnam fal afanaz nasan) aɣnan bridging social capital
"Aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of disaster recovery, and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid.","Aldrich ijja medran tan win social capital i tisittaɣhal tin asafar n aɣachod tolas issewal fal marsalan wi idhal nen meɣ wi igdal nen asafar chund timɣare n aɣachod; ijjit n addinat, jawda n alxakum d tadhilt"
"People who live their life this way feel that these are norms of society and are able to live their lives free of worry for their credit, children, and receive charity if needed.","Addinat wi izzaɣnen tamudre nasan s immik wen ofrayan as awen achareɣa tan n tamazduq tolas addoben ad izzaɣan tamudre nasan daɣ as war tan ijjrew amattisu n amarwas, ilyadan tolas ajaraw n tikutawen a fal ijja derhan n awen"
"""All forms of """"capital"""" were, for Marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their labour power, because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise.""",“ Dumu tan fuk n “capital”” amos i Marx a ikrachan capitalist tan tolas asilmad fal tajittawt n alxidmat daɣ capitalist society chund addinat artaynen izlam a hin achanchin assahat n axlidmat nasan fal as war ilen ehare has-an igdahan”
Portes mentions the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group as an example of this.,Portes allaɣat ihuk wan bursatan tin teɣare i addinat n tawset iyyan amos almital n awen
"Bonding and bridging sub-scales are proposed, which have been adopted by over 300 scholarly articles.",Bonding d Bridging iddikudan nasan wi madroynen at-w- akfan wi fal ardahan 300 n artikl tan n imusanan
"However, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital.",War t illa immik iyyan n almud n iddikud n edag wan aharoj olaɣan mucham asidu n ich-ilan n rezo n tamazduq axdaman tan kel farak daɣ timirwen n iwityan i asaxdam n social capital
"Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant.",Taqqimen ti ilanen addinat ajjotnen (chund parti folitik tan ) idhalan hullan daɣ capital fal taqqimen ilanen addinat madroynen kuddeɣ as taqqimen ajjotnen ilanen addinat madorynen ( chund tawseten) har ajjudi tiwad nat
"How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner.",Immik wa s tasaɣ taqqimt id awa hin eqqim daɣ tamazduq idas social capital mucham s immik izlayan
"Recognizing that one may not be able to influence the sympathy of others, persons seeking to belong may act to increase their own sympathy for others and the organizations or institutions they represent.","Musnat awadimm war addobat a ikrich assahat fal tahanint n wi yadnen, addinat wi tattar ad aj in awen addoben asiwad n tahinint nasan i wi yadnen d taggayen meɣ tijittawen ti s sawalan fal ismawan nasnat"
"According to such authors as Walzer (1992), Alessandrini (2002), Newtown, Stolle & Rochon, Foley & Edwards (1997), and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks.","Da awa allaɣen inatkiban chund Walzer (1992), Alssandrini (2002), Newton, Stolle d Rochon, Foley d Edwards (1997) d Walters, as s tamazduq n ichaɣib meɣ a ojjaran , third sector, as addoben addinat ad idiyan tolas agizan rezo tan n aharoj"
"Not only has civil society been documented to produce sources of social capital, according to Lyons' Third Sector (2001), social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector.","Tamazduq tan ichaɣib ijja fal as farak i musnat n asal wan social capital s awa ijja ɣur Lyons’ Third Sector (2001), social capital war id izijjar daɣ titbaqet fuk jir ɣas haratan wi ikfanen turhajat n awen meɣ wi hakin nen tiw-at n third sector"
"""The goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into """"the community.""""""",“ Ittus amos azujich n addinat wi iskat nen daɣ timzal n sistem wan aqtisad daɣ tawset”
"""Alessandrini agrees, saying that, """"in Australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work.""""""","“ Alessandrini ardah , allaɣat as “” Hullan daɣ Australia, neoliberalism ibsay s economic rationalism tolas ijja ɣur theorist tan ajjotnen inamejridan ajjotnen as amos albas i tamazduq fal axadam wa taj in i social capital daɣ alxidmat””"
"In international development, Ben Fine (2001) and John Harriss (2001) have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and NGOs, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development.","Daɣ efes wan jir addawla tan, Ben Fine (2001) d John Harriss (2001) ikna asiwal assohen fal atkul war n oɣed n social capital as eqqal asafar wan tidtt ( ijjan edag i taggayen n ichaɣiban d ONG tan, almital inaxdiman wain efes) fal iban tigdaht ta id eraw neoliberal economic development"
"However, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy.",Ihandagan ajjotnen n social capital ewayan id tadhilt maqqorat i demokrati
Careful evaluation of these fundamental factors often suggests that women do not vote at similar levels as men.,Eket ijjan s tazidert n ɣamil tan win alwaq iyyan ijja addbara ass deden war he ajjinat wote daɣ ihandagan iyyad id meddan
Social capital offers a wealth of resources and networks that facilitate political engagement.,Social capital ikfa mawrid n ehare d rezo tan addobat nen asirɣas n ijjuch n folitik
Women are more likely to organize themselves in less hierarchical ways and to focus on creating consensus.,Deden raqqis daɣ sanat ikannan n iman nasnat s immikan war n oɣed tolas ajinat ta-ite tan nasnat fal eɣan n anafham
"For example, a person who is sick with cancer may receive information, money, or moral support he or she needs to endure treatment and recover.","Almital , awadim tijraw torhinna tan cancer addobat a ijru isalan , azruf, tadhilt meɣ ila derhan n asafar d tamazit"
"Furthermore, neighbourhood social capital may also aid in buffering health inequities amongst children and adolescents.",Aharoj war s addobat social capital as sar is idhal daɣ alɣillas n iban tigdaht daɣ assexat jir ilyadan d imawadan
The relationships and networks that are maintained by an ethnic minority population in a geographical area where a high percentage of residents belong to the same ethnic group may lead to better health outcomes than would be expected based on other individual and neighbourhood characteristics.,iharojan d rezo tan ti togaz tawset n ichaɣib andarrat daɣ edag n jografia s iddikud n addiat wi ti izɣanen tilen tawset iyyat addobat ad aru natija tan n assexat olaɣnen fal ti ordahan addinat daɣ samalan n awadim iyyan d aharoj
"For example, results from a survey given to 13- to 18-year-old students in Sweden showed that low social capital and low social trust are associated with higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and depression.","Almital , ittusan ikfa farak ijjan fal attalaba tan ilanen jir 13 har 18 n awatay daɣ addawla tan Suede asiknan as social capital andarran d social trust andarran osaɣan daɣ as ilan iddikudan maqqor nen n psychosomatic symptoms, tazzurt n iɣasan d inisjam ajjotnen"
"In one study, informational uses of the Internet correlated positively with an individual's production of social capital, and social-recreational uses were negatively correlated (higher levels of these uses correlated with lower levels of social capital).","Daɣ farak iyyan , international users win internet oɣadan id fuk nasan s intaj n awadim daɣ social capital d social-recreatioal users war id oɣedan (ihandagan wi chajrotnen n alxidmaten tin oɣadan id wi madroynen n social capital)"
"This means that individuals can selectively connect with others based on ascertained interests, and backgrounds.",Awen amos as addinat addoben anmirtay id wi yadnen fal afor tan ijjanen d ihandagan
"This argument continues, although the preponderance of evidence shows a positive association between social capital and the Internet.",Adiwinni wen ijja kuddeɣ as assahat n asidutti net isikna assaɣ jir social capital d Internet
"Recent research, conducted in 2006, also shows that Internet users often have wider networks than those who access the Internet irregularly or not at all.",Farak eynayan ijjan daɣ awatay wan 2006 isikna as addinat wi axdam nen s internet ilan rezo tan maqqornen fal wi addinat wi war n ila internet alwaq fuk meɣ wr t n ila faw
"Other research shows that younger people use the Internet as a supplemental medium for communication, rather than letting the Internet communication replace face-to-face contact.",Farak iyyan issikna as addinat wi madroynen ijjan internet chund as harat fal sawalan ohun ad ayyin internet ijjich edag wan imuqqisan nasan
"They criticise Coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families.","Issewal fal Coleman a exdaman fal iddikud n imarawan id illanen daɣ egadach , war hin n ijrah asar n xajam tan istar nen chund idulan d ich-ikilan n igidchan win single-parent"
Morgan and Sorensen (1999) directly challenge Coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why Catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement.,Morgan d Sorensen (1999) ijjan yataxad i Coleman fal awa s indar immik ilan almaɣna n asigham n mafal attalaba tan win lookl tan tin katolik tan ornan win lakkol tan tin alxakum daɣ igazmit tan
"It is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring.","At-w-ajrah in as alwaq wa id social capital addobat ad awy asar tan olaɣnen n ag-az n tawset t artayat daɣ lakkol tan fal ijla achareɣa, addobat ad awy ɣaqibat n ijji n anniyat iknan assahat"
"These schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults.",Lakkol tan win araman ich-ikil izlayan n social capital chund isalan fal tafawt daɣ rezo tan n imarawan d ichibaban
The similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children's education.,Tulaten n addawla tan tin amos as imarawan osaɣan hullan i teɣare n ilyadan nasan
"Without social capital in the area of education, teachers and parents who play a responsibility in a students learning, the significant impacts on their child's academic learning can rely on these factors.","A fal war t illa social capital daɣ abara wan teɣare, imasaɣaran d imarawan wi ilanen tinaden daɣ teɣare n attalaba tan , tasirun tan nasan fal teɣare n alyad ad ej fal ɣamil tan win"
"""As Tedin and Weiher (2010) state, """"one of the most important factors in promoting student success is the active involvement of parents in a child's education.""""""",“Chund awa allaɣat Tedin d Weiher (2010) “” iyyan daɣ tasirun tan wi assohat nen daɣ efes n abarax amos ijjuch n imarawan daɣ teɣare n aratan “”
"Supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed.",Rezo tan win tadhilt chund dumu wan social capital eqqal a ilzaman i asaxdam n cultural capital wa ilan attalaba tan wi id osanen eynaynen
Ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society.,Anmadhal jir tawset amos harat olaɣan hullan daɣ talɣa id osan imassukal win inaftaɣan i tamazduq
Ethnic support provides impetus to academic success.,Tadhilt tan tawset ehak zaxam i arabax n teɣare
His main argument for classifying social capital as a geographical concept is that the relationships of people is shaped and molded by the areas in which they live.,Tamɣǝnnant hullan i askut n social capital chund tifert amos as iharojan n addinat war tan ikan ɣas ar ihandagan wi daɣ izzaɣan
"In his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space.","Daɣ tiɣir net , war ikiyid daɣ addinat win ideyan win mucham immik wa s ideyan d assaɣan wi id zajar nen awen ijjan baɣas daɣ akal"
Another area where social capital can be seen as an area of study in geography is through the analysis of participation in volunteerism and its support of different governments.,Edag iyyan s addobat social capital ad eqqil edag n teɣare daɣ jografia amos s amiyiz n ijjuch daɣ volunteerism d tadhilt tan alxakumaten
There is a significant connection between leisure and democratic social capital.,Ille assaɣ assohen jir izijraz d social capital wan demokrati
"In a later study, Kislev (2020) shows the relation between romantic relationships desire and singleness.","Daɣ farak eynayan, Kislev (2020) isikna aharoj jir derhan wan iharojan d farbiyya"
Similar results were revealed in a cross-sectional study run by Sarker in Bangladesh.,Ittusan olahnen at ajrawan daɣ farak ijja Sarker idasan majal tan ajjotnen daɣ Bangladesh
Epo did this by comparing the welfare outcomes of the entrepreneurs who both had access and no access.,Epo ija awen s eket n tamudre n natij tan n alxer n muqawil tan wi ijraw nen awen d wi war n ijrew awen
Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole.,Aharoj olaɣan n taqqimt (s isim net aharoj olaɣan n taqqimt d aharoj n tamazduq olaɣan) inkar id alwaq temedt t asirtay jir addinat n taqqimt n tamazduq jir iman nasan d taqqimt fuk net
Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members.,Aharoj olaɣan amos almaɣna net itur n taqqimt n addinat a t-artay daɣ alxidmat i ag-ad n ittus meɣ aknin derhan tan n addinat nasan
Its dynamic nature refers to how it gradually changes over time in its strength and form from the time a group is formed to when a group is disbanded.,Annuɣ net imos immik wa s itimutti daɣ alwaq daɣ tichijrit net tolas aqqilan daɣ azzaman taqqimt alwaq wa id annabdan
This definition can be generalized to most groups characterized by the group definition discussed above.,Almaɣna wen addobat a ti ahir nat taqqimen fuk ti s amos almaɣna wan s afalla samal nasnat
"In a study, they asked the group members to identify all their good friends and calculated the ratio of ingroup choices to outgroup choices.","Daɣ farak ijjan, asistanan taqqimt n addinat a t ilmid imidiwan net fuk nasan tolas issidinan nefran tan n taqqim taɣfalat har nefran tan n taqqimt"
"Group cohesion is similar to a type of group-level attraction which, according to Hogg, is known as social attraction.",Aharoj olaɣan n taqqimt olah id ich-ikil n jazibiya n edag n taqqimt amosan s Hogg a itiwassanan s anmarha n addinat
"Lott and Lott (1965) who refer to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on the literature and found that individuals' similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness.","Lott d Lott (daɣ awatay wan 1965) s ijja ɣur san as anmarha jir addinat amos aharoj olaɣan n taqqimt ijjan amiyiz ajjen fal literature tolas ijrawan tulaten n addinat daɣ edag (almital, tawset, alxidmat d awatay) alxal, alqim tan d tichit n awadim ilan harkuk assaɣ id aharoj n taqqimt olaɣan"
"In addition, similar background makes it more likely that members share similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership.","Daɣ asiwad, edag olahan ijjan hullan as addinat wi oharnen ikayadan olah nen fal muchakil tan ajjotnen aha ittusan n taqqimt,tikarsiwen n majrad d ich-ikil n axxakamat tan derhan"
"This is often caused by social loafing, a theory that says individual members of a group will actually put in less effort, because they believe other members will make up for the slack.","Awen iddilil net social loafing , ta-ite t-allaɣet as addinat n taqqimt a taj in assahat andarrat fal as ordahan addinat iyyad asidu i anmichray"
Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance.,Meta-analys tan ajjotnen (tiɣir amos aklulu n ittusan n tiɣir ajjotnen) issiknan as tille tartit jir aharoj olaɣan d anajax
"When it is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction.",Alwaq wa id amos almaɣna net amichal n alxidmat osaɣ id anajax kuddeɣ s edag andarran fal aharoj olaɣan chund attraction
"However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others.",Taqqimen t iyyad addobat nat ad ilanat aharoj-anajax olaɣnen fal wi yadnen
There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly related to performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent.,Asidutti n as aharoj olaɣan addobat ad ekin assahat hullan id t orakat s anajax i taqqimen ilanen dura tan osaɣnen fal taqqimt ta daɣ ijrawan addinat alxoriya nasan
"Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive.",Taqqimen ti ilanen ittusan n anajax taraw nat hullan
Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups.,Addinat wi ahanen taqqimen ijjanen aharoj olaɣan ijjar nat attama hullan tolas war akanzar nat daɣ muchakil tan n tamazduq fal addinat win taqqimen ti war n ijja aharoj olaɣan
It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups.,Ijran a hin addinat as mason tan d carpenter tan ijrazan has-an iman nasan alwaq wa id axdaman daɣ taqqimen ijjanen aharoj olaɣan
"One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision making when the group is under stress, more than when it is not under stress.",Farak iyyan isikna as aharoj olaɣan amos amichal n alxidmat addobat asimmuti n addabara n taqqimt alwaq wa id taqqim war inasjam ajjotnen a ojjaran hullan alwaq wa id war tan tila
The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency.,Farak ijraw as taqqimen ti ijjanen aharoj war n oleɣ hullan d amrumar assohen taj in a labasan fal win taqqimen ti ijjanen aharoj olaɣan d amrumar assohen
The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder the group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making.,Mirda tan groupthink ijja addabara as izag-gi tan gaddalan i taqqimt a taj amedran assohen fal addabara tan wi taj
"Another reason is because people value the group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships.",Iddilil iyyan amos as addinat ikfan alqim taqqimt tolas ijjan derhan hullan ihuk daɣ lakkumat i izaggi-tan i ag-az meɣ simmitikwiyan iharjoan nasan
The degree of member liking was presumed to indicate group cohesiveness.,Edag wan anmarha n addinat amos achamol n tulaɣay n aharoj n addinat
"According to the government-commissioned, State of the English Cities thematic reports, there are five different dimensions of social cohesion: material conditions, passive relationships, active relationships, solidarity, inclusion and equality.","Daɣ awa allaɣat abarnamich wan alxakum, taqrir fal tiɣarmaten n addawla tan Britania , illan ti iketan sammos izlayne n aharoj olaɣan daɣ tamazduq, talɣiwen isuj, iharojan sammednen, iharojan mitakwaynen, anmadhal, alidmaj d tigdaht"
These basic necessities of life are the foundations of a strong social fabric and important indicators of social progress.,Izilzam win nn tamudre amos tijittawen n tikist tassohet tolas amosan almuchar tan assohat nen n iki s data n tamazduq
"""The third dimension refers to the positive interactions, exchanges and networks between individuals and communities, or """"active social relationships"""".""","“ Eket wa ezzaran eqqal fal tafaɣul tan olaɣnen, isiwilan d rezo tan jir addinat d tawseten meɣ “”iharojan n tamazduq mitakwaynen””"
"It also includes people's sense of belonging to a city and the strength of shared experiences, identities and values between those from different backgrounds.","Ahan addinat wi s tichit nasan n kal akal d assahat n musnaten ti oharan , tumasen d alqim tan jir ikallan win izlaynen"
"On a societal level Albrekt Larsen defines social cohesion 'as the belief—held by citizens in a given nation state—that they share a moral community, which enables them to trust each other'.",Albert Larsen ɣur is almaɣna n aharoj olaɣan chud amedran - ijjan addinat daɣ addawla n as oharan tawset has-an tijrawat aniflas jir iman nasan”
"Social formation is a Marxist concept (synonymous with 'society') referring to the concrete, historical articulation between the capitalist mode of production, maintaining pre-capitalist modes of production, and the institutional context of the economy (disambiguation).","Social Formation amos tifert n Marx (s almaɣna net iyyan “”tamazduq”) eqqal fal lafaz n attarex jir immik wan intaj wan capitalist , ag-az n immik wan intaj n pre-capitalist d almaɣna n aqtisad"
"In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals.","Daɣ social sciences , edey n tamazduq amos dumu n amukin tan n tamazduq amosnen fuk nasan timachɣulen id ewad nen d ti ilzamnen n addinat"
"""It contrasts with """"social system"""", which refers to the parent structure in which these various structures are embedded.""",“ Izlay id “social system” eqqalan fal edey n imarawan ahan ideyan win ajjotnen””
It determines the norms and patterns of relations between the various institutions of the society.,Eqqal asilmad n achareɣa tan d dumu tan n iharojan jir tijittawen ajjotnen n tamazduq
"It is also important in the modern study of organizations, as an organization's structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, etc.","Eqqal har ajjudi assohen i teɣare tan uchray n taggayen fal as edey n taggayt addobat asilmad fal murunat net, tudabat net i amutti"
"On the meso scale, it concerns the structure of social networks between individuals or organizations.","Fal nataq wan meso, eqqal fal edey n tijittawt tan rezo tan win tamazduq jir addinat meɣ taggayen"
"""For example, John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions (i.e., """"structure"""" resembles that used by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss).""","“Almital , John Levi Martin ijja mirda n as nataqan n ideyan iyyad amosan ehare n nataq n tijittawen n agna (almaɣna “ tijittawt” t olah id ta s axdaman Anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss)"
"""Alexis de Tocqueville was supposedly the first to use the term """"social structure"""".""",“Alexis de Tocqueville amos awadim ezzaran s axadam n tifert tan “ edey wan tamazduq”
"One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the mode of production (an underlying economic structure).","Iyyan daɣ tinfusen ti azzar nen tolas afissar nen hullan nedey n tamazduq ikfa Karl Marx osaɣan tamudre tan folitik, agna d addin id immik wan nataj ( tijittawt n aqtisad)"
"Émile Durkheim, drawing on the analogies between biological and social systems popularized by Herbert Spencer and others, introduced the idea that diverse social institutions and practices played a role in assuring the functional integration of society through assimilation of diverse parts into a unified and self-reproducing whole.","Emile Durkheim , ichechwal tulaten jir sistem tan win abarkot d tamazduq fal asilmad hullan Herbert Spencer d iyyad, azojach medran as tijittawen n tamazduq ajjotnen d timachɣulen axdam nat darur daɣ ijjuch n tamazduq s andimaj n ichrutan izlay nen s i artayan tolas itarawan wi yadnen"
Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures.,Iyyad ilkam i Lévi-Strauss daɣ alkum n almaɣna oɣadan daɣ tijittawen tin agna
The most influential attempts to combine the concept of social structure with agency are Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration and Pierre Bourdieu's practice theory.,Ereman fuk wi assohat nen asirtaynen tifert tan edey n tamazduq amosan mirda edey wan Anthony Giddens d Pierre Bourdieu
"Giddens's analysis, in this respect, closely parallels Jacques Derrida's deconstruction of the binaries that underlie classic sociological and anthropological reasoning (notably the universalizing tendencies of Lévi-Strauss's structuralism).",Amiyiz wan Gidden daɣ semɣar wen war olah id wan Jacques Derrida n afatay n binaries amos tajittawt n ta-ite tan sociology d anthropology ( ma-i tan n structuralism n Lévi-Strauss ilsan alɣalim)
This was studied by Jacob L. Moreno.,Awen ijja Jacob L. Moreno teɣare fal at
Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain social behavior in terms of evolution.,Sociobiology t amos abara n biology s ittus net egzamit d asifham n alxal n tamazduq sa tarrayt tan tamuttit
"Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects.","Sociobiology taj farak fal alxalan n tamazduq chund dumu tan win tazawuj tan , ikinnasan fal akal, ahuyi d tamazduq tan imudaran"
It predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time.,Amos tawaqqa n as arizzej ad ajlin daɣ abara tan s war eha ach-ak ad aqqilan win arabax daɣ azzaman
Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population.,Alxal amos ag-az n gene tachne tan daɣ ichaɣib
"""Altmann developed his own brand of sociobiology to study the social behavior of rhesus macaques, using statistics, and was hired as a """"sociobiologist"""" at the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center in 1965.""",“ Altmann ikna ich-ikil n sociobiology tan iman net i teɣare n alxal daɣ tamazduq n rhesus macaques s medan tolas ijjach alxidmat daɣ eqqal “”sociobiologist” daɣ Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center daɣ awatay wan 1965”
"""Once a specialist term, """"sociobiology"""" became widely known in 1975 when Wilson published his book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, which sparked an intense controversy.""",“ Alwaq wa id tifert tan Specialist n “””sociobiology””atwassan daɣ awatay wan 1975 alwaq wa id Wilson izizjar alkittab net Sociobiology: The New Synthesis id eraw takalt t assohet”
"However, the influence of evolution on behavior has been of interest to biologists and philosophers since soon after the discovery of evolution itself.",Assahat n iki s data fal alxal eqqal a hin ijrahan biologist tan d filozof tan ɣur alwaq wan darat afukkar n iki s data iman net
"""Edward H. Hagen writes in The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology that sociobiology is, despite the public controversy regarding the applications to humans, """"one of the scientific triumphs of the twentieth century."""" """"""",“” Edwrd H. Hagon iktab daɣ The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology as sociobiology t amos ‘’iyyat daɣ irabaɣan wi maqqornen n science daɣ awatay wan issin afdan””” kuddeɣ as war ardahan addinat s alxidmat net fal as-an
"""Therefore, these traits were probably """"adaptive"""" in the environment in which the species evolved.""",“ Samalan win war eha ach-ak aqqalan “i taj in” i ahinzazaɣ wa daɣ timitikwaya imudaran”
"Thus, they are often interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures.",Alwaq iyyan eqqal alxidmat nasan alxal wan ɣarizit meɣ n tanafrit tolas dav asifham n tulaten ohu anmizlayan jir agna tan
This parental protection would increase in frequency in the population.,Alɣillas wen n imarawan ad iw-ad daɣ ichaɣib
E.O. Wilson argued that evolution may also act upon groups.,E.O Wilson allaɣat as iki s data wen addobat a idas taqqimen
"If altruism is genetically determined, then altruistic individuals must reproduce their own altruistic genetic traits for altruism to survive, but when altruists lavish their resources on non-altruists at the expense of their own kind, the altruists tend to die out and the others tend to increase.","A fal altruism at-w-almad etari net, dihen addinat win irochan ilzam tan ad aruwan samalan n etari n irochan i tamudre nasan mucham alwaq wa id addinat win irochan ikfan malatan nasan i addinat wi war n ila arochan, win irochan a hin ammatin tolas wi yadnen ad iw-adan"
"Within sociobiology, a social behavior is first explained as a sociobiological hypothesis by finding an evolutionarily stable strategy that matches the observed behavior.","Daɣ sociobiology , alxal daɣ tamazduq asifham ti s tizarat amiyiz n sociobiology s ajaraw n tikarsay tazzuket taj it i alxal wa daɣ ijja akayad"
Altruism between social insects and littermates has been explained in such a way.,Altruism jir imudaran d littermates at-w-afassar almaɣna net s immik wen
"In general, females with more bearing opportunities may value offspring less, and may also arrange bearing opportunities to maximize the food and protection from mates.",Deden ilanen tafawen ajjotnen addobat nat ihuk n alqim andarran i aratan tolas addobat nat ikannan n tafawen i asiwad n attaɣam d alɣillas i imidiwan nasnat
"Studies of human behavior genetics have generally found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability.","Tiɣir fal etari n alxal wan addinat ijraw samalan n alxal chund eɣanni, extroversion, tadlimt d IQ ilan takasit hullan"
"Thus, when FEV is genetically deleted from the mouse genome, male mice will instantly attack other males, whereas their wild-type counterparts take significantly longer to initiate violent behaviour.","Alwaq wa id etri n FEV imas a hin daɣ mouse genome, akundar wan ahalis ad idlim wi yadnen n meddan as ijja awen ich-ikil n imidiwan nasan tahaj in war areman alxal n tadlimt"
"During a 1976 meeting of the Sociobiology Study Group, as reported by Ullica Segerstråle, Chomsky argued for the importance of a sociobiologically informed notion of human nature.","Daɣ taɣaymit tijat daɣ awatay wan 1976 n taqqimt n farak fal Sociobiology daɣ awa allaɣat Ullica Segerstrale, Chomsky allaɣat s tulaɣay n isim daɣ sociobiology n annuɣ n awadim"
"Wilson has claimed that he had never meant to imply what ought to be, only what is the case.","Wilson asilmad as kala war otes chund harat s inhajja , harat ɣas wa ijjan a otas"
Business is the activity of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services).,Taɣuche t amos alxidmat n ijji n tamudre n awadim meɣ ikannan n azruf s nataj meɣ isuj n inachan d a ehan hebu (chund ilanan d alxidmaten)
"If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions.","A fal taɣuche tichanch imarwasan ,addinat wi ilanen amarwas addoben ad armisan ehare n awadim wa eha amarwas"
The term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or by public officials) to refer to a company.,Tifert tawaɣar alwaq iyyan (mucham war tat ɣar in muxam tan meɣ alxakum) s taggayt
"A privately owned, for-profit corporation is owned by its shareholders, who elect a board of directors to direct the corporation and hire its managerial staff.",Taggayt war ila alxakum ilan tat musahim tan daqqal nen imuzaran axkam nen fal taggayt tolas dakkalan inaxdiman net
"A cooperative differs from a corporation in that it has members, not shareholders, and they share decision-making authority.","Cooperative tizlay n taggayt fal as tila addinat ,wadden musahim tan tolas oharan addabara"
"Limited liability companies (LLC), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections.","Limited Liability Companies (LLC) , limited liability partnerships d ich-ikilan n taggayen n taɣuche ɣallas nat missawis nasnat meɣ musahim tan nasnat daɣ aftaqi n taɣuche s iji n taɣuche s taggayt iyyat tazunat daɣ ahareɣa s alɣillasan daɣ achareɣa"
"The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise, they have no economic rights in relation to the company.",Addinnat net ifrajan timzal n alqim iyyan a fal taggayt ijraw tat iban azruf mucham s immik iyyan war ilen alxakan n aqtisad osaɣa id taggayt
"This type of company may no longer be formed in the UK, although provisions still exist in law for them to exist.",Ich-ikil n taggayt ten war ilkem ad ijja daɣ Rwayom Uni kuddeɣ as maxzun tan illan ti daɣ achareɣa i emel has-an
"""Note that """"Ltd after the company's name signifies limited company, and PLC (public limited company) indicates that its shares are widely held.""""""",“ Ilmid as “ LTD darat as almaɣna wan isim n taggayt amos limited company d PLC (public limited company) eqqal achamol n as asham tan net tiwattafan s ijjit”
"In a company limited by guarantee, this will be the guarantors.","Daɣ company limited s addaman, awen eqqal inadmanan"
"Private companies do not have publicly traded shares, and often contain restrictions on transfers of shares.",Taggayen ti war ila alxakum war ilenant asham tan n mamala tolas ahan tan marsakan fal transer n asham tan
Entertainment companies and mass media agencies generate profits primarily from the sale of intellectual property.,Taggayen tin dallol d mass media jaraw nat riba tansa s tarrayt tan ta-ite
"They include tangible goods such as cars, buses, medical devices, glass, or aircraft.","Ahan tan ilalan olaɣnen chund torfen, isuj n asafar, tiset meɣ aircraft"
Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.,Bitiji tan ajjotnen d catalog compagnies aqqalan kel mamala wi maqqornen d win detay tan
They make their profits by selling goods and services that are sports related.,Karrachan riba nasan s asitig n ilalan d alxidmaten id aqqal nen fal karay
The modern field was established by the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in 1494.,Abara wan abara iday ti Mathematicien Luca Pacolli daɣ Italia daɣ awatay wan 1494
Finance can also be defined as the science of money management.,Finance addobat almaɣna net ad amos sicence tan awikkal n azruf
"Owners may manage their businesses themselves, or employ managers to do so for them.",Kel tila addoben awikkal n tiɣuchawen n iman nasan meɣ assaxdiman addinat ha-san ijjanen awen
Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients.,Business Proccess Management (BPM) amos tazujicht n awikkal tijjat fal titbaqqa fuk n taggayt id timɣutar d derhanan n zabun tan
Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability).,Tiɣuchawen ajjotnen at axdam nat s taggayen azunnen chund corporation meɣ partnership (ijjanen s meɣ iban limited liability)
"""Generally speaking, shareholders in a corporation, limited partners in a limited partnership, and members in a limited liability company are shielded from personal liability for the debts and obligations of the entity, which is legally treated as a separate """"person"""".""","“ Daɣ majrad,musahim tan daɣ corporation, limited partners daɣ limited partership d addinat wi ahanen limited liability company aɣlasan daɣ personal liability i imarwasa d izilzam win taggayt t-amosat daɣ achareɣa “”awadim” azunan"
"The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located.",Tifir tin charaka exkam daɣ sanat hullan tanmerdut n charaka a fal iyyan eɣna tolas s achrut iyyan s achareɣa n edag wa eha charaka wen
"In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed.","Daɣ sistem baya tan iyyad, awen isawad awa s itawan anutfas n baya tan fal as s tizarat taggayt tizzal baya fal arabax tolas alwaq wa id tuzan taggayt riba tan net i missawis, addinat ilzam tan ad aj in edagar nasan daɣ riba tan nasan alwaq wa id akimmalan asilmad fal timzal nasan i baya tan, tatbaqet s ahuchal baya fal riba"
"""""""Going public"""" through a process known as an initial public offering (IPO) means that part of the business will be owned by members of the public.""",“”Ikki n addinat’ s tazujicht tiwassan s Initial Public Offering (IPO) almaɣna net as achrut n taɣuche a ti ikrichan addinat win aljamaɣat
"The Code of Hammurabi dates back to about 1772 BC for example and contains provisions that relate, among other matters, to shipping costs and dealings between merchants and brokers.",Code of Hammurabi eqqal har awatay 1772 data annabi ɣisa tolas ahan ti biqalat tan orak nen s alqim tan n tusil tan d muɣamala tan jir ălmusăbbib d alwasit tan
Local jurisdictions may also require special licenses and taxes just to operate a business.,Achareɣa tan tin akal addobat nat azilzam n ilkadan win turhajat d baya tan i axadam n taɣuche
Most countries with capital markets have at least one.,Addawla tan ajjotnen ilanen capital markets ilan iyyan fuk nasan
Other western nations have comparable regulatory bodies.,Addawla tan tiyyad n ikufar ilanat ibarnamichn win amukin ogdahnen
The proliferation and increasing complexity of the laws governing business have forced increasing specialization in corporate law.,Ijjit tolas d tiw-at n achareɣa tan ti axkam nen fal tiɣuche azilzaman teɣare tijat daɣ tarrayt tan corporate law
"Most businesses have names, logos, and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking.","Tiɣuchawen ajjotnen ilanat ismawan, logo tan d teknik tan addobat nen ad aqqil nat arabax i trademarking"
"Economics is the social science that studies how people interact with value; in particular, the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.","Aqtisad amos science tan teɣare n immik wa s artayan addinat s alqim, hullan daɣ intaj, tazunt d tetate n ilalan d alxidmaten"
"He affirmed that previous economists have usually centred their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.","Isaduttat as economist tan win data taj in harkuk tiɣir nasan fal amiyiz n tabaɣort , immik wa s id taɣna tabaɣort (intaj), tazun d tetate net d immik wa s taw-id tabaɣort"
"If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives.","A fal akinnas war ti taha tarna meɣ a fal alqim tan net ojjaran alfayda tan net, kel tarna war ilkem ad iknasan (abbara) mucham ad ariman badil tan tiyyad"
"""Economic precepts occur throughout the writings of the Boeotian poet Hesiod and several economic historians have described Hesiod himself as the """"first economist"""".""",“ Achareɣa tan tin aqtisad tajin at s ikitban n Boetian Hesiod wan tisiway d kel attarex n aqtisad ajjotnen ijjan Hesiod iman net “”economist wa ezzaran”
"""Two groups, who later were called """"mercantilists"""" and """"physiocrats"""", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject.""","“Sanatat taqqimen s isim nasan darat awa “”mercantilist”^d “”physiocrats”, iknan tarna n efes n majal ten”"
It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.,Ijja s tabaɣort tan addawla tilkam isidiwan net i ura d azruf
"Physiocrats, a group of 18th-century French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income and output.","Physiocrats, taqqimt n imaɣran d inaktiban n France daɣ awatay wan 1800 iknan ta-ite n aqtisad i anji n arabax d intaj"
Physiocrats advocated replacing administratively costly tax collections with a single tax on income of land owners.,Physiocrats aɣran s anamichray n isidiwan n baya tan s baya iyyan fal riba n addinat win ilanen akal
"Smith discusses potential benefits of specialization by division of labour, including increased labour productivity and gains from trade, whether between town and country or across countries.",Smith issewal fal alfayda tan n teɣare daɣ ezaraj iyyan s tuzant n alxidmat eha asiwad n intaj n alxidmat d arabax daɣ mamala jir aɣrim d addawla meɣ jir addawla tan
The force of a rapidly growing population against a limited amount of land meant diminishing returns to labour.,Assahat n ichaɣib s ermad tiw-at net i addakud n akal war n ajjit amos afanaz n riba tan n alxidmat
"While Adam Smith emphasized the production of income, David Ricardo (1817) focused on the distribution of income among landowners, workers, and capitalists.","Alwaq wa id Adam Smith ijjan majrad net fal intaj wan riba , David Ricardo (1817) inta ijje fal tazunt n riba jir addinat wi ilanen akal, inaxdima d capitalist tan"
"Ricardo was the first to state and prove the principle of comparative advantage, according to which each country should specialize in producing and exporting goods in that it has a lower relative cost of production, rather relying only on its own production.","Ricardo amos wa ezzaran allaɣen tolas isaduttat tisitaɣhal n tinfa togdaht, s addawla fuk inhajja addawla fuk a daɣ is ej teɣared daɣ tarrayt tan intaj d tasdir n ilalan daɣ wen tila alqim andarran n intaj ohun fella fal intaj n iman net"
Mill pointed to a distinct difference between the market's two roles: allocation of resources and distribution of income.,Mill asikin anmizlay jir dawur tan n hebu issin: ihuk n malatan d tazunt n riba
"""Smith wrote that the """"real price of every thing ... is the toil and trouble of acquiring it"""".""",“Smith iktab as “ alqim wan tiditt n hara fuk amos alxidmat d tamɣatert n ajaraw net””
"""Say's definition has prevailed up to our time, saved by substituting the word """"wealth"""" for """"goods and services"""" meaning that wealth may include non-material objects as well.""","“”Almaɣna ikfa ille har amarad, eɣlas anmichray n tifer “”tabaɣort”” s “”ilalan d alxidmaten” almaɣna n awen as tabaɣort addoben a tat ijjichan haratan war n amos win isuj””"
"""For Robbins, the insufficiency was solved, and his definition allows us to proclaim, with an easy conscience, education economics, safety and security economics, health economics, war economics, and of course, production, distribution and consumption economics as valid subjects of the economic science.""""""","“”I Robbins, iban tigdaht t amukin tolas almaɣna net ijraw anaɣ ad n allaɣat s tenasse n ta-ite as education economics , safety d security economics , aqtisad wan assexat, aqtisad wan akinnas, d intaj, tazunt d tetate n aqtisad as amosan haratan n economic science”””"
"Although far from unanimous, most mainstream economists would accept some version of Robbins' definition, even though many have raised serious objections to the scope and method of economics, emanating from that definition.","Kuddeɣ as war fal as ardahan addinat fuk, economist tan fuk ad aɣbilan almaɣna wa ikfa Robbins kuddeɣ as addinat ajjotnen unjayan s immik wan aqtisad is izajaran almaɣna wen"
"""The term """"economics"""" was popularized by such neoclassical economists as Alfred Marshall as a concise synonym for """"economic science"""" and a substitute for the earlier """"political economy"""".""",“Tifert tan “”aqtisad”” ikfet isim hullan neoclassical economists chund Alfred Marshall s amos anmaɣran id “”economic science”” d a icharayan “”aqtisad wan folitik””
It dispensed with the labour theory of value inherited from classical economics in favour of a marginal utility theory of value on the demand side and a more general theory of costs on the supply side.,Ijja as labour theory n alqim amosan etari n aqtisad wan alasal ardahan fal utility theory tan alqim daɣ achrut wa ilzaman d general theory n issukan daɣ achrut wan al-imdad
"An immediate example of this is the consumer theory of individual demand, which isolates how prices (as costs) and income affect quantity demanded.",Almital n awen amos consumer theory n derhan n awadim iskat nen immik wa s alqimat tan d arabax idasan iddikud wa ilzaman
"Modern mainstream economics builds on neoclassical economics but with many refinements that either supplement or generalize earlier analysis, such as econometrics, game theory, analysis of market failure and imperfect competition, and the neoclassical model of economic growth for analysing long-run variables affecting national income.","Aqtisad wan amarad iday fal neoclassical economics mucham daɣ imuttiyan ajjotnen kammal nen meɣ asirtay nen amiyiz chund econometrics, game theory, amiyiz n egadal n hebu d iban n aqqud n tamadacht d neoclassical model n tiw-at n aqtisad i amiyiz n haratan wi idas nen riba n addawla"
"There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) is made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions.",Ille muchakil n aqtisad fal tijja economic science farak alwaq wa id addabara (nefran) ijje iyyan meɣ kel mala tan i ag-ad n intaj olaɣan s talɣiwen ilanen osaɣnen
The book focused on determinants of national income in the short run when prices are relatively inflexible.,Alkittab ijja fal awa isalmadan fal arabax wan addawla alwaq wa id alqimat tan war tizubben
Keynesian economics has two successors.,Keneysian economics tila issin xalif tan issin
It is generally associated with the University of Cambridge and the work of Joan Robinson.,Osaɣ harkuk id lakkol ta maqqorat n Cambridge d alxidmat tan Joan Robinson
"Ben Bernanke, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, is among the economists today generally accepting Friedman's analysis of the causes of the Great Depression.","Ben Bernanke ,amuzar n Federal Reserve n aru eha economist tan win achal id ardah nen fal amiyiz wan Friedman n iddililan win Great Depression"
"When creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful in generating additional research than prior theories.","Alwaq wa id aɣna nat theory tan, ittus amos ajaraw n ti s raqqosan isalan nasnat, attanabu tan oɣadnen tolas ilanen tinfa daɣ ugmak n asiwad n farak ohun theory tan ti izzar nen"
"Early macroeconomic models focused on modelling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations.","Dumu tan wi azzarnen n macroeconomy ijjan fal adaloj n iharojan jir aggregate variables mucham alwaq wa id iharojan t imuttiyan daɣ azzaman s macroeconomist tan ahan Keynesian tan wi eynaynen, olas nen amasuɣal n dumu tan nasan daɣ microfoundations"
"Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative.",Alwaq iyyan economic analysis t amos a ijjan fal tulaɣay wadden iddikud
"However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.",Abara wan aqtisad tan amiyiz tiw-ad tolas tiw-at n alxidmat sar is tijja s amiyizan
"By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense.","S almaɣna wen, mirda addobat ad at-w-aɣbal kuddeɣ as ila almɣna fal ijja amchikki wadden a izjar ach-ak"
"Criticisms based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization, although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data.","Naqad tan wi ijjanen fal ichiritan win alxidmat d non-replicability n ittusan amos a idhalan daɣ checks fal taxayuz, tajarzazzal d asirtay n fuk kuddeɣ as farak n aqtisad ajjen atwanna as amos non-replicable tolas journal tan iyyad atwanna war sarɣisan replication s mala tan n code of data"
"In applied economics, input–output models employing linear programming methods are quite common.","Daɣ applied economics , dumu tan win input-output ijlanen s linear programming methods olahan fuk nasan"
This has reduced the long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences because it allows direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms.,Awen ifnaz anmizlay n aqtisad daɣ natural sciences fal as ikfa turhajat s ijirriban n awa s kala amos axioms
Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics.,Ijirriban n akayad olahnen ijjan daɣ neuroeconomics
"In perfectly competitive markets, no participants are large enough to have the market power to set the price of a homogeneous product.","Daɣ hebu tan n chawara tan , war t illa awadim ilan assahat n hebu i eɣtas alqim iyyan n isuj"
Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system by assuming that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets.,Microeconomics taɣar hebu tan s asarɣas n sistem wan aqtisad s amiyiz n alxidmat daɣ hebu war t ikma hebu tan wi yadnen
General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour.,General-equilibruim theory ɣar hebu tan ajjotnen d alxal nasan
Choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions.,Ilzaman nefran tan jir alxidmaten n derhan
"Part of the cost of making pretzels is that neither the flour nor the morning are available any longer, for use in some other way.",Achrut n alqim n iji n pretzels amos jir ɣas masxuq wala tifawt illan ti i alxidmat s immik iyyan
"Inputs used in the production process include such primary factors of production as labour services, capital (durable produced goods used in production, such as an existing factory), and land (including natural resources).","Inputs at-w-axdaman daɣ intaj ahan ti ɣamil tan n intaj chund alxidmat, kapital (ilalan tahajinen tajjach nen intaj chund Izin tan) d akal ( eha alfayda tan n akal)"
"""Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of """"waste"""" is reduced.""",“ Faɣaliyat t-imutti a fal intaj eɣna id wala amutti n tinfa meɣ iddikud n “uɣchad”” ifnaz””
"""In the simplest case an economy can produce just two goods (say """"guns"""" and """"butter"""").""",“ Alwaq wa id aqitsad addobat ad aru issin ilalan (laɣat “”albarodan” d “”udi””)
Scarcity is represented in the figure by people being willing but unable in the aggregate to consume beyond the PPF (such as at X) and by the negative slope of the curve.,Nadrat t-iwar udim wen s derhan n addinat mucham war addoben daɣ aggregate ad akiyan PPF ( chund ɣur X) tolas s egam n curve
The slope of the curve at a point on it gives the trade-off between the two goods.,Egam n curve har titbaqet iyyat ehak tanmerdut jir issin ilalan
"Along the PPF, scarcity implies that choosing more of one good in the aggregate entails doing with less of the other good.",Hak id PPF Nadrat amos as nefran n ajjen daɣ alil iyyan daɣ aggregate amos iddilil n ijji andarran n alil wa yadan
"A point inside the curve (as at A), is feasible but represents production inefficiency (wasteful use of inputs), in that output of one or both goods could increase by moving in a northeast direction to a point on the curve.","Titbaqet daɣ curve (chund A), addobat ijji mucham eha edag n iban tinfa n intaj (alxidmat taɣchadat n tinfa), daɣ awen intaj n iyyan meɣ ilalan ajjotnen addobat tiw-at s ehel n tasdik tan emaynaj-daɣ-alqiblat har titbaqet fal curve"
"It has been observed that a high volume of trade occurs among regions even with access to a similar technology and mix of factor inputs, including high-income countries.",Akayad ijja n as iddikud ajjen n mamala itaj daɣ rejion tan hak id ijja as ilan teknoloji tolahat d anɣambal n tinfa eha riba maqqoran n addawla tan
"Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.","Iyyan fuk daɣ sistem tan win n intaj, addobat a ila tazunt net n alxidmat id taqqimen n alxidmat izlaynen meɣ ich-ikilan izlaynen n isuj d alxidmaten izlaynen i akal"
"Theory and observation set out the conditions such that market prices of outputs and productive inputs select an allocation of factor inputs by comparative advantage, so that (relatively) low-cost inputs go to producing low-cost outputs.",Theory d akayad iknan talɣiwen chund alqim tan win hebu n intaj tan d adom taj in nefran n tazunt n adom s tigdaht i as adom tan wi raqqosnen ad ijichan intaj tan wi raqqosnen
"In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.","Daɣ microeconomics ,i taj i alqim d musnat n intaj i hebu daɣ tija tamadacht toɣadat taha talɣa n as war ila awadim ijjan mamala wala i hin ichanchin ajjen ilan assahat n aɣatas n alqim daɣ hebu"
"Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc.","Demand theory tija fal addinat wi sanafran nen iddikud n alil fuk ajjen ,riba,alqim tan, tembe"
"The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related.",Achareɣa wan addaror allaɣat as alqim d iddikud wi ilzam nen daɣ hebu osaɣan daɣ as war oheran harat
"In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect).","Daɣ asiwad, assahat n akarach n ilalan s afanaz n alqim issewad tudabat n achinch (asar n riba)"
Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.,Al-imdad amos aharoj n alqim n alil d iddikud a it illan n inachan s alqim wen
"Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.","Al-imdad amos alxidmat tosaɣat alqim d iddikud , a fal ɣansar tan iyyad war ammutayan"
"Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.","Chund fal achrut wan addaror , edag wan al-imdad addobat amutti, alaɣi n as amutti daɣ alqim n adom meɣ amutti n teknik"
"Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.","Almizann hebu itaj edag wa id iddikud itajrawan ogdah i iddikud wa eqqalan addaror, edag n amuqqas n al-imdad d addaror akrambayan fal udim wa"
"At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.","Alqim ojjaran almizan, tille tasiwat n iddikud tat ijrawat togdahat id tan addaror"
"The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts.","Ich-ikilan n taggayen tin tiditt hullan amos nat taggayen , charaka tan d alsiqa tan"
"In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price.","Daɣ hebu tan wi daɣ tijja tamadacht n mirda wan ak-imdad d addaror , illan ti muntij tan ajjotnen,war tan eha ilan assahat fal alqim"
"Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.","Tijittawen n hebu oharnen fal tijja teɣare edes n tamadacht taha monopolistic competition, dumu tan ajjotnen oligopoly d monopoly"
"Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.","Id dumu tan net wi izlaynen,illan ti abara tan ajjotnen n emele n iban ikuch n ach-ak d adaloj n alwazab tan win inaxdiman n aqtisad"
"In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.","Daɣ behavioural economics, at-w-axdam i adaloj n tikarsiwen ti sanafranan inaxdiman alwaq wa id artayan id wi yadnen s afor tan nasan izlayan id win nasan"
"It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.","Ila aplikasyon tan ajotnen s ajjama n aqtisad daɣ musuɣ tan chund ikannan n nuclear strategies ,axlaqiya, science tan folitik d evolutionary biology"
"It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.","Har ajjudi it imuyiz alqim n isuj win azruf, edey n azruf wan taggayen, kafaɣa d tanalmut n hebu tan win azruf, azwat maliyat d folitik n alxakum meɣ tanzim tan"
"""Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a """"lemon"""" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be.""",“ Alɣamil tan war n ila musnat n as toruft t amos chund “”lemon” ifannaz alqim net chund wan toruft n okazyon “”
"""Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market (""""incomplete markets"""").""",“Muchakil tan fuk addoben ad issiwidan alqim tan n asurance tolas ifnizan kafaɣa s achichil s immik iyyan arhan inaxdiman daɣ hebu ( “”hebu tan war n akkimmal””)
"Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.","Isalan asymmetries d hebu tan war n akkimmal addoben ad aruwan iban assahat n aqtisad mucham hak id tudabat n amutti n kafaɣa s hebu, isafran n achareɣa d amukin"
Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market.,Ilalan win aljamaɣat amosan ilalan s war ijjit emel nasan daɣ ich-ikil n hebu wen
"For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.).","Almital ,amadas n adu addobat ad eɣan n negative externality tolas teɣare eɣan n positive externality (afanaz n tadlimt)"
"In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side.","Daɣ ihandagan ajjotnen, dumu tan iyyad n tanalmot n alqim tijittawt n iddikud tan ohun alqim tan ilkam nen imutiyan fal achrut wan addaror meɣ achrut wan al-imdad"
Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.,Almital tan chund tanalmot n alqim daɣ hebu ehay iddikud n bana daɣ alxidmat n hebu tan tolas asilmad fal alqim tan daɣ hebu tan istaɣnen fal tamadacht ta toɣadat
"Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components.","Aggregate tan eha riba n addawla d intaj, iddikud n iban n alxidmat d tiw-at n alqim d subaggregate tan chund tetate fuk d tanaɣla n azruf d markab tan nasan"
This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.,Awen amos asafar n muchakil ehojan fal efes n mawduɣ olahan
"Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.",Keynes amchakkat fal as aggregate addaror n ilalan addobat ad war igdah daɣ ifanazan n aqtisad harat id aruwan iban n alxidmat ajjen d iba tan n intaj
"New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information.","Classical macroeconomics chund immik wa s izlayan id akayad wan Keynes n taɣuche ,hebu tan wi ammitkal imasan in s isalan war n oɣed"
The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs.,Assahat n alxidmat war tat ahen ɣas ar inaxdiman wi tattar nen alxidmaten
Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.,Dumu tan win alasal n iban n alxidmat itaj alwaq wa id bana tan aw-idan i inaxdiman ohun derhan n asaxdam n inaxdiman ajjotnen
Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand.,Iddikud maqqoran n iban alxidmat addobat iji alwaq wa id aqtisad itiki s izin tan tolas inaxdiman igrahan as musnat nasan tojjar daɣ addaror
"Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.","Azruf ila aɣabal i fuk, aqqud daɣ alqim, tazunt, tahajit, ila ag-ay, achilway daɣ al-imdad d taɣrist id taflast n addinat"
"""In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, """"Money is what money does"""" (""""Money is that money does"""" in the original).""","“ Daɣ majrad n Francis Amasa Walker , economist ilan isim hullan n awatay wan 1900 “”azruf amos awa exdam azruf”” (azruf amos as azruf itaj”” daɣ alasal)”"
Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange).,Alxidmat net tan aqtisad t azlay id barter ( iban amaskal s azruf)
"When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed.","Alwaq wa id addaror wan aggregate oda sider n intaj n aqtisad, ille etaɣas n intaj s tudabat iyyat taqqim war tat axdam"
"For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways.","Almital , albanna tan wi war n axdem addoben ad ammatkalan daɣ asahrak n abara tan"
The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out.,Asar tan folitik tan baya addobat ahunin asibdad net
Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.,Economist tan iyyad ordahan as ahunin amos harkuk muchakil as ijja awen iyyad ordahan as muchakil wa maqqoran amos alwaq wa id ifnaz intaj
"The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.","Titbaqet n nefran n addinat i mirda, dumu tan n alxal wan addinat olahan id microeconomics ahan anmartiyan n kel wote tan ,kel folitik d kel biraw tan"
It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.,Eqqal tolas fal iddikud d tazunt n arabax daɣ mamala
"""It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname """"the dismal science"""" as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply.""",“”Allaɣat alwaq iyyan as Carlyle ehak aqtisa tasassaɣrawt tan “”dismal science” chund alwazab i ikitban win amindi n awatay wan 1800 ijja Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus allaɣen as daɣ tilkamat ad as manna fal as iddikud n ichaɣɣib ad aki iddikud n al-imdad wan attaɣam”
"The close relation of economic theory and practice with politics is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems.",Aharoj anmahazan jir economic theory d tamachɣult id folitik amos harat fal ijja amchakki addoben ad isabbahu n igzamit tan aqtisad tolas as-n-aɣambal social agendas d alqim n sistem tan
Some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment.,Journal tan iyyad n teɣare n aqtisad issewadan jahad tan nasan i eket n anafham n economist tan fal muchakil tan n folitik daɣ mirda tan n edes n ahinzazaɣ n folitik ahan isalan
"Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state, are focus of contention and criticism.","Muchakil tan chund alistexal n bank tan ammas, folitik tan n bank tan ammas d tihussay n issiwilan n gafar tan n bank tan ammas meɣ isanti tan n folitik tan macroeconomics (azruf d folitik tan baya) n addawla amosan a fal ijja amchikki d majrad"
"The field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.",Abara n isalan n aqtisad ahan farak mathematics id economy d behavioural economics fuk nasan olah nen i tiɣir daɣ behavioural psychology d amartay n ɣansar tan i inhajja tan n neoclassics amosan muduɣ fal taj teɣare daɣ abara tan ajjotnen n aqtisad
"""Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were """"trotted out ex post"""".""",“ Joskow ila tanafrit maqqorat n as alxidmat ta tassohet daɣ oligopoly taj s ikayadan as ijja dumu tan “trotted out ex post””
"Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life.",Muduɣ iyyan maqqoran amos tamuttayt tamost asifham n tartit d anmizlay
"His works such as History of Animals were especially important because they revealed his naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life.",Alxidmaten net chund attarex wan arizzej amosan assohen fal as safukkaran id naturalist leanings net tolas darat alxidmaten tin akayad ijjanen fal iddilil wan abarkot d wan anmizlay n tamudre
"Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.",Medecine ijjan as imaɣran n al-islam teɣare tolaɣat s alxidmat n tumasen tin filozof an Greel as ijja awen attarex ijja hullan fal amedran wan Aristot hullan ag-az n anmillal n tamudre
Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.,Farak tan ijja Swammerdam ewayan s afor eynayan daɣ entomoloy tolas idhal daɣ efes n teknik tan n abarichi s microscope d ihuk n dumu
"Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.","Daɣ awatay wan 1838, Schwann issinta efes n inasjam win amarad n as (1) tijittawt ta oharan addinat amos azar tolas (2) as izirwan n awadim fuk ilan samalan fuk wi tamudre kuddeɣ as war ilkem i anasjum (3) izirwan fuk izjaran id tazunt n izirwan iyyad"
"Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.",Carl Linnaeus izizjar akatab fal taxonomy i alɣalim daɣ awatay wan 1735 (anmizlayan wi axdam nen ɣur azzaman wen) tolas daɣ awatay wan 1750 azojach ismawan n sicence i imudaran fuk
"Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.",Laarck ordah as samal tan win addoben at-w-ikiyan s aratan n arizzej he idwilan darat awa tolas aɣid ta
"""The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel, who presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","“” Tijittawt n modern genetics tissinta s alxidmat n Gregor Mendel issik nan alkad net “””Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (‘’’’imiyizan fal Plant Hybridization””) daɣ awatay wan 1865 wi idlajnen tisittaɣhal n takasit n abarkot amosan tijittawt n modern genetics”"
"A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.",Tarkiz ijjan fal dumu tan eynaynen n dumu n birus tan d bacteria ɣur afukkar n double-helical structure tan DNA ijja James Watson d Francis Crick daɣ awatay wan 1953 eqqal echwal s iki n azzaman wan molecular genetics
"Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome.",Human Genome Porject amatakway daɣ awatay wan 1990 s ittus net akardi n genome n addinat fuk
Life on Earth began from water and remained there for about three billions years prior to migrating onto land.,Tamudre fal akal tissinta s aman tolas taqqim dihen har karad milyar tan n awatay data ahunin net s akal
The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons.,Nucleus ikna daɣ iyyan meɣ proton tan ajjotnen d iddikud n neutron tan
"The atom of each specific element contains a unique number of protons, which is known as its atomic number, and the sum of its protons and neutrons is an atom's mass number.",Atom n ɣansar fuk ehay esassar n proton tan amosan esassar n atom net tolas assuma n proton tan d neutron tan amos esassar ajjen n atom
"Carbon, for example, can exist as a stable isotope (carbon-12 or carbon-13) or as a radioactive isotope (carbon-14), the latter of which can be used in radiometric dating (specifically radiocarbon dating) to determine the age of organic materials.","Daɣ almital ,Carbon, addobat emel as amos isotope (tamakat-12 meɣ tamakat 13) meɣ radioactive isotope (tamakat -14), wan uchray s addobat radiometric dating (hullan radiocarbon dating) i musnat n awatay n isuj"
"Ionic bonding involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.",Ionic bonding ehay electrostatic attraction jir ion tan itkar nen meɣ jir atom tan ilanen electronegativitie izlaynen tolas amos amartay ezzaran ijjan daɣ ionic compounds
"Unlike ionic bonds, a covalent bond involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.",Covalent bond ehay tazunt n electron tan jir atom tan harat war ijja ionic bonds
A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules.,Almital ehan edag fuk n hydrogen bond it aw ajraw jir water molecule tan
"Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution.","Aman amosan assohen i tamudre fal as harat assohen, addoben asilyam n solutes chund sodiumvd chloride ions meɣ molecules iyyad madroynen ad aqqilan asafar ahan aman"
"Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.","Fal as O-H amosan a ilan qutbi tan,oxygen atom ila negative charge tolas hydrogen atom tan win issin ilan positive charge"
Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.,Aman amosan a ilattaɣan fal as addobat ad iltaɣ arori n qutbi fuk meɣ itkar molecule tan war n amos tin aman
"The lower density of ice compared to liquid water is due to the lower number of water molecules that form the crystal lattice structure of ice, which leaves a large amount of space between water molecules.",Addakud n aɣeris andarran d aman war n aqqiras issibab net addakud andarran n molecule tan n aman wi taqqal nen crystal lattice n aɣeris itay in addikud n edag maqqoran jir molecule tan n aman
"Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into gas (or water vapor).",Addikuud maqqoran n enerji izlam i terazze n hydrogen bonds jir molecule tan n aman i amaskal n aman war n aqqiras s gaz (meɣ ihohan n aman)
"With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.","A fal wadden aman, molecule tan fuk ti ahanen taɣissa iyyat fuk tahet tamakat"
"For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane, two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide, or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO).","Almital, tamakat n atom fuk t addobat a taqqil covalents bonds chund daɣ methane , covalents bonds annutfasan chund carbon dioxide meɣ covalent bond ijjan anutfas wan karad chund carbon onoxide (CO)"
"A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound.","Arori n hydrocarbon addoben ɣansar tan iyyad ad ijjichan edag net chund oxygen (O) , hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), d sulfur (S) addobat nen as amutti n chemical behaviour n amartay wen"
"When two monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose are linked together, they can form a disaccharide such as sucrose.","Alwaq wa id monosaccharides chund glucose d fructose osaɣan daɣ edag iyyan , addoben ad aqqilan disaccharide chund sucrose"
These lipids are organic compounds that are largely nonpolar and hydrophobic.,Lipid tan win amosan imartayan s hullan war amosan qutbi tan d hydrophobic
The glycerol and phosphate group together constitute the polar and hydrophilic (or head) region of the molecule whereas the fatty acids make up the nonpolar and hydrophobic (or tail) region.,Glycerol d phosphate taqqalan daɣ edag iyan qutbi d hydrophilic ( meɣ eɣaf) n molecule tan as ijja awen acid tan r-artayan daɣ edag war n imos n qutbi d hydrophobic
"Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules, which include enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural proteins.","Protein tan amosan macromolecule tan wi iknanen ijjit ahan enzyme tan, ahunin n protein tan, molecule tan maqqornen n tadogant, antibodies d structural proteins"
The polarity and charge of the side chains affect the solubility of amino acids.,Qatbiya d adkor n esassar wan tasaja idasan alayam n amino acids
The primary structure consists of a unique sequence of amino acids that are covalently linked together by peptide bonds.,Edey wa ezzaran ehay edag n amino acids osaɣan peptide bonds daɣ edag iyyan
The folding of alpha helices and beta sheets gives a protein its three-dimensional or tertiary structure.,Anatfas n alpha helices d beta sheets hak in protein i edey n karad qayas tan meɣ tertiary structure
"The purines include guanine (G) and adenine (A) whereas the pyrimidines consist of cytosine (T), uracil (U), and thymine (T).","Purine tan ehen guanine (G), d adenine (A) as ijja awen pyrimidines ahan tan cytosine (T), uracil (U) dthymine (T)"
"A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures.","Cell membrane ehet lipid bilayer, ahan cholesterol tan illanen jir phospholipids i ag-az n amatikway nasan daɣ taqqan"
"Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton.","Cell membrane tan ahanat timitikwayen ajjotnen chund alatoɣ n azar, aɣazan n enerji wan efew d cell signalling tolas amos arori assirtayan extracellular structures ajjotnen chund celle wall, glycocalyx d cytoskeleton"
"""The Alberts text discusses how the """"cellular building blocks"""" move to shape developing embryos.""",“ Akatab n Alberts issewal s immik wa s “” cellular building blocks”” chankachan har amukin n ahnaɣ “
"Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.","Izirwan n ahishk ilan organelles n asiwad tan izlaynen id izirwan win ehare chund cell wall ehak in tadhilt n azar n ahishk, chloroplasts wi sadaw nen enerji wan tafukt ikannan n assukar d vacuoles hakkinen aɣazan d tadhilt ahanen tolas arraw d uɣchad n isamban n ahishk"
"According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved, i.e., cannot be created or destroyed.","Daɣ awa t allaɣat achareɣa ta tazzarat n thermodynamics , enerji eɣzan awen amos war addobat uɣna meɣ uɣchad"
"As a result, an organism requires continuous input of energy to maintain a low state of entropy.",Taɣissa t azilzam intaj n enerji n harkuk i ag-az n talɣa n entropy
"Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.",Catabolism izazjar enerji d anabolism itat enerji
"The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions.","Alwazab fuk itaj daɣ tikkelen n biochemics, tiyyad daɣ sanat amos nat tin redox"
"Acetyl-Coa enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix.",Acetyl-Coa it ajach citric acid itaj in daɣ ammas n mitochondrial matrix
"Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis), which generates a proton motive force.","Oxidative phosphorylation ahan ti ahunin n esassar wan electron amoasan akkoz protein tan sisikinen electron tan ɣur edag s iyyan, zazjaran enerji ɣur NADH d FADH2 ertayan id proton tan (hydrogen ions) fal mitpchondrial membrane tan ammas (chemiosmosis) id itiruwan assahat n proton"
"If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation.","A fal ooxygen war it illa , pyruvate a ti exxarak unfas n azar mucham a ti idas tamatikwayt n tiqwat"
Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis.,Tiqwat taj aksad i NADH s NAD+ i ad alis at-w-axdam daɣ glycolysis
"In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid.","Daɣ taslat n iɣasan, asuj wa eɣchadan amos lactic acid"
"During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate.","Alwaq wan anaerobic glycolysis, NDA+ inakkar id alwaq wa id artay hydrogen id pyruvate i ad aqqilan lactate"
"During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP.","ɣur amukin, alwaq wa it imal oxygen, NDA+ itawaɣan s hydrogen da lactate i ad aqqilan ATP"
"In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.","Daɣ ihandagan ajjotnen, oxygen izajar as amos asuj eɣchadan"
This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.,Awen olah id assahat ta ija proton fal mitochondrial membrane wan ammas daɣ unfas
"In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it.","Daɣ tadogant tan autocrine, ligand idas azar wa ti izazjaran"
"In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.","Daɣ Eukaryotes (awen amos , ehare, ahishk, biffen d protist cells), illan ti issin ich-ikilan izlaynen n tazunt n azar: mitosis d meiosis"
"After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle.","Darat tazunt n azar, talyat fuk n izirwan tisant dawra teynayat"
Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle.,Tazunt n dawra tan fuk nasnat at-w-axdam nat daɣ tamatikwayt n arraw daɣ titbaqet iyyat n tamudre nasan
"Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell.","Awar n amos timitikwayen tin mitosis d meiosis daɣ eukaryotes, binary fission itaj daɣ prokaryotes itaj wala teɣare n spindle apparatus fal azar"
"Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.",Takasit tan Mendel t amos tamatikwayt s gene tan d samalan tikiyan ɣur imarawan s aratan
"The first is that genetic characteristics, which are now called alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents.","Wa ezzaran amos as samalan win etari tawaɣrinen amarad s isim wan alles istaran tolas ilan dumu tan ( almital: tabangalt, tamallay meɣ tichijrit ,takkindimt)"
"Mendel noted that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene, which is stated by his law of segregation.","Mendel iktab as ɣur eɣanni wan achnaɣ, allele tan i gene ille amminzaɣ jir iman nasan har achaɣ fuk eway allele iyyan ɣas i gene fuk harat allavat daɣ achareɣa net tan tazunt"
"The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.",Nucleotides osaɣan jir iman nasan s covalent bonds jir assukar n nucleotide iyyan d phospahte n wa yadan harat icharayan arori n assukar-phosphate
The bases are divided into two groups: pyrimidines and purines.,Baz tan aqqal nat sanatat taqqimen : Pyramidines d purines
DNA is replicated once the two strands separate.,DNA ijji iyyan a itaj alwaq wa id azunnat tinilwa tin sanatat
A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones.,Chromosome eqqal edey oɣadan ahan DNA d Histones
"In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.","Daɣ Prokaryotes, DNA it awattaf daɣ taɣissa alwaqqan iyyad daɣ cytoplasm s isim net Nucleoid"
"The genetic information stored in DNA represents the genotype, whereas the phenotype results from the synthesis of proteins that control an organism's structure and development, or that act as enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways.",Isalan win etari aɣzanan daɣ DNA eqqal genotype as ijja awen genotype izjar id aklulu protein tan wi o-gaznen taɣissa d efes meɣ exdam chund enzymes jarraw nen abara tan n i metabolic
"Under the genetic code, these mRNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation, which occurs in ribosomes.","Daw kod wn genetic,tinilwa tin mRNA tallaɣat kay i iddikud n protein tan daɣ amino tamatikwayt ten isim net afissar itaj in daɣ ribosomes"
Sequencing and analysis of genomes can be done using high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes.,Musnat d amiyiz n genome tan addoba at ej s afalla daɣ d boinformatics d amiyiz n alxidmat d edey n genome tan imdanen
"The genomes of prokaryotes are small, compact, and diverse.","Genome tan winprokaryotes i madroynen, isasan tolas izlayan"
"There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth.","Illan ti akkoz tikkalen n tasassarut i afanaz n efes, agluy, anmizlay, morphogenesis d efes"
Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.,Izirwan wi enatti amosan a war n izlay meɣ izirwan izlaynen a andarran addobat nen uzlay s ichikilan ajjotnen tolad anfiz nat harkuk i ad aɣnin at azar olahan id an enatti
"Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, also occurs during morphogenesis, such as the death of cells between digits in human embryonic development, which frees up individual fingers and toes.",Apoptosis meɣ tamattant n azar fal ijja addabara inta deɣ itj alwaq wan morphogenesis chund tamattant n izirwan jir iddikud wan efes n achnaɣ n awadim ituzanan issikadan d tinsawen n addinat
"These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals.","Foti tan asuj wan gene tan iknan aɣalas daɣ ophyla, almaɣna imos as illan addinat aru nen d iyyad olahnen ajjotnen daɣ taaqimen azunen n ehare"
"Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.","Gene tan win Hox asilmadan edag wa daɣ annitfasan ichrutan chund iɣasan ajjotnen n tachalen , ad idwil daɣ achnaɣ meɣ larva tasuteft"
"A toolkit gene can be expressed in a different pattern, as when the beak of Darwin's large ground-finch was enlarged by the BMP gene, or when snakes lost their legs as Distal-less (Dlx) genes became under-expressed or not expressed at all in the places where other reptiles continued to form their limbs.",Foti n asuj wan gene addobat ad it waɣil s ichikil izlayan chund alwaq em n ground-finch wan Darwin isahrak BMP gene meɣ alwaq wa id ibas ilanat tachalen idaran nasnat chund Distal-less (DIx° gene tan ifanaz at waɣir meɣwar it waɣil ja daɣ ihandagan s addoben imudaran wi yadnen rattayan idaran nasan.
This perspective holds that evolution occurs when there are changes in the allele frequencies within a population of interbreeding organisms.,Akăyăd wen ǝjja ɣur is as ǝki s dăta ităj alwăq wa t-ǝlăn ǝmutǝyăn n allele daɣ ǝššăɣǝb n tǝɣǝswen ohărnen tămudre
"When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error.","Alwăq wa ǝd assăhăt tan nefrăn war t-ǝlla meɣ tăbrur, ǝddǝkud n allele tan ogdăhăn tiw-at d afanaz  daɣ ǝkǝ tan n ǝššaɣǝb azzămăn ǝyyăn fuk hărwa daɣ wăr t- ǝjješăn mărsălăn"
Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence.,Reproductive isolation inta deɣ t arha ad tiw-ad ɣu emel n anmizlay wan etari
"When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a node (or split) on the phylogenetic tree.","Alwaq wa id ezarag wan tiwit ijja sanatat tazunawen, samal net tamirkest meɣ ahishk wan temedt"
"Within a tree, any group of species designated by a name is a taxon (e.g., humans, primates, mammals, or vertebrates) and a taxon that consists of all its evolutionary descendants is a clade, otherwise known as a monophyletic taxon.","Daɣ ahishk, taqqimt n imudaran fuk iwar isim wan taxon (daɣ almital, addinat, primate tan, ehare meɣ imudaran) tolas taxon ahan ihayawan net fuk nasan eqqal clade s immik iyyan isim net monophyletic Taxon"
"A species or group that is closely related to the ingroup but is phylogenetically outside of it is called the outgroup, which serves a reference point in the tree.",Ichikil n imudaran meɣ taqqimt ta tiknat orak s taqqimt taɣfalat mucham ehan ajjama net isim net outgroup eqqalan titbaqqet n samal daɣ ahishk
"Based on the principle of Parsimony (or Occam's razor), the tree that is favored is the one with the fewest evolutionary changes needed to be assumed over all traits in all groups.","Fal almadda wan Parsimoni (meɣ Occcam razor) , ahishk wa ilan irrizaɣ inta s wa ilan imutiyan madroynen s ilzam aɣabal nasan fl samalan n taqqimen fuk ti yadnen"
"Based on this system, each species is given two names, one for its genus and another for its species.","Fal sistem wen, taqqimt n imudaran fuk tigraw issin ismawan, iyyan i wan tichit net tolas wa yadan wan ichikil net n amudar"
"Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.","Biolojist tan ǝjja ɣur săn as anăfăz n kod wan etări eqqăl asǝdutti n attărex daɣ alɣălǝm n tǝwǝkkăwen, arkea d ekariot tan"
"Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions.","Daɣ uchray, a ilan 1.7 n milyar n awatay, tiɣiswen tin izirwan ajjotnen issinta nat id azajor id as izlayan izirwan tajjinen alxidmaten war n olah"
Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event.,Ihishka win akal rabbaxan hullan har aɣilan addinat as issewadan tamattant tan Devonian
"During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.","ɣur azzaman wan tamazzit daɣ albana, archosau tan aqqalan imudaran n akal wi ojjar nen ijjit; taqqimt n archosaur iyyat, dinozor tan, ojjaran azzamanan win Jurassic d Cretaceous"
"Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of the earth's crust.","Tiwikkawen izzaɣ nat daɣ amadal, aman, azzamanan win awelan,jibi tan win izin tan d ammas n tamaxluk n amadal"
"Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), a term that has fallen out of use.","Archea eqqal ezarag iyyan n izirwan win prokaryotic tolas ahan edag wan tiwikkaen, igrawan isim nasan archaebacteria ( daɣ almalikiya tan Archaebacteria), isim s ibas exdam amarad"
"Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.",Archea d tiwikkawen ogdahan harkuk daɣ izuk d innuɣ kuddeɣ as harat n archea tan ilan annuɣan izlaynen chud izirwan wi lamamasnen d wi ilan tisijwa n Haloquadratum walsbyi
"Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas.","Archea exdam hullan s assahat ohun eukaryotes: awen ifal id isartiyan chund assukar, ammonia , ion tan win tazoli meɣ gaz"
"The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms.",Archea tan wi azzarnen amosan extremophile tan izzaɣnen daɣ ihinzuzaɣ chund awelan d ijirwan win tesimt war ahen imudaran fuk iyyad
Archaea are a major part of Earth's life.,Archea ta aqqalan achrut maqqoran n tamudre n adduniya
"Five of these clades are also collectively known as protists, which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.","Sammos daɣ clade tan intaned deɣ ismawan nasan fuk protist tan aqqal nen imudaran madroynen n eukaryotic war n aqqel ihishkan,ihanan n alchinan mev arizzej"
"Most protists are unicellular, which are also known as microbial eukaryotes.",Protist tan fuk aqqalan a ilan azar iyyan s ismawan nasan iyyad microbial eukaryotes
Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and can be found in the ocean where they play a role as primary producers of organic matter.,Dinolagellates aqqalan photosynthetic tan tolas tawajrawan daɣ ijirwan wi maqqornen id axdaman azilzam nasan wan imarawan wi azzarnen n jibi tan wi ichikrach
Ciliates are alveolates that possess numerous hair-like structure called cilia.,Ciliates aqqalan alveolates ilanen edey chund wan imzadan ajjotnen s ismawan nasan cilia
The excavates are groups of protists that began to diversify approximately 1.5 billion years ago shortly after the origin of the eukaryotes.,Excavates aqqalan taqqimt n protist tan issintanen ijjit a ilan 1.5 n milyar n awatay s andarran darat axalak wan eukaryote tan
"Stramenopiles, most of which can be characterized by the presence of tubular hairs on the longer of their two flagella, include diatoms and brown algae.",Stramenopiles s ijjit nasan ahan tan samalan n imzadan daɣ tichijrit n falgella tin sanatat nasan eha diatoms d algae bangalan
"The rhizarians comprise three main groups: cercozoans, foraminiferans, and radiolarians.","Rhizarians ijjan tizunawen karadat: cercozan tan, forminiferan tan d radiolrian tan"
"Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae.",Algae ila cade tan ajjotnen izlaynen chud glaucophytes amos nen alge win aan wi darosnen s daroɣ olahan daɣ dumu id imarawan wi azzarnen n plantae n azar iyyan
Land plants (embryophytes) first appeared in terrestrial environments approximately 450 to 500 million years ago.,Ihiskan win akal (embryophites) izjaran id s tizarat daɣ ihinzuzaɣ n amadal a ilan jir 450 har 500 n awatay
"In contrast, the other three clades are nonvascular plants as they do not have tracheids.","Daɣ achrut iyyan, clades tan wi yadnen amosan ihishkan war n ila ikewan fal as war ilen ekew wan tracheid"
They tend to be found in areas where water is readily available.,Tat ajrawan daɣ ihandagan wi ti illan aman
"Most nonvascular plants are terrestrial, with a few living in freshwater environments and none living in the oceans.",Ijjit n Ihishkan fuk wi war n ila ikewan aqqalan win akal ilanen harat n timizdaɣ daɣ ihanzuzaɣ n aman darosnen tolas war ziddaɣan daɣ ijirwan wi maqqornen
"Gymnosperms includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.","Gymnosperms ehe confiers, cycads, Gikgo d gnetophytes."
They do so through a process called absorptive heterotrophy whereby they would first secrete digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes.,ǝjjan awen s ǝmmǝk s ǝsǝm n absortiv heterofi s ǝnta as tăkkăsăn dijetiv enzim tan erăzzǝn tǝblălen n ǝmănsǝwăn w-ǝ măqqornen data tesase năsăn s agorš n ǝzǝrwăn năsăn
"Fungi, along with two other lineages, choanoflagellates and animals, can be grouped as opisthokonts.","Ehan n alchinan, hak id attarex issin iyyad, choanoflagatellates d arizzej addoben ad artiyan chund opisthokonts"
"Multicellular fungi, on the other hand, have a body called mycelium, which is composed of a mass of individual tubular filaments called hyphae that allows for nutrient absorption to occur.","ihanan n alchinan ilanen izirwan ajjotnen, s achrut iyyan, ilan taɣissa s ism net myceluim, ahan iɣunan n taqqimt n addinat s isim net hyphae tahak it turhajat i ajaraw n tesase"
"With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development.","Daɣ uzlay n majrad, arizzej itat , sajaran adu, addoben achwinki, addoben akarach n ilyadan, tolas idaw-al daɣ arori n izirwan , blastula alwaq wan efes n achnaɣ"
Animals can be distinguished into two groups based on their developmental characteristics.,Arizzej addobat ad ilu annuɣan issin n taqqimen ijja fal samalan n efes nasan
"In protostomes, the blastopore gives rise to the mouth, which is then followed by the formation of the anus.","Daɣ protostomes, blastopore itaraw id em s ilkam eɣanni n ajilal"
"The bodies of most animals are symmetrical, with symmetry being either radial or bilateral.","Tiɣiswen n arizzej ajjen olah, s tulat chund azejir meɣ a ilan sanatat tisijwen"
"Finally, animals can be distinguished based on the type and location of their appendages such as antennae for sensing the environment or claws for capturing prey.",Arizzej addobat ad ilu annuɣan issin daɣ ichikil d edag n appendage nasan chund eskaw wan asunsij n ahinzazaɣ meɣ iskaran wi s rammasan imudaran
"The majority (~97%) of animal species are invertebrates, which are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine), derived from the notochord.","Tăššăma n 97 daɣ temede n tăqqǝmen n ǝmudărăn war ǝlen , amosăn arǝzzej war n ǝla meɣ wăr n asǝdwǝl ǝɣăsăn w-ǝn arori (s ǝsmăwăn năsăn arori ǝd ǝzjărăn notochord"
Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata.,Imudaran ajjotnen war n ila iɣasan ilan iddikud ajjen d ichikilan ajjotnen ojjar nen subphylim n vertebrata
"More than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail.",A ojjaran 6.000 n birus ichikilan n arizzej afissar har daɣ almaɣna net wa andarran
"When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent particles, or virions, consisting of the genetic material (DNA or RNA), a protein coat called capsid, and in some cases an outside envelope of lipids.","Alwăq wa id wăr eha ammăs azăr wan erhinăn meɣ ehăn abăra n torhǝnna, burǝs tan ǝllăn tǝ s dumu n particle tan ǝjjănen teklăy n ǝmăn năsăn meɣ virions , eha asuj n etări (DNA meɣ RNA) , alfǝsta s ǝsǝm net capsid tolăs daɣ ǝhăndăgăn ǝyyăd envelob tăhăt ajjăma n lipid tan"
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria.,Aslunan n birus tan daɣ attarex n adduniya war ikna anfilal hullan. Iyyad idwalan ɣur plasmid tan—isuj n DNA addobat nen ahunin jir izirwan—as ijja awen iyyad addoben ad idwilan daɣ tiwikkawen
Viruses can spread in many ways.,Birus tan addoben anafaz daɣ ihandagan ajjotnen
"Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal–oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water.","Norovirus d rotavirus, iddililan oharnen n viral gastronenteritis , tamajaran s abara wan annikal meɣ em daɣ as okay s afus har em meɣ amansi meɣ aman"
"The shoot system is composed of stem, leaves, and flowers.","Sistem wan atkul tahay tekewt, ifrinkittan d fler tan"
The direction of water movement across a semipermeable membrane is determined by the water potential across that membrane.,Ehel wan aman edes n tagursayt isilmad aman fal targusayt
"Most plant seeds are usually dormant, a condition in which the seed's normal activity is suspended.","Tisidwal ajjotnen ihishkan harkuk ittasan, talɣa s tammut alxidmat n tasidwilt"
"Imbibition is the first step in germination, whereby water is absorbed by the seed.","Asibdaj eqqal tikkelt ta tazzarat n efes, edag s aman isassen tasidwilt"
"These monomers are obtained from the hydrolysis of starch, proteins, and lipids that are stored in either the cotyledons or endosperm.","Monomer win ta tajrawan daɣ edaɣdaɣ n hydrolysis, protein tan d lipid tan i aɣzanen cotyledon tan meɣ endosperm"
"Their flowers are organs that facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.",Fler tan nasan aqqalan izirwan asirɣasnen uxlak hullan wan tehakke n immik wan tartit n aman n wahi n ahalis id tikakaten
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species.,Cross-pollination imos efel n anther n pollen n afrinkitta s stigma n afrinkitta iyyan daɣ addinat izlaynen n ichikilan olahnen
"These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.","Imuttiyan win addobe marsalan n etari, fazon d taɣissa a tan immiran"
"The photoreceptor proteins relay information such as whether it is day or night, duration of the day, intensity of light available, and the source of light.","Photoreceptor wan protein isisiki isalan chund win as ijja achala meɣ ehad , daɣ achal , aziyar n efew it illan, d awa daɣ eɣna efew"
"Many flowering plants bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as photoperiodism.","Ihishkan ajjotnen tajjin infrikinttan s alwaq oɣadan fal as iɣalayan wi ofrayan i efew war aqqal nen alwzab i tachijrit n ehad , harat s isim net photoperiodism"
Animals can be classified as either regulators or conformers.,Arizzej addoben tuzant jir regulator tan meɣ conformer tan
"In contrast, animals such as fishes and frogs are conformers as they adapt their internal environment (e.g., body temperature) to match their external environments.","Daɣ achrut iyyan, arizzej chund imanan d ejar aqqalan conformers fal as lammadan ahinzazaɣ nasan wan ammas ( amiltal: talɣa n taɣissa) i ad al id ihinzuzaɣ nasan win ajjama"
"Mice, for example, are able to consume three times more food than rabbits in proportion to their weights as the basal metabolic rate per unit weight in mice is greater than in rabbits.","Almital mus tan,addoben ad akchin har 3 ihandagan attaɣam ajjen ohun timarwalen daɣ tigdaht n azuk nasan fal as iddikud n azuk n mus iyyat ojjar wan timarwalen"
"However, the relationship is non-linear in animals that swim or fly.","Hak id ijja awen, aharoj wan arizzej war ijja afranɣi ilammaɣan meɣ it ajjadan"
"At low flight speeds, a bird must maintain a high metabolic rates to remain airborne.","S tig-ets tahozat akal , egadid ilzam ti ad ogaz iddikud chajren i"
"Finally, freshwater animals have body fluids that are hyperosmotic to fresh water.",Daɣ uchrayn arizzej wan aman wi darosnen ilan aman n tiɣiswen aqqalnen hyperosmotic i aman wi sammednen
"If an animal were to consume food that contains an excess amount of chemical energy, it will store most of that energy in the form of lipids for future use and some of that energy as glycogen for more immediate use (e.g., meeting the brain's energy needs).","A fal ilzam amudar ad ekch attaɣam eha iddikud ajjen ehak in assahat, ad agiz assahat ten daɣ dumu n lipids i alxidmat net n tilkamat tolas iyyad daɣ assahat ten chund glycogen i alxidmat n armod (almital ajjaraw n tinfa tan akikil)"
"In addition to their digestive tracts, vertebrate animals have accessory glands such as a liver and pancreas as part of their digestive systems.","Daɣ asiwid n immansiwan nasan, arizzej ila tijursayen , arizzej wa ilan iɣasan ila gland tan chund tasa d amlaqqes aqqalnen achrut n sistem tan nasan win ifuz"
"Upon leaving the stomach, food enters into the midgut, which is the first part of the intestine (or small intestine in mammals) and is the principal site of digestion and absorption.","Alwaq id ifal tasa, amansi i tajach adan wa andarran s inta a ezzaran daɣ izirwan (meɣ izirwan wi madroynen n imudaran win iɣasan tolas eqqal sit wan ifus d tesase"
"Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles these are called alveoli, and in birds they are known as atria.",Amutti n adu daɣ taruten itaj s milyon tan daɣ sakkoch tan madroynen n adu; daɣ ifafan d imudaran s ismawan nasan alveoli tolas daɣ igdad aqqalan atria
"These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles.","W-ǝn tăjjăšan tăruten edăg s inta a tăjjjăšan sollăn bronši wan ǝssǝn d wan kărăd s tǝgursăyen tǝ mădroynen, bronšiol tan"
There are two types of circulatory systems: open and closed.,Illan ti issin ichikilan n sistem tan win achiwinki: amiri d aɣafal
Circulation in animals occur between two types of tissues: systemic tissues and breathing (or pulmonary) organs.,Achiwinki n arizzej i taj jir issin ichikilan n tisalsiten: tisalsiten ti assilsanen d tisalsiten tin unfa ( meɣ tin taruten)
"In birds and mammals, the systemic and pulmonary systems are connected in series.","Daɣ igdad d imudaran wi sankasnen , sistem tan ilsanen fuk d sistem tan taruten aqqalan a ertayan daɣserie tan"
Skeletal muscle contractions are neurogenic as they require synaptic input from motor neurons.,Ifanazan n tasillet n eɣas amosan neurogenic fal as azzilzaman synaptic input daɣ motor neuron tan
"The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials.","Afanaz wa ijjan eqqal chund twich, asiwad meɣ tetanos ilkaman i ijji n timachɣulen ti ilkamnen"
The mechanisms of contraction are similar in all three muscle tissues.,Tikarsiwen n afanaz olah nat daɣ tesalsiten karadat n taslit
"Other animals such as mollusks, and nematodes, possess obliquely striated muscles, which contain bands of thick and thin filaments that are arranged helically rather than transversely, like in vertebrate skeletal or cardiac muscles.",Arizzej iyyan chund mollusks d nemmatodes ilan tisillad ahan bandar tan n iɣunan karoznen tolas sadodnen ijjanen ikannan n isik ohun a ti isiɣatasan chund iɣasan win imudaran meɣ tisillad tin olh
They can transmit or receive information at sites of contacts called synapses.,Addoben asissiki meɣ ajaraw n isalan fal sit tan win timuqqisen s itawan synapses
Cells such as neurons or muscle cells may be excited or inhibited upon receiving a signal from another neuron.,Izirwan chund neuron tan meɣ izirwan n tisillad addoben a tan ijjich hoq meɣ ifnizan alwaq wa id ijrawan achamol n neuron iyyan
"In vertebrates, the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves that connect the CNS to every other part of the body.","Daɣ imudaran win iɣasan ,sistem wan alxidmat n eɣaf ehay sistem an ammas (CNS) eha akilkil d arori tolas sistem wan ajjama (PNS) ahan izirwan wi assirtaynen CNS id achrut n taɣissa fuk"
"The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.","PNS ijja karadat tazunawen s sistem tan madroynen , somatic, ermadan, tolas enteric nervous systems"
"The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state.",Sistem sympathetic wan izirwan exaddam alwaq wa ti illan iziyeran i asidu n assahat s ijja awen sistem parasympathetic wan izirwan exaddam alwaq wa id assunfan
Nerves that exit directly from the brain are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.,Izirwan wi zajarnen akikil ismawan nasan izirwan win akikil as ijja awen wi id zajarnen arori ismawan nasan izirwan win arori
"In humans specifically, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.","Daɣ addinat hullan, endocrine glands wi maqqornen aqqalan thyroid gland d adrenal glands"
"Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.","Hirmones addoben ad aqqilan amino acid , steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes meɣ prostaglandins"
They produce haploid gametes by meiosis.,T arawan haploid gametes s meiosis
"In most cases, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, also develops between them.","Daɣ ǝhăndăgăn ajotnen , tăselsǝt tan kărădăt, mesoderm, ǝnta deɣ d-ăwăl jar essăn"
"Gastrulation occurs, whereby morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three germ layers that comprise the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.","Gastrulation i taj alwaq ichwinkitan n morphogenetic ikkan s izirwan s karadat tisalsiten amos nen ectodrm, mesoderm d endoderm"
"Cellular differentiation is influenced by extracellular signals such as growth factors that are exchanged to adjacent cells, which is called juxtracrine signaling, or to neighboring cells over short distances, which is called paracrine signaling.",Anmizlay n izirwan ornan ti ichamolan chund marsalan n adawal t imuti nen s izirwan iffarnen s ismawan nasan juxtracrine singaling meɣ izirwan ahanen edes san s ihandagan madroynen s ismawan nasan paracine singaling
The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered.,sistem wan alɣillăs ehăk alwăzăb oɣădăn i stimilis fuk s alămăd n musnăt tan molecule tan ti dăr ammuqăs dăta awa
Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against virus infections.,Tiwikkawen ilanat system assohen n aɣalas ijjan s dumu n enzyme tan ogaznen daɣ imajiran win birus tan
"Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently.","Tamaxluk ta tilat isenan chund addinat, ilan immikan n aɣalas iknanen milɣaw eha tudabat nasan i almud n musnat awa isajrawan torhinnawen hullan"
"Fixed action patterns, for instance, are genetically determined and stereotyped behaviors that occur without learning.","Almǝtăl, tǝkkelen n alxǝdmăt tăzzuket ǝllănăt ulmăd daɣ etări tolas alxălăn hărăy nen tăjjǝnen daɣ ǝbăn afăhăm"
"The community of living (biotic) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (abiotic) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil) of their environment is called an ecosystem.","Tawset n imudaran wi iddarnen (biotic) d wi warn idder (abiotic) (almital aman, annur, radiation, tukise, tanasmut,tisumme, d akal) n ahinzazaɣ nasan isim net ecosystem"
"By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.","Achikch n ihishkan d iyyad , ehare ila edag assohen daɣ tamatikwayt n haratan d assahat s sistem"
The Earth's physical environment is shaped by solar energy and topography.,Ahǝnzăzăɣ n tăɣissa n amădal tǝkne assăhăt tan tăfukt d topografi
"Weather is the day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.",Taqqan taqqal alxidmat n achal fuk n tukise d ajjinna as ijja awen amutti n azzaman eqqal taqqan n azzaman chajret ilan jir azzaman n 30 n awatay
"As a result, wet environments allow for lush vegetation to grow.","Uchrayan n awen, ihanzuzaɣ ibdajnen t araw id tadawla n ihishkan huskatnen"
"Population growth during short-term intervals can be determined using the population growth rate equation, which takes into consideration birth, death, and immigration rates.","Tiw-at n ichaɣib jir taqqanen addobat at w ilmad s iddikud n tiw-at n ichaɣib eha ti-wit, tamattant d isikilan"
A biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other.,Anmirtay n abarkot eqqal taqqimt n tamaxluk tizzaɣat daɣ edag iyyan daɣ tawset ijjan fal wi yadnen
A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis.,Anmirtay ehojjan isim net symbiosis
"There are different trophic levels within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or autotrophs) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into organic compounds, which can then be used by the rest of the community.","Illan ti ihandagan n tropic izlaynen daɣ web n achakchaw fuk , s edag wan gachulan eqqal wan primary producers ( meɣ autotrophs) chund ihishkan d algae tan s imutinen enerji d isuj win inorganic s win organic addobat nen at wa axdam daɣ awa eqqiman daɣ tawset"
And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on.,Tolas wi tat in nen imakchan wi s issin aqqalan imakchan win karad d ajjen
In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance remains or is sequestered for a long period of time.,Daɣ cycle tan iyyad illan ti rezerwar tan iyyad daɣ itayɣim meɣ eɣfal har alwaq chajren
"The largest driver of warming is the emission of greenhouse gases, of which more than 90% are carbon dioxide and methane.","Chafer wa ojjaran hullan n tukisse eqqal emission n greenhouse gases, s a ojjaran 90% amosan carbon dioxide d methane"
"Biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend.","Biodiversity tikma alxidmat tan ecosystem tan , hakkinen ichikil n alxidmaten ti aqqalnen addaman n addinat"
"Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress.","Daɣ alasal, botany t ijja teɣare n ehan wan alchinan d algae ijjan mycologists d pycologists , id teɣare n taqqimen tin akarad n tamaxluk taqqimat edes n edag wan afor n International Botanical Congress."
"Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance.",Taɣissa n Ifirjan win aru s alwaq iiyan osaɣan id ihanan win monasteries ahan ihishkan infanen assexat
These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants.,Ifirjan win assirɣasan teɣare tan ihishkan
"In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.","A lan 20 n awatay daɣ awatay wan 2000, botanist tan assaxdaman tikarsiwen tin amiyiz n etari wan molecule tan , eha geonomics d proteomics d DNA to amiskat n ihishkan hullan"
"""Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the """"Father of Botany"""".""","“Botany tan amarad izjar id adarich net Ancient Greece hullan daɣ Theophrastus ( c.371 har 287 BCE), anattalib n Aristote id eɣnan tolas affisar achareɣa tan net d tolas daɣ tawset tan kel scientifik tan eqqal “ abba n botany””"
"De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years.",De Materia Medica iknan ti addinat teɣare hullan a ojjaran 1500 n awatay
"In the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities.","Daɣ ammas n awatay wan 1600 , ifirjan win botany talammen daɣ lakkolan wi maqqornen ajjotnen n italia"
They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject.,Idhalan asidwal n botany daɣ tiɣir tin lakkol
"Throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine.","Daɣ azzaman wen, botany taqqim tikn achinich i medecine"
Bock created his own system of plant classification.,Bock eɣna id sistem n iman net wan amaskat n ihishkan
The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys.,Nefran d anmillal n samalan addoben ad aqqilan a eɣna awadim daɣ isayara ijjanen i lammudat ( isayaran win amiyiz) meɣ a orakan hullan s aqqud wan
This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus.,Awen iday binomial azzukken meɣ addabara wan issin ismawan s isim wa ezzaran eha edag n genus tolas wan issin ichikil n imudaran wi ahanen genus
"Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus.","Tiw-at n musnat tan techne n ahisk, dumu d azzamanan win tamattit n tamudre itiwi s almud n as tille temedt ajjen jir ihishkan ohun sistem wa eɣna awadim n Linnaeus"
The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany.,Alxidmat tan Katherine Esau (awatay wan 1898 har 1997) fal techne n ahishk taqqal har ajjudi tadamalut maqqorat n botany tan amarad
"The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements.","Isim wan as tartit tan tawseten tin ihishkan chund aroj n ifrinkittan win awelan isimutay anmichray n amatikway n ecology eɣna Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley d Frederic Clements"
The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals.,Ajaraw d alamad n hormones n ahisk wan auxin ijja Kenneth V. Thirmann daɣ awatay wan 1948 ikfa turhajat s asidwal n ahishk s idoman altaɣnen s ajjama
"20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis.","Efes n ihishkan wi n biochemistry daɣ awatay wan 2000 erawan ti id tikarsiwen tin amarad n amiyiz n organic chemical chund spectroscopy, chromatography d electrophoresis"
"These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.","Teknoloji tan tin ikfa nat turhajat s axadam n biotechnology n ihishkan fuk meɣ igayakan n ihishkan idwal nen daɣ bioreactor tan s fazon tan synthesise, antibiotics meɣ n isifran hak id asiltaɣ n adom s amuttay alasal net iknan i samalan chund"
Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants.,Sistematics win amarad ittus nasan iguch n edag d ajaraw n aharoj n phylogenetic jir ihishkan
"As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.","Daɣ as eqqal asuj n photosynthesis, ihishkan tay in adu daɣ ichinnawan, gaz ilzaman i haratan fuk wi daɣ iddar nen i ag-ay n unfas daɣ izirwan nasan"
"Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals.","Daɣ attarex, haratan fuk wi iddar nen iskatan as aqqalan arizzej meɣ ihishkan tolas botany tilsa teɣare tan tamaxluk fuk ta war n aha"
"""The strictest definition of """"plant"""" includes only the """"land plants"""" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses.""","“Almaɣna wa darosan hullan n “ahishk” war ti eha ɣas ar “” ihishka win akal”” meɣ embryophytes ahan idomman n ahishk (gymnosperms, eha pines,d ihishkan ijjanen ifrinkittan) d free-sporing cryptograms eha fern, clubmosses, liveworts, hornwoorts d mosses”"
"The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte.","Edag wan tartit n haploid n embryophytes s isim net gametophyte, ichakch achnaɣ n diploid sporophyte daɣ tisillad net s achrut n tamudre net hak id daɣ adom n ihihkan , s gametophyte iman net ichakche emaraw net sporophyte"
Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants.,Palaeobotanists aɣran ihishkan win aru daɣ adarich n wi aru i ad ekfu isalan fal attarex wan amutti n ihishkan
This is what ecologists call the first trophic level.,Awen inta as jan in ecologist tan edag wa ezzaran n trophic
"Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems.",Botanist tan aɣran tolas ihishkan win ahojar aqqalnen muchakil daɣ tiwijas d botany d ag-az n awa eqqalan torhinna i ahishk daɣ tiwijas d ecosystem tan
The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy.,Annur wan enerji ermas chlorophyll a olah s tizarat id dumu n electron tan ( darat awa id proto gradient) awen exdam i iji n molecule tan n ATP d NADPH wi tagaz nen tolas sisikiyan enerji
Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast.,Glucose iyyan itimutti s edaɣdaɣ eɣallaf an daɣ chloroplast
"Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids.","Daɣ uzlay n arizzej (hin odanan chloroplasts) , ihishkan d eukaryote oyyadan ihandagan ajjotnen i chloroplast tan nasan eha akulukulu n acid tan nasan fuk win tadhunt d acid tan amino"
"Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress.","Ihishkan n akal chund lignin, polymer exdaman i aassuhi n iɣalayan win issin n xylem tracheids d vessels i a tan ogazan daɣ egadal alwaq wa id iswa ahishk aman sarsan daw aman"
"Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies.",Iyyad chund peppermint oil d sitron infan harat daɣ ihuk n adu (almital capsaicin) tolas daɣ medecine chund isifran chund opium daɣ opium poppies
"For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy.","Almital, tablalt ta tanaqqit tazzurt t aqqal acetyl ester n acid saticlic daɣ alasal azun id tafrinka n ihishkan win willow trees, d ichikil n tiblalen ti n aqqinen tazzurt chund heroin ta tajraw nat s amutti n morphine ta tajraw at daɣ opium poppy"
Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years.,Ameriken tan win akal assaxdaman ihishkan ajjotnen chund abara tan n asafar n tirhinna n afdan n iwityan
"Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products.","Assukar, edaɣdaɣ, koton, ikarchayan, hemp, ichikilan iyyad n aɣan, ahishk d particle boards, papyrus, d alkad, dilwilan, wax,d rubber aqqalan almitalan n isuj n asuk assohat nen iknanen daɣ ihishkan meɣ asuj wan nasan wan issin"
"Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton.","Isuj iknanen daɣcellulose eha rayon d cellophane, wallpaper, biotunatol d gus cotton,"
Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists.,Ecologist tan iyyad sifallan fal isalan n addinat win akal id issedwan ehnobotanist tan
Plants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too.,Ihishkan ilkaman i edaphic iyyan d marsalan n amutti n azzaman daɣ ahinzazaɣ nasan mucham addobat asammuti n marsalan har ajjudi
"They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation.","Anmartayan n inarhajan nasans iddikud daɣ taqqimen , ichaɣiban d tawseten s fuk nasan aqqalan ihishkan"
Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas).,Gregor Mendel ijraw achareɣa tanwin etari s teɣare n samalan win etari s dumu daɣ Pisusm sativum (peas)
"Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.","Kud ijja awen daɣ, illan ti anmazlayan ajjontnen jir ahisks d tamaxulat"
The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids.,Ichikilan wi ajjotnen igyaknen n erig aqqalan ittus wa ewad anmirtay wan jir d wan ammas jir ichikilan n imudaran d amiskal nasan
In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals.,Daɣ ihishkan n meddan d dede n akal gametes tan tiriwan tan addinat azunen
The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example.,Tartit n tuyo tan daɣ bombater eqqal almital iyyan
"Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.","Apomixis addobăt ad ej daɣ adom, ǝtărăw adom eha ăšnăɣ olăhăn ǝd emărăw net"
An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species.,Ahishl wan allopolyploid izajar id amaskal n issin ichikilan izlaynen
"Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals.",Poliplwad tan n ǝhǝškăn ǝyyăd war ǝtǝru addoben ad arǝwăn meɣ s adom wăn apomixis aqqǝl nen ǝšăɣǝbăn n addǝnăt olăhnen
Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.,Dandelon oharan n triploid itiruwan idomman olaɣnen s adom wan apomictic
"The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.","Anmizar n genome tan iyyad madroynen , n tafaɣat (Oryza sativa) d Brachypodium distachyon ijjan tan ichikil n afaham n genetics, biology tan cellular d molecular n attaɣam, alammuz d monocots"
"Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology.","Spinach , tanzant, soybean d moss Physcomitrella patens ammos a exdaman i teɣare n biology tan ahishk"
Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed.,asiwil wan gene addobat a ti ewakkal repressor proteins i taqqanan silencer rejion tan n DNA tolas t igdalat i rejion i kod wan DNA i asiwil
"Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.","Imuttiyan n epigenetic atwan aqqalan harat n etari, as ijja awen iyyad amisaɣalan daɣ germ cells"
"Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant.","Daɣ anmizlay id arizzej, ihishkan ajjotnen, hullan win parenchyma, war imda anmizlay nasan, aqqalan totipotent addobat nen ad aru an ahishk eynayan"
"The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others.","Algae tan aqqalan taqqimt n polyphyletic tolas ahan tizunawen ajjotnen , t iyyad iknan at arrak s ihiskan fal wi yadnen"
The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.,Charophyte class Charophyceae d ahishk wan amadal sub-kingdom Embryophyta fuk nasan aqqalan taqqimt tan monophyletic meɣ clade Streptophytina
Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian.,Ihishkan win Pteridophytic ilanen xylem wan tiditt d phloem itiruwan s spores itifuqen s karad gametophyte tan daɣ azzaman wan Silurian tolas ijjatan s ihandagan ajjotnen daɣ Silurian wan darat d Devonian wan tizarat
"Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory.","Gametophyte tan nasan ifnaznen ijja efes nasan daɣ megaspore tan ahanen spore-producing organs (megasporangia) n sporophyte, talɣa ti wassanat s endospory"
The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage.,Ihishkan win tizarat tawassannen ijlan wan azzaman wan Devonian Famenian wan uchray
"Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism.","Chemicals ti w ajraw nen daɣ adu, akal d aman taqqalan tijittawt n metabolism n ahishk fuk"
"Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues.","Heterotrophs ahan irizzejan fuk, ihanan n alchinan fuk, ihishkan fuk win marsal d non-photosynthetic bacteria jarraw an molecule tan ti eraw photoautotrophs tolas asunfis tan meɣ exdam tan daɣ edey n cells d tissues"
"Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes.","Asikil n sucellular wan ion tan, electron tan d molecule tan chund aman d enzymes i taj fal cell membrane tan"
"Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.","Almital tan n haratan wi s arha ahishk asikil nasan amosan nitrogen, phophorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium d sulfur"
This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity.,Mediates win artaynen alwazaban win tropic n tasidwalt d ikewan s annur d gravity
"The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine.","Cytokinin zeatin it w ajraw daɣ erij, kolkoti wan zea tolas izjar id purine adenine"
"They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.","Ahan daɣ tiw-at n ifuqqi tan d terazze n dormancy daɣ tisidwal,daɣ amukin n tizzijrit n tadamalut tan ahishk d awikkil n ifrinkittan"
It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission.,Ikna tila n isim fal as daɣ attarex itiwaɣal as ad eɣlis tuzant
"Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.","Ichikil iyyan n phytohormones eqqal jasmonates, iskatan s tizarat daɣ udi wan Jasmin grandiflorum wa ikan in alwazaban win ihayojan daɣ ihishkan s agabal n asiwil n gene tan ilzaman daɣ alwazab ijjan i tadlimt tan n awa isarhanan"
"Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.","Ihishkan wi war n ila ikewan chund liverworts, hornworts d mosses war t iriwan ikewan tajjach nen akal tolas ijjit n ihishkan tajjachan photosynthesis"
Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots.,Cells tan daɣ sistem fuk addoben ad aɣnin cells tan n wa yadan tolas ariwan tadamalut meɣ ikewan infanen
"In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it.","A fal iyyan daɣ sistem tan assujjal, wa yadan a ti id issidwil"
"In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots.","Daɣ ǝhǝškăn w-ǝn ǝkewăn, xylem d floem aqqălăn ǝzǝrwăn w-ǝ tăsăkăl nen jǝr tădămălut d ǝkewăn"
Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.,Ifrinkittan sadawan annur tolas tiwiyan photosynthesis
Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.,Angiosperm tan aqqalan ihishkan wi tirunen ihishkan hakkin nen ifrinkittan tolas ilan adom assikaran
"Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.","Ihishkan iyyad tiriwan s tartit, iyyad s iban tartit d iyyad s immikan wi fuk"
Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy.,Amaskat wan abarkot eqqal dumu n scientific taxonomy
"While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.","Kud inta scientifik tan harkuk war ardeɣan fal immik wa s iskatan tamaxluken , molecular phylogenetics, wi axdamnen s DNA chund isalan, ewayan imasuɣilan ajjotnen eynaynen id iyaka tan ikkannen s data tolas war eha ach-ak as ad aki daɣ awen"
"The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.","Noenclature tan botanical organisms tikkodat daɣ International Code of Nomenclature i algae, ehan n alcginan d ihishkan (ICN) tolas exkam ti International Botanical Congress."
"The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.","Isim n ahishk wan scientifik eha edag n genus d ichikilan net daɣ genus, id ichrayan s isim iyyan daɣ alɣali i tamaxluk fuk"
The combination is the name of the species.,Anmirtay eqqal isim n taqqimt n imudaran
The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny.,Iharojan d etari n taqqimt n tamaxluk isim net phylogeny
"As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves.","Chund almital, taqqimt n imudaran win Pereskia aqqalan ihishkan meɣ irajjan ilanen ifrinkittan chajrotnen"
"Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently.","Acharaɣ n iharojan ijjanen fal samalan azunnen azilzam iji n anniyat, fal as ihishkan addoben ad alahan id wi yadnen s amutti iddewan daɣ id idwalan samalan fal iman nasan"
"Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.",Samalan ɣas wi id izjarnen chund spine-producing areoles n cacti eqqal asidduti n tila n awich-ar oharan
"The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to.",Anmizlay amos as kod wan etari iman net exdam i musnat n iharojjan ohun exadam net s samalan ti isadwal
Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.,Asidduti n wan etari asilmad as aharoj wan tidit n taimaxluken ajjotnen eqqal immik wa s ijja daɣ cladogram wan sider- ihanan win alchinan orakan hullan s arizzej ohun ihishkan
Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.,Imuɣ n immik wa s taqqimen n ihishkan olah nat id ti yadnen ijjarraw i botanist tan ad afhaman hullan tamikwayt tan amutti n ihishkan
"Although humans have always been interested in the natural history of the animals they saw around them, and made use of this knowledge to domesticate certain species, the formal study of zoology can be said to have originated with Aristotle.","Kuddeɣ as addinat iknan in hullan ejarri n attarex wan irrizejjan wi ahanen edes has-san tolas assaxdaman musnat ten i ad asuninan issikilan iyyad, teɣare n zoology addobat ad itwan as asinti net Aristotle"
"Modern zoology has its origins during the Renaissance and early modern period, with Carl Linnaeus, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel and many others.","Zoology wan uchray ila iɣanni tan net daɣ Renaissance d azzaman wa uchray ezzaran id Carl Linnaeus, Antonie Van Leuuwenhoek, Robert Hooke, Charles Darwin, Gregor Mendel d iyyad ajjotnen"
"There are cave paintings, engravings and sculptures in France dating back 15,000 years showing bison, horses and deer in carefully rendered detail.","Illan ti idalojan win aru d echwalan daɣ France ilanen 1500 n awatay issiknanen bison, ibijwan,d eswan s almaɣna iknan aqqad"
"Ancient knowledge of wildlife is illustrated by the realistic depictions of wild and domestic animals in the Near East, Mesopotamia and Egypt, including husbandry practices and techniques, hunting and fishing.","Musnat tan aru n arizzej n asuf iknan ti asukin idalojan win tiditt n arizzej wan asuf d wa annunan daɣ Near East, Mesopotamia d Egypt eha tamadint d tikarsiwen , ahuyi d ittur n imanan"
"Aristotle, in the fourth century BC, looked at animals as living organisms, studying their structure, development and vital phenomena.","Aristotle , daɣ awatay wan 400 data annabi ɣisa , ikyad daɣ arizzej chund timaxluken iddarnen, eɣra edey nasan, efes d almaɣna n tamudre"
"Four hundred years later, Roman physician Galen dissected animals to study their anatomy and the function of the different parts, because the dissection of human cadavers was prohibited at the time.","Akkozăt tǝmăd n awătăy dărăt awa, Galen wan lăɣtor n Roma ora arǝzzej ǝ ad eɣir ǝššikǝl n edey năsăn d alxǝdmăt tan ǝššrutăn ǝzlăynen fal as ameri n alzănăzăt n addǝnăt ǝmnăɣ daɣ azzămăn wen daɣ"
"In Europe, Galen's work on anatomy remained largely unsurpassed and unchallenged up until the 16th century.","Daɣ Eroba, alxidmat tan Galen fal ichikil n edey ehoj hullan war ti illa a ti okayan tolas a ti amiɣannan har awatay wan 1600"
"Having previously been the realm of gentlemen naturalists, over the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline.","S kala eqqal daɣ tizzarat abara wan gentlemen naturalist daɣ awatay wan 1800, 1900 d 2000, zoology t aqqal hullan ezaraj n teɣaretan sicentifik"
"These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection; in this Darwin placed the theory of organic evolution on a new footing, by explaining the processes by which it can occur, and providing observational evidence that it had done so.","Efes win hak id awa id izjaran embryology d paleontology, akulukalawan daɣ akatab n attarex wan Charles Darwin daɣ awatay wan 1859 n achiwinki s data s nefran n batil; daɣ awen mirda wan Darwin n iki s data s tikkelt teynayat , s afaham n timitikwayen n immik wa s itaj tolas ekf asidittu n akayad wa i ijja awen"
"Darwin gave a new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a common biological theory: the theory of organic evolution.",Darwin ikf tasidik teynayt i morphology d physiology s asarti nasan daɣmirda n biology oharan: mirda wan iki s data
"An early necessity was to identify the organisms and group them according to their characteristics, differences and relationships, and this is the field of the taxonomist.","Harat daɣ tilzamat tan tizarat t aqqal musnat n timaxluken tolas asidu nasan s samalan nasan, anmizlayan nasan d tartit nasan, tolas awen eqqal abara wan taxonomist"
His ideas were centered on the morphology of animals.,Ta-ite tan net ijjan at fal dumu n irizzejan
These groupings have since been revised to improve consistency with the Darwinian principle of common descent.,Isidiwan win olasan at wikyad iyyan i asimmuti n assahat n ichiritan win Darwin n attarex oharan
"Homo is the genus, and sapiens the specific epithet, both of them combined make up the species name.","Homo eqqal genus tolas sapiens tasassaɣrot iyyat, fuk nasan artayan hak in isim n taqqimen n imudaran"
The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy.,Sistem n asakat wan ojjaran isim net Linnaean Taxonomy
Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.,Afaham n edey d alxidmat n izirwan eqqal a ilzaman i biological science tan fuk
"It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently.",Ijja fal immik wa s ɣuduw d sistem tan win ɣuduw oharan alxidmat daɣ tiɣiswen n addinat d irizzejan i asiwad n immik wa s axadman iyyan fuk
"Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied.",Tiɣir tin tiɣiswen daɣ alasal azzunnat s plant taɣissa tan ahihk d taɣissa tan arizzej mucham ichiritan n ichikil n taɣissa olahan daɣ alɣalim a t imos tamaxluk fuk ta fal tijja teɣare
"For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.","Daɣ almital, ahan ti harkuk sicent tan ijjanen teɣare n timaxluken chund mammology, omithology, herpetology, meɣ entomology mucham asaxdim n timaxluken tin s sitem tan i alwazab n isistanan ajjotnen fal tamattit"
Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection.,Ethologists taqqal tan id talɣa tan tamattit n alxal d afaham n alxal daɣ mirda wan nefran n batil
"While researchers practice techniques specific to molecular biology, it is common to combine these with methods from genetics and biochemistry.","Kud inta alxidmat n tikarsiwen n kel farak i molecular biology, raqqis asirtay n tikarsiwen tin s genetics d biochemistry"
"Biological systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time.",Biological system eqqal teɣare n asijjit n dumu tan n tamudre wa okayan d wan aarad tols tartit n imudaran iddar nen s azzaman
"Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (biogeography).",taqqimen n ihishkan n phylogenetic d taxa wa chajren axdaman i teɣare n samalan n imutiyan (almital:samalan win anatomical meɣ molecular) tolas tazunt n tiimaxluken (biogeography)
Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches.,Biological systematics azunan ichikilan imudran s karad iliktan izlaynen
"Experimental systematics identifies and classifies animals based on the evolutionary units that comprise a species, as well as their importance in evolution itself.",Sistematik tan amyiz tǝssăn tolas tăzun ǝrǝzzejăn s tǝšǝten năsăn ǝjjănen jǝr ǝššǝkǝlăn hak ǝd assăhăt năsăn daɣ amuti năsăn
Explaining the biodiversity of the planet and its organisms.,Afissar n biodersity n alɣalim d organizm tan
Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.,Taxonomy taqqal achrut n Systematics taqqal fal topic tan (a) har (d)
"However, in modern usage, they can all be considered synonyms of each other.","Hak id ijja awen, daɣ majrad wan uchray, addoben ad aqqilan inamaɣran n iyyan fuk"
"Some claim systematics alone deals specifically with relationships through time, and that it can be synonymous with phylogenetics, broadly dealing with the inferred hierarchy of organisms.","Iyyad tajjin systematics ɣas id aqqalnen iharojan daɣ azzaman tolas addobat ad eqqil anammaɣraw n phylogenetics, taqqalat fal anmillal n timaxluken"
Scientific classifications are aids in recording and reporting information to other scientists and to laymen.,Iskutan win Scientifik tan aqqalan tidhilen daɣ aɣazan d alaɣi n isalan i scientist tan wi yadnen tolas i aljuhal
"In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity.","Daɣ biology, ichikil n imudaran eqqal tijittawt n iskutan d edag wan taxonomic n tamaxluk hak id ichikil n biodiversity"
"In addition, paleontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined.","Daɣ asiwad, paleontologist tan asaxdaman isim wan chronospecies alwaq wa id arraw n iɣasan wi aru war addobat amiyiz"
"""All species (except viruses) are given a two-part name, a """"binomial"""".""","“ Ichikilan fuk (ar win birus tan) aqqalan ilan ichrutan issin n isim, “binominal””"
"For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the genus Boa, with constrictor being the species's epithet.","Daɣ almital, Boa constrictor eqqal iyyan daɣ ichikilan win akkoz n genus Boa, s Constrictor eqqal ichikil n tasassaɣrat"
"Also, among organisms that reproduce only asexually, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies.","Daɣ timaxluken ti t irunen daɣ war artay nat, isim wan ichikilan wi t irunen erza tolas tekakit iyyat fuk taqqal microspecies"
"Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being.","Ichikilan ti w akyadan har daɣ azzaman wan Aristotle har awatay wan 1800 chund ichikilan wi addobat nen ad ijjichan anmillal , esassar wa maqqoran n addinat"
That understanding was greatly extended in the 20th century through genetics and population ecology.,Afaham ikna anakch hullan daɣ awatay wan 2000 s genetics d ichaɣib wan ecology
"Ernst Mayr emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test.","Ernt Mayr ijja titbaqqet fal iru iskatan mucham awen chund ichikilan n imudran iyyad, eqqal a issohen meɣ as war ila erem net almaɣna"
"""This method was used as a """"classical"""" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory.""",“ Tazujicht taxdam chund tazujicht n “alasal” n musnat tan imudaran chund Linnaeus daɣ mirda wa ezzaran n amutti”
"As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that kinds of Bacteria or Archaea with 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by DNA-DNA hybridisation to decide if they belong to the same species or not.","Daɣ ijjit n haratan, microbiologis tan asilmadan as dumu n tiwikkawen n Archaea ilanen 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences iknan tulat ohun 97% jir iman nasan arhanen ikuch n ach-ak s DNA-DNA hybridisation i atkul n addabara as ilen ichikil olahan meɣ bo"
Modern approaches compare sequence similarity using computational methods.,Tizujichen eynaynen ikat nat tulat tan sequence s asaxdim n computational methods
"A database, Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD), contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species.","Barkod wan tamudre n sistem wan data tan (BOLD),fătăw tan aɣăzăn n ǝsălăn, ahăn tat sekens tan n DNA  ojjăr nen 190.000 n ǝššǝkǝl"
"For example, in a study done on fungi, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied.","Daɣ almital , daɣ teɣare t ijjat fal ehan wan alchinan, teɣare fal samalan win nucleotide s ichikilan cladistic ikfan ittusan oɣadnen daɣ musnat n ichikilan n ihanan n alchinan ajjotnen n ismawan fuk fal t ija teɣare"
"""Yet others defend this approach, considering """"taxonomic inflation"""" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as """"taxonomic conservatism""""; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as endangered in the IUCN red list and can attract conservation legislation and funding.""","“ Har ajjudi iyyad azzuken fal tazujicht ten, asilmadan “”taxonomic inflation”” i harayan tolas ijjan akayad wa izlayan “” taxonomic conservatism”” jan in awen daɣ ezaraj wan folitik i ad uzanan tolas issinan ichaɣiban wi madroynen hullan daɣ edag wan ichikilan fal as awen imos as addoben ad ijjichan s tarɣise as aqqalan a annukmaman daɣ takarde ta chajaɣat n IUCN tolas addobat ad erkib aɣalas addakal n achareɣa tan d asirfi net”"
"If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet.","A fal scientist tan amosan as harat itaj in i ichikilan fuk daɣ genus, saxdaman isim wan genus deɣ wala isim net meɣ tasassaɣrawt net"
"As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted.","A ijjan isalan tizuben id, mirda addobat ad addutat meɣ ebbahaw"
"Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called splitting.","Tuzant n taxon s taxa ajjotnen, eynaynen isim net afrus"
The term quasispecies is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.,Isim wan quasiispecies axdam alwaqqan iyyad i tagayen ti s ermad ajili nasnat chund birus tan
"In ring species, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.","Daɣ ichikilan win ring, alwaq addinat win ichaɣiban daɣ tazunt tijjat maqqorat t imuqqisan mucham addinat win ichaɣiban wi ajjuj nen war t ijjin awen"
Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation.,Ichikilan n ring aqqalan marsal i ichikilan fuk aqqal nen fal iru wan iskatnen
"Speciation depends on a measure of reproductive isolation, a reduced gene flow.",Speciation t ilkam i eket wan iruwan iskat nen gene flow ifnazan
"Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic domains, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.","Tiwikkawen addobat nat asimmuti n plasmid tan s tiwikkawen n ichikilan iyyad ahan iyyad s daɣ akayad tilla jir san temedt chajret daɣ abara tan n phylogenetic izlaynen ,harat asisahen amiyiz n iharojan nasan d ifnazan assahat n isim wan ichikilan win tiwikkawen"
"Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including volcanic activity, climate change, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters.","Timatanen ajjotnen ilanat iddilan ajjotnen eha Volcanic activity, amutti n azzaman, d imutiyan n ejjarew wa maqqoran d ichinnawan tolas ilan tikmawen maqqor nen fal akal, ichinnawan, arori n akal d iman"
Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.,Imakyadan iyyad allaɣen as ille akinnas jir afaham wan immikan win speciation d derhan n musnat d asakat
One of the classic cases in North America is that of the protected northern spotted owl which hybridises with the unprotected California spotted owl and the barred owl; this has led to legal debates.,"Iyyan daɣ haratan win daɣ Amerik tan tamasna imos as buwen wan tamasna eɣlasan id izjaran buwen war n aɣles n California d tabuwent , awen eraw id imijridan daɣ achareɣa"
"A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents.","Dumu izlay s tazunt has ijjan addinat net fuk,wi madroynen itran id amluluwan id ijrawan daɣ imarawan nasan"
He established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.,Iday ta-ite tan anmillal wan taxonomic n askut ijjan samalan ilanen akayad tolas otas ad ijjich edag n iharojan
"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.","Jean-Baptiste Lamarch , daɣ Zoological Phylosophy net wan 1809, afissr imutiyan n ichikilan , ijjan addabara tan as ichikilan addoben amutti daɣ azzaman daɣ telkay timdat n amedran wan Aristotelian"
Genus (plural genera) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses.,Genus ( plural genera) eqqal edag n taxonomic daɣ askut wan abarkot timaxluken d iɣasan win kel aru hak id birus tan
E.g. Panthera leo (lion) and Panthera onca (jaguar) are two species within the genus Panthera.,"Daɣ almǝtăl, Panthera leo (ahǝr) d Pantera onca (jaguar) aqqălăn ǝššǝkšlăn ǝssǝn daɣ genus Panthera"
"A botanical example would be Hibiscus arnottianus, a particular species of the genus Hibiscus native to Hawaii.","Almital n botanic eqqal Hibiscus anorttianus, ichikilan n akal n Genus Hibiscuss"
"""Available names are those published in accordance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and not otherwise suppressed by subsequent decisions of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN); the earliest such name for any taxon (for example, a genus) should then be selected as the """"valid"""" (i.e., current or accepted) name for the taxon in question.""","“ǝllăn-t ǝsmăwăn ǝzjăr nen daɣ as ǝlkămăn ǝ abăra wan International Code  Zoolojikal Nomenklatur tolas war tan ǝmes nat addăbăra tan n International komisyon tan Zoolojikal Nomenklatur (ICZN), ǝsǝm wa ezzărăn ǝ taxon fuk (daɣ almǝtăl, genus) a he ennăfrănăn šund ǝsǝm fal t ǝjja “tărǝddăwt”” (awen ǝmos, ǝjlan meɣ ătwăɣbălăn) ǝ taxon w-ǝs atwăn”"
"In botany, similar concepts exist but with different labels.","Daɣ botany, ismawan olah nenillan mucham id label tan izlaynen"
"However, many names have been assigned (usually unintentionally) to two or more different genera.","Hak id ijja awen, ismawan ajjotnen t aw afk-an (harkuk daɣ ittus) i issin meɣ genera tan ajjotnen"
A name that means two different things is a homonym.,Isim ilan almaɣna n issin haratan eqqal isim n anammaɣraw
"However, a genus in one kingdom is allowed to bear a scientific name that is in use as a generic name (or the name of a taxon in another rank) in a kingdom that is governed by a different nomenclature code.","Hak id ijja awen, genus eqqal iyyan daɣ almalikiyat ilan turhajat n ad ila isim n scientiik exdaman as isim wa oharan (meɣ isim n taxon daɣ eday iyyan) daɣ almalikiyat daɣ exkam kod wan askut anmazlayan"
"For instance, among (non-avian) reptiles, which have about 1180 genera, the most (>300) have only 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5–10 species, ~200 have 11–50 species, and only 27 genera have more than 50 species.","Daɣ almital, daɣ imudaran (non-avian) s itawan reptile tan ilanen iddikud n 1180 genera, wa ojjaran (>300) ilan ichikil iyyan ɣas, -360 ilan jir 2 d 4 ichikilan, 260 ilan 5 har 10 ichikilan ,-200 ila 11 har 50 n ich-ikil tolas 27 n genera ilan a ojjaran 50 n ich-ikil."
Which species are assigned to a genus is somewhat arbitrary.,Ma imosan ich-ikil wa ijrawan isim wan genus eqql harat ilkam i nefran
What belongs to a family—or if a described family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists.,Tila tan egadach - meɣ a fal egadach ad at w aɣbil fuk - ihuk net d aɣatas net war t itij ar taxonomist tan
"Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position.",Alwaq iyyan war t ila tanmerdut t oɣadat id taxonomist tan ajjotnen iyyan fuk ila edag n iman net
Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position.,Michael Novacek (1986) ijjen daɣ edag iyyan
"There are no objective rules for describing a class, but for well-known animals there is likely to be consensus.",War t illenat achareɣa tan n tiditt aqqal nen a imalan samalan n taqqimt mucham daɣ awa id eqqalan irizzejan ille anafham ijjan.
"In botany, classes are now rarely discussed.","Daɣ botany, taqqimen war ijja majrad nasnat hullan amarad"
"Informally, phyla can be thought of as groupings of organisms based on general specialization of body plan.","Daɣ a war n ilkem i achareɣa, phyla addobat as eqqal taqqimen n timaxluken ijjan fal izarajan n taɣissa"
So phyla can be merged or split if it becomes apparent that they are related to one another or not.,Daɣ awen phyla addobat ad anɣambal meɣ uzan a fal izjar ach-ak as orakan iyyad s wi yadnen
"By Budd and Jensen's definition, a phylum is defined by a set of characters shared by all its living representatives.","S almaɣna wa ikf-a Budd d Jensen, phlum almaɣna net samalan ajjotnen oharnen mumasal tan fuk iddarn nen"
"However, as it is character based, it is easy to apply to the fossil record.","Hăk ǝd ǝjja awen, ǝšmăd ǝjja fal sămăl, răqqos asǝltăɣ net daɣ aɣ aɣăzăn n axfuri"
"However, proving that a fossil belongs to the crown group of a phylum is difficult, as it must display a character unique to a sub-set of the crown group.","Hăk ǝd ǝjja awen, tǝmtar n as axfuri n tăqqǝmt tan takabut n filum assohăt fal as ǝlzăm ad ǝsăkin sămăl ǝyyăn ǝ tăqqǝmt tan takabut"
"""The table below follows the influential (though contentious) Cavalier-Smith system in equating """"Plantae"""" with Archaeplastida, a group containing Viridiplantae and the algal Rhodophyta and Glaucophyta divisions.""","“” Tabel ta t ilkam i sistem wan Cavalier-Smith (kuddeɣ as ijja fal at takalt) n tulat “Plantae” id Archaeplastida, taqqimt eha Viridiplantae d tizunawen tin algal Rhodophyta d Glaucophyta"
"The division Pinophyta may be used for all gymnosperms (i.e. including cycads, ginkgos and gnetophytes), or for conifers alone as below.","Tazunt tan Pinophyta addobat ad exdim daɣ gymnosperm tan fuk (awen amos a eha cycads, ginkgos d gnetophytes) meɣ conifer tan ɣas chund sider"
"Protista is a polyphyletic taxon, which is less acceptable to present-day biologists than in the past.",Protista eqqal polyphyletic taxon aɣbalan biologist tan amarad ohun daɣ a hin okayan daɣ iwityan
"Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) laid the foundations for modern biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes, in 1735.","Carl Linnaeus (1707 har 1778) iday tijjittawen tin modern biological nomenclature, isassaɣad Kod tan win Nomenclature amarad daɣ awatay wan 1735"
"""In 1937 Édouard Chatton introduced the terms """"prokaryote"""" and """"eukaryote"""" to differentiate these organisms.""",“ Daɣ awătay wan 1937 Edouard Chatton azzojăš id ismăwăn “”prokariot”” d “”ekariot”” ǝ anmǝzlăy n tǝmăxluken t-ǝn “
Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi.,Robert Whittaker eɣbal as iw-id almalikiyat tan Fungi
"The remaining two kingdoms, Protista and Monera, included unicellular and simple cellular colonies.","Almalikiya tan ti aqqim nen n sanata, Protista d Monera eha azar d igamman n izirwan raqqosnen"
"In other systems, such as Lynn Margulis's system of five kingdoms, the plants included just the land plants (Embryophyta), and Protoctista has a broader definition.","Daɣ sistem tan iyyad chund wan Lynn Marguli n sammos almalikiya tan, ihishkan ahan tan ihishkan win akal ɣas (Embryophyta) d Protoctista ilan almaɣna maqqoran"
Technological advances in electron microscopy allowed the separation of the Chromista from the Plantae kingdom.,Iki s data wan teknoloji daɣ ezaraj wan electron microscopy eraw id ebaddi wan Chromista id Plantae Kingdom
"Finally, some protists lacking mitochondria were discovered.","Daɣ amǝndi, protist tan ǝyyăd hǝn odăn nen mitokondri a tăjrăwăn"
"This superkingdom was opposed to the Metakaryota superkingdom, grouping together the five other eukaryotic kingdoms (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae and Chromista).","Superkingdom wen anmachray id Metakaryota Superkingdom, asirtayn daɣ edag iyyad sammos almalikiya tan n eukaryotic yadnen (Animalia, Protozoa, Fungi, Plantae d Chromista)"
Cavalier-Smith no longer accepted the importance of the fundamental Eubacteria–Archaebacteria divide put forward by Woese and others and supported by recent research.,Cavalier-Smith ibas eqbal tulaɣay tan Eubacteria-Archaebacteria tazunat ijja Woese d iyyad s data tolas idhal farak ijjan a eynayan
"""Cavalier-Smith does not accept the requirement for taxa to be monophyletic (""""holophyletic"""" in his terminology) to be valid.""",“Cavalier-Smith war eqbel izilzam i taxa n as eqqal monophyletic (holophytetic”” daɣ tasassaɣrawt net) i a fal as taj taridawt”
"The advances of phylogenetic studies allowed Cavalier-Smith to realize that all the phyla thought to be archezoans (i.e. primitively amitochondriate eukaryotes) had in fact secondarily lost their mitochondria, typically by transforming them into new organelles: Hydrogenosomes.",Iki tan s data win tiɣir tin phylogenetic ijraw nat i Cavalier-Smith ad ilmid as phyla fuk aɣilan aqqalan archezoans (awen imos amitochondriate eukaryotes wan aru) assujal mitochondria nasan fal amutti nasan s organelles Hydrogenosomes.
"""Based on such RNA studies, Carl Woese thought life could be divided into three large divisions and referred to them as the """"three primary kingdom"""" model or """"urkingdom"""" model.""","“ Tiɣir ijjanen fal RNA chund wen, Carl Woese aɣil tamudre taddobat a taqqil tizunawen karadat maqqornen tolas eɣren s dumu wan“Three Primary Kingdom” meɣ s dumu wan “urkingdom””"
"Woese divided the prokaryotes (previously classified as the Kingdom Monera) into two groups, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much genetic difference between these two groups as between either of them and all eukaryotes.",Woese azun prokariot tan ( s tǝzărăt iskătăn as aqqălăn Monera) s sănatăt tăqqǝmen s ǝsmăwăn năsnăt Eubacteria d Archaebacteria allăɣen as ǝllăn t-ǝ ajjotnen s etari năsăn anmăzlăy jǝr tăqqǝmen t- ǝn  sănatăt šund jǝr ǝyyăn fuk daɣ san d eukariot tan fuk
"""They held that only monophyletic groups should be accepted as formal ranks in a classification and that – while this approach had been impractical previously (necessitating """"literally dozens of eukaryotic 'kingdoms) – it had now become possible to divide the eukaryotes into """"just a few major groups that are probably all monophyletic"""".""",“ Ijja ɣur san as taqqimen tin monophyletic ɣas addbat nen at w aɣbal n as ahan ihandagan wi iskat nen tolas as ijja s tazujicht ten war taxdem s tizarat (t rha ‘’ timirwen n eukaryotic kindoms) - raqqos amarad tazunt n eukaryote tan s “”harat n taqqimen maqqornen s eha- ach-ak as aqqal nat fuk monophyletic””
"""It divided the eukaryotes into the same six """"supergroups"""".""",“ Azun eukaryote tan s “”supergroup tan”” sadis olahnen
Plants are thought to be more distantly related to animals and fungi.,ǝhǝškăn at w aɣăl as t ǝllă jar essăn temedt šăjret ǝd ǝrǝzzejăn d bǝffen
The ten arguments against include the fact that they are obligate intracellular parasites that lack metabolism and are not capable of replication outside of a host cell.,amšǝkki tan win maraw ehen as aqqalan intracellular parasites ilzam ne hin odan nen metabolism tolas war addoben anatfas i s ajjama n host cell
"The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or mostly single-celled organisms whose cells have a distorted or non-membrane bound nucleus.",Wǝn ǝssǝn fuk aqqălăn organizm tan wi madroynen n prokariotik meɣ tǝmăxluken ǝlănen azăr ǝyyăn s ǝzǝrwăn ǝlăn nucleus ǝfrăɣăn meɣ war n aqqel membran
"Halophiles, organisms that thrive in highly salty environments, and hyperthermophiles, organisms that thrive in extremely hot environments, are examples of Archaea.","Halophile tan, tǝmăxluken năffăznen net daɣ ǝhănzuzăɣ n tesǝmt tolas hipertermofil tan, tǝmăxluken tǝ năffăznen daɣ ǝhănzuzăɣ akkus nen aqqălăn almǝtăl tan n Arckea"
Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are two examples of bacteria.,Cyanobacteria d mycoplasma tan aqqalan issin almitalan n tiwikkawen
Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.,Evolution eqqal iki n s data daɣ samalan n etari n ichaɣiban n abarkot daɣ ichaɣiban
"Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.",Evolution itaj alwaq wa id timitikwayen chund nefran n batil (eha nefran wan jansiy) d drift wan etari fal amuti wen icharayan s samalan iyyad taqqal nen a oharan meɣ a war n raqqis daɣ ichaɣib
The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species.,Mirda wan science fal amutti s nefran n batil eɣany id Charles Darwin d Alfred Russel Wallace daɣ tazune n awatay wan 1900 tolas ikna daɣ alkittab wn Darwin n attarex wan ich-ikilan
"Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective environments.",Addinat n ichaɣiban wi tinimichraynen eha ach-ak s a ta ichriyan progenies n imarwan ilanen samalan has-an ijraw nen tamudre d tiwit daɣ ahinzazaɣ n iyyan fuk
"The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms.",aɣazan wan fossil ehay anminkach ɣur biogenic graphite wa ezzaran har microbial mat fossils har timaxluken n fossil tan multicellular
It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order.,Tittar almaɣna tan win haratan win batil daɣ awa id eqqalan achareɣa tan wi olahnen i haratan fuk tolas war izilzaman emel n ich-ikilan n batil azukat nen meɣ aqqud wan cosmic n amaxlak
"The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.",Askut wan abarkot ijja Carl Linnaeus daɣ awatay wan 1735 erdaɣ fl anmillal n iharojan win ich-ikilan mucham har ajjudi ikyad ich-ikilan chund a izzuken s addabara wan amaxlak
These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support.,Ta-ite tan tin ankuran tanat naturalist tan fal as majrad ajjen war ikrech tadhilt tan empire
"""Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a """"struggle for existence"""" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished.""","“ Parti orna Essay wan Principle wa Ichaɣib (daɣ awatay wan 1798) ijja Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin iktab as tiw-at n ichaɣib ad aru “”akinnas i emel”” daɣ as imutiyan wi ochalnen chud awa s ammutan wi yadnen “"
"""Darwin developed his theory of """"natural selection"""" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his """"big book"""" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858.""",“ Darwin ijja efes wan mirda net wan “nefran wan batil” daɣ awatay wan 1838 tolas iktab “alkittab net wa maqqoran” fal titbaqet ten alwaq wa has isassaway Alfred Russel Wallace akatab n mirda olahan daɣ awtay wan 1858”
"Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis.","Siha s amindi net, Darwi ijja efes n mirda net wan pangenesis"
"To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.","Afissar n almaɣna wa s id axlakan inmizlayan , de Vries ijja efes n mirda n amutti ewayan s aafuqqi jir addinat wi ardaɣ en fal Darwinian evolution d biometricians ijjanen eɣaf id de Vries."
The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.,Azizjar wan edey wan DNA ijja James Watson d Francis Crick idhal Rosalind daɣ awatay wan 1953 isikna almaɣna wa s itaj etari et
"""In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that """"nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution,"""" because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet.""","“” Daɣ awatay wan 1973, Biologist Theodosius Dobzhanzky iktab as “war t illa harat daɣ biology ilan almaɣna a fal wadden s annur wan amutti “” fal as eway id annur s tartit s awa eqqalan s tizarat haratan war n oher harat daɣ attarex wan batil s taɣissa n musnat tilat afaham oharan harat eqqalan asilmad tolas immalan daɣ tilkamat haratan ilanen akayad fal tamudre daɣ adduniya"
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype.,Amindi n ich-ikilan ilanen akayad wi ahanen edey d alxal n tamaxluk isim net phenotype
"For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.","Daɣ almital , elam t asikway tafukt ifal id anittaf jir genotype wan awadim d tafukt fal as suntan tn wr tan za akki awadim s ilyadan n addinat"
DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases.,DNA eqqal biopolymer chajren daɣ artayan akkoz ich-ikilan n tijittawt
Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases.,"Ifrusan n DNA molecule wi tiskatat ichikil iyyan isim net genes, gene tan ilanen iddikudan nasan ajjotnen n tijittawt"
"If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.","A fal iddikud wan DNA daɣ edg anmazlay jr addinat, dumu tan n iddikud wen fuk isim nasan alleles"
"However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci (multiple interacting genes).","Hak id ijja awen, alwaq wa id tigdaht jir allele d samal t axdam daɣ ihandagan iyyad, samalan ajjotnen i harok nen tolas awikal tan samal loci n ijjit (gene tan annitaf nen ajjotnen)"
"DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.","DNA methylation echwalan chromatin, tezabaten n metabolic igdah nen i ima nasnat , gene s assosam RNA interference d aqqud wan karad inatfisan n protein tan (chund prions) aqqalan ihandagan s sistem win etari n epigenetic at ijrawan daɣ edag wan organismic"
"For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.","Daɣ almital, ecological inheritance s tamatikwayt n edey n niche ikf-et almaɣna alɣidmaten n timaxluken ijjanen harkuk daɣ ahinzazaɣ nasnat"
"Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.","Hak id ijja ijjuch wan harkuk n anmizlay s amutti d gene flow, ijjit n genome n ich-ikilan olah daɣ ich-ikilan fuk"
A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation.,ăšrut maqqorăn n amutti n fenotipik  daɣ ǝššăɣǝb ǝddǝlǝl net genotypic variation
Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.,Anmizlay itisujjil alwaq wa id allele eynayan ewad edag wan uɣin net - alwaq wa id itisujjil i ichaɣib meɣ itajjach edag n allele n kel aru fuk net
"When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.","Alwaq wa id ijjan imutiyan, addoben ad akmin asuj n gene meɣ igdilan i gene axadam meɣ war ilen adarich fuk"
Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.,kKopi tan okaynen n gene tan aqqalan tijittawt maqqorat n asuj war ides harat i gene tan i amatikway nasan
New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function.,Gene tan eynaynen addoben a id izjiran daɣ gene n aru alwaq wa id kopit tannutfasat tanmazlay tolas tazilzam axadam eynayan
"The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions.","Ichaɣib gene tan eynaynen addobat a ti ahan ichrutan madroynen n gene tan ajjotnen annutfas nen, s ifrusan win anaɣimbal nasan har ajjudi i ad alisan inaɣimbalan eynaynen ilanen alxidmaten eynaynen"
"Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.","Asinnaɣambal d reassortment war ikmen iddikud n allele mucham s amutti wa dar osaɣan allele tan, ɣan in aratan ilanen inaɣimbalan eynaynen n allele tan"
The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young.,Alqim wa ezzaran amos as daɣ ich-ikilan n dimorphic iyyan ɣas daɣ issin jannas tan addoben tammadrit har ajjudi
Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms.,Attakasar eqqal almaɣna wa oharan n attakasar daɣ eukaryote tan d organizm tan ilanen izirwan ajjotnen
Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.,Akkay n Gene jir ich-ikilan eha akudukudu n organizm tan n albaxil d akkay ozɣaɣan n gene
Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred.,Akkay ozɣaɣan n gene daɣ bakteria tan har eukaryote tan chund Yeast Sacharomyces cerevisiae d anchan wan adzuki weevil Callosobruchus chinensis ijja
Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).,Samalan izlaynen hak in iddikudan izlaynen n tamudre d attakasar (fitness izlayan)
"Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.",Organizm tan ilanen samalan tan hakkinen tinfa fal manafas tan iknay ach-ak ijjuch hullan n as ad akiyan fal samalan nasan s ichaɣib wa yadan ohun fal samalan war tan n afk manafas
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.,Isim wan ammas n nefran eqqal fitness n organizm
"For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.","Almital, a fal organizm addobat tamudre hullan tolas aru daɣ armud mucham aratan net fuk nasan i madroynen tolas war an taha assahat i tamudre, organizm wen a ej tadhilt n etari andarrat i ichaɣiban win tilkamat tolas fitness andarran"
Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity.,Almital tan n samalan wi addobat nen asiwad n fitness amosan amutti n tamudre d asiwad n aratan
"However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see Dollo's law).","Hak id ijja awen, kuudeɣ as tisidik tan nefran war itimutti s immik wen , samalan wi asujjalnen a hin okayan war za udaben ahunin s dumu olahan ( ikyid aachareɣ wan Dollo)"
"The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.","Wa ezzaran eqqal nefran wan tasidik eqqalan achinkach daɣ alqim n samal daɣ azzaman- almital , organizm tan tichijratan sollan"
"Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity.",Azuki n nefran ille nefran fal alqim n samal wan hullan daɣ ichrutan fuk taqqal nen iddilil i afanaz daɣ eket edes n alqim d daw anmizlay
"This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.",Afaham wen maqqoran n ijraw i scientist tan turhajat i ijji n tisibdad i assahaten ti taqqal nen daɣ edag iyyan nefran
"However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation).","Hak id ijja awen, iddikud n anɣambal i andarran (a hin ikkan issin haratan i chromosome fuk n ichaɣib)"
A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype.,Taqqimt n allele tan ta taqqalat tan etari daɣ taqqimt isim net haplotype
"This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely.",Drift wen ibaddad alwaq wa id eqqan allele s asujil net daɣ ichaɣib meɣ amutti net s allele tan iyyad
The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift.,Mirda wan muxayid n amutti wan molecule tan ijja addabara as imuttiyan fuk tajjinen aqqalan ittus n tewaɣne n imuttiyan win muxayid tan s drift wan etari
"However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.","Hak id ijja awen, majrad eynayan hullan tolas iknan lakkumat i ich-ikil wen eqqal mirda wan muxayid edg s inta as amutti wan muxayid daɣ ichaɣib andarran war eqqel muxayid daɣ ichaɣib maqqoran"
"The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.",Iddikud n addinat daɣ ichaɣib war ijjit mucham eqqal eket itiwassanan s iddikud n ichaɣib
The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution.,Emel meɣ iban gene isimutti tamatikwayt n amutti
"This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.",Amšǝkki wen izlayan ahoj exdam i a hin ey tudabat n alxalaten tin ammas daɣ amutti har azzaman wan molecule assarmad asissini n afor daɣ amutti n muxayid
"For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.","Almital, amutti war n ilkem i tiditt eqqal a ehan dumu tan n codon usage"
Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.,ijjuch izlayan s imusan war n ilkem i tiditt daɣ taxa izlayan addoben ad awiyan s amutti n iddikud n genome
Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher.,anazjum wan amarad fal edag wan amutti war n ilkem i tiditt asilmd s mmirda izlayan n wan Haldane d Fisher
"Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis.","Organizm tan addoben ad alwazaban nefran s anifham jar essan, s tadhilt n ichaqqaɣan meɣ ijjan tartit tan tinfat"
"Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.","Macroevolution imos amutti ijjan ɣur meɣ s afalla n edag wan ich-ikilan daɣ speciation d tamattant;as ijja awen macroevolution eqqal fal imuttiyan madroynen daɣ ich-ikilan meɣ ichaɣib, daɣ imutiyan n iddikud n allele d amatikway wan amutti"
"However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important.","Hak id ijja awen, daɣ macroevolution, samalan n ich-ikilan imdanen addoben ad assohen"
"""A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for """"progress"""", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity.""","“ Majrad n bahu eqqal as amutti ila ittusan, addabara tan chajrotnen meɣ alxalat n ammas i “efes” s immik wa s ijjan amedran tan chund orthogenesis d evolutionism; hak id ijja awen, amutti ila ittus charjen tolas war ilzem ad ikrich assahat maqqorat”"
"Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival.","Tolas , tamatikwayt tan amutti t amos samal assohen i tamudre n organizm"
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.,Samal eqqal titbaqet n efes n organizm meɣ ehak in turhajat meɣ issawadan miji n organizm wa iɣazzan tolas itiruwan
"Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol.","Almital tan iyyad amosan bacteria Escherichia coli isawadan tudabat n axadam n citric acid daɣ amiyiz chajren n labo, Flavobacterium isawadan enzyme n alkittab ehak in turhajat i bacteria tan win i ad idwilan fal isuj n nylon tolas bacterium sphingobium tan win akal sawadan abara eynayan n metabolic ifannazan fazon pentachlorophenol"
"Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms.",ǝdeyăn w-ǝ ǝlănen ǝkănnăn wǝn ammăs olah nen addoben ad ǝkrǝšăn tǝmăšɣulen ǝzlăynen ǝd aqqăl nen organizm tan
"However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.","Hak id ijja awen, alwaq wa id organizm tan fuk idarnen anmahazan jir iman nasan, hak id organ tan wi ilanen tulat andarrat meɣ n edeychund arthropod, squid d tettawen n imudaran win iɣasan meɣ idaran d ifrutan n anthropod tan d imudaran win iɣasan ilkaman i gene tan aɣlas nen tidawt nasan d alxidmat ; awen isim net tulat tan hullan"
"Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.","Almital tan ahan tan pseudogene tan, awa war n axdem daɣ tettawen daɣ emn izzaɣan addurɣalan, ifrutan n egadid itilammen, emel n iɣasan win tegache daɣ imanan wi maqqornen d tachalen d samalan n jannas tirunen s arraw war n imos s jannas"
"One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives.","Almital iyyan eqqal African Lizards Hoplaspis Guenteri, ilan eɣaf iknan afatillas i iffar daɣ iɣaɣan s immik wa s addobat awadim a ti ikyid fal imidiwan net"
Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.,Almital iyyan amos asaxdam n enzyme tan daɣ glycolysis d xenobiotic metabolism i ad aqqiln protein tan s ismawan nasnat crystallins daɣ timaswaden tin tettawen n organizm
"These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.",Farak tan win issiknan as amutti addobat a ekim efes i arraw n ideyan eynaynen chund ideyan n eɣas n achnaɣ idaw-alan daɣ tamasurt n irzzejan iyyd ohun ad aqqilan achrut n ammas n tamazzuk daɣ ifafan
"These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species.",Imuttiyan win daɣ ich-ikil wan issin aqqalan iddilil i tamatikwayt n imuttiyan daɣ ich-ikilan wi azzarnen
"For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.","Almital, anifham assohen ille jir ihishkan d ihanan n alchin win mucorrhizal idawalan fal ikewan nasan tolas dahhalan ahishk daɣ tesase n isudar daɣ akal"
Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved.,Inifhaman jir organizm tan n ich-ikil olahan intaned deɣ amuttayan
"Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die.","ǝzǝrwăn somatik hăk ǝn alwăzăb ǝ tădogănen tan s aɣrǝnen fal tadawla năsăn, tăɣǝmǝt daɣ edăg năsăn meɣ tămăttănt"
"""There are multiple ways to define the concept of """"species.""""""",“ Illan ti immikan ajjotnen n almaɣna n isim wan “”species”
"Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.","Anmizlay n ich-ikilan n ismawan win imudaran , ismawan win ajjotnen addoben ad ijjichan iyyat daɣ karadat tizujach: interbreeding, ecological d phylogenetic"
"Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem.","Alxidmat net ta harokat tolas chajret , BSC inta deɣ ijja fal as majrad chund awa ijjan wi yadnen, almital fal as ismawan win war addoben a tan ajin prokaryote tan tolas awen isim net muchakil wan ich-ikilan n imudaran"
Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations.,Gene addobat ad ifniz tamatikwayt ten s afanaz n ich-ikilan n genetic eynaynen tolas s ichaɣiban iyyad
"In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct.","Daɣ awen , ǝššǝkilăn n ǝmudărăn w- ǝknănen anmǝhăz addoben assăɣ mušăm albăxǝlăn war he annăfrănăn fal as-ăn tolas ǝššǝkǝlăn n ǝmudărăn ad aqqăm ǝn ǝzlăyăn"
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions (see laboratory experiments of speciation) and in nature.,Speciation t atwakay alwaqqan ajjotnen daw almaɣna tan n labo (ikyid amiyiz n labo wan speciation) d s aɣana net
"The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration.",Awa oharan irizzejan hullan amos allopatric speciation itaj in daɣ ichaɣiban iskat nen daɣ jografia chund ifrusan n tamazduq meɣ isikilan
"The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment.",Dumu wan issin n speciation eqqal peripatric speciation itaj in alwaq wa id ichaɣiban madroynen n organizm tan iskatan daɣ ahinzazaɣ eynayan
The third mode is parapatric speciation.,Dumu wan kărăd amos spesiason parapatrik
Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat.,Awen itaj alwaq wa ti illa amutti hullan daɣ ahinzazaɣ daɣ ich-ikilan atteraw nen
"Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation.",Nefran wa war ijja interbreeding daɣ ichaɣib wa atterawan eraw id amutti daɣ alwaq n ihishkan wi assohat nen wi tiruwen aratan iskatnen
This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.,Dumu wen war raqqis ɣur alwaq wa id iddikud andarran n gene addobat ad ikkis anmizlayan n etari jir ichrutan n ichaɣib
This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile.,Awen war ti oheran irizzejan fal as albaxilan harkuk war tiruwan
"This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.","Awen ehak turhajat i chromosome tan n ich-ikil n atterawan fuk ad anmiwiyan daɣ meiosis, fal as chromosomes fuk ahan issin edag net"
"Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.","Chromosome it anatfasan daɣ ich-ikil addobat ad eqqil iddilil oharan i arraw iskatan , chund tazune tannutfasat n chromosome tan war he anmawalan alwaq wa id akkofadan id organizm tan war n anatfas"
"Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.",Arizzej fuk d ich-ikil n ahishk s kala izzaɣan fal akal ammutan amarad tolas tamattant taqqal taqqan tan uchray i ich-ikilan fuk
"Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.",Tamattant ta titkadat n tamattant n a ojjaran 99 n ich-ikilan fuk s kala izzaɣan fal akal iddikud n 1 n efad n milyar intaned a itkadnen s iwaran akal s 1000 n a afissaran
"The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon.",asidutti wan ezzaran amchaken n tamudre fal akal ilan iddikud n 3.5 n milyar alwaq wan Eoarchean era darat Ecological Crust id issinta i asassuhi ilkaman i molten Hadean Eon wa ezzaran
"""Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote, """"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe.""""""","“ Stephen Blair Hedges, asiwalan fal ijarawan win Australia,iktab as ‘’a tamudre tinkar fal akal dihen addobat ad alah awen daɣ alɣalim””"
"Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.","Iddikud n ich-ikilan fal akal ila jir 10 milyon har 14 n milyon s 1.9 n milyon itkadan as ilan ismawan tolas 1.6 n milyon ahan edag n isalan , oyyan iddikud n 80 war n afissar"
"The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation.","Azubbi n organizm tan wa oharan ijja s tizarat daɣ akkoz haratan fal organizm tan: wa ezzaran , ilan tizunawen n jografia war n addobat afissar daɣ tamatikwayt n amutti"
"Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.","Wan akkoz, organizm tan addoben ad iskitan ɣur tulaten nasan s anmillal nasan n taqqimen artaynen olah nen id egadach n ahisk"
This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.,Akayad wen eqqal har anazjum andarran allaɣat Darwin mucham darat awa ichlay as in
"By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species.","Eket n annuɣan n ich-ikilan n imudaran win amarad d wi ammut nen , palaeontologist tan addoben ad issinan attarex n ich-ikilan n imudaran win"
"More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms.","A eynayan hullan, asidutti n attarex oharan ifal id farak wan tulaten n biochemical jir organizm tan"
The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago.,Izirwan win eukaryotic izjaran id jir 1.6 har 2.7 n milyar n awatay
Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.,Balɣamat iyyan n organizm tan chund cyanobacterial ewayan s iji n chloropast tan daɣ alage d ihishkan
"In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.","Daɣ ayor wan tǝndufan 2016, scientifik tan allăɣen as a ilăn ǝddǝkud n 800 mǝlyon n awătăy , amuti andărrăn daɣ etări daɣ molecule ǝyyăt s ǝsǝm net GK-PID ǝjraw turhăjăt ǝ organizm tan ad ǝfǝlăn organizm ǝlăn azăr ǝyyăn s wa ǝlăn ǝzǝwăn ajjotnen"
"Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis.",haratan ajjotnen id eraw nen abuqqi wan Cambria t aw ajjan addabara eha asidu n oxygen daɣ tesalsit n akal ɣur photosynthesis
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms.,Nefran n awadim eqqal nefran n ittus n samalan daɣ ichaɣib n organizm tan
Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.,Protein tan ilanen irizzejan n alqim amutayan s ijjit d nefran (almital enzyme tan ammiskalnen d antibiotik tan eynaynen) daɣ tamatikwayt s isim net amittu exkaman
"Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves.",Asikkufad daɣ edag iyyan n ichaɣiban n eman wa addurɣalan eraw id aratan iyyad ilanen tettawen axdamnen ichmad imutiyan ajjotnen ijan daɣ ichaɣiban iskat nen idawalnen daɣ idaɣan
"Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution.",Torhinawen ajjotnen n addinat war aqqel nat a azzuken mucham addobat nat amutti
It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level.,Addobat as n ewad amindi n tamudre timdat n antibiotik it illan tolas akayad daɣ tilkamat n amutti d tudabat n amutti n patogen tan nanaɣ d ikannan n tikarsiwen i afanaz meɣ aɣalay ilzam musnat ajjet n assahaten maqqornen t awaynen amutti s edag wn molecule
He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems.,Ijja tikarsiwen n amutti i ad ekin muchakil tan maqqornen n engineering
"In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education.","Daɣ addawla tan tiyyad hullan daɣ Amerik, amšǝkki jir science d addin asammantas eɣan wan amarad n amutti , muchakil n addin ijjan fal folitik d teɣare"
"The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision.",Ašăreɣa wan Skopes daɣ awătăy wan 1925 eqqăl ǝddǝlǝl wa fal eqqăl majrăd wen a war n răqqǝs daɣ ǝlkǝttăbăn n lăkkol wan ammăs n Amerǝk i ǝššăɣǝb mušăm olas ǝjjuš sollăn dărăt awa tolas eqqăl daɣ a eɣlas aššăreɣa šund addăbăra wan Epperson v. Arkansas daɣ awătăy wan 1968
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.,Nefran wan batil eqqal tamudre tizlayat d arraw n addinat fal awa ijjan anmizlayan daɣ phenotype
Variation exists within all populations of organisms.,Amutti ǝlle daɣ ǝššăɣǝb n organizm tan
"The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment.","Ahinzazaɣ n genome ehay molecular biology daɣ azar, izirwan iyyad, addinat iyyad, ichaɣiban iyyad, ich-ikil n imudaran hak id ahinzazaɣ abiotik"
Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology.,Nefrăn n bătǝl eqqăl tǝjǝttăwt ǝ bioloji tan amărăd
"The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics.","Isim wan nefran wan batil efes net wan alasal ijja ɣur iban mirda n etari fal tijja taridawt ; daɣ azzaman wan akatab wan Darwin, science ilzam tat efes n mirda tan eynaynen n genetics"
"The classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin.","Tamaɣinnant n alasal olas Pierre Louis Maupertuis az ujjuch daɣ awatay wan 1800 d iyyad eha amɣar n Darwin , Erasmus Darwin"
"The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species.",Arabax n mirda wen issewad ta-ite n tarrayt maqqoran n azzaman wan geology tolas ijja anazjum wan imuttiyan sadodnen daɣ ichaɣiban a addoben araw n tikmawen fal tarrayt n anmizlay jir ich-ikilan n imudaran
"""He was in the process of writing his """"big book"""" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell.""",“ Eha tamatikwayt tan akatab n “”alkittab net wa maqqoran” i ad isalmad fal farak net alwaq wa id naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace eɣna tasittiɣhal tolas affisar tat daɣ Essay isassaway i Darwin i a ti isassiki i Charles Lyell”
"In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications.",Daɣ edisyon net wan karad Darwin erdaɣ 1861 as iyyad chund William Charles Wells daɣ awatay wan 1813 d Patrick Mattew daɣ awatay wan 1831 ijjan addabara inazjam olahnen mucham kala war ijjen efes nasan meɣ asilmadan fal as san daɣ ikitban nasan win scientifik
"""In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term """"Natural Selection"""", preferring the term """"Natural Preservation"""".""","“Daɣ tikarde ijja i Charles Lyell daɣ ayor wan sutambar n awatay wan 1860, Darwin ikme asaxdam n isim wan “nefran n batil””, assof isim wan “aɣalas n batil””"
"""However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its """"unguided"""" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance.""","“” Hak id ijja awen, nefran wan batil eqqim eqqal a fal tija takalt fal as daɣ akayad war raqqis asifham n almaɣna n etaetar n samalan win organizm tan wi izzaɣnen tolas daɣ achrut fal as hak id addinat wi ilkam nen i amutti ankuran iban “iban awikkal net” d attabiɣa war n itimutti alwazab taqqalat samal n marsal maqqoran i aɣabal n anazjum’"
"With the early 20th century integration of evolution with Mendel's laws of inheritance, the so-called modern synthesis, scientists generally came to accept natural selection.","ɣur tizarat n awatay wan 1900 n ijjuch n amutti s achareɣa n Mendel wan etari, modern synthesis ta s itawan , sicentist tan ardahan fal nefran n batil"
"""J. B. S. Haldane introduced the concept of the """"cost"""" of natural selection.""",“ H.B.S Haldane azzojach isim wan “alqim” wan nefran wan batil”
"""However, natural selection is """"blind"""" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable.""","“ Hak id ijja awen, nefran wan batil eqqal a”addurɣalan” daɣ almaɣna n as imutiyan daɣ phenotype addoben ad akf in tinfa n araw war izlay ɣas samal eqqal in etari wala””"
"If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation.","A fal samalan wi hakkinen addinat win tinfa n araw aqqalan etari awen amos as itiki ɣur emaraw s aratan dihen at imil araw izlayan, awen eqqal iddikud chajren n timarwalen armad nen meɣ alage olaɣan i ichaɣib n tilkamat"
"This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice.",Awen ehak ich-ikil n ittus mucham daɣ nefran ille nefran n attus
"This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark.","Awen ikfa tilken kawal nen irrizaɣ olaɣan i tamudre i araw n aratan n dumu kawalan tolas daɣ 50 n awatay n atarmis n tillek ta kawalat , tilken fuk daɣ industrial Manchester aqqal nat ti kawal nen"
"If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation.","A fal organizm ǝzzăɣ tăzune n tăhăjǝt ta ǝch-ikil n ǝmudărăn wǝ yădnen mušăm ǝla arătăn annǝtfăs nen har ǝssǝn ǝzzăɣnen har wăssărăn ,jinu tan net a tan ahăr hullăn ǝšăɣǝb wan ǝmăwădan n ǝššăɣǝb wan tǝlkămăt"
"""A distinction must be made between the concept of """"survival of the fittest"""" and """"improvement in fitness"""". """"""",“ Anmizlay ilzam ad ijja jir isim wan “tamudre tan wi assohat nen “” d “”amutti n alxalat””
"""Haldane called this process """"substitution"""" or more commonly in biology, this is called """"fixation"""".""","“ Haldane eɣra tămătǝkwăyt ten s ǝsǝm wan “”anmǝchrăy” meɣ hullăn daɣ bioloji , awen ǝsǝm net “”oɣǝn””"
The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of a population depends on the total number of replications of that variant.,Irrizaɣ wan as amutti taha tinfa itaj in fal addinat n ichaɣib ilkam i iddikud imdan n imasuɣilan n ich-ikil wen
"""In this experiment, """"improvement in fitness"""" depends on the number of replications of the particular variant for a new variant to appear that is capable of growing in the next higher drug concentration region.""",“Daɣ musnat ten “”amutti n alxalat” ilkam as iddikud n imasuɣilan n ich-ikil i ich-ikil eynayan i ad izjir awen tudabat n tiw-at n ijjit n taba daɣ rejion””
"""Richard Lenski's classic E. coli long-term evolution experiment is an example of adaptation in a competitive environment, (""""improvement in fitness"""" during """"survival of the fittest"""").""",“ Richard enski’s classic E. Colimusnat n amutti chajren eqqal almital n amatikway n amutti dav ahinzazaɣ (amutti n alxalat “”daɣ “”tamudre n win assohat nen””)
"The uncommon disruptive selection also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction.",Nefran war n ohar harat inta deɣ exaddam alwaq wan ikkuy net alwaq wa id dumu wa ijlan war n aqqel addabara hullan mucham ikma samal daɣ a ojjaran tasdik iyyat
"Some biologists recognise just two types: viability (or survival) selection, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival.",Biologist tan iyyat ardahan fal issin ich-ikilan ɣas: nefran n tudabat n tamudre (meɣ tamudre) tisawadat irrizaɣ n organizm n tamudre d nefran n akarach n aratan (meɣ tudabat n akarach n aratan meɣ araw) isawadan iddikud n aratan ijraw nen tamudre
"In kin selection and intragenomic conflict, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process.","Daɣ nefran n egadach d akinnas intragenomic, nefran n iddikud n gene ehak hullan almaɣna n tamatikwayt tijat"
"Ecological selection is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and infanticide.","Nefran wa ecology eqqal nefran n batil s almaɣna iyyan war n amos wan nefran n jannsy chund nefran n egadach, tamadacht d tenaɣe n ilyadan"
"However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae.","Hak id ijja awen, daɣ ich-ikilan iyyad, nefran wan tammiduwa meddan a ti tjjinen s tizarat chund daɣ egadach n imanan win Syngnathidae"
"Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases.","Alwaq wa id affukar penicillin daɣ awatay wan 1928, antibiotik tan assaxdaman tanat addinat i a iknis nat torhinnawen tin tiwikkawen"
"Genetic variation is the result of mutations, genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes).","Amutti wan etari eqqal ittus n imuttiyan , anɣambalan n etari d amaskalan daɣ karyotype (iddikud, dumu d amukin wan ammas n chromosome tan)"
"However, many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects.","Hak id ijja awen, imuttiyan ajjotnen daɣ DNA wr n akkodat ilan tikmawen"
Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes.,Imuttiyan daɣ win alwaq iyyan ilan tikmawen fal phenotype n awadim fal as kan in alxidmat n gene tan iyyad ajjotnen
"When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population.","Alwaq wa id imuttiyan chund win charrayan s alxalat chajret , nefran n batil assof phenotype tan win tolas samal n alkittab infaz daɣ ichaɣib"
"However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a species that hybrids are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin.","Hak id ijja awen ,eqqal id hullan isim wan ich-ikilan as albaxilan war n annafranan, war ardahan fal amutti n igadalan aratan muchakil fal erdah Darwin"
Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives.,Phenotype isalmad fal organism’s genetic make-up (genotype) d ahinzazaɣ wa daɣ izzaɣ organizm
"An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype.",Almital eqqal achni wan ABO antigens daɣ addinat edag s karad allele tan axkaman fal phenotype
This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype.,Tamatikwayt te taddobat iji har eqqin allele tolas uzan ichaɣib fuk net phenotype wa assohen
"Stabilizing selection conserves functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants.",Asibdad n nefran eɣallas samalan axdam nen n etari chund akodi n gene tan win protein meɣ iddikud tan fal alwaq s ad-ad annufranan fal ich-ikilan ikmanen
"Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population.",Dumu tan iyyad n eket n nefran war id izjeran oɣin mucham ogazan allele daɣ iddikud tan n jarey daɣ ichaɣib
"Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values.","ag-az n amutti n allele addobat ad ej s nefran eɣtasan meɣ assujatan , assofan genotype tan id affal nen edag n ammas daɣ tasdik fuk (awen a anmachrayan id ijiit) tolas addobat ad izjir daɣ bidomal distribution n alqiman n samal"
"However, after a period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift.","Hak id ijja awen, darat azzaman n iban imutiyan eynaynen , amutti wan etari daɣ sit tan win imas a hin fal genetic drift"
"The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be.",Ittus wan tiditt n timitikwayen tin sanatat ilkam i iddikud wa s taj in imutiyan eynaynen tolas fal assahat n nefran n batil eqqalan alxidmat n immik wa s war ofa immik wa eqqal amutti
The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them.,Irrizaɣ wa s itaj amaskal chund wen jir allele tan issin eqqal fal ujjij wa jar essan
A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population.,Ittusan n nefran assohatnen daɣ rejion n genome edag s inta ad haplotype wa innafranan (allele d inarhajan net) aqqalan ɣas wi it illanen daɣ ichaɣib
Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep.,Nefran n edag eqqal a anmachrayan id asafrad annufranan
"""In the words of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, """"Darwin's dangerous idea"""" of evolution by natural selection is a """"universal acid,"""" which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings.""","“ Daɣ majrad wa ijja philosopher Daniel Denett “anazjum n Darwin wa labasan” n amutti s nefran wan batil eqqal “asid i alɣalim” war n addobat atwigaz daɣ bato meɣ kontener fal as at anbij chik, ijru abara s ihandagan harok nen”"
"These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources.","Tălɣǝwen tǝn aqqal nat: etări,tamutăyt n iššǝkǝl d tămădašt s alfăyda tan dărosnen"
"Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate Francis Galton's interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for colonialism, eugenics, and social Darwinism.","Herbert Spencer d eugenics azzuken i afaham n Francis Galton wan nefran n batil as eqqal a amitakwayan , ewayan s ikitan s data daɣ ta-ite d sivilizasyon, eqqal iddilil i alisteɣmar , eugenics d Social Darwinism"
"""The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect.""""""",Anasjum wan techne eqqal tajittawt n addawla nanaɣ ijja ajjen hullan daɣ semɣar wen””
"The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language.","Almital wa ojjaran amos wan psychology tahalat s data alxidmat tazzarat n Noam Chomskytolas darat awa Steven Pinker,eqqal mirda as akilkil wan awadim ilmad akarach n achareɣa win grammar n awal"
"""He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete """"units of inheritance"""".""",“Ikyad as organizm tan (ihishkan win pea) itran id samalan s immik n “etari iyyan””
"Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population.","Edey wan gene d alxidmat net, amutti d tazunt at w aɣran daɣ azar, organizm (almital tijra) d daɣ ichaɣib"
"Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture.",Tamatikwayt n alxidmat tan genetic tilat ahinzazaɣ n organizm d musnaten i ad ikrichan assahat fal efes d alxal s alwaq iyyan itawan has nature vs nurture
"The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century.","Science n Genetics tan amarad, tittar afaham n tamatikwayt ten, t issinta alxidmat n Augustinian Friar Gregor Mendel daɣ tazune n awatay wan 1800"
His second law is the same as what Mendel published.,Achareɣa net wan issin olah id awa iktab Mendel
"A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents.","Mirda s izjar isim net hulla daɣ awtay wan 1800 tolas otas Charles Darwin daɣ awatay wan 1859 fal enatti n ich-ikil n imudaran, asurtay etari: anazjum n as addinat karrachan tartit n samalan daɣ imarawan nasan"
"""In his paper """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically.""","“Daɣ alkad net” Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (‘””musnaten fal albaxil n ahishk) , fal asilmad daɣ awatay wan 1865 i Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) daɣ Brunn, Mendel allil adarich n etari n samalan n ahishk wan pea tolas affisar than s matematik”"
"""William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905 (the adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis—γένεσις, """"origin"""", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860).""","“ William Bateson, alxǝdmăt n Mendel t assohet, eɣna ǝd ǝsǝm wan jenetik daɣ awătăy wan 1905 (adjektif net jenetik, ǝd izjărăn attărex n ǝsǝm n Greek -γένεσις “””enătti” ezzăr ǝ- ǝsǝm tolas exdăm s tǝzărăt daɣ almăɣna wan bioloji daɣ awătăy wan 1860)”"
"Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes.","Daɣ iwityan win 11,t asafakkar id as deden ɣas a ilan chroosome X tolas meddan ilan chromosome tan X d Y fuk nasan"
"James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew).","James Watson d Francis Crick issanan edey wan DNA daɣ awatay wan 1953, axdaman s X-ray n alxidmat tan crystallography n Rosalind Franklin d Maurice Wilkins allaɣat nen as DNA ila edey amnannadan (chund corkscrew)"
"The structure also suggested a simple method for replication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand.","Edey olas asilmad n immik raqqisan i amasuɣal: A fal azunnat tizawen , tiyyad eynaynen addobat nat edey iyyan fal as iyyat fuk t ijja fal iddikud n ta wassarat"
"In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production.","Daɣ iwityan wi ilkamnen , sicentist tan araman afaham n immik wa s tawikkal tamatikwayt akarach n protein"
With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research.,Molecule ta teynayt tat ajrawat ad tidhil daɣ afaham n etari wa id erawan afuqqi n farak
One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger.,Efes iyyan olaɣan amos chain-termination DNA Sequencey daɣ awatay wan 1977 ijja Frederick Sanger
"In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors.","Daɣ musnat net n teɣare n samal n dumu wan afrinkit, Mendel ikyad as iyyan n afrinkit n pea eqqalan i bahaw nen meɣ malul nen mucham kala war t illen dumu issin jar essan"
"Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance.",Ich-ikil n imudaran ajjotnen ahan addinat ila dumu wen n etari
"When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed.",Alwaq wa id organizm tan amosan a ertayan daɣ gene alwaq iyyan allele isim net wa ojjaran fal as xudatan net ojjaran phenotype n organizm as ijja awen allele ijjaraw fal as xudatan net zajaran tolas war ilen akayad
"""Often a """"+"""" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene.""",“Alwaq iyyan simbol wan “”+”” eqqal echwal n allele i gene””
One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square.,Iyyan daɣ diagram tan ohar nen kala salmadan fal ittus he awid asirtay amos Punnett square
"Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.)","Gene tan iyyad war anmawalan fal iman nasan, asilmadan fal atterw n etari, majrad ijja darat awa daɣ albab wen)"
"Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white.","Gene iyyan ,awikkal kud ina ifrinkittan ilan dumu fuk nasan meɣ i mallul nen"
Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and skin color).,Samalan ajjotnen war aqqelan samalan istarnen (almital ifrinkittan bahaw nen meɣ mallul nen) mucham aqqalan samalan ijlanen (almital tichijrit n awadim d dumu n elam net)
The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability.,Iddikud wa s gene n organizm dahhalan s samal maqqoran isim net etari
"DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).","DNA ehay esassar n nucleotides s inta deɣ ahan ti akkoz ich-ikilan: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) d thymine (T)"
"Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms.",Birus tan war addoben akarach n aratan fal as a fal war illa wa isanaftaɣan tolas illan ti war tan ikmen timitikwayen ajjotnen n genetic daɣ awen war ijjen immik n a eqqalan organizm tan iddar nen
This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand.,Edey wen n DNA eqqal tajittawt n taɣissa i etari: amasuɣal wan DNA isanatfas isalan n genetic s tuzant n tizawen d axadam n tezawt fuk chund dumu n aklulu n tezawt teynayat
"These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length.",Tizawen tin n DNA alwaq iyyan ti chajrot nen; chromosome wa maqqoran n awadim daɣ almital ila iddikud n 247 n milyon daɣ tichijrit
"DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus.",DNA itawajraw daɣ esab n izirwan mucham Ruth Sager idhal daɣ asafukkar n nonchromosomal gene tan at ijraw nen s ajjama n esab
"While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene.","Kud inta organizm tan win haploid ilan kopi iyyat n chromosome, irizzejan ajjotnen d ihishkan ajjotnen ilan diploid ahan issin daɣ chromosome fuk d sanatat kopi tan n gene fuk"
"In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics.","Daɣ addinat d irizzejan iyyad ajjotnen, chromosome Y ahan ti gene tan id tirunen id efes n samalan win ahalis"
"This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction.",Tamatikwayt ten s isim net mitosis taqqal dumu wa ojjaran tarɣisay n akarach n aratan tolas t aqqal tajittawt i akarach n aratan war n ijja s jansy
Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents.,Organizim tan win eukaryotic alwaq iyyan tiruwan s jansy i ad ikrichan aratan eha amartay n asuj eqqalan etari n imarawan issin
"Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium.","Tiwikkawen tiyyad iddas tanat anmartay, hak i nat afrus n DNA andarran i bacterium wa yadan"
In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair.,S immik wen anmartayan n gene tan addoben ad aj in daɣ aratan n jawzan
"During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes.","Daɣ asalbaxil, chromosome tan t anakf-in em awan n DNA isartayan hullan gene allele tan jir chromosome tan"
The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.,Asukni wa eezaran n asalbaxil tijje Harriet Creignhton d Barbara McClintok daɣ awatay wan 1931
"For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated.","I ujij chajren n nefran, irrizaɣ n asalbaxil ikna tudabat hullan har as etari n gne tan war ohar harat hullan"
"The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions.",Iddikud n amino acids itiwi s edey ila karad iketan i protein tolas iketan idey win karad n protein orakan s alxidmaten nasan
"Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.","Edey n Protein eqqal a ijlan; protein hemoglobin it akrambi s dumu tan izlaynen fal as isarɣas aramas, asikil, d tayyit n oxygen molecule tan daɣ achni n arizzej wa ilan ifafan"
"For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties.","Dǎɣ milhaw, dérbanositooz taqal torhəna jénétiq nadinat adətəjarat mezlay iyan maqaran dǎɣ edag eɣfalan ən ašrut β-globine ən hémoglobine,adiwayan ašanzi iyan ən aəide aminé itašənzen təlaten fiziq ən hémoglobine."
Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA.,Iyad išrutən ən ADN atiwaktabən as ARN mašan war aqelan atwəlaɣi dǎɣ ijitan ən brotéiq; molékileten ən ARN atiwaɣranat as ARN waren eɣfel.
An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat.,Milhaw ahusken eqal asəhəsku ən ini ən moss siamois.
"But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e. have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and denature in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature.","Mašan brotéinetan tajanen amzadan kawalnen ramassən takusse (adǎɣ-ti-dila as saknenat amutiy ədorawan aramasse ən takusse) ad aɣašad dǎɣ ikalan ən takusse maqarat, waren itəj iri ən amzadan kawalnen dǎɣ idagan dihad takusse ən taɣəssa ən moss təkna təmɣare."
"After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.","Darat egadal ən nakal wan romaintan ən egadal ən tafuk, muzyat ən mənhuyan ən greətan ən adunya ekšad ɣor Euroba tan egadal ən tafuk ɣor elan azarnen (400 as 1000 ən azaman nanaɣ) ən Moyen Âge, mašan atwagaz dǎɣ taməte tan inəsləman agud ən awatay noraɣ ən anislam."
"Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which deal with symbols governed by rules.","Tamusne təšrayat taqal azunən as karad ašrutan maqornen: timusnawen aɣlaknen (biolojjie, šimi ad fiziq, as assənəhəj), lamədnen akal as tənna haruwat, timusnawen artaynen (asdu, bsykoloj, as sosioloji, as milhaw), lamədnen adinat ad tərtaten; ad təmusnawen aknanen (iɣud,imaɗinan ad alaɣi atiwasanən, as milhaw), itajən ešwalan ədəzjarnen as tənaten."
New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.,Timuziawen aynaynen ən təmusnawen aqalan ara ən umaɣ ən təmusnawen aterdanen as umaɣ as assəmɣar ən adunya ad tarha ən amukən ən taraqan.
"In particular, it was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other and share.","Dǎɣ təzart, adar tidila ini ən timuziawen as adoben adinat aləɣi jaresan ad tazunt."
"However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems.","Aguden,azalayat wala iyat tatiwasanat ad tartit war təwəja jar muzyat haratan win,aqalnen tidit dǎɣ tartit kul, ad iritan iyad ən təmuziawen artaynen, sund mythologies ad haratən ən ašareɣa."
"They even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year.","Azizjaran imanes kalendriye tatiwazayat ihan maraw oran adəssin,karadət təmərwen našəl iyan kul, ad səmos hadan ɣor saməndo ən awatay."
"""For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish """"nature"""" and """"convention.""""""","""Ye tidit ten, nədal as medan aqalan inəməgridan azarnen ɣor tənna toɣadat, ad harwa wi azarnen as azalayat iknan ""”taɣlək""” ad """"tarədawt."""""""
"In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for artisans of lower social class.","Dǎɣ amsuɣəl, tirma ən atkul ən muzyat ən taɣlək (ufar meɣ tamusne, gerek technē) atiwətkal as imusanən iknanen sund ajaraw iknan atwəji ye iməgan ən tazunt əndarat."
The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.,Tamusne ən atometan tatwəsajat as anamagrəd ən grek Leusippe ad enameɣri iness Dém
The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.,"Tamkare ən Sokrate, səmək was təzjar dǎɣ magridan win Platon, taqal tamkare ən tənna ən azajor ən isənahajitan:"
Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.,Sokrate itizəm ini ən taɣare aruwan ən fiziq sund eqalan hulen ɣas afasi ad iban anmizəm.
"Aristotle later created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are.","Aristote ijja dǎɣ alkum taqan tartayat ən magrad ən saməndo: amətəkwiy ad ašanzi aqalan atwalaɣi sund tišrayt ən assahat tilan dǎɣ haratan, as iri ən haratan amossən."
The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy).,Jal Sokrate omaran deɣ fal alməɣna was magrad adəqəl atwətkəl ye akayad ən assestan ijan ən alməɣna ahusken ən tamudre ye agadəm (teɣare iyat azun Aristote as aləmad ad magrad ən fulatik).
Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics.,Iri ən Aristarque ikahin atwəgdal falas anaɣel as itihaɣ lalwaten ən fizsiq.
"John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws.","Jean Philobonus, amusan bizantin ən iwətyan win 500, assoɣəl assestan assəɣar ən fiziq tan Aristote, dǎɣ alaɣi ən alɣadatan iness."
"""Aristotle's four causes prescribed that the question """"why"""" should be answered in four ways in order to explain things scientifically.""","“Akoz agayan ən Aristote talaɣen as asudmar ye assestan """"mafal""""as akoz alməɣnatan ye alaɣi ən haratan as tamusne.”"
"However, Aristotle's original texts were eventually lost in Western Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely known, the Timaeus, which was the only Platonic dialogue, and one of the few original works of classical natural philosophy, available to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages.","Aguden, ikatabən əknanen ən Aristote əmdan oɣəl ən agmod ɣor Euroba tan egadal ən tafuk, ad akatab iyan ən Platon eqal ayknan atwəziy, Timée, amosan iyan magrad ən platonisientan, ad iyan dǎɣ alkadan iknanen waren tila ən magrad dəɣlakən ahusken atilan ye iməɣran latins ɣor sənto ən Moyen Âge."
Many Syriac translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and Monophysites.,Ilaɣitan ajətnen ən syriaq atiwəjan as gruɗtan sund Nestorientan ad Monofistan.
"""p. 465: """"only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated.""""""","""p. 465: """"eqal agud was tijrət ən ibn al-Haytam ad iyad fal alwaq azaran ən ikətban fiziq arunen adəmalanen atiwəɣran dǎɣ ajalay as adobat awadəm eket ən alaɣi ən Səhramm tas inta ibn al-Haytam amənokal aduten ən fiziq təšrayat.""""”"
"Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back their claims.","Tende ən Avicenne tatiwətkal sund iyat dǎɣ iazəjaran wiknanen tahuskət dǎɣ assəssəfar izar assənan kul alilan as alməɣna atəwənan as ijji ən assəssəfar atiwarəman, dǎɣ atkul ən iruman ən issəfran ad iruman ye təlalt ən ilaɣitan nassən."
"In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe.","Daɣ azziyăd , ikătăbăn n Greek win alăsăl issintăn afissăr daɣ tărăbt d Greek s Latin , ikfăn edăg i aljimăt n sians daɣ Eroba tan atărăm"
"Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book of Optics also propagated across Europe before 1240, as evidenced by its incorporation into Vitello's Perspectiva.","Idakalan atiwəktabnen ən alkad ən ahanay wan Alhazen eqalan atwəssəjət dǎɣ Euroba dat 1240, sund dǎɣ tajuhe mertay iness dǎɣ Bersbektiva ən Vitello."
"The influx of ancient texts caused the Renaissance of the 12th century and the flourishing of a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism in western Europe, which became a new geographic center of science.","Azajor ən katabən arunen edlam tiwit ən 12e awatay ad iji ən assərtay ən katholiketan ad aristotan atiwaynen fal issəm ən kal liəoy ɣor Euroba tan egadal ən tafuk, ad dətaqalat edag aynayan atiwəssan ən tamusne."
A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance.,Iri ən mənhuy atiwəzayən darat awen fal issəm ən ihanayan atiwətkal ad atiwəɣra as iməjan ən assini.
"This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.","Ibadəd fal təmkare tas inta alwaqatən abatol ən etran aqalan ayknan təzəjrət as ibtal nassən əkašənin fal edag ən amtəkuy, awen dǎɣ, fal inta,waroleh ad iri wan Btolémée."
He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere.,Ilməd as efew adifalan edag iyan ən assəkən eqal assorat dǎɣ edag iyan as asdarat ən tabəlaq ən tašoka.
Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.,Kepler war hənisken métafiziq tan Aristote izar aleɣat ašəɣəl iness sund tanumaɣt ən mertay ən tabəlaɣen.
"""Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work """"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems"""", which greatly offended Urban VIII.""","""Galilée itkal tiditen tin ɗaɗe izar ijenat dǎɣ tamaslaɣt ən terɣast dǎɣ ijji """"magrad orakən as assin haratan azarnen ən adunya"""", awen ayknan takmo ye Urbain 8""."
Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study nature.,Deskartes itaj assəkən fal anəzgum nawadəm izar alil as ahušəl atkul ən imaɗinan fal ušəm ən assigdah ye aləmad ən taməɣluk.
"""This new science began to see itself as describing """"laws of nature"""".""","""Sians ten teynăyăt tissinta akăyăd n imăn net as tăfăssăr "" aššăreɣa tin ahinzăzăɣ ."""
"In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing.","Dǎɣ temašaɣalt tan Fransis Bakon, Leibniz itaj as tajute ən iritan ən haratan ašəɣəlan kul as iyad lalwaten artaynen ən taɣlək, warhenat tədləmen adutətnen meɣ amindanen azlaynen ye iri kul ən harat kul."
"""In Bacon's words, """"the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches"""", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond """"the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation"""".""","""Ɣor Bakon, """"tənfo tadutet ad amək ən tamusnawen ikraš tamudre nadinat ən ijitan aynaynen ad təlaten aynaynen"""",izar assəswad imusanən as alakam ən aniyatən ən magradan meɣ tunfassen waren amutay,was,as inta,war tilalan ye tanfo nawadəm jənəj """"aho ən anəzjam imdan,ahusken meɣ adiwen""""."""
Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.,Asjət iyan ahusken eqal assəns ən tamusne jar adinat adəkananen teɣare.
"Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day.","Inəməgridan ən efewan asnəfrənan tanfust gəzəlat ən imizaran assənen-Galilée, Boyle ad Newton hulen sund iməssəkna ad təzaren ən ijitan nassən ən mənhuy iyan ən təməɣluk ad lalwa təɣlakat as išrutən kul ən ɗhysique ad mertayən ən azaman."
"""Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a """"science of man"""", which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity.""","""Hume ad inuməɣan iyad ən Ekoss ən ifewan asjətən """"tamusne ən ahaləs,""""amigradən dǎɣ tarut dǎɣ ijitan ən məssawəs atamosnen James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar ad William Robertson, asməsadawnen kul umaɣ ən tamusne ən təmashaɣəlt nadinat dǎɣ ijjitan arunen ad təzaren ad aləmadat maqarat ən asahatan ajlaynen ən tishrayt."
Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.,John Hersəhel as William Whewell assənan assərtayan tamkare : wayilkamən ija issəm ən tamusne.
"""Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"""" (""""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics.""","“Dǎɣ ebadi, Gregor Mendel assikna harat iness, """"Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden""""(""""Iruman fal assənəmoqəs ən ihəškan""""), vor 1865, hakanen səntotan ən ihuk biolojiq, infan ider ən génétiq təšrayat."""
The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the atom were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity.,Ijitan ajrəwnen abassay ən atome atiwəjrawən dǎɣ elan əlkamnen ən 19e awatay : ajaraw ən afraran X orawənid fin radioaktivité.
"In addition, the extensive use of technological innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions in transportation (automobiles and aircraft), the development of ICBMs, a space race, and a nuclear arms race.","Dǎɣ ašrut, umav azayan ən iji ən tamusne tatiwəkfat as ikənassən ən awatay wen iwayid išanzitən dǎɣ sikilan (torfen ad atieraten), ajət ən ICBM, taməšəja as afəla ad taməšəja ən alboradən nukléaire."
The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 led to a rejection of the Steady State theory of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.,Afukkăr wan kosmik mikroweyv n radiasyon daɣ awătăy wan 1964 eway id ebăddi id tălɣa n mirda wa isăsăn n alɣălim i mirda wan Big Bang n Georges Lemaître.
"Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones.","Atkul azaran ən ivalayən agašnen dǎɣ tazunt təlkamət tas akozat ən 20e awatay,ertayan ad titariten ən magrad,iwayid ašanzi ən təmusnawen ən alavi ad azaway ən Internet nadunya ad alavi ən sililer, as ihanat telefonten."
"Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.","Timusnawen avlaknen ad artaynen aqalnat tasənaten timusnawen atiwarəmnen,falas muziyaten nasnat aqimanat fal ikayadən atwarəmnen ad saməndo nasnat tadobət atwirəm as inumavən iyad aševəlnen dǎɣ aməkətan olahnen."
"For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science.","Sund,timusnawen ɗhysiques adobatnat tazunt as fiziq, šimi, astronomie ad təmusnawen tin akal."
"Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.","Aguden,milhawen ən migridan,tənnaten ad tarədawen,afilkakaynen agud iyan,akalnat tahašilt dǎɣ təmusnawen avlaknen."
"It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science.","Tartay ad imaɗinan, tamusne ən mertayən ad alavi amisənan."
"The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they actually constitute a science.","Timusnawen adutətnen aqalnat issavritan atiwazaynen ad, as adatu wen, təlet tunjit fal assestan ən aləmad as aqalnat as tidit tamusne."
"Engineering itself encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, science, and types of application.","Mənhuy imanes tasidaw anəlkəm ən išrutən ən mənhuy təknat təmvare,issosa ijan orak fal išrutən abdanen ən imaɗinan atiwəjanen,ən tamusne ad iritan ən ijji."
"""he responded: """"Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?"""".""","Assudmar :""""Ahaləs,mayinfa ara""""."""
This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation.,Alavi išrayan atiwətkal ye ijji ən ilavitan amutaynen adobatnen atwirəm as irum mev akayad.
"This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment).","Awen ititwəj dǎɣ ašrut as akayad ən ijitan avlaknen,mašan dev as musnat tirəmat as assəgbar ən ikuyan avlaknen dǎɣ alməvnatan atiwəhadnen,as assəvar ( dǎɣ təmusnawen ad akayad,sund astronomie mev géologie,akayad atiwənan adobat ašaray ənirum atiwənahadən."
"If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena.","As musnat tədar ye irum,tadobat atwətkal dǎɣ taberat ən tamusne tatiwasanat,iri mev taberat təknat adatu ad assahat ye alavi ən taməšavalt ən ijitan iyyad avlaknen."
"In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.","Dǎɣ akayad wen,timusnawen aqlnat atwəjanat as ajət ən issənta olahnen ən tamusne as musnaten."
"This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.","Awen adobat adatu as mənhuy tatiwaramat as tidit,asməvmav ad alməvna ən akayad maqaran as imidawən ən ijarawən atiwaramnen as alməvna ən samdo kul."
"Statistics, a branch of mathematics, is used to summarize and analyze data, which allow scientists to assess the reliability and variability of their experimental results.","Issidinən,ašrut ən imaɗinan,atiwətkalən ye afanaz ad akayad ən ilavitan,awen ijraw ye imusanən eket ən atwəflas ad afanazət ən ijarawən nassən ateramnen."
"It can be contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as electrons.","Nadobat atnəsəməgdah ad assəbəhu, ašarav was inta tabavort ən tamusne war təlkem as tidit təkiyadat timəvluken afarnen sund eleətrontan."
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science.,Alanət liəoyten azlaynen ən anəzjum ən magrad ən təmusnawen.
"This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only.","Awen ahušəl falas ajət ən ilavitan ən təmusnawen war imədu,awen dartidila as war adobatnat atwəziy vor ajət amindən ən təmtar dǎɣ atkul vas ən adatu izjaran."
"Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper.","Rasyonălizm amos tăzujišt t-amšăkket daɣ awătăy wan 2000 i sians, s ezzăr Karl Popper wan filozof n Australia-Britania ihuk n almăɣna net ."
Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.,Bobber assikna assəmutiy ən umav as assəmutiy sund edag ən muzyat ən təmusnawen atiwəsanen ad assəmutiy ən ugəš as assəmutiy sund tamkare ən irum.
"Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.","Ugəš iyan,ən haratan,itaj emel fal tenafit ən təmusnawen as aqalnat haratan ən assəkən ad assəlmad ən ijjitan."
"Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.","Ihaz ən harat eqal irum ikarəssən,was inta azalayat azaran ən agaraw ən tamusne tatiwasanat taqal aləmad as awa jənu dǎɣ təvləken atiwəkiyadnen adutət."
"Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations.","Assəgbar kul ila assestanən iness,derhanən ad ilavitan."
"That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm.","Dǎɣ tənaten tiyad,assənəfrən ən segbar aynayən aqimən fal ikayadən,əndar ikayadən win atiwəjan dǎɣ taberat ən assəgbar aruwan."
Its main point is that a difference between natural and supernatural explanations should be made and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.,Edag iness azarən eqal ijji ən azəməzliy jar ilavitan iknanen ad okaynen amukən ad tamusne atəkəl aybdadəd ən tamkare vor ilavitan iknanen.
"That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science accepts the concept of fallibilism.","Dǎɣ tənaten tiyad,tamusne wala iyat kala war tətwətkəl sund ayknan adatu,falas tamusne tarda aləmad ən egadal."
New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding.,Timuziawen aynaynen ən təmusnawen tiwinatid as tamətkit išanzitan maqornen dǎɣ tədawt nanaɣ.
Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by various researchers across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.,Muzyat dǎɣ tamusne titwəjrəw as asertiy okayən ən issalan adəfalnen iruman abdanen atiwəjanen as inumaɣən ajətnen dǎɣ išrutən azlaynen ən tamusne ;amos okayan ewen as teget.
"""Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for """"knowledge"""" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct.""","“Anəmagəd Barry Stroud assewəd as,harwa alaɣi iknan ən """"tamusne""""taqal atuji,eqal azahal ad atwətkəl ən tadabit iban amukən eqal anəhəj as alməɣna ən oɣəl ən tiɣdat.”"
"This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, physical cosmology).","Amos amək dǎɣ išrutən iknanen atwəhiy ən tamusne (as milhaw,ɗsyəhologie, kosmoloji fiziq)."
Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased.,"Harwa amaradəɣ,ajət imdən ən imsuɣulan asohatnen war asməda tiwat."
"Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed articles are published in English.","Harwa amsuɣəl eqalan dǎɣ 39 migridən, 91 % ən haratan atwədəqatnen azjaran dǎɣ təngalezit."
"Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.","Magazin tan n science šund siantifik wa eynayan, Sians & tamudre, and  Amerikan cater wan sians i addaroran n addinat wi ɣărrinen ajjotnen tolas ehăk aklulu n ihăndăgan n farăk ahăn ifukkăran d ikităn s dăta daɣ izărăjăn iyyad n fărak"
"Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.","Iritan ajotnen ən asjət ən hebu, ikan ijji ən azəzjar ən asədwad,adoben ugiš dǎɣ iritan"
"Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.","Imusanən ajətnen ahijən dǎɣ idagan ajətnen ən asdu atəmosən adunya ən uniɣersitetan,industritan,alɣakum as imsədiwən waren inəš."
"""For example, Christine Ladd (1847–1930) was able to enter a Ph.D. program as """"C. Ladd""""; Christine """"Kitty"""" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see truth table), color vision, and psychology.""","“Sund, Christine Ladd (1847-1930) təja atwəktab as taqən ən doktorat as taqal """"C. Ladd;"""" Christine """"Kitty""""tasməda aməkətan atwəsəstənen ɣor 1882. Ladd tasəmda aməkətan atwəsastənen ɣor . Mašan war təjrew alkad ines arəs ɣor 1926,darat tahajit haruwat as adin ən amukən (ahanay ən tabalt tan didit), as akayad iritan ad psikoloji ""."
"In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; in the early 21st century over half of the new biologists were female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men.","Daɣ amindi n awătăy wan 2000 , isăxdiman n deden d ebăddi id askut fuk ijan fal tešnăy n awădim issewădăn hullăn iddikud n deden n siăntifik tan mušăm illăn anmizlăyăn ajjotnen n tešnăy ahănen ihăndăgăn iyyad ; daɣ tizărăt n awătăy wan 2100 , tazune n biolojist tan amosăn deden as ijja awen 80 daɣ temede n PhD tan daɣ fizik amosăn meddăn"
"Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some scientific credentials, or may be an honor conferred by election.","Amərtay adobat oɣəl namer ye kul, adobat azəzjar ən tarna ən ismawən iyad əntamusne,meɣ adobat oɣəl ən azəzar atwəhakən as watetən."
Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences.,Fulatik ən tamusne amigrəd ad tartit ən assestanən adəqalnen timusnawen aknanen.
"Prominent historical examples include the Great Wall of China, completed over the course of two millennia through the state support of several dynasties, and the Grand Canal of the Yangtze River, an immense feat of hydraulic engineering begun by Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖 7th cent.","Jar milhawən arunen atwəjrahnen,aɣrətanaɣ aɣala maqaran wan Shin, amədan ɣor assin efdan as tasəbat ən talilt ən amək ən alɣayalən ajətnen,ad ashashəl maqaran ən ejarer wan Yangtze, atkul maqaran ən taməqunt tasintət as Sunshu Ao (7e awatay)."
"Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds.","Timitkwăyen šund tin esăxdăm alăkum , taggăyen hăkkinăt izirfăn šarnăš"
"The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities.","Amigdah ən tamazilt ən guɣarnəma ikna azaway dǎɣ industritan iyad,izar ogar umaɣ dǎɣ təmusnawen amertaynen ad adinat."
"Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as populist anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, postmodernist subjectivism, and fear for business interests.","Idagalan ajətnen adoben ijji sund ajət ən tidmawen ən asəfulatik ən tamusne,atəmosan anməksan ən tiyətawen ən adinat,titar atiwajrawnen ibret ən təfləsen ən tənəslima,harat okayan ishray ad toɣsat ən igarawən ən maməlatən."
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis.,Irum iyan eqal alməɣna atiwəjan ye talilt meɣ tunjit ən assənəhəj.
"Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time.","Iruman adoben assəmutiy ən ijarawən ən ikayadən ad talilt ən emaɣar as atkul ad agarazat hulen ən harat iləmad, hulen agud aqalnat atwətkal fal taqan zəjret."
"Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable.","Iruman artayan səjət ad ikayadən, atiwəjan ye afanaz ən ijitan ən imətuyan iyad as amutiy iyan anuflayan."
Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.,Kel fărăk intăned deɣ asixdămăn amiyiz daɣ erem n mirda tan wi it illănen meɣ inhăjan i tădhilt meɣ asăbbăhu nasan.
"If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis.","Afal irum atewayid as igoz, igarawən sidətun meɣ sabahawən səjət assənəhəj."
"In medicine and the social sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines.","Dǎɣ assəsəfar ad təmusnawen artaynen,dat agədah ən umaɣ atiwaramən itimətuy hulen as assəɣar iyan as iyan."
"A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be aggregated through systematic review and meta-analysis.",Teɣăre iyyăt war tat amăsuɣăl n amiyiz muchăm tiɣir azun-nen addobat nat amăsidu s amăsuɣăl n akăyăd meɣ amiyiz maqqorăn  .
We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters.,"Nadobat deɣ agad ən tidit sasmadat ulh izar agad okayan ad aniyat samdo was assədətu ijarəd; aguden as tezmit ad tigazat, nadobat aramas ən tidit ɣashadat tunjit ad amukən ən assestanən adutat."
"""In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to subjective opinions—through """"prejudices"""" and """"leniency""""—and thus has to be critical about his own way of building hypotheses.""","""Dǎɣ alməɣna wen nakayad labassən,ahaləs imanes war mahin atəwa as orak as tənaten adutətnen-as """"itwəshraɣən""""ad """"serɣassan""""ad oɣəl ən atwizəm fal alməɣna iness ən akarass ən issənəhəjitan."
"Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or experiments.","Bakon erha tamkare tahitalət as ikayadən anelasnen, meɣ iruman."
"For example, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body.","Sund,Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) ikat as alaɣi ən taqan izar ija iruman ye ajaraw ən iketan ad samədotan aleɣətnen fal atrub ən haratan ən agadəl anuflayan."
"In some disciplines (e.g., psychology or political science), a 'true experiment' is a method of social research in which there are two kinds of variables.","Dǎɣ issaɣritan iyad (sund,aləmadat meɣ timusnawen fulatiktan), ""tirma tadutet""taqal tamkare ən umaɣ ertayan dǎɣ ihan assin iritan ən ishanzitan."
A good example would be a drug trial.,Segbar ahusken eqal irum ən assafar.
"The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample).","Igarawən ən milhaw amissaɣalən adoben agud adəqəlan igdah,meɣ afal iyan dǎɣ milhawən amaɣəlnen eqal awaren anhəja ad igarawən ən milhawən wiyaɗden, adobǎt adəqəl anakash sund eqalan agaraw ən ematal atiwaramən (tedajit ən ijji ən akayad adobat adeqal atəwi as sheɣshad ye milhaw)."
A negative control is known to give a negative result.,Akayad əndaran atiwazay ye ihuk ən agaraw əndaran.
"""Most often the value of the negative control is treated as a """"background"""" value to subtract from the test sample results.""","""Dǎɣ ajət,migdahaw ən akayad əndaran atiwəja sund migdahaw ""ən ider""as amukəs ən ijarawən ən milhaw atwaramən ""."
Students might be given a fluid sample containing an unknown (to the student) amount of protein.,Nadobat ihuk ye imaɣra milhaw ən aman etafan ajət waren atwəssan ( ye emassaɣar)ən brotéyintan.
Students could make several positive control samples containing various dilutions of the protein standard.,Imaɣra adoben ijji milhawen ajətnen ən akayad maqaran ihan irawayan ajətnen ən broteyin darusat.
The assay is a colorimetric assay in which a spectrophotometer can measure the amount of protein in samples by detecting a colored complex formed by the interaction of protein molecules and molecules of an added dye.,Irum eqal irum assehaɣat dǎɣ iha asjət adobat adakal ən tajute ən ɗrotéintan dǎɣ milhawən as ajaraw ən assuhu assehaɣan ertayan as anmədəs ən moléəulten ən ɗrotéintan ad molékilten ən asini awedan.
"In this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample groups that are probabilistically equivalent, which means that measurements of traits should be similar among the groups and that the groups should respond in the same manner if given the same treatment.","Dǎɣ edag wen, irum assinta as ijji ən assin meɣ gruɗtan ən milhaw ajətnen ogdahnen ɣor edag ən mənhuy abiɣaran, awen astanitawəna as iketan ən azalayaten adəqəlan milhaw jar gruɗtan izar grubtan adamagradən as alməɣna wendǎɣ as jarawan iyan assəbələl."
"Once equivalent groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identically except for the one variable that he or she wishes to isolate.","Agud wad gruptan ogdahnen atwəjan,enamerəm itirəm assəbələl nassan salməɣna olahan,as azajar ən asəmutiy as erha ebaɗi."
This ensures that any effects on the volunteer are due to the treatment itself and are not a response to the knowledge that he is being treated.,Awen ijraw as assədətu as ijji kul fal torhajat atiwəna inta as assəbələl imanes izar war eqel tənna as ijji ən aləmad as atiwəja.
"These hypotheses suggest reasons to explain a phenomenon, or predict the results of an action.","Issənəhəjitan assinahəjan tidəten ən alaɣi ən harat, meɣ as alaɣi ənigarawən ən ijji."
The null hypothesis is that there is no explanation or predictive power of the phenomenon through the reasoning that is being investigated.,Anəhəj waren eɣlek eqal as war tila alaɣi meɣ assahat atiwalaɣen ən harat as magrad ilamad awadəm.
"To the degree possible, they attempt to collect data for the system in such a way that contribution from all variables can be determined, and where the effects of variation in certain variables remain approximately constant so that the effects of other variables can be discerned.","Dǎɣ amək ən tadabit, tirəmnat assəməsədəw ən ihukan ən mertay as almaɣna as ihuk ən issəmutiyan kul adoben atwalaɣi, izar iritan ən assəmutiy ən imətuyan iyad aqalan ogdahən waren itəmətuy ye iritan imətuyan wiyaɗden adədubin aməzlay."
"Usually, however, there is some correlation between these variables, which reduces the reliability of natural experiments relative to what could be concluded if a controlled experiment were performed.","Harkuk, aguden, eɣlaqkid amərtay iyan jar imətuyan, awen ifanazan assuhu ən iruman iknanen ye awa adoben oɣəl ən samdo as irum atiwakiyadan eqal ayjan"
"""For example, in astronomy it is clearly impossible, when testing the hypothesis """"Stars are collapsed clouds of hydrogen"""", to start out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then perform the experiment of waiting a few billion years for it to form a star.""","""Sund, dǎɣ ishənawan adutat iban tadabit,agud wad noram anəhəj """"etran aqalan ijarakan ən hydrogène ililyaman""as assət ən ejarak maqaran hydrogène, izar as iji ən irum azayan as oɣəl ən harat ən milliartan ən awatay ye iji ən etar."""
"For this reason, field experiments are sometimes seen as having higher external validity than laboratory experiments.","Ye tidit ten, iruman ən edaj atiwatkalan agud iyan sund ilanen taqan najama təknat təmɣare fal iruman dǎɣ ehan wan umaɣ."
"In these situations, observational studies have value because they often suggest hypotheses that can be tested with randomized experiments or by collecting fresh data.","Dǎɣ idagan win,tiɣarawen ən akayad ilanat tamɣar falas hakabat agud iyan issənəhəjitan adobatnen atwirəm as iruman atiwajanen meɣ as assəməsədəw ən ijarawən aynaynen."
"In addition, observational studies (e.g., in biological or social systems) often involve variables that are difficult to quantify or control.","Dǎɣ tiwat, teɣareten ən akayad (as milhaw, dǎɣ imartiyan ən tamudre meɣ timətawen) tagashan agud iyan imətuyan assohatnen aɗinen meɣ ategaznen."
"Without a statistical model that reflects an objective randomization, the statistical analysis relies on a subjective model.","Wala as iri aɗinan izazjaran atwəj ən haratan, akayad adinan aqima fal iri aniyat."
"For example, epidemiological studies of colon cancer consistently show beneficial correlations with broccoli consumption, while experiments find no benefit.","Sund,aləmadan ən torhənawen fal əanəer ən amsaɣaraj saknen asamdo ən sertayan əfanen ad tətate ən broəoli, as ijawen iruman war ajrewan tanfo walayat."
"For any randomized trial, some variation from the mean is expected, of course, but the randomization ensures that the experimental groups have mean values that are close, due to the central limit theorem and Markov's inequality.","Ye irum kul ijan, amutiy iyan as awa ogdahən eqal atiwaqalan, mashan tijjit tigozst as gruɗtan oramnen ilan tamɣare ogdahnen anehaznen, as adatu ən tamkare namas təmdat ad anəmijar ən Markov."
"To avoid conditions that render an experiment far less useful, physicians conducting medical trials—say for U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval—quantify and randomize the covariates that can be identified.","Ye agadal ən idagan tajanen irum awaren infa as tajute, imassafaran tajanen iruman ən səfran sund ye assəhəsku ən Food and Drug Administration ən Amérique sajat izar taju anməshənzi adoben adəqəl atwəzay."
"It is also generally unethical (and often illegal) to conduct randomized experiments on the effects of substandard or harmful treatments, such as the effects of ingesting arsenic on human health.","Dǎɣ ashrut, eqal sajət ebaɗi ən taɣlək (war itətwəj agud) ye umaɣ ən iruman ajətnen fal ijitan ən issafaran ahuskatnen əndaratnen meɣ əkmanen, atamosan ijitan ən ashugəsh ən arseniə fal asseɣat nadinat."
"A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, while a metallurgy laboratory could have apparatus for casting or refining metals or for testing their strength.","Ehan numax ən fiziq adobat atkul ən emasheshəl ən ikarumatan meɣ ehan war iha wala,aguden ehan wan tazoli adobat ajaraw ən marshintan ye assəɣal meɣ assamtkay ən tizoliawənen meɣ irum ən assahat nassan."
Scientists in other fields will use still other types of laboratories.,Siăntifik tan  daɣ ihăndăgăn iyyăd har ajjudi xăddămăn s iššikilăn n laborătwar tan iyyad  .
"""Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts, the term """"laboratory"""" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as Living Labs, Fab Labs, or Hackerspaces, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make prototypes, working collaboratively or sharing resources.""","Harwa musnat daw ehan sund edag atiwayan ye inafrinan,issəm """"ehan"""" ititwəj deɣ as ajət as dagan ən ashəɣəl sund Living Labs, Fab Labs meɣ Hackerspacces, dǎɣ tamuqussan adinat ye ashəɣəl fal itaraqan ən tirtayen meɣ ijji ən milhawən, as ashəɣəl dǎɣ amshəɣəl meɣ dǎɣ tazunt ən haratan."""
This laboratory was created when Pythagoras conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string.,Ehan wen atiwaja agud Pythagore ija irum fal emasli ən anazar ad ashkədkad ən laji.
A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory was accidentally discovered in the year 2002.,Ehan ən alshimiq nider naman ən 16e awatay atiwajraw dǎɣ tamoqest ɣor 2002.
"Laboratory hazards might include poisons; infectious agents; flammable, explosive, or radioactive materials; moving machinery; extreme temperatures; lasers, strong magnetic fields or high voltage.","Mahalətən oraknen as ihanan adoben ashugish ən ishaɣwan, haratan tamalsanen, ilalan raqanen, tabaqutnen meɣ radioaktifs, ən marshintan amiramarnen, tikusawen alkamnen, lasertan, edag ən anarkab assohen meɣ ijitan azwaynen."
"The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories.","Taggăyt tan Okkupasional Săfeti and  Administrasyon tan Assexăt (OSHA) daɣ amerik , daɣ as tărdăh fal samal iyyan n edăg n alxidmăt wan laboratwar, sassăkda azzuken i aginfi daɣ xătar tan"
"In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards.","Ye alaɣi ən ahanay wan aseɣat əhimique anhəjan ye tartit meɣ ehan ezlayan ,ahushal alamad ən təmdal ən tamɣare, ad eket ən ijitan ishraynen dǎɣ alməɣna ən igaz, ən asseɣat ad ihoz ad eket ən mahalaten."
"""Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective """"outside view"""" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit.""","“Dǎɣ assiwad, akayad as ashrut was karad eqal atiwatkalan ye ihuk """"akayad ən ajama"""" harat aditiwayan akayad aynayan fal idagan ad itaraqan adobatnen atwətkal ye agaraw meɣ atawiy dǎɣ adatu ən aləmad."""
Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility.,Alamad aziwat as ashəɣəl okayan ad fal akaras ən ehan.
"For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project.","Almităl, tăqqimt n fărak iyyat tila alwăq net wa s taj in farăk nasan fal măjal eha afor nasăn ašăl iyyan fuk daɣ issiboɣ mušăm a-wa hin eqqim xaddaman fal froje n tăqqimt ."
"A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member.","Amagraw eqal emashaɣal ən ehan omaran as musnat dihad dila amaradǎɣ massis nehan, fal ider ən selmad iyan ijan as takarde ənawadəm kul ən mashaɣalan."
"Through ethnographic studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory.","S tiɣir tin etnografi , afukkăr iyyan amos as jir inăxdimăn , teɣăre fuk ( kel farăk, inăxkămăn) ilan edăg izlăyăn n alxăq izlăyăn s laboratwăr tan ."
"By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization.","Dǎɣ akayad ən ibaditan ən aməkətan jar məssawəs ən mashaɣalan,nadobat agaraw ən edaj nassan ertayan dǎɣ amsədu."
"So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights.","Ajjilal ən anmijar ertayan eqal Loator italaɣat ajət ən iritan nalaɣi, as almaɣna ən massis ən amashaɣal ad tiditen iness."
Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies.,Anamizar ertayan animataf deɣ ad imeshlan ibret ən timusnawen.
"For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day.","Sund, emaselkid ijja alkad ayfan, falas alilas as ajaraw məssawəs ən emashaɣal dǎɣ ashal."
"Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more.","Məssawəs ən emashaɣal war anuflayan alwaq wad amos assəmutiy ən iritan ən tidit, ən ahushəl, assəmɣar, ən amzizar waren ikna ad iknan, etc."
"""Nature, in the broadest sense, is the natural, physical, material world or universe. """"""","""Tamaɣluk,ɣor alaɣi haruwan, taqal adunya meɣ aɣalakat iknan, fiziq ad haratən."""""""
"Although humans are part of nature, human activity is often understood as a separate category from other natural phenomena.","Harwa as adinat tajan ugish ən taɣlək, ashəɣəl nadinat atiwəssan agud sund iri ezlayan ad ikuyan iyad iknanen."
"The concept of nature as a whole, the physical universe, is one of several expansions of the original notion; it began with certain core applications of the word φύσις by pre-Socratic philosophers (though this word had a dynamic dimension then, especially for Heraclitus), and has steadily gained currency ever since.","Muzyat ən tamaɣluk sund kul, taməte fiziq, taqal iyat isjətan ajotnen ən muzyat tassintat; assinta as ijitan iyyad namas ən tefert φύσις as imagridan dat Sokrate (harwa tefert ten təkraš tebade tasohet, hulen ye Héraklite), izar wǎr asməda asjət aru."
"However, a vitalist vision of nature, closer to the presocratic one, got reborn at the same time, especially after Charles Darwin.","Aguden, ahanay idaran ən taməte, iknan ihaz ən ahanay wǎn dat Sokrate, iwa ɣor iyan azaman, atamosan darat Charles Darwin."
"""It is often taken to mean the """"natural environment"""" or wilderness—wild animals, rocks, forest, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention, or which persist despite human intervention.""","""Nissal agud as dihen ""akal iknan ""meɣ tamaɣluk ən tamaɣluk naroj – imudaran naroj, iɣatan, tafarawt, ad tazart haratan wǎren amos amutayan as ugišnadinat, meɣ išihušulan harwa ugišnadinat ""."
"Its most prominent climatic features are its two large polar regions, two relatively narrow temperate zones, and a wide equatorial tropical to subtropical region.","Timezlayen alwaqatən iknanen atwənhay aqalan ikalan assin maqornen ən ijmawǎn, idagan assin alimzayatnen zagrotnen, ad akal haruwǎn ən équateur ən trobikale as subtroikale."
"The remainder consists of continents and islands, with most of the inhabited land in the Northern Hemisphere.","Aɣil ertay ad ikalan ad jar aman, ajət ən kalan amidak ihan dǎɣ tazunt tan emaynaj."
"The interior remains active, with a thick layer of plastic mantle and an iron-filled core that generates a magnetic field.","Awa hin eqqimăn daɣ, ilan layer n măna d tazoli , itărăw id ezărăj n măgnetik ."
Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrude into the overlying rock.,Qafiz tan win tekadayt intaned azzarnen ijjuš n edag s tenasse fal arori meɣ ijašan s afuqqi n tekadayt
Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere.,Assəhuh ad ašaɣəl wǎn amliliy nakal ijanid adu azaran.
"Continents formed, then broke up and reformed as the surface of Earth reshaped over hundreds of millions of years, occasionally combining to make a supercontinent.","Ikalan atwajan, izar atwǎrzan izar amsaɣalan as solan as amək was afala nakal itimətuy ɣor timad ən milliontan ən iwətyan, ataynen agud ye ijji ən akal ahusken."
"During the Neoproterozoic era, freezing temperatures covered much of the Earth in glaciers and ice sheets.","Ɣor azaman néobrotérozoïq, tisamdawen ilsanat ašrut maqaran ən akal ən issəsmad ad təkəbuten samednen."
"The last mass extinction occurred some 66 million years ago, when a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as mammals.","Assəmiyaqi ilkamən əntazayt ija ika awen 66 milliontan ən iwətyan, agud wad tamoqest ən tihun orawid assəmiyaqi ən finosaurtan wǎren itəfurit ad izlulam iyad maqornen, mašan oyahin imudaran madroynen sund iməssəkas."
"The subsequent advent of human life, and the development of agriculture and further civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth more rapidly than any previous life form, affecting both the nature and quantity of other organisms as well as global climate.","Agad okayan ən tamudre nadinat ad asjət ən ajayak ad timusnawen tiyad ijrawǎn ye adinat assəmutiy nakal iknan atarab fal iri iyan kul ən tamudre tokayat, toɣalt agud fal taɣlək ad ajət iman iyyad ad fal alwaq nadunya."
The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity.,Tassabakənt sadidat ən gaz tabirambaket akal tatiwataf dǎɣ edag as tergaše.
The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface.,Tassabakənt tan ozone taj ašaɣal iknan as afanaz ən ajət ən afraran gazolnen (UV) awadnen afala.
"Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere, and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat.","Aməkətan ən alwaqatən ən akal tajan dǎɣ ihaz iyan dǎɣ ašrut əndaran ən adu, ad ifan as tartit taweyat ye tazunt ən takusse."
"Also, without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere, the tropics would be much hotter, and the polar regions much colder.","As milhaw, wala tazunt ən assahat akussan as ijjitan ən ibanɣan ad adu,troɗiquetan aqalan hulen takusse izar ikalan ən ijmawǎn iknanen təssamde."
"Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the weather, and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect, both on the vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their food.","Ihəškan ən fal afala amutay as alməɣna ən ifanazan ən alwaqatən ən tahajit, ad imatuyan atrabnen wǎren itahij aris harat elan adobatnen ajaraw ən ijji labasan,agud fal ihəškan ad fal imudaran ilanen ɣor tadawla iness ye tatate nassan."
"Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages.","Darat alkadan arunen, nəssan as akal izay išanzitan ən taqan təmdat dǎɣ ikuy, atamosan azamantan samednen."
"There are a number of such regions, ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes.","Eɣlakid ajət iyan ən kalan ən iri wen, assintan as taqan trobikal ən équateur as taqan ən ijəm ɣor ijmawǎn ən emaynaj ad tasaja nakal."
This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit.,Assəkən wen isanalkam dǎɣ alkum as akal itimliliy fal abatol iness.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface.,Aman ilsan 71 % ən fal afala ən akal.
"Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays and other names.","Ikalan iknanen təmətkit ən ibangan aqalan atiwaɣran as aman, golfes, assəhətəl ad ismawǎn iyad."
"It is not known if Titan's lakes are fed by rivers, though Titan's surface is carved by numerous river beds.","Wǎr nəssen as ijareran win Titan atiwatkaran as išušal, harwa afala ən Titan eqal eɣešas assareran ajətnen ən išušal."
"A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation, fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy.","Ajət maqaran ən ibanɣan atiwajanen amisadawǎn sund tigəndawen ən manan janen ye ajamar ən ašənšən imanan, ad tigandawen ən tafuk janen ye assəməsədəw ən takusse."
"Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill; there is no general rule that defines what can be called a river.","Ijareran win daratnen adoben deɣ adəqəlan atwaɣar as ismawən iyad ajotnen amosnen ruisseau, əreek, brook, riɣulet ad rill ; wǎr titəla tənna tartayat talaɣet awa doben atwaɣar as ašašəl."
The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated.,Taməqunt ad mertay atiwajrawǎn as ajət haratan ən akal aqalnen atwənhad.
Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment.,Mənhuy ən tirtayen ila fal anyat as imudaran adarnen tinməjin ad haratən wiyaɗden kul ən edag nakal nassən.
Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms.,Nadobat deɣ tənna as tamudre taqal amuk amezlayan ən imudaran.
"However, not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential.","Aguden, ilaɣitan kul ən tamudre wǎr atkelan as təlaten kul eqal ayknan."
"From the broadest geophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere (rocks), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air).","Ɣor edag ən mənhuy géofiziologiq iknan taharut, tamudre taqal tartit ən imudaran kul agašnen imudaran kul adarnen ad mertay, as ugišən ijji nassan ad haratən ən lithosfère (iɣayan) ad hydrosɗhère (aman), ad atmosfère (adu)."
"More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been identified to date, and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over 50 million.","Okayan 2 milliontan tawseten ən ihəškan ad imudaran atiwazayan ašalen, ad iketan ən adin aduten ən tawsaten aɣlaqnen ikan ɣor ajət ən milliontan as okayan 50 ən milliontan."
Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct.,Tiwsaten wǎren adobat ilmed as akal itimətuyan ad aməšəj ən iritan iyad ən tamudre əgmadan.
When basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms.,"Agud wad iritan ən tamudre ən ihəškan azarnen asjətən assəmutiy ən fotosintèz, asahat ən tafuk atiwətkal ye ijji ən aməkətan ajrawnen iritan ən tamudre təknat assuhu."
"Microorganisms are single-celled organisms that are generally microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see.","Imudaran əndaratnen aqalan imudaran niyan adag as ajət ən təmadrit, iknan təmatkit as awas dtadobǎt tet nawadəm ahanay."
Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse.,Tirwat nassan taqal aytraban ad ajen.
"Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms.","A ijja alwaq wen, izjar aš-ak as Plantae s immik wa s ijja almaɣna net s tizarat ahan ti taqqimen ajjotnen war n oseɣ harat d biffen tolas taqqimen n algae ammukas nat daɣ almalikiya tan ti eynaynen"
"Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras, which, depending on the purpose of study, can also include fossil flora, remnants of plant life from a previous era.","Daɣ immikan wi ajotnen n amăskăt n tešše s rejional flora ilkămăn i attus n teɣăre , addobăt har ajjudi at ijjiš adăriš n flora ,băqiya tan n tămudre n tešše daɣ azzămăn wa hin okayan"
"""Some types of """"native flora"""" actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another, and become an integral part of the native, or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced.""","""Iritan iyad ən """"ihəškan arunen""atiwagašan ila awen iwətyan as adinat assekalnen as akal meɣ as aɣrim as iyan, izar jar tartit kul ən ihəškan arunen meɣ arunen ən edag dihad atwəgašan""."
Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things.,Imudaran as oɣəl ən iri ikrašan timezlayen ajətnen tənazlaynen hulen ad imudaran wiyaɗden.
"They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls.","Amezlayan deɣ ad ihəškan, ad ilatan ad əhambiyontan as iban tidagaten ən ifərjan."
There is also typically an internal digestive chamber.,Ikrašharwa deɣ ehan isugušən amass.
"A 2020 study published in Nature found that anthropogenic mass (human-made materials) outweighs all living biomass on earth, with plastic alone exceeding the mass of all land and marine animals combined.","Teɣare təzjarat ɣor 2020 dǎɣ Nature taleɣat as tazayt nadinat (ilalan atiwajanen as awadəm iwayt fal tazayt kul taɣlakat fal akal, assəmutiy okay inta ɣas tazayt ən imudaran nakal ad aman artaynen kul."
"In spite of this progress, however, the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment.","Mašan harwa ikuyan, azajor ən amutiy nadinat eqal tahurut as amərtiy amutiy ən akal."
"Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals, with roughly 1 million species threatened with extinction within decades.","Awadəm alil as assəmiyaqi ən ajət maqaran ən ihəškan ad imudaran, ad ogdahan million ən taməɣluk tatemarat ən aməki dǎɣ iwətyan adəmalanen."
This distorts market pricing of natural resources and at the same time leads to underinvestment in our natural assets.,Awen assibahaw assəbdad ən inəšitan ən haratan iknanen dǎɣ hebu izar itirwəd dǎɣ alwaq iban asdu dǎɣ ašəɣəlan iknanen.
Governments have not prevented these economic externalities.,Guvarnamatan wǎr idgelan izagaran ən issəməsidiwǎn.
"Some activities, such as hunting and fishing, are used for both sustenance and leisure, often by different people.","Ašəɣəlan iyyad, sund ahayu ad afataw, atiwətkalən dǎɣ alwaq ye todəft ad imešlan, agud as adinat abdanen."
"That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art, photography, poetry, and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty.","Amək was taɣlək tatiwasakna ad tatiwadal as ijitan ən musnat ajətnen, ad fatoten, ikataban iyad saknen assahat was inta adinat ajotnen assertayan tamaɣluk ad tahuskət."
Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history.,Taɣlək ad irojan aqalan haratan ahuskatnen as azamantan azlaynen ən tafust nadunya.
"Although natural wonders are celebrated in the Psalms and the Book of Job, wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s, especially in the works of the Romantic movement.","Harwa tihussay aɣlaknen aqalnat atwədəl dǎɣ Psaumes ad akətab wǎn Job, issəknitan ən taməɣluk naroj dǎɣ iji aqalnan ayknan emel dǎɣ elan win 1800, hulen dǎɣ ijitan ən amtəkway Azedan."
"""For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be """"physics""""—the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the """"study of nature"""".""","""Ye tidit ten, tamusne taknat tazart tatiwətkal sund fizique""as issəm atiwazay harwa sund dərtidila as amos ""alamad ən taməɣluk"""".”"
The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4.9 percent of the total mass.,"Naɣel ašali as haratan atiwǎnhaynen ən adunya wǎr aqelan as 4,9 % ən tazayt təmdat."
The behaviour of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well-defined physical laws.,Temašaɣalt ən harat ad assahat dǎɣ tartit ən taməte tatiwakyadat tolah dalkum ən lalwaten ən ɗhysique iknanen alaɣi.
"There is no discrete boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space, as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude.",War it illa alxădud iffărăn jir akal d išinnăwăn fal as aljuw isăsmăd sollan ɣur tiw-at n tišijrit net
"There is also some gas, plasma and dust, and small meteors.","Illăn ti har ajjudi gaz tan iyyăd , plasma d ahoqqăl d meteor tan mădroynen ."
"Although Earth is the only body within the solar system known to support life, evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface.","Harwa akal eqal harat iyan ən tartit ən tafuk atiwazayan ye igaz ən tamudre, timtar hakanat as dǎɣ ikuy ujəjan, etar Mars ikraštizayen ən aman fal afala ness."
"If life exists at all on Mars, it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist.","As tamudre taɣlakid fal Mars, təkna oɣəl nadatu emel daw akal, dihad aman adoben harwǎ aɣalak."
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source.,Akayad eqal agaraw ijan ən issalan ɣor edag azaran.
"The use of measurement developed to allow recording and comparison of observations made at different times and places, by different people.","Atkul ən eket atwajət ye agaraw ən assətkal ad assənəmigar ən ikayadən janen as alwaqatən azlaynen ad dǎɣ idagan azlaynen, as adinat azlaynen."
In measurement the number of standard units which is equal to the observation is counted.,"IDǎɣ alməɣna, nəssadan ajət ən tartit darusat togdǎhǎt ad akayad."
"Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, and radio receivers.","Haratan atiwassanen agašan edag ye talilt ən tidabiten ən akayad ən ahalis, sund imekitan, imazaran, teleskobtan, mikroskobtan, ƭhermometretan, imətkalan ən assorat ad mayetofontan, as harwa alaɣi daɣ ini atiwasanan as tənaten, sund iritan saknanen, voltmètretan: bektromètretan, kameraten šagaɣnen, ossiyoskobtan, interferometretan, imassidan Geiger ad inarmasan arajo."
"For example, it is not normally possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, thereby changing the pressure.","Sund, wǎr eqel ayknan tadabit ən umaɣ ən assahat ən adu daɣ tebalawt ən toraft wala azzajar aɣil ən adu, awen issəmətuyan assahat."
"For example, in the twin paradox one twin goes on a trip near the speed of light and comes home younger than the twin who stayed at home.","Sund, dǎɣ assəbəhu ən iknewǎn, iyan dǎɣ iknewǎn ika assikəl as atrub ohazan wǎn efew izar eqalid iknan təmadrit ye ekne waqiman ɣor ehan."
"""Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to observe a system without changing the system, and the """"observer"""" must be considered part of the system being observed.""","""Amukən atwəsanan:""dǎɣ amukən atwəsanan,ijanen temašaɣalt ən haratan iknanen təmətkit, wǎr eqel tadabit ən akayad ən mertay wala assəmutiy ən mertay, ad """"amakyad""""ad atwətkəl sund ertayan ad mertay akiyadan""."
"Human perception occurs by a complex, unconscious process of abstraction, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and remembered, and the rest forgotten.","Akăyvd n awădim itaj s tamătikwăyt maqqorăt, war hin ijrah n arămăs daɣ as isălăn iyyăd ijaš nen tiw-ajrăhăn in tolas ilan tăkittăwt tolas a wa hin eqqimăn a tat aw a hin"
"""Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by """"plausible"""" data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called reconstructive memory.""","""Darat awen, agud wad ikuyan atwəktanid, Iban timusnawen ən takətawt adoben oɣəl ən idakaran as ihukan ""adutətnen ""as aniyat itaj ye aləmad ən iri; awas nəjan takətawt tatiwaqanat""."
"In psychology, this is called confirmation bias.",Dǎɣ almudnəjan ye awen taberat ən adatu.
"For example, let us suppose that an observer sees a parent beat their child; and consequently may observe that such an action is either good or bad.","Sund, najet as amakiyad ihanay amaraw itəgatan ruress; azar smaək, adobat akayad as tedagit ten taqal ahusken meɣ aybraran."
"""Research is """"creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge"""".""","""Farak eqqal alxidmăt n eɣăn d sistem"" tijăt izziyăd n musnat"""
"To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.","Ye irum ən tahajit ən haratan, idakalan meɣ iruman, umaɣ adobat iji ən haratan ən ašəɣəlan okaynen meɣ ašaɣal dǎɣ maness."
This material is of a primary-source character.,Harat wen ila temašaɣalt ən tedajit tazarat.
"In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results.","Daɣ alxidmăt net tan amiyiz, ităjăš  tat akăyăd oɣădăn meɣ ifrăɣăn n harăt wa fal ija fărak, almităl , daɣ laboratwăr meɣ teren , kăttăbăn immik, xal tan d inăš ăš ăn n amiyiz meɣ majmuɣăt n imiyizăn meɣ hak alkittăb afăhăm n xal tan wi azzărnen."
The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.,Ajət ən asseɣat ən umaɣ eqal iyan dǎɣ təmezlayen azarnen ən azəzjar ən haratan dǎɣ uɣlawǎn ən université izar atawəja as zabo ən akayad as assin.
This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world.,Umaɣ wen ihaku issalan ad timusnawen atiwassanen jarawnen alaɣi ən taɣlək ad təlaten ən adunya.
Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.,Umaɣ atiwalmadan adobǎt oɣəl ən tazunt imsədiwǎn azlaynen as alməɣna ən isaɣra maqornen ad ijjitan.
"Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it.","Umaɣan ən timusnawen nadinat wǎr ameɣan hulen ye assudmar iknan ad ilkamən as assestan, mašan kayadan šikanen itaraqan ad ilaɣitan atəɣlaynen."
"Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.","Tifussen dakalnat idagan azarnen ad tiyad timtaren ye umaɣ amertayan fal harat, azar ye akatǎb ən tinfussen as alməɣna ən issənəfissan okaynen."
The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.,Umaɣ adaqəl atwəlaɣi dǎɣ amərtay ən tənfo ness as təmusnawen aɣlaknen aru fal harǎt.
"Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment.","Dǎɣ amsədu, musnat tatiwətkǎl ye ijji ən ilaɣitan adobatnen atwirəm dǎɣ akayad ən jarawǎn ən irum."
This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations.,Magrad wen ijan aniyat atiwatkal falas inuməɣan assanan as musnaten tiyad adobatnat deɣ oɣəl ən anməwal ad ikayadən.
"As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction.","Ɣor ikuy as azalayat ən akayad tiwad ad taqan, musnat tadobǎt ad ibas haku alaɣi aduten."
"""Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – """"Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines.""","""Umǎɣ ən tamusne ǎtiwalaɣǎt as liəoy tan dalol ad tan imešlan (dǎɣ och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH) ən Stockholm as alməɣnat ədimalan: ""umaɣ ən tamusne ayinfa umǎɣ ad irum dǎɣ amək ən ǎjaraw ən təmusnawen dǎɣ amass ən təɣareten nǎnaɣ ən tamusne ye ad əntanated""."
Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.,Umaɣ ən tamusne adoqǎt assiwad ən tamusne ad aləmadat ad assəkən ən timusnawen.
"""According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, """"perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities"""".""","""Ɣor amussan Hakan Toɗal, dǎɣ umaɣ ən tamusne,""""ihaməš hulen as dǎɣ tiɣareten tiyad, almud atiwatkal sund tamkare ye muzyat ən ašad haruwǎn ən alməɣnatan tajanen aynaynen ad wǎren atwaqal.""""."""
"Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.","Umaɣ ən ider adobat ijji, as milhaw, umaɣ assəkən meɣ alməɣna."
The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study.,"Akayad izjaran itazay ifəšuritan meɣ tibruzaten dǎɣ umaɣawǎn okaynen, awǎ ijrawən alaɣi ən taɣare."
The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis.,Investigatio quaestio potest esse parallel hypothesi.
"The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research.","Inuməɣan kayadan izar talaɣen darat ijarawən as taberat ən təmkarawen ajətnen adinen, abdanen dǎɣ as ad atwaɣrənat as umaɣ ateraman."
"""However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving """"up"""" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review.""","""Aguden, inuməɣan iyad tajan ihaz inadan: assənt as amertiy ən ijarawən ad amədiš nassan, azar """"awnən""""har muzyat ən ataraqa ən umaɣ adizjaran ijarawən ad akayad aberbaran."""
Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.,Umaɣ ifranən eqal agud atiwətkalən sund tamkare ən umaɣ tassekalat tənfat ider as musnaten ɣn umaɣ ajen adimalan.
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.,Umaɣ ajen ertay ad ašrut ən magrad ad tamusne ən ajət.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.,Umaɣ ajen adoqat akayad ən musnaten adəzjarnen tamusne meɣ adobatnen alaɣi ən tabade ən harat infan.
"If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.","As anazjum eqal assəjət ɣor imugašan ən umaɣ as aɣrim iknan taharut, anumaɣ idakal milhaw aduten ye assənəfrən ən imugašan."
"Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research.","Ihukawǎn səssin aqalan ihukan atəlanen aru, sund ihukan ad assedən, adobǎtnen atwətkəl ye umaɣ."
This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer.,Tamkare ten sakna tənfaten as atkul ən tamkare iyyǎt wǎr tadobǎt ihuk.
Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach.,Umaɣ aruwǎn wǎr eqel anməšray ibdan as umaɣ aruwǎn falas adobatnat atwətkal kul ye assəsuhu ən mihzaw en umaɣ.
The management of research ethics is inconsistent across countries and there is no universally accepted approach to how it should be addressed.,Tanhat ən ijji ən umaɣ wǎr eqel oolahən ən akal as iyyan izar wǎr tila ihaz iyan atiwǎrdan fal alməɣna ən tihza.
"Regardless of approach, the application of ethical theory to specific controversial topics is known as applied ethics and research ethics can be viewed as a form of applied ethics because ethical theory is applied in real-world research scenarios.","Awa amos ihoz, ijji ən tamusne tijit as haratan išraɣnen əknanen atiwazay fal issəm tijit tatiwajat falas tamusne ən tijit tatiwaja dǎɣ ilaɣitan ənumaɣ ən adunya tadutet."
"Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research, the most notable Code being the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.","Tijit ən umaɣ taqal musnat təknat tajute dǎɣ ašrut ən umaɣ nassafar, təna təknat akatab taqal azuziy wǎn Helsinki ən 1964."
"Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies.","Ajət-numaɣ anehad as ajaraw ən iɣilayan, ən idunan timkarawen ad imətəlitan iyyad ad iban assahat."
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication.,Inumaɣən ən ihzawǎn adəbdədan dat taflist ad azajor ad tanaɣe ən magrad dǎɣ umaɣ ad azəzjar ən université.
"For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.","Dǎɣ awa adimaran fulatik tamigdahat, ikalan nagadal ən tafuk aqalan ayknan atwəsəkən dǎɣ tiɣareten aqimanen fal akal iyan, atwimar ijan fal Euroba tan egadal ən tafuk Kanada, Australya ad Nouvelle-Zélande."
"Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions.","Teɣaraten akrašnen agay oɣadan adoben alaway ən amənd ən assərtay, awa dartila as ijarawən adoben adwǎr tatwəjin as iɣərman iyad meɣ ikalan."
"Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge.","Aləmadat, alməɣna ən akayad as milhaw itədal imusanən ən iyan ašrut atiwǎramnen as inaktaban ən namokalan ye akayad ən ašəɣəlan atiwasanen janen iyan dǎɣ imidawǎn nassan dǎɣ edag nahanay ogdahən ad as,ajət ən banan."
"For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.","Dǎɣ asikin, iyadak terweten ən kalan taganat as ugish ən salatitan iyad isalan aridnen dǎɣ tidawt tanihagat atiqil atiwasaknan fal anmigashan."
"The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly.","Əmik eqalan hulen aybdan ye tabaraten əd təwaɗ deɣkanen harkuk, mashan as taqal agudiyan ahin-ilan."
These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations.,Əmikan wen ən numaɣ adoben adikilan atiwagrawan dǎɣ santotan ən hukitan atiwashaknen ikanen dǎɣ təmusnawen əd aniyatan.
"The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format.","Əmikan ən zizgaran wi aqalnen aƭiwardan dǎɣ tumast ən tilalen ye təmusne meɣ ye umaɣ ebdan dǎɣ uɣil ən tabarat əs iyat, ən almaɣna atiwazazgaran əs almaɣna ən koran."
Business models are different in the electronic environment.,Təmusnawen ən mashanshan aqalnen aybdan dǎɣ tenere ən koran.
Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds.,Ajotnen ənumaɣan if-hamnen (atamosnen imanahadan ən tidawt) okayan aɣil maqaran ən alwaq ye asistan ən tədhilen fal azruf ye umaɣ.
The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries).,Təmusne tan tənumaq taqal təmusne ən təɣirmt ən garawǎn ən təmusne tan talɣa ən təwaƭ ən təmumaq harwa dǎɣ ihomiši 17e temede nawatǎy (dər imagan animakalnen dǎɣ azaman ən təmaɗ okaynen).
"These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.","Amos tabaraten ən təmusne ən tənumaq, ye təbiɗawt ən anilkam atiwasanan ən tisigwen tawaganen ye kul əshiɣilan ən təmusnawen."
"A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question.","Maɣulat eqalan atiwasanan, eqanan fal təmusnawen atwagrawnen dǎɣ umaɣ ən liɣitan ən asostan."
"There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.",Aliɣi ən təmusne ən daw əmik ən tabarat sansu agudiyan dak ən ašušuhutan.
"""The term """"scientific method"""" emerged in the 19th century, when a significant institutional development of science was taking place and terminologies establishing clear boundaries between science and non-science, such as """"scientist"""" and """"pseudoscience"""", appeared.""","""Əmik """"təmusne ən tənumaq"" taqalat adizgaran dǎɣ 19ème temede nawatay, mašan ən təwaƭ igitan inf-fanen ən tənumaq eqalan dǎɣ aytawagen əd as samandotan taganen heretan aridnen əngar tənumaq əd wa-winan amos tənumaq, atamosnen as """"tənumaq"""" əd """"wa səsin tənumaq"""", zagarnatid."
"Gauch 2003, and Tow 2010 disagree with Feyerabend's claim; problem solvers, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.","Gauch 2003, əd Tow 2010 wadaqelan ayerdan dər salan wi Feyerabend; wi kananen asibaban, əd numaɣan anihaga adigin aniyat dər tabaraten nasan alwaq wa umaɣ nasan."
"Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method, said that debates over scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of Against Method, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology.","Kal-nuzguman Robert Nola əd Howard Sankey, dǎɣ alkitaban nasan wən 2007 sitawan Theories of Siantifik Method, ganan as təmadašen fal təmusne ən tənumaq anilkamnat, əd idhalnat as Feyerabend, dǎɣ awen ən salan Against Method, erda tiyad tabaraten ən təmusne əd oram ye adalaɣat as tabaraten tən fal meta-adabara."
The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism.,Harat it-tilan harkuk ən təmusne ən tənumaq taqalat tən alwaq wan təɣirmaten.
"The scientific method counters claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.","Təmusne tan tənumaq war-tarda ye salan wi amosnen as emanawnaw, tidit ən tənayiwen meɣ alɣibadat, ən taɣare ən aditiwagazan, ən alɣibadatan artaynen, wa ahusken əmik meɣ təmusnawen tinamaradǎɣ amosnat haratan iyadǎɣ adobatnen asiknin tidit."
"From the 16th century onwards, experiments were advocated by Francis Bacon, and performed by Giambattista della Porta, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei.","ɣur awătăy wan 1600 , imiyizăn aqqălăn a sar eɣra Francis Bacon tolas ijăn tan Giambattista della Porta, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei."
"As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics of study over time.","Sund dǎɣ tiyad tabaraten ən numaɣ, tanumaq (dǎɣ tihawt ən təmusne ən tənumaq) tadobet asihidid fal təmusnawen namas əd asiwiɗ ən afahamat ogaran aśuhu ən salan ən taɣare dǎɣ azaman."
"""This model can be seen to underlie the scientific revolution.: """"""","""Nadobǎt anagu as əmik ən daw uzil ən tanakra ən tənumaq.: """""""
"One conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in some of the people in that population, as in a clinical trial of the drug.","Dǎɣ maɣulat adoben adiqil as asafar aynayan ad- isisifir ye turhina ɣur iyad adinat ən aljamaɣat ten, sund dǎɣ urum ən nehan ən sifran."
These predictions are expectations for the results of testing.,Dǎɣ awatiwardan aqalnen isigidan alwaq ən liɣitan ən iruman.
The difference between expected versus actual indicates which hypothesis better explains the resulting data from the experiment.,Təbidawɗ ən gar liɣitan atiwasagdahnen əd liɣitan itbatnen saknen tabarat ta talaɣet hulen ihukitan ən liɣitan ən təmusne.
"Depending on the complexity of the experiment, iteration of the process may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer the question with confidence, or to build up other answers to highly specific questions, to answer a single broader question.","Dǎɣ aśuhu ən təmusne, adobǎt adiqil ayfan anelasan dǎɣ tabarat fal asirtay igdahan ən sidutitan dǎɣ samando ən aliɣi ye asostan dər afalasat,meɣ fal uɣin niyad əliɣitan ən asostanan aśohatnen hulen, dǎɣ samando ən aliɣi ən asostan iyadǎɣ ogaran thiriwe."
"""X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA by Florence Bell in her Ph.D. thesis (1939) were similar to (although not as good as) """"photo 51"""", but this research was interrupted by the events of World War II.""","""Dumu tan n X-rayn  DNA win Florence Bell daɣ akimmăl n teɣăre net tan Ph.D daɣ awătăy wan (1939) olăhăn id (kuddeɣ as war huskăyăn) ''tăswera 51"" mušăm fărak wen isăbdăd nat alɣădăr tan win Akinnăs n Alɣălim wan Issin ."""
"""June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.: """"""","""Juin 1952 — Watson igraw adagu ye agaraw ən fototan dǎɣ zaranzaran ən X ən TMV saknanen alhali ən təbiɗawen aśohatnen dər asimililiy ən adabal : """"""."
"This prediction was a mathematical construct, completely independent from the biological problem at hand.","Maɣulat wen eqal təmuqunt iyat ən maɗin, əs dak ənes ən tanhat ənes ən asibab ən biologique dǎɣ asostanan."
"""DNA is not a helix.""""""","""ADN wadeqel iyan adibel."""""""
"For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc.","Dǎɣ asikin, hadi ən asidwil dǎɣ ɣasan ən adibel (Criək aɣel as 2 sidwal, mašan eqtal Watson ye adikyid awen dǎɣ əmik ogaran tizmit), ugišawan ən əsin ən santo (dǎɣ amas ən ɣasan), iyad."
"""But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure.: """"""","""Mašan Wilkins wad derden ye igi as waden darat igili ən Franklin.. :"""""""
"He and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing.:","Inta əd Crick igan adiši əmik nasan, dǎɣ amitkal ən salan dǎɣ awen as tat tamosat harwa atiwasan fal asirtay ən ADN, atamosan tabaraten təzune santo ən Chargaff… :"
"For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.","Fal liɣitan ifanen meɣ ɣadarnen, iyad numaɣan adobatnen intanedǎɣ adariman ye asimusuɣilan əliɣitan fal intaned emanes, dǎɣ awen afal əliɣitan wən taqalan ayfan fal ašiɣilan aridnen imanasan."
"Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter).","Akayad fal wi səsin winan isirid hadi ən liɣitan, mašan awen as, tiriɗawt ən amakyad, təmusnawen intanated-emanes aqalnat aytimutuyan (fal santo ən siknitan atiwafanen fal amusan)."
These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences.,Haratan iyad ən adabaratan ən tartit ən tabaraten tazalnat ye adiqil ogaran əs talɣiwen ən tənumaɣen ən təmusnawen as tənumaɣen ən adinat.
"""The elements above are often taught in the educational system as """"the scientific method"""".""","""Haratan wən ən afala aqalnen agudiyan aqiman dǎɣ əmik ən taɣare sund """"tabarat ən tənumaq""""."""
"For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia.","Dǎɣ asikin, agud was Einstein asewaɗ təmusnawen tə olahnen əs uqud əd atamosan, wadila wala iyan ehandag iknasan meɣ inkašanin dǎɣ Principia ən Newton."
"The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology.","Umaɣ almaɣna əd aƭinan ən hakotan meɣ ən asiƭin ən haditan iknanen eqalan agudiyan təbiɗawt in gar pseudo-tənumaɣen, sund alshimi, ən tənumaq, sund əhimie meɣ biologie."
Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used.,Iba nafalasatan adobatan intanedǎɣ adiqil aɗinan dǎɣ uduf ən edan ən iba nafalasatan abdanen ən haditan daw-iba ən amitkalan.
"""The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of """"mass"""" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a particular kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a laboratory in France.""","""Aliɣi atiwasanan ən harat əsan agudiyan fal zimuzuɣan dər uqudan : aliɣi atiwasanan ən ""tazayt"" tinsat dǎɣ samando fal amitkal ən artefaət, atamosan kilaw ən gramme ebdan ən ɗlatine-iridium itwaran dǎɣ edag nakayad ən Fransya."""
Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.,"Haditan ən tənumaɣen aqalnen agudiyan aylwayan əs iyadǎɣ akot, wa adoben darat awen adiqil ayktaban dǎɣ əmik iyadǎɣ tawanhaynen ən təridawt ugud ən magrad ən əšiɣil."
"It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic, and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth.","Izar as waden afdan ən wityan ən akotan, atiwaganen fal astronometan ən əhaldéentan, indientan, Perstan, grektan əd européentan, fal asiqim ən harkuk ən almaɣna wan tablulaq tan Akal."
The observed difference for Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Albert Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of General relativity.,Təbiɗawt tat-tiwakyadat fal asimutiy ən Merəure dər təmusne tan newtonien əd akayad eqalan iyan dǎɣ haratan wi iganen asimikt ye Albert Einstein sund irum iyan aśohen adoben ən təmusne nes tan milahaw natiwasanan.
"Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive reasoning, Bayesian inference, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study.","Siantifik tan ilan alxoriya s axădăm n alfăyda tan ti ilan- eɣăni tan năsan, inasjăm daɣ abăra tan iyyăd,attăɣlil ijjăn s akăyad , inferens n Bayesian d ajjen- i anăsjum almăɣna tan hărat wa fal tija teɣăre ."
Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle.,Tənumaɣen amitkalnen agudiyan əmikan wən fal asiknin təmusne ta tilkamat ye igi atiwasanan mašan wa eqalan adiš olahan ən banan əd ariqisan ye edes.
It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown.,Eqalan santo as asiduw ən irum atamosan aliɣi eqalan amaradǎɣ awinan atwasan.
"If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense.","Afal iliɣitan winan eqel aytawagašan fal akayad meɣ təmusne, ən salan winan eqel harwa atiwaraman əd taɣaymen atamosan dǎɣ awen akot winan eqel tənumaq dǎɣ əmik oɣadan."
This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'.,"Awen itagu as diagramme ən təzunawen ən zaranzaran ən X ən ADN eqalan əmik ən ""x""."
Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a crucial experiment.,"Alwăqăn iyyad , imiyizăn ijan s s iban aqqud meɣ war ijen eɣăn olaɣan alwăq wa id ogdăhăn id amiyiz wan xăraj ."
"This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same.","Təmusne tən adakal animašrayan ən gar ajotnen śolotan, meɣ ikayadan, meɣ aljamaɣatan, dǎɣ tabaraten abdanen, fal ahanay nawa abdan meɣ awa eqal iyandǎɣ."
Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.,Umaɣ ən təzunawen eqalan təmusne taganen ye adinhiyan faəteur infan ən atiwagan.
Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment that tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.,Dǎɣ adakal ən aɣiyon ən New York dǎɣ Paris eqalan təmusne ta tirimat tabaraten ən aéodynamiquetan amitkalnen fal igi naivyon.
Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content.,Franklin iga agudendǎɣ azikna ijeran wi amosnen uduf ən naman.
Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration.,Iba nagaraw ən azizgar ən salan iknanen adoben atiwawayan ən təmusne tatiwagat ən salan atiwaɣranen.
Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage.,Tiyad təmusnawen adobatnen adigišnat umaɣawan aridnen nasan əd gar dǎɣ tabarat ən dagan dak.
"Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community.",Eqal santo ən liɣitan ən təmusnawen ən təmusnawen aqalnen atiwagan fal iyad adinat ən aljamaɣat tan təmusne.
"The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives.","A ija almăɣna i olaɣăn daɣ iji n tanăbbu tan , ad infa hărat , tolas a ija it -alăɣat almăɣna n taɣissa n asidutti ohun as amos fella tan iyyad."
"Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community.","Əmikan ən tənumaɣen abdanen dǎɣ akot ɣur aqalan atiwaraman ən təmusne əd ugud hadi nazaman, əd dǎɣ ƭəbidawen nasan fal aljamaɣat tan tənumaq."
"If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new evidence.","Afal asidutitan wən aqalan atiwagrawan, təmusne taynayat tadobǎt atiqil atiwasaknan, meɣ (ogaran agudiyan) eqal atiwanhayan as isimutuyan ən təmusne tatokayat aqalan aygdahan fal asikin ən wi aynaynen isidututan."
"For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets almost perfectly.","Dǎɣ asikin, tənaten tən Newton asiknanat ihomiši oɣadan ən afdan nelan ən kayadan ən tənumaɣen dǎɣ tək-ruruyen."
"Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors.","Falas təmusnawen tə aynaynen adobǎtnat adiqilnat ogaran təmidawt ye dazarnenid, əd adiš eqalan adoben aliɣi oogaran ən haratan wi dokaynen, təmusnawen tidilkamnen adobǎtnen asudmirtan ye iyat uqud ogaran azaway dǎɣ asikin ogaran təmɣire ən hadi ən kayadan ye wi ahanen idagan nasan."
"""Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it"""".""","""Ehadag ən əmikan ən tarha tiknat əs təmda əd tahar, artaynen əd haditan abdanen əd tartit, ataqal ayertayan, hakan aśahat itahagen ye dak wi winan ƭarda""."
Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory.,Igaraw wən adobǎtnen adiqirnat mašan taszalnat ye adiqilnat okayan.
"""The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of """"what is agreeable to reason.""""""","""Təmusne ən tizart – ta kanat ye sinihigitan ən əmik ifnazan dǎɣ išugu mašan asilmad ye tarhaten sund harat iyan əd olahnen dǎɣ tembe, itiwin dǎɣ asostanan əd asiniyufu ən əmikan ən """"awa eqalan ayiknan ye tidit."""""""
"That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community.","Awa eqalan agad deɣqanen ugigan, meɣ ohazan, as tidit inta-emanes fal kawaned meɣ nak meɣ aljamaɣat timindat əs huk."
"From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, based on tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis.","Dǎɣ amsisir, Peirce ebda ugiš sund asikin, fal santo ən irum, ən tafirest ən tidit dǎɣ salan."
"Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong.","Ogaran agudiyan, imanes aniyat ahusken igan itimtulu."
"""Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from Draft D of Memoir 27: """"Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery.""","Peirce, Charles S. (1902), itagan Carnegie, anhiy MS L75.329330, adizgaran əmik wan santo D ən aniyat wan 27, afal war nigrew adakal ən ye tebade nigi ən atwigraw""."
"""Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.""""""","""Dǎɣ awen, alaway ən alwaq, wa eqalan atamosan asostan iyan ən alwaq əd wa eqalan wadazaran asostan ən alwaq, anihaga adiqil aykaran fal maɣulatan ən zirfan."""""""
"The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests.","Isalan, aqalnen adoben aditbit, a sinihaga adigriwan ugišawan tawaganen ikanen adiš dǎɣ uruman ən aniyat əd, dǎɣ umaɣ, sadawnen ye iruman ən tənumaɣen."
"""Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say """"the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility.""""""","""Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) nadobǎt ananu as """"watilan arkuk əmik ən aduniyat eqalan afahamat ən manes."""""""
These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which science may be grounded.,Isalan wən ən tarha nitwigaz ən adabaratan amosnen santo wa tamosan ən tənumaq tadobet atiqil aytbatan.
His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures.,Ikayădăn net win amišil n science ijan hullan fal socioloji tolas war siwilăn fal immik wa s science t amos meɣ taddobăt axădam daɣ alwăqan iyyad d agna tan iyyăd.
"""He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a """"different"""" sunrise despite the same physiological phenomenon.""","""Ora asurat tas 1 fal timadašen fal təɣiswen tən Golgi əd ajer nasan ən santo sund iyan artéfaət ən təmusne tan dalagan, əd iyan magrad fal Brahe əd Keɗler kayadnen aɣora əd hanaynen azagar ən tafuk """"abdanen"""" mašan imanes azaman ən fisiologiq."""
"In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science.","Dǎɣ iba namel, ina as fal təmusne dak meɣ oɣadan atiwasanan ən tənumaq, adobat agaraw ən tasaga ən tənfust ɣur uhuɣan nes ye ukis ən ƭiwaƭ ən tənumaq."
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy.,Təzmiten ən dat təmotayen ən tənumaq igrawnat intanated-imanes taganat harat ən intamnen animašraynen.
"Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof).","Təmusnawen, atamosan dǎɣ təmusne ən maɗinan, anihaganen adiqil ašohatnen dǎɣ amas əd anihaga deɣqanen adiqilan atiwisimutuyan (adoben adiqil ayugayan)."
"For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic.","Dǎɣ olahan, atiwasanan təmusne ən azaman eqalan adizgaran dǎɣ tənumaq, əd winan itimutiy eqalan talɣa iyat ən salan ən maɗinan."
"Eugene Wigner's paper, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist.","Tabarat tan Eugene Wigner, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, eqalan edan atiwafan hulen atiwazayan dǎɣ asostan wen ən tasaga ən waytawanhayan ən lauréat ən alhak ən Wayernan."
"In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures.","Dǎɣ Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos hakan ajotnen tabaraten ən santo fal agaraw ən asidututan əd adagal ən sidutitan dǎɣ tanhaden."
This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky.,Awen adobat adisaknu mafal tənumaɣen zazgarnat afal agudiyan as igrawan tabaɣort.
"Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.","Mahwah, NJ : LawrenceErlbaum Associates."
"""This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls """"Anti-fragility""""; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile).""","""Awen amos a-wa s ijan Nassim Nicolas Taleb """"a išmaran i abrur""""; alwăq wa is sistem tan iyyad n farăk abrurăn dat xăta tan win awădim, taxăyuz tan n awădim d mărsal , immik wan science amos asihădădăn meɣ assohen -infa marsăl tan win daɣ ihăndăgan ajjotnen ( amos a ichmăran i abrur) """
These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method.,Iliɣitan wən winan atwasagad ilwayan ənumaɣan ye adariman ikanan nawa aɣelan adiqil awinan ikna dǎɣ təmusne nasan.
"A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been repeatedly tested and verified in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results.","Təmusne ən tənumaq taqalat aliɣi ən ahanay ən aduniyat imanes əd zaleɣat ta taqalat atiwaraman əd atwaram dǎɣ musuɣulan ajotnen olahnen əd təmusne tan tənumaq, dǎɣ adakal ən milalan atiwardanen ən nakayad, ən hakot əd irum ən liɣitan."
Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge.,Təmusnawen ən tənumaɣen atiwaganen as śahatnat dǎɣ examen aśohen əd hakan təmuzuyt ən tənumaq.
"""Stephen Jay Gould wrote that """"...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty.""","""Stephen Jay Gould iktab as "" …igitan əd təmusnawen aqalnen haratan abdanen, əd winan eqel tabarat dǎɣ təmɣire ən afalasat ikan isdat."""
The meaning of the term scientific theory (often contracted to theory for brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of theory.,Almaɣna n tifert n mirda wan science (alwaq iyyan ifannaz s mirda war n tahij) immik wa exdam daɣ majal tan n science amos a izlayan id alxidmat toharat n mirda.
"In everyday speech, theory can imply an explanation that represents an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, whereas in science it describes an explanation that has been tested and is widely accepted as valid.","Dǎɣ magrad atiwasanan, təmusne tadobet atigiš aliɣi iyan wa isaknen maɣulat iyan winan eqel aytbatan əd azinuzgumu, mašan dǎɣ tənumaq, katab aliɣi iyan wa eqalan atiwaraman əd atamosan tahagit taqalat ahuruwan atiwardan."
"Some theories are so well-established that they are unlikely ever to be fundamentally changed (for example, scientific theories such as evolution, heliocentric theory, cell theory, theory of plate tectonics, germ theory of disease, etc.).","Təmusnawen tiyad aqalnat afal ahusken atiwaga as eqal adobǎt aduten as waraqelnat abada dǎɣ amasnanat amutayan (dǎɣ asikin, təmusnawen ən tənumaɣen atamosnen awiɗan, təmusne tan héliocentrique, təmusne tan əellule, təmusne tan tektonik ən tisayen, asidwil ən ADN, darat awen."
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.,təmusnawen tən tənumaɣawen aqalnat aytawaraman əd tagan maɣulatan təwisimutuynen.
"The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions.","Talɣa tan asikin ən dak təmusne ən tənumaq, dǎɣ ihanat təmusnawen, eqalan aśahat ye igi ən maɣulatan tiwisimutuynen meɣ tawaramnen."
"It is well-supported by many independent strands of evidence, rather than a single foundation.",Idhalan ti titbaqa ajjotnen n tamitert ohun akaros ɣas .
"""The theory of biological evolution is more than """"just a theory"""".""","""Təmusne ən təwatt ən biologique eqalan ogaran as """"ɣas iyat təmusne""""."""
This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis.,Awen ihaku isidututan fal meɣ adagal ən salan.
"This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence.","Awen adobat adikil ajotnen elan, falas adobat adiqil aśohen meɣ asisandaran ən asidiw igdahan ye asidutu."
"The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups.","Ašahat ən asidututan eqalan atiwakyadan fal aljamaɣat ən tənumaq, əd təmusnawen ogarnen tanfo adigriwnat adiqilnat atiwagan fal ajotnen tartiten ən manasnat."
"In chemistry, there are many acid-base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior.","Dǎɣ šimie, ilanati təmusnawen ajotnen ən aman-ən santo hakanen iliɣitan hulen abdanen fal awa eqal ən daw-amas ən sirtayan ən aman əd basiquetan, mašan aqalnat hulen amitkalan fal aditiwaɣlaknen talɣiwen nasan ən šimiq."
"Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence.","Təridawt ən təmusne winan itigu dak tabaraten ən aditiwaɣlakan eqalan atiwaraman, falas taqal harwa atiwadhalan fal sidututan igdahan dǎɣ ašuhu."
"Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework.","Adabaratan adobatnen atiwahašalan ən təbiɗawen madroynen meɣ magornen ən təmusne, anhiy wala iyat tamotayt falas aliɣi iyan asisagdahan eqalan atiwagrawan dǎɣ tabarat atitilat ən təmusne."
"If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required.","Afal təmotayen ən təmusne meɣ iyad iliɣitan olahnen ən iba ən gadehat fal kanan ən muziyat ən liɣitan wi aynaynen, iyat taynayat təmusne tadobet adiš atiqil ayfan."
"This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts.","Dǎɣ awa atiwagan, taqalat ahusken ən aliɣi atilan fal ajotnen iyad ən azamanan, sund asikin ən asahat ən awaditiwaɣlakan dǎɣ tiyad tabaraten."
"After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification.","Darat təmotayen, ən təmusne tatiwardat talaɣet dǎɣ tanfo ən azamanan əd adigriw iyan ogaran aśahat ən awaditiwagazan (afal wadeqel awen, təmotayen waraqelnat atiwalmadan); wən taynayan aliɣi adobat adiš adiqil amiskalan meɣ amutayan."
"For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism.","Dǎɣ milahaw, nisan amara as koran əd ən magnétisme eqalan əsin hanayan ən manasan ən azaman, asitawan éleətromagnétisme."
"This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun.","Wen asostan eqal aykan fal ahanay ən asirtay ən nukléaire, atamosan tabarat ən takast ən Tafuk."
"By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial—that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer.","Dǎɣ awinan tila dǎɣ talɣiwen karoznen ən éther luminifereu, Einstein iliɣat as asihraw ən azaman əd təmɣinanen zagrotnen ən ikatnen dǎɣ harat ən ewalawal olahan aqalnen awinan ider – atamosan as harat isakna urmad winan itimutuy, atamosan urmad dər təsigwen, agud wadaqalnat aykatan fal amanhay ənes."
"Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating.","Einstein imaɣ ye adisitbit isalan wi niba nimutiy ye dak tabaraten, samos aqalnat awinan ider meɣ winan orgeš."
"""Even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by """"curving"""" the geometrical """"surface"""" of 4D space-time.""","""Imanes ašahat winan azay itagu ewalewal ən taɣalaywayt fal haratan ən nakal dǎɣ """"agungin"""" ən """"taryare"""" ən géométrieq ən nedag-alwaq wan 4D."""
"However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.","Agudendǎɣ, isalan wi tənumaɣen aqalnen isiknitan ən kitban ən əmik atamosan tamaɣlaq adǎɣ tiga dǎɣ iyad əšiɣilan."
A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated.,Anuzgum bahawan atiwasan eqal as təmusnawen ən tənumaɣen aqalnat inuzguman ən banan ad amandanat fal uɣil ən salan wi tənumaɣen agud igdahan ye hukitan əd sidututan aqalan atiwasamasadawan.
Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence.,Təmusnawen sund isalan adobatnen dǎɣ aśahat adiqilan atiwasamatayan fal sidututan animašraynen.
First-order logic is an example of a formal language.,Awa anihagan ən tizaraten ən anilkam eqal asiknan magrad atiwanan.
"The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts.","Azamanan ati alaɣatnen fal təmusnawen, afal waradoben adiqilan atiwakyadan agudendǎɣ fal əmik (fal olahan, atometan əd ondetan ən arajo), aqalnen atiwagan sund awinan atwaga ən təmusnawen."
"""The phrase """"the received view of theories"""" is used to describe this approach.""","""Magrad """"ahanay wa dosan ən təmusnawen"""" eqalan fal akǎtǎb ən ahaz wen."""
"One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model.","Nadobǎt anitkil magrad fal akatǎb ən əmik; aguden, təmusne taqalat əmik (meɣ iyan asimusudiw ən əmikan olahnen), əd babo asikin ən əmik."
"The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time.","Tabaraten ən əmik, fal asikin ən salan ən naɣalay wan Newton, isaknen əmik wa amosan ihadagan əd urmaɗan təmutuynen dǎɣ azaman."
"""The word """"semantic"""" refers to the way that a model represents the real world.""","""Tifirt """"atiwasanan"""" itagu asinimihil almaɣna amosan əmik isaknen aduniyat titbatat."""
"""Engineering practice makes a distinction between """"mathematical models"""" and """"physical models""""; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool.""","""Igi ən təmusne itagu təbiɗawt iyat gar """"əmikan ən maɗinan"""" əd """"əmikan ən aytawanhayan""""; aśuhu ən igitan ən əmik itawanhayan adoben adikil atiwazamadrayan dǎɣ igi izar ən əmik ən maɗinan dǎɣ tadhil ən tabarat ən informatique, atamosan alil ən anikmaman sajiha fal ordinateur."""
Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists).,"Iyad isalan aqalan ayfan fal dak isalan ən təɣirmaten (dǎɣ asikin, ən salan amosan as tidit tiley)."
"This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested.","Awen adobat adiqil deɣqanen banan ən akayad ən təmusne tigan ən aditiwaɣlakan oɣadan, awa eqalan asidutu ən dak isalan iganen dǎɣ igili eqalan oɣadan meɣ olahan doɣadan dǎɣ tabaraten atiwǎramnen."
"The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid.",Mirda itaj tanăbbu tan oɣadnen alwaq wa id inahăjăn tawăɣbălan tolas war itaj tanăbbud tan oɣăd nen alwăq wa id anhăja war t-awăɣbăl.
"""The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere (""""accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp""""), which is a conjunction of ad- (""""to, towards, at"""") and sumere (to take).""","""Oxford Engliš Dictionary (OED) əd Wiktionnaire dǎɣ tasiret saknet as tabarat ən latine taqal asinihid (""tiridawt,adakal ən manes, ilmadan, usurɗer""), tataqalat ayertayan ən ad-(""à, ibret, dǎɣ "") ən sumere (adakal)""."
"""The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in """"to receive up into heaven"""", especially """"the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption"""", (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to """"receive into association"""" or """"adopt into partnership"""".""","Əmik eqalan santo ən amitkalan dǎɣ tabaraten tən alɣibadat sund dǎɣ """"agaraw hawendǎɣ har išinawǎn"""", atamosan """"alakad wǎn Ɣierge Marie dǎɣ šinawǎn, dər taɣisa tilmadat hile"""", (1297 CE) mašan eqalan deɣqanen inbanan amitkalan fal ugiš""""agaraw ən tartit"""" meɣ """"ulmad dǎɣ təmiduwa""""."""
"Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory.","Isidututan wǎranhaga asidinan as afal aqalan atiwajaban ən salan asuɣsadnen, atamosan afal, winan arid fal təmusne ən asostan, nadobat anagu ananafahm ye azaman winan iritiy ən təmusne- azaman wa ugayan ye təmusne."
A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific.,Təmusne ta winan taqel atiwagayan fal wala iyan azaman atiwasanan eqalan iba ən tənumaq.
"Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, might still be upheld by their admirers—for example by introducing post hoc (after the fact) some auxiliary hypothesis or assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory post hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation.","Tiyad təmusnawen əs tididǎɣ atiwǎramnen, agud wa disanat as abihawnat adobatnat harwa adiqilnat atiwadhalan fal imakyadan nasnat – dǎɣ asikin dǎɣ itawaga dat hoə (darat igi) ən salan meɣ maɣulat nadarolahan, meɣ dǎɣ liɣitan ən təmusne ən dat hoə dǎɣ əmik was gamad ye tungit."
"""Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its """"falsifiability, or refutability, or testability"""".""","""Popper asmasadaw tənaten nes dǎɣ iganu as almaɣnatan wi namas ən tabarat ən tənumaq ən təmusne taqalat as """"aytimutuyan, meɣ atiwagayan, meɣ atiwǎraman""""."""
"""Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of """"theory"""", observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have """"falsified"""" Newton's celestial mechanics.""","""Ajotnen ənumaɣan əd kal tənfusen ən tənumaɣawen igraw agudak asitiwadhalan əs aliɣi ən Popper ən təmusne sund ayertayan ən salan atiwasamataynen aqalan ayeɣšadan falas, sund aliɣi ən Philip Kitcher, afal ilmad ahanay iyan atamosan ən popperien ən """"təmusne"""", iikayadan ən Uranus ugud wǎn wadazaran atwinhay dǎɣ 1781 igraw """"atiwasamatayan"""" ən kanan wən séleste ən Newton."""
"""Fecundity: """"A great scientific theory, like Newton's, opens up new areas of research….""","""Ahidir: """"maqarat təmusne ən tənumaq, sund tan Newton, tiru aynaynen tabaraten ən numaɣ…"""""
"At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer.","Daɣ azzămăn, isănkar id isistănăn hullan ojar nen alwăzab wa s addobăt ihuk net"
"Like other definitions of theories, including Popper's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences.","Sund iyad iliɣitan ən təmusnawen, dǎɣ taha tan Popper, Kitəher sidututnat as təmusne anihaga atagu isalan wi igrawnen awa atiwaɣšadan itawǎnhayan."
"It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms.","Dtadobǎt atiqil atiwazazgaran fal alkad sund əmik ən tabaraten, əd təmusne taqalat agudak togarat tidit as dtadobǎt atiqil atiwazazgaran dǎɣ əmikan wən."
"""The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed """"laws of electromagnetism,"""" reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them.""","""Dǎɣ hanayan ən maɗinan atiwasanen ən təmusne ən élektromayétique atiwakatlen eqalan asitawa ""tabarat tan élektromagnétisme""s, zazgaratid waynayan asidututan aśohatnen əd tawaganen wi tan déhalent."""
An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force.,Dǎɣ asikin ən tatilkamat tən adobat adikil aśahat ən tanakra ən zaranzaran.
A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest.,Anumaɣ iyan eqalan awadim wa tiwiyan tənumaɣen ən təmusnawen fal adagu aykan isdat ən təmuzayen dǎɣ tabarat tinfat.
"Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well.","Ənumaɣan ən təbiɗawen nazaman (əd datas san, ən kal magrad ən manasan, kal maɗinan, kal tinfas ən manasan, théologientan ən manasan, imusanan əd iyad adinat ahanen dǎɣ təwaƭ ən tənumaq) igašan igagan hulen abdanen dǎɣ tanminak, əd oɣadan ən tanminak, ɣaleurtan nagudin əd ahusken ən tiwit tartayat ən tənumaɣawen – əd atiwasagdahnat ye manasnat – igrawnat intanatedǎɣ asimutiy dǎɣ azaman."
"Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines.","Ajotnen ən ɗroto-tənumaɣawen ən awatay wǎn uraɣ ən anislam aqalanat atiwagan sund əmusanan, dǎɣ tasaga ən falas ən iba namel ən dak awa olahan ən tabaraten tən tənumaɣawen amutaynen."
Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality.,Adabaratan wi atwagrawnen fal dǎɣ lalan aridnen dǎɣ uqud aqalnen daknasan awiriha ba ən əmik fal salan ən tidit.
Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated a theory of mechanics and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement and perception.,"Deskartes wǎreqel ɣas amazan ən géométrie tan akayad, mašan aliɣat as təmusne ən kanan əd tizart ən nuzguman fal santotan ən awalewal əd təmusne tan arizeg."
He provided a comprehensive formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics.,Ifa isalan iyad əmdanen ən kanan oɣadnen əd atiwaɣran dǎɣ tənure əd ahanay.
He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body.,Igraw ahanay as azuk atiwagan ən akilkil ən najar adobat adisidwil aškidkid ən tinikad dǎɣ dak taɣisa ən nes.
Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences.,Lazzaro Spallanzani eqal iyan dǎɣ adinat wi ogarnen adagal ən ɗhysiologie tan təmusne əd tənumaɣawen imanasan.
"However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist.","Aguden, wǎrtitila tabarat ən salan fal asiknin wa eqalan tənumaq əd winan tat eqel."
"A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.","Andiran ogaran təzune ən adinat wi atwaɣranen adurhanen adigin aduniyat dǎɣ amas ən śolotan, izar as iyad, ifnaznen dǎɣ ajit, ordan adišɣilan dǎɣ uzin, imanahadan əd imagan ən əšiɣil winan amos azruf."
They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality.,Igan asidutu iyan maqaran nawnaf ən tabarat tan tidit.
"Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist).","Iyad ənumaɣan ilan tarha nigi ən təmuzuyen ən tənumaɣawen dǎɣ tabarat nasaɣat ən tamite, ikalan, aduniyat, imanes meɣ nusintan (tənumaq tan šolotan əd tənumaq tan uzin)."
"These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project.","Amos awen deɣqanen ən əosmologie əd biologie, dǎɣ təbiɗawt ən biologie ən nulléaire əd dawla ən atwigaz ən awadim."
The figure included twice as many men as women.,Amaɗin wen ila əsin hadagan ogarnen medin ən ɗeɗen.
"Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.","Azamanan aśohatnen ilanen tinakrawen ən suɗernoɣa, tugiden ən gamma, quasar, blazars pulsars əd zaranzaran ən ider ən kosmiq."
Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences.,Astronomie eqalan iyan dǎɣ wi ogarnen tirut ən tənumaɣawen ən manasnat.
"In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars.","Dǎɣ okayan, astronomie ila tabaraten deɣqanen abdanen ən astronomie, umaɣ ən šinawǎn, astronomie ən kayadan əd ukisawǎn ən əalendriertan."
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects.,Astronomie ən kayadan anikmanen fal agaraw ən hukitan dǎɣ tasaga ən kayadan ən haratan ən astronomiquetan.
These two fields complement each other.,Tən əsanatat tabaraten aqalnat tinmidhilnen.
"""Based on strict dictionary definitions, """"astronomy"""" refers to """"the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties,"""" while """"astrophysics"""" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with """"the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena"""".""","""Dǎɣ liɣitan oɣadnen ən alkitab, əmik ""astronomie"" ayeqal """"teɣare ən haratan əd əmik dǎɣ sagama ən afala ən nakal əd tabaraten nasan ən ahanay əd əhimiquetan"", atamosan əmik ""astroɗhysique"" eqal tabarat ən astronomie wa itagan ən ""talɣa, ən tabarat atiwǎnhaynen əd əšiɣil ikaran ən haratan əd azamanan ən šinawǎn""""."
"Some fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics.","Iyad tabaraten, sund astronomie, idizgaran astronomie wa aridan əd babo ən astrofiziq."
"From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically.","Dǎɣ afel ən kayadan wən, wi dazarnen inuzguman fal wiliwalan ən tibuluɣen aqalnen atiwagan, əd imanes ən Tafuk, ən Iyur əd Akal dǎɣ aduniyat eqalan atiwazazgaran ən migridan."
"A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations.","Təwaɗen aśohatnen atamosnen ayfan eqalan santo ən astronomie ən amaɗin əd tənumaq, ta tisintat ɣur Babylonientan, wi ijarnen dǎɣ santo ən əšiɣilan ən astronomiquetan ən amas wi aqalnen awiɗan dǎɣ ajotnen iyad aniyatan."
"Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena.",Astronomie ən greq eqal harwa santo fal umaɣ ən liɣitan rationnel əd tawǎnhaynen dǎɣ azamanan ən šinawǎn.
"Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy.","Hipparque intadǎɣ iga iyan alkitab imdan ən 1020 etran, əd iyad dak ən tamsudut ən efadan wan ataram adizgaran ən astronomie ən greq."
Georg von Peuerbach (1423–1461) and Regiomontanus (1436–1476) helped make astronomical progress instrumental to Copernicus's development of the heliocentric model decades later.,Georg ɣon Peuerbach (1423-1461) əd Regiomontanus (1436-1476) ikasan dǎɣ təwaɗen ən astronomie wa igan ən Əoɗerniə ən asiwiɗ ən əmik ašarkakiy wa namas ən təmirwen ogarnen tahagit.
"In 964, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest galaxy in the Local Group, was described by the Persian Muslim astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi in his Book of Fixed Stars.","Dǎɣ 964, atir wan Andromède, wa ogaran təmɣire ən atir ən Tartit ən Nakal, əd akatab fal Astronome ən nisliman inabag Abd al-Rahaman al-Sufi dǎɣ Alkitab ines ən etran aqtanen."
Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars.,Astronometan ən azaman wen igan ajotnen isimawan ən araban amitkalnen ešalidǎɣ fal asikin etran ən manasan.
Songhai historian Mahmud Kati documented a meteor shower in August 1583.,Awtinfast Songhaï Mahmud Kati asmasadaw aginan ən météoretan dǎɣ août 1583.
Kepler was the first to devise a system that correctly described the details of the motion of the planets around the Sun.,Kepler amos wa ezzărăn eɣnăn sistem s oɣădăn afăssăr net n amătikwăy n tešše edes n tafukt.
"The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars, More extensive star catalogues were produced by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.",Astronome wan anglais John Flamsteed asdaw ogaran 3 000 etran. Nicolas Louis ən Lacaille ən igitan ən tisdiwen ən etran ogarnen timidawt.
"This work was further refined by Joseph-Louis Lagrange and Pierre Simon Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.","Əšiɣilan wən aqalan ašišan fal Joseph-Louis Lagrange əd Pierre Simon Laplace, taganen asikin ən tazayt ən tiblulaɣen əd ayuran dǎɣ afel ən ɣašadan nasan."
"Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but with a wide range of temperatures, masses, and sizes.","Eqal atiwasaknan as etran aqalan olahan ən Tafuk ən Akal, mašan dər iyan haruwan lefe ən takast, ən tazayt əd tebade."
"Theoretical astronomy led to speculations on the existence of objects such as black holes and neutron stars, which have been used to explain such observed phenomena as quasars, pulsars, blazars, and radio galaxies.","Astronomie wan təmusne inuzguman fal amel ən haratan amosnen as tiɣuš kawalnen əd etran ən neutrontan, wi aqalnen amitkalan fal aliɣi ən azamanan atiwakyadnen atamosan quasars, pulsars, blazars əd radio ən etran."
Observational astronomy may be categorized according to the corresponding region of the electromagnetic spectrum on which the observations are made.,Astronomi tan akăyăd tăddobăt asakăt s rejion tan ti anmăwăl nen id spektrom elektromayetik fal taj in ikayădan.
"Although some radio waves are emitted directly by astronomical objects, a product of thermal emission, most of the radio emission that is observed is the result of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields.","Ahuskat as iyyad ondetan ən arajo aqalnen atiwagan əs tiɣida fal haratan ən astronomiquetan, iyan asinimitif ən salan arɣanen, iyad dak isalan ən arajo atiwakyadnen aqalan aliɣi ən zaranzaran ən synəhrotron, wa eqalan asinimi ƭif agud wan eleətrontan ahanen ahazan ən nadag wan magnétiquetan"
Observations from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous galactic protostars and their host star clusters.,Ikayadan ən Wide-field Infrared Surɣey Explorer (WISE) aqalan atamosan aśohen fal aszizgar ən ajotnen proto-etran ən galaətiquetan əd marhan nasan ən nasftaɣan.
Images of observations were originally drawn by hand.,Tăliwen n ikăyadvn daɣ alasăl dallăj nat s afus .
Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars) that are very bright in this wave band.,Astronomie aśohen eqal ogaran ulmad ən taɣare ən zaranzaran ən akusan əd tisirad ən salan tawanhaynen dǎɣ etran wi dalatnen akusnen (etran OB) wi aqalnen hulen amilaylawan dǎɣ tabarat ten ən ondetan.
Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes.,Alaɣan wi gamma adoben adiqil atiwakyadan agudendǎɣ fal satellitetan atamosnen Akayad ən Compton ən alaɣan ən gamma meɣ fal ən télesəoɗetan atiwasanen sitawana téleskobetan atmosɗhérique ən Cherenkov.
Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging field of astronomy that employs gravitational-wave detectors to collect observational data about distant massive objects.,Astronomi tan gravitasyon t amos abăra id ewădan isăxdăman detekter tan win gravitasyon i asidu n isălăn n akăyăd fal hărătan ajjotnen wi ajjuj nen.
"Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation (the use of celestial objects to guide navigation) and in the making of calendars.","Dǎɣ tənfas, ən təmuzuyt tatiwasanat ən tiɣaymaten ən Tafuk, ən Ayur, ən tiblulaɣen əd etran aqalnen amosan fal umaɣ ən šinawan (amitkal ən haratan ən šinawan fal uqud ən umaɣ) əd fal ukisawan ən əalendriertan."
The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe.,Akot ən parallaxe ən stellaire ən etran ohaznen ihaku tasiret ən santo atiwasanan dǎɣ asakankin ən animkiš ən kosmiq wa eqalan atiwakalan fal akot ən asakankin ən zaleɣat.
Analytical models of a process are better for giving broader insight into the heart of what is going on.,Dumu tan win amiyiz n tamătikwayt i olaɣnen ihuk n akayad maqqoran daɣ ammăs n wa ijan.
The observation of a phenomenon predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternate or conflicting models as the one best able to describe the phenomena.,Ikayadan ən azamanan atiwananen fal əmik itagan dǎɣ astronometan ən ukis ən gar ajotnen əmikan animašraynen meɣ atiwamadašnen awen eqal aridan ən manes ye akatab ən azaman.
"In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to the total abandonment of a model.","Dǎɣ iyad əmikan, iyan maqaran hadi ən hukitan winan ikna dǎɣ azaman adobat adilwiy əs tahyawt dak ən əmik."
"Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular physics.","Astrofiziq eqalan isalan hulen harawnen, ən astrofisisyentan tagan atamosan ajotnen tabaraten ən ahanay, atamosan ikanan, éleətromagnétisme, ikanan ən ihomiši, thermodynamique, ikanan ən quantique, olahan, aytawanhayan ən nukléaire əd aytawanhayan ən aybdan, mašan ikayadan ən atomique əd molékilaire."
"""The word """"astrochemistry"""" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium.""","""Tafirt """"astrošimi"""" adobat adigiš agudiyan əmik ən tafuk əd dǎɣ amas ən etran."""
The term exobiology is similar.,Əmik ən exobiologie eqala olahan.
"Observations of the large-scale structure of the Universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos.","Ikayadan ən tartit maqarat ən asakankin ən Aduniyat, iyat tabarat tatiwasanat daw isim ən əosmologie tawanhayat, igan afahamat dǎɣ ider ən igitan əd tiwaƭ ən əosmos."
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space.,Tartit ən tənumukila ən əmik intan ye adilmid dǎɣ afel ən təbiɗawen ən sider ən untam ən tazayt ən nadag.
"Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps.","Dǎɣ sirtayan ən ɣalayan aqala ayertayan dǎɣ tenale, tiyit banan dǎɣ dagan atiwayanen."
Various fields of physics are crucial to studying the universe.,Ajotnen tabaraten ən hanayan aqalnen santo ən taɣare ən aduniyat.
"Finally, the latter is important for the understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.","Dǎɣ samando, wa dilkaman eqalan ayfan fal afahamat ən tartit ən maqarat ən asakankin ən əosmos."
"As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse.","Sund isim ines isakna, iyan atir ən ellibtiq dǎɣ əmik dǎɣ tuzant ən ellibse."
"Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters, and may have been formed through mergers of large galaxies.","Etran ən ellibtiqtan wi ahanen ogarnen agudiyan dǎɣ ulhe ən marhan ən netran, əd adoben adigriwan adiqilan atiwasartyan fal aśisuhu ən wi maqornen etran."
Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars.,Etran ən abulaɣnen aqalan intanedǎɣ aditiwaɣlayan əs halo ən etran ogarnen tirut.
"About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction.","Ihomiši tazune ən dak etran aqalnen awinan ertey, əd əmikan abdanen ən etran adobatnen adiqilan aliɣi ən nimigišan ən ɣalayan."
"A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas.","Arajo-netran taqalat iyan atir əšɣalan hulen ən tanure dǎɣ tasaga ən arajo ən sɗeətre, əd wi taganen maqoran asirtay meɣ tazune ən gaz."
The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies.,Tartit maqarat ən asakankin ən əosmos eqalan atiwasaknan fal tidawen əd marhan ən etran.
"In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at its center.","Dǎɣ amas ən Tabarat tan aɣe ihan amas, bulbe dǎɣ əmik ən agaɣ dər awa aɣel adiqil tanibek kawalat ən maqarat ən tazayt dǎɣ amas ines."
"The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular clusters.","Tagila taqalat atiwaɣlayan ən halo ən taɣalaywayt ən etran ogarnen tirut, ən aljamaɣat II, mašan isimisidiwan olahnen daytaman ən etran sitawana tarha ən taɣalaywayt."
"These begin as a compact pre-stellar core or dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by the Jeans length) to form compact protostars.","Awen asinta fal amas ən pré-stellaire ašohen meɣ ən nébuleusetan kawalnen, awa isadawan əd itimširšir (dǎɣ siwidan atiwasamadanen fal tizigrit ən Jean) fal igi ən ɗroto-netran aśohatnen."
"These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.","Imarhan wən timširširan dǎɣ anilkam, əd etran takanen aljamaɣat ən Tabarat tan Aɣe."
"7–18 Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant molecular clouds.","7-18 Tabarat ən etran taganen dǎɣ kalan intamnen ən ekarankar əd gaz, asitawana igarakan ən moléəulairetan maqornen."
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.,Ihomiši haratan dak ogarnen tazayt ən hdrogène əd hélium aqalan atiwagan dǎɣ amas ən amas netran.
"Over time, this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve.","Dǎɣ azaman, karbiran wen ən hydrojène eqalan dakines amilalayan dǎɣ hélium, əd atir asintan ye tiwaƭ."
The ejection of the outer layers forms a planetary nebula.,Ukis ən təsayen nagama iganat iyan nébilez ən tiblulaq.
This is an 11-year oscillation in sunspot number.,Awen amos amitakwayan ən 11 elan ən hadi ən əšiɣil ən tafuk.
The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth.,Tafuk tinhay intadǎɣ təmotayen ən azamanan ən tənure tə adobatnen adigriwnat iyan ašahat infan fal Akal.
Above this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere.,Dǎɣ afala ən tesayt ten iha andiran akal sitawana kromosfère.
"Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation.","Dǎɣ afala ən ulhe iha dǎɣ edag wan zarazaran, ɣur blasma ihakan tabarat ən aśahat fal zaranzaran."
"A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost limit of the Solar System, it reaches the heliopause.","Aɗu ən tafuk ən krimkraman ən blasma inagayan dǎɣ iba ən tiwaƭ ən Tafuk ibret nagama hawendǎɣ had awa iwaɗan heliobose, dǎɣ samando ən agama ən əmik ən tafuk."
The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun.,Imidlăn iknan a ilan 4.6 n milyăr n awătay daɣ disk n protoplanet eɣlayan tafukt ta tazzarat.
"The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon.","Təblulaɣen ikasnat ye afarad, meɣ ye ajer, əmik adiqiyman agud ən azamanan ən wetan intamnen, sund dǎɣ tajuhe dǎɣ ajotnen talɣiwen ən asohen fal Ayur."
"This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer crust.","Tabarat ten tadobat atagu ulhe ən tahunt meɣ ən tazoli, tatiwaɣlayat ən aljaba əd iyan aśuhu ən nagama."
Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonics.,Iyad tiblulaɣen əd ayhuran sadawan dǎɣ gadehat ən ini fal asinkar ən tabarat ən géologiqtan atamosnen amliliy əd tektoniq.
Astrostatistics is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the analysis of a vast amount of observational astrophysical data.,Astrostatistiq eqalan aytawagen ən sinihigitan ən astrofiziq fal akayad iyan maqaran haditan ən hukitan ən astrofiziqtan ən kayadan.
"Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System, including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios.","Kosmošimie ataqal teɣare ən sinimitafan ən imiquetan ajihanen dǎɣ əmik ən tafuk, dǎɣ ahan santotan ən haratan əd təmotayen ən salan ən isotofiq."
Astronomy clubs are located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier (110 objects) or Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky.,"Tənmitafen ən astronomie aqalnen amišaršaran dǎɣ aduniyat dak əd hadi garesan asinahaga ye adabaratan ikanen tadhil ən midawan nasan ye adigin dǎɣ edag əd adawiyan sa ahusken adabaratan ən kayadan, atamosnen wi ikanen ye adikyidan dak haratan ən ahanen dǎɣ tasdut ən Messier (110 haratan) meɣ Herschel 400 ən dagan wi nagaraw ən šinawan nahaɗ."
"Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum.","Iyad dak imarhan tašaɣalnen dǎɣ tizigrit ən onde itawanhayan, mašan iyan andiran akiruma isanan dər tizigriten ən onde dǎɣ agama ən sɗeətre aytawanhayan."
A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope).,"Iyyǎn hadi ən astronometan arhanen adakal adiš ən téleskoketan iganen dǎɣ ehan, adiš ən arajotelesəoɗe tigat dǎɣ santo fal umaɣ ən astronomie mašan amara itawagraw ye marhan nes (dǎɣ asikin ən telesəoɗe iyyǎn mile)."
"Answers to these may require the construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, and possibly new developments in theoretical and experimental physics.","AAdabaratan ən asostanan adobatnen adigin təmuqunt ən aynayan ilalan dǎɣ akal əd dǎɣ edag, əd atamosan aynaynen təwaɗen dǎɣ ahanay ən təmusne əd atiwasanan."
A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.,Anifham ogaran atliqi ən igitan ən etran əd təblulaɣen eqalan ayfan.
"If so, what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox?","Dǎɣ awen, indeki aliɣi ən animašrayan wǎn Fermi?"
What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy?,Ma imos annuɣ n hărat daɣ tihăy d enerji kawălan?
How did the first galaxies form?,Indekan wi dazarnen etran aqalan aygan me?
"Astrobiology, formerly known as exobiology, is an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the origins, early evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe.","Astrobiologie, wa aruwǎn sitawǎn exobiologie, eqalan tabarat ən tənumaq ən semɣaran wi ɣaranen ən santotan, tiwaɗ taśohet, təzunawen əd awadimala ən aduniyat dǎɣ zaleɣat."
The origin and early evolution of life is an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.,Santo əd təwaƭ taśohet ən aduniyat aqalan tasaga winan tiwikis ən adin wǎn astrobioloji.
"Biochemistry may have begun shortly after the Big Bang, 13.8 billion years ago, during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10–17 million years old.","Adobat adiqil as biošimi igraw adisantu andiran darat Big Bang, aywadan 13,8 milliardtan ən nelan, agud wa azaman atiwadakan ɣur zaleɣat wartila ad 10-17 har au milliontan nelan."
"Nonetheless, Earth is the only place in the universe humans know to harbor life.","Agudendǎɣ, Akal eqal iyyǎndǎɣ edag ən zaleɣat tas adinat izayan fal adidiran dǎɣ təmudre."
The term exobiology was coined by molecular biologist and Nobel Prize winner Joshua Lederberg.,Əmik ən exobioloji eqal atwagan fal biolojist ən molékilere əd wa igrawǎn alhak ən Nobel Joshua Lederberg.
"""The term xenobiology is now used in a more specialized sense, to mean """"biology based on foreign chemistry"""", whether of extraterrestrial or terrestrial (possibly synthetic) origin.""","""Əmik ən xenobioloji eqalan amaradǎɣ amitkalan dǎɣ əmik ogaran atwisan, fal adanu ""bioloji ta tikat fal əhimie wa nanaftaɣ"", tamosat santo ən asuɣsadan meɣ nakal (atamosan aysartayan)."""
"Though once considered outside the mainstream of scientific inquiry, astrobiology has become a formalized field of study.","Indele as taqal agudiyyǎn atiwagan sund dǎɣ sagama ən tabarat tanamas ən numaɣ ən tənumaq, astrobioloji eqalan atiwagan dǎɣ edag ən taɣare tatiwasanat."
"In 1959, NASA funded its first exobiology project, and in 1960, NASA founded an Exobiology Program, which is now one of four main elements of NASA's current Astrobiology Program.","Dǎɣ 1959, NASA tidhal wa dazaran harat ən exobiologie əd, dǎɣ 1960, NASA ataqal atiwagan əs adabara ən exobiologie, wa eqalan ešalidǎɣ iyyǎn dǎɣ wi nikoz atiwawǎnen haratan ən adabara ən astrobiologie ən amaradǎɣ ən NASA."
"Advancements in the fields of astrobiology, observational astronomy and discovery of large varieties of extremophiles with extraordinary capability to thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, have led to speculation that life may possibly be thriving on many of the extraterrestrial bodies in the universe.","Təmotayen iganen dǎɣ tabaraten ən astrobiologie, ən astronomie wǎn akayan əd atwigraw ən wimaqornen təbiɗawen ən extrêmoɗhinetan atiwafanen ən aśahat asuɣsadan ye itiwaɗan dǎɣ zaleɣat wa ogaran aśuhu dǎɣ Akal, ilwayan əs igitan ən aduniyat adobatnen ye adiwaɗan fal ajotnen təɣiswen ən asuɣsadan dǎɣ zaleɣat."
Missions specifically designed to search for current life on Mars were the Viking program and Beagle 2 probes.,Imašalan atiwasanen anikmaman fal umaɣ ən aduniyat ta amaradǎɣ fal Mars eqalan sondetan ən adabara ən Viking əd Beagle 2.
"In late 2008, the Phoenix lander probed the environment for past and present planetary habitability of microbial life on Mars, and researched the history of water there.","Samando ən 2008, emaseris ən Phoenix iga taswil ye zaleɣat fal ukis ən udikawǎn ən təblulaɣen okaynen dǎɣ aduniyat ən tiwikawen fal Mars, əd iga ənumaɣan fal tafust ən aman fal təblulaq ten."
"In November 2011, NASA launched the Mars Science Laboratory mission carrying the Curiosity rover, which landed on Mars at Gale Crater in August 2012.","Dǎɣ noɣembre 2011, NASA tizizgar umaɣ əs Mars Sians Labor tory dakalnen roɣer Curiosity, ta tinsat fal Mars ən talɣa tan Gale dǎɣ août 2012."
"One is the informed assumption that the vast majority of life forms in our galaxy are based on carbon chemistries, as are all life forms on Earth.","Iyat dǎɣ asnat ataqal isalan isakna aɣel ina təmɣire hariwat ən əmikan ən təmudre dǎɣ etran nanaɣ aqalnen aygan fal əhimie ən əarbone, sund dak əmikan ən təmudre fal Akal."
The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of extremely long and complex molecules.,Igi was atometan ən karbone tinmitifan əs tirɣise ən iyad atometan ən karbone taganen təmuqunt ən molekiletan zigritnen hulen əd aśohatnen.
A third assumption is to focus on planets orbiting Sun-like stars for increased probabilities of planetary habitability.,Wa karad tabarat atamos ye asins fal təblulaɣen ən dagan aɣlaynen etran olahnen ən Tafuk fal asiwiɗ ahazan ən təmuzɣe ən təblulaɣen.
"To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect Earth-sized exoplanets have been considered, most notably NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and ESA's Darwin programs, both of which have been cancelled.","Dǎɣ samando wen, iyyǎn hadi ən ilalan itwarnen fal asiknin exo təblulaɣen ən tebade ən nakal taqalat atiwǎnan, atamosan adabara ən TPF (Terrestrial Planet Finder) ən NASA əd adabara wǎn Darwin ən ESA, wi dak nasan atwakasan."
"Drake originally formulated the equation merely as an agenda for discussion at the Green Bank conference, but some applications of the formula had been taken literally and related to simplistic or pseudoscientific arguments.",Drake s tizarat ikna ekăsyon šund  xătat n adiwinni daɣ  Green Bank Conference mušăm aplikasyon tan iyyad n formula ammitkălan tolas orakan s amšikki tan raqqos nen tolas n almăt n sientifik tan
"The discovery of extremophiles, organisms able to survive in extreme environments, became a core research element for astrobiologists, as they are important to understand four areas in the limits of life in planetary context: the potential for panspermia, forward contamination due to human exploration ventures, planetary colonization by humans, and the exploration of extinct and extant extraterrestrial life.","Afukkăr n extremofil tan, organizm tan addobăt nen tămudre daɣ ihănzuzaɣ assohăt nen , aqqălan a fal ija fărak n astrobiolojist tan fal as aqqălan assohen i afahăm n akkoz ihăndagăn n alxădudăn n tamudre daɣ talɣa n amadal: tudăbat n panspermia, amăskal id eraw imuɣăn, alisteɣmar n addinat d imuɣ fal tămudre hin tammutăt d ti tillăt n fadayin tan ."
"Even life in the ocean depths, where sunlight cannot reach, was thought to obtain its nourishment either from consuming organic detritus rained down from the surface waters or from eating animals that did.","Anaɣel as imanes ən təmudre dǎɣ amasan ən girwǎn, ɣur tanure ən tafuk winan tadobat atamakat, asidaran eqalan krimkraman ən hiškan adifalnen amanitan ən afala, meɣ ən rizegan wi dǎɣ tatan."
This chemosynthesis revolutionized the study of biology and astrobiology by revealing that life need not be sun-dependent; it only requires water and an energy gradient in order to exist.,Simiosynthese tən taśahat təɣare ən biologie əd astrobiolojie dǎɣ igmadan əs təmudre winan taqel hulen saqalan əs tafuk; a tarha ɣas tadhil ən aman əd amagaz ən aśahat fal atimil.
"Ten hardy organisms selected for the LIFE project, by Amir Alexander Deinococcus radiodurans, Bacillus subtilis, yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, seeds from Arabidopsis thaliana ('mouse-ear cress'), as well as the invertebrate animal Tardigrade.","Marawat tartiten əmikan atiwakasnen fal tadhil ən LIFE, fal Amir Alexandre Deinococcus ən arajo tahaget, Basillus subtilis, ən leɣure Saccharomyəe cerevisiae, ən tiblalen ən Arabidopsis thaliana (""əresson ən tizugen ən eɣalam""), adiš əd amudar winan ila iɣasan Tardigrade."
"Jupiter's moon, Europa, and Saturn's moon, Enceladus, are now considered the most likely locations for extant extraterrestrial life in the Solar System due to their subsurface water oceans where radiogenic and tidal heating enables liquid water to exist.","Euroba, ayur wǎn Juɗiter, əd Encelade, ayur wǎn Saturne, aqalnat amaradǎɣ atiwagan sund idagan wi ogarnen tihusay ye təmudre ən kalan dǎɣ əmik wǎn tafuk dǎɣ tidit ən girwǎn naman nider ɣur taraɣe ən arajogeniq əd taras taganen aman ibdagnen itilanen."
"""The cosmic dust permeating the universe contains complex organic compounds (""""amorphous organic solids with a mixed aromatic-aliphatic structure"""") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.""","""Ekarankar ən əosmique wa itakasan zaleɣat iha tartiten ən krimkraman aśohatnen (""""aśohen ən krimkraman ən amorɗhetan ən tartit tajet ən aromatique-alifaatiq"") wa adoben adiqil atiwagan ən manes, əd šikšik, fal etran."""
"PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with new stars and exoplanets.","PAHs istannad ikna, andărrăn darat Big Bang,  infăzan daɣ alɣălim tolas osăɣan id etran eynăynen d exoplanet tan"
"Experimental astroecology investigates resources in planetary soils, using actual space materials in meteorites.","Astroekolojie ən təmusne tatiwaɣrat ən tanfoten nakal ən təblulaɣen, dǎɣ amitkal ən lalan nakal adutatnen dǎɣ météoritetan."
"On the largest scale, cosmoecology concerns life in the universe over cosmological times.","Dǎɣ ogaran təmɣire asakankin, ən kosmoekolojie ən təmudre dǎɣ aduniyat dǎɣ azaman ən kosmolojiqtan."
"Specializations include cosmochemistry, biochemistry and organic geochemistry.","Əmusanan ilan kosmo biošimimi, ən biošimi əd jéošimi ən taɣisa."
"Some regions on Earth, such as the Pilbara in Western Australia and the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars, and as such, might be able to provide clues on how to search for past life on Mars.","Iyad idagan ən Akal, sund Pilbara dǎɣ Australie ən egadal ən tafuk əd gar kirfan aquran ən MxMurdo dǎɣ Antartiq, aqalan deɣqanen atiwagan sund imakyadan ən géologiquetan ən dagan ən martien əd, isalan win, adobatnen adigriwǎn isinihigitan fal əmik ən numaɣ ən təmudre tokayat fal Mars."
"Indeed, it seems likely that the basic building blocks of life anywhere will be similar to those on Earth, in the generality if not in the detail.","Dǎɣ atiwagan, olah dadoben as haratan ən santo ən təmudre, ɣur awa anihagan, aqalan olahan əd wi Nakal, dǎɣ awa atiwasanan meɣ dǎɣ təbiɗawt."
"Only two of the natural atoms, carbon and silicon, are known to serve as the backbones of molecules sufficiently large to carry biological information.","Əsin ɣas ən atometan ən manasan, ən karbone əd silisium, aqalnen atiwasanan fal tilalt ən asinan wa narori ən molekiletan igdahnen təmɣire fal alangi ən salan ən biolojiqtan."
"The four most likely candidates for life in the Solar System are the planet Mars, the Jovian moon Europa, and Saturn's moons Titan and Enceladus.","Wi nikoz asinsanen ogarnen tudabat ən təmudre dǎɣ əmik tafuk aqalan ən kalan ən Mars, ayur ən joɣien ən Euroba, əd uran ən Saturne Titan əd Encelade."
"At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline.","Dǎɣ tisimdawen əd iba nasahat ən martien, aman ibdaknen eqalan ihomiši hullen islan."
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","""Was 11 désambr 2013, NASA tiliɣat ahanay ən """"ilalan ən əmik ən talaq"""". (ogarnen asikin, ən phyllosilicatetan), agudiyan ən lalan ən krimkraman, fal akaramu ən təsimde ən Euroba."""
Some scientists think it possible that these liquid hydrocarbons might take the place of water in living cells different from those on Earth.,Iyyad tənumaɣawen aɣelnen as eqal adoben as hidrokarbirtan wən ən aybdagan aśohen ye adakal ən adak ən aman dǎɣ selliletan idarnen abdanen ən tən Akal.
There are no known abiotic processes on the planet that could cause its presence.,Wǎrtila tabarat ən abiotiq atiwasanan fal akal wa adoben adagu tabayhit ənes.
"Yamato 000593, the second largest meteorite from Mars, was found on Earth in 2000.","Météorite ən Yamoto 000593, wa sisin ogaran təmɣire météorite adifalan Mars, eqal atwagrawǎn fal Akal dǎɣ 2000."
"On 5 March 2011, Richard B. Hoover, a scientist with the Marshall Space Flight Center, speculated on the finding of alleged microfossils similar to cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites in the fringe Journal of Cosmology, a story widely reported on by mainstream media.","Daɣ ašăl wan 5 n ayor wan rabbi al-awwăl saɣ awătay wan  2011, Richard B. Hoover amosăn sientifik id Marshall Space Flight Center, ijjan takălt fal as ijrăwan ehămiš idiršan mădroynen olăhnen id sianobakteria daɣ cI1 carbonaceous meteorites daɣ jurnal n kosmoloji , tanfust allaɣen media tan ajjotnen."
"Evidence of perchlorates have been found throughout the solar system, and specifically on Mars.","Dǎɣ adriš ən perchlorate atiwagazan dǎɣ əmikan wən tafuk, əd dǎɣ atamosan fal Mars."
"Improved detection methods and increased observation time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly some more like ours.","Asimutiy ən adabaratan dǎɣ agaraw əd asiwiɗ ən alwaq nakayad arinfin dǎɣ iba nihomiši ye ahanay nəmikan iyaɗ dǎɣ təgilwen nakal, əd ihomiši iyaɗ sund tananaɣ."
The aim is to detect those organisms that are able to survive space travel conditions and to maintain the proliferating capacity.,Awatiwarhan eqal agaraw ən organismetan aqalnen adoben adidir dǎɣ asibaban ən asikil dǎɣ edag əd uɗif ən tudabat ən tizunawen ən haratan.
"These stress responses could also allow them to survive in harsh space conditions, although evolution also puts some restrictions on their use as analogues to extraterrestrial life.","Əsuɣulan dǎɣ alham adoben intanedǎɣ arigin ən tamudre dǎɣ asibaban amosnen aśohatnen, ahusken as təwaƭ sihušul ogdahan dǎɣ fanazan iyad dǎɣ əšiɣil sund analoguetan dǎɣ tamudre tan awa asuɣsadan."
The formation of spores allows for it to survive extreme environments while still being able to restart cellular growth.,Asinimihil wan spore igraw was adidir dǎɣ ahazan ən samandotan dak dǎɣ aseqal adoben arisimusuɣil təwaƭ tan cellulaire.
"The two landers were identical, so the same tests were carried out at two places on Mars' surface; Viking 1 near the equator and Viking 2 further north.","Wi nisin əinuzuzuba aqalnen ayolahan, iruman iyadǎɣ aqalan atiwagan dǎɣ əsin dagan dǎɣ taryare tan Mars : Viking 1 daw ahazan ən tizune nakal əd Viking 2 dǎɣ ogaran dǎɣ ataram."
"In astronomy, extinction is the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by dust and gas between an emitting astronomical object and the observer.","Dǎɣ astronomie, asimiki eqalan tesase əd azizgar wan zarazaran ən éleətromagnétique fal ekarankar əd gaztan gar harat Nastronomique atiwarhan əd amakyan."
"For stars that lie near the plane of the Milky Way and are within a few thousand parsecs of the Earth, extinction in the visual band of frequencies (photometric system) is roughly 1.8 magnitudes per kiloparsec.","Fal etrane wi ahanen samando ən adabara wan Tabarat tan amalan sund aɣ əd iyaɗ afdan ən parsectan Nakal, tenaɣe dǎɣ tamsudut tawanhayt dǎɣ alwaqan (tekanit tan photométrique) eqalan ihomiši 1,8 magnitude wan kiloparsec."
Reddening occurs due to the light scattering off dust and other matter in the interstellar medium.,Tašuɣe atatigan amšišir ən tanure dǎɣ karankaran əd iyaɗ haratan wi namasan interstellaire.
In most photometric systems filters (passbands) are used from which readings of magnitude of light may take account of latitude and humidity among terrestrial factors.,"Dǎɣ tiyaɗ dak tekaniten ən ɗhotométrique, itkalan timayen (təmsidaw okaynen) ɣur iyad imarawan ən magnitude dǎɣ tənure adoben uduf ən asidin wan tebade əd abdug, ən gar iyaɗ imaɣšadan ən kalan."
"Broadly speaking, interstellar extinction is strongest at short wavelengths, generally observed by using techniques from spectroscopy.","Dǎɣ almaɣna wasisaharan, asimiki wan interstellaire eqal wogaran aśihu dǎɣ nalwaqan wi tizigrit ondetan, atamosan atiwakyadan dǎɣ tilalt ən tekaniten tən spectroscopie."
The amount of extinction can be significantly higher than this in specific directions.,Təmɣire tan amiki tadobat atiqil atiwagan ogaran azaway dǎɣ awen dǎɣ təsigwen oɣadnen.
"As a result, when computing cosmic distances it can be advantageous to move to star data from the near-infared (of which the filter or passband Ks is quite standard) where the variations and amount of extinction are significantly less, and similar ratios as to R(Ks): 0.49±0.02 and 0.528±0.015 were found respectively by independent groups.","Dǎɣ wasisin, agud wan tidas tən animkiš wan cosmique, adobat adiqil adoben adaqiy dǎɣ huk wən stellaire ən zarazaran šagaɣnen ohaɣnen (atamosan tamay meɣ tasdut tokayat Ks eqal dak aśohen) ɣur təmotayen əd hadi wan asisimiki aqalan oɣadan winan infa, əd salan olahnen əd R(Ks) : 0,49+-0,02 əd 0528+-0,015 aqalan atiwagazan dǎɣ anilkam fal tartit ən tanhat nasan."
"This feature was first observed in the 1960s, but its origin is still not well understood.","Talɣa nes ataqal atiwakyadan fal tatazarat ehandag dǎɣ elan wi 1960, mašan daha difal wareqel harwa atiwasan əs tuhusay."
"In the SMC, more extreme variation is seen with no 2175 Å and very strong far-UV extinction in the star forming Bar and fairly normal ultraviolet extinction seen in the more quiescent Wing.","Dǎɣ SMC, itawakyad tamotayt togarat dǎɣ samando dər wardosa dǎɣ 2175 Å əd aśohen hulen dǎɣ asimiki dǎɣ UV dǎɣ igig ən efaday wan igitan netran əd asimiki dǎɣ ultraviolet inihaga asoɣad dǎɣ efrew adiken."
Finding extinction curves in both the LMC and SMC which are similar to those found in the Milky Way and finding extinction curves in the Milky Way that look more like those found in the LMC2 supershell of the LMC and in the SMC Bar has given rise to a new interpretation.,Atwigraw wan lalawatan ən asimiki dǎɣ LMC əd SMC wi išwar olahan əd wi atwagazan dǎɣ Tabarat ta malat naɣ əd tatwagrawat ən lalawatan dǎɣ asimiki dǎɣ Tabarat tan aɣ olahan hulen əd sund tə ahanen dǎɣ enveloppe-taśohet LMC2 tan LMC əd dǎɣ fadayan ən SMC atwafa edag aynayan ən liɣitan.
"This extinction has three main components: Rayleigh scattering by air molecules, scattering by particulates, and molecular absorption.","Dǎɣ mikitan har karad dǎɣ təmirtayen tən santo : dǎɣ azizgar ən Rayleigh fal moleculetan nadu, azizgar əs haratan əndiratnen əd tasase tan moléculaire."
The amount of such extinction is lowest at the observer's zenith and highest near the horizon.,Dǎɣ hadi ən asimiki wendǎɣ eqal ogaran iba naśahat dǎɣ zénith ən nakayad əd wi ogarnen azaway dǎɣ ahaz ən hadi nakal.
The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe.,Tamuqunt tan Drake igitan wən amel ən tamudre tan saɗiente nadag ihan dǎɣ aduniyat.
"This encompasses a search for current and historic extraterrestrial life, and a narrower search for extraterrestrial intelligent life.","Awen asitay tanumaq dǎɣ tamudre ta tasuɣsadat namaradǎɣ əd nawa dokayan, əd umaɣ iyan ogaran təmidrit dǎɣ tamudre nəniyat aśohen."
"Over the years, science fiction communicated scientific ideas, imagined a wide range of possibilities, and influenced public interest in and perspectives of extraterrestrial life.","Dǎɣ anilkam nelan, təmusne tan igitan ən migridan dǎɣ aniyatan wi timusnawen, azinizgumu ən amaqaran awalagala ən agaraw əd adagal nagaraw ya tamite fal tamudre taśuɣsadat əd perspectives."
"According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, as well as notable personalities such as Winston Churchill, it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere other than Earth.","Dǎɣ tina ən salan wən, atwasakan əs kal təmusnawen atamosan Carl Sagan əd Steɗhen Hawking, aguden fal adinat katabnen sund Winston C, eqalan awinan adobat as tamudre watitila dǎɣ edag iyad dǎɣ Akal."
Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the universe.,Tamudre tadobat agaraw ən ƭiwaƭ ən tanhatines dǎɣ dagan ajotnen dǎɣ aduniyat.
"At each level of the organism there will be mechanisms in place to eliminate conflict, maintain cooperation, and keep the organism functioning.","Dǎɣ hak hadi ən tiɣisa, ilanati timotayen dǎɣ edag fal adigmiɗan kinasan, udif ən tənminak əd uguz nigitan ən tiɣiswen."
"Life based on ammonia (rather than water) has been suggested as an alternative, though this solvent appears less suitable than water.","Tamudre tahat fal ammoniaə (atamosan fal aman) taqal atiwazayan sund anmišray, ahusken as anasalyam wen olah da winan ilmed ad aman."
"About 95% of living matter is built upon only six elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur.","Dǎɣ ihomiši 95 % ən harat wa idaran eqal ayeqana əs fal sadis haratan ɣas : carbone, hydrogène, azote, oxygène, phosphore əd soufre."
"The carbon atom has the unique ability to make four strong chemical bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms.","Atome wan carbone ila aśahat intaɣas nigi ən karad sirtayan ən chimiquetan aśohatnen dər iyad atometan, dǎɣ ahan iyaɗ atometan ən carbone."
"""According to NASA's 2015 Astrobiology Strategy, """"Life on other worlds is most likely to include microbes, and any complex living system elsewhere is likely to have arisen from and be founded upon microbial life.""","""Tina tan tamašaɣalt tan astrobiologie 2015 ən NASA, ““tamudre fat aduniyat tiyaɗ taqal hulen amosan ayertayan ən miərobetan, əd almaɣnatan dak wi idarnen aśohatnen dǎɣ edagan iyan eqal adoben agaraw nuɣil naywan dǎɣ təmudre tan miərobienne əd aqalan aynayan falas."
"""Rick Colwell, a member of the Deep Carbon Observatory team from Oregon State University, told the BBC: """"I think it’s probably reasonable to assume that the subsurface of other planets and their moons are habitable, especially since we’ve seen here on Earth that organisms can function far away from sunlight using the energy provided directly from the rocks deep underground"""".""","""Rick Colwell, awadim ən tartit tan Deep Carbon Observatory wan Oregon State University, ina dǎɣ BBC : ““Aɣelaɣ qas eqal amosan aylan tidit dǎɣ tinawt nas daw-akal ən dagan iyaɗ əd ayur nasan aqalan atawazaɣan, ogdahan dǎɣ awa ninhay dǎɣ diha fal Akal was təɣiswen adobatnat dǎɣ əšiɣil dǎɣ igi ən tanure tan tafuk dǎɣ adakal ən aśahat atiwafan agudendǎɣ əs tihun tə daw-akal ilmazan””."
The panspermia hypothesis proposes that life elsewhere in the Solar System may have a common origin.,Maɣulat wan panspermie asnahaga as tamudre dǎɣ edag dǎɣ almaɣna wan tafuk atudabat agaraw ən daha ditifal iyandǎɣ.
"In the 19th century it was again revived in modern form by several scientists, including Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834), Kelvin (1871), Hermann von Helmholtz (1879) and, somewhat later, by Svante Arrhenius (1903).","Dǎɣ 19 temede nawatay, taqal anelasan dǎɣ əmik wamutayan fal təmusnawen ajotnen, atamosan Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1834), Kelvin (1871), Hermann Von Helmholtz (1879), əd, andiran nagudiyan, fal Svante Arrhenius (1903)."
"""One of the early scientific inquires into the topic appeared in an 1878 Scientific American article entitled """"Is the Moon Inhabited?""""""","""Iyan dǎɣ asostanan wi dazarnen ən təmusnawen fal salan aqalnen adizgaran dǎɣ tabarat tan Scientific American dǎɣ 1878 sitawan ““Is the Moon Inhabited?””"
Warm and pressurized regions in the Moon's interior might still contain liquid water.,Dǎɣ kalan wi akosnen əd asiwid nasahat ən namas wan Niyur adobat harwa atihan aman ibgadnen.
"There is evidence that Mars had a warmer and wetter past: dried-up riverbeds, polar ice caps, volcanoes, and minerals that form in the presence of water have all been found.","Ilanti tijihawen as Mars tila awa ditokay ogaran takast əd ogaran abdug : ihinan ən timarwalen aqurnen, əaloƭetan ən ɗolairetan, amliliy nakal əd gulašan wi aqalnen dǎɣ amel naman aqalan atwanhayan."
The vapor could have been produced by ice volcanoes or by ice near the surface sublimating (transforming from solid to gas).,Takast tadobat atigriw aqalan atiwagan fal mililiyan nakal ən təsimde meɣ fal ukisawan (asimiliy naśohen dǎɣ gaz) dǎɣ edag ihan dedes ən taryare.
It is also possible that Europa could support aerobic macrofauna using oxygen created by cosmic rays impacting its surface ice.,Eqal deqanen adoben as Europe atilal ye iyan maərofaune aérobie idakalan oxygène atiwagan fal zarazaran ən cosmique ɣašadnen tesimde tan taryare.
"""On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of """"clay-like minerals"""" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa.""","""Dǎɣ 11 décembre 2013, NASA tošwal tanudaft tan ““krimkraman wən talaq””.ogaran adutu, wan phyllosilicatetan), agudiyan ertayan ən krimkraman ən haratan, fal awa itawafazan dǎɣ tesimde dǎɣ Europa.”"
Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars.,Iyaɗ asigadan ya adinhiyan atwizay wan tijuhawen tən tamudre tan microbienne atiwanhay dǎɣ Mars.
"In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars.","Dǎɣ 1996, isalan atiwamadašnen aliɣen as tartiten tə olahnen dǎɣ nanobactéries adǎɣ atwanhayan dǎɣ météorite, ALH84001, igan dǎɣ tihun iditijarid Mars."
"NASA officials soon distanced NASA from the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions.","Imizaran wən NASA igan šikšik anakaš nasan fal salan wi liɣitan ən təmusnawen, əd Stoker inta-emanes taqal adiwalan fal liɣitan witbatnen."
It is designed to assess the past and present habitability on Mars using a variety of scientific instruments.,Eqal atwasakmaman fal adiwaɗ dǎɣ tamusuq iditokayan əd tanamarad ən Mars fal tadhil ən tibidawen ən lalan ən timusnawen.
"However, significant advances in the ability to find and resolve light from smaller rocky worlds near their stars are necessary before such spectroscopic methods can be used to analyze extrasolar planets.","Agudendǎɣ, təwadnen atiwagrahnen dǎɣ aśahat wa nagaraw əd dǎɣ kanan ən tanure tan aduniyat tan tahun togarat təmidrit dǎɣ dedes netran aqalnen ayfan dat as əmikan wi sɗeətrosəoɗiques arudaben adiqilan ayšɣalan fal adinhiyan ɗlanètetan winan iha tabarat tan tafuk."
"In August 2011, findings by NASA, based on studies of meteorites found on Earth, suggest DNA and RNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules), building blocks for life as we know it, may be formed extraterrestrially in outer space.","Dǎɣ août 2011, samandotan ən NASA, tatahat təɣire tən météoritetan atiwagaznen fal Akal, asinahaganat as tənmirtayen tən ADN əd ARN (adenine, guanine əd moleəuletan ən təɣisa tatiwarawat), haratitan wi ganen tamudre ta tamosat awanizay, tadobat atiqil ayertayan dǎɣ əmik asuzsadan dǎɣ taryare."
"In August 2012, and in a world first, astronomers at Copenhagen University reported the detection of a specific sugar molecule, glycolaldehyde, in a distant star system.","Dǎɣ août 2012, əd dǎɣ təzaraten naduniyat, astronometan wən Uniɣersité tan Əoɗenhague asiknan as ihanayan ən moléəule tan asukar intaɣas, glyəolaldehyde, dǎɣ tekanit tan stellaire togigat."
"The Kepler space telescope has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be false positives.","Télesəope spatial Keɗler adǎɣ tatwanhay intadǎɣ iyaɗ afdan ən ɗlanètetan ahanen, samosnat ihomiši 11% adoben adiqilan bahu ahusken."
"The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, about 29 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to most definitions of a planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead.","Planète ta togarat tazayt tahat dǎɣ archivetan exoplanètetan wən NASA eqal DENIS-ƊJ082303.1-491201 b, əs tazayt nasan taqal aywadan ihomiši 29 nahandak wan Jupiter, ahuskat as aɣelan iyadak iliɣitan wən ɗlanète, aqalnat azayan fal adiqilan planète əd tadobat atiqil agizilan brune dǎɣ edag ənes."
"One sign that a planet probably already contains life is the presence of an atmosphere with significant amounts of oxygen, since that gas is highly reactive and generally would not last long without constant replenishment.","Awa isaknen as planète ihet hulanen dat awa tamudre eqal tajayhit ən atmosphère dər haditan atiwagrahnen noxygene, falas gaz wen eqal hulen aynakaran əd izar waritihigu deqanen hulen aswiden agay ən harkuk."
"Even if it is assumed that only one out of a billion of these stars has planets supporting life, there would be some 6.25 billion life-supporting planetary systems in the observable universe.","Əndar amos aɣel as iyandǎɣ dǎɣ etran fal milliard ilan planètetan adobatnen ye tamudre, dǎɣ aywadan iyaɗ 6,25 milliardstan ən tekanitan fal planètairetan adobatnen ye tamudre dǎɣ aduniyat ta tawanhayat."
The earliest recorded assertion of extraterrestrial human life is found in ancient scriptures of Jainism.,Wogaran tarut dǎɣ salan wi aqiymanen dǎɣ tamudre tan aduniyat tatisuzsadat ataha dǎɣ wirunen əkitban ən jaïnisme.
Medieval Muslim writers like Fakhr al-Din al-Razi and Muhammad al-Baqir supported cosmic pluralism on the basis of the Qur'an.,Ənumaɣan ən nisliman médiévaux sund Fakhr al-Din al-Razi əd Muhammad al-Baqir alilan ye pluralisme cosmique fal santo Nalquran.
"Once it became clear that Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe, the theory of extraterrestrial life started to become a topic in the scientific community.","Agud deqal adeqalan atiwazayan dǎɣ Akal wareqel ad planète gar tiwinan adobat ƭidant təɣiswen dǎɣ aduniyat, tamusne tan təmudre tatisuzsadat adǎɣ tinta atiqil magrad dǎɣ tidawt tan təmusne."
The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated.,Tudabat tan emel ən asuzsadan eqal aqiyman nasimikt amišaršaran dǎɣ hadi ən təwigrawan wi təmusnawen asitraban.
"The idea of life on Mars led British writer H. G. Wells to write the novel The War of the Worlds in 1897, telling of an invasion by aliens from Mars who were fleeing the planet's desiccation.","Aniyat wan tamudre fal Mars iway anaktib wan britannique H. G. Wells ye adiktəb alkitab Wan akinas wan aduniyat dǎɣ 1897, italaɣen tatilsat asuzsidan wi difalnen Mars far adašilan ye taɣart tan ɗlanète."
"""Belief in extraterrestrial beings continues to be voiced in pseudoscience, conspiracy theories, and popular folklore, notably """"Area 51"""" and legends.""","""Tumat tan kal aru wi asuzsadnen tigla dǎɣ azagar ən ɗseudo-səienəe, təmusnawen tən gar adinat ifarnen əd haratan ən timite, atamosan ““edag wan 51”” əd legendetan.”"
Ward and Brownlee are open to the idea of evolution on other planets that is not based on essential Earth-like characteristics (such as DNA and carbon).,Ward əd Brownlee aqalan ameran dǎɣ aniyat wan ƭiwaƭ fal tiyad ɗlanètetan winan eqel ayhan fal talɣiwen itbatnen dǎɣ Akal (sund ADN əd əarbone).
"""If aliens visit us, the outcome would be much as when Columbus landed in America, which didn't turn out well for the Native Americans"""", he said.""","""Afal imusuzsad osananaɣid fal ahinaɣ anhiyan, alzawaban aqalnen andiran ohazan sund ugud was Əolomb osahit dǎɣ Amérique, awawinan ikna amliliy fal Amérindientan”,ayna.”"
COSPAR also provides guidelines for planetary protection.,COSPAR ifa intadǎɣ isiknitan fal uguz ən planètetan.
"""Also, according to the response, there is """"no credible information to suggest that any evidence is being hidden from the public's eye.""""""","""Dǎɣ ugur, aɣel aliɣi, wartila ““wala iyan isalan wi oɣadnen fal masala ən asidutu eqalan ayfaran ye ƭiƭ ən nadinat””."
Top: Light sources of different magnitudes.,Dǎɣ afala : tabaraten amilawlawnen əs təmotayen ən magnitude.
"Comet Borrelly, the colors show its brightness over the range of three orders of magnitude (right).","Comète Borrelly, initan saknen tanurenes fal efay naman wi karaɗ sinimihilan wən magnitude (dǎɣ aɣil)."
"The scale is logarithmic and defined such that each step of one magnitude changes the brightness by a factor of the fifth root of 100, or approximately 2.512.","Asakankin eqal logarithmique əd aliɣi waqalan hak tekelt dak ən magnitude amutayan dǎɣ tanure ən amazan wan racine cinquième wan 100, amosan ihomiši 2,512."
Astronomers use two different definitions of magnitude: apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude.,Astronometan dakalan əsin liɣitan abdanen dǎɣ magnitude : magnitude wa aterawan əd magnitude wa aśohen.
"The absolute magnitude describes the intrinsic luminosity emitted by an object and is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were placed at a certain distance from Earth, 10 parsecs for stars.",Magnitude aśohen iktaban dǎɣ tanure ən intrinsèque idirkan harat əd eqalan atiwalaɣen sund ogdahan dǎɣ magnitude tawanhayat igaraw harat as eqal atiwagan dǎɣ anakaš 10 iyan ən Nakal.
The development of the telescope showed that these large sizes were illusory—stars appeared much smaller through the telescope.,Təwaden tən télesəope asiknanat as tibadawen tən maqornen aqalnat awinan adutat – etran zagaranid hulen dǎɣ təmidrit dǎɣ télesəope.
"The more negative the value, the brighter the object.","Afal alhak eqal ayfnazan, adiš harat edeqal aynayan."
"Stars that have magnitudes between 1.5 and 2.5 are called second-magnitude; there are some 20 stars brighter than 1.5, which are first-magnitude stars (see the list of brightest stars).","Etran wəs magnitude eqal ayhan gar 1,5 əd 2,5 aqalan asitawana dǎɣ wasisin magnitude; ilanti 20 nogay ən netran ogarnen amluluw dǎɣ 1,5, aqalnen etran wi dazarnen dǎɣ magnitude (anhiy isimawan ən etran wi ogarnen amluluw)."
Absolute magnitudes for solar system objects are frequently quoted based on a distance of 1 AU.,Magnitudetan aśohatnen ən haratan ən takanit tan tafuk aqalan agudiyan atiwaɣran fal santo ən hadi wan 1 UA.
The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools.,Tanuzruft ta togarat tarɣise tan təmusne taqal atiwadan əd dakalan ən lalan wi santo.
It has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class.,Talil dǎɣ ƭəwaƭ tan azruf ogaran ukuy (dǎɣ iha azruf wa aduniyat tanamaradǎɣ) əd asirɣas asihidid nadag ən nadalan.
"Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, and the challenges of bioethics.","Nadobat asidin nasihidid wan aniyat naśahat dǎɣ əmikan wi igitan nadinat, əd timuziɣa tan bioéthique."
"""The term's meanings changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into """"technology.""""""","""Aliɣi nəmik amutay dǎɣ santo ən 20e temede nawatay ugud wa soəiologuetan ameriəaintan, asintan fal Thorstein Ɣ, aliɣen aniyatan wən asirtay wan allemand ən Teəhnik dǎɣ ““təmusne””.”"
"""In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that """"technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them.""""""","1937 Americain Akatab wan əunéiforme adaɣ asisinta əs səmik wan ɗiətogrammes, amos əsiknitan wən ɗiəturaltan asmadan daɣ afanazan əd duɣil nogaran atbut."
"""More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of """"technique"""" to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the self (techniques de soi).""","“Dǎɣ tayniye, ənumaɣan adkalan ɣur namegridan wi européentan ən ““təmusne”” fal asihraw ən nalmaɣna wan təmusne dǎɣ ajotnen əmikan wi tidit tan lalan, sund dǎɣ əšiɣilan wən Foucault fal təmusnawen tən nes (echniques de soi).”"
"""to invent useful things or to solve problems"""" and """"a machine, piece of equipment, method, etc.,""","“Igitan ən haratan winan ila alfayda meɣ ikanan ən nəsiIgita”” əəd ““iyan maəhine, équiɗement, tamusne, iyad.”"
"The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.","Əmik eqalan agudiyan amitkalan fal ariqil tabarat toɣadat ən tamusne, meɣ fal igi nasinimihil dǎɣ tatizwayat tamusne meɣ ɣas dǎɣ éleətronique wamaqaran ən tamite, sagudiyan dǎɣ təmusne dǎɣ tartit ənes."
"In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems.","Dǎɣ təmuzye ten, tamusne adar tisinamahal dǎɣ lalan əd dǎɣ maəhinetan wi adobatnen adiqilan ašiɣalan fal kanan ən asibaban wi aduniyat titbatat."
"""W. Brian Arthur defines technology in a similarly broad way as """"a means to fulfill a human purpose.""""""",W. Brian Arthur iliɣat as təmusne tan əmik wa amosan ahuruwan sund ““harat wa nigi harat idaran””.
"""When combined with another term, such as """"medical technology"""" or """"space technology,"""" it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. """"""","“Ugud wareqal ayertayan dəmik iyan, atamosan ““təmusne tan laɣtor”” mmeɣ ““təmusne tan taryare””, tigat tenmehelt uɣil wan təmuzuyen əd haratan wi tabarat tasitawan.”””"
"Additionally, technology is the application of mathematics, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known.","Dǎɣ agudiyan, təmusne taqal igitan ən maɗinan, ən təmotayen əd artan dǎɣ agaraw wan tamudre atamosan awadǎɣ taqal atiwazayan."
"Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science.","Ingénierie eqal igitan ikanen ibret nəšiɣil atiwasan itagan asiminhay əd igitan ən lalan əd tekanitan fal adikisan haratan wi aduniyat dǎɣ samando nigitan fal awadim, dǎɣ ayšɣalan agudiyan (mašan waden agudak) adabaratan əd təmusnawen tən tamotayt."
"For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors by using already-existing tools and knowledge.","Dǎɣ olahan, tamotayt tadobat taɣare ən flux ən eleətrontan dǎɣ imawayan ən éleətrique dǎɣ əšiɣil wan lalan əd təmuzuyen itilanen dat awa."
"The exact relations between science and technology, in particular, have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the funding of basic and applied science.","Ənmihritan oɣadnen gar tamotayt əd təmusne, dǎɣ aybdan, aqalan atwamadašan dǎɣ musanan, kal tinfast əd manahadan ən tənayiwen dǎɣ samando ən 20e temede nawatay, dǎɣ tizunawen falas magrad adobat adisirid tadhilt tan tamotayt insanto əd tatiwagat."
"Early humans evolved from a species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal, with a brain mass approximately one third of modern humans.",Widazarnen adinat awidan dǎɣ azagar ən hominidéstan ən magyakan aqalnen dat awa bipèdetan əd as tagayt tataśohet tasijayha ihomiši was karaɗ iyandǎɣ ən adinat amutaynen.
The invention of polished stone axes was a major advance that allowed forest clearance on a large scale to create farms.,Wa ogaran tarut dǎɣ əšiɣil wa atiwazayan dǎɣ énergie wan adu eqal ekrabaw wan taswit ;
The earliest known use of wind power is the sailing ship; the earliest record of a ship under sail is that of a Nile boat dating to the 8th-millennium BCE.,Wa ogaran tarut dǎɣ əšiɣil wa atiwazayan dǎɣ énergie wan adu eqal ekrabaw wan taswit ; wa ogaran tarut dǎɣ adriš wan krabawan wan taswit eqal wan bateau tan Nil inharwa 8e efaɗ nawatay wan dat alwaq wananaɣ.
"According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000 BCE probably independently and nearly simultaneously in Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe.","Dǎɣ archéologuetan, ɗine adǎɣ eqal atiwagan ibret ən 4000 dat alwaq wananaɣ, amosan tanhat əd išwar agudendǎɣ dǎɣ Mésopotamie (dǎɣ Irak tan amaradǎɣ), dǎɣ Caucase wan Ataram (atwigaz wan Maykoɗ) əd dǎɣ Europe tanamas."
"More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.","Dǎɣ aynayan, wa ogaran ɗine dǎɣ ašaɣer atiwazayan dǎɣ aduniyat eqal atiwagrawan dǎɣ dagan ibdagnen ən Ljubljiana, dǎɣ Slovénie."
The ancient Sumerians used the potter's wheel and may have invented it.,Wi kal aru Sumériens dakalan dǎɣ aɣalay wan potier əd adobat adiqil atiwagan.
The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois and were first used in Mesopotamia and Iran in around 3000 BCE.,Wi dazarnen kal torkaten ən isin ɗinatan aqalan adizgaran dǎɣ itraɣois əd aqalan atiwatkalan fal wazaran ehandag dǎɣ Mésoɗotamie əd dǎɣ Iran ibret 3000 dat alwaq wananaɣ.
A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.,Tanušaft tamosat awlahan ən tənišafen tə amutaynen taqal atwagan dǎɣ ašal ɣur śolo wan Cnossos.
The primary sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima; construction began on it in the sixth century BCE and it is still in use today.,"Tatazarat égout wan Rome eqal Cloaca Maxima, amosan təmuqunt ta tintat dǎɣ wa sadis temede nawatay dat alwaq wananaɣ əd taqal harwa atiwakalan har ešalidǎɣ."
"Medieval technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the lever, the screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks, and a system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices.","Təmusne tan médiéɣale tinhay adakay wan maəhinetan inbanan (sund levier, vis əd poulie) artaynen fal arigin ilalan ogarnen aśuhu, sund broueƭe, moulins tən adu əd horlogetan, əd tekanit iyat ən uniɣersité awiɗ əd azizgar təyitwen əd igitan ən təmusnawen."
"Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution was a period of great technological discovery, particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and transport, driven by the discovery of steam power and the widespread application of the factory system.","Asintan dǎɣ Royaume-Uni dǎɣ 18e temede nawatay, təwaƭ tan usine ataqal alwaq wan atiwagrawan wi maqornen ən təmusnawen, atamosan dǎɣ tabaraten tən agayak, tan igitan, tan ukisawan ən nuraɣ, tan métallurgie əd tan siklawan, daw tanakra tan garawan ən énergie wan takast əd igitan atiwasanen dǎɣ tekanit tan usine."
The rise in technology has led to skyscrapers and broad urban areas whose inhabitants rely on motors to transport them and their food supplies.,"Asihidid wan təmusne ifa tiwit tan graƭe-əiel əd dagan wi ogarnen dǎɣ aɣrəm amosnen imudakan sadanan fal moteurtan fal agay, win əd haratan nasan wi šiška."
The 20th century brought a host of innovations.,20e temede nawatay adiwayan təwaden anilkamnen.
"Information technology subsequently led to the birth in the 1980s of the Internet, which ushered in the current Information Age.","Təmusnawen tən salan aqalnat agudiyan aywayan tiwit, dǎɣ elan wi 1980, Internet, wa atwazayan dǎɣ alwaq wan salan namaradɣ."
"Complex manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are needed to make and maintain some of the newer technologies, and entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding generations of increasingly more complex tools.","Təmusnawen əd təmsiduwen aśohatnen dǎɣ igitan əd təmuqunt aqalnen ayfan fal igi əd igi naniyat ye təmusnawen tiyad ogarnen tiyniye, əd usinetan imdanen anhayan ašal fal tilalt əd ƭiwaƭ ən générationtan anilkamnen ən lalan wi ogarnen dǎɣ ugur naśuhu."
"Transhumanists generally believe that the point of technology is to overcome barriers, and that what we commonly refer to as the human condition is just another barrier to be surpassed.","Tranšumanistes aɣelan dǎɣ oɣadan as tarha tan təmusne taqal aywaran haratan, əd awa sitawan dǎɣ tartit əmikan wi adinat eqal harat wa ogaran adatu."
They suggest that the inevitable result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the cost of freedom and psychological health.,Oyan isalan wi wanan adobat atwidgal ən tartit tendǎɣ aqalan adiqilan harkuk ogaran təmusne dǎɣ alhak wan alɣafiyat əd aśaɣat psyəhologique.
"He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way that 'in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel helplessly against it.'","Orda adisinkir aśahat wan təmusne ən almaɣna wi “warnifles dǎɣ wala iyan almaɣna ən təwaƭ stérile wa hanɣ ibahalan dǎɣ iki nisdat adirɣalan ye təmusne meɣ, awa ditaqalan dǎɣ olahan, aśiśuhu nakinas gar diris”."
"Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics such as Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four.","Tizmiten tiyad tə ogarnen umsad dǎɣ təmusne ahanat dǎɣ awa iga awadim ešalidǎɣ sund Classiquetan ən taɣare tan dystopique, atamosan Brave New World wan Aldous Huxley, A Clockwork Orange wan Anthony Burgess əd Nineteen Eighty-Four wan George Orwell."
"""The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called """"technopolies,"""" societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values, and world-views.""","“Enametən itizəm tamusne Neil Postman izalay tirtayen dakalnen haratan ən tirtayen atiwasanen ad awa as ijənu ““musnat”” ən tirtayen atiwajarnen as anyat ən tikuyt ən tamusnat ad tamusne ɣor azajor meɣ ɣor tamugrest ən ijitan iyad ən tamusne, tahusləten ad mənhuyan ən adunya.”"
"Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dangers of new technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, and robotics.","Nikolas Kompridis iktab deɣ fal təɣsədaten ən tamusnawen išraynen, sund amussən génétique, tamətkit ən tamusne, tamudre tamsədawət ad maršin."
"Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has published books such as On the Internet and What Computers Still Can't Do.","Emašenzi iyan maqara ən tamusne eqal Hubert Dreyfus, azizjaran alkadan sund On the Internet ad What Computers Still Can't Do."
"In his article, Jared Bernstein, a Senior Fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, questions the widespread idea that automation, and more broadly, technological advances, have mainly contributed to this growing labor market problem.","Dǎɣ tənna iness, Jared Bernstein, Senior Fellow ɣor Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, assoɣəl dǎɣ sestan aniyat ajətan was inta tanhat, as ajət ikuyan ən tamusnawen, aknan tilalt ye ataraqa itiwadan ən hebu ən ašəɣəl."
He uses two main arguments to defend his point.,Idakal timtar sanatət afranen ye igoz ən mənhuy iness.
"""Indeed, automation threatens repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary because they complement technology and manual jobs that """"requires flexibility judgment and common sense"""" remain hard to replace with machines.""","“Dǎɣ fəlas, tanhat ɣatəl ašəɣəlan amisaɣəlnen mašan ašəɣəlan adwalnen dǎɣ tajute aqalan harkuk tahašilt falas adewan ad tamusne ad ašəɣəlan ən fassan win ““šihəšulan as tələmɗe ašareɣa ad amək ahusken““ aqalan assohen as asənəməšriy as marchintan.”"
"""Technology is often considered too narrowly; according to Hughes, """"Technology is a creative process involving human ingenuity"""".""","“Tamusne taqal salwaq almaɣna iknan equd ; ɣor Hughes, ““tamusne taqal ašəɣəl ijan itajan ən tamojit ən awadəm””. ”"
They have often supposed that technology is easily controllable and this assumption has to be thoroughly questioned.,Norda as alwaq as tamusne tatiwanahad as tarəɣse izar tənna ten ad tətwətkəl as alməɣnat zəjret.
Solutionism is the ideology that every social issue can be solved thanks to technology and especially thanks to the internet.,Adabara eqal tayəte tas ataraqa kul ertayan adobat amukən fal tasəbat ən tamusne ad hulen fal tasəbat ən internet.
Benjamin R. Cohen and Gwen Ottinger also discussed the multivalent effects of technology.,Benjamin R. Cohen ad Gwen Ottinger amigradan deɣ as initan ajotnen ən tamusne.
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans.,Atkul ən tamusne maqarat taqal tebadit ən iri ən mudaran iyad waren amos awadəm.
The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.,Tadabit ye iji ad atkul ən haratan eqal atwəj agud iyan sund tebadit təmdat ən alməɣnat nawadəm.
"""In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil predicted that the future of technology would mainly consist of an overlapping """"GNR Revolution"""" of genetics, nanotechnology and robotics, with robotics being the most important of the three.""","“Ɣor 2005, emessən ən awa ilkamən Ray Kurzweil alaɣət as agad ən tamusne eqal dǎɣ təzart dǎɣ ””ašanzi GNR””amisawarən as génétique, tamusne zəjret ad təmaršina, təmaršina taqal ahusken jar karadat.”"
Humans have already made some of the first steps toward achieving the GNR revolution.,Adinat jan aru iyad dǎɣ tikal azarnen ibret akərəs ən ašanzi GNR.
Some believe that the future of robotics will involve a 'greater than human non-biological intelligence.',Iyad aɣelan as agad ən taməršəna asedaw ‘tayəte waren təkna tojarat tan awadəm’.
"""This future shares many similarities with the concept of planned obsolescence, however, planned obsolescence is seen as a """"sinister business strategy.'""","“Agad wen assikna milhawen ajətnen ad tənna tan tušart tadiwat,mašan tušart tadiwat taqal sund ““talayeɣt ən tamkare ən hebu””."
"Genetics have also been explored, with humans understanding genetic engineering to a certain degree.","Génétique taqal deɣ atiwaməɣan, adinat afhamən amusan ən génétique dǎɣ ašrut iyan."
Others think that genetic engineering will be used to make humans more resistant or completely immune to some diseases.,Iyad aɣelan as amusan ən génétique eqal atkul ye iji ən asəšhu nadinat meɣ asəmədu aseɣat jar tohənawen tiyad.
It is believed by futurists that nanobot technology will allow humans to 'manipulate matter at the molecular and atomic scale.',Imusanən nalkəm aɣelan as tamusne ən təmadrit ən marəhintan təjraw ye adinat ‘edess ən harat ɣor tašəjrət ən tiblalen ad tablalt əndarat.’
"""In this context, now obsolete, an """"engine"""" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult).""","“Dǎɣ edaj wen,darat tarut, ““moteur””aleɣat maršin ən militer, adar tidila harat iknan atiwətkalən ɣor akinas (sund, catapulte)”."
The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East.,Maršintan fin sadis raqisnen aknanen atiwazayan dǎɣ ujaz-nalqiblat aruwan.
"The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.","Amukən ən leɣier təzjarəd as tizarat ila awen 5 000 ən awatay ɣor ihaz-nalqiblat,dihad atwətkal dǎɣ tewaləwalt təknat, ye ašəkaš ən haratan maqornen dǎɣ tamusne tan Misra taruwat."
"The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC.","Ɣis, tanalkimt ən maršintan iknanen tatiwəja,tazjarəd dǎɣ təzart ɣor Mésopotamie agud ən alwaq aynayən ən assyrie (911-609) dat Jésus-Christ."
"As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.","Sund emašaɣal ən faɣawna Djosèr, ijraw dǎɣ iban torda ad akayad ən tamuɣənt ən ɗyramide tan Djoser (pyramide tan təmɣare) ɣor Saqqara, ɣor Misra, ibret 2630-2611 dat Jésus-Christ."
Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.,"Imuzaran ən Koushites aqanan sɗeotan agud ən azaman wan bronze,jar 3700 ad 3250 dat J.-C. Inašaran ad alfonatan zajroten atiwəjan deɣ ɣor ikuy ən 7e elan darat J -C.ɣor Koush."
"Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.","Ijitan iyad ən Arəhimède,sund deɣ as amukən ən Antikythera, ahušalan tamusne maqarat ən assəməsəwar ebdan meɣ assəməsəwar eɗyəiəloïdal,sanatət tənawen atiwazaynen ən tamusne ən maršintan wijrawnen adakal ən migdəhaw ən aməssəwar ən ašanzi ən industrie ad wiqalnen harwa tahurut atwatkalnen ešali dǎɣ idagan ajotnen sund maršintan ad iritan ən torfen."
"The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.","Tebalawt taqal deɣ amizar ən maršin wan azal, eqal tajute tatiwasanət ɣor sənto ən ašanzi ən industrie ɣor 18e awatay."
"He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.","Aleɣat akoz manzaran ən manəhad,ad imudaš amitakwaynen as takbat ən tidawen as taqan,adobatnen agay ən tajute ən adal adewan ad tajute ən ilaɣitan ən tadawdaw."
"Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.","Dor azajor ən ašəɣəlan, universitétan war aqelnat ayjrawan təmɣar maqarat aləmad ye tamusne."
Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.,Tamoɣət ən išušal taqal ašəɣəl ən iritan ən tamusne taknat agud ən isənta azarnen ən ašanzi industrielle.
He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.,Eqal harwa amusən ən amukən ifranən ad physisician.
Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine.,Smeaton iwayid deɣ issiwedan ən amukən ye maršin tan aho ən Newcomen.
"Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read.","Samuel Morland, emasedən ad emaji ašeɣalan fal fonfitən, oyad tənaten ɣor beraw ən ordonnanəe ən Vauxhall fal musnat ən fonfi wan aho eɣra Thomas Saɣery."
"Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.","Emašəši ən tazoli Thomas Newcomen,wa eqanan maršin tazarat tan aho ən ɗiston inazən ɣor 1712,war atwazay ye ajaraw ən formation ən tamusne."
"These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical.","Išritan win alilal ye afanaz ən azrif ən tazoli, itajan aləmad ən taberaten ən tazoli tin ebaje ad idmaran ən tazoli."
"With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.","Dǎɣ tajute ən moteur wan aho ən assahat izwayan,tazunt asahat/tazayt ən moteran win aho ija tadabit asəsoɣan ən batoten tin aho ad zirgiten."
"The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools.","Ašanzi industrielle orawid tamdilt ən maršintan lanen ikaruma ən təzoliawənen, awen aywayan as tajute ən maršintan ajotnen."
Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century.,Timkarawen ən imokənan ən alaɣi atwəsajətan dǎɣ tazune tazarat ən 19e awatay.
"""The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of """"engineer"""" for the first time with a count of 2,000.""","“Assedən ən amériəaintan ən 1850 ogaz ašəɣəl ən ““amusən”” ye dǎɣ təzart,ad adin ən 2000 adinat”."
"In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.","Ɣor 1890, nasedan 6 000 ən musanan dǎɣ tamusne ən oɣən, minier, amukən ad əuran."
"The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.","Ijitan ən tamusne ən əuran dǎɣ elan 1800 atafnen timusnawen tin Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm ad iyad, sund iji ən tamanhaəurtan əuran ɣor 1816 ad moteur wan əuran ɣor 1872."
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design.,"Musnat ən ašišəl safəla amigrad amək wan mənhuy ən atieraten, aguden musnat tan safəla taqal tənna taynayat sahrawat tawert ən teɣare siguš mənhuy torfen tifurutnen."
"Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches.","Dǎɣ tarut,amusan ən ašišəl fal ebang ad amusan anu aqalan ilakatan iknanen."
"As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.","Dǎɣ alkum, imusanən ajətnen tikyən as aləmad ən təɣar anaynen ɣor tašəjrət tahajit nassən."
"It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.","War ikna agadah ɣas ən akarass ən harat amukən ən təmkare, ahušal deɣ asudmar təhušal tiyad."
"""Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of """"low-level"""" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.""","“Genriəh Altshuller, darat ajaraw ən assəməsədəw ən edanən fal təmɣare ən madin ən takarde,inna as imokənan han amass ən mənhuy ən musnat ən ““edag idarən””, falas dǎɣ edag iknan azaway, mənhuy təknat taqal tatəkasat aməgdah ən amass ən sənto ən ataraqa.”"
Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.,Tirmiten hakanat as haratan tašəɣalan sund ɣor atwən.
As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering.,"Dǎɣ fal taqanen ən harat inašan iri, ilet ajət iyan ən haratan ajihanen as ordinateur (tamusne tajihat as ordinateur) təknat tekle as musnat."
"It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs.","Ijraw ye musanən ye iji ən iritan 3D, ad kətban 2D ad ešwalan ən mənhuyan nassən."
Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.,Ugiš ad tazunt ən salan kul aqalan amisadawən as talilt ən harat ən igoz hukan janen.
"By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior.","As iri iyan,musnat ən jar təmərtayen ad tartit, tamusne ad temašaɣalt ən adinat."
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy.,Anyatan ən musnat adoben iji amək ən batu.
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development.,Musnat taqal moteur iknan ən assəmutiy ad ajət ən adinat.
"There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.","Awen adobat agay ən ajət ən taraqan nəsdəw ad fulatik əndaratnen,ad itaraqan ən təwsaten."
"Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes.","Imusanən adoben harwa adəqəlan atəlway as iji ən ašəɣəlan ən musnat,sund ahanay ən haratan ən tirmawen meɣ təmaqunt ən iritan."
"First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.","Dǎɣ tazəydert, eqal agud as idəgan dǎɣ wis physique meɣ əhimie ən talilt aqalan atwəssən hulen mašan itaraqatan imanes aqalan ayknan assuhu ye amukən as alməɣnat iknan."
The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.,Wazaran ašənzat musnat as tidit ən maɗin asijawen was assin itəkat imliliyan agašnen izar ija musnat.
A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.,Physicien ad alkəm səjət aləmadat tawedat ad təknat.
"An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components.","Milhaw iyan eqal atkul ən ihzawan ən maɗinan ən tənumaɣen tin Navier-Stoke ye alaɣi ən anajay ən adu asohen fal atiera, meɣ atkul ən təmkare ən haratan amindanen ye assedən ašilan dǎɣ mertayan assohatnen."
Engineers stress innovation and invention.,Imusanən omaran fal ašanzi ad ajaraw.
"Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined.","Falas mənhuy atəqəl aduten ad ašeɣəlan, finit, iketan, ad ibaɗitan adəqəlan atiwəsanen."
"Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics.","Lamədan imaɗinan, physique, chimie, ad biologie ad aləmad."
"Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.","Assəsəfar išrayan adobat atkul ən ašəɣəlan ajotnen ən taɣissa fal təsəbat ən atkul ən haratan atiwəjanen sund, as milhaw, amərtay nakəlkəl ad iməssəkar nulh."
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems.,Išrutən win assin iwayid adabaratan ye tarəqan ən adunya tadutet.
"""Engineering management or """"Management engineering"""" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector.""",.”Tanhat ən musnat meɣ ””musnat ən tanhat”” eqal edag amitkalan ən tanhat orakan as tirma ən musnat meɣ aɣil wan industrie ən musnat “.
Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods.,Imusanən əfranen dǎɣ tanhat ən ašanzi adəjrəwan musnat maqarat ən iji ən isənta ad taberaten ən anyat industrielle ad tənmənak.
"Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by humans or animals.","Tayəte waren tatwəɣlak (IA) taqal tayəte dǎɣ samətaran maršintan, as anməšriy ən tayəte taɣlakat dǎɣ samətaran adinat meɣ imudaran."
"AI research has tried and discarded many different approaches during its lifetime, including simulating the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of knowledge and imitating animal behavior.","Umaɣ fal IA oram izar unjay ajətnen ɣor ɣəlakat iness, dǎɣ atkul ən itus ən akəlkəl, iritan ən adabara ən taraqan nadinat, anhəj aduten, təmɣare ən dagan ən hukan ən timusnawen ad assəgbar ən temašaɣalt ən amudar."
"The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.","iritan ən adabara ən taraqan nadinat, anhəj aduten, təmɣare ən dagan ən hukan ən timusnawen ad assəgbar ən temašaɣalt ən amudar."
"AI also draws upon computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.","IA eqal ayɣarən essali, as tiyəte, as anmənak ən batu, as magrad ad idagan iyad ajotnen."
"""The study of mechanical or """"formal"""" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity.""",“Teɣare ən assədətu iknan meɣ ““aduten”” assənta ad migridan ad iməssidan dǎɣ tarut”.
"The Church-Turing thesis, along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, this led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain.","Assənəhəj wan Church-Turing, ad ijarawən adewnen dǎɣ neurobiologie, dǎɣ tamusne ən issalan ad dǎɣ əybernétique, awayan inumaɣən as akayad ən tadabit ən akarass ən akəlkəl ən əuran."
"Attendees Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), Marvin Minsky (MIT) and Arthur Samuel (IBM) became the founders and leaders of AI research.","Iməjiha Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), MarVin Minsky (MIT) ad Arthur Samuel (IBM) aqalan imanokalan ad imənəhad ən umaɣ dǎɣ IA."
"""AI's founders were optimistic about the future: Herbert Simon predicted, """"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do"""".""","Imanokalan ən IA aqalan azidarat fal išray adimalan: Herbert Simon italaɣat as ““maršintan aqalan tadabit, har tamara nawatay, iji ən ašəɣəl kul was adobat awadəm iji iness””.”"
"Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI.","Ijitan afnazən izar ɣor 1974, as assudmar ən tizmaten tin Sir James Lighthill ad assahat ogdahən ən Congrès wan ameriəaintan ye tilalt ən inəjam kananen ihuk, alhakumat tan Amérique ad tan britannique assəbdadnat umaɣən ən assikəl fal IA."
"By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars.","Ɣor 1985, hebu wan IA iwad awokayan milliard ən dollars."
"Faster computers, algorithmic improvements, and access to large amounts of data enabled advances in machine learning and perception; data-hungry deep learning methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks around 2012.","Ordinatertan wiknanen atrub, tišmaten əknanen ad ugiš ən təjutawen ən haratan maqornen ijrawən tikyaten dǎɣ alimadat itrabən ad musnat; timkarawen ən aləmad zəjren, təɣladat as haratan, assətan tijra ən dəgan win aləɣi ibret 2012."
AI research divided into competing sub-fields that often failed to communicate with each other.,"Umaɣ fal IA azun išrutən samegdah as, agud,təmigridan jar manəssan."
"The research was centered in three institutions: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford, and MIT, and as described below, each one developed its own style of research.","Umaɣ eqal jar fal karad hanan: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford ad MIT, ad sund aleɣat dǎɣ ider, iyat kul tasijət alməɣnat iness ən umaɣ."
"They called their work by several names: e.g. embodied, situated, behavior-based or developmental.","Akfan ismawən ajotnen ye ašəɣəlan nassən : sund, ugiš, emel, ibdadən fal temašaɣalt meɣ tajute."
"The shared mathematical language permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like mathematics, economics or operations research).","Magrad ən maɗin ertay ijraw edag zəjren ən tartit ad idajan iknanen iji (sund imaɗinan, asdu meɣ umaɣ iknan)."
"Nowadays results of experiments are often rigorously measurable, and are sometimes (with difficulty) reproducible.","Dǎɣ elan win amaradəɣ, ijarawən ən tirmaten aqalan agud assuhu ən eket, ad agud iyan (ad assahat) tirant."
"""These algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experienced a """"combinatorial explosion"""": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.""",“Issidinən win anmənan iban agədah ye amukən ən taraqan maqornen ən tənna falas ajrəwan ““abaqu ertayan””: aqalənid təšəjrit təknat idud as ajalay ən assiwəd ən taraqan.”
"Among the things a comprehensive commonsense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains.","Jar haratan ən taɣimit ən təmusnawen ən tənna tahuskət təmda ertayan, sidnat :haratan, tikraš, iritan ad tərtay jar haratan; edagan, ijitan, alməɣnat ad alwaq; tiɗlimen ad ijitan; timusnawen fal timusnawen (awa nəssan fal awa assənan wiyaɗden); ad ajət ən dajan iyad waren ikna atwəssən."
"For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture a fist-sized animal that sings and flies.","Sund, Adam egaɗeɗ atiwəɣra dǎɣ batu, adinat ad zənəzjumin amudar ən təbade ən təkəmust inazarən izar afurət."
Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires.,Išwar war raqiss wala tidit meɣ bahu sund ašihəšal anməwəl ifarən.
"Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering—they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time.","Anyatən ən umaɣ tirəmnen oɣən ən tedajit timdat ən tiyətawen ən tənna iyat(sund, Cyc) tirwənid təjutawen maqornen ən musnat ontologique tašeɣalat- ad aqalan oɣən, as fais, mənhuy assohen as agud."
"""They need a way to visualize the future—a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it—and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or """"value"""") of available choices.""",Aderarən as tadabit ən ahanay ən amil-assəkən ən amək ən adunya-ad tabit ən iji ən tənnaten fal alməɣna was timojiten atašənzənat-ad tadabit ən iji ən sənəfran fanaznen tanfo (meɣ “tamɣar”)ən inəfran atəlanen “.
This calls for an agent that can not only assess its environment and make predictions but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its assessment.,"Awen orawid awadəm waren eket ən taməte ad iji ən ilaɣitan, mašan deɣ eket ən ilaɣitan win ad aləmad as amək ən eket."
"Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, and occurs after a program sees a number of examples of things from several categories.","Amzizar atiwətkal ye ajaraw ən iri wa akrašan haratən, izar amsaɣəl darat as taqan tənhay harat ən ajət ən milhawen ən haratan atiwəkršnen as iritan ajotnen."
"Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.","Tamusne tanaləmad ən issalan tadobat irum ən nalmidan as alməɣnat ən assuhu issalan, as assuhu iri (ajət ən ihuk ahušalnen) meɣ timusnawen tiyad ən assiwəd."
"""Many current approaches use word co-occurrence frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. """"""",“Ajət ən ihzawən išray dakalnat imsuɣulan ən taberat ən tiferen ye uɣan səknatan əmokənan ən akatab.”””
"Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level.","Ihzawan ən sidinən išraynen ən TAL adoben assərtay ən təmkarawen kul ad tiyad harwa, izar əwadan agud assəkən tətiwardat ɣor asdat nalkad meɣ ən tazunt."
"A modern mobile robot, when given a small, static, and visible environment, can easily determine its location and map its environment; however, dynamic environments, such as (in endoscopy) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge.","Maršin ergašən išrayən, agud wad igaš dǎɣ edag azuken ad atiwənhayən, adobat assərɣas ən ajaraw ən edag ad assənəməwəl ən edaj ; aguden, idagan afrənen, sund (dǎɣ endoscopie) amass ən iman nawadəm isunfussan, sansen tadləmt təknat təmɣare."
"For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.","Sund, iməjəyha iyad waren ohez atiwətkalən ye aməgrid as alməɣna ən edawəni meɣ harwa ye adal ad sasto; awen ijen assəkən iknan atrub as asuhu ermadan ən jar amək nadinat, meɣ ye assərɣas iyan jar amək ahalis-ordinateur."
"Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization)?",Temašaɣalt tahusket tadobat atəkəl aləɣi as tilalt ən tənaten raqisnen ad ahuskatnen (sund anhəj meɣ assiwəd)?
"""Or do we use algorithms that can only give us a """"reasonable"""" solution (e.g., probabilistic methods) but may fall prey to the same kind of inscrutable mistakes that human intuition makes?""","Idek diha ad madnətkəl issedinan adobatnen hanəɣ ihuk ən adabara “adutatnen""(sund, timkarawen adəmalanen) mašan adobatnen adəkəlnat aməsi ən sund iri ən imətəla waren itətwəgiš as mənhuy nadinat “?"
"""Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig observe that most AI researchers """"don't care about the strong AI hypothesis—as long as the program works, they don't care whether you call it a simulation of intelligence or real intelligence.""""""","""Stuart Russell ad Peter Norvig kayədan as ajət ən inuməɣan ɣor IA tasohet iketkul təle taqən, “ “war amnaɣnaɣəɣ as aləmad as ɣarəmti ən titust ən tahəte meɣ tahəte tadutet.”””"
The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans.,Tayəte təšrayat tadobat tajute as alməna idwalan ad okayan as alməɣna asidawen adinat.
The relationship between automation and employment is complicated.,Tartit jar asuhu ad ašəɣəl tasohet.
"""Subjective estimates of the risk vary widely; for example, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimate 47% of U.S. jobs are at """"high risk"""" of potential automation, while an OECD report classifies only 9% of U.S. jobs as """"high risk"""".""","Issəməgdahan nanyat ən mahalat tašəzen səjət; sund, Michael Osborne ad Carl Benedikt Frey assinahəjan as 47% ən ašəɣəlan ən kal amerique assiknən ““mahalat tajet""""ən tahajit tasohet,aguden anəfəs ən OCDE war asmasədaw ar 9% ənašəɣəlan ən kal amerique sund ““ɣor mahalət maqarət””.”"
"In the long-term, the scientists have proposed to continue optimizing function while minimizing possible security risks that come along with new technologies.","As tahajit, imussanən asnahəjan ikuy as assiwəd ašəɣəlan as afənazat ən mahalət waren atwatas ən igaz adewnen ad timusnawen išraynen ."
"In his book Superintelligence, philosopher Nick Bostrom provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to humankind.","Dǎɣ alkaɗ iness Superintelligence, anəmajrəd Nick Bostrom ihaku tamatert tasənta tayəte waren təkna takal alabasan ye taməte."
Bostrom also emphasizes the difficulty of fully conveying humanity's values to an advanced AI.,Bostrom assikna deɣ assuhu ən ihuk hulen ən tambiwen ən taməte ɣor IA tokayat.
"In his book Human Compatible, AI researcher Stuart J. Russell echoes some of Bostrom's concerns while also proposing an approach to developing provably beneficial machines focused on uncertainty and deference to humans, possibly involving inverse reinforcement learning.","Dǎɣ alkaɗ iness Human Compatible, anumaɣ ən IA Stuart J. Russell itaj amsuɣəl ən tərəmaɣ tiyad tin Bostrom, as isakna ihaz ən assiwəd ən maršintan as tənfo tatiwəsaknat, torakat fal iban adatu ad ateqal as ibret nadinat, ad tartit ən aləmad as assəsuhu inadən."
"The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.","Tənna ən amusan dǎɣ ašrut ən tayəte waren təkna tazed, ad karuma iknanen agud ermaɣ ad waren ermeɣ as mahəlat ən atrub IA as assuhu ən jənəj adinat."
"""Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg believes AI will """"unlock a huge amount of positive things,"""" such as curing disease and increasing the safety of autonomous cars.""","""Mark Zuckerberg, PDG ən Facebook, orda as IA ““adətəkəs tajute maqarat ən haratan ahuskatnen”” sund muzyat ən tohənawen ad assiwəd ən tigozt ən torfen anihəɗnen””."
"""Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as DeepMind and Vicarious to """"just keep an eye on what's going on with artificial intelligence.""","""Musk itəzal deɣ ye tərtay sajatnen tayəte waren təkna, sund DeedMind ad Vicarious, ye akayad fal awa tilan dǎɣ tayəte waren təkna “."
"Research in this area includes machine ethics, artificial moral agents, friendly AI and discussion towards building a human rights framework is also in talks.","Inuməɣan dǎɣ ašrut əlanti hulen fal aləmud ən maršintan, adinat oɣadnen waren, IA amedawən, ad iməgridan aqalan adimalan ye iji dǎɣ edag taberat ye … ən awadəm."
The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines.,Alwaq ossəd ye assiwəd ən tahərut təknat as ajət ən harət ən maršintan iyad.
Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems—it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence.,Umaɣ fal aləmad ən maršintan adutət ye assəsmad ən tərəmaɣ adəmarnen tirtayen aknanen nadobat tənna as muzyat ən maršintan anihədnen wala tahərut taqal as sənto ən tərəmaɣ kul adəmarnen tayəte ən maršintan.
"Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably because there is no a priori reason to believe that they would be sympathetic to our system of morality, which has evolved along with our particular biology (which AIs would not share).","Adinat war təjət as maršintan meɣ robotan tajənanaɣ azizar, falas war titəla tidit as təzart ən tuɣalt as aqalan azaran as tartit ən anyat nanaɣ, atiwədan ad tamusne ən tamudre tabdat (as IA warəken tazunt)."
One proposal to deal with this is to ensure that the first generally intelligent AI is 'Friendly AI' and will be able to control subsequently developed AIs.,"Assənəhəj ye amukən ən ataraqa eqal afalas as IA tazarat təlat tayəte taqal “IA tamedawat""izar tadobat akayad ən IA atwəjanen as alkum."
"""I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence.""""""",“Anizjameɣ as tarəmeɣt təzjarəd ematal maqaran ifan Iban ebədi ən milhaw jar ikuyan aynaynen iknanen adatu dǎɣ iri ebdan ən IA ad tamɣare ad assuhu ən akaras ən tayəte ijitan raqisnen ““”.
Regulation is considered necessary to both encourage AI and manage associated risks.,Amukən eqal sund tahašilt ye agud talilt ən IA ad atkul mahəlatan artaynen.
"A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters.","Iyan batu ertay dǎɣ ašəɣəlan assənta ad Frankenstein wan Mary Shelley, dihad taməɣluk nadinat taqaləd tetert ye imanokalan iness."
"""Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the """"Multivac"""" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name.""","""Isaac Asimoɣ ilway karadat ən maršintan ad alkadan ajətnen ad tafust tan dǎɣ tazunt ““Multivac""""itajən ordinateur iknan tinəya as issəm iyan””."
"""In the 1980s, artist Hajime Sorayama's Sexy Robots series were painted and published in Japan depicting the actual organic human form with lifelike muscular metallic skins and later """"the Gynoids"""" book followed that was used by or influenced movie makers including George Lucas and other creatives.""","Dǎɣ elan win 1980, tazunt təjrazat ye maršintan ad amazar Hajime Sorayama təškay izar təzjar ɣor Japon, saknet iri ən iman nadinat adutətnen ad ilamawən ən tazoli maqornen əknanen. Darat awen, alkad Gyoids ikyad ad eqal atwətkəl meɣ assiswad imajitan ən silma, atamosan George Lucas ad imajan iyad”."
"Biotechnology is a broad area of biology, involving the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.","Tamudre ən musnat taqal edag haruwan ən tamudre, itajən atkul ən mertayən ad iman ədarnen ye asjət meɣ iji ən issəfran."
"The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.","American Chemical Society aleɣat tamudre ən musnat sund iji ən taɣəswen, ən mertayən meɣ alkum təmudrawen as ajət ən industrie ye aləmad ən tamusne ən tamudre ad asiwad ən valeur ən ilalən ad təɣəswen sund issəfran ən pharmacie, ijayakan ad arəzej."
"Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells and molecules.","Tamudre ən musnat taqal iji ən tənnaten ən musnat ad tamusnawen iknanen ɣor tissus, cellules ad molécules."
"Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops, having the highest yields, to produce enough food to support a growing population.","Ad tamudre ən musnat tazarat, imajyakan azarnen assənfranan izar ajmaran iməjyak aknanen atwatkalnen, lanen ihuk iknanen təmɣare, ye iji agidahən ən aməssi ye talilt ən aɣrim ajen."
These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer.,Išanzitan win aqalan ayihan dǎɣ assəsmam atəkan ən asmid.
"In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol.","Dǎɣ ašanzi wen, hydrate wan carbone ən ataɣamən taməzlayan as aləool, sund éthanol."
"Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.","Harwa as ašanzi ən assəsmam war eqel ayknan atwəjrah dat ašəɣəlan win Louis Pasteur ɣor 1857, adartidila awen atkul azaran ən tamudre ənmusnat ye assəmutiy ən edaj nətaɣam dǎɣ ini iyan."
These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.,Timəjihaten tin alilnat ye tamusne ən assənəfrən iknan wan Darwin.
"In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium.","Ɣor 1928, Alexander Fleming ijraw moisissure Penicillium."
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959.,MOSFET (assuhu ən amək ən tawagost tazoli-mertay-aməšašul) atiwaja as Mohamed M. Atalla ad Dawon Kahng ɣor 1959.
"The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970.","BioFET azaran eqal assuhu ən amək ən tawagost raqisat as iontan ( ISFET), atiwajan as Piet Bergveld ɣor 1970."
"By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET).","Ɣor amas ən elan win 1980, BioFET iyad atiwasajatan, assintan as FET nənarmas ən gaz ( GAZFET), assuhu ən amək atrub (PRESSFET), assuhu ən amək ən tawagost tazunat (ChemFET), ISFET wan (REFET), FET ašanzen as ensymes (ENFET) ad FET asseɣat iknan ašinzen ( IMFET)."
"Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030.","Tamadilt maqarat ən karanzitan adaqalan masalat tahusket ye edag wan ijitan ən tamusne,ehan wan əuran inna as atkul ən éthanol adobat afanaz ən tassase əaranzi dizjaran petrol ɣor États-unis as 30% as ɣor 2030."
"TCE: The Chemical Engineer, (816), 26–31.","TCE : The Chemical Engineer,(816), 26-31."
Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals.,Iri iyan eqal mənhuy ən həškan transgéniques ye tadabit ən azajor dǎɣ ihzawan aknanen ɣor emel (meɣ Iban emel) ən səfran chimiques.
"On the other hand, some of the uses of green biotechnology involve microorganisms to clean and reduce waste.","Išrutən iyad, ijitan iyad ən tamusne dalet sartay imudaran əndaratnen ye imus ad afanaz ən anikalan."
"As well as the development of hormones, stem cells, antibodies, siRNA and diagnostic tests.","Aguden as ajət hormone, ad cellules souches, ad anticorps, ad siRNA ad iruman ən akayad."
"One application is the creation of enhanced seeds that resist extreme environmental conditions of arid regions, which is related to the innovation, creation of agriculture techniques and management of resources.","Iji eqal iji ən səduma asohatnen ye aməkətan ən edaj inkašanin ən kalan aqornen, Alan orakan as aɣalak,ad iji ən tamusnawen nagayak ad tigozst ən haratan."
"The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects.","Assifar ən salan ila tənfo ən iji ən edaj tidabiten adutatnen afanaz ən assəsəfar as issəfran as alməɣna ən génotyɗe ən marhinan,as ahanay ən tigozst naseɣat imdan ad ijitan ədaratnen waren atwərha."
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply.,Tamusne təšrayat tadobat atwətkal ye iji ən issəfran ətəlanen gədahat raqis ad təmadrit nenəši.
"Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry.","Iruman génétiques alilan ye muzyat as təmataten ən torhənawen taməlsanen izar adoben deɣ atwətkəl ye ajaraw ən tirwa nara (mass ad tiss génétiques) meɣ, as alməɣna iyan,amaraw nawadəm."
"Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders.","Ajət ən alwaq, tirmaten atiwajanat ye ajaraw ən šanziyan artaynen ad aɣašad itamalsen."
Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture.,Ihanan win tamusne adoben tilalt ye tigozst nətaɣam dimalan as asjət ən tətate ad tamudre ən ašəkrəš naɣrəm.
10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.,10 % ən kalan ajyaknen dǎɣ adunya aqalan adomen as hayakən OGM ašinzatnen ɣor 2010.
These techniques have allowed for the introduction of new crop traits as well as a far greater control over a food's genetic structure than previously afforded by methods such as selective breeding and mutation breeding.,Timusnawen tiyad alilnat ye iji tibaditen aynaynen ən agayak ad igoz iknan tahuskət ən təmaqunt génétique ən amənssi waren ijaru aruwan timkarawen sund tirwa tanifranat ad tirwa as Amaskal.
These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles.,Ihəškan atwašanzen ye anadar ye torhənawen ad iməɣa ən aləmoz ad ajaraw asdaten aknanen ən məssiwan.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.","Dǎɣ awen, məssawəs ən akal aqal awaren iknan assuhu as imusanən ye ajaraw ən ataɣaman OGM sund tidit."
"However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.","Aguden, inaəmugay ugayan ye ataɣaman OGM aqalan sund ye tiditen ajotnen, dǎɣ tarəmaɣen ən ihzawan assəstan ye alamad as iməssiwan janen as ataɣaman OGM ahušalan ye asudmar ən tarhaten ən məssiwan ən adunya,ad tirəmaɣ ən asdu azlaynen as alməɣna was taɣəswen oyan ye tidit ən takrišt nanyat."
"There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe.","Ilant mezlayan dǎɣ amukən ən OGM jar kalan, mezlayen iknanen ešwal əlanat jar États-unis ad Europe."
The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing.,Tartit tan Europe tag ibaditan jar tarədawt ən agayak dǎɣ UE ad tarədawt ən agay ad assəməliliy.
Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed.,"Tamadilt kul tatiwardat taqal atiwadhalan har səmos elan, izar taqəl assini as taberat tan aməšəj."
"Cloning is the process of producing individual organisms with either identical or virtually identical DNA, either by natural or artificial means.","Asjət eqal amutiy ən iji ən iman iyad ad ADN olahan meɣ išwar olah, as tədabiten aknanen meɣ maren ikna."
It is used in a wide array of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to large scale protein production.,Atiwətkal dǎɣ tahurut ən ewalawal ən tamusnawen ən tamudre ad ijitan janen assintan as adariš génétique as iji ən protéine iknanen tebade.
"Initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size.","Tizarat, ADN ahusken ad amazlay ye ihuk ən akaramu ən ADN ən tabəde təknat."
Following ligation the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells.,"Darat akrəwi, amaway ad amugiš ahusken eqal aykan dǎɣ Ibtal."
A useful tissue culture technique used to clone distinct lineages of cell lines involves the use of cloning rings (cylinders).,Tamkare tənfat ən agayak tissulaire amitkal ye asjət ən amzizar ən abatol abdanen itag atkul ən iɣləlway ən ajət (cylindres).
"""This process is also called """"research cloning"""" or """"therapeutic cloning"""".""","""Ašanzi wen eqal atiwaɣran as ““asjət ən umaɣ”.”""meɣ ““asjət ən assafar””.”"
Therapeutic cloning is achieved by creating embryonic stem cells in the hopes of treating diseases such as diabetes and Alzheimer's.,Asjət nassafar atiwaja dǎɣ iji ən ibtal souəhes taɣrayat dǎɣ torda ən assəsəfar ən torhənawen sund torhəna tan asukar ad torhəna tan Alzheimer.
The reason why SCNT is used for cloning is because somatic cells can be easily acquired and cultured in the lab.,Tidit tas TNCS atiwətkal ye asjət taqal as ibtal dǎɣ iman adobatnat ad rakisnat as təlat izar atwəjrəwnat dǎɣ ehan wan umaɣ.
"The oocyte will react to the somatic cell nucleus, the same way it would to a sperm cell's nucleus.","Ovocyte adisudmar ye noyau ən abatol dǎɣ iman, as alməɣnat as isudmer ye noyau ən Spermatozoïde."
The somatic cells could be used immediately or stored in the laboratory for later use.,Ibtal dǎɣ iman adoben atwətkal šikanen meɣ atwigaz dǎɣ ehan wan umaɣ ye atwətkal dimalan.
This creates a one-cell embryo.,Nəjaraw sawen as aɣri ən abatol.
"The successfully developed embryos are then placed in surrogate recipients, such as a cow or sheep in the case of farm animals.","Eɣriyan adwalnen as sarho aqalnat dǎɣ alkum ugiš dǎɣ inarmasan ən assəməskəl, sund tas meɣ tehale dǎɣ edag wan mudaran ən amada."
Another benefit is SCNT is seen as a solution to clone endangered species that are on the verge of going extinct.,Ajaraw iyan eqal as TNƏS atiwətkal sund adabara ye asjət mudaran atoɣsadnen as amənd hanen edag ən amyəqi.
"Only three of these embryos survived until birth, and only one survived to adulthood.",Qarad ɣas eɣriyan adarnen har ɣor tušart.
"However, by 2014 researchers were reporting cloning success rates of seven to eight out of ten and in 2016, a Korean Company Sooam Biotech was reported to be producing 500 cloned embryos per day.","Aguden, ɣor 2014, inuməɣan tajan edag ən ajut najaraw ən asjət ən əssa as ətam fal maraw ad ɣor 2016, tartit ən adinat win əoréentan Sooam Biotech ijaraw iji ən 500 iɣriyan atiwajanen dǎɣ ašal."
"Asexual reproduction is a naturally occurring phenomenon in many species, including most plants and some insects.","Tirwa ən mudaran taqal harat iknan ɣor ajət ən mudaran, as ajət ən həškan ad imugadan iyad."
"As an example, some European cultivars of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia.","As ihuk ən milhaw, iməgyak iyad ən européentan ən raisin saknen isjat wi atwəjətnen ɣor alan assin efdan ən awatay."
"Many trees, shrubs, vines, ferns and other herbaceous perennials form clonal colonies naturally.","Ihəškan ajotnen, ibsaɣan, ilakatan ad ihəškan iyan nənaləmoz tadarnen tajanen serɣas ən amsədəw ajen."
"In plants, parthenogenesis means the development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell, and is a component process of apomixis.","Ɣor ihəškan, anmiraw adartidila tadawla ən aɣri ɣor ovule waren itiru, ad amək ertayan ad anašar."
Such clones are not strictly identical since the somatic cells may contain mutations in their nuclear DNA.,Isjat win war aqelan ayknan milhaw falas ibtal dǎɣ iman adoben adkul ən iməskal dǎɣ ADN nucléaire.
"Artificial embryo splitting or embryo twinning, a technique that creates monozygotic twins from a single embryo, is not considered in the same fashion as other methods of cloning.","Tazunt ən iɣrəyan maren ahusken meɣ sertay ən iɣrəyan, tamkare tajat iknewan ən iyat tasadalt ɣor iyan aɣri,war atwəja as alməɣnat ən təmkarawen tiyad ən asjət."
Dolly's embryo was created by taking the cell and inserting it into a sheep ovum.,Aɣri wan Dolly atwəja dǎɣ atkul ən abatol izar dǎɣ asugəš iness dǎɣ oɣule ən tahale.
She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland by British scientists Sir Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell and lived there from her birth in 1996 until her death in 2003 when she was six.,"Ataqal aywan dǎɣ Rolsin Institute dǎɣ Écosse fal kal təmusnawen wi britanniquetan Sir lan Wilmut əd Keith Campbell əd atamosan aydwalan dǎɣ təmidrit ənes dǎɣ 1996 hawendǎɣ hartamatant ənes dǎɣ 2003, dǎɣ saɗis elan."
"Dolly was publicly significant because the effort showed that genetic material from a specific adult cell, designed to express only a distinct subset of its genes, can be redesigned to grow an entirely new organism.","Dolly eqal ayfan dǎɣ təmite falas asihušil asikna as ilalan wi génétique ən əellule wašarat ƭabdat, tamosat fal atalaɣat as ilay daw-təmidrit tabdat ən genetan, tadobat atiqil amutayan fal asidwil taɣisa təmdat taynayat."
"The first mammalian cloning (resulting in Dolly the sheep) had a success rate of 29 embryos per 277 fertilized eggs, which produced three lambs at birth, one of which lived.","Wadazaran atwiraw dǎɣ awa əsakansan (wa orawan brebis Dolly) igraw təwaƭ nagaraw ən 29 embryontan ye 277 ən tisadalen iwanen, orawnen karad kirwatan, as iyandǎɣ aydaran."
"Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell.","Atamosan, ahuskat wi dazarnen atwirawan aqalan ijaran, waladǎɣ iyan ejar wašaran wariwa harwa dǎɣ igi ən əellule tatiwafat ən nesamb wašaran ən somtique."
"However, other researchers, including Ian Wilmut who led the team that successfully cloned Dolly, argue that Dolly's early death due to respiratory infection was unrelated to problems with the cloning process.","Agudendǎɣ, iyad ənumaɣan, atamosnen lan Wilmut wa anihadan ye tartit izar igraw asiw ən Dolly, alilan as tamatant taśohet tan Dolly tigat dǎɣ ašiɣir dǎɣ tunfast wateqel ayertayan ən aśibaban wi təmotayen ən atwiraw."
"""Soviet scientists Chaylakhyan, Veprencev, Sviridova, and Nikitin had the mouse """"Masha"""" cloned.""","""Əmusanan wi soɣiétiquetan, Chaylakhyan, Veprencev, Sviridova əd Nikitin igan asidwal wan nakor “Masha”.”"
More akin to artificial formation of twins.,Ahazan dǎɣ igitan nadinat wa iknewan.
"Dog: Snuppy, a male Afghan hound was the first cloned dog (2005).","Edi : Snuppy, edi ən afghan nahalis eqalan wadazaran edi asidwal (2005)."
Water buffalo: Samrupa was the first cloned water buffalo.,Tast tan arog naman : Samrupa ataqal taditazarat tast tan narog naman dǎɣ tadawla.
"Camel: (2009) Injaz, is the first cloned camel.","Camel : (2009) Injaz, eqal wadazaran amnis dǎɣ tadawla."
Goat: (2001) Scientists of Northwest A&F University successfully cloned the first goat which use the adult female cell.,Taɣat: (2001) əmusanan wi Nuniversite Narthwest A&F igrawan asidwilan taɣat taditazarat dǎɣ adakal ən cellule ən tamaƭ wašarat.
"Conducted in China in 2017, and reported in January 2018.","Tatilway dǎɣ hine dǎɣ 2017, əd tamutay ye janɣier 2018."
"Black-footed ferret: (2020) In 2020, a team of scientists cloned a female named Willa, who died in the mid-1980s and left no living descendants.","Furet əs daran kawalnen : (2020) Dǎɣ 2020, tartit ən təmusnawen tasidwal tamaƭ sitawana Willa, aba dǎɣ amas ən wityan wi 1980 əd wadoya waladǎɣ iyan aydaran."
It does not refer to the natural conception and delivery of identical twins.,Waramos eqalan tamograst əd asisiriw wan manes ən əknewan oɣadnen.
"As of right now, scientists have no intention of trying to clone people and they believe their results should spark a wider discussion about the laws and regulations the world needs to regulate cloning.","Ašalidǎɣ, əmusanan warilen aniyat ən tirmit ən nasidwal nadinat əd izar aɣelan as adabaratan anihaga adiqil batu ogaran tahurut fal aširiɣa əd tabarat tamosat as aduniyat tarha asisiɣid ən nasidwal."
"While many of these views are religious in origin, the questions raised by cloning are faced by secular perspectives as well.","Ahuskat as ajit ən titbiqa tən ən nahanay aqalnen adizgaran adin, asostanan atiwazwaynen fal asidwal aqalan intanedǎɣ amuqasan əd haratan arunen."
"Opponents of cloning have concerns that technology is not yet developed enough to be safe and that it could be prone to abuse (leading to the generation of humans from whom organs and tissues would be harvested), as well as concerns about how cloned individuals could integrate with families and with society at large.","Anamašrayan ən nasidwal armaɣan as təmusne wartaqel harwa amosan awidan hulen fal atiqil aytbatan əd as tadobat atiqil tamaƭ dǎɣ iba nəmik (tilwayat dǎɣ alwaq wan adinat fal wi amosnen organetan əd lamawan aqalan aygmadan), mašan ašiɣalan fal əmik was adinat atiwasadwalnen adoben arigišan dǎɣ terweten əd tədawt dǎɣ atamosan."
"""This is also referred to as """"Conservation cloning"""".""","""Atiwadawanat dɣqanen as ““asiwal wan atawar””."
These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species.,Igarawan wən ifan morda as tekaniten olahnen (daqalnen timarawen ən niyad alɣayalan) adobatnen adiqilan amitkalan fal asidwal ən nalɣayalan amikatnen.
"In 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the thylacine (Tasmanian tiger), at the time extinct for about 65 years, using polymerase chain reaction.","Dǎɣ 2002, genetiəientan wən Australian Museum aliɣen as aliɣen as ADN wan thylaəine (wašil wan Tasmanie), alwaq wa miken harwa ihomiši 65 elan, dǎɣ amitkal ən əmik wa nanilkaman fal polymérase."
"In 2003, for the first time, an extinct animal, the Pyrenean ibex mentioned above was cloned, at the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon, using the preserved frozen cell nucleus of the skin samples from 2001 and domestic goat egg-cells.","Dǎɣ 2003, dǎɣ ehandag wazaran, udar igmadan, bouquetin wan Pyrénées aliɣat dǎɣ-afala, eqal aydwalan, dǎɣ Centre wan təmusne əd umaɣ namiškan ən Aragon, dǎɣ amitkal ən nesambe ən əellule səmidaƭ trətwarat dǎɣ éəhantillontan ən nelam dǎɣ 2001 əd oɣuletan ən taɣat ən hinan."
"""""""Когда вернутся мамонты"""" (""""When the Mammoths Return""""), 5 February 2015 (retrieved 6 September 2015) Another problem is the survival of the reconstructed mammoth: ruminants rely on a symbiosis with specific microbiota in their stomachs for digestion.""","""""""KorAa BeɗHyTƏR MaMoHTbI""""(""""Agud wa mammouth iwalanid””), 5 féɣrier 2015 (asistan dǎɣ 6 septembre 2015) iyan aśibab eqal tamudre dǎɣ mammouth atiwasamalan: imawtan najil tigizan symbiose dər miərobiotetan itbatnen dǎɣ adanan fal amišk."
"Because of this, some posited she may have aged more quickly than other naturally born animals, as she died relatively early for a sheep at the age of six.","Fal salan win, iyad asinsan as tadobat as tigraw təwšire togarat armud ye wəyadnen əmudaran iwanen idmanasan, falas abatat dǎɣmilahaw itraban ən tehale, dǎɣ 6 elan."
"However, early pregnancy loss and neonatal losses are still greater with cloning than natural conception or assisted reproduction (IVF).","Agudendǎɣ, aɣašad ən hadiran aśohen əd ɣašadan wən néonatale aqalan harkuk ogaran tanfo dər asidwal dər təmotayen ən manasnat meɣ atwisisiraw ən tajayhit (FIV)."
"The concept of cloning, particularly human cloning, has featured a wide variety of science fiction works.","Amutiy wan atwisidwal, dǎɣ təbiɗawt ən sidwalan nawadəm, tiga harat ən təɗidawt maqarat ən nəkitaban ən science-fiction."
"Many works depict the artificial creation of humans by a method of growing cells from a tissue or DNA sample; the replication may be instantaneous, or take place through slow growth of human embryos in artificial wombs.",Alkitaban ajotnen aliɣen igi nadinat wan kal aduniya fal tekanit ən nitwigaz ən əelluletan adifalan iyan échantillon ən nalam meɣ ADN; tugit tadobat atiqil dǎɣ anilkam meɣ atagu əs tiwaƭ hintilat tan embryontan nadinat dǎɣ təsaten nadinat.
Science fiction films such as The Matrix and Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones have featured scenes of human foetuses being cultured on an industrial scale in mechanical tanks.,Silmatan tən science-fiction amosnen Matrix əd Star Wars : Episode II – Attack of Clone asiknan səènetan ən natiwgaz ən naratan ədiratnen nadinat dǎɣ asakankin wan usine dǎɣ dagan wi mokinatan.
"A Number was adapted by Caryl Churchill for television, in a co-production between the BBC and HBO Films.","Number eqal aylmadan Caryl Churəhill fal silma, dǎɣ tabarat tan igitan gar BBC əd HBO silmatan."
"She grew up always doubtful about the love from her mother, who looked nothing like her and who died nine years before.","Tədwal dǎɣ iba nafalasat harkuk dǎɣ tarha ən mas, əd widar toleh dǎɣ wala əd taqalat aba taza elan dat awa."
"In the 1976 Ira Levin novel The Boys from Brazil and its 1978 film adaptation, Josef Mengele uses cloning to create copies of Adolf Hitler.","Dǎɣ alkitab wan Medin wi Brésil (1976) Ira Levin əd alamdənes ən cinématographique dǎɣ 1978, Josef Mengele dakaln asidwal fal igitan ən copitan ən Adolf Hitler."
"""In Doctor Who, an alien race of armour-clad, warlike beings called Sontarans was introduced in the 1973 serial """"The Time Warrior"""".""","Dǎɣ Doctor Who, təmuzuk tasuɣsadat aqalnen imuzukal dǎɣ temalsit sitawan Sontarans ataqal aygašan dǎɣ feuilleton dǎɣ 1973 ““The Time Warrior””."
"""The concept of cloned soldiers being bred for combat was revisited in """"The Doctor's Daughter"""" (2008), when the Doctor's DNA is used to create a female warrior called Jenny.""","""Maɣulat wan mekenisan asidwalnen atwazwayan fal akinas eqalan atiwakyadan dǎɣ (2008) ““The Doctor's Jenny.”"""
"The 2005 Kazuo Ishiguro novel Never Let Me Go and the 2010 film adaption are set in an alternate history in which cloned humans are created for the sole purpose of providing organ donations to naturally born humans, despite the fact that they are fully sentient and self-aware.","Alkitab wan Neɣer Let Me Go (2005) wan Kazuo Išiguro əd alamad əinématograɗhique dǎɣ 2010 igan dǎɣ tafust ən təmotayen dǎɣ amosan adinat aydwalan atiwagan dǎɣ tabarat iyadǎɣ tan ihuk ən orgatan ye adinat iwanen idmanasan, awendǎɣ dak awa aqalan daknasan lameɗnen əd diniyat nasan."
"""In the futuristic novel Cloud Atlas and subsequent film, one of the story lines focuses on a genetically-engineered fabricant clone named Sonmi~451, one of millions raised in an artificial """"wombtank"""", destined to serve from birth.""","""Dǎɣ alkiblat wan futuriste Cloud Atlas əd silma ta ditikamat, ufur eqalan amas fal tadawla ən igitan namosan atiwasamatayan sitawana Soonmi~451, iyan dǎɣ milliontan nasidwal izwayan dǎɣ iyan “wombtank”” imanes, amosan amanan anfu harwa ɣur tiwit.”"
"In the film Us, at some point prior to the 1980s, the US Government creates clones of every citizen of the United States with the intention of using them to control their original counterparts, akin to voodoo dolls.","Dǎɣ silma Us, agudiyan dat wityan wi 1980, tanhat tan américain tagu dǎɣ sidwal ən hak agakal ən États-Unis dər anizgum nadakal fal tanhat ən midawan nasan itbatnen, andiran sund tibaraden tən vaudoues."
"In the present day, the clones launch a surprise attack and manage to complete a mass-genocide of their unaware counterparts.","Ašalidǎɣ, əmisudwal igan tagaq tasirmaɣat əd igrawan arigin génoəide ən tazayt əne midawan nasan winan ila aniyat."
"Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species (creating transgenic organisms), and even across kingdoms.","Genetan aqalan atwasasawayan dǎɣ amas ən terwe iyadǎɣ, gar terweten (taganen organismetan transgénique), əd gar tartnaten iyadǎɣ."
"Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism and combine it with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and often a selectable marker.",Əmusanan wi génétiquetan anihaga adikisan gène asinahagan ihan dǎɣ organisme nanaftaɣ əd asirtay dər iyad haratan ən génétique.
"Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973, a bacterium resistant to the antibiotic kanamycin.","Herbert Boyer əd Stanley Cohen igan wadazaran organisme amosan amutayan dǎɣ 1973, baətérie aśohen dǎɣ antibiotique kanamyəine."
The first genetically modified animal to be commercialized was the GloFish (2003) and the first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was the AquAdvantage salmon in 2015.,Wadazal awadǎɣ amosan amutayan aqalan aytawašanšen eqal GloFish (2003) əd wadazaran awadaz amosan amutayan dǎɣ uɣil atwinhay fal əmik namiškan eqalan saumon AquAdvantageantage dǎɣ 2015.
Fungi have been engineered with much the same goals.,Champignontan aqalan amutayan dər andiran olahan dəšiɣil iyandǎɣ.
There are proposals to remove the virulent genes from viruses to create vaccines.,Ilanti sinihigitan ikanen arkisan gènetan tamalsanen ɣirustan fal igitan ən nuzmay.
The majority are engineered for herbicide tolerance or insect resistance.,Ajen eqal amutayan fal tayawt ən herbicidetan meɣ aśuhu ən šiɣiɣilan.
Animals are generally much harder to transform and the vast majority are still at the research stage.,Awadǎɣan aqalan amosan ajen dǎɣ aśiśuhu ən asimililiy əd ajen dǎɣsan eqal harwa dǎɣ stade wan numaɣ.
"Livestock is modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance, and survival.","Arizeg eqal amutayan dǎɣ salan nəsimutiy ən talɣiwen nazrif ifan atamosan hadi ən wi wanen, təbidawƭ ən san, asimutiy naɣ, aśiśuhu ən turhinawen əd tamudre."
"Although human gene therapy is still relatively new, it has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.","Ahuskat as théraɗie génique nadinat amosan harwa ayhan aynayan, tatiwakal fal asisifir ən troubletan ən génétiquetan atamosan immunodeficience hertayan aśohatnen əd amaurose congénital ən Leber."
"Other concerns are the objectivity and rigor of regulatory authorities, contamination of non-genetically modified food, control of the food supply, patenting of life and the use of intellectual property rights.","Iyad əšiɣilan ikanen əšiɣil əd aśiśuhu ən tarna ən asisigdah, asimils ən šiška winan eqel amosan amutayan, igi nəniyat ən huk ən šiška, breɣetage ən nadaran əd dakalan ən tanhaden oɣadnen ən təmusne."
Countries have adopted regulatory measures to deal with these concerns.,Ikalan almadan tanhaden nasigdha fal asudmir ən əšiɣilan nes.
"""A broad definition of genetic engineering also includes selective breeding and other means of artificial selection."""",""","""Aliɣi haruwan ən génie génétique iha deɣkanen igitan amukasnen əd diyan lalan ən nukis ən manasan.”"""
"For example, the grain crop triticale was fully developed in a laboratory in 1930 using various techniques to alter its genome.","Dǎɣ olahan, əsigyak wən nalawan wən triticale taqal dakines awiɗan dǎɣ laboratoiretan dǎɣ 1930 əs tilalt ən tekaniten ajotnen fal asimutiy ən génome."
"""Modern biotechnology is further defined as """"In vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family.""""""","“Biotəmusnawen taynayat taqal agudendǎɣ atiwalaɣen sund ““tekaniten tən aəide nuəléique in ɣitro, atamosan asirtay naəide wan desoxyribonuəleique (ADN) əd tedek toɣadat ən aəide nuəléique dǎɣ əelluletan meɣ dǎɣ organitan, meɣ asitay ən əelluletan dǎɣ ginig awenalɣayalan ən taxonomique.”"""
"The definitions focus on the process more than the product, which means there could be GMOS and non-GMOs with very similar genotypes and phenotypes.","Əliɣitan wiamosnen fal igitan ogarnen harat, awa amosan as adoben adǎɣas agriwan OGM əd awinan eqel OGM dər génotyɗetan əd ɗhénotyɗetan olahnen hulen."
It also poses problems as new processes are developed.,Asinsa intadǎɣ aśibaban agud wa tabaraten tə aynaynen aqalan atwagan dǎɣ samando.
Genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism.,Əmusanan wi généticientan anihaga adikisan gène wa asinahagan atigin dǎɣ taɣisa tan tanaɣftaq.
"The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and a selectable marker.",Mu-arǝs ertăy dǝhen ǝd ɣănsar tan n jiyin eha edăg n tăɣzǝz n akǝmmal n mu-arǝs d n I eha xălǝya.
"DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors.","ADN eqal intadǎɣ ayhan dǎɣ əelluletan ən wadǎɣan fal tedek-tan dirat, ɣur adoben adiqilan aydagan dǎɣ enɣeloɗɗe nuəléaire tan əellule toɣadat sulhines, meɣ fal adakal ɣeəteurtan viraux."
In plants this is accomplished through tissue culture.,"Ɣur hiškan, awen atagu fal sigyak tissulaire."
Traditionally the new genetic material was inserted randomly within the host genome.,"Dǎɣ awa atiwazayan, ilil waynayan ən génétique eqal ayhan dǎɣ amširšir génome wa anaftaɣ."
"There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR).","Ilanati ikozat alɣayalan ən nuəléase amotaynen : meganuəleasetan, nuəleasetan wi tisikad ən Zinə, nuəleasetan wi igitan nəmik wan asikar wan transəriɗtion (TALEN) əd əmik wan Cas9-guideRNA (ilmadan CRISPR)."
In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus.,"Dǎɣ 1972, Paul Breg iga ta ditazarat molécule ən ADN tartayat dǎɣ asirtay ən ADN əd ɣirus wan layo dər wan ɣirus wan lambda."
The bacteria that had successfully incorporated the plasmid was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin.,Bactérie ta tigrawat atigiš plasmide taqal adiš adoben atidir dǎɣ tajayhit ən kanamycine.
"In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal.","Dǎɣ 1974, Rudolf J igan eɣalam transgénique dǎɣ iga ADN nanaftaɣ dǎɣ aranes, awa igan awudar transgénique wa dazaran dǎɣ aduniyat."
Mice with genes removed (termed a knockout mouse) were created in 1989.,Iɣalaman wis gènetan nasan aqalan ahin igmadan (sitawan Iɣalaman knoəkout) adǎɣ igan 1989.
"In 1983 the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. Flavell and Mary-Dell Chilton.","Dǎɣ 1983, wa dazaran ahisk amosan amutayan eqal aygašan dǎɣ santo fal Miəhael W. Bevan, Richard"
"In 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value.","Dǎɣ 2000, tafaɣat tolaɣat taha vitamine A ataqal ahišk wadazaran dǎɣ təwaƭ dər tanfo namiškan wariga."
"The insulin produced by bacteria, branded humulin, was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration in 1982.","Insuline ta ditizgarat fal baətérietan, sitawan humuline, ataqal atiwasaknan Food and Drug Administration dǎɣ 1982."
"In 1994 Calgene attained approval to commercially release the Flavr Savr tomato, the first genetically modified food.","Dǎɣ 1994, Calgene igraw tabarat tan ašinš ən tomata Flavr Savr, ašaško wa dazaran amosan amutayan."
"In 2010, scientists at the J. Craig Venter Institute announced that they had created the first synthetic bacterial genome.","Dǎɣ 2010, əmusanan wən J. Craig Venter Institute aliɣen as igan wa dazaran génome bactérien synthétique."
It was released to the US market in 2003.,Igaš hebu wa ameriəaintan dǎɣ 2003.
Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be added to a plasmid and inserted into bacteria for storage and modification.,Gènetan əd iyad igitan ən génétique ədigmadnen leɣe haruwan ən organismetan adobatnen adiqilan asewaɗan ɗlasmide əd ugiš ən baətérietan fal adiqilnat adiwan əd amutayan.
A large number of custom plasmids make manipulating DNA extracted from bacteria relatively easy.,Hadi ən plasmidetan maqornen atiwazaynen tasababan ye anihid sihomiši raqis ən ADN adizgaran baətérietan.
Scientists can easily manipulate and combine genes within the bacteria to create novel or disrupted proteins and observe the effect this has on various molecular systems.,Əmusanan adoben dǎɣ tarɣise aranahadan əd asirtiyan gènetan dǎɣ amas ən baətérietan fal arigin ɗrotéinetan aynaynen meɣ əšlaynen əd ahanay nawen dǎɣ əmikan ajotnen ən nucléairetan.
"Bacteria have been used in the production of food for a long time, and specific strains have been developed and selected for that work on an industrial scale.","Bacterietan aqalnat amitkalan harwa aru dǎɣ igitan ən šiška, əd souəhetan abdanen aqalan awidan ən atiwakasan fal əšiɣil wan nasakankin nusine."
"Most food-producing bacteria are lactic acid bacteria, and this is where the majority of research into genetically engineering food-producing bacteria has gone.","Iyad dǎɣ baətérietan tə taganen əšiška aqalnat baətérietan naɣ, əd awendǎɣ asirtayan ajen dǎɣ numaɣan dǎɣ génie génétique dǎɣ baətérietan tə nigitan ən šiška."
"The majority are produced in the US and even though regulations are in place to allow production in Europe, as of 2015 no food products derived from bacteria are currently available there.","Ajit nasnat dak eqal aygan dǎɣ États-Unis əd izar indar ikanan aqalan dǎɣ edag fal asirdilan igitan dǎɣ Europe, dǎɣ 2015, waladǎɣ iyan harat ən šiška ən bactérietan wareqel atilan amaradǎɣ."
The bacteria are then harvested and the desired protein purified from them.,Bactérietan aqalnat agudiyan adigmadan əd protéine adirhana as taqal anšišan.
"Many of these proteins are impossible or difficult to obtain via natural methods and they are less likely to be contaminated with pathogens, making them safer.","Ajen dǎɣ ɗrotéinetan tən aqalnat awinan adobat meɣ aśohen ye adigriwnat tekanitan ən manasnat əd daqalnat ayfnazan dǎɣ maɣulat ən natamalsen fal agentan ɗathogène, awa itan itagan aytbatan."
Outside of medicine they have been used to produce biofuels.,"Dǎɣ wartaha médecine, aqalant amitkalan dǎɣ igitan ən biocarburantan."
"Ideas include altering gut bacteria so they destroy harmful bacteria, or using bacteria to replace or increase deficient enzymes or proteins.","Ənizguman ilan təmotayen ən baətérietan nadanan fal adiɣšidnat bactérietan tən ibrarnen, meɣ idakalan ən bactérietan fal asimutiy meɣ asiwid ən enzymetan meɣ protéinetan ibrarnen."
"Enabling the bacteria to form a colony could provide a more long-term solution, but could also raise safety concerns as interactions between bacteria and the human body are less well understood than with traditional drugs.","Ihuk ye bactérietan ya ariginat edag adoben atiha adabara ogaran tahagit, mašan adobat deɣqanen arisansu aśibaban wi uguz, falas ənmigišan gar bactérietan əd təɣiswen nadinat aqalan andiran dǎɣ tihusay ən faham ye tən ən sifran wi kal hiskan."
For over a century bacteria have been used in agriculture.,"Harwa okayan temede nawatay, bactérietan aqalnat amitkalan dǎɣ asigyik."
"With advances in genetic engineering, these bacteria have been manipulated for increased efficiency and expanded host range.","Dǎɣ təwaɗen ən génie génétique, bactérietan aqalnat atiwadasan fal asiwid ən aśahat əd asihraw ən gamme naynayan."
Pseudomonas strains of bacteria cause frost damage by nucleating water into ice crystals around themselves.,Souchetan ən bactérietan pseudomonas tagan iɣašadan ən gel nuəleant naman dǎɣ krimkraman ən glaəe dǎɣ ahazanes.
"Other uses for genetically modified bacteria include bioremediation, where the bacteria are used to convert pollutants into a less toxic form.","Dǎɣ wəyadnen imatkalan ən baətérietan amosnen amutayan, amosnen biorestauration, ɣur baətérietan aqalnat amitkalan fal asimililiy ən ɗolluantan dǎɣ əmik ifnazan dǎɣ alabasan."
"In the 1980s artist Jon Davis and geneticist Dana Boyd converted the Germanic symbol for femininity (ᛉ) into binary code and then into a DNA sequence, which was then expressed in Escherichia coli.","Dǎɣ wityan wi 1980, amanzar Jon Dǎɣis əd génétiəienne Dana Boyd asmalalayan ašikel ən Germanique wan ɗeɗen (ᛉ) dǎɣ ufir wasisin, darat awen dat təfirest tan ADN, was agudiyan eqal adizgaran dǎɣ Escherichia coli."
"Researchers can use this to control for various factors; including the target location, insert size, and duration of gene expression.","Ənumaɣan adoben aditkilan almaɣna wendǎɣ fal adanahadan ye haratan ajotnen, atamosan daha dila awa atiwamaɣan, tabade tan insert əd tahagit tan əmik ən gene."
"Although primarily still at trial stages, there has been some successes using gene therapy to replace defective genes.","Ahuskat as taqal harwa atamosan ɣur edag wan irum, thérapie génique tizay igaraw iyad dǎɣ asimutiy ən gènetan winan əmda."
"As of 2018, there are a substantial number of clinical trials underway, including treatments for hemophilia, glioblastoma, chronic granulomatous disease, cystic fibrosis and various cancers.","Dǎɣ 2018, ihandagan ajotnen niruman ən əliniquetan aqalan ayagan, atamosan asisifir wan hémophile, wan glioblastome, wan turhina tan granulomateuse əhronique, wan mucoviscidose əd əanəertan ajotnen."
"Herpes simplex viruses make promising vectors, having a carrying capacity of over 30kb and providing long term expression, although they are less efficient at gene delivery than other vectors.","Virus wan herpès simplex amos ahan vecteurtan wən wisaknanen, ilanen aśahat nalagi nogaran 30 kb əd sardalan isalan tahaganen, ahuskat as warilen aśahat fal ukisawan ən gènetan ən vecteurtan iyad."
"Other viruses that have been used as vectors include alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses, rhabdoviruses, Newcastle disease virus, poxviruses, and picornaviruses.","Virus iyad aqalan amitkalan sund vecteurtan, atamosnen alɗhavirustan, flavivirus, virustan wən rougeole, rhabdovirus. Virus wa wan turhina tan Newcastle, poxvirus əd picornavirus."
"This does not affect the viruses infectivity, invokes a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines.","Awen waritiwid aɣašad wan virustan , idalam aliɣi ən immunitaire imanes əd wartila wala iyan asibab ye adigriwan əšiɣil nasan wa virustan, awa adoben aragu dər iyad niyad ənuzmay."
"The most effective vaccine against Tuberculosis, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, only provides partial protection.","Anazmay wa ogaran aśuhu ən tuberəulose, anazmay wan Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), warihuku ad uguz ən hadagan."
Other vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed.,Iyad inuzmay iganen dǎɣ ɣeəteurtan aqalan atiwasaknan əd iyad ajotnen aqalan ayhan alwaq wa təwadnen.
"In 2004, researchers reported that a genetically modified virus that exploits the selfish behaviour of cancer cells might offer an alternative way of killing tumours.","Dǎɣ 2004, ənumaɣan asiknan as virus amosan amutayan takasnen əmikan tarha tan celluletan əanəéreuse adoben arafu alil iyan inaqan tumeurtan."
The virus was injected into orange trees to combat citrus greening disease that had reduced orange production by 70% since 2005.,Virus eqal aygašan dǎɣ organetan fal adiknisan dər turhina tan greeing tan agrumetan wi ifnaznen igitan wi orangetan wi 70% harwa 2005.
Genetically modified viruses that make the target animals infertile through immunocontraception have been created in the laboratory as well as others that target the developmental stage of the animal.,"Virustan amosnen amutayan wi taganen iwadǎɣan wi atiwarhanen ad witiruwan fal immunoəontraəeɗtion adǎɣ igan dǎɣ laboratoire, mašan iyad atiwakanen dǎɣ edag wan ƭiwaƭ ən awadǎɣ."
Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia.,Təmotayen tən génétique tən virus wan myxome eqal atwasaknan fal atawar ən timarwalen narog ən euroɗéentan dǎɣ péninsule ibérique əd fal tilalt ye kanan nasan dǎɣ Australie.
It is possible to engineer bacteriophages to express modified proteins on their surface and join them up in specific patterns (a technique called phage display).,Eqal adoben igi asimutiy ən baətérioɗhagetan fal asiknin ɗrotéinetan amutayan dǎɣ taryare əd asirtay amosan harat atiwazayan (təmusne sitawana azizgar ən ɗhagetan).
"For industrial applications, yeasts combine the bacterial advantages of being a single-celled organism that is easy to manipulate and grow with the advanced protein modifications found in eukaryotes.","Dǎɣ igitan wi usinetan, levuretan sartayan tanfoten tən bactérietan, aqalanen organismetan winan ila celluletan raqisan dǎɣ edes əd agayak, dər təmotayen tən protéinetan aynaynen itigiz awadim ɣur eucaryotetan."
"One has increased malolactic fermentation efficiency, while the other prevents the production of dangerous ethyl carbamate compounds during fermentation.","Iyat asewadan aśahat ən abašu ən malolaətique, izar iyan idgal igitan nayjaran ertayan ən əarbamate wan ethyl agud wa nabašu."
"Unlike bacteria and viruses they have the advantage of infecting the insects by contact alone, although they are out competed in efficiency by chemical pesticides.","Dǎɣ animašray ən bactérietan əd dǎɣ virustan, ilan tadhil nasimilse ən ɣišinširan fal banan anmidis, ahusken aqalan okayan dǎɣ aśahat fal pesticidetan chimique."
"An attractive target for biological control are mosquitos, vectors for a range of deadly diseases, including malaria, yellow fever and dengue fever.","Tadast, veəteurtan ən anilkam əmdan dǎɣ turhinawen naqanen, amosnen malaria, tahafnint əd denge, aqalnen atiwamaɣan əs tuhusay fal akinas ən biologique."
Another strategy is to add proteins to the fungi that block transmission of malaria or remove the Plasmodium altogether.,Dǎɣ əmik iyan itagan asiwiƭ ən ChamPignontan wən Protéinetan wi dagalnen asimilse ən Paludisme meɣ adikis waladǎɣ antikan Plasmodium.
"Many plants are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and under the right conditions can develop into a new plant.","Əhiskan ajotnen aqalan PluriPotente, awa amosan as əellule iyadǎɣ dǎɣ ahisk wašaran adobat adiqil aygmaɗan əd, dǎɣ alwaqan ahuskatnen, təwadan dǎɣ ahisk aynayan."
Major advances in tissue culture and plant cellular mechanisms for a wide range of plants has originated from systems developed in tobacco.,Awa dazaran dǎɣ ukuy dǎɣ əmik wan sigyak ən nalam əd mililiyan ən əelluletan ən hiskan fal ahuruwan lefe ən hiškan aqalnen adigmadan dǎɣ əmikan wi təwadnen fal taba.
Another major model organism relevant to genetic engineering is Arabidopsis thaliana.,Arabidopsis thaliana eqal iyan taɣisa nəmik ifan fal génie génétique.
"In research, plants are engineered to help discover the functions of certain genes.","Dǎɣ umaɣ, ihiškan aqalan amutayan fal tilalt nahanay ən əšiɣilan ən iyad gènetan."
"Unlike mutagenisis, genetic engineering allows targeted removal without disrupting other genes in the organism.","Dǎɣ animašrayan ye mutagène, génie wan génétique itagu ukis ən nawa atiwamaɣan dǎɣ iba nəsimutiy niyad gènetan ən taɣisa."
"Other strategies include attaching the gene to a strong promoter and see what happens when it is overexpressed, forcing a gene to be expressed in a different location or at different developmental stages.","Iyad əmikan atagan uɣin ən gene wa isaknen aśohen əd agaraw nawa itikiyan agud wadeqal aytamagradan, asuhušil ən gène ye adiqil adizgaran dǎɣ edag ibdan meɣ dǎɣ dagan ən təmotayen abdanen."
The first genetically modified ornamentals commercialized altered color.,Widazarnen ihiškan ən dalagan amosnen amutayan dǎɣ mašanšan aqalnen dǎɣ ini amutayan.
Other genetically modified ornamentals include Chrysanthemum and Petunia.,Iyad ihiškan idlzgnen amosnen amutayan ilan Chrysanthème əd pétunia.
The papaya ringspot virus devastated papaya trees in Hawaii in the twentieth century until transgenic papaya plants were given pathogen-derived resistance.,Virus wa nəšiɣil namsuɣil wan papaye okay papayertan wən Hawaï dǎɣ 20e temede nawatay hawendǎɣ har papayertan transgénique igrawan aśahat ədizgaran pathogène.
"The second generation of crops aimed to improve the quality, often by altering the nutrient profile.","Ta sanatat tagat ən sigyak tika asimutiy nahusken, agudiyan dǎɣ asimutiy ən profil wan šiška."
"GM crops contribute by improving harvests through reducing insect pressure, increasing nutrient value and tolerating different abiotic stresses.","Isigyak wi amosnen amutayan tagašan aśiwid ən nuluyan dǎɣ afanaz ən naśahat ən ɣišiširan, dǎɣ aśiwiɗ ən tuhusay ən ašaško əd dǎɣ tayawt ən haditan naƭkir ən abiotique ."
"The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one.","Ajit ən sigyak amosnen amutayan aqalan amutayan fal adiqilan aśohen ye iyad herbicidetan, atamosnen dǎɣ santo ən glyphosate meɣ glufosinate."
A few use the genes that encode for vegetative insecticidal proteins.,Hărat n mu-arǝs tan aqqăl -nen kod I proteyǝn tan naqqin-en xăšar n ahǝšk.
"Less than one percent of GM crops contained other traits, which include providing virus resistance, delaying senescence and altering the plants composition.","Awinan iwed iyandǎɣ fal temede ən sigyak amosnen amutayan ahantan iyad əmikan, atamosan tungit ən virustan, tahagit ən sénesəenəe əd tamotayt tan tartit ən hiškan."
"Plants and plant cells have been genetically engineered for production of biopharmaceuticals in bioreactors, a process known as pharming.","Dǎɣ hiškan əd dǎɣ əelluletan ən hiškan aqalnat amosant amutayan fal igitan ən lalan ən biopharmaceutique dǎɣ bioreacteurtan, igi atiwazayan fal əsim wan “pharming”."
Many drugs also contain natural plant ingredients and the pathways that lead to their production have been genetically altered or transferred to other plant species to produce greater volume.,Timaɣwanen ajotnen ahanatanat intanatedǎɣ haratan ən hiškan imanasan əd tabaraten tə tan tiwiynen əs igitan aqalnat amosnen amutayan meɣ atwasawayan ye iyad badan ən hiškan fal igi ən amaqaran volume.
They also pose less risk of being contaminated.,Saknen intanedǎɣ ayfnazan dǎɣ aśibab nuɣil ən asimilse.
"Vaccines are expensive to produce, transport, and administer, so having a system that could produce them locally would allow greater access to poorer and developing areas.","Inuzmay aqalan aśohen dǎɣ igi, ən alangi əd asikin, dǎɣ əmik nalmaɣnatan adoben igi nasan dǎɣ hinan adilalan ye ugiš ahusken dǎɣ kalan wi ogarnen aliqiw əd dǎɣ təwaɗen.."
"Being stored in plants reduces the long-term cost as they can be disseminated without the need for cold storage, don't need to be purified, and have long term stability.","Dǎɣ uɣil natawar dǎɣ hiškan afanaz asuk dǎɣ tahagit falas adoben adiqilan amišaršaran dǎɣ iba nagaraw ən tarha nuɣil natawar dǎɣ təsimde, waraqelan ayerhan adiqil aridan əd adikatnen dǎɣ tahagit."
"As of 2018 only three genetically modified animals have been approved, all in the USA.","Dǎɣ 2018, karad rizegan ɣas amosnen amutayan aqalan atiwasaknan, dak dǎɣ États-Unis."
Canada: Brainwaving The first transgenic mammals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females.,"Canada : Remue-ménage wi dazarnen sankasnen transgénique aqalan aygan dǎɣ tedek tan ADN viral dǎɣ embryontan, darat awen dǎɣ asiqt ən embryontan wən dǎɣ ɗeɗen."
"The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system as a cheap and fast way of directly modifying germ cells, effectively halving the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified mammals.","Təwaƭ tan əmik ən salan wi gènetan CRISPR-Cas9 eqal embryon alil irmadan əd hebu ahusken ye asimutiy agudendǎɣ ən əelluletan germinales, awa ifnazan tizune ən nalwaq infan dǎɣ təwaɗen ən wisakasnen amosnen amutayan."
"Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are cheap and easy to manipulate.","Ikaran wi amosnen amutayan aqalan wi sankasnen wi ogarnen amitkil harkuk dǎɣ umaɣ wan biomédiəal, falas aqalnat hebu ahusken əd raqis dǎɣ aɗes."
"In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) for the first time.","Dǎɣ 2009, əmusanan inan as igrawan as sisiwiyan ən gène dǎɣ terwe tan ɗrimate (ouistiti) fal ehandag wazaran."
"Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats and other animals.","Əsalan adikatnen aqalan atiwagan ɣur təhaten, iɣurɣurutan, ikaran əd iyad irizegan"
Human alpha-1-antitrypsin is another protein that has been produced from goats and is used in treating humans with this deficiency.,Alpha-1-antitrypsine nadinat eqal iyan protéine eqalan atwagrawan ɣur uli əd eqalan adakal fal asisifir ye adinat ofraynen ye təsine ten.
Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans.,Sinhigin ən atwusidumu ɣur awadəm ye taruten tən aɣurɣuru amosan amutayan.
"Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier and resist diseases.","IIrizeganaqalan amutayan fal adimɣaran dǎɣ šik, eqalan aśoɣen əd inugiy ye turhinawen."
A GM pig called Enviropig was created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional pigs.,Aɣurɣuru amosan amutayan sitawana Enviropig eqal aygan dər ən aśahat wa asisikiy ən phosphore wan hiškan ogaran aśuhu ye iɣurɣurutan atiwakasnen.
This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula.,Awen adobat śaśahat arilan ye təmarawen tiwinan adobat ihuk naɣ nasnat mašan winan erha as aratan adigruwan aɣ wanasnat ye aɣ wa atiwagan.
There have been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction.,Eqal atiwasanahagan as génie génétique adobat adiqil amitkalan fal asuɣil ən rizegan wi amikatnen.
"It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis.",Eqal amitkalan fal asisifir ən tilawen génétique amosnen immunodefiəienəe ertayan śaśahat əd amaurose əongénital tan Leber.
"Germline gene therapy results in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.","Thérapie génique atila dǎɣ qašadan as təmotayen dak taqal aditiwagazan, awa igan iba našak dǎɣ amas ən təmite tan təmusne."
"Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide.","Agayak eqal usine nalwaq wan təwaƭ, ihakan amaradǎɣ ogaran təzune tan manan amiškanen dǎɣ aduniyat."
Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants.,Tartiten ajotnen asewadan imanan wi damblaɣatan fal agaraw ən pollution dǎɣ eqanan protéinetan fluorescente dǎɣ ašiɣalnen fal tajayhit ən polluantan.
"It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when in 2003 it was introduced for sale in the USA.","Təwaƭ tan santo fal iyan dǎɣ tartiten fal agaraw ən ɗollution, itagu amara ayhan ašiš wan manan wi dalagan, eqalan wadazaran awadǎɣ amosan amutayan adiqilan agrawan adinat dak sund awadǎɣ ən tidawt ugud wa tiga dǎɣ ašinš dǎɣ États-Unis dǎɣ 2003."
"Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration, genetics, behaviour, disease mechanisms and toxicity testing.","Eman wa dabalɣa eqal taɣisa fal igitan ən təwadnen, ye asimutiyan, génétique, talɣa, əmikan wi ɗathologique əd urum wan toxicité."
GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks.,Imanan amosnen amutayan aqalnen awidan dər wi saknanen taganen təwadnen ən hormone tan asiwiɗ fal atiqil amitkalan dǎɣ usine wan aquaəulture fal asiwiɗ ən aśahat wan təwaƭ əd amosan ayfanaz aśahat wan ukis ən manan fal tidawen ən kal aroge.
"It obtained regulatory approval in 2015, the first non-plant GMO food to be commercialized.","Igraw aliɣi atiwasaɣadan dǎɣ 2015, awa igan wadazaran ašaško ən OGM winan eqel dǎɣ hiškan aqalnen aynašan."
"Drosophila have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic development, learning, behavior, and aging.","Drosophiletan aqalan amitkalan fal taɣare ən génétique əd atwigaz, təwaƭ tən embryonnaire, alamad, talɣa əd tiwšire."
Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive).,"Tidasen ti aśohatnen dǎɣ malaria aqalnat awiɗan dǎɣ laboratoire idǎɣ iha gène iyan wa fanazan təwaƭ tan parasite ən malaria, darat awen amitkal ən endonuəleasetan homing fal asinilis irmadan ye gène dǎɣ aljamaɣatan kul ən medin (awa sigan awadim gene drive)."
"Another approach is to use a sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers.","Ahaz iyan aytagu adakal ən təmusne tan iba ən tiruwa, tigat medin amosnen amutayan fal adwitiruwan tagan miyernan dǎɣ medin wi tawanhaynen fal asimindin iɣašadan ən təmite."
"The approach is similar to the sterile technique tested on mosquitoes, where males are transformed with a gene that prevents any females born from reaching maturity.","Ahaz eqal olahan ən təmusne tan iba əntiruwa atiwaraman fal tədasen, ɣur medin wi aqalnen atiwasamatayan dər gène wa idagalan ɗeɗen dak tiwanen iwadnen ara."
In this case a strain of pink bollworm that were sterilized with radiation were genetically engineered to express a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them.,"Dǎɣ awen, souche iyan ən tiwike tan capsule šagaɣat tas inbas tiruw fal zarazaran aqalnen amosan amutayan fat atwig ən protéine fluorescente šagaɣat, awa igan ye numaɣan adigin aniyat ogaran tarɣise."
There is also potential to use the silk producing machinery to make other valuable proteins.,Amos eqalan deɣqanen adoben amitkal dǎɣ machinetan fal igi ən awa sitawana igi niyad protéinetan aśohatnen.
"A GM chicken that produces the drug Kanuma, an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed US regulatory approval in 2015.","Ekaz amosan amutayan wa itagan asafar wan Kanuma, enzyme way sasafaran turhina taśohet, dǎɣ tasadalt ənes taqal atiwanhayan əs namokalan wi ameriəaintan dǎɣ 2015."
There are proposals to use genetic engineering to control cane toads in Australia.,Ilanti sinihigitan ikanen adikilan génie génétique fal aranahadan ye jaran ən əannetan dǎɣ Australie.
It is also relatively easy to produce stable transgenic nematodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes.,"Eqal deɣqanen amosan ariqisan ye igi ən almaɣnatan transgénique adikatnen, awa eqalan, dər ARNi widazarnen ilalan fal teɣare ən gènetan nasan."
"Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, toxicology, diseases, and to detect environmental pollutants.","Nématodetan transgénique aqalan amitkalan dǎɣ teɣare tan virustan, wan toxicologie, turhinawen əd fal adinhiyan polluantan wi nakal."
Flatworms have the ability to regenerate themselves from a single cell.,Tiwikawen ti alifataɣnen ilanat aśahat ən adarunat dǎɣ cellule iyadǎɣ.
"The bristle worm, a marine annelid, has been modified.","Tawike ta sitawan, annélide ən təbagawen, taqal amutayan."
"The development of a regulatory framework concerning genetic engineering began in 1975, at Asilomar, California.","Ukisawan ən tabarat tatiwasaɣadat tikat génie génétique adǎɣ tinta dǎɣ 1975, dǎɣ Asilomar, dǎɣ Californie."
"It is an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of genetically modified organisms.","Amos tiriɗawt ən gar kalan ta tagat asisiwi, idesan əd mitkalan ən tiɣiswen amosnen amutayan."
Many experiments also need permission from a national regulatory group or legislation.,Umaɣawan ajotnen akan intanedǎɣ tabarat tan tartit ən asisigdah meɣ idakalan awadim dǎɣ akal.
There is a near-universal system for assessing the relative risks associated with GMOs and other agents to laboratory staff and the community.,Ilayəmik ən quasi-universel ən asostanan ən asibab amosan ayertayan dǎɣ OGM əd iyad adinat ye fal mašaɣalan nasan dǎɣ edag wan umaɣ əd aduniyat.
Different countries use different nomenclature to describe the levels and can have different requirements for what can be done at each level.,Hadi ən kalan wi dakalnen isimawan abdanen fal adiktiban wi aynaynen əd adoben adigruwan tabaraten abdanen ugu wanawa adoben adiqil aygan hak alwaq aynayan.
"For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.","Dǎɣ asikin, asigyak wawinan ika ašaško wareqel intadǎɣ atiwakyadan fal manahaɗan anihadnen ye uguz ən ašaško."
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research using GMOs.,Iyadak dǎɣ kalan waridin agayak ən OGM riɗunat agudiyan umaɣ fal OGM.
While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing.,"Izaratnen iyad ɣas dǎɣ OGM aqalnen atiwanhayan fal asigyik dǎɣ UE, iyad maɗenan ən OGM aqalan atiwazayan fal aditiwiyan əd asimutuyan."
"The US policy does not focus on the process as much as other countries, looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of substantial equivalence.","Tanaya tan américaine wartaqel amusan fal igitan wəs ikalan iyad, arhan asibaban ən təmusnawen adutatnen əd adakal ən tina ta togdahat ən harat."
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,Iyan dǎɣ asostanan wi eqal harat ən kanan aqalan tamusne ye harat ən OGM anihaga adiqil atiwazayan.
"The dispute involves consumers, producers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists.","Təbiɗawt taha imaškan, imagyakan, entreprisetan wən bioteəhnologie, imaknan ən tanhaden, tartiten winan eqel imanahaɗan əd kal təmusne."
Most concerns are around the health and environmental effects of GMOs.,Əšiɣilan iyad dak adakalan igitan wi OGM fal aśaɣat əd adinat.
"Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.","Dǎɣ awen, məssawəs ən akal aqal awaren iknan assuhu as imusanən ye ajaraw ən ataɣaman OGM sund tidit."
"Gene flow between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of broad-spectrum herbicides, can increase the risk of herbicide resistant weed populations.","Azal wan génétique ən gare sigyak ən OGM əd hiškan wi adewnen, ən dakalan atiwardanen ən herbicidetan harawnen ən nimutay."
In order to address some of these concerns some GMOs have been developed with traits to help control their spread.,Adobatnen adiwadan dǎɣ asibab wan ahanay nazagar ən təmitawen ən limaz ijarnen aśohatnen ye herbicidetan.
"Other environmental and agronomic concerns include a decrease in biodiversity, an increase in secondary pests (non-targeted pests) and evolution of resistant insect pests.","Dǎɣ fal asudmiran ye iyad dǎɣ ašalalatan, iyad OGM aqalan awiɗan dər biodiɣersité, tiwaƭ tan parasitetan wi sisin (parasitan ti əwaratwaga umaɣ) əd tiwaƭ tan šiɣiɣilan labasnen aśohatnen."
The impact of Bt crops on beneficial non-target organisms became a public issue after a 1999 paper suggested they could be toxic to monarch butterflies.,Adagal wan sigyak Bt fal təɣiswen ti garawnen winan atwamaɣ eaqlana asibab ən təmite darat artiəle wan 1999 aigrawan aliɣi nas adoben adiqilan alabasan ye ɗaɗillontan arnanen.
"With the ability to genetically engineer humans now possible there are ethical concerns over how far this technology should go, or if it should be used at all.","Aśahat wa nəsimutiy atamosan ən kal aduniya eqalan amara adoben, dǎɣ šilelan éthique nasanen ugud wa nadakal ən təmusne ten meɣ dǎɣ amitkal ines."
"October 2006 the rigor of the regulatory process, consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs, exaggeration of the benefits of genetic modification, or concerns over the use of herbicides with glyphosate.","Octobre 2006 aśiśuhu ən talɣiwen ən sisigdihan, aśiśuhu ən asostan wan agayan ən šiška dǎɣ entreprisetan wi taganen əd šanšen OGM, asisikiy dǎɣ garawan wi asimutiy ən génétique, maɣ ašalalatan wi ikanen indakalan ən herbicidetan dər glyphosate."
"GMOs arrived on the scene as the public confidence in food safety, attributed to recent food scares such as Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and other scandals involving government regulation of products in Europe, was low.","OGM aqalan adifalan fal tidawt mašan taflist tan təmite dǎɣ uguz ən ašaško, atiwafan day inusurmaɣ wi aynaynen ən šiška atamosnen enəéphalopathie sɗongiforme ən niwan əd diyad iɣašadan taganen isisigdahan ən manahadan wən lalan dǎɣ Europe, eqalan amutan."
"Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.","Génie génétique, amosan asitawana atamosnen amutayan meɣ iɗesan ən génétique, eqalan aytawadasan agudendǎɣ dǎɣ gènetan wi taɣisa dǎɣ tadhil ən biotechnologique."
A construct is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism.,Təmuqunt taqalat intadǎɣ aygan əd amitkalan fal igi ən ADN wən dǎɣ taɣisa taynayat.
"The new DNA can be inserted randomly, or targeted to a specific part of the genome.",ADN aynahan adobat adiqil aygašan dǎɣ əmik amutayan meɣ atiwamaɣan fal aɣil noɣadan ən génome.
Rudolf Jaenisch created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a mouse in 1974.,Rudolf Jaenisch aygan dǎɣ wadazaran amudar amosan amutayan dǎɣ ugiš ən ADN wa nanaftaɣ dǎɣ eɣalam dǎɣ 1974.
"Genetically modified food has been sold since 1994, with the release of the Flavr Savr tomato.","Išiška amosnen amutayan aqalan adinšan harwa 1994, dər mašanšan wən tomate Flavr Savr."
In 2016 salmon modified with a growth hormone were sold.,"Dǎɣ 2016, saumontan amutayan dər hormone tan təwaƭ aqalan ahine išanin."
By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases.,"Dǎɣ ukisawan ən gènetan wi anihadnen dǎɣ turhinawen tiyad, eqal adoben igi ən təɣiswen amutayan dǎɣ rizegan ən turhinawen nədinat."
"The rise of commercialised genetically modified crops has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the controversy surrounding the technology.","Asihikik ən sigyak amosnen amutayan dǎɣ asukan ən adawiyan ayfan dǎɣ azruf ən magyakan ən kalan ajotnen abdanen, mašan intanedǎɣ aqalan wan santo dǎɣ iyadak dǎɣ simililiyan aɣlaynen dǎɣ təmusne ten."
"Gene flow, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and intellectual property rights have also been raised as potential issues.","Azal wan gènetan, adagal fal təɣiswen winan atwamaɣ, tanhat ən agayan ən šiška əd tabarat ən sinihigitan ən təmusne ilan intanedǎɣ aqalan atiwaɣran sund dǎɣ əsibaban aśohatnen."
"This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.","Təmusne ten taqal hulen ogaran urmaɗ, adobat adiqil amitkalan fal ugiš ən gène dak ən taɣisa dak (widǎɣ ən dagan wi abdanen ianes) əd adagalnen asiwiɗ ən gènetan iyad winan atwarha."
"Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them.","Isifran, ən nuzmay əd iyad ilalan aqalnen atwagrawan fal iki ən təɣiswen amutayan fal adanalasnat."
Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.,Biologie synthétique taqal adin aynayan isawadan génie génétique andiran ogaran ugig dǎɣ ugiš ən lalan artaynen imanasnat dǎɣ taɣisa.
"If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic.","Afal ilalan génétique ən iyad terwe eqalan atiwasawadan dǎɣ tənuftuɣa, taɣisa tigrawat atiqil asitawan transgénique."
In 1973 Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen created the first transgenic organism by inserting antibiotic resistance genes into the plasmid of an Escherichia coli bacterium.,"Dǎɣ 1973, Herbert Boyer əd Stanley Cohen aqalan aygan wadazaran taɣisa transgénique dǎɣ ugiš ən gènetan ən nuśuhu dǎɣ antibiotique dǎɣ ɗlasmide ən baətérie Escherichia coli."
"In 1976 Genentech, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson and a year later the company produced a human protein (somatostatin) in E.coli.","Dǎɣ 1976, Genenteəh, wadazaran dǎɣ tartit tan génie génétique, aqal atiwanayan fal Herbert Boyer əd Robert Swanson. Awatay imdan darat awen, tartit tiga protéine iyat nawadim (somatostantine) dǎɣ E.coli."
The insulin produced by bacteria was approved for release by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1982.,Insuensuitagu fal bacterietan eqalan atiwagrawan fal Food and Drug Administration (FDA) dǎɣ 1982.
"The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.","République ən təmite tan Chine eqal wadazaran akal ən mašanšan dǎɣ hiškan transgénique, dǎɣ ugiš ən taba taśohet dǎɣ virus dǎɣ 1992."
"In 1995, Bt Potato was approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US.","Dǎɣ 1995, pomme wa nakal Bt eqal atiwagrawan dǎɣ iba nisibab fal Agence wan uguz ən kalan, darat agaraw eqalan atiwanhayan fal FDA, awa ikman wadazaran asigyik itagan dǎɣ pesticidetan eqal atiwanhayan dǎɣ États-Unis."
Genetic screens can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates.,Tifaten ən génétique adobatnat adiqilnat atiwagan fal asikin ən gènetan aśohatnen əd iyad uruman aqalnen agudiyan amitkalan fal asikin ən musunsan wi ofanen.
These segments can then be extracted through gel electrophoresis.,Ifiresan wən adoben agudiyan adiqilan adigmaɗan fal éleətrophorèse fal gel.
Once isolated the gene is ligated into a plasmid that is then inserted into a bacterium.,"Agud wadǎɣ digmaɗ, gène adiqil aqirawen dǎɣ plasmide was intadǎɣ adiqil aygašan dǎɣ bactérie."
"These include a promoter and terminator region, which initiate and end transcription.","Awen ayla akal iyan ən siknitan əd akal iyan ən simiditan, ertayan əd aminda dǎɣ siknitan."
"This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. thermal or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as extrachromosomal DNA.","Aśahat wen adobat adiqil ayhan dǎɣ iyaɗ bactérietan fal alham (dǎɣ asikin, anaɣar nafew meɣ couran), itiwadan dǎɣ anašaš ən nalam wan cellule tan ADN; ADN amukasan adobat adigiš dǎɣ génome, ma atimil dǎɣ asamos ADN extrachromosomique."
"In plants the DNA is often inserted using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation, taking advantage of the Agrobacteriums T-DNA sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells.","Dǎɣ hiškan, ADN eqal agudiyan aysadan dǎɣ amitkal ən asimutiy atiwakyadan fal Agrobacteriium, dǎɣ arakab ən tasaga tan təfirest ən ADN-T ən Agrobacterium waytagan ugiš imanes dǎɣ lalan ən génétique dǎɣ celluletan tən hiškan."
In plants this is accomplished through the use of tissue culture.,"Ɣur hiškan, awen asitawaga tilalt ən asigyik ən nalam."
Selectable markers are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells.,Imasaknan takasnen aqalan amitkalan fal baɗan raqisnen ən celluletan amutaynen dǎɣ celluletan ti winan amutay.
These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene.,Iruman wən adoben intanedǎɣ asitbitan edag wan chromosomique əd eɗan ən copie tan gène atiwagan.
The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location.,Waynayan alil ən génétique adobat adiqil aygašan dǎɣ əmik wa animašrayan dǎɣ génome wan anaftaɣ meɣ atiwamaɣan fal edag atiwazayan.
The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through genome editing.,Təbidawƭ tan umaɣan ən gènetan adobatnen adiqilan atiwagan amutayan fal azagar wan génome.
TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages.,TALEN əd CRISPR aqalan sanatat adabaratan wi ogarnen agudak amitkal əd hak iyan əd tanfoten ən manes.
Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants.,Iyad dǎɣ OGM atiwašašanen aqalan ihiškan atiwagyaknen aśohatnen dǎɣ ɣišiširan meɣ tayawt ən herbiəidetan.
"Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.","Hybridometan ən karan, dǎɣ celluletan artaynen garesnat fal adtiwugu dǎɣ anticorps monoclonaux, aqalan aylmadan dǎɣ génie génétique fal igi ən anticorptan monoclonaux ən nədinat."
Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases.,Génie génétique eqal intadǎɣ amitkalan fal igi ən əmikan ən rizegan ən turhinawen nədinat.
Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models.,Remedetan wi aśohatnen adobatnen adiqilan atiwaram fal əmikan wən karan.
"In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, epidermolysis bullosa, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.","Dǎɣ 2015, ɣirus iyan eqal amitkalan fal adigiš gène aridan dǎɣ əelluletan tən elam ən nahalis aminkadan əs turhina taśohet ən nalam, eɗidermolyse abilalaɣan, fal adigin aybhalan, ən akirtitiy ən nalam aridan fal 80% ən taɣisa tan ahalis taqalat atiwagrawan fal turhina."
"There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.","Waraɣelan deɣqanen ən as təmusne ten wartaqel amitkalan falas awen dǎɣ samandotan ən sifran, mašan deɣqanen fal asimutiy, adisimutiy meɣ aybdan dǎɣ olahan, aśahat ən alamad, tayite, talɣa meɣ almaɣna nagadim."
"He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier.","Aliɣat as iknewan, Lulu əd Nana, aqalan aywan dǎɣ nagudiyan."
"Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries.","Amaradǎɣ, asimutiy ən tabarat germinal taqalat atiwadgalan dǎɣ ikozat təmirwen (40) nakal."
"Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, clonal, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely.","Bacterietan aqalnat hebu ahusken, raqisan ye agayak, əlonale, təwadnen šikšik, aqalan amosan ariqisan dǎɣ atwisimiliy əd adoben adiqilan aytwaran dǎɣ -80°C sišwar dǎɣ iba nitwizay."
"This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with.","Adobat adidgil fal aɣašad wan phénotype ən taɣisa, dǎɣ edag ɣur gène eqal aygan meɣ iyad gènetan wi dar ikanas."
In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional.,"Dǎɣ knock-out ən banan, copie ən gène tarha atiqil amutayan fal adigin awinan išɣel."
This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this mutation and thereby determine the role of particular genes.,Awen itagu analmad ən kayadan ən bahutan iganen fal asimililiy wen əd asikin mašan əšiɣil wan gènetan abdanen.
"""The simplest method, and the first to be used, is """"alanine scanning"""", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid alanine.""","“Təmusne ta togarat tarɣise, əd wadazaran eqalan amitkalan, eqal ““afarad ən alanine””, ɣur hak taɣaymit dǎɣ alwaq ənes eqalan ayertayan dǎɣ alanine, aəide aminé winan inikir.”"
"The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently.","Asimutiy eqal olahan əd manes falas wan ingénierie knock-out, aswaden təmuqunt ataqal anikmaman fal asiwiɗ ən əšiɣil wan gène, amosan ihakan dǎɣ copietan ajotnen ən gène meɣ ilwaynen synthèse tan protéine togarat aśuhu."
"One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification.","Iyan dǎɣ əmikan ən nigi ayqal aytagašan dǎɣ gène wan əmik wan orog fal gène ən “tartit”, tamosat juxtaɗosition wən gène wa əmik wan finta əd harat.itiwiyan atamosan ɗrotéine fluorescente dalet (GFP), taganen atwinhay ariqisan ən lalan wən asimutuyan ən génétique."
Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced.,Teɣare tan salan ikanen adigriwan ɣur əd ugud wad protéinetan atiwazaynen aqalnat atiwagan.
"Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalians cells can also be used.","Iyad gènetan war rišɣelan sahusken dǎɣ bactérietan, adoben deɣqanen aditkilan leɣuretan, əelluletan tən ɣišiširan meɣ əelluletan tə wisankasnen."
"Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in biomining and bioremediation, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable.","Iyad microbetan amosnen amutayan adoben deɣqanen adiqilan aytamatkalan dǎɣ tabarat tan biomining əd wan bioremediation, dǎɣ tidit tan aśahat adizgaran tizoliyawinen azaynen ən nakal nasan əd atinigin dǎɣ tartit togarat tarɣise itawagrawan."
Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development.,Isigyak aśohatnen dǎɣ əhamɗignontan əd dǎɣ ɣirus aqalan intanedǎɣ atimutuyan meɣ aqalan dǎɣ ayhan tabarat tan təwaƭ.
In 2016 Salmon have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.,"Dǎɣ 2016, saumontan aqalan amosan amutayan dər hormonetan tən tadawla fal adawidan tadawla wašarat toɣadat dǎɣ ajit ogaran atrub."
Soybeans and canola have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils.,Tazanen tən soja əd calona aqalan amosan amutayan fal igitan ən udiyawan ogarnen tirat.
Gene transfer through viral vectors has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease.,Asisiwi wan gènetan fal aɣirambayan ən vecteurtan ən virus aqal atwasaknan sund alil ən niniyat ən terweten ən wi tisinen mašan ye tedek tan arizeg atiwalaman gar turhinawen.
Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice.,Əšiɣilan wi génie génétique dǎɣ asimutiy eqalan hawendǎɣ had harwa eqalan atiwagan əd wareqel harwa ayhan dǎɣ igitan.
The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology.,Tidawt tan Asilomar asistan dǎɣ ayertayan ən tabaraten ən tiridawt tahat amitkil wan təmusne tartayat.
One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.,Temede d sammosat timirwen n addwla d assayat amos nat erdahan fal Protocol tola addobat nat axadam net chund as amos titbaqqet i amukin n iman nasan.
Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research.,Addawla tan ajjotnen war n ardah fal afarad n OGM war aɣbelan farak
"Emily Marden, Risk and Regulation: U.S. Regulatory Policy on Genetically Modified Food and Agriculture, 44 B.C.L. Rev. 733 (2003) The European Union by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world.","Emily Marden,, Risk d Regulation: Folitik Amerik tan amukin n Genetically Modified Food d Agriculture , 44 B.C.L Rev. 733 (2003) Unyon Erobeyen ila ichiritan n amukin wi assohat nen n GMO daɣ alɣalim"
One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled.,Iyan dǎɣ asostanan wi eqal harat ən kanan aqalan tamusne ye harat ən OGM anihaga adiqil atiwazayan.
"These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.","Amchakki tan wi eway id iban n anifham, tamɣinanen fal mamala jir addawala tan d iban tanmerdut d amukin ifnazan n isuj win mamala daɣ addawla tan iyyad"
"Although doubts have been raised, economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.","Kuddeɣ as imalan ti ichaki tan, tiɣir ajjotnen ijjanen fal aqtisad ijraw nat as tiw-at n asawijis n GM infa kel ifirjan"
Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices.,Tikma ten ajjotnen fal ahinzazaɣ n asawajis wan GM addobat ad ej afaham iwityan ajjotnen tolas aqqal nat anfalalan daɣ timachɣulen tin tiwijas
"Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 The Boys from Brazil and the 1993 Jurassic Park, both of which made use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film.","Harat n Film tan iyyat asilmadan addinat fal genetic engineering a war n amos wan The Boys wi Brazilia daɣ awatay wan 1978 d Jurassic Park daɣ awatay wan 1993, fuk nasan aqqal nen teɣare, asuknin n film n science"
"Nanotechnology, also shortened to nanotech, is the use of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale for industrial purposes.","Nanotechnologie, a daɣ id ifras nanotech amos alxidmat n harat fal edag n atomic, molecular d supramolecular fal ittuan n indistri"
"This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter which occur below the given size threshold.",Almaɣna wen amos tiset n as asar tan win quantum amosan assohen daɣ quantum-realm scale wen tolas almaɣna amuttay ɣur ittus wan teknoloji s wan farak asirtayan ichikilan fuk win farak d teknoloji tan ti oraknen s haratan wi tajinen sider n iddikud.
"The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.","Farak wen osaɣan d aplikasyon tan ogdahan daɣ anmizlay asintanen ɣur tamattant n isuj win physics har tizujichen ti eynaynen ijjanen fal amasidu n molecule tan , ɣur efes n isuj eynaynen ilanen tiɣimmar fal nonscale har awikkal oɣadan n harat fal atomic scale."
"""The term """"nano-technology"""" was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974, though it was not widely known.""",“Tifert” tan nano-technology”” aos Norio Taniguchi awadim sar is exdaman daɣ awatay wan 1974 kuddeɣ war t awazzay hullan “
"The emergence of nanotechnology as a field in the 1980s occurred through convergence of Drexler's theoretical and public work, which developed and popularized a conceptual framework for nanotechnology, and high-visibility experimental advances that drew additional wide-scale attention to the prospects of atomic control of matter.",Emel wan naotechnology chund as t amos majal daɣ awatay wan 1980 ijja s anmiwal n alxidmat tan Drexler iknan tolas izizjar isim n wan nanotechnology d anafilal n ikitan s data wi id eraw nen egar n addinat fal ikayada n awikkal n atome n harat
The microscope's developers Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM Zurich Research Laboratory received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1986.,Addinat wi iknann microscope Gerd Binnig d Heinrich Rohrer daɣ Laboratwar n farak wan IBK Zurich ijrawan marušat n Nobel Prize wan Physics daɣ awatay wan 1986
C60 was not initially described as nanotechnology; the term was used regarding subsequent work with related carbon nanotubes (sometimes called graphene tubes or Bucky tubes) which suggested potential applications for nanoscale electronics and devices.,C60 war ijja s tizarat afissar n as amos nanotechnology; tifert tijja ɣur alxidmat fal carbon nanotubes ( alwaqqan iyyan itawaɣir fal graphen tubes meɣ Bucky tubes) ijjan addabara aplikasyon tan i nanoscale electronics d imutaj.
"Decades later, advances in multi-gate technology enabled the scaling of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices down to nano-scale levels smaller than 20 nm gate length, starting with the FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a three-dimensional, non-planar, double-gate MOSFET.","Timirwen n iwityan darat awa iki tan s data daɣ albaban ajjotnen n teknoloji ikfan turhajat n eket n isuj n metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) s ihandagan n nano-scale ojjar nen tamadrit 20 n aɣil daɣ tichijrit santinen s Fin FET (fin field-effect transistor), MOSFET ilan tiɣimmar karadat war amos polar n issin albaban."
"Controversies emerged regarding the definitions and potential implications of nanotechnologies, exemplified by the Royal Society's report on nanotechnology.",Amchakki tan imalan ti fal almaɣna tan d mucharaka tan n nanotechnologies s amos almital net Royal Society Report fal nanotechnology
These products are limited to bulk applications of nanomaterials and do not involve atomic control of matter.,Isuj win id imdanen ɣur asimɣar n aplikasyon tan n nanomaterials tolas war tan eha awikkal n atom n harat
It was based on gate-all-around (GAA) FinFET technology.,Ijja fal Gate-All-Around (GAA) FinFET teknoloji
This covers both current work and concepts that are more advanced.,Awen ilsa alxidmat fuk d tifir ti iknanen ehel s data
"The lower limit is set by the size of atoms (hydrogen has the smallest atoms, which are approximately a quarter of a nm kinetic diameter) since nanotechnology must build its devices from atoms and molecules.",Alxadud wa andarran ijje iddikud n atom tan (hydrogen ila wa andarran hullan daɣ atom tan hin ikkanen achut n aɣil n metir n kinetic diameter) fal as nanotechnology ilzam tat edey n isuj net daɣ atom tan d molecule tan.
"To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.","Ihuk n almaɣna iyyan i eket wen, iddikud n nanometir s metir ogdah id marble s iddikud n akal"
"""In the """"bottom-up"""" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition.""","“ Daɣ tazujicht tan ider s afalla” , imutaj d isuj idayan daɣ molecule tan asirtay ichiritan n musnat n molecule tan”"
"One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials.","Almital iyyan amos tiw-at fal arori n edag n iddikud wa isimuttiyan haratan n mekanik, thermal d catalityc n imutaj."
The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials.,Tamachɣult tan catalytic n nanomaterials inta deɣ ora xatar tan iyyan daɣ tartit nasan id biomaterials
The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces.,Tifert tan musnat n molecule tan tikna assahat: molecule tan addoben ad aɣnin i as samal fuk meɣ amukin ijjan as assahaten n non-covalent intermocule edag
"Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases.","Chund tazujicht tn santit ɣur ider s afalla ilzam tat a tudabat eɣan n isuj izlaynen tolas raqqos nen fal top-down methods ,mucham addobat nen at-w-aɣabal alwaq wa id iddikud d tahrike n asidu wa eqqal derhan aw-id"
"Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.","Ikanan daɣ talɣa tan productive nanosystem tan war orak, tolas ilzam ti ad izannamazli , teknoloji tan ti s exaddam nanomaterials chund carbon nanotubes d nanoparticles."
"It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles.",Eqqal attama as efes win nanotechnology ad assarɣis akaros nasan s immikan iyyad ehamich s axadam n ichiritan n biomimetic
"In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as one has to position atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness.",Assohat asidu n isuj fal natq wan atom fal as iyyan fuk ilzam ti ad ijja atom tan fal atom tan wi yadnen dar ogdahan iddikud d assahat
This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003.,Awen eraw id amaskal n tikardiwen daɣ ACS publication Chemical d Engineering News dɣ awatay wan 2003
"They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.","Ikkrasan iddikud n karad isuj izlaynen n molecule s amatikway nasan ijja fal as awikkal ɣur biraw har amutti n voltage; nanotube nanomotor, molecular actuator d nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator"
Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.,Nanomaterial tan wi ilanen io tan ermad asikil net orakan tolas s nanionics d nanoelectronics
Nanoscale materials such as nanopillars are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional silicon solar cells.,Isuj win nanoscale chund nanopillar tan aqqalan alwaqqan iyyad a exaddaman daɣ solar cell tan wi iknasnen alqim n silicon solar cell tan win alasal
"More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.","Asidu n molecule tan wan iman nasnat itattar axadam s tifir n supramolecular chemistry d molecular recognition , i ad aqqilan iddilil s iratayan n molecule tan ad aknin iman nasan daɣ aqqud ilan tinfa."
"Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques.",Hard drive tan n Magnetoristance maqqornen fal hebu taj in i afissar wen chund awa ijjanat tikarsiwen n atomic layer deposition (ALD).
"Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable precursor gasses are applied at the same time.",Ion beam tan addoben ad ikkisan asuj meɣ asansin asuj alwaq wa id gaz tan wi azzarnen axdaman daɣ alwaq wen daɣ
These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device.,Awen addobat axadam chund as amos iratayan n molecule daɣ asuj n naneectronics.
"Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways.","Molecular technology t amos tazujicht taqqalat addabara eha edes n molecule tan fuk daɣ abara tan awikal nen , tiwassanen."
There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine.,Illan ti attama tan n as nanorobot tan ad ijjichan medecine
"Because of the discrete (i.e. atomic) nature of matter and the possibility of exponential growth, this stage is seen as the basis of another industrial revolution.","Fal asatar n annuɣ n harat (awen amos atom) d tudabat n tiw-at , edag wen eqqal nehhal as amos tijittawt n tamattit iyyat n indistri."
"With the decrease in dimensionality, an increase in surface-to-volume ratio is observed.","ɣur afanaz net daɣ tiɣimmar , tiw-at fal arori har volume ratio ila akayad."
"Although conceptually similar to the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, newer scanning probe microscopes have much higher resolution, since they are not limited by the wavelength of sound or light.","Kuddeɣ as daɣ asinti net olah id scanning confocal microscope wa ikna Marvin Minsky daɣ awatay wan 1961 d scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) wa ikna Calvin Quate d imidiwan net win alxidmat daɣ awatay wan 1970, scanning probe microscopes tan iknanen teynaya ilan amukin maqqoran fal as war akkimalan ɣur wavelength n emasli meɣ annur."
"However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope.","Hak id ijja awen, awen amos har ajjudi tamatikwayt tazzayat fal tazzayat n scanning velocity n microscope"
"Another group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanotubes and nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers.","Taqqimt iyyat n tikarsiwen n nanotechnology ahan tanat ti axdam nen i amukin n nanotubes d nanowires, ti axdamnen daɣ amukin semiconductor chund ultraviolet lithography chajren, electron beam lithography , ijjanen fal beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition d olecular vapor deposition,tolas ahan tikarsiwen n asidu n molecule tan chund ti tajjach nen di-block copolymer tan"
Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials.,Scanning porbe microcopy amos tikarsay maqqorat i samal s amiyiz n nanomaterials
"By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning approach, atoms or molecules can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques.","Daɣ almital , axadam s tazujicht tan scanning approach, atom tan meɣ molecule tan addoben ad inkichan fal arori s tikarsiwen n scanning Probe microscopy."
"These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly.","Tikarsiwen tin ehenat amiyiz n chimi , tiddawt d positional assembly"
Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur.,Kel farak daɣ Bell Telephone Laboraties chund John R. Arthur
"MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures.",MBE ehak turhajat i siantifik tan edey n layer tan n atom tan d akaros n ideyan maqqornen
Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster.,Bandar tan rattayan id azruf nanoparticles i azuzi ermadan
Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.,Nanotechnology addobat a ila tudabat n ikannan n apliksyon tan win assexat raqqosnen tolas s raqqos axadam nasan daɣ ihandagan chund general practitioner’office d akal
Platinum is currently used as the diesel engine catalyst in these engines.,Platinum exdam harkuk chund moter wan dieel catalyst daɣ moter tan win
Next the oxidation catalyst oxidizes the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide and water.,Darat awa oxidation catalyst itaj okside hydrocarbon tan d carbon monoxide i ad aqqilan carbon dioxide d aman
Danish company InnovationsFonden invested DKK 15 million in a search for new catalyst substitutes using nanotechnology.,Danish Company InnovationsFonden tanɣal iddikud n 15 n milyon n azruf wan DKK daɣ farak i catalyst eynayan exdaman s nanotehnology.
"If the catalyst's surface area that is exposed to the exhaust fumes is maximized, efficiency of the catalyst is maximized.",A fal arori n edag wan catalyst wa anifalal i exhaust fumes ad iw-ad -assahat n catalyst tiw-ad
"Thus, creating these nanoparticles will increase the effectiveness of the resulting diesel engine catalyst—in turn leading to cleaner exhaust fumes—and will decrease cost.",Eɣan n nanaparticle tan win isawad akimmal n moter n catalyst wan diezel - itawayan exhaust fume tan tolas ifannaz alqim
"When designing scaffolds, researchers attempt to mimic the nanoscale features of a cell's microenvironment to direct its differentiation down a suitable lineage.","Alwaq wan eɣan n scaffold tan, kel farak arraman asikbar n samalan n nanoscale n cell microenvironnement i aqqud n anmizlay n etari"
"TSMC began production of a 7 nm process in 2017, and Samsung began production of a 5 nm process in 2018.",TSMC tasinta intaj n tamatikwayt tan 7nm daɣ awatay wan 2017 tolas Samsung tasinta intaj n 5 nm daɣ awatay wan 2018
"For these reasons, some groups advocate that nanotechnology be regulated by governments.","Fal iddililan win, taqqimen tiyyad aɣranat alxakumat i amukin n nanotechnology."
Some nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences.,Isuj n anoparticle tan tiyyad ilan iɣachidan iyyad war otesan
"Inhaling airborne nanoparticles and nanofibers may lead to a number of pulmonary diseases, e.g. fibrosis.","Asaraɣ n airbone nanoparticles d nanofibers addobat ad aru iddikud n torhinawen n taruten ajjotnen , almital fibrosis"
"""A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the """"nanotechnology revolution"""" – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities.""",“ Teɣare maqqorat did tizjarat eynayan fal annuɣ nanotechnology tija addabara dumu iyyad n carbon nanotubes- dumu n alyad i “”nanotenology revolution””- addobat ad ila tikma chund asbestos a fal israɣ awadim iddikud ajjen””
Davies (2008) has proposed a regulatory road map describing steps to deal with these shortcomings.,Davies (2008) ijja addabara karti n abara afissaran tikkelen i anmittaf id alɣiban win
"As a result, some academics have called for stricter application of the precautionary principle, with delayed marketing approval, enhanced labelling and additional safety data development requirements in relation to certain forms of nanotechnology.",Academics tan iyyad aɣran s aplikasyon n ichirit id marketing approval simutinen labelling d asiwad n efes n safety data jaresan id nanotechnology
Nuclear technology is technology that involves the nuclear reactions of atomic nuclei.,Nuclear technology t amos teknoloji ehay nuclear reactions n atomic nuclei
"He, Pierre Curie and Marie Curie began investigating the phenomenon.",Pierre Curie d Marie issintan farak fal harat.
"Some of these kinds of radiation could pass through ordinary matter, and all of them could be harmful in large amounts.",Iyyad daɣ dumu tan n radiation itiki s harat tolas haratan fuk addoben ad ilin tikma maqqorat.
"Gradually it was realized that the radiation produced by radioactive decay was ionizing radiation, and that even quantities too small to burn could pose a severe long-term hazard.",Sollan at-w-agrahin as reaction ta taj in radioctive decay itaj ionizing radiation tolas hak ijjit har andarran i ad eqqid addobat ad aru aɣachid chajren.
"As the atom came to be better understood, the nature of radioactivity became clearer.","Alwaq wa id itilu atom afaham olaɣan , annuɣ n radioactivity itimlal"
"Alpha decay is when a nucleus releases an alpha particle, which is two protons and two neutrons, equivalent to a helium nucleus.",Alpha itirkah alwaq wa id nucleus izazjar alpha particle amosa issin proton tan d issin neutron tan ogdah nen id helium nucleus
This type of radiation is the most dangerous and most difficult to block.,Ichikil wen n radiation amos wa ojjaran albas tolas wa s ojjar agabal net assahat
"The average number of neutrons released per nucleus that go on to fission another nucleus is referred to as k. Values of k larger than 1 mean that the fission reaction is releasing more neutrons than it absorbs, and therefore is referred to as a self-sustaining chain reaction.",Iddukud wan ammas n neutrons zajar nen nucleus iyyan tajjach nen fision n nucleus wa yadan itwan has K. Values n K ojjaran 1 n metir fission reaction wen zajaran ti neutron tan ajjotnen ojjar nen wi isas tolas itwan ha chain reaction wa s igdahan iman net
"If there are enough immediate decays to carry on the chain reaction, the mass is said to be prompt critical, and the energy release will grow rapidly and uncontrollably, usually leading to an explosion.","A fal ti illa markah daɣ armud fal chain reaction, takunkut atwan atmaxitir tolas azajor n enerji ad iw-ad daɣ armud d iban tudabat n awakkil har id aru abuqqi"
"During the project, the first fission reactors were developed as well, though they were primarily for weapons manufacture and did not generate electricity.","Azzaman wan froje wen, fission reactor tan wi azzarnen intaned deɣ iknan kuddeɣ as s tizarat i amukin n albarodan tolas war id tiruwan efew"
"However, if the mass is critical only when the delayed neutrons are included, then the reaction can be controlled, for example by the introduction or removal of neutron absorbers.","Kud ijja awen, a fal takunkut samaxatar alwaq wa id neutron tan wi aqqim nen ahan dihen alwazab addobat ad at awakkal , almital s ijjuch meɣ azajor n neutron absorbers"
"When the resulting nucleus is lighter than that of iron, energy is normally released; when the nucleus is heavier than that of iron, energy is generally absorbed.","Alwaq wa id nucleus wa id izjaran ojjar iron tafissay, awa inhajjan enerji izajar; alwaq wa id ucleus ezzay fal iron, enerji itamasu"
"The remaining abundance of heavy elements, from nickel to uranium and beyond, is due to supernova nucleosynthesis, the R-process.","Ijjit wa eqqiman n haratan wi azzaynen ɣur nickel har uranium d s afalla war ti id erew ar supernova nucleosysnthesis,R-process"
"Hydrogen bombs obtain their enormous destructive power from fusion, but their energy cannot be controlled.",Bomb tan tin Hydrogen ijraw nat tudabat nasnat tan aɣachod daɣ fusion muchan assahat nasnat war addobat awikkal net
"However, both of these devices operate at a net energy loss.","Hak id ijja awen, isuj win fuk nasan xaddaman ɣur iba n enerji"
"Nuclear fusion was initially pursued only in theoretical stages during World War II, when scientists on the Manhattan Project (led by Edward Teller) investigated it as a method to build a bomb.","Nuclear fusion ittus net wa ezzaran war amos ar wan mirda daɣ Akinnas n Alɣalim wan Issin, alwaq wa id siantifik tan win froje wan Manhattan ( s ezzar Edward Teller) ijjan farak n as amos addabara iɣanni n bomb"
"Even small nuclear devices can devastate a city by blast, fire and radiation.","Hak id isuj win nuclear madroynen addoben uɣchad n taɣrimt s abuqqi, efew d radiation"
"Such a weapon must hold one or more subcritical fissile masses stable for deployment, then induce criticality (create a critical mass) for detonation.",Albarod chund wen ilzam ti ad ila subcritical fissile iyyat meɣ ajjotnen i amichil dihen ariwan id abuqqi
"One isotope of uranium, namely uranium-235, is naturally occurring and sufficiently unstable, but it is always found mixed with the more stable isotope uranium-238.",Isotope iyyan n uranium s isim net uranium-235 itaj daɣ batil tolas war ikna azukki mucham harkuk atijraw ertay id isotope uranium-238 azzuken
"Alternatively, the element plutonium possesses an isotope that is sufficiently unstable for this process to be usable.",Element plutonium ila isotope war n azzukat hullan i asaxdam n tamatikwayt ten
"""They detonated the first nuclear weapon in a test code-named """"Trinity"""", near Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945.""","“ Sabbuqen albarod n nuclear wa ezzaran daɣ test code s isim net “””Trinity”” edes n Alamogordo , New Mexico, daɣ ayor wan rajab 16 n achal daɣ awatay wan 1945””"
"In the wake of unprecedented devastation and casualties from a single weapon, the Japanese government soon surrendered, ending World War II.","Daɣ adarich n uɣchad wa s kala war has ezzar iyyan ijja albarod iyyan, alxakumat tan Japon toyya , issamdan akinnas wan Issin daɣ Alɣalim"
"Just over four years later, on August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union detonated its first fission weapon.","Daɣ iwityan win akkoz hin okaynen, daɣ ayor wan chaban 29 n achal daɣ awatay wan 1949, Unyon Sovietik sabbuqat albarod net wa ezzaran"
A radiological weapons is a type of nuclear weapon designed to distribute hazardous nuclear material in enemy areas.,Albarodan win radiology amosan ich-ikil n albarod n nuclear ituzanan isuj n nuclear daɣ ihandagan win inasjafatan
"While considered useless by a conventional military, such a weapon raises concerns over nuclear terrorism.","Kuddeɣ as allaɣat anifham n militer as war infa harat, albarod chund wen issinkar id muchakil fal nuclear terrorism"
The treaty permitted underground nuclear testing.,Treaty wen ikfa turhajat n erem n nuclear sider n akal
"After signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996 (which had as of 2011 not entered into force), all of these states have pledged to discontinue all nuclear testing.","Darat echwal wan Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty daɣ awatay wan 1996 ( war chammachalan addawlat tan chund daɣ awatay wan 2011), addawla tan win fuk nasan ijjan tahude as ad ay in erem wan nuclear fuk"
"Throughout the Cold War, the opposing powers had huge nuclear arsenals, sufficient to kill hundreds of millions of people.","Daɣ azzaman fuk wan Cold War, addawla tan ti assohat nen amchakkat nen ilanat nuclear arsenal tan igdahnen i ad anɣin milyon tan n addinat"
"Currently nuclear power provides approximately 15.7% of the world's electricity (in 2004) and is used to propel aircraft carriers, icebreakers and submarines (so far economics and fears in some ports have prevented the use of nuclear power in transport ships).","Tudabat tan nuclear tahak a hin ikkan 15.7% n efew n alɣalim (daɣ awatay wan 2004) tolas exaddam daɣ ihuk n asiwad n adu daɣ aircraft barrier tan, icebreak tan d submarine tan (har amarad aqtisad d tirimmaɣ daɣ port tan iyyad igdalan alxidmat n tudabat tan nuclear daɣ asikil n bato tan)"
Medical and dental x-ray imagers use of cobalt-60 or other x-ray sources.,Alxidmat n Imager tan win assexat d win isenan n cobalt -60 meɣ x-ray iyyad
Both contain a small source of 241Am that gives rise to a small constant current.,Fuk nasan ehen 241Am andarran tan isawadan s andarran
"Another use in insect control is the sterile insect technique, where male insects are sterilized by radiation and released, so they have no offspring, to reduce the population.","Alxidmat iyyad daɣ awikkal n amudar amos tikarsay n amudar war n itiru edag s imudaran win meddan war igdal hassan radiation ad aruwan i ad war ilen aratan,daɣ ittus n afanaz n ichaɣib"
"The radiation sources used include radioisotope gamma ray sources, X-ray generators and electron accelerators.","Awa id itiruwan radiation ehay radioisotoe gamma ray soources, X-ray generators d electron accelerator tan"
"As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical hardware, plastics, tubes for gas-pipelines, hoses for floor-heating, shrink-foils for food packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones.","S immik wen itajach isuj wi war n amos win ichikcha chund medical hardware, ilkadan, tinaɣwaten n gaz tan, hoze tan sukisnen ihanan, shrink-foil tan i asidu imansiwan, ifrusan n torfen,fil tan d kabl tan (askut) , idaran n torfen d gemstones"
Microorganisms can no longer proliferate and continue their malignant or pathogenic activities.,Organizm tan wi madroynen ibas addoben ijjit d timašɣulen nasan n taɣdart meɣ sajrawnen torhinna
Plants cannot continue the natural ripening or aging process.,Ihiškan ibas addoben tenanɣe meɣ tusare
"The specialty of processing food by ionizing radiation is the fact, that the energy density per atomic transition is very high, it can cleave molecules and induce ionization (hence the name) which cannot be achieved by mere heating.","Taxsus n asammuti n išikša s ioning radiation amos as assahat n enerji s atomic transition fuk ijjit, addobat asafuqqi n molecule tan tolas aru id ionization ( ittus n isim) s war taddobat tukise aggad net"
"However, the use of the term, cold pasteurization, to describe irradiated foods is controversial, because pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes, although the intended end results can in some cases be similar.","Hak id ijja awen, axadam s tifert , cold pasteurization, i afasar n samal n išikša idas radiasyon ehe amšikki fal as pasteurization d irradiation amosan timatikwayen izlaynen , kuddeɣ as ittusan addoben ad alahan daɣ ihandagan iyyad"
Marie Curie died from aplastic anemia which resulted from her high levels of exposure.,Marie Curie enɣet aplastic anemia id erawan aginfi net hullan
Approximately half of the deaths from Hiroshima and Nagasaki died two to five years afterward from radiation exposure.,A hin ikkan tazune n tamattanen fuk n Hiroshima d Nagasaki ammutan issin har sammos iwityan darat aginfi nasan daɣ radiasyon
A nuclear meltdown refers to the more serious hazard of releasing nuclear material into the surrounding environment.,Amartay n nuclear eqqal hullan fal xatar n azajor n asuj wan nuclear daɣ ahinzazaɣ
Military reactors that experienced similar accidents were Windscale in the United Kingdom and SL-1 in the United States.,Reactor tan win militer wi idasan aksidan tan šund win aqqalan Windscale daɣ Rwayon Uni d SL-1 daɣ Amerik
"Another topic of transhumanist research is how to protect humanity against existential risks, such as nuclear war or asteroid collision.",Majal iyyan n farak iktaran amos immik wa s addobat alɣillas n awadim daɣ xatar tan wi it illanen šund akinnas wan nuclear meɣ amuqqis n asteroid
"The assertion would lay the intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, and organizing in California a school of thought that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement.","Majrad ad eqqil tadamalut n musnat i filozof wan Britania Max More i asinti išširitan win ikataran šund futurist filozofi daɣ 1990, d amukin daɣ California n lakkol n amedran eqqalan a idwalan daɣ taggayt n kel ikataran daɣ alɣalim"
"In the Discourse, Descartes envisioned a new kind of medicine that could grant both physical immortality and stronger minds.","Daɣ asiwal, Descartes addorhan dumu eynayan n medecine addoben ihuk n uɣlal n taɣissa d ta-ite tan assohat nen"
St. Leon may have provided inspiration for his daughter Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein.,St. Leon addobat ihuk n uglay i talyat net Mary Shelley’s Novel Franckenstein
"In particular, he was interested in the development of the science of eugenics, ectogenesis (creating and sustaining life in an artificial environment), and the application of genetics to improve human characteristics, such as health and intelligence.","Eqqal a ehan afor net efe n science tan eugenics, ectogenesis (eɣan d akabal n tamudre daɣ ahinzazaɣ ikna awadim) d aplikasyon n genetics i asammuti n samal n awadim šund assexat d ta-ite"
These ideas have been common transhumanist themes ever since.,Inasjam win oharan tan majal tan n kel ikataran a ijja awen daɣ
"""In the Material and Man section of the manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe suggests that:After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a """"brain wave receiver"""" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa.""","“ Daɣ Material d Man Section n Manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe ijja addabara as: darat timirwen n iwityan ajjotnen, ɣur armud n iki s data wan teknoloji, awadim fuk ad ikriš “”brain wave receiver”” daɣ tamazzuk net isassakayan daɣ aqqud awadim tiɣalan addinat iyyad fal as d s ašrut wa yadan”"
"""In 1966, FM-2030 (formerly F. M. Esfandiary), a futurist who taught """"new concepts of the human"""" at The New School, in New York City, began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles and world views transitional to posthumanity as """"transhuman"""".""","“ Daɣ 1966, FM-2030 ( s tizarat F.M Esfandiary) , furutrist wa ijjan medran n “tifir eynaynen n awadim” daɣ lakkol eynayan , daɣ taɣrimt tan New York, issinta afaham n addinat wi axadamnen s teknoloji tan, Iššikilan n tamudre nasan d ikayadan daɣ alɣalim s tilkamat n awadim šund””transhuman””"
"FM-2030 and Vita-More soon began holding gatherings for transhumanists in Los Angeles, which included students from FM-2030's courses and audiences from Vita-More's artistic productions.","FM- 2030 d Vilta-More issintan isidiwan i kel ikataran daɣ Los Angeles , ahan attalaba tan n teɣir d imasajadan n FM-2030 daɣ intaj tan win Vilta-More"
A particular concern is the equal access to human enhancement technologies across classes and borders.,Anasjum iyyan amos tigdaht n ijjuš n teknoloji tan ti sukinen awadim s data daɣ lakkol tan d alxadudan
This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization.,Awen oyya i World Transhumanist Association tizart n as tamos taggayt n kel ikataran jir ikallan
The Mormon Transhumanist Association was founded in 2006.,Mormon Transhumanist Association taɣna id daɣ 2006
"""Transhumanism stresses the evolutionary perspective, including sometimes the creation of a highly intelligent animal species by way of cognitive enhancement (i.e. biological uplift), but clings to a """"posthuman future"""" as the final goal of participant evolution.""",“” Transhumanism assewal fal akayad s data eha alwaq iyyan eɣan n iššikilan n amudar ilan ta-ite hullan s immik wan asimmuti n musnat ( amos tadhult n efes n ichikilan n imudaran iyyan) mušam osaɣ id “”posthuman future”” as amos ittus n tamattit s iki n data”
"""While such a """"cultural posthumanism"""" would offer resources for rethinking the relationships between humans and increasingly sophisticated machines, transhumanism and similar posthumanisms are, in this view, not abandoning obsolete concepts of the """"autonomous liberal subject"""", but are expanding its """"prerogatives"""" into the realm of the posthuman.""","“ Alwaq wa id “”posthumanism n agna”” ehak alfayda tan i uɣil n anasjum fal iharojan jir addinat d maršin tan iknanen milɣaw, transhumanism d posthumanism tan olahnen amosan daɣ akayad , a war hin oyya tifir tin “majal wan teklay n iman net” mušam sawadan “alxaqan” net daɣ ezaraj wan posthuman”"
"However, other progressives have argued that posthumanism, whether it be its philosophical or activist forms, amounts to a shift away from concerns about social justice, from the reform of human institutions and from other Enlightenment preoccupations, toward narcissistic longings for a transcendence of the human body in quest of more exquisite ways of being.","Hak id ijja awen, progressive tan iyyad allaɣen as posthumanism , jir ɣas amos a ilan dumu tan n filozofi meɣ activist, iddikud tan s amutti fal xatar tan ijjanen fal aššareɣa n tamazduq, ɣur amutti n tijittawen n awadim d timaɣutar tiyyad n annur , s derhan okayan taɣissa n awadim daɣ asistan n immikan n awadim"
"Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life, while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers.",Transhumanist tan ajjotnen immiyazan hullan tudabat n sistem tan win teknoloji tan tilkamat d tin amujaš daɣ tamattit n tulaɣay n tamudre fuk daɣ as t ittar a taj tiditt n talɣa n awadim a isitbata tinna n tigdaht daɣ aššareɣa d foliik s amasax n alxadudan n ta-ite d taɣissa
"Some theorists such as Ray Kurzweil think that the pace of technological innovation is accelerating and that the next 50 years may yield not only radical technological advances, but possibly a technological singularity, which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings.",Theorist tan iyyad šund Kurzeil ordah as tikkelt tan amujaš wan teknoloji issewad armud tolas iwityan win 50 n tilkamat war he ay in abara iki tan s data n teknoloji mušam ehamiš d ekfu teknoloji ini iyyan addoben asammutti n annuɣ n addinat
"For example, Bostrom has written extensively on existential risks to humanity's future welfare, including ones that could be created by emerging technologies.","Almital, Bostrom iktab hullan fal xatar tan wi it illanen i alxer n tilkamat n addinat, ahan iyyad addobat nen axalak n teknoloji tan"
"To counter this, Hawking emphasizes either self-design of the human genome or mechanical enhancement (e.g., brain-computer interface) to enhance human intelligence and reduce aggression, without which he implies human civilization may be too stupid collectively to survive an increasingly unstable system, resulting in societal collapse.","I medan n awen, Hawking allaɣat s eɣan n genome n awadim meɣ amutti s data n mekanik (almital, brain-computer interface) i amutti n ta-ite n awadim d afanaz n tadlimt, s indar wadden inta allaɣat as sivilizasyon tan awadim a taqqil a ichadan i tamudre daɣ sistem war n azzukat , id za aruwan nihaya n tamazduq"
These thinkers argue that the ability to discuss in a falsification-based way constitutes a threshold that is not arbitrary at which it becomes possible for an individual to speak for themselves in a way that is not dependent on exterior assumptions.,Mufakir tan win allaɣen as tudabat n asiwil s immik ammutayan eqqal kadarka ilkaman i nefran n awadim s addobat awadim asiwil has-an s immik war n ilkam inhajjan win s ajjama
"""In keeping with this, many prominent transhumanist advocates, such as Dan Agin, refer to transhumanism's critics, on the political right and left jointly, as """"bioconservatives"""" or """"bioluddites"""", the latter term alluding to the 19th century anti-industrialisation social movement that opposed the replacement of human manual labourers by machines.""","“Anittaf id awen, transhumanist tan ajjotnen , šund Dan Agin,aɣra n transhumanism’s critics tan, fal achrut n folitik wan aɣil d tišalgay artayan šund ““bioconservatives”” meɣ ““bioluddites””, tifert tan uchray t amos tangalt n taggayt n anti-industrialisation daɣ awatay wan 1900 ta tunjayat s ušray n maršin tan daɣ idagan n inaxdiman daɣ alxidmat”"
The same scenario happens when people have certain neural implants that give them an advantage in the work place and in educational aspects.,Immik šund wen ijja alwaq wa id addinat neural implants tan hakkinen tinfa daɣ edag n alxidmat d titbaqqa n teɣre
"Immortalism, a moral ideology based upon the belief that radical life extension and technological immortality is possible and desirable, and advocating research and development to ensure its realization.","Immortalism amos ta-ite tijjat fal medran as taɣrist n tamudre d aɣlul n teknoloji addobat iji tolas eqqal derhan , tolas eɣra s farak d efes i taxqiq net"
"Mathematics (from Greek: ) includes the study of such topics as quantity (number theory), structure (algebra), space (geometry), and change (analysis).","Matematik (daɣ greek: ) ehet teɣare n majal tan šund iddikud (number theory), edey (allgebra), edag (geometry) d amutti (amiyiz)"
"When mathematical structures are good models of real phenomena, mathematical reasoning can be used to provide insight or predictions about nature.","Alwaq wa id ikarosan n matematik amosan dumu tan olaɣnen n harat n ditit, ta-ite n matematik addobat ijjuch n ihuk n ikayadan meɣ attawaqqa tan fal ahinzazaɣ"
The research required to solve mathematical problems can take years or even centuries of sustained inquiry.,Farak izilzam amukin n mušakil tan n matematik wi addobat nen ad aj in iwityan meɣ timad n iwityan ijla farak
"Mathematics developed at a relatively slow pace until the Renaissance, when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the rate of mathematical discovery that has continued to the present day.","Matematik ijja efes net s tikkelt tazzayat har Renaissance, alwaq wa id imujašan n matematik anmartay nen id ifukkiran win science eynaynen ewayan id tiw-at tarmadat daɣ iddikud n afukkir n matematik ta tijlat har amarad"
"As evidenced by tallies found on bone, in addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric peoples may have also recognized how to count abstract quantities, like time—days, seasons, or years.","S imik wa s it issiknan medan tan atijraw nen fal eɣas, daɣ asiwad musnat n immik wan medan n haratan win taɣissa , addinat win data azzaman wa id eɣna akatab addoben intaned deɣ ad issinan medan n iddikud tan war n ila akayad šund alwaq, ichilann, azzamanan meɣ iwityan"
"Beginning in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, with Greek mathematics the Ancient Greeks began a systematic study of mathematics as a subject in its own right.","Issintan daɣ awatay wan 600 data annabi ɣisa s Pythagorien tan, s matematik n kel greece Kel greece win aru issintan teɣae matematik as t amos majal daɣ alxaq net"
The greatest mathematician of antiquity is often held to be Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse.,Matematisien wa maqqoran n aru ittaf ti Archimed (c.287-212) wan Syracuse
"The Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today, evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and were transmitted to the Western world via Islamic mathematics.","Sistem n medan wan Indu tan d araban d aššareɣa tan tin alxidmat n imitikwiyan net , axdamnen daɣ alɣalim ašal id, amuttayan daɣ amatikway n efad n awatay darat annabi ɣisa daɣ India tolas okayan s alɣalim wan ataram s matematik tan al-islam"
The most notable achievement of Islamic mathematics was the development of algebra.,Injaz wa ojjaran hullan daɣ matematik tan al-islam t amos efes wan algebra
"During the early modern period, mathematics began to develop at an accelerating pace in Western Europe.","Daɣ azzaman wa ezzaran n ušray, matematik tissinta efes s tikelt tarmadat daɣ Eroba tan ataram"
"Perhaps the foremost mathematician of the 19th century was the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss, who made numerous contributions to fields such as algebra, analysis, differential geometry, matrix theory, number theory, and statistics.","Ehamiš matematisien wan hullan n awatay wan 1900 amos matematisien wan almay Carl Friedrich Gauss ijjan tadhilen ajjotnen i majal tan šund algebra, amiyiz, differential geometry, matrix theory, theory tan iddikud d statistics"
Mathematical discoveries continue to be made today.,Ifukkiran win matematik taj in har amarad
"""In particular, mathēmatikḗ tékhnē meant """"the mathematical art.""""""",“ mathēmatikḗ tékhnē amos almaɣna net “”art n matematik””
"In English, the noun mathematics takes a singular verb.","Daɣ tangilist, isim wan matematik idakkal majrad iyyan"
"""However, Aristotle also noted a focus on quantity alone may not distinguish mathematics from sciences like physics; in his view, abstraction and studying quantity as a property """"separable in thought"""" from real instances set mathematics apart.""","“Hak id ijja awen, Aristote iktab as iddikud ɣas war addobat anamizlay n matematik daɣ science tan chund physics; daɣ akayad net, abstrction d teɣare n iddikud šund tila “”azun daɣ medran”” daɣ almital tan win tiditt ijjan matematik daɣ ašrut”"
A peculiarity of intuitionism is that it rejects some mathematical ideas considered valid according to other definitions.,Saxray n intuitionism amos ankur inasjam n matematik fal tijja tariddawt s almaɣna tan iyyad
"""Haskell Curry defined mathematics simply as """"the science of formal systems"""".""",“Haskell Curry afassar almaɣna n matematik as t amos ɣas “”sians n sistem tan n rasmiyin””
"""Popper also noted that """"I shall certainly admit a system as empirical or scientific only if it is capable of being tested by experience.""""""",“”Popper inta deɣ iktab as “war eha ach-ak as ad aɣbala sistem n sians ɣas a fal t addobat musnat erem net””
Intuition and experimentation also play a role in the formulation of conjectures in both mathematics and the (other) sciences.,Tanufrayt d erem intaned deɣ axdam nat edag daɣ amukin n konjektur tan daɣ matematik d sians tan tiyyad
"For example, the physicist Richard Feynman invented the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics using a combination of mathematical reasoning and physical insight, and today's string theory, a still-developing scientific theory which attempts to unify the four fundamental forces of nature, continues to inspire new mathematics.","Almital, Fizisyen Richard Feynman eɣna abara wan amukin n qantom mekanik s axadam n asirtay n afahamat tan matematik d akayad wan fizik d teori tan aɣan n achal id, teori nsians s ija efes net har ajudi tattar-at asartay n assahaten akkozat n ahinzazaɣ, har ajudi t aqqal a omaran matematik"
A distinction is often made between pure mathematics and applied mathematics.,Tazuzlayt taj alwaq iyyan jir matematik taqwat d matematik aplike
"As in most areas of study, the explosion of knowledge in the scientific age has led to specialization: there are now hundreds of specialized areas in mathematics and the latest Mathematics Subject Classification runs to 46 pages.","Daɣ ijit n ihandagan ajotnen n teɣare, anfizzak n musnat daɣ awatay wan sians eway id teɣare tijat daɣ ezaraj: illan ti amarad timad n ihandagan n matematik tolas amaskat n matematik wan uchray ewad 46 n paj"
"Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of mathematics, its intrinsic aesthetics and inner beauty.","Matematisyen tan ajotnen issewalan fal tulaɣay n matematik, milɣaw net d tihussay net"
"G. H. Hardy in A Mathematician's Apology expressed the belief that these aesthetic considerations are, in themselves, sufficient to justify the study of pure mathematics.","G.H Hardy daɣ A Apoloji n Matematisyen allaɣen medran as tamɣaren tin n milɣaw amos nat, daɣ iman nasnat, a igdahan ihuk n addalil i teɣare n matematik taqwat"
A theorem expressed as a characterization of the object by these features is the prize.,Teorem s atawan chund samal n majal s samalan win amos alqim
Euler (1707–1783) was responsible for many of the notations in use today.,Euler (1707 har 1783) annihad i tasnif tan ti axdam nen amarad
"Unlike natural language, where people can often equate a word (such as cow) with the physical object it corresponds to, mathematical symbols are abstract, lacking any physical analog.","A izlayan id awal n batil, s addoben addinat alwaq iyyan asikdi n isim ( chund tas) amosan harat wa dar ogdah, ramis tan win matematik war ilen akayad, odanan in harat fuk dar olahan taɣissa"
Mathematical language also includes many technical terms such as homeomorphism and integrable that have no meaning outside of mathematics.,Awal wan matematik inta deɣ ahan tifir ajotnen chund homeomorfizm d ijich war n ila almaɣna s ajama n matematik
"""Mathematicians refer to this precision of language and logic as """"rigor"""".""",“Matematisyen tan jan in s aqqud n awal d mantaq s “”qasawat”
"""This is to avoid mistaken """"theorems"""", based on fallible intuitions, of which many instances have occurred in the history of the subject.""","“ Awen ukdal n “”teorem tan war n oɣed, ijanen fal tinufrayen alɣibnen, s almital tan daɣ sanat ijan daɣ attarex n alɣard”"
Misunderstanding the rigor is a cause for some of the common misconceptions of mathematics.,Iban anfham n qasawat amos addalil n erk ifahaman n matematik
"On the other hand, proof assistants allow verifying all details that cannot be given in a hand-written proof, and provide certainty of the correctness of long proofs such as that of the Feit–Thompson theorem.","Idagan iyad, iməgiha ən tamətert jarawən akayad ən ilaɣitan kul waren adobat atwəhək dǎɣ tamətert təknat as afus, izar hakən assədətu ən tidit ən timtar zəjrətnen sund tin təmkare tan Feit–Thompson ."
"In addition to these main concerns, there are also subdivisions dedicated to exploring links from the heart of mathematics to other fields: to logic, to set theory (foundations), to the empirical mathematics of the various sciences (applied mathematics), and more recently to the rigorous study of uncertainty.","Fal idakalan azarnen, eɣlakəd harwa tizunawen hakanen as adakal ən mertayən jar ulh ən imaɗinan ad idagan iyad: tiɣdət,musnat ən mertayən (fondations), imaɗinan… ən təmusnawen ajətnen (imaɗinan atiwəjanen) ad, təkna əntinya,almud assohen ən iban assədətu."
Some disagreement about the foundations of mathematics continues to the present day.,Tunjiten tiyad fal tizaren ən imaɗinan tihəšulan har ešali.
"As such, it is home to Gödel's incompleteness theorems which (informally) imply that any effective formal system that contains basic arithmetic, if sound (meaning that all theorems that can be proved are true), is necessarily incomplete (meaning that there are true theorems which cannot be proved in that system).","Dǎɣ sund awen, aqalnat eɣaf ən təmkarawen waren imda ən Gödel itajan (as alməɣnat waren ikna)as aratay iknan ajətan ihan imaɗinan azukatnen, as asoɣat (awa dar tidila as timkarawen adobatnen adəkəlnat atwəsəkən aqalnat tidit), eqal tahašilt waren timda (awen dar tidila as əlanəti təmkarawen adutətnen waren adobat atwəsəkən dǎɣ wen mertay."
"Modern logic is divided into recursion theory, model theory, and proof theory, and is closely linked to theoretical computer science, as well as to category theory.","Enahəji išrayan azun as tamusne ən atwəɣar, tamusne ən iritan ad tamusne ən tamatert, izar taqal tahurut anmətaf as alaɣi ən tamusne, as sund tamusne tan iritan."
"Computability theory examines the limitations of various theoretical models of the computer, including the most well-known model—the Turing machine.","Tamusne ən assedən kayad issəmda ən iritan ajətnen ən tamusne tan ordinateur, as iha iri iknan atwəzy maršin wan Turing."
"""Consideration of the natural numbers also leads to the transfinite numbers, which formalize the concept of """"infinity"""".""","""Tijit ən maɗinan əknanen təwayed deɣ as imaɗinan amindanen,tajanen musnat ən """"waren imədi""."""""
"Thus one can study groups, rings, fields and other abstract systems; together such studies (for structures defined by algebraic operations) constitute the domain of abstract algebra.","Nadobat səlməɣa teɣare gruɗtan, iɣləlwayan, idagan ad mertayən iyad əfarnen; mertay ən təɣareten (ye təməkrusen atiwalaɣatnen as issidinən ən aɗinan) eqal edag ən aɗinan ifaran."
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with relationships between the sides and the angles of triangles and with the trigonometric functions.,Trigonométrie taqal ašrut ən imaɗinan itajən mertayən jar išrutən ad tədnaɣen ən triangəlten ad ašəɣəlan ən trigonométriques.
Convex and discrete geometry were developed to solve problems in number theory and functional analysis but now are pursued with an eye on applications in optimization and computer science.,"Géométrie takirəmbayat as géométrie təfarat atwəsamɣarnat ye amukən ən itaraqan ən tamusne ən maɗinan ad akayad ašeɣalən, mašan aqlnat amadǎɣ alkum dǎɣ ahanay ən ijitan dǎɣ assiwəɗ ad dǎɣ alaɣi."
"Lie groups are used to study space, structure, and change.","Gruptan win Lie atiwətkal ye aləmad ən edag, taməkunt ad ašanzi."
Functions arise here as a central concept describing a changing quantity.,Ašəɣəlan atuwənhayan diha sund musnat namas talaɣet tajute tašənzet.
One of many applications of functional analysis is quantum mechanics.,Amukən ən harat eqal iyan ijitan ajətnen ən akayad ašeɣalan.
"""Statisticians (working as part of a research project) """"create data that makes sense"""" with random sampling and with randomized experiments; the design of a statistical sample or experiment specifies the analysis of the data (before the data becomes available).""","""Iməlaɣitan (ašeɣalan dǎɣ taberat ən aniyat ən umaɣ) ""tajən ….lanen alaɣi ""tassəbt ən assətkal ən tabaɣort ad as təmusnawen abeɣərnen; təmənhuyt ən assətkal meɣ ən tamusne taɗinat təzlay akayad ən ihukan (dat as war aqelan təlat). """
Numerical analysis studies methods for problems in analysis using functional analysis and approximation theory; numerical analysis includes the study of approximation and discretisation broadly with special concern for rounding errors.,Akayad naɗin iɣaru timkarawen ye asəbabən ən akayad dǎɣ atkul ən akayad ašeɣalan ad tamusne ən tihza; akayad ən edan ila teɣare ən ihaz ad assusəm as tənna haruwat ad aniyat ebdan ye imrəlitan awednen.
The Chern Medal was introduced in 2010 to recognize lifetime achievement.,Tasɣəlt tan Chern təgaš ɣor 2010 ye iji nalhak ən tədawt ən ijitan.
"This list achieved great celebrity among mathematicians, and at least nine of the problems have now been solved.","Ismawən iwadən amussan maqaran jar iməssidan, ad ogdahən ad təza tarəqatan atwaqalan amukən amara."
The value of Pi was first calculated by him.,Eqal wazaran as assedən ən migdahaw ən Pi.
"""It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term """"mathematics"""", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.""","""Aqalan Pythagoriəientan wijanen issəm """"imaɗinan"""", ad dǎɣ issənta teɣare ən imaɗinan ye manassən.”"
"Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).","Dǎɣ assədətu ən akənas ən fulatik, taməte tan əhrétientan ən Alexandrie tassəsnəntat, dǎɣ tənna as tartay. Dǎɣ uzif iness ad ašəšar nelam iness as fokiamən ən ɗalourdes (iyad janen tuilten)."
"Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs, and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences.","Tamazilt ən alaɣi ən ikatabən amusənen dǎɣ iyad magridan tanəlkam ɣor təšəjrit ən təməniya ən kaliftan iyad, izar atwəsan as imusanən iyad aqalan imusanən dǎɣ alkad wi talaɣen izar ijrawən ɣor saɣlay nassən talilt tawedat ye ikuy ən asjət ən təmusnawen tiyad."
A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths.,Tamezlayt maqarat ən imusanən ajətnen ašeɣalnen daw tijra tan inəsləman ɣor azaman taruwat taqal as aqalan agud inəmussanən.
"During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer).","Daɣ azzaman wen ɣur agna wan feodal d ekleziastik har wan ɣalamaniya , matematisyen tan ililan daɣ is alxidmaten tiyyad: Luca Pacioli (amaxlak n medan), Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia (injenieur maqqoran d anaɣlaf n alkittaban); Gerolamo Cardano (amaxlak wan ezzaran n ach-ak d efes n binom); Robert Recorde (fizisien) d Francois Viete (avoka)"
"British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt.","Universiteten tin Britannique ən azaman ten dakalnat ihzawan iyad olahnen ye universiteten tin Italie ad Allemagne, mašan sund ilanət harwa tanoflayt ad tahajit tahusket, išənzitan assətan ad awatay wan ifewan, tijraten tindǎɣ assəflasnen Humboldt."
Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content.,Iməɣran adoben agay ən umaɣawən dǎɣ séminairtan meɣ ihanan numaɣ izar santen iji ən batutən ən doctorat ən amas iknan musnat.
"Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.","Iməssidan ad iməssidan janen atiwətkalən sund assin dǎɣ tahajit STEM (tamusne, amukən, temašaɣalt ad imaɗinan)."
"Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk.","Inəlmadan tajan harwa assestanən ən izərfan,atamosan wi aqalnen edag ən isdawan ən tasunfat tahušalat ye iji ajaraw iyan ən tasunfat ad alməɣna was ehan ad ašəš ən haratan ye asjət ən ajaraw ən išəša iness takətawt ən mahəlat tasohet."
"The hieroglyphic system for Egyptian numerals, like the later Roman numerals, descended from tally marks used for counting.","Tartit hiéroglyphique ən edanən win misratan, sund edanən win romaintan adəmalanen, azizəbat iritan ən idud atiwatkalan yeassedən."
"Early number systems that included positional notation were not decimal, including the sexagesimal (base 60) system for Babylonian numerals, and the vigesimal (base 20) system that defined Maya numerals.","Tartiyen azarnen ən edanən lanen akatab azuken war aqelan déəimaux,atamosan tartit sexagésimal (ider 60) ye edan win Babylontan ad tartit ɣigésimal (ider 20) talaɣet edanən win mayas."
"Prior to the works of Euclid around 300 BC, Greek studies in mathematics overlapped with philosophical and mystical beliefs.","Dat ašəɣəlan win Euclide, ibret 300 dat. J.-C., tiɣaraten grectan dǎɣ imaɗinan timəqussən ad təflas ən məgridən ad ufaran."
"The ancient Greeks lacked a symbol for zero until the Hellenistic period, and they used three separate sets of symbols as digits: one set for the units place, one for the tens place, and one for the hundreds.","Grectan arunen warlen ešwal ye wala dat alwaq ən tanalmut, izar dakalan qarad mertayən azlaynen as ešwəlan ye edanən: mertay ye tabəde ən iyan,iyan ye tabəde tan təmərwen ad iyan ye timad."
"Their long division algorithm was the same, and the digit-by-digit square root algorithm, popularly used as recently as the 20th century, was known to Archimedes (who may have invented it).","Algorithme ən tazunt zəjret eqal iyan, ad algorithme wan racine carrée adin as adin, ajət nətwətkal əar ɣor 20e awatay, atiwazay as Archimède (as ihaməš atijan)."
"The ancient Chinese had advanced arithmetic studies dating from the Shang Dynasty and continuing through the Tang Dynasty, from basic numbers to advanced algebra.","Chinoitan arunen ikrašan tiɣareten edanan okaynen assintanen as alɣayal wan Tang, imaɗinan ən azarnen as madin okayan."
"For the hundreds place, they then reused the symbols for the units place, and so on.","Ye edag ən timaɗ, dakalan harwa ešwalan ən edag ən iyan, as dǎɣ amsuɣəl."
"The ancient Chinese were the first to meaningfully discover, understand, and apply negative numbers.","Chinoitan arunen aqalan imizaran ən ajaraw, musnat ad iji ən imaɗinan atəkanen as alməɣna atiwassənan."
"""His contemporary, the Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht (650 AD) said, """"Indians possess a method of calculation that no word can praise enough.""","""Aqalan azaran, amənokal ən Syriya Severus Sebokht (650 darat J.-C.) assilmad :"" Indutan əkrašən tamkare ən assedən as wala iyat tafert wartəssen atkul""."
The Arabs also learned this new method and called it hesab.,Araban almadən deɣ tamkare taynayat izar aɣrətat as hesab.
"The flourishing of algebra in the medieval Islamic world, and also in Renaissance Europe, was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation.","Ajət ən idan dǎɣ taməte tan inəsləman arunen, mašan deɣ dǎɣ Europe tan išray, taqal asəbab ən tamɣare təfnazat ən assedən as akatab décimale."
Arithmetic expressions must be evaluated according to the intended sequence of operations.,Tənaten ən maɗinan adəqəlnat atwəkat as amək tazunt ən sidinən atiwəqalnen.
"For example, digital computers can reuse existing adding-circuitry and save additional circuits for implementing a subtraction, by employing the method of two's complement for representing the additive inverses, which is extremely easy to implement in hardware (negation).","Sund, ordinatertan ən edanən adoben atkul ən taberaten ən assiwəd aɣlaknen ad assəməsədu ən taberaten awednen as sanatən ye assəkən ən imliliyan awednen, awa iknan təraɣse ən iji dǎɣ ašəɣəl dǎɣ harat (tamətki)."
"Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product.","Asjət asertay deɣ assin edan as iyan dǎɣ, asənətfəs."
"If the numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number greater than 1, say x, is the same as stretching everything away from 0 uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was.","As aznazjamat awadəm as imaɗinan ilan ɣor tassaret,asjət as adin ojarən 1, nənna x, eqalid as anərkəb olahən awa itijəjan kul 0, as alməɣna as adin 1 imanes adəqəl anərkab ɣor edag ɣor ila x."
Any dividend divided by zero is undefined.,Amazun kul azunən as wala war atwəssən.
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic was first proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss.,Tamkare maqarat ən edan tatiwasəkna as tizarat as Carl Friedrich Gauss.
"""Positional notation (also known as """"place-value notation"""") refers to the representation or encoding of numbers using the same symbol for the different orders of magnitude (e.g., the """"ones place"""", """"tens place"""", """"hundreds place"""") and, with a radix point, using those same symbols to represent fractions (e.g., the """"tenths place"""", """"hundredths place"""").""","""Akatab ibdadən (tatiwazayat fal issəm ən """"akatab tamɣar ən edag(""""itirək as assəkən meɣ aɣafal ən maɗinan dǎɣ atkul ən iyan ešwal ən mezlayən anilkamnen ən tamɣar (sund,""""edag ən iyad""""""""edag ən təmərwen(""""izar, ad edag ən radix, dǎɣ atkul ən ešwalan olahnen ye assəkən ən ikərumatan (sund,""""edag ən tamara """"""""edagən timad"".("""""
"The use of 0 as a placeholder and, therefore, the use of a positional notation is first attested to in the Jain text from India entitled the Lokavibhâga, dated 458 AD and it was only in the early 13th century that these concepts, transmitted via the scholarship of the Arabic world, were introduced into Europe by Fibonacci using the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.","Atkul ən wala sund harat ən assəmutiy ad,as alkum,atkul ən akatab azuken eqal taguhe ye tizarat dǎɣ akatab jaïn ən Inde atiwəɣran as Lokaɣibhâga, intan ɣor 458 darat J.-C. izar ɣor sənto ən 13e awatay as muziyaten, atiwəfanen as torhajət ən musnat ən adunya ən tarabt,agašən ɣor Europe as Fibonacci dǎɣ atkul ən mertay ən adin hindu-tarabt."
"The result is calculated by the repeated addition of single digits from each number that occupies the same position, proceeding from right to left.","Agaraw atiwassedan as assiwad amissaɣalan ən adinan iyadǎɣ ən maɗin kul ikrašən edag iyan ,as atkul ɣor aɣil as tašalje."
"The rightmost digit is the value for the current position, and the result for the subsequent addition of the digits to the left increases by the value of the second (leftmost) digit, which is always one (if not zero).","Adin iknan ugiš ən aɣil edagar ən edaj namaradǎɣ, ad agaraw ən assiwad adimalan ən edanan dǎɣ tašalje tiwadan as talət ən edan wasəsin (ihan tašalje),ogdahən harkuk ad iyan (as warogdeh as wala)."
A multiplication table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results for each pair of digits.,Tabalt ən assənətfəs təlat maraw laytan ad marawat təzunawen issakna igarawən ən assin edanən kul.
Similar techniques exist for subtraction and division.,Timkarawen olahnen aɣlaknat ye afanaz ad tazunt .
"In mathematical terminology, this characteristic is defined as closure, and the previous list is described as .","Dǎɣ saməndo ən maɗin, tamezlayt tatiwatkal sund aɣəfal, akatab okayan tatiwalaɣat sund."
The total in the pence column is 25.,Amsədu ən tazunt ən pence taqal 25.
"This operation is repeated using the values in the shillings column, with the additional step of adding the value that was carried forward from the pennies column.","Assedən wen amissaɣəl dǎɣ atkul edan ən ehan ən šillings, ad ašrut awedan təfat asiwad ən adin izjarən ihan wan pennies."
"""One typical booklet that ran to 150 pages tabulated multiples """"from one to ten thousand at the various prices from one farthing to one pound"""".""","""Alkad olahan ilan 150 ɗageten issakna tijutawen """"ɣor iyan as maraw efdan ɣor hebutan abdanen əlanen ɣor farthing as alkad""""."
This study is sometimes known as algorism.,Aləmad wen atiwəssan agud iyan fal issəm ən algorisme.
"Also, arithmetic was used by Islamic Scholars in order to teach application of the rulings related to Zakat and Irth.",Edanən atiwətkal deɣ as imusanən ən inəsləman ye assaɣar ən iji tənaten adəkalen Tanaqast ad Irth.
"Addition (usually signified by the plus symbol ) is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the other three being subtraction, multiplication and division.","Assiwad (atiwətkal as ešwal ən assiwad) taqal iyan dǎɣ akoz sidinən ən amas ən madin, karad wiyadnen aqalan afanaz, assənətfəs ad tazunt."
"In algebra, another area of mathematics, addition can also be performed on abstract objects such as vectors, matrices, subspaces and subgroups.","Dǎɣ assedin, edag iyan ən imaɗinan, assiwəd adobat atwəj fal haratan əfarnen sund ɣeəteurtan, matrices, tidəgaten ad təmsədawen."
"""Using the gerundive suffix -nd results in """"addend"""", """"thing to be added"""".""","Atkul ən səmdo gérondif -nd ihaku edag ye """"addenadde”"", “”harat ən assiwad""""."""
"""""""Sum"""" and """"summand"""" derive from the Latin noun summa """"the highest, the top"""" and associated verb summare.""","""""Sum""ad """"Summand""""izjarənid issəm latin summa """"iknan azaway,afəla""""ad magrad ertayan summare""."
"""The later Middle English terms """"adden"""" and """"adding"""" were popularized by Chaucer.""","""Tənaten ən tədabit-təglizit təknat tahajit ""adden""ad “""adding""”atwəzayan as Chaucer."""
"As an example, should the expression a + b + c be defined to mean (a + b) + c or a + (b + c)?","As təlat ən milhaw,akatab a + b + c as atwətkəl sund adərtidila ( a + b) + c meɣ a + (b + c)?"
"Even some nonhuman animals show a limited ability to add, particularly primates.","Iyad imudaran imanes waren eqel adinat saknen assahat ən assiwad ibdadən, atamosən aytedim."
"""With additional experience, children learn to add more quickly by exploiting the commutativity of addition by counting up from the larger number, in this case, starting with three and counting """"four, five.""""""","""Ad aləmad, aratən lamədan assiwəd šikanen as dakalan asəmələliy ən assiwad as sadanən ɣor maɗin wa iknan təmɣare,dǎɣ edag wen, dǎɣ assənt as karad as isadan """"akoz, səmos."""""""
"Zero: Since zero is the additive identity, adding zero is trivial.","Wala: falas wala eqal muzyat tawedat, assiwad ən wala eqal raqis."
"One aligns two decimal fractions above each other, with the decimal point in the same location.","Nəzimzizer assin ikərumatən decimales iyan fal iyan, ad edag décimal ɣor iyan edag."
"If the addends are the rotation speeds of two shafts, they can be added with a differential.","As issiwedan aqalan azalən ən ɣalayan ən assin ihəškan, nadobat assərtay ad ebadi."
It made use of a gravity-assisted carry mechanism.,Exdm s mekaniz idhal gravite
"To subtract, the operator had to use the Pascal's calculator's complement, which required as many steps as an addition.","Fal agamad, adabara anihaga adamatkal talɣa ən əaləulatriəe wan Pascal, awa amosan hadi ən hadagan ən asiwid."
Both XOR and AND gates are straightforward to realize in digital logic allowing the realization of full adder circuits which in turn may be combined into more complex logical operations.,Išar wi XOR əd AND aqalan fal asinanesan banan ye aritwigin dǎɣ oɣadan ən numérique dǎɣ adabaratan oɣadnen ogarnen aśuhu.
"Many implementations are, in fact, hybrids of these last three designs.","Ajotnen isiqtitan aqalan, dǎɣ aygan, abdanen əd wi karad ilkamnen təmoɣgrazen."
Unanticipated arithmetic overflow is a fairly common cause of program errors.,Isusukayan ən arithmétique fal iba nigi eqal harat amosan atiwazayan dǎɣ qaɣadan ən asinihigi.
"Taken literally, the above definition is an application of the recursion theorem on the partially ordered set N2.","Adakal wan taɣare, aliɣi wa ilan sider eqal igitan ən tekanite tan asimuduɣil fal dǎɣ tartite nafala toɣadat N2."
"If either a or b is zero, treat it as an identity.","Afal a meɣ b egal wala, aytawaga sund atwizay iyan."
"Here, the semigroup is formed by the natural numbers and the group is the additive group of integers.","Diya, təzune ən tartit taqal ayertayan fal maɗinan imanasan əd tartit taqalat tartit tan asiwid ən entiertan."
"The commutativity and associativity of real addition are immediate; defining the real number 0 to be the set of negative rationals, it is easily seen to be the additive identity.","Əmilahawan əd sirtayan wən asiwid itawanhayan eqalan agudendǎɣ; dǎɣ aliɣi ən amaɗin itawanhayan 0 sund asirtay rationneltan wi ifnaznen, hanayan nariqisan eqalan atiwasaknan ən təwaƭ."
"One must prove that this operation is well-defined, dealing with co-Cauchy sequences.","Nanihaga anisikin as adabara wen eqalan ahusken dǎɣ asikin, dǎɣ igitan ən ulkam wan cob-Cauchy."
"""The set of integers modulo 2 has just two elements; the addition operation it inherits is known in Boolean logic as the """"exclusive or"""" function.""","“Tartit tan entiertan modulo 2 wadila ad əsin haratan; adabara wen naśiwiɗ amosan adogaz eqalan atiwazan dǎɣ uqud ən booléen daw əsim ən əšiɣil """"wan ukis meɣ""""."
These give two different generalizations of addition of natural numbers to the transfinite.,Awen ihaku əsin generalisationtan abdanen dǎɣ təwaƭ ən maɗinan imanas dǎɣ transfini.
There are even more generalizations of multiplication than addition.,Ilanti harwa iyogarnen generalisationtan ən asinimi ƭif wan asiwid.
"In fact, if two nonnegative numbers a and b are of different orders of magnitude, then their sum is approximately equal to their maximum.","Dǎɣ atwig, afal əsin maɗinan winan eqel aygadam a meɣ b aqalan dǎɣ təmɣire tabdat, mašan hadi nasan eqal ohazan adiqil wa samando nasan."
"It includes the idea of the sum of a single number, which is itself, and the empty sum, which is zero.","Itawaga dǎɣas anizgum ən hadi niyandǎɣ amaɗin, eqalan inta emanes, əd hadi wan banan, eqalan wala."
"""Integration is a kind of """"summation"""" over a continuum, or more precisely and generally, over a differentiable manifold.""","""Ugiš eqalan iyan azagar ən """"atwiqal"""" fal əontinuum, meɣ ogaran asinihig əd amosan, fal umaɣ ebdanen."""
"Linear combinations are especially useful in contexts where straightforward addition would violate some normalization rule, such as mixing of strategies in game theory or superposition of states in quantum mechanics.","Ənsirtayan anilkamnen aqalnen amosnen ayfan dǎɣ əmik ɣur təwa ƭ toɣadat tihaɣnen tabarat ən asisiɣid, sund asirtay wan əmikan ən tekanit tan adal meɣ tihusay ən taɣimit taqalat dǎɣ mécanique quantique."
"Division is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the ways that numbers are combined to make new numbers.","Tuzant taqal iyat dǎɣ tinikozat adabarat ən santo wan arithmétique, atamosan əmik wamosan əmaɗinan aqalnen ayertayan fal igi ən maɗinan aynaynen."
Those in which a Euclidean division (with remainder) is defined are called Euclidean domains and include polynomial rings in one indeterminate (which define multiplication and addition over single-variabled formulas).,Widǎɣ amosnen təbiɗawt euclidien (awa diqiman) eqal atiwalaɣen aqalan asitawana tabarat tan euəlidien əd tila anneautan polynomiaux dǎɣ awinan atwasan (waytalaɣen animtafan əd təwaɗen fal əmikan ən aytimutuyan).
"This division sign is also used alone to represent the division operation itself, as for instance as a label on a key of a calculator.","Ašikel wen ən tuzant taqalat amitkalan intaɣas fal asiknin adabara ən tibidawt iman nasan, sund dǎɣ asikin sund étique ƭe fal ades ən calculatrice."
Distributing the objects several at a time in each round of sharing to each portion leads to the idea of 'chunking' a form of division where one repeatedly subtracts multiples of the divisor from the dividend itself.,"Tazune ən haratan ajotnen fal ajit ən hak aɣalay ən təzune dǎɣ hak aɣil nagay ən anuzgum ən ""əhunking"", əmik wan təzune ɣur itakas awadim dǎɣ əmik amidǎɣalan ən anmitif ən amazan ən diɣidende imanes."
"A person can use logarithm tables to divide two numbers, by subtracting the two numbers' logarithms, then looking up the antilogarithm of the result.","Awadim adobat adtiqil tabarat tan logarithme fal tazant nəsin maɗinan, dǎɣ afanaz ən logarithme wasisin maɗinan, izar dǎɣ umaɣ ən antilogarithme awatwagrawan."
"Some programming languages, such as C, treat integer division as in case 5 above, so the answer is an integer.","Əmigridan iyad ən asinihigi, sund C, taganen tuzant dak sund dǎɣ əmik wan 5 tan afala, aliɣi eqalan amosan aymdan."
"Similarly, right division of b by a (written ) is the solution y to the equation .","Dǎɣ sundawen, tazune toɣadat ən b fal a (iktab) eqalan adabara dǎɣ iha équation."
Examples include matrix algebras and quaternion algebras.,Algebretan ən matriəetan əd algebretan ən quaterniontan dǎɣ aqalan sund dolahan.
Entry of such an expression into most calculators produces an error message.,Ugiš ən magrad dǎɣ iyadak dǎɣ əaləulatriəetan iganen isalan winan oɣed.
"Since this replacement reduces the larger of the two numbers, repeating this process gives successively smaller pairs of numbers until the two numbers become equal.","Sund asimutiy ifnazan ogaran təmɣire wi nisin imaɗinan, tanalist ən tabarat tatiwafat ən əsin maɗinan ogarnen dǎɣ ugur ən timidrit hawendǎɣ har əsin maɗinan aqalnen ogdahan."
The fact that the GCD can always be expressed in this way is known as Bézout's identity.,Igi was GCD adobat harkuk adiqil aygan dǎɣ əmik wendǎɣ eqalan atiwazay sund amuzuy ən Bézout.
"With this improvement, the algorithm never requires more steps than five times the number of digits (base 10) of the smaller integer.","Fal təmotayen tən, algorithme winan eqel atiwasan ogaran simos handagan wi amaɗin ən edanan (dǎɣ santo ən 10) wa ogaran təmidrit əmdan."
The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications.,Algorithme euclidien ən iyajotnen igitan ən tabarat əd tawaganen.
"The Euclidean algorithm may be used to solve Diophantine equations, such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences according to the Chinese remainder theorem, to construct continued fractions, and to find accurate rational approximations to real numbers.","Algorithme euclidien adoben adiqil amitkalan fal kanan ən taqinen dioɗhantiennetan, dǎɣ milahaw fal adigriwan imaɗinan wi sagdahnen ən əongruenəetan animatafnen dǎɣ tabarat tan əhinoistan wi dakimanen , fal adiqinan inamawarnen okaynen əd fal adigriwan ahazan ən rationnelletan təɣidnen imaɗinan atiwasanen."
"The greatest common divisor is often written as gcd(a, b) or, more simply, as (a, b), although the latter notation is ambiguous, also used for concepts such as an ideal in the ring of integers, which is closely related to GCD.","Wa ogaran təmɣire amazan ən tərtit eqalan agudiyan ayiktaban sund gəd (a, b) meɣ, ogaran tarɣise, sund (a, b), ahuskat as tatilkamat tən aytakasan eqalan atiwasan dǎɣ ašrutan, ogdahan dǎɣ amitkal fal əonəeɗtan amosan iyan anuzgum dǎɣ anneau ən wi əmdanen, eqalan oɣadan ertayan dǎɣ GCD."
"For example, neither 6 nor 35 is a prime number, since they both have two prime factors: 6 = 2 × 3 and 35 = 5 × 7.","Dǎɣ olahan, wade 6 wala 35 wadeqel amaɗin wazaran, falas ilan daknasan əsin faəteurtan wi azarnen: 6= 2 × 3 əd 35 = 5 × 7."
"Factorization of large integers is believed to be a computationally very difficult problem, and the security of many widely used cryptographic protocols is based upon its infeasibility.","Ifanazan wi wimaqornen imaɗinan əmdanen eqalan atiwagan sund asibab aśohen hulen dǎɣ alɣisab, əd uguz ən ɗrotoəoletan ən cryptographique harawnen dǎɣ amitkal eqalan ayhan fal iba nigines."
"The set of all integral linear combinations of a and b is actually the same as the set of all multiples of g (mg, where m is an integer).","Tartite nimirtayan dak anilkamnen ahanen dǎɣ a əd b eqalan dǎɣ igi ən asirtay wan nəmitifan kul ən g (mg, ɣur m eqalan amaɗin əmdan)."
"In other words, multiples of the smaller number rk−1 are subtracted from the larger number rk−2 until the remainder rk is smaller than rk−1.","Dǎɣ iyad əmikan, ənimtifan wi ogarnen təmidrit amaɗin rk-1 aqalnen adigmadan wa ogaran təmɣire amaɗin rk-2 hawendǎɣ har awa diqiman rk amosan ogaran təmidrit ən rk-1."
"Therefore, c divides the initial remainder r0, since r0 = a − q0b = mc − q0nc = (m − q0n)c.","Dǎɣ aɣašad, ə tazun awadiqiman insanto r0, falas r0 = a - q0b = mə - q0nc = (m - q0n)c."
"We first attempt to tile the rectangle using b-by-b square tiles; however, this leaves an r0-by-b residual rectangle untiled, where r0 < b. We then attempt to tile the residual rectangle with r0-by-r0 square tiles.","Nitirim izar ye asisigdah ən reətangle dǎɣ tadhil ən əarreautan ogdahnen b fal b ; agudendǎɣ, awen itiyu reətangle résiduel r0 ɗar b winan eqel amisasaran, ɣur r0 < b. Nitirim agudiyan ye asisigdah ən reətangle résiduel dər ən əarreautan ogdahnen r0-fal-r0."
The theorem which underlies the definition of the Euclidean division ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist and are unique.,Təmusne tan winan tifles aliɣi wan tazune tan euəlidien ikanu iyandǎɣ quotient əd iyamosan adiqiman atilan harkuk əd aqalnen iyadǎɣ.
"At the end of the loop iteration, the variable b holds the remainder rk, whereas the variable a holds its predecessor, rk−1.","Dǎɣ samando ən asimusuɣil wan tisifil, təbidaw ƭ ən b tataf awadiqiman rk, mašan tamotayt tan a tataf way han edag, rk-1."
The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras.,Əmasaɗinan əd awtifust B. L. Ɣan der Waerden aɣelan alkitab ƔII adigmaɗan manuel fal ən tabarat tan maɗinan iktaban fal əmasaɗinan wən taɣare ən Pythagore
"Centuries later, Euclid's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China, primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arose in astronomy and making accurate calendars.","Təmaɗ nelan darat awen, algorithme Euclidien eqal atiwagrawan dǎɣ Inde əd dǎɣ Chine, aqalnen fal kanan ən tidas diophantienne ti nasanen dǎɣ astronomie əd fal igi ən calendriertan itbatnen."
"The Euclidean algorithm was first described numerically and popularized in Europe in the second edition of Bachet's Problèmes plaisants et délectables (Pleasant and enjoyable problems, 1624).",Algorithme Euclidien eqal ayktaban numeriquement fal wadazaran ehandag əd atiwasanan dǎɣ Euroɗe dǎɣ tasanatat tədiwt ən asibaban atiwarhanen əd atiwarhan ən Bachet (1624).
"In the 19th century, the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems, such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers.","Dǎɣ 19 temede nawatay, algorithme Euclidien ilway dǎɣ təwa ƭ nəmikan aynaynen ən numérique, atamosan aymdan dǎɣ Gauss əd əmdanen wi Eisenstein."
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory.,Peter Gustaɣ Lejeune Dirichlet olahnen dagaraw eqalan wadazaran dǎɣ atwiktab ən algorithme euəlidienne sund santo maqaran aɣil wa tabarat tan maɗinan.
"For example, Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat's two-square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers.","Dǎɣ olahan, Dedekind eqalan wa dazaran asikna tabarat ən əsin sisigdihan ən Fermat dǎɣ amitkil ən fanaz iyandǎɣ dǎɣ wəmdanen ən Eisenstein."
Other applications of Euclid's algorithm were developed in the 19th century.,Iyad igitan ən algorithme wan Euclide aqalan adiɗan dǎɣ19e temede nawatay
"Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed, such as the algorithm of Helaman Ferguson and R.W. Forcade (1979) and the LLL algorithm.","Ajotnen aynaynen algorithmetan ən ilanen gar əmdanen aqalnen awidan, amosan algorithme wan Helaman Ferguson əd R.W. Forəade (1979) əd algorithme LLL."
The players take turns removing m multiples of the smaller pile from the larger.,Imadalan irkaban dǎɣ aɣalay ən əšiɣil m animatafan wən tuhunt tadirat togarat təmɣire.
"By allowing u to vary over all possible integers, an infinite family of solutions can be generated from a single solution (x1, y1).","Dǎɣ taganen dǎɣ u ən atimutiy fal əmdanen adobatnen, terwe winan təminda dǎɣ adabaratan adobatnen adiqilan anelasan fal adabara iyandǎɣ (x1, y1)."
"In this field, the results of any mathematical operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division) is reduced modulo 13; that is, multiples of 13 are added or subtracted until the result is brought within the range 0–12.","Dǎɣ tabarat ten, igarawan ən tədas ən maɗinan (asiwiɗ, ukis, asinimi ƭif meɣ tizune) aqalan ayfnazan modulo 13, atamosan anmitif ən 13 aqalan awiɗan meɣ ukis hawendǎɣ har agaraw eqal aditiwawayan dǎɣ efay 0-12."
Now assume that the result holds for all values of N up to M − 1.,Nasinihiget amaradǎɣ as agaraw eqal atiwagrawan fal ɣaleurtan dak ən N hawendǎɣ M - 1.
"For illustration, the probability of a quotient of 1, 2, 3, or 4 is roughly 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, and 5.9%, respectively.","Dǎɣ kanan, asinihigi ən awadiqiman ən 1, 2, 3 əd 4 eqal ihomiši 41,5 %, 17,0%, 9,3% əe 5,9%, dǎɣ anilkam."
One inefficient approach to finding the GCD of two natural numbers a and b is to calculate all their common divisors; the GCD is then the largest common divisor.,Ahaz winan aśohat fal agaraw ən GCD ən əsin maɗinan imanasan a əd b itagan alɣisab ən mazanan oharnen ; GCD eqalan adiš ogaran təmɣire amazan oharan.
"As noted above, the GCD equals the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers a and b. Present methods for prime factorization are also inefficient; many modern cryptography systems even rely on that inefficiency.","Sund atiwaɗaqen daw ider, ən GCD eqalan ogdahan dǎɣ alil ən faəteurtan wi dazarnen azunen fal wi nəsin imaɗinan a əd b. Tabaraten ti amaradǎɣ ən afanaz ən maɗinan wi dazarnen aqalan intanedǎɣ winan aśohat; ajotnen əmikan ən əryɗtograɗhiquetan amutaynen taɣaymen dǎɣ fal iba naśahat wen."
Lehmer's GCD algorithm uses the same general principle as the binary algorithm to speed up GCD computations in arbitrary bases.,Algorithme GƏD ən Lehmer amitkalan dǎɣ iyandǎɣ oɣadan atiwazay dǎɣ algorithme nəsin fal atrub ən alɣisab GCD dǎɣ winsanto imahadan.
The Euclidean algorithm can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for polynomials; continued fractions of polynomials can also be defined.,Algorithme euclidien adobat adiqil amitkalan fal adiqin alɣisaban dioɗhantienne anilkamnen əd aśibaban wi daqimanen ən chinois fal polynômetan ; fractiontan okaynen dǎɣ polynômetan adobatnen deɣqanen eqalan atiwalaɣen.
"Any Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain (UFD), although the converse is not true.","Tabaraten dak ti euclidien eqalan tabarat tan fanazan iyadǎɣ (UFD), ahuskat as amšiliq winan eqel aduten."
"A Euclidean domain is always a principal ideal domain (PID), an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal.","Tabarat tan euclidien eqal harkuk ən tabarat nanizgum itbatan (DIP), tabarat tanugiš dǎɣ tas amosan hak anizgum atiwasanan."
"Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common, including compound fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.","Imasaɗinan əd malaɣatan aqalnen intanedǎɣ amitkalan dǎɣ fractiontan winan eqel oharnen, amosnen fractiontan artaynen, fractiontan aśohatnen əd minéraux artaynen."
The term was originally used to distinguish this type of fraction from the sexagesimal fraction used in astronomy.,Əmik eqalan amosnen amitkalan fal təbiɗawt ən əmik wan fraətion ən fraətion sexagésimale amitkalan dǎɣ astronomie.
This was explained in the 17th century textbook The Ground of Arts.,Awen eqal atiwalaɣen dǎɣ edes ən 17e temede nawatay sitawana The Ground of Arts.
"The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1, hence the reciprocal is the multiplicative inverse of a fraction.",Asinimitif ən fraction əd ən amliliy eqalan ogdahan dǎɣ 1. Amliliy eqal adiš animašrayan ən nimitafan ən fraction.
The remainder becomes the numerator of the fractional part.,Awadiqiman eqal wanafala ən tasaga ən fractionnaire.
"Since 5×17 (= 85) is greater than 4×18 (= 72), the result of comparing is .","Falas 5×17 (=85) eqal ayzwayan dǎɣ 4×18 (= 72), agaraw ən təbiɗawen aqalan."
"Since one third of a quarter is one twelfth, two thirds of a quarter is two twelfth.","Falas was karaɗ ən ikoz eqal was maraw ən diyan, wa əsin ən karaɗ dǎɣ ikoz aqalnen wasisin dǎɣ maraw ən disin."
Sometimes an infinite repeating decimal is required to reach the same precision.,"Agudiyan, mariaw elan anilkamnen dǎɣ samando eqal ayfan fal agad ən aytbatan wendǎɣ."
The Egyptians used Egyptian fractions  BC.,Égyptientan amitkalnen dǎɣ fractiontan ən égyɗtienne BC.
Their methods gave the same answer as modern methods.,Tabarat nasan haku aliɣi imanes ən tabaraten amutaynen.
"A modern expression of fractions known as bhinnarasi seems to have originated in India in the work of Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara.","Əsalan amutaynen dǎɣ fractiontan atiwazaynen daw əsim ən bhinnarasi olahan adiqil aywan dǎɣ Inde dǎɣ əšiɣilan ən Aryabha ƭa, Brahmaguɗta əd Bhaskara."
"""In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers """"wrap around"""" when reaching a certain value, called the modulus.""","Dǎɣ maɗinan, algorithme modulaire eqal əmik iyan ən arithmétique fal əmdanen, ɣur maɗinan """"tikmikimiten"""" ugud waɗiwadan iyan ɣaleur, sitawana module."""
A very practical application is to calculate checksums within serial number identifiers.,Igi itawagen harkuk aytagu alɣisab ən hadi ən tanhat dǎɣ atwizayan ən numéro ən anilkaman.
RSA and Diffie–Hellman use modular exponentiation.,RSA ən Diffie–Hellman mǎgrǎd exponentiation.modulaire
"It is used by the most efficient implementations of polynomial greatest common divisor, exact linear algebra and Gröbner basis algorithms over the integers and the rational numbers.","Taqal ayšɣalan daɣ imɗlémentationtan wi ogarnen aśuhu ən wagaran asirtay daɣ tazune ən ɗolynomial, wən tabarat tan maɗine anilkaman oɣad əd algorithmetan wən santo far entiertan əd maɗinan ətbatnen."
"The modulo operation, as implemented in many programming languages and calculators, is an application of modular arithmetic that is often used in this context.","Asəmusudiw wan modulo, atamosan igines daɣ məgridan ajotnen ən almaɣnatan əd alɣisaban, eqalan aytawagen daɣ maɗinan wən adabaratan aqalnen agudiyan amitkalan daɣ almaɣna wen."
The method of casting out nines offers a quick check of decimal arithmetic computations performed by hand.,Daɣ əmik wan agamad daɣ asostanan aynaynen ukisnašak irmaɗan daɣ alɣisab ən maɗinan animawarnen tawaganen safus.
"A linear system of congruences can be solved in polynomial time with a form of Gaussian elimination, for details see linear congruence theorem.","Almaɣna anilkaman daɣ awa ilan gar maɗinan sihomiši ikna sund ɗolynomial dər əmik wan ukis ən gaussienne, fal ibaɗan wi ogarne inhiy tanhat tan awa ilan gar maɗinan anilkamnen."
"The multiplication of integers (including negative numbers), rational numbers (fractions) and real numbers is defined by a systematic generalization of this basic definition.","Asinmitif ən maɗinan əmdanen (atomosan wi ifnaznen), maɗinan animawarnen (franctintan) əd maɗinan tawanhaynen aqalnen atiwazayan səmik wan atwizay wan təmusne tan santo."
The product of two measurements is a new type of measurement.,Anmitaf nəsin makatan eqal aynayan əmik wan akot.
The inverse operation of multiplication is division.,Alzawaɗ wan amlalay ən ninmitif eqal tazune.
The division of a number other than 0 by itself equals 1.,Tazuner namaɗin iyan winan amos 0 sinta emanes eqal iyandǎɣ.
"This implicit usage of multiplication can cause ambiguity when the concatenated variables happen to match the name of another variable, when a variable name in front of a parenthesis can be confused with a function name, or in the correct determination of the order of operations.","Igitan winDǎɣ okayan dǎɣ anmitaf adobat adiqil tabarat naylan gar əsin haratan ugud tə timutuynen amisadawnen dǎɣ əmawan ahanat olahan dǎɣ əsim wan təbiɗawen tiyad, hak əsim ən atimutuyan dat dǎɣ ɗarenthèse eqal sihomiši olahan ən əsim nəšiɣil, meɣ dǎɣ asikin oɣadan ən anilkaman ən tidas."
"""The numbers to be multiplied are generally called the """"factors"""".""","""Maɗinan wi tənmitifnen aqalan intanedǎɣ asitawan ““facteurs””.”"
"""Also as the result of a multiplication does not depend on the order of the factors, the distinction between """"multiplicand"""" and """"multiplier"""" is useful only at a very elementary level and in some multiplication algorithms, such as the long multiplication.""","""Olahan dadabara wan asinimitaf warilkem ye anilkam ən wi sənmititnen, awa tan ebdan garesan ““multiɗliəande”” et ““way sinmitifan”” wareqel ayfan aswade hadi izwayan əd dǎɣ algorithmetan wən asinmitaf, sund asinmitaf wa zigren."
The result of a multiplication is called a product.,Aljawaban wən asinmitaf as itawanen asirtay.
The slide rule allowed numbers to be quickly multiplied to about three places of accuracy.,Almaɣna wan alɣisab itagu asinmitaf irmaɗan ən maɗinan dər asidutu naywaɗan idagan karaɗ.
The general theory is given by dimensional analysis.,Tanhat tan tətiwazayat ataqal atiwafan səmik wan akotan.
The complex numbers do not have an ordering.,Maɗinan wi asohatnen warilen anilkaman.
"Here we have identity 1, as opposed to groups under addition where the identity is typically 0.","Nila diha əsiknitan 1, aybdan dǎɣ tisdaw tən daw asiwid ɣur asikin eqal atamosan 0."
"To see this, consider the set of invertible square matrices of a given dimension over a given field.","Dǎɣ təmusne, atiwaga tartit tan matriəetan ogdahan əs tisigwen ən nakot ən huk dǎɣ edag atiwafan."
Another fact worth noticing is that the integers under multiplication is not a group—even if we exclude zero.,"Iyan tagu anihagan aɗiqil ayktaban eqalan entiertan wi daw sənmitifan wareqel adiwan, indar tigmaɗ wala."
"""In mathematics, a percentage (from Latin per centum """"by a hundred"""") is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100.""","""Dǎɣ maɗinan, ɗourəentage iyan (wan latin ɗer əentum ““ɗar cent””) eqal amaɗin meɣ iyad ikan asikin ən daw təniɣruf tan anmiwir wan 100.”"
Computation with these fractions was equivalent to computing percentages.,Tidas dər anmiwarnasnat eqal ogdahan ən tidas tən pourcentagetan.
"Whenever communicating about a percentage, it is important to specify what it is relative to (i.e., what is the total that corresponds to 100%).","Ugud wan salan ən ɗourəentage, ahuskat adisikin nawa amos (atamosan əndeki hadi nawaɗan 100%)."
"""When speaking of a """"10% rise"""" or a """"10% fall"""" in a quantity, the usual interpretation is that this is relative to the initial value of that quantity.""","“Ugud wa magrad ən “ƭiwaƭ tan 10%""meɣ iyan ““afanaz wan 10%""""hadi niyan, iliɣitan ən harkuk eqalan amosan aywadan agudak hadi wendǎɣ."
"The same confusion between the different concepts of percent(age) and percentage points can potentially cause a major misunderstanding when journalists report about election results, for example, expressing both new results and differences with earlier results as percentages.","Milahaw wendǎɣ gar təbiɗawen nəmikan wən ɗourəentage (elan) əd dagan wən ɗourəentage adobat śaśahat adagu iba ən faham maqaran ugud wa journalistean aliɣen əsalan ən alzawaban nukis, atamosan, dǎɣ azizgar agudiyan nalɣisaban aynaynen əd təbiɗawen dər alɣisaban namas daw əmik wan ɗourəentagetan."
The term has been attributed to Latin per centum.,Əmik eqal atiwafan dǎɣ latin per centum.
Grammar and style guides often differ as to how percentages are to be written.,Əsanamahalan wen grammaire əd dəmik ebdan agudiyan fal almaɣna nakatab ən ɗourəentagetan.
"""When interest rates are very low, the number 0 is included if the interest rate is less than 1%, e.g. """"% Treasury Stock"""", not """"% Treasury Stock"""".)""","""Ugud wan hadi ən ƭiwaƭ ifnaz, Dǎɣ iha amaɗin wan 0 afal hadi ən təwaƭ taqal amidriyan ye 1%, dǎɣ ololahan ٪""""nigitan ən Trésor””,əd babo ““ %igitan wən Trésor””.)”"
"Likewise, the winning percentage of a team, the fraction of matches that the club has won, is also usually expressed as a decimal proportion; a team that has a .500 winning percentage has won 50% of their matches.","Dǎɣ milahaw, ən ɗourəentage wan agaraw niyan tartit, atamosan anmiwir ən matəhtan wəs əlub igrawan, eqal Dǎɣ amosan aygan daw əmik wan asinihig ən déəimal; iyat tartit taqalat ɗourəentage tan agaraw ən 0,500 har agaraw 50% ən matəhstan nes."
"Subtraction also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations, such as addition and multiplication.","Ukusawan asidagan intadǎɣ ye tabaraten tawalaɣatnen aqalnen tidas tədimalanen, atamosnen asiwiɗ əd asinitfas."
Performing subtraction on natural numbers is one of the simplest numerical tasks.,Igi ən nafanaz fal maɗinan wi artaynen aqalan əšiɣil ən numérique wogaran tarɣise.
"Formally, the number being subtracted is known as the subtrahend, while the number it is subtracted from is the minuend.","Dǎɣ əmik atiwaslan, amaɗin wa ikas awadəm eqal asitawana anagmad, izar amaɗin wadǎɣ damukas asitawanen anagmaɗ."
"""Subtraction"""" is an English word derived from the Latin verb subtrahere, which in turn is a compound of sub """"from under"""" and trahere """"to pull"""".""","""Amukas” eqal tanuɣruf nanglais idit tigmaɗat ɣerbe wan latin subtrahere, sinta emanes ertay ən sub “dǎɣ ider”” əd trahere ““arakab””.”"
"From position 3, it takes no steps to the left to stay at 3, so .","Aruw əmik wan 3, walatigid tekel wala iyad ibret ən tašalmad fal atqaymid har 3, awen."
"To represent such an operation, the line must be extended.","Fal asijiyh tidas tindǎɣ, anihaga adizizgrit tasiret."
"""The leading digit """"1"""" of the result is then discarded.""","""Amadine wan aɣaf ““1""""ən nalɣisab eqalan adiš aykašanin.”"
"In the ten's place, 0 is less than 1, so the 0 is increased by 10, and the difference with 1, which is 9, is written down in the ten's place.","Dǎɣ edag wan təmirwen, 0 ogar təmidrit dǎɣ 1. Nisawaɗ adiš dǎɣ 0 əd 10, əd nikatab ƭəbidawen dər 1, eqalan 9, dǎɣ edag wan təmirwen."
"The subtraction then proceeds in the hundreds place, where 6 is not less than 5, so the difference is written down in the result's hundred's place.","Əgamaɗan anilkaman agudiyan dǎɣ adag wan ƭəmaɗ, ɣur 6 wartoger 5, sund awendǎɣ as təbiɗawt taqal ayhan edag ən ƭəmaɗ tən alɣisab."
Rather it increases the subtrahend hundred's digit by one.,"Dǎɣ təbiɗawt, tiwaɗ niyan haratan ən maɗin wan təmaɗ dǎɣ ukisawan."
"The answer is 1, and is written down in the result's hundred's place.","Aliɣi eqal 1, əd aqal ayktaban dǎɣ edag wan təmaɗ tən alɣisab."
"This theorem was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat in 1637 in the margin of a copy of Arithmetica, where he claimed that he had a proof that was too large to fit in the margin.","Dǎɣ awa-d-eqqalǎn isalǎn wi-n-ǎlxisab fǎl aritmetik wǎr atwasǎn asəkkən ən asədətu mashan ɣor tizzarǎt kul, dǎɣ awatay wan 1637, Pierre de Fermat assəkna tamatert maqqarǎt fǎl isalǎn ən a-wen."
"The five color theorem, which has a short elementary proof, states that five colors suffice to color a map and was proven in the late 19th century; however, proving that four colors suffice turned out to be significantly harder.","Awa atwasaknǎn dǎɣ initǎn wi-n-səmmos , əs tamatert ənnes jəzzəl , asdatǎt əs initǎn səmmos əgdahǎn-y-asəssihǎɣ ən awa-s-itawanna kart s-ibret ən temeɗe ən awatay ta-s 19 , ijji nes əs əkkoz initǎn , ǎtwanhay, atiwakas ashak dǎɣ a wen as ikna așșuhu hullan ."
It was the first major theorem to be proved using a computer.,Wen dǎɣ ǎtwasaknǎn əs amoos a aduten fǎl isalǎn wi asəkna Ordinater.
"Additionally, any map that could potentially be a counterexample must have a portion that looks like one of these 1,936 maps.","Fǎl a wen, kart kul war-en taddoobǎt tumast ən ǎlmital , ilzam tǎt ad-təlla ashrut iyyan olahǎn əd-iyyat dǎɣ ti-n 1936."
"It was originally formulated in 1908, by Steinitz and Tietze.","Atwəktəb ənnes w-azzarǎn, a-t-ijjan Steiniz id Tietze dǎɣ awatay wan 1908 ."
"A variety V over a finite field with q elements has a finite number of rational points, as well as points over every finite field with qk elements containing that field.","Dǎɣ awa-d-eqqalan əmməkǎn ən ǎlxisabǎn en tiɣer ti maqqornen , amoosǎn as așșohǎt əmmek ənnes shund as v fǎl harǎt iyyan imdan ,illa amaɗin imdan əd titbaqqa imdanen əd fǎl hak iha əmmək shund wen dǎɣ."
"Originally conjectured by Henri Poincaré, the theorem concerns a space that locally looks like ordinary three-dimensional space but is connected, finite in size, and lacks any boundary (a closed 3-manifold).","Dǎɣ iba-n-musnat ən əmmək ən asəkni amoos a wen shund tidət , dǎɣ awa inna Henri Poincare , wen harǎt ad-eqqal a-y-illan aɗəkoɗǎn karaɗ ən banan mashan attiwaja konekte , tebadde timdat wǎr-en təlla samdo( iyyan 3 manifold eɣfalan) ."
"After nearly a century of effort by mathematicians, Grigori Perelman presented a proof of the conjecture in three papers made available in 2002 and 2003 on arXiv.","Darat a hin ikkan temeɗe ən awatay ən ummaɣ maqqarǎn ən kǎl matematiktan , Grigori Perelman assikna tamatert tan -iba-n-musnǎt ən ammek wan asəkkən dǎɣ ikətban karad ajjihanen ,wan 2002 əd wan 2003."
Perelman completed this portion of the proof.,Perelman asnamawaɗ-in edagg wen ən tamaɣatert .
"Informally, it asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified by a computer can also be quickly solved by a computer; it is widely conjectured that the answer is no.","Awa-s war atwassan ammək ən asəkkən ənnes, erha as hak tamayatert as ordinater addoobat azəgəz ənnes , nariket sar-əs ; alzhəwab, addoobat ad ummas a wǎr-en ikna."
"It has not been proven which one is false, but it is widely believed that the first conjecture is true and the second one is false.","Wǎr atwakas ashak dǎɣ ta wǎr-en təkna ,mashan ammukən as ta tazzarat təkna , ta-iyyadǎt wǎr t-oɣed."
"For instance, the Collatz conjecture, which concerns whether or not certain sequences of integers terminate, has been tested for all integers up to 1.2 × 1012 (over a trillion).","Almital , dǎɣ tənna ta-n Collaz ,a-wen ijja fǎl awa dǎɣ kul ihan samdo, atiwakyadnen iket nasan har 1,2 har 1012 ( a ojjarǎn milliyar ən milliyar)."
"That evidence may be of various kinds, such as verification of consequences of it or strong interconnections with known results.","Tamatert ten , t-addobat ad təlla isawetǎn ajjootnen , shund akayad əs ukkəs-n-ashak fǎl alɣədədǎn wi atiwasannen."
"""One method of proof, applicable when there are only a finite number of cases that could lead to counterexamples, is known as """"brute force"""": in this approach, all possible cases are considered and shown not to give counterexamples.""","Esawe iyyan ən tamatert , ititwəjjin ǎlwǎq wa-s-təmmalǎn haratǎn əmdanen addoobatnen ukkəs ən melɣaw , atiwasanan əs isəm wan ( ashəhushəl əs ajjaraw ən awa olaɣǎn: dǎɣ esawe wen , haratǎn kul addooben ad təllan təzzar ətwəsəkən as awa saknen , wǎr amoos a wǎr-en illa alfayda ."
"The continuum hypothesis, which tries to ascertain the relative cardinality of certain infinite sets, was eventually shown to be independent from the generally accepted set of Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of set theory.","Ille esawe iyyan immaɣǎn awa oharǎn haratǎn iyyaɗ wǎr-en illa samdo , tirəm almud ən awa-t-illan fǎl awa inna Zermelo Fraenkel fal haratǎn wi ǎtwarɗanen."
Few number theorists doubt that the Riemann hypothesis is true.,Wǎr əjjətan kǎl tamusne wi wǎr-en erɗa fǎl tənna tan Riemann.
"The logistic map is a polynomial mapping, often cited as an archetypal example of how chaotic behaviour can arise from very simple non-linear dynamical equations.",Karte ən awa ilkaman tattiwaɗkal shund almital ən ammək əs esawe nes addoobat ad aruw tərəɗawt tasisagdahat awa atiwamaɣǎn dǎɣ taraɣse.
Kepler proved that it is the limit of the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.,Kepler asdatat as t-amoos samdo ən awa oharan harat əd isalan wi ikfa Fibonacci.
For two reasons this representation may cause problems.,"Fǎl təsəba ən əssən haratan , esawe wen , addoobat asəkən ən timɣutar."
"For example, the two representations 0.999... and 1 are equivalent in the sense that they represent the same number.","Almital, issoknan wi-n əssən 0,999…əd 1 ogdahǎn dihad-as amaɗin iyyan a saknenǎt ."
"Using computers and supercomputers, some of the mathematical constants, including π, e, and the square root of 2, have been computed to more than one hundred billion digits.","Əs tadhəlt ən ordinatertǎn əd ordinatertǎn wi əknanen melɣaw haratǎn iyyaɗ əd aqqalnen matematiktǎn , shund əd awa-s-itawanna rasin kare ən 2 atwaxsabǎn əs a okkayan temeɗe ən millyar ən imaɗinǎn."
Some constants differ so much from the usual kind that a new notation has been invented to represent them reasonably.,"T-iyyaɗ dǎɣ-snǎt əknanǎt bəɗɗaw dǎɣ awa atiwazayǎn har-əd oraw a wen ummǎy ən asəbdəd nasnǎt. Alwaq iyyan, eshwal."
"Sometimes, the symbol representing a constant is a whole word.","Alwǎqqǎn iyyǎd, raməs wa ehǎn n constant ǎmos isim əkmǎlǎn"
"0 (zero) is a number, and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.",Bǎnnǎn amos esǎssǎr tolas iddikud n medǎn wa ehǎn edǎg n iddikud wen daɣ ǎsidin
"""Names for the number 0 in English include zero, nought (UK), naught (US; ), nil, or—in contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it from the letter """"O""""—oh or o.""","“Ismǎwǎn n esǎssǎr wan bǎnnǎn (0) daɣ tǎngilist ehǎy bǎnnǎn (daɣ rwayon uni) , bǎnnǎn (daɣ amerik), nil - daɣ tǎlɣiwen tiyyǎd ɣur as iddikud ehǎn sider izlay ti i letǎr “”O”” - oh meɣ o”"
"For the simple notion of lacking, the words nothing and none are often used.","Tifert rǎqqisǎt tan ibǎn, ismǎwǎn win wala d kǎla alwǎq iyyǎn intǎned axdǎmnen"
It is often called oh in the context of telephone numbers.,Alwǎq itǎwǎn has Oh daɣ tǎlɣa n isǎssǎrǎn win tǎlǎfon tan
"The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids, and distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.",Mǎris wan nfr s almǎɣna net tihussǎy inta deɣ exǎddǎm i asilmǎd n edǎg daɣ idǎlojǎn n izikwǎn d Piramid tan d wa id ikkǎt nat tišijriten daɣ iyǎka ehǎn afǎlla meɣ sider n iyǎka wen
"The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone, nor was it used at the end of a number.",Inǎdbǎɣ n terist wan Babylone war eqqel bǎnnǎn s tiditt fal as war exǎddǎm inta ɣas meɣ exǎddǎm daɣ amindi n esǎssǎr.
"By AD 150, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero in his work on mathematical astronomy called the Syntaxis Mathematica, also known as the Almagest.","ɣur 150 n awǎtǎy data annǎbi ɣisa, Ptolemy,omar Hipparchus d Kel Babylone tan , exǎddǎm s mǎris i bǎnnǎn daɣ alxidmǎt net fal astronomi tan mǎtematik tawǎɣrit s Syntaxis Mathematica, tiwǎssǎnǎt s isim wan Almagest."
"""This use was repeated in AD525 in an equivalent table, that was translated via the Latin nulla or """"none"""" by Dionysius Exiguus, alongside Roman numerals.""","“ Axǎdǎm wen olas iji daɣ awǎtǎy wan 525 dǎta annǎbi ɣisa fal tǎbǎl togdǎhǎt , tǎfǎssǎrǎt s Latin nulla meɣ ‘’kala’’ ija Dionysius Exiguus, edes n asidin””"
"The Lokavibhāga, a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated to AD 458 (Saka era 380), uses a decimal place-value system, including a zero.","Lokavibhāga, akǎtǎb fal kosmoloji iddǎrǎn daɣ azzǎmǎn wan afissǎr n Sanskrist n Prakrit wan alǎsǎl amosǎn a ijan daɣ 458 n awǎtǎy darat annǎbi ɣisa (azzǎmǎn wan saka 380), exdǎm s sistem wan alqim n edǎg wan ifrǎsǎn eha bǎnnǎn"
"""In 813, al-Khwarizmi used the Hindu numerals in his astronomical tables.""""""","“Daɣ awǎtǎy wan 813, al-Khwarizmi exdǎm s asidin wan Hindu tan daɣ tabǎl tan net tin astronomi””"
This book was later translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum.,Alkittǎb wen afissǎr darǎt a-wa daɣ Latin daɣ awǎtǎy wan 1200 s eɣaf wan Algoritmi de numero indorum
I pursued my study in depth and learned the give-and-take of disputation.,Okǎyǎɣ daɣ teɣǎre nin hullǎn tolas almǎdǎɣ awa ehǎn unha d armis wan amšikki
"I have striven to compose this book in its entirety as understandably as I could, dividing it into fifteen chapters.",Ijjed assǎhǎt i asirtǎy n alkittǎb wen fuk net s immik wa s ila afǎhǎm daɣ as ti azunǎɣ s sammos albǎbǎn
The nine Indian figures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1.,Isǎssǎrǎn win tǎza n medǎn win India amosǎn: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 .
"254–255 include 0 as a natural number, in which case it is the only natural number that is not positive.",254 har 255 eha 0 amosǎn esǎssǎr n bǎtil daɣ awen amos esǎssǎr n bǎtil war n oleɣ
"As a value or a number, zero is not the same as the digit zero, used in numeral systems with positional notation.","As amos alqim meɣ esǎssǎr , bǎnnǎn war olǎh id iddikud wan bǎnnǎn exdǎmǎn daɣ sistem tan win medǎn ilan edǎg daɣ asimil"
"The number 0 may or may not be considered a natural number, but it is an integer, and hence a rational number and a real number (as well as an algebraic number and a complex number).","Iddikud wan bannan addobat meɣ war addobat ad eqqal iddikud n batil mucham iddikud ikmalan ,daɣ awen iddikud rasyonel d iddikud n tiditt ( hak id iddikud n algebra d iddikud maqqoran)"
"It cannot be prime because it has an infinite number of factors, and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed as a product of prime numbers (as 0 must always be one of the factors).",War addobǎt ad ezzǎr fal as ila esǎssǎr andǎrrǎn n ɣǎmil tan tolas war addobǎt tǎrtit fal as war addobǎt ad eqqil asuj n isǎssǎrǎn wi azzǎrnen (fal as bǎnnǎn ilzǎm ti hǎrkuk ad eqqǎl iyyǎd daɣ ɣǎmil tan )
"These rules apply for any real or complex number x, unless otherwise stated.",Aššǎreɣa tan tin tǎjin- at i esǎssǎr fuk n x adutten meɣ mǎqqorǎn a fal wǎdden s immik as atwǎn.
"The cardinality function, applied to the empty set, returns the empty set as a value, thereby assigning it 0 elements.","Titbǎqet tan anǎtfǎs, tijat i jǎmiɣ war eha hǎrt, suɣil jǎmiɣ war eha hǎrat šund alqim , kuddeɣ as hak 0 titbǎqqa"
"In abstract algebra, 0 is commonly used to denote a zero element, which is a neutral element for addition (if defined on the structure under consideration) and an absorbing element for multiplication (if defined).","Daɣ abstract algebra, 0 t-axdǎm hǎrkuk i asilmǎd n titbǎqet bǎnnǎn amosǎn titbǎqet n muxid i aziyid ( a fal ijja almǎɣna fal edey eɣbǎlǎn) tolas titbǎqet sas-it i anǎtfǎs ( a fal ija almǎɣna)"
"For some quantities, the zero level is naturally distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen.","Daɣ iddikud tan iyyǎd, edǎg wan bǎnnǎn izlay id ihǎndǎgǎn wi yǎdnen as ijja awen i wi yǎdnen amos nefraǎ n bǎnnǎn."
It has been shown that a cluster of four neutrons may be stable enough to be considered an atom in its own right.,At-wǎssǎn as tǎqqimt n neutron tan akkoz addoben ad aj in azukki tan assoɣǎlǎn atom daɣ alxǎq net
"For example, the elements of an array are numbered starting from 0 in C, so that for an array of n items the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to .","Almitǎl, titbǎqqa n mǎjmuɣǎt addun-at s asinti ɣur 0 daɣ C, i as mǎjmuɣǎt tin isuj n ichǎmolǎn n anmilǎy n mǎjmuɣǎt itišil fal 0"
"In databases, it is possible for a field not to have a value.","Daɣ database tan, addobǎt mǎjal ad war ila alqim"
For text fields this is not blank nor the empty string.,I mǎjal tan win akǎtǎb awen war eqqel etǎɣǎs meɣ esǎssǎr war eha hǎrat
Any computation including a null value delivers a null result.,Medǎn fuk eha alqim bǎnnǎn ehak xal n bǎnnǎn
"In Formula One, if the reigning World Champion no longer competes in Formula One in the year following their victory in the title race, 0 is given to one of the drivers of the team that the reigning champion won the title with.","Dǎɣ əmik ən 1, afal emarne ən aduniyat dǎɣ salan winan itimaɣ ogaran Əmik ən 1 dǎɣ awatay waylkaman agaraw dǎɣ azal ən salan, 0 eqal atiwafan dǎɣ manahadan ən tartit dər amosan emarn ən salan dǎɣ atiwakalan fal salan."
Typewriters originally made no distinction in shape between O and 0; some models did not even have a separate key for the digit 0.,"Dǎɣ santo, maəhinetan ən akatab winan itigu tibidawen ən əmik gar O əd 0; iyad almaɣnatan winan ila wala buton ebdan fal amaɗin 0."
"The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems to have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays and has continued with some modern computer typefaces such as Andalé Mono, and in some airline reservation systems.","Amaɗin 0 dər edag dǎɣ amas olahan adiqil adizgaran sund tabarat fal tiset ən IBM 3270 əd təwa ƭ dər niyad ɗoliəetan ən almaɣnatan ən informatiquetan amutaynen sunk Andalé Mono, əd dǎɣ iyad əmikan ən tawaran ən əomɗagnietan aériennetan."
"1 (one, also called unit, and unity) is a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.","1 (iyan, deɣkanen sitawana unité, əd unité) eqalan amaɗin əd amaɗin ən numérique amitkalan fal adigišan amaɗin wen dǎɣ imaɗinan."
"In conventions of sign where zero is considered neither positive nor negative, 1 is the first and smallest positive integer.","Dǎɣ asostanan ən aliɣi ɣur wala eqalan atiwagan sund winan ahuskat wa dijer, 1 eqal wadazaran əd wogaran təmidrit əmdan ahusken."
Most if not all properties of 1 can be deduced from this.,"Iyadak, adiš kul tabaraten ən 1 adoben dǎɣ adiqilan ayfnazan."
It is thus the integer after zero.,Eqal amos amaɗin əmdan darat wala.
"It was transmitted to Europe via the Maghreb and Andalusia during the Middle Ages, through scholarly works written in Arabic.","Eqal atiwanan dǎɣ Europe ɣia ən Maghgeb əd Andalousie dǎɣ Moyen Âge, fal anmitaf ən alkitaban isanen akatab dǎɣ tarabt."
Styles that do not use the long upstroke on digit 1 usually do not use the horizontal stroke through the vertical of the digit 7 either.,Əmikan winan idikil wi zagrotnen adriš ədiskaran fal amaɗin 1winan idikil deɣqanen babo ogaran tasiret tan horizontal dǎɣ tabarat toɣadat dǎɣ amaɗin wa 7.
"By definition, 1 is the magnitude, absolute value, or norm of a unit complex number, unit vector, and a unit matrix (more usually called an identity matrix).","Dǎɣ aliɣi, 1 eqal magnitude, ən valeur absolue meɣ uqud ən amaɗin aśohen ən unitaire, ən ɣeəteur unitaire əd matriəe unitaire (ogaran deɣqanen sitawana matrice atiwazayan)."
"In category theory, 1 is sometimes used to denote the terminal object of a category.","Dǎɣ tabarat ən təbidawen, 1 eqal agudiyan amitkalan fal adiqil harat ən santo ən təbiɗawen."
"Since the base 1 exponential function (1x) always equals 1, its inverse does not exist (which would be called the logarithm base 1 if it did exist).","Falas əšiɣil ebdan dǎɣ santo ən 1 (1x) eqalan harkuk ogdahan ən 1, asimililiy winan tila (eqalan asitawan logarithme dǎɣ santo ən 1 afal tila)."
"Likewise, vectors are often normalized into unit vectors (i.e., vectors of magnitude one), because these often have more desirable properties.","Dǎɣ olahan, əd ɣeəteurtan aqalnen agudiyan atiwasaknan dǎɣ ɣeəteurtan niyadnaɣ (atamosan ən ɣeəteurtan ən magnitude iyandǎɣ), falas awen igrawan agudiyan tabaraten ogarnen atwirh."
It is also the first and second number in the Fibonacci sequence (0 being the zeroth) and is the first number in many other mathematical sequences.,Eqal awen wa dazaran əd wa sisin amaɗin nukiy ən Fibonacci (0 eqalan wala) əd eqal wadazaran amaɗin ən ajotnen iyad ən alkum ən maɗinan.
"Nevertheless, abstract algebra can consider the field with one element, which is not a singleton and is not a set at all.","Mašanatnen, algèbre oɣadnen adobatnen adiqilan ašikriš dər iyadǎɣ harat, awinan eqel singleton əd winan eqel dak ayertayan."
A binary code is a sequence of 1 and 0 that is used in computers for representing any kind of data.,Ufir nəsin eqalan tafirest ən 1 əd 0 eqalan amitkalan dǎɣ ordinateur fal adigiš əmik kul ən huktan.
+1 is the electric charge of positrons and protons.,+1 eqalan tazayt tan électrique ən ɗositrontan əd protontan.
"The Neopythagorean philosopher Nicomachus of Gerasa affirmed that one is not a number, but the source of number.","Təmusne tan néopythagoricien Nicomaque ən Gèrasa tadutat as iyan winan eqel amapin iyan, mašan tabarat tan amapin."
"We Are Number One is a 2014 song from the children's TV show LazyTown, which gained popularity as a meme.","We Are Number One eqalan taswilt ən 2014 tan salan ən télévision fal aratan LazyTown, wa igrawan dǎɣ atwizay dǎɣ awendǎɣ."
In association football (soccer) the number 1 is often given to the goalkeeper.,"Dǎɣ football tartitan (soccer), ən numéro 1 eqalan agudiyan atiwafan dǎɣ amagaz ən but."
1 is the lowest number permitted for use by players of the National Hockey League (NHL); the league prohibited the use of 00 and 0 in the late 1990s (the highest number permitted being 98).,Was 1 eqalan ogaran təmidrit amaɗin agrawan adiqil amitkalan fal kal balo ən Ligue tan akal ən hoəkey (NHL) ; ligue tidgal amitkal ən 00 əd 0 dǎɣ samando ən wityan 1990 (ogarnen təmɣire amaɗin igrawan adiqil was 98).
"Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non-random, by the infinite monkey theorem.","Tafirest dak ən tanamašrat dǎɣ maɗinan atat ihan daw-tifirest ən tizart toɣadat zigret ta tolahat winan tanmašray, tamosat tabarat ən asikin winan itimundu."
"""Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible to """"square the circle"""".""","""Wasisin, sund wala iyan amaɗin transəendantal winan adobat adiqil aykrasan dər əomɗas əd tasasagdahat, wadadobat adiqil """"ayknan efaday ən taɣalaywat""""."""
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya (499 AD).,"Astronome wan indien Aryadhata ašiɣal ɣaleur iyan ən 3,1416 dǎɣ Āryabdhatīya nes (499 AD)."
"The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al-Kāshī produced 9 sexagesimal digits, roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits, in 1424 using a polygon with 3×228 sides, which stood as the world record for about 180 years.","Astronome imbag Jamšīd al-Kāšī ye igi ən 9 maɗinan ən sexagésimaux, olahan ən sund wan 16 maɗinan ən décimaux, dǎɣ 1424 amitkal ən polygone ən 3×228 ən tisigwen, awa asɣaman dǎɣ agaraw wan aduniyat hawendǎɣ had ihomiši 180 nawatay."
These avoid reliance on infinite series.,Tidgal azal ən nilkaman winan itimundu.
"As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also referred to as the Brent–Salamin algorithm.","Awa samos as Salamin atasmatayan əd Brent, eqal deɣqanen asitawana algorithme ən Brent-Salamin."
"This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.","Animašray əd nilkaman winan ila hadi meɣ ən algorithmetan itératif, wa itigizan əd amitkal kul ən maɗinan ən garesan hawendǎɣ har agaraw wan samando mosan animtaf."
Such memorization aids are called mnemonics.,Tidhalen tən ən uduf aqalnen asitawana mnémoniquetan.
The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling.,Imaɗinan aqalnen magornen dǎɣ talɣa ən ešaɣer egtan dǎɣ safala nəmik wan dôme.
"""A numerical digit is a single symbol used alone (such as """"2"""") or in combinations (such as """"25""""), to represent numbers in a positional numeral system.""","""Amaɗin ən numérique eqalan ašikel iyandǎɣ amitkalan intaɣas (atamosan """"2"""") meɣ dǎɣ asirtay (atamosan """"25""""), fal adisikin imaɗinan dǎɣ əmik ən numérique ən ugišawan."""
"A positional number system has one unique digit for each integer from zero up to, but not including, the radix of the number system.","Əmik ən numération ən ugišawan ihan amaɗin iyandǎɣ ye hak amaɗin əmdan ən wala har, mašan dǎɣ wariha, radix ən əmik wan numération."
"The original numerals were very similar to the modern ones, even down to the glyphs used to represent digits.","Əmaɗinan wi santo aqalnen hulen olahnen dər maɗinan wi amutaynen, hawendǎɣ har glyphetan amitkalnen fal ugišawan ən maɗinan."
The Mayas used a shell symbol to represent zero.,Mayas adakalan ašikel ən tefek fal adigiš edag ən wala.
The Thai numeral system is identical to the Hindu–Arabic numeral system except for the symbols used to represent digits.,"Əmik wan numeral ən Thaïlandais eqalan intaɣas dǎɣ əmik ən numeral hindou-arabe, dǎɣ warahen šikelan wi amitkalnen fal adigišan idagan ən maɗinan."
They are both base 3 systems.,Aqalan windak nəsin əmikan dǎɣ santo ən 3.
Several authors in the last 300 years have noted a facility of positional notation that amounts to a modified decimal representation.,"Inumaɣan ajotnen, dǎɣ alwaq wan 300 nelan wi ilkamnen, iliɣen asirɣas ən nasiɗin ən dagan wi awadnen ugušiwan."
"For example, 1111 (one thousand, one hundred and eleven) is a repunit.","Dǎɣ olahan, 1111 (efad, temede əd maraw əd diyan) eqalan asikin."
"Besides counting ten fingers, some cultures have counted knuckles, the space between fingers, and toes as well as fingers.","Dǎɣ ugur nisiɗin ən marawat tisikaɗ, iyad itwigaz aseɗanan gar tisikaɗ, edag wa gar tisikaɗ, əd tisawen dǎɣ ogaran dǎɣ tisikaɗ."
"Stone age cultures, including ancient indigenous American groups, used tallies for gambling, personal services, and trade-goods.","Ətwigazan ən awatay wan tuhunt, dǎɣ ihan wirunen tartiten ən kalakal wi americaintan, dakalnen wi saɗanen fal adalan wi banan, əšiɣil wa manes əd miskalan ən lalan."
"Beginning about 3500 BC, clay tokens were gradually replaced by number signs impressed with a round stylus at different angles in clay tablets (originally containers for tokens) which were then baked.","Dǎɣ aywadan dǎɣ 3500 aɣ. J.-Ə. ihomiši, erkišiɣilan ən talaq aqalan anilkaman dǎɣ amiskal dǎɣ liɣitan ən numérique izgarnen dǎɣ tadhil ən əmik awilaywaynen dǎɣ tisigwen fal tisayen ən talaq (dǎɣ santo ən tisitwir fal krimkraman) wi eqalnen darat awen aygan."
These cuneiform number signs resembled the round number signs they replaced and retained the additive sign-value notation of the round number signs.,Əmikan ən numérique wən cunéiforme olahan ən əmikan wi numérique wa aɣilaywayan wa asmatayan əd itwaran asiɗin wa asiwiɗ ən ɣaleur wa əmik wa nəmikan ən numériquetan wi aɣilalwaynen.
Sexagesimal numerals were a mixed radix system that retained the alternating base 10 and base 6 in a sequence of cuneiform vertical wedges and chevrons.,Əmaɗinan wi sexagesimaux aqalan əmik wan radix ertayan wa isadawan santo ən 10 əd santo ən 6 artaynen dǎɣ tafurust ən nadag əd ən šaɣeran oɣadnen ən cunéiforme.
Unique numbers of troops and measures of rice appear as unique combinations of these tallies.,Əmaɗinan iyadǎɣ ən tartit əd akotan wi tafaɣat izgaranid sund isirtayan iyadǎɣ ən asimusuɣil neɗan.
Conventional tallies are quite difficult to multiply and divide.,Imasaɗinan wən tiridawt aqalan andiran dǎɣ aśuhu ye ɗesan əd tuzant.
"Jews began using a similar system (Hebrew numerals), with the oldest examples known being coins from around 100 BC.","Juiftan asintan adakal əmik olahan (əmaɗinan ən hébraïque), wi ogarnen turut isiknitan atiwazaynen aqalnen aybdan ən imbešta ən harwa aywadan 100 dat."
"The Maya of Central America used a mixed base 18 and base 20 system, possibly inherited from the Olmec, including advanced features such as positional notation and a zero.","Mayas wən Amérique tanamas adakalan əmik ertayan dǎɣ santo ən 18 əd dǎɣ santo ən 20, amosan adizgaran dǎɣ Olmequetan, ahan talɣiwen azarnen atamosnen asiɗin ən dagan əd wala."
"Knowledge of the encodings of the knots and colors was suppressed by the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century, and has not survived although simple quipu-like recording devices are still used in the Andean region.","Təmusne ən nufur ən timikras əd initan eqal aygmadan fal conquistador ən esɗagnoltan dǎɣ 16ème temede nawatay, əd wadider, ahuskat as haratan nadakal ən banan ən əmik quiɗu amosan harwa amitkalan dǎɣ akal ən andine."
Zero was first used in India in the 7th century CE by Brahmagupta.,Wala eqal amitkalan fal wadazaran ehandag dǎɣ Inde dǎɣ 7e temede nawatay ən alwaq wananaɣ fal Brahmaguɗta.
"Arabic mathematicians extended the system to include decimal fractions, and Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī wrote an important work about it in the 9th  century.","Kal maɗinan ən araban asewaɗan əmik fal adigišan fraətiontan ən déəimal, əd Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Kwārizmī əktab alkitab iknan ye salan wən 9e temede nawatay."
"The binary system (base 2), was propagated in the 17th century by Gottfried Leibniz.","Əmik wasisin (santo 2), eqal amšaršaran dǎɣ 17ème temede nawatay fal Goƭfried Leibniz."
"The variables for which the equation has to be solved are also called unknowns, and the values of the unknowns that satisfy the equality are called solutions of the equation.","Təmotayen tə amosnen alɣisab anihaga adiqil adikin aqalan intanedǎɣ asitawana awinan atwazay, əd valeurtan winan atwazay wi sagdahnen asisigdah eqalan asitawana aliɣi ən alɣisab."
A conditional equation is only true for particular values of the variables.,Alɣisab iyan tanhat winan eqel tidit aswaden valeurtan iyad ən təmotayen.
Very often the right-hand side of an equation is assumed to be zero.,"Hulen agudiyan, tasaga tan aɣil ən alɣisab eqalan amosan agdahan ən wala."
An equation is analogous to a scale into which weights are placed.,Alɣisab eqalan analogue iyan akot dǎɣ amosan dǎɣ itawaga azayan.
"This is the starting idea of algebraic geometry, an important area of mathematics.","Eqal anuzgum ən santo géométrie ən algébrique, ən tabarat tinfat dǎɣ maɗinan."
"To solve equations from either family, one uses algorithmic or geometric techniques that originate from linear algebra or mathematical analysis.","Fal kanan ən alɣisaban ən iyandǎɣ meɣ niyat terwe, amitkalan təmusnawen ən algorithmetan meɣ géométriquetan wi idizgarnen dǎɣ algèbre anilkaman meɣ ən akayad ən maɗinan."
"These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of solutions.","Alɣisaban wən aqalan dǎɣ atiwasanan aśohen; nitamaɣ agudiyan ɣas ye agaraw atwimal meɣ ibanamel ən aliɣi, əd, afal atitila, ye asiɗin ən hadi ən liɣitan."
"In the illustration, x, y and z are all different quantities (in this case real numbers) represented as circular weights, and each of x, y, and z has a different weight.","Dǎɣ atwisanan, x, y əd z aqalnen daknasnat haditan abdanen (dǎɣ awen, ən haditan atiwasanen) igašnen daw almaɣna ən azayan aɣilalwayan, əd hak x, y əd z ən tazayt tabdat."
"Hence, the equation with R unspecified is the general equation for the circle.","Dǎɣ awen, alɣisab dər R winan atwasan eqalan alɣisab atiwasan ən taɣalaywayt."
"The process of finding the solutions, or, in case of parameters, expressing the unknowns in terms of the parameters, is called solving the equation.","Əšiɣil wa eqalan ye agaraw ən ləɣitan meɣ, dǎɣ əmik ən tabarat, ta saknet wiwinan atwazay dǎɣ əšiɣil ən tabarat, eqalan asitawan asikin ən alɣisab."
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an equation by a non-zero quantity.,Asinimiƭif meɣ tazant ən winisin təsigwen ən alɣisab fal hadi winan eqel wala.
An algebraic equation is univariate if it involves only one variable.,Alɣisab ən algébrique eqalan atimutuyan afal witugu ugiš ən iyandǎɣ tamotayt.
"In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is the basis and a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in most parts of modern mathematics.","Dǎɣ maɗinan, təmusne ən əmikan anilkamnen ataqal santo əd aɣil ən atiwasan ən algèbre anilkaman, ən salan wi aqalnen amitkalan dǎɣ agudiyan ən aɣilan ən maɗinan wi amutaynen."
This formalism allows one to determine the positions and the properties of the focuses of a conic.,Almana wən aytagu ye adisikin əmikan əd tabaraten ən kadewan ən conique.
"This point of view, outlined by Descartes, enriches and modifies the type of geometry conceived of by the ancient Greek mathematicians.","Tatbiqet ten ən nahanay, tizgarat fal Descartes, tasewaɗ əd simutuy əmik ən géométrie ihan fal wi urunen amasaɗinan ən grektan."
An exponential Diophantine equation is one for which exponents of the terms of the equation can be unknowns.,Alɣisab ən diofantien ebdan eqalan alɣisab iyan fal atamosan wizazgarnen ən šikelan ən alɣisab adobatnen adiqilan winan atwasan.
"Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.","Géométrie algébrique amutayan eqalan ayhan fal təmusnawen ogarnen atwisan ən algèbre atiwasanan, dǎɣ aybdan ən algèbre ən asirtay, dər magrad əd asibaban ən géométrie."
A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.,Tatbiqet iyat ən tidawt tahat alalawa ən algébrique afal əsiknitan nes sagdahnen alɣisab ən polynomial ən hukitan.
"In pure mathematics, differential equations are studied from several different perspectives, mostly concerned with their solutions — the set of functions that satisfy the equation.","Dǎɣ maɗinan wi aridnen, alɣisab wi abdanen aqalan atiwaɣranen daw dangan ajotnen abɗanen, dǎɣ tarha atamosan ye liɣitan nasan -tartit ən əšiɣilan wi sasagdahnen alɣisab."
"Linear differential equations, which have solutions that can be added and multiplied by coefficients, are well-defined and understood, and exact closed-form solutions are obtained.","Alɣisaban wi abdanen anilkamnen, əs liɣitan adobatnen adiqilan awiɗan əd asinimiƭif fal coeffiəientan, aqalan ahusken atiwasanan əd atiwafhaman, əd liɣitan oɣadnen daw əmik iharan aqalan atiwagrawan."
"PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics.","EDP adoben adiqilan amitkalan fal adalaɣen tidit maqarat ən alwaqan atamosnen anazar, takast, éleətrostatique, éleətrodynamique, tanaɣla ən aynagayan, aytimsisiran meɣ ikanan ən quantique."
A solution is an assignment of values to the unknown variables that makes the equality in the equation true.,Aliɣi iyan eqal asimišwir ən ɣaleurtandǎɣ təmotayen winan atwazay tə taganen tigdaha ən alɣisab wa aduten.
The set of all solutions of an equation is its solution set.,Tartit ən kul əliɣitan ən alɣisab eqalan dǎɣ tartit ən liɣitan nes.
"Depending on the context, solving an equation may consist to find either any solution (finding a single solution is enough), all solutions, or a solution that satisfies further properties, such as belonging to a given interval.","Dǎɣ maɣulat ən taberat, aliɣi ən alɣisab adobat adumas umaɣ amosan harat dak ən aliɣi (umaɣ ən iyandǎɣ aliɣi igdah), meɣ kul əliɣitan, meɣ aliɣi iyandǎɣ igdahan ye tabaraten tiyad, sund adiha agutus atiwahakan."
"In this case, the solutions cannot be listed.","Dǎɣ awen, əliɣitan wadadoben adiqilan aytawasaɗanan."
"The variety in types of equations is large, and so are the corresponding methods.","Təɗidawt ən əmikan ən alɣisaban eqal amaqaran, əd təmusnawen ihanen aqalnat intanatedǎɣ."
This may be due to a lack of mathematical knowledge; some problems were only solved after centuries of effort.,Awen adobat adiqil aygan dǎɣ iba ən təmusnawen ən maɗinan; iyad asibaban waraqelan ayknan as darat timaɗ nelan ən irum.
Polynomials appear in many areas of mathematics and science.,Polynômetan zagaranid dǎɣ ajotnen tabaraten ən maɗinan əd təmusnawen.
Many authors use these two words interchangeably.,Ajotnen ənumaɣan adakalan wi nəsin tifir ən almaɣna ən təmotayen.
"Formally, the name of the polynomial is P, not P(x), but the use of the functional notation P(x) dates from a time when the distinction between a polynomial and the associated function was unclear.","Dǎɣ əmik atiwalaɣen, əsim ən polynome eqalan P, əd waden P(x), mašan amitkal ən asiɗin ən əšiɣil ən P(x) alwaq ən alɣisab ɣur təbiɗawt ən gar polynôme əd əšiɣil ihan winan eqel aridan."
"However, one may use it over any domain where addition and multiplication are defined (that is, any ring).","Agudendǎɣ, nadobat anitkil fal tabarat dak ɣur asiwiɗ əd asinimiƭif aqalan atiwasanan (atamosan dak taɣalalwayt)."
Polynomials of small degree have been given specific names.,Polynômetan ən degré wan andiran igrawan əsimawan atiwasanen.
"The polynomial 0, which may be considered to have no terms at all, is called the zero polynomial.","Polynôme 0, wa adoben adiqil atiwagan sund winan ila wala ihan əmik, eqalan asitawa polynome ən wala."
"Because the degree of a non-zero polynomial is the largest degree of any one term, this polynomial has degree two.","Sund degré ən polynôme winan eqel wala eqalan ogaran təmɣire ən degré ən əmik iyan, polynôme wen eqalan ən degré nəsin."
"Polynomials can be classified by the number of terms with nonzero coefficients, so that a one-term polynomial is called a monomial, a two-term polynomial is called a binomial, and a three-term polynomial is called a trinomial.","Polynômetan adobatnen adiqilan akitlen dǎɣ əšiɣil ən hadi ən əmik ən koeffisientan winan eqel ba, dǎɣ almaɣna as polynôme ila əmik eqalan asitawa monomial, polynôme ən əsin əmikan eqalan asitawa binomial əd ɗolynôme ən karad əmikan eqalan asitawa trinomial."
"When it is used to define a function, the domain is not so restricted.","Agud wa eqal amitkalan fal adisikin əšiɣil, ən tabarat winan eqel deɣ akuruzan."
"A polynomial in one indeterminate is called a univariate polynomial, a polynomial in more than one indeterminate is called a multivariate polynomial.","Polynôme winan ila hadi ahas itawanen polynôme itimutuyan, polynôme ən ajotnen winan ila hadi sitawana polynôme tinimtafen."
"In the case of the field of complex numbers, the irreducible factors are linear.","Dǎɣ awen ən ašikriš ən haditan aśohatnen, facteurtan winan ifiniz aqalan anilkaman."
"If the degree is higher than one, the graph does not have any asymptote.","Afal degré eqalan ogaran iyandǎɣ, alalawa winan ila asymptote."
"In elementary algebra, methods such as the quadratic formula are taught for solving all first degree and second degree polynomial equations in one variable.","Dǎɣ algèbre ən banan, təmusnawen amosnen ən tabarat ən quadratique aqalnen atiwasaɣran fal kanan kul nalɣisaban polynomialetan ən wadazaran əd wasisin degré dǎɣ tamotayt."
"However, root-finding algorithms may be used to find numerical approximations of the roots of a polynomial expression of any degree.","Agudendǎɣ, algorithmetan ən umaɣ ən azaran adobatnen adiqilan amitkalan fal agaraw ən ihomiši ən numériquetan ən azaran ən magrad polynomial ən dak degré."
"Since the 16th century, similar formulas (using cube roots in addition to square roots), but much more complicated are known for equations of degree three and four (see cubic equation and quartic equation).","Harwa dǎɣ 16e temede nawatay, ən tabaraten olahnen (dakalnen azaran ən əubiquetan dǎɣ ogaran dǎɣ azaran ogdahan), mašan ajotnen ogarnen aśuhu aqalnen atiwazayan fal alɣisab ən degré ən karad əd ikoz (anhiy alɣisab ən əubique əd alɣisab ən quartique)."
"In 1830, Évariste Galois proved that most equations of degree higher than four cannot be solved by radicals, and showed that for each equation, one may decide whether it is solvable by radicals, and, if it is, solve it.","Dǎɣ 1830, Évariste Galois asikna as iyadak dǎɣ alɣisaban ən degré ogaran ikoz waradoben adiqil ayknan fal radiəautan, əd isikna as hak alɣisab, nadobat ananu as taqal aylayaman fal radikotan, əd, afal taqal, ye kanan."
"Nevertheless, formulas for solvable equations of degrees 5 and 6 have been published (see quintic function and sextic equation).","Dǎɣ awen, tabaraten ən alɣisaban salyamnen ən degré 5 əd 6 aqalan adizgaran (anhiy əšiɣil ən quintique əd alɣisab sextique)."
"The most efficient algorithms allow solving easily (on a computer) polynomial equations of degree higher than 1,000 (see Root-finding algorithm).",Algorithmetan wi ogarnen aśuhu atagan ye kanan raqisnen (fal iyan ordinateur) alɣisaban polynomialetan ən degré ogaran 1000 (anhiy Root-finding algorithm).
"For a set of polynomial equations in several unknowns, there are algorithms to decide whether they have a finite number of complex solutions, and, if this number is finite, for computing the solutions.","Fal tartit ən alɣisaban polynomialetan dǎɣ ajotnen winan atwasan, ilanti algorithmetan taganen ye asikin afal ilanat hadi amidan ən aliɣi aśohen, əd, afal hadi iyan eqalan amindan, ən tidas ən liɣitan."
A polynomial equation for which one is interested only in the solutions which are integers is called a Diophantine equation.,Alɣisab ən polynomial fal atamosan as waden atiwarhan ye liɣitan wi aqalnen aymdan eqalan asitawa alɣisab ən Diofantie.
"The coefficients may be taken as real numbers, for real-valued functions.","Coefficientan adobatnen adiqilan amitkalan sund haditan wi itbanen, fal əšiɣilan ən valeurtan itbatnen."
This equivalence explains why linear combinations are called polynomials.,Tigdaha ten asakna awa fal isirtayan anilkamnen aqalan asitawana polynômetan.
"""In the case of coefficients in a ring, """"non-constant"""" must be replaced by """"non-constant or non-unit"""" (both definitions agree in the case of coefficients in a field).""","""Dǎɣ awen koeffisientan ən taɣalalwayt, anihaga adisimutiy """"babo-winan itimutuy"""" fal """"babo-winan atwasan meɣ babo-iyandǎɣ"""". (Wi nəsin əsiknitan iglanen dǎɣ awen ən koeffisientan dǎɣ ašikriš iyan)."""
"When the coefficients belong to integers, rational numbers or a finite field, there are algorithms to test irreducibility and to compute the factorization into irreducible polynomials (see Factorization of polynomials).","Agud wa koeffisientan ahan dǎɣ entiertan, əmaɗinan ən rationneltan meɣ taɣisa timindat, ilanti algorithmetan taganen tirimnen ifanazan əd tidas ən fanazan dǎɣ polynômetan winan ifiniz (anhiy əšiɣil wa polynômetan)."
The characteristic polynomial of a matrix or linear operator contains information about the operator's eigenvalues.,Polynôme wa talɣa ən matris meɣ emag ilkaman iahan salan fal valeurtan aridnen ən emag.
"However, the elegant and practical notation we use today only developed beginning in the 15th century.","Agudendǎɣ, asiɗin ən ayknan əd aytawagen was itamatkalan ešalidǎɣ winan eqel awiɗan dǎɣ ugud ən 15ème temede nawatay."
"""This """"completes the square"""", converting the left side into a perfect square.""","""Awen """"isawaɗ wa ogdahan"""", simliliyan tasaga tan tašalmad dǎɣ wa ogdahan."""
"Descartes' theorem states that for every four kissing (mutually tangent) circles, their radii satisfy a particular quadratic equation.","Təmusne tan Descartes stipule ye fal kul wi tinukoz tiɣalalwayen tə tatafnen (təmotayen ən tangent), izarazaran nasan gadahan ye alɣisab quadratique ebdan."
Babylonian mathematicians from circa 400 BC and Chinese mathematicians from circa 200 BC used geometric methods of dissection to solve quadratic equations with positive roots.,Imasaɗinan ən babylonientan ihomiši 400 dat J.-C. əd imasaɗinan wi əhinoistan ihomiši 200 dat J.-C. atkalan təmusnawen ən géométriquetan ən təbiɗawt fal kanan ən alɣisaban quadratique ən azaran wi awiɗnen.
"Euclid, the Greek mathematician, produced a more abstract geometrical method around 300 BC.","Euclide, amaɗin wa greə, iga dǎɣ edag ən təmusne ən géométrique ogaran 300 atwinhay ibret dat Jésus-Christ."
"Al-Khwarizmi goes further in providing a full solution to the general quadratic equation, accepting one or two numerical answers for every quadratic equation, while providing geometric proofs in the process.","Al-Kwārizmī ika ogaran igig dǎɣ agay ən aliɣi imdan ən alɣisab quadratique atiwasanan, erɗan iyan meɣ əsin əsiknitan ən numérique fal hak alɣisab quadratique, dak dǎɣ agay ən sidutitan ən géométriquetan dǎɣ tabarat."
"Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam (Egypt, 10th century) in particular was the first to accept irrational numbers (often in the form of a square root, cube root or fourth root) as solutions to quadratic equations or as coefficients in an equation.","Abū Kāmil Šujā ibn Aslam (Misra, 10e temede nawatay) dǎɣ təbiɗawt eqal wadazaran ye tiridawt ən maɗinan ən irrationnel (agudiyan daw əmik ən azar ogdahan, ən azar ən əubique meɣ ən azar wasikoz) sund əliɣitan ɣur alɣisaban quadratiquetan meɣ sund koeffisientan dǎɣ alɣisab iyan."
His solution was largely based on Al-Khwarizmi's work.,Aliɣi nes eqal hulen ayhan fal əšiɣilan ən Al-Khwarizmi.
"However, at some point the quadratic formula begins to lose accuracy because of round off error, while the approximate method continues to improve.","Agudendǎɣ, dǎɣ alwaq atiwafan, təmusne tan quadratique təsinta ye agamaɗ ən asidutu nes dǎɣ tidit ən awinan ikna a imamaran, mašan as təmusne tan zahazan okaynen ən adimutiyan."
"Methods of numerical approximation existed, called prosthaphaeresis, that offered shortcuts around time-consuming operations such as multiplication and taking powers and roots.","Ilanti təmusnawen ən zahazan ən numérique, asitawana ɗrosthaɗhaeresis, ta hakat tabaraten gazolnen fal aɣalay ən əšiɣilan ən chronofage Atamosnen asinimiƭif əd adakal ən azaway əd azaran."
"Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science, and economics.","Algorithmetan ən tidas taganen ye agaraw ən liɣitan taganen tasaga tiknat ən algèbre anilkaman ən numérique əd itagu əšiɣil ašohen ən təmusne, ən ahanay, dǎɣ shimie, dǎɣ informatik əd dǎɣ atawar."
"For solutions in an integral domain like the ring of the integers, or in other algebraic structures, other theories have been developed, see Linear equation over a ring.","Fal liɣitan dǎɣ tabarat tahat sund taɣalaywayt ən entiertan, meɣ dǎɣ iyad tabaraten ən algébrique, diyad təmusnawen asewaɗnat, anhiy Alɣisab anilkaman fal taɣalaywayt iyat."
"This allows all the language and theory of vector spaces (or more generally, modules) to be brought to bear.",Awen itagu ye igitan dǎɣ alkitab dak ən magrad əd təmusne ən dagan ən vektorieltan (meɣ ogaran atamosan moduletan).
Such a system is known as an underdetermined system.,Awen əmik eqalan atiwazayan ən əmik ən daw-atiwasaknan.
"The second system has a single unique solution, namely the intersection of the two lines.","Wa səsin əmik ən aliɣi iyandǎɣ, atamosan animgaš ən əsin tisirad."
Any two of these equations have a common solution.,Wi səsin winan atwasan ən alɣisaban igraw aliɣi atiwaharan.
A system of equations whose left-hand sides are linearly independent is always consistent.,Əmik ən alɣisaban əs tisigwen ən tašalmad aqalnen anilkaman ən tanhat nasan eqalan harkuk ašohen.
This yields a system of equations with one fewer equation and one fewer unknown.,Nigaraw əmik iyan ən alɣisaban dər alɣisab ən nagamaɗ əd winan atwasan dǎɣ agamaɗ.
Type 3: Add to one row a scalar multiple of another.,Əmik 3 : Asiwid ən tasiret asinimiƭif ən skalaire ən iyat tasiret.
"For instance, systems with a symmetric positive definite matrix can be solved twice as fast with the Cholesky decomposition.","Dǎɣ olahan, əmikan dər ən matriəe ən namas atiwasan nayknan adobatnen adiqil ayknan əsin hadagan ogarnen urmaɗ dər təbiɗawen ən Cholesky."
"A completely different approach is often taken for very large systems, which would otherwise take too much time or memory.","Ihaz imdan as azalayat eqal agud iyan atwətkal ye haratan iknanen tamvare, dakəlnen hulen səməkiyan alwəq mev təkətawt."
This leads to the class of iterative methods.,Awen itiwiy dǎɣ tabarat ən təmusnawen anelasnen.
"In mathematics, a series is, roughly speaking, a description of the operation of adding infinitely many quantities, one after the other, to a given starting quantity.","Dǎɣ maɗinan, anilkaman eqal, dǎɣ hadi, iliɣitan ən tabarat taganen ye asiwid ən awinan itimundu ən təwaƭ, iyad darat iyad, ən təwaƭ ən santo atiwafan."
"In addition to their ubiquity in mathematics, infinite series are also widely used in other quantitative disciplines such as physics, computer science, statistics and finance.","Agudiyan emel harkuk ən maɗinan, inilkaman winan itimundu aqalnen deɣqanen is tihurut amitkalan dǎɣ iyad adinan haditan atamosnen awa itawanhayan, informatique, statistiquetan əd azruf."
"Zeno's paradox of Achilles and the tortoise illustrates this counterintuitive property of infinite sums: Achilles runs after a tortoise, but when he reaches the position of the tortoise at the beginning of the race, the tortoise has reached a second position; when he reaches this second position, the tortoise is at a third position, and so on.","Animašrayan ye Zenon fal Achille əd efarɣas wa aśohen ən tabarat ten tidgal-asirid ən nilkaman winan itimundu : Achille ošal darat efarɣas, mašan agud wa ɗiwaɗ edag was efarɣas dǎɣ santo ən azal, efarɣas iwaɗ edag wa səsin ; agud wa ɗiwaɗ ten əs sanatat tedagit, efarɣas eqal as edag was karad, əd dǎɣ anelasan."
"This argument does not prove that the sum is equal to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is at most 2.","Isalan wən waradoben as hadi eqalan ogdahan ən 2 (ahuskat as atitiqil), mašan tadobat as ataqal ogaran ogdahan əd 2."
"Tests for uniform convergence include the Weierstrass' M-test, Abel's uniform convergence test, Dini's test, and the Cauchy criterion.","Irum wan waykan olahan ilan irum ən M ən Weierstrass, irum wa ikan olahan ən Abel, irum ən Dini əd talɣa tan Cauchy."
"The convergence is uniform on closed and bounded (that is, compact) subsets of the interior of the disc of convergence: to wit, it is uniformly convergent on compact sets.","Awaykan eqalan olahan fal daw tirtiten iganen əd idbalnen (atamosan aśuhu ən amas ən taɣaya ən aykan: dǎɣ iyad əmikan, ataqal olahnen ən aykan fal dǎɣ tirtiten ašohatnen."
The Hilbert–Poincaré series is a formal power series used to study graded algebras.,Anilkam ən Hilbert-Poincaré eqalan anilkaman ən aśahat atiwasanan dǎɣ amitkal fal teɣare ən algebretan ošwalnen.
"In the 17th century, James Gregory worked in the new decimal system on infinite series and published several Maclaurin series.","Dǎɣ 17e temede nawatay, James Gregory ašiɣal dǎɣ aynayan əmik ən désimal fal nilkaman winan itimundu əd azizgar ajotnen nilkaman ən Maclaurin."
"Cauchy (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria.","Cauchy (1821) isihušul fal iruman oɣadnen ikanen ; saknen as afal əsin nilkaman aqalan aykan anmiƭaf nasan winan eqel ayfan, əd dər diris isinta ihanayan ən talɣiwen aśohatnen."
A summability method is such an assignment of a limit to a subset of the set of divergent series which properly extends the classical notion of convergence.,Təmusne iyat ən sommabilite eqalan asimišwir iyan ən samando ən daw-tartit ən tartit ən nilkaman ikanen wi basarnen əs tihusay ən təmusne tatiwasanat ən anilkam.
Indian scholars have been using factorial formulas since at least the 12th century.,Əmusanan wi indientan adakalan tabaraten tən təzunawen harwa aywadan was 12e temede nawatay.
"In functional languages, the recursive definition is often implemented directly to illustrate recursive functions.","Dǎɣ Əmigridan ən əšiɣilan, aliɣi ən manes eqalan agudiyan eqtan dǎɣ uqud fal asiknin əšiɣilan ən manes."
Other implementations (such as computer software such as spreadsheet programs) can often handle larger values.,Iyad isiqtitan (sund logiəieltan ən informatik atamosan kal tisikuyma) adoben agudiyan adikinin valeurtan ogarnen təmɣire.
"Compared to the Pickover definition of the superfactorial, the hyperfactorial grows relatively slowly.","Ye sund aliɣi wan Pickover wan təzunawen iknanen, ogarnen təzunawen aɣelnat intanatedǎɣ ahin ilan."
"There are, relatively speaking, no such simple solutions for factorials; no finite combination of sums, products, powers, exponential functions, or logarithms will suffice to express ; but it is possible to find a general formula for factorials using tools such as integrals and limits from calculus.","Wartilen, dǎɣ magrad ən tišdige, adabaratan deɣ raqisnen fal təzunawen; wala iyan asirtay amindan ən hadi, ən sinimitafan, ən aśuhu, əšiɣilan amutaynen meɣ ən logarithmetan war igdehan ye atan ikisan; mašan eqal adoben agaraw ən tabarat tatiwasanat fal təzunawen dǎɣ dakalan ən lalan atamosan ugišawan əd samando ən tidas."
"The integrals we have discussed so far involve transcendental functions, but the gamma function also arises from integrals of purely algebraic functions.","Ugišawan amosnen wi nimigrad hawendǎɣ har amaradǎɣ ikanen əšiɣilan adizubatnen, mašan əšiɣil wan gamma adifal intadǎɣ ugišawan ən əšiɣil aridan ən algébriquetan."
"By taking limits, certain rational products with infinitely many factors can be evaluated in terms of the gamma function as well.","Dǎɣ adakal ən samandotan, iyad sinimitafan ən rationneltan ən fakteurtan winan iminda adobatnen deɣqanen adiqilan aykatan dǎɣ əmikan ən əšiɣil wan gamma."
"Its history, notably documented by Philip J. Davis in an article that won him the 1963 Chauvenet Prize, reflects many of the major developments within mathematics since the 18th century.","Tafunft tan əšiɣil wa gamma, tiktabat atamosan fal Philip J. Dǎvis dǎɣ salan wis inta ina alhak wan Chauvenet dǎɣ 1963, saknu hadi ahusken ən ti aqalnen təwaɗen ən maɗinan harwa18e temede nawatay."
"Instead of finding a specialized proof for each formula, it would be desirable to have a general method of identifying the gamma function.","Dǎɣ umaɣ ən agaraw ən tidit tatiwasanat fal hak təmusne, adiqil anihagan ye agaraw ən təmusne tatiwasanat fal asikin ən əšiɣil ən gamma."
"However, the gamma function does not appear to satisfy any simple differential equation.","Ugudendǎɣ, əšiɣil ən gamma olah das warigde ye wala iyan alɣisab ən təbiɗawen ən banan."
The Bohr–Mollerup theorem is useful because it is relatively easy to prove logarithmic convexity for any of the different formulas used to define the gamma function.,Təmusne tan Bohr-Mollerup eqalan amitkalan falas eqal deɣqanen ariqisan ye asikin ən ašiśuhu ən logarithmique fal dak ən təbiɗawen ən tabaraten amitkalnen fal asiknin əšiɣil ən gamma.
"As electronic computers became available for the production of tables in the 1950s, several extensive tables for the complex gamma function were published to meet the demand, including a table accurate to 12 decimal places from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards.","Ugud was ordinateurtan ən éleətroniquetan aqalnen atilan fal igitan ən təsayen dǎɣ elan wi 1950, ajotnen təsayen ibsarnen fal əšiɣil ən gamma aśohen aqalan adizgaran fal asudmir ən asistan, dǎɣ iha tasayt tatiwasanat dǎɣ 12 desimaltan ən National Bureau of Standard ən États-Unis."
"In science, a formula is a concise way of expressing information symbolically, as in a mathematical formula or a chemical formula.","Dǎɣ təmusne, tabarat taqalat ašahat ən anilkaman ye azizgar ən əmik dawla, sund dǎɣ tabarat ən maɗinan meɣ ən tabarat ən shimik."
"In mathematics, a formula generally refers to an identity which equates one mathematical expression to another, with the most important ones being mathematical theorems.","Dǎɣ maɗinan, tabarat sakna atamosan aliɣi iyan wa itagan dǎɣ alɣisab ən salan ən mathematiquetan aɣil iyan, ogaran tənifawt eqalan təmusnawen ən maɗinan."
"This convention, while less important in a relatively simple formula, means that mathematicians can more quickly manipulate formulas which are larger and more complex.","Təridawt ten, ahuskat as ifnaz tanfo dǎɣ tabarat iyat intadǎɣ ən banan, tagu dǎɣ maɗinan ta wadasnen ogarnen tarmide ən tabaraten ogarnen təmɣire əd ogarnen ašuhu."
"For example, H2O is the chemical formula for water, specifying that each molecule consists of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom.","Dǎɣ asikin, H2O eqalan tabarat ən shimiq ən aman, isaknen ye hak molékil eqalan atiwagan əs əsin atometan ən hydrogène (H) əd atome ən oxygène (O)."
"In empirical formulas, these proportions begin with a key element and then assign numbers of atoms of the other elements in the compound—as ratios to the key element.","Dǎɣ tabaraten ən təɣirmaten, iɣilan asintan fal harat iyan itbatan əd hakan agudiyan haditan ən atometan ən niyad haratan dǎɣ tartit - dǎɣ tumast ən salan ən harat wa atiwasanan."
"Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written as empirical formulas which contains only the whole numbers.",Iyad əmikan ən asirtayan ən ioniquetan waradoben agudendǎɣ adiqilan ayktaban daw tabarat ən tabaraten ən təɣirmaten winan ila haditan əmdanen.
"There are several types of these formulas, including molecular formulas and condensed formulas.","Ilanti ajotnen əmikan ən tabaraten, atamosnen tabaraten ən molékilairetan əd tabaraten itamnen."
Functions were originally the idealization of how a varying quantity depends on another quantity.,Əšiɣilan aqalnen ən santo ən nuzguman ən əmik atamosan ən təwaƭ tabdat aswaden iyan haditan.
"""This definition of """"graph"""" refers to a set of pairs of objects.""","""""Aliɣi wen ən """"graphe"""" itagan isiknitan ən tartit ən əsin haratan."""
"When the domain and the codomain are sets of real numbers, each such pair may be thought of as the Cartesian coordinates of a point in the plane.","Agud was tabarat əd zaboten aqalnat ayertayan ən haditan atiwasanen, hak wa səsin adobat adiqil atiwagan sund koordonnéetan ən kartésien ən tatbiqet dǎɣ atiwanan."
"Occasionally, it may be identified with the function, but this hides the usual interpretation of a function as a process.","Agudiyan, nadobat aniziy əšiɣil, mašan awen itafar iliɣitan atiwasanen ən əšiɣil sund atiwasanagan."
"A map can have any set as its codomain, while, in some contexts, typically in older books, the codomain of a function is specifically the set of real or complex numbers.","Tesayt tadobat atigriw dak asirtay sund zaboten, indele, dǎɣ iyad tabaraten, atamosnen dǎɣ alkitaban ogarnen tərut, ən zabo ən əšiɣil eqalan atiwasanan dǎɣ tartit ən haditan atiwasanen meɣ ašohatnen."
Another common example is the error function.,Iyan asikin atiwasanan eqalan əšiɣil ən ayšlayan.
Power series can be used to define functions on the domain in which they converge.,Inalkimən ən assahat adoben adəqəlan iji ye aləɣi ən ashəɣəlan fal edag wa dǎɣ galant.
"Then, the power series can be used to enlarge the domain of the function.","Darat awen, inalkimən ən assahat adoben adəqəlan iji ye assəhraw ən edag wan ashəɣəl."
Parts of this may create a plot that represents (parts of) the function.,Tishruten ən edag wen adobatnat adəjinat tassəret saknet (tishruten ən) ashəɣəl.
This is the canonical factorization of .,Awen amoss afənazat tolahat ən.
"At that time, only real-valued functions of a real variable were considered, and all functions were assumed to be smooth.","Ɣor azaman,ashəɣəlan ɣas win təmɣar tadutet ən tamətuyt taduten aqalan atwətkal, izar ashəɣəlan kul aqalan amossan ashiləlaken."
Functions are now used throughout all areas of mathematics.,Ashəɣəlan aqalan darat awa ayjan dǎɣ dəgan kul win maɗinan.
"This is how inverse trigonometric functions are defined in terms of trigonometric functions, where the trigonometric functions are monotonic.","Awen dǎɣ as ashəɣəlan ən maɗinan amləlaynen aqalan atwən dǎɣ ashəɣəlan ən maɗinan, agud was ashəɣəlan ən maɗinan aqalan awaren itəmətuy."
"Usefulness of the concept of multi-valued functions is clearer when considering complex functions, typically analytic functions.","Enəfi ən tənna ən ashəɣəlan ən təmɣəren ajotnen taqal aduten agud wad nəssəmɣar ashəɣəlan əmdanen, milhaw ən ashəɣəlan anizjamen."
Such a function is called the principal value of the function.,Ashəɣəl wen atiwəɣra as təmɣər tazarat ən ashəɣəl.
Functional programming is the programming paradigm consisting of building programs by using only subroutines that behave like mathematical functions.,Taqan tajət taqal mənhuy ən taqan tənfat akarass ən taqanen dǎɣ iji ɣas ən daw tahajit teməshaɣəlt sund ashəɣəlan ən maɗinan.
"""Except for computer-language terminology, """"function"""" has the usual mathematical meaning in computer science.""","Dǎɣ azajor ən samədo ən magrad ən səslo,"""" ashəɣəl """"ila tənna ən maɗin atiwəzayan dəɣ tənna."""
"Terms are manipulated through some rules, (the -equivalence, the -reduction, and the -conversion), which are the axioms of the theory and may be interpreted as rules of computation.","Tənaten aqalnat atiwədassən as tənaten, (tigdəhawt, afənazət, ad assəməliliy), aqalnen inəhəja ən tamusne izar adoben atwələɣi sund tənaten ən maɗin."
"Nicolas Chuquet used a form of exponential notation in the 15th century, which was later used by Henricus Grammateus and Michael Stifel in the 16th century.","Nicolas Chuquet itkəl iri ən assəkən idwalən ɣor 15e awatay, atiwəjan darat awen as Henricus Grammateus ad Michael Stifel ɣor 16e awatay."
"Thus they would write polynomials, for example, as .","Darat awen, ikatəb timərtay, ad assistant, sund."
"The result is always a positive real number, and the identities and properties shown above for integer exponents remain true with these definitions for real exponents.","Alkum eqal harkuk amaɗin aduten maqar,izar milhawen ad təlaten atiwəsaknanen safəla ye imijaran əmdanen aqalan tidit dəɣ ilaɣitan ye imijaran adutətnen."
This function equals the usual th root for positive real radicands.,Ashəɣəl ogdah ad aɗɗin th harkuk ye aɗɗinən adutatnen maqornen.
This is the starting point of the mathematical theory of semigroups.,Eqal edag wan tekle ən musnat ən maɗin ən aɣil ən jənəj.
"We can again replace the set N with a cardinal number n to get Vn, although without choosing a specific standard set with cardinality n, this is defined only up to isomorphism.","Nadobat dǎɣ ishray assəməskəl ən mertay N as maɗin azaran n ye ajaraw ən Ɣn, harwa dǎɣ iban assənəfrən ən mertay agidahən ikna ən təzart n, wadǎɣ war eqel tebəde as ɣor migdəhaw."
"Nicolas Bourbaki, Elements of Mathematics, Theory of Sets, Springer-Verlag, 2004, III.§3.5.","Nicolas Bourbaki, Elements of Mathematics, Theory of Sets, Springer-Verlag, 2004, III.§3.5."
"Iterating tetration leads to another operation, and so on, a concept named hyperoperation.","Amsoɣəl ən təkazen iwayd as asseɗən iyan, as dǎɣ alkum, tamusne tatiwəɣrət asseɗən maqarən."
"In applied settings, exponential functions model a relationship in which a constant change in the independent variable gives the same proportional change (that is, percentage increase or decrease) in the dependent variable.","Dǎɣ tidəgaten atiwəjanen, ashəɣəlan adwalnen sasahaɣən tartit tadǎɣ as assəmətuy azuken ən assəmətuy ogdahən (adar tidila ugdah dəɣ timaɗ ən assiwaɗ meɣ afənaz)"
This function property leads to exponential growth or exponential decay.,Takrəsht ten ən ashəɣəl təway as assiwəɗ ən tadəwla meɣ afənaz ən tadəwla.
"Similarly, the composition of onto (surjective) functions is always onto.","Harat iyan, tartit ən ashəɣəlan onto (ugishan) eqal harkuk onto."
"Then one can form chains of transformations composed together, such as .","Nadobat deɣ iji ən inəlkam ən imliliyan artaynen kul, sund."
This alternative notation is called postfix notation.,Assəkən wen ən tənməshayt issəm iness assəkən darat tabəde.
The category of sets with functions as morphisms is the prototypical category.,Iri ən tədawen dǎɣ ashəɣəlan sund iji eqal iri atiwassəknan.
"For example, the decibel (dB) is a unit used to express ratio as logarithms, mostly for signal power and amplitude (of which sound pressure is a common example).","Sund,emekət (dB) eqal tajute təjat fal iji ən inəhəjan olahnen ad maɗinan ən təzart ye assuhu ad təmɣare ən aləɣitan (as arurəd amutəyan eqal sund atilan)."
"They help to describe frequency ratios of musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers or approximating factorials, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting.","Alilan as aləɣi ən inəhəja ən amsuɣəl ən tuzunawen ən nəzarən,izjarənid dǎɣ tənawen ən assedən ən maɗinan azarnen meɣ tihzawt ən issənətfass, taləɣen iritan iyad dǎɣ anyat nawadəm izar adoben tilalt as assedən ogdahən."
"The next integer is 4, which is the number of digits of 1430.","Amadin niyan ilkamən eqal 4, mamos amadin ən aɗɗinan ən 1430."
"Prior to Napier's invention, there had been other techniques of similar scopes, such as the prosthaphaeresis or the use of tables of progressions, extensively developed by Jost Bürgi around 1600.","Dat iji ən Naɗier, əlanəti təmkarawen tiyad ən taləsse tolahət, sund ɗrosthaɗhaeresis meɣ iji ən tabəlen ən tikiya, təknat təmɣare as Jost Bürgi ibret ən 1600."
"Speaking of a number as requiring so many figures is a rough allusion to common logarithm, and was referred to by Archimedes as the “order of a number”.","Magrad ən maɗin sund ahushəl ajit ən adinən eqal ishəbaj makərən ən maɗin iyan, izar eqal atwətkəl as Archimède sund ""təzart ən maɗin""."
Such methods are called prosthaphaeresis.,Timkarawen tin atiwəɣranat as prosthaphaeresis.
"For example, each chamber of the shell of a nautilus is an approximate copy of the next one, scaled by a constant factor.","Sund, edag kul ən afrənki ən tilmat eqal milhaw tohazət tatəlkamət, təgashət tadəwla as adin ibdadən."
Logarithms are also linked to self-similarity.,Amaɗin eqal deɣ ayertayan as tigozst ən milhaw.
"It is used to quantify the loss of voltage levels in transmitting electrical signals, to describe power levels of sounds in acoustics, and the absorbance of light in the fields of spectrometry and optics.","Atiwətkal ye eket ən ajmod idagan ən assahat dǎɣ ihuk ən laɣitan ən loran, ye timla ən idagan ən assahat ən inazarən dǎɣ maslat, ad assugish ən efew dǎɣ dəgan ən tamusne ən fewən ad mənhuy."
Vinegar typically has a pH of about 3.,Aman səməmnen ilan pH iwaɗan 3.
"""This """"law"""", however, is less realistic than more recent models, such as Stevens's power law.)""","Ten""""tahashilt"""", aguden, war tadutət as iritan iknanen tinya, sund tahashilt ən assahat wan Stevens""."
"When the logarithm of a random variable has a normal distribution, the variable is said to have a log-normal distribution.","Agud maɗin ən ashanzi ən təbaɣort təla ihukan aknanen, nəjan as ashanzi ila ihuk ən eket iknan."
"For such a model, the likelihood function depends on at least one parameter that must be estimated.","Ye sund iri, ashəɣəl ən təlat ən təjute torhajət ən ɣas ad ashrut admaren aqəl atwəshbaj."
"Similarly, the merge sort algorithm sorts an unsorted list by dividing the list into halves and sorting these first before merging the results.","Sund, musnat ən aɗɗin ən azalay as assəlyam ən lay waren anəfrən as tazunt ən lay as assin ad assənəfrən izar nastnat dat assərtay ən jarawən."
Lyapunov exponents use logarithms to gauge the degree of chaoticity of a dynamical system.,Tidəwla tin Lyapunov itkalnat imaɗinan ye eket ən təmɣar ən taɣshət ən harət ifranən.
"The Sierpinski triangle (pictured) can be covered by three copies of itself, each having sides half the original length.","Triangle tan Sierpinski (asura) tadobat ataqəl abrəbəki as karadət milhawen iness, iyat dak təla ishrutan ən tazune ən təzəjrət waren təjət."
"Another example is the p-adic logarithm, the inverse function of the p-adic exponential.","Milhaw iyan eqal maɗɗin tənaten ən eɗan, ashəɣəl ebdən ən təzəjrət tənaten ən eɗan."
"Carrying out the exponentiation can be done efficiently, but the discrete logarithm is believed to be very hard to calculate in some groups.","Iji ən təzəjrət adobat iji səsahat, mashan aɗin ifarən eqal sund ikna assuhu ən asseɗən dǎɣ tartiten tiyad."
Square roots of negative numbers can be discussed within the framework of complex numbers.,Racines carrées ən maɗinan ədarətnen adoben adəqəlan tamədasht dǎɣ edag wan maɗinan əmdanen.
"In Ancient India, the knowledge of theoretical and applied aspects of square and square root was at least as old as the Sulba Sutras, dated around 800–500 BC (possibly much earlier).","Dǎɣ Inde təruwat, tamusne initan təmusnawen ad ijitan ən migdəhaw ad raəine carréeeqal deɣ harwa aruwən as Sulba Sutras, təlat aylan 800-500 dat J.-C.(ihaməsh ajen as atrub)."
The letter jīm resembles the present square root shape.,Tassəsawit jim tolah ad iri wan amaradəɣ ən racine carrée.
It defines an important concept of standard deviation used in probability theory and statistics.,Taleɣat anyat iknan ən ijij-niri ijan dǎɣ tamusne ən təbɣar ad tənaten.
Most pocket calculators have a square root key.,Ajət ən titəkalkanen as ihaz ikanat tassəkat ən racine carrée.
The time complexity for computing a square root with n digits of precision is equivalent to that of multiplying two n-digit numbers.,Assuhu nəlwaq wan asseɗən ən raəine əarrée ad n aɗinən ən adətu ogdah ad tan assənətfəs ən assin maɗinan ən n aɗin.
Hilbert's problems are twenty-three problems in mathematics published by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1900.,Itarəqan win Hilbert aqalan sanatət təmərwen ad karad ən tarəqan ən maɗinan izjarnen as massis ən maɗin ən allemand David Hilbert ɣor 1900.
"For other problems, such as the 5th, experts have traditionally agreed on a single interpretation, and a solution to the accepted interpretation has been given, but closely related unsolved problems exist.","Ye tarəqan iyad, sund was 5e, imusənən dǎɣ tigzaten anmərdən fal magrad iyan, izar adabara ən magrad atwərdən atwəkfa, mashan ilant taraqan waren ikna as tiɣda tartayat."
There are two problems that are not only unresolved but may in fact be unresolvable by modern standards.,"Ilant taraqan assin waren ɣar atwəkna, mashan adobanen iji ən eqal awaren adobat amukən dǎɣ ijitan ashraynen."
"The other twenty-one problems have all received significant attention, and late into the twentieth century work on these problems was still considered to be of the greatest importance.","Sanatət təmərwen ad iyan ən taraqan iyad ijrawən kul aniyat atiwənan, ad ɣor samdo ən awatay was sanatət təmərwen, ashəɣəlan fal taraqan aqalan harwa atiwəjan sund eqal dǎɣ tahuskət təknat təmɣare."
"Hilbert lived for 12 years after Kurt Gödel published his theorem, but does not seem to have written any formal response to Gödel's work.","Hilbert idar 12 iwətyan darat as Kurt Gödel azizjar tamusne iness, mashan war oleh das iktab asudmar iknan ɣor ashəɣəl wan Gödel."
"In discussing his opinion that every mathematical problem should have a solution, Hilbert allows for the possibility that the solution could be a proof that the original problem is impossible.","Dǎɣ tamadasht ən tənna iness tas ataraq kul ən maɗin ad ajrəw adabara, Hilbert isay tadabit as adabara adobat oɣəl ən tamətert as ataraqa iknan war tila."
"The first of these was proved by Bernard Dwork; a completely different proof of the first two, via ℓ-adic cohomology, was given by Alexander Grothendieck.","Tazart dǎɣ təmtar atiwəsəkna as Bernard Dwork; tamətert təknat azalay ad tin sanatət azarnen, as tartit ən milhaw -adique, atiwəkfa as Alexander Grothendieck."
"However, the Weil conjectures were, in their scope, more like a single Hilbert problem, and Weil never intended them as a programme for all mathematics.","Aguden, tənaten tin Weil aqalnat, dǎɣ taləsse nasnat, ogdahən ad ataraqa iyan ən Hilbert, izar Weil kala war ermess sund takən ye imaɗinan kul."
Erdős often offered monetary rewards; the size of the reward depended on the perceived difficulty of the problem.,Erdős ihak alwaq iyan alhəkan ən azrif; təzəjrət ən alhak təlad ɣor assuhu atiwənhayən ən ataraqa.
"At least in the mainstream media, the de facto 21st century analogue of Hilbert's problems is the list of seven Millennium Prize Problems chosen during 2000 by the Clay Mathematics Institute.","Andəran dǎɣ salan ən təməte maqarat,emelah ən faəto ən taraqan win Hilbert ɣor 21e awatay eqal lay wan əssa taraqan ən hebu ən efdan anifrənan ɣor 2000 as Clay Mathematics Institute."
"The Riemann hypothesis is noteworthy for its appearance on the list of Hilbert problems, Smale's list, the list of Millennium Prize Problems, and even the Weil conjectures, in its geometric guise.","Tənna tan Riemann tatiwəjrah as azajor iness dǎɣ lay wan taraqan win Hilbert, lay wan Smale, lay ən taraqan ən hebu wan efdan, ad deɣ tənnaten tin Weil, dǎɣ ini wan səgdah."
"1931, 1936 3rd Given any two polyhedra of equal volume, is it always possible to cut the first into finitely many polyhedral pieces that can be reassembled to yield the second?","1931, 1936 3e falas sanatət təssəjwen amosnen ən iyat tazayt,eqal harkuk tadabit ən akrəwi ən wazaran as adin imdan ən kərumatən ajətnen adobatnen tamsədawt ye ihuk ən was assin?"
— 12th Extend the Kronecker–Weber theorem on Abelian extensions of the rational numbers to any base number field.,12e asjət ən tamusne tan Kroneəker-Weber fal asjət ən abélientan ən maɗinan oɣadnen dǎɣ edag kul ən maɗinan maqornen.
1959 15th Rigorous foundation of Schubert's enumerative calculus.,1959 15e sənto assohen ən aɗin atiwəɣrən wan Schubert.
1927 18th (a) Is there a polyhedron that admits only an anisohedral tiling in three dimensions?(b) What is the densest sphere packing?,1927 18e (a) ilet aylan təssəjwen war izey ariyən ashrut waren ogdeh as karad segdahan?(b) mamos edag ən tabəlaɣen tiknanen tajuten?
"A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label.","Ajət eqal harat aɗinan atiwətkalən ye assedən, eket ad akatab."
"""More universally, individual numbers can be represented by symbols, called numerals; for example, """"5"""" is a numeral that represents the number five.""","""As alməɣnat iyat, imaɗinan iyad adoben atwəsəkən as eshwələn, sitawəna edan; sund, """"5"""" eqal amaɗin assiknən edan səmos""."
"Calculations with numbers are done with arithmetical operations, the most familiar being addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation.","Issidinən ad maɗinan aqalan ayjan ad iketən ən maɗinan, wi əknanen milhaw aqalnen assiwəd, afənaz, assənətfəs, tazunt ad təmɣare."
"Gilsdorf, Thomas E. Introduction to Cultural Mathematics: With Case Studies in the Otomies and Incas, John Wiley & Sons, Feb 24, 2012.Restivo, S. Mathematics in Society and History, Springer Science & Business Media, Nov 30, 1992.","Gilsdorf, Thomas E. Introduction to Cultural Mathematics: With Case Studies in the Otomies and Incas, John Wiley & Sons, Feb 24, 2012.Restivo, S. Mathematics in Society and History, Springer Science & Business Media, Nov 30, 1992."
"During the 19th century, mathematicians began to develop many different abstractions which share certain properties of numbers, and may be seen as extending the concept.","Ɣor sənto ən 19e awatay, iməssedənan assəntan asjət ibəɗitan ajəten azlaynen tuzanen təlaten tiyad ən maɗinan, izar adobətnat adəkəlnat sund təzəjrət ən muzyat."
"A tallying system has no concept of place value (as in modern decimal notation), which limits its representation of large numbers.","Tartit ən asseɣəd war təla muzyat ən tembe ən edaj (sund dǎɣ akatab ən tamara təshrayat), awa ifənazən assəkən ən maɗinan maqornen."
"Brahmagupta's Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta is the first book that mentions zero as a number, hence Brahmagupta is usually considered the first to formulate the concept of zero.","Brāhmasɗhuțasiddhānta ən Brahmaguɗta eqal alkad azaran waytəjən wəla sund maɗin, dǎɣ alkum Brahmaguɗta eqal sund wazaran ye iji ən muzyat tan wəla."
"In a similar vein, Pāṇini (5th century BC) used the null (zero) operator in the Ashtadhyayi, an early example of an algebraic grammar for the Sanskrit language (also see Pingala).","Dǎɣ azar iyan, Pānini (5e awatay Aɣ.J.-C.) Itkəl enəmetkəl ibrəran (wəla) dǎɣ Ashtadhyayi, assəkən waren imda ən məgridən əmaɗinən ye magrad wan sanskrite (ahanay deɣ Pingala)."
"By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for 0 (a small circle with a long overbar) within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals.","Ɣor 130 darat J.-C., Ptolémée, iswadən as Hiɗɗarque ad Babylontan, tajən eshwal ye 0 (taɣləlwayt əndarat ad təjətewt zəjret safəla) dǎɣ tartit ən adin sexagésimal itajən dǎɣ ashrut iyan maɗinan ən shəkelan fin grecs."
"Diophantus' previous reference was discussed more explicitly by Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta in 628, who used negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today.","Tihza hintokayat ən Dioɗhante təmədash tənna təjet as awmadinan ən Inde Brahmaguɗta, dǎɣ Brāhmasɗhuțasiddhānta ɣor 628, itkalən imaɗinan ədarətnen ye iji ən iri quadratique ən ini niyan aqimən ijan ashali."
"At the same time, the Chinese were indicating negative numbers by drawing a diagonal stroke through the right-most non-zero digit of the corresponding positive number's numeral.","Dǎɣ azaman iyan, chinoitan saknen imaɗinan əndarətnen ad assərad ən tassəret ən tədnaɣ as maɗin waren eɣshed ibret hulen ən aɣil ən adin wan maɗin maqaran anhəjan."
"Classical Greek and Indian mathematicians made studies of the theory of rational numbers, as part of the general study of number theory.","Iməssidan win Grèce təknat ad win Inde aɣran tamusne maɗinan adutətnen, dǎɣ taberat ən taɣare kul ye tamusne ən maɗinan."
The concept of decimal fractions is closely linked with decimal place-value notation; the two seem to have developed in tandem.,Muzyat ən ikəruma déəimales oɣad arətay as akətab déəimale ən təmɣar ən edaj ; win assən olahən das ajətan dǎɣ tandem.
"However, Pythagoras believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers.","Aguden, Pythagore iflas as emədi ən maɗinan izar tərədawt ən emel ən maɗinan waren adutət."
"By the 17th  century, mathematicians generally used decimal fractions with modern notation.","Ɣor 17e awatay,iməssidan tajən ikəruma déəimales ad akətab ən išray."
"In 1872, the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil E. Kossak), Eduard Heine, Georg Cantor, and Richard Dedekind was brought about.","Ɣor 1872,nəjiha ye azajor ən təmusnawen tin Karl Weierstrass, (as analmid iness E. Kossak),Eduard Heine, Georg Cantor ad Riəhard Dedekind."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of real numbers, separating all rational numbers into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","Weierstrass, Cantor ad Heine əkrassən timusnawen nassən fal inəlkaman waren emədi,aguden Dedekind ikrass taness fal anyat ən akrəwi (Schniƭ) dǎɣ tartit ən maɗinan adutətnen,azunen imaɗinan kul dǎɣ assin jirəbətan lanen tikraš olahnen."
Hence it was necessary to consider the wider set of algebraic numbers (all solutions to polynomial equations).,Eqal awen tahašilt ye iji ən tadiwt təknat taharut ən maɗinan ən təlaten ( adabatan kul ən équations ən tartay ajətnen).
Aristotle defined the traditional Western notion of mathematical infinity.,Aristote aləɣat tamusne ən kal ejədəl b tafuk tigozt ən maɗin waren imədi.
"But the next major advance in the theory was made by Georg Cantor; in 1895 he published a book about his new set theory, introducing, among other things, transfinite numbers and formulating the continuum hypothesis.","Mašan ikuy ad imalan maqaran dǎɣ tamusne tatiwəja as Georg Cantor ; en 1895, azizjar alkaɗ fal tamusne iness taynayat ən tidawen, tajənen, jar iyad, imaɗinan anilkamnen waren imda ad simətuyan tənna tan tadiwt."
"""A modern geometrical version of infinity is given by projective geometry, which introduces """"ideal points at infinity"""", one for each spatial direction.""","""Tənna ən maɗin təšrayat waren imədi tatiwahəka as maɗin asdat,itajən ““idagan aknanen ɣor iban samədo””,ye taberat kul ən afəla”."
"The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in Wallis's De algebra tractatus.","Anyat ən assəkən assarad ən maɗinan imdnen eqal aguden azajor ɣor 1685,dǎɣ De algebra traətatus ən Wallis."
"In 240 BC, Eratosthenes used the Sieve of Eratosthenes to quickly isolate prime numbers.","Ɣor 240 darat J.-C., Eratosthène itaj tamay tan Eratosthène ye azalay šik ən maɗinan azarnen."
"Other results concerning the distribution of the primes include Euler's proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges, and the Goldbach conjecture, which claims that any sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes.","Igarawən iyan oraknen as təzunt ən maɗinan azarnen sigušən tamətert tan Euler as amərtiy milhaw ən maɗinan azarnen nakəš, izar tənna tan Goldbaəh, ijənen as maɗin assin igdahən maqar eqal tartit ən assin maɗinan azarnen."
"Traditionally, the sequence of natural numbers started with 1 (0 was not even considered a number for the Ancient Greeks.)","Dǎɣ tigozst,anəlkəm ən maɗinan aknanen issənta as 1 (0 war atwəja eqalan sund maɗin ɣor Greətan arunen)."
"In this base 10 system, the rightmost digit of a natural number has a place value of 1, and every other digit has a place value ten times that of the place value of the digit to its right.","Dǎɣ tartit ən ider 10,adin ihan aɣil ən maɗin iknan ikraš təmɣare ən edaj ən 1, aɗin kul ikraš təmɣare ən edaj maraw dəjan ən tijra ye tan aɗin dǎɣ aɣil iness."
Negative numbers are usually written with a negative sign (a minus sign).,Imaɗinan madroynen eqalən ayiktabən as ašəkel ifanazən (ašəkel ifanəzan).
Here the letter Z comes .,"Diha, z malid."
"Fractions can be greater than, less than, or equal to 1 and can also be positive, negative, or 0.","Ikəruma adoben adəqəlan tijra,təmədrit meɣ migdəhaw as 1 izar adoben deɣ adəqəlan ajit,afənaz meɣ migdəhaw."
The following paragraph will focus primarily on positive real numbers.,Tazune adəmalat tatiwətkal ɣas fal imaɗinan adutətnen maqornen.
"Thus, for example, one half is 0.5, one fifth is 0.2, one-tenth is 0.1, and one fiftieth is 0.02.","Dǎɣ awen,sund,tazune togdah ad 0,5,was səmos ogdah ad 0,2,was assin ogdah ad 0,1 ad was simossat təmərwen ogdah 0,02."
Not only these prominent examples but almost all real numbers are irrational and therefore have no repeating patterns and hence no corresponding decimal numeral.,"Iden ɣas issəkna janen,mašan išwar imaɗinan adutətnen kul aqalan aduten izar warlen tənaten amisaɣəlnen falas war tila aɗin ən təfrəst anihəjan."
"Since not even the second digit after the decimal place is preserved, the following digits are not significant.","Falas imaness aɗin was assin darat tafrist war atwagəz,aɗinan win asdat war ənfen."
"For example, 0.999..., 1.0, 1.00, 1.000, ..., all represent the natural number 1.","Sund, 0,999…,1,0,1,00,1,000,…, saknen imaɗinan kul aknanen 1."
"Finally, if all of the digits in a numeral are 0, the number is 0, and if all of the digits in a numeral are an unending string of 9's, you can drop the nines to the right of the decimal place, and add one to the string of 9s to the left of the decimal place.","Dǎɣ samdo afəl aɗinan kul ən aɗin aqalan 0, maɗin eqal 0, afəl deɣ aɗinan kul ən aɗin aqalan anəlkəm waren imədu ən 9, tədobem ad təyəm tedut ən 9 as aɣil ən təfrəst, izar ad assiwəd ən iyan ye anəlkəm ən 9 as tašalje ən təfrəst."
Thus the real numbers are a subset of the complex numbers.,"Darat awen, imaɗinan iknanen eqal daw tartit ən maɗinan imdanen."
"The fundamental theorem of algebra asserts that the complex numbers form an algebraically closed field, meaning that every polynomial with complex coefficients has a root in the complex numbers.","Tamusne tazarat ən assedən təlaɣat as imaɗinan əmdanen tajən edag ən adin eharən,awa stanitwəna as tartitayen kul ən təməhakaten ən təmɣar timdat ye raəine dǎɣ maɗinan əmdanen."
"The primes have been widely studied for more than 2000 years and have led to many questions, only some of which have been answered.","Imadinan azarnen atwəɣran səjət aru ajaran 2000 ans elan izar ifan edag ye assestanən ajətnen,iss iyad ɣas ajrəwnen asudmar."
Real numbers that are not rational numbers are called irrational numbers.,Imaɗinan adutətnen waren eqel imaɗinan waren ija.
"The computable numbers are stable for all usual arithmetic operations, including the computation of the roots of a polynomial, and thus form a real closed field that contains the real algebraic numbers.","Imaɗinan adobatnen iɗan asuken ye sidinan kul ən maɗinan arunen,as iha aɗin wan raəines ən tartit,tajan edag iharan aduten etafan imaɗinan naɗin adutətnen."
One reason is that there is no algorithm for testing the equality of two computable numbers.,Iyat dǎɣ tiditen taqal as war tila assedən ye tirma ən migdəhaw ən assin maɗinan adobatnen edan.
"The number system that results depends on what base is used for the digits: any base is possible, but a prime number base provides the best mathematical properties.","Tartit ən maɗinan təsjarat tazlay ašrut atwətkalən ye maɗinan: ašrut kul adobat,mašan ašrut ən maɗinan azarnen ihak tikraš ən maɗinan tihudkatnen."
"The former gives the ordering of the set, while the latter gives its size.","Ta tazarat haku təzart ən tadiwt, aguden ta sanatət haku tebəde iness."
"This standard basis makes the complex numbers a Cartesian plane, called the complex plane.","Ašrut wen darussən itaj imaɗinan iknanen ahanay raqissən, sitawəna ahanay raqissən."
The complex numbers of absolute value one form the unit circle.,Imaɗinan raqisnen ən təmɣar təmdat tajan aɣlilway iyan.
"In domain coloring the output dimensions are represented by color and brightness, respectively.","Dǎɣ assəhəsku nədaj,iketan fin azagar atiwəsəknən dǎɣ alkum as iri ad amlulu."
"Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists to every polynomial equation of degree one or higher.","Ašəɣəlan mertayən ajətnen amdən agad ən tamusne maqarat tan aɗin,səknet ad maɗinan raqisnen,ilet adabara ye təmətuyt tartayat tamɣar iyan meɣ ajen."
Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy but went largely unnoticed.,Takətawt tan Wessel tazjarid dǎɣ ijitan win Aəadémie wan Coɗenhague mašan tokay hulen as iban ahanay.
"Later classical writers on the general theory include Richard Dedekind, Otto Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poincaré, Hermann Schwarz, Karl Weierstrass and many others.","Məssawəs iknanen alkamnen ən tamusne tajen amossən Richard Dedekind, Oƭo Hölder, Felix Klein, Henri Poinəaré, Hermann Səhwarz, Karl Weierstrass ad iyad."
The use of imaginary numbers was not widely accepted until the work of Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855).,Atkul ən maɗinan anizjamatnen war ikna atwərd dat ašəɣəlan win Leonhard Euler ( 1707-1783) ad Carl Friedriəh Gauss ( 1777-1855).
The integers form the smallest group and the smallest ring containing the natural numbers.,Inəmda tajan jəruɗ wa iknan təmadrit ad aɣalay wa iknan təmadrit etafən imaɗinan iknanen.
It is the prototype of all objects of such algebraic structure.,Eqal iri ən haratan kul ən təməkrust ən maɗin.
"Fixed length integer approximation data types (or subsets) are denoted int or Integer in several programming languages (such as Algol68, C, Java, Delphi, etc.).","Iritan ən ihukan ohaznen ən maɗinan əmdanen ən təzəjrət təbdadət (meɣ madin ətəkan)atiwəktabən int meɣ Integer dǎɣ magradan ajətnen ən təqan (sund Alol68, C, Jaɣa, Delɗhi, etc.)."
"These are provable properties of rational numbers and positional number systems, and are not used as definitions in mathematics.","Adar tidila akarašat tatiwəsəknat ən maɗinan gadəhnen, izar war atwəjənat sund tənaten dǎɣ maɗinan."
"Since the triangle is isosceles, a = b).","Falas triangle taqal aylan assin ašrutan, a=b."
"Since c is even, dividing c by 2 yields an integer.","Falas ə eqal assin, tazunt ən ə as assin haku amaɗin imdan."
Substituting 4y2 for c2 in the first equation (c2 = 2b2) gives us 4y2= 2b2.,"Dǎɣ asəmutiy 4y2 as ə2 dǎɣ akatab wazaran (c2=2b2), nəjrəw 4y2=2b2."
"Since b2 is even, b must be even.","Falas b2 eqal assin, b adəqəl assin."
However this contradicts the assumption that they have no common factors.,"Aguden, awen isabəhaw tənna tas inta warlen maɗinan iyadǎɣ."
"Hippasus, however, was not lauded for his efforts: according to one legend, he made his discovery while out at sea, and was subsequently thrown overboard by his fellow Pythagoreans “…for having produced an element in the universe which denied the…doctrine that all phenomena in the universe can be reduced to whole numbers and their ratios.”","Hippasus aguden, war atwahəka ye tirmaten: dǎɣ tafust iyat,ija ajaraw iness dǎɣ ebanɣ ad dǎɣ alkum atwajarin falas ijim as midawan iness Pythagortan” … ye ajaraw ən iji ən harat dǎɣ təməte tasibəhawət as…tamusne tas inta ijitan kul dǎɣ təməte adoben afənaz as maɗinan imdanen ad agədah nassən.”"
"For example, consider a line segment: this segment can be split in half, that half split in half, the half of the half in half, and so on.","Sund, ajatanəɣ ašrut ən aɣil: ašrut wen adobat tazunt as assin, tašrut ten tazunat as assin, tazune ən tazune as assin, as dǎɣ ikuy."
This is just what Zeno sought to prove.,Awen dǎɣ as imaɣ Zénon ye atissəkən.
"In the minds of the Greeks, disproving the validity of one view did not necessarily prove the validity of another, and therefore further investigation had to occur.","Dǎɣ anyat ən greətan, adgul ən tarədawt ən tənna war assəkna əs tahašilt tarədawt ən iyat,tahašilt alkum ən umɣawən."
"A magnitude “...was not a number but stood for entities such as line segments, angles, areas, volumes, and time which could vary, as we would say, continuously.","Tamɣare…war təkel maɗin mašan sakna haratan sund išrutən ən tasaret, tidənaɣ, idagan, tijutawen ad taqanen adobatnen asəmutiy, sund nəjane,as alməɣnat okayan."
"Because no quantitative values were assigned to magnitudes, Eudoxus was then able to account for both commensurable and incommensurable ratios by defining a ratio in terms of its magnitude, and proportion as an equality between two ratios.","Falas tamɣar tajen wala iyat war tətwəhaka ye tamɣaren, Eudoxe eqal dǎɣ tadabit tənna təjat ən ijitan atiwəsəntanen ad waren atwəsəta dǎɣ alaɣi iji ən təlat ən təmɣar, ad anəhəj sund migdahaw jar assin ijitan."
"This incommensurability is dealt with in Euclid's Elements, Book X, Proposition 9.","Iban tanətit ten tatiwəɣra dǎɣ haratan win Euəlide, alkad X, tenahəjit 9"
"In fact, in many cases algebraic conceptions were reformulated into geometric terms.","As tidit, dǎɣ dajan ajətnen, timusnawen ən maɗinan ašəzatnat as iritan."
The realization that some basic conception within the existing theory was at odds with reality necessitated a complete and thorough investigation of the axioms and assumptions that underlie that theory.,Adkul nanyat adakal iyan nider dǎɣ amass ən tamusne titəlat war tərda ad tidit tašihəšal umax imdan ad zəjren fal tənaten ad issəkna azalnen tamusne.
"""However, historian Carl Benjamin Boyer writes that """"such claims are not well substantiated and unlikely to be true"""".""","""Mašan awtəfas Carl Benjamin Boyer iktab as”” tənaten tin war iknenat atwilal izar lanat tabaɣort əndarat ye oɣəl ən tidit””."
Mathematicians like Brahmagupta (in 628 AD) and Bhāskara I (in 629 AD) made contributions in this area as did other mathematicians who followed.,"Iməssidan sund Brahmaguɗta (ɣor 628 AD) ad Bhāskara I (ɣor 629 AD) iwayanid tilalen dǎɣ adag wen, kul sund iməssidan iyad wi alkamnen."
"The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of Karl Weierstrass (by his pupil Ernst Kossak), Eduard Heine (Crelle's Journal, 74), Georg Cantor (Annalen, 5), and Richard Dedekind.","Awatay wan 1872 ihanəy tazəjort ən timusnawen tin Karl Weierstrass, (as eməssaɣar iness Ernst Kossak), Eduard Heine (jornal wan Ərelle,74),Georg Cantor (Annalen,5)ad Richard Dedekind."
"Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a cut (Schnitt) in the system of all rational numbers, separating them into two groups having certain characteristic properties.","Weierstrass, Cantor ad Heine assiɣaymən timusnawen nassən fal anəlkəm waren imədi,aguden Dedekind assiɣayma taness fal anyat ən aɣatas (Schniƭ)dǎɣ tartit ən maɗinan kul atwəjanen,tan azunen as assin gruɗtan lanen tikraš olahnen."
"Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject.","Dirichlet deɣ assewad ye tamusne maqarat, kul sund imilalən ajitnen ye ijitan ən awadəm."
This asserts that every integer has a unique factorization into primes.,Awen ijraw alavi as mapin imdan kul ila anətfəs iyan as imapinan azarnen.
"To show this, suppose we divide integers n by m (where m is nonzero).",Awen aleɣat as maɗin kul imdan ila assənətfəs iyan dǎɣ maɗinan azarnen.
"If 0 never occurs, then the algorithm can run at most m − 1 steps without using any remainder more than once.","Ye assəkən iness, nətkal as nətuzan inəsumda n as m (dihad m war eqel wala)."
"""In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting (as in """"there are six coins on the table"""") and ordering (as in """"this is the third largest city in the country"""").""","Dǎɣ maɗinan, imaɗinan aknanen eqalan wi atwəjanen ye assedən (sund dǎɣ”” ilanət saɗissət ɗieəeten ən amanu fal tabalt””)ad amzizər (sund dǎɣ ““awen tas karadat təknat təmɣare taɣrəmt ən akal””)”."
These chains of extensions make the natural numbers canonically embedded (identified) in the other number systems.,Imzizəran ajətnen təjan as imaɗinan iknanen aqalan tərəɣse as ugiš (atiwəzay)dǎɣ tirtay tiyaɗnen ən maɗinan.
The first major advance in abstraction was the use of numerals to represent numbers.,Təzart maqarat ən ikuy dǎɣ Iban adatu eqal iji ən aɗinan ye assəkən ən maɗinan.