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June has been declared National Oceans Month, via a writ from the White House a few days ago, and this week communities around the planet will mark World Oceans Day. The flurry of recognition seems appropriate for a region that covers 70 percent of the Earth's surface and provides about half the air we breathe, courtesy of the microscopic, oxygen-producing phytoplankton floating in it. Yet much about the planet's oceans remains a mystery. As of the year 2000, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimated that as much as 95 percent of the world's oceans and 99 percent of the ocean floor are unexplored. Exploring these regions deep below the ocean's surface is difficult, time-consuming and expensive. Which hasn't stopped people from trying — and making incredible discoveries along the way. A deep-dwelling sea cucumber swimming in the frigid waters of the abyss, roughly 10,500 feet (3,200 meters) deep. (Photo: NOAA Okeanos/INDEX-SATAL 2010) Shallower parts of the ocean, and those closer to coastline, have understandably gotten the lion's share of investigation. What's been fairly well explored is about one Washington Monument down into the ocean — about 556 feet (170 meters) — said Mike Vecchione, a veteran scientist with NOAA and the Smithsonian Institution. Impressive, perhaps, yet the average depth of the planet's oceans is 13,120 feet (4,000 m), the height of many peaks in the Rockies and the Alps. [Infographic: Tallest Mountain to Deepest Ocean Trench] "In the deep ocean we're still exploring, and frankly, that's most of the planet that we live on. And we're still in the exploratory phase," Vecchione told OurAmazingPlanet. Although hard numbers are difficult to pin down, the ocean possesses more than 90 percent of the living space on the planet, perhaps as much as 99 percent, Vecchione said — which means that landlubbers like humans

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June has been declared National Oceans Month, via a writ from the White House a few days [...] or parakeets or armadillos are rare exceptions in a world of ocean dwellers. Light refracts off a comb-jelly, a species found in the Arctic, producing stripes of rainbow color. Polar waters are home to many species seen nowhere else on earth. (Photo: Kevin Raskoff, MBARI, NOAA/OER) Deep sea discoveries Humans are familiar with all sorts of coastal ocean creatures (from crabs to seaweed), coral reef denizens (from clownfish to coral itself), and the bigger, charismatic fauna of the sea (dolphins and whales). But the picture of a whole strange world of life in the deep, dark waters of the world's oceans is slowly emerging. "People used to think that biodiversity dropped off as you got deeper and deeper in the ocean, but that was just because it's harder and harder to catch things as you get deeper," said Ron O'Dor, a professor at Dalhousie University in Canada, and one of the senior scientists for the Census of Marine Life, a decade-long international study of the planet's oceans that uncovered more than 1,200 new species, excluding microbes, since the project began in 2000. [Related: Images of Amazing Creatures from the Census of Marine Life] Seafaring robots are fueling some of that discovery. Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs), which are tethered to ships, and more recently, Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs), which roam freely, collecting visuals and samples during jaunts dictated by computer programs, have made exploration more efficient, O'Dor said. However, O'Dor told OurAmazingPlanet, even the best robots can't totally replace humans. Pictures on computer screens are great, "but that's still not the same as having somebody come back from the deep sea and having them describe it to you," O'Dor said. Humans in the depths Vechionne can do just that. In 2003, he was one of the first humans

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June has been declared National Oceans Month, via a writ from the White House a few days [...] to descend into one of the deepest spots on Earth, the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone, a gash in the mid-Atlantic seafloor that is 14,760 feet (4,500 meters) at its deepest. During the dive he spied something out of the corner of his eye — a dumbo octopus. "I was able to tell the pilot to turn around, and we got some really great video," Vechionne said, something that wouldn't have happened without humans aboard. Although he witnessed the wonders of the deep sea firsthand, Vechionne said it's important to use all the tools available for exploration, because much is lurking out of sight in the darkness. A new species of squid, for example. Vechhione pointed to the discovery of the bigfin squid about 10 years ago, a pale, leggy creature that can reach up to 21 feet (7 meters) in length and would look right at home in a 1960's B-movie. "It was exciting when we first discovered them," Vechionne said. "I was jumping up and down in my office." The squid were caught on film, thanks to ROVs. And if such huge creatures eluded discovery until recently, both Vechhione and O'Dor said, what else is out there? Yet sending anything to the ocean depths, human or machine, is expensive, and both scientists said funding is a constant issue. Private sector dives? Enter British tycoon Richard Branson, who announced plans earlier this year to send humans, aboard newfangled submersibles, to the five deepest spots on Earth. The deepest is the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean, an eye-popping 36,200 feet (11,030 meters) below the surface — more than a mile deeper than Mount Everest is tall. Humans have visited this trench only once, in 1960, when the Trieste, a deep-diving craft purchased by the U.S. Navy, spent about 20 minutes parked on the ocean floor. The Tri

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Kaffeklubben Sø, the world’s most northerly lake, was entombed beneath a near-permanent layer of ice some 2400 years ago. Now it is beginning to thaw – and some of the organisms that disappeared from its waters are beginning to return. The finding is the latest evidence that warmer temperatures in polar regions can result in rapid ecological changes. Located at 83° 37′ north, on the coastal plain of northern Greenland, the 48-hectare Kaffeklubben Sø looks out over the Arctic Sea. “It’s kind of the end of the earth,” says Bianca Perren of the University of Franche-Comté in Besançon, France. One to two metres of ice cover the lake year-round, but a “moat” of water forms around the edge of the lake in summer when average temperatures rise to 1.6 °C. The lake formed about 3500 years ago when local precipitation increased, says Perren. A few species of silica-shelled algae called diatoms lived in the young lake, but their populations declined as regional temperatures cooled, and they vanished entirely 2400 years ago. All that survived under the ice were hardy cyanobacteria, which require little light and can survive even under several metres of ice. A couple of brief summer thaws allowed diatoms to return briefly, but the lake remained nearly barren until around 1960, when the first diatom species returned. The latest water samples, collected by Perren and her colleagues, contain some 20 species. Other high Arctic lakes that are not quite as remote show similar changes, says study co-author Alex Wolfe at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada. Last year, Wolfe and colleagues reported that nitrates and industrial pollutants may have encouraged the tiny organisms to bloom in other lakes. However, there are no traces of nitrates in Kaffeklubben, indicating its recolonisation by diatoms was driven purely by climate change. Other, more dramatic changes may be on the way. Alexandre Guertin-Pasquier, a palaeontologist at the University of Montreal, Canada, has recently discovered fossil

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Human trials will begin soon for a very promising cancer treatment being developed at Stanford. There, researcher Irving Weissman and his team have developed a treatment capable of killing cancer cells while leaving healthy cells largely unharmed. The new treatment acts on the protein CD47, a protein found on the surface of cancer cells that essentially says “don’t eat me” to a person’s immune system. CD47 tricks the immune system of someone with cancer into letting tumors continue to grow. Weissman and his team developed an antibody to CD47 that prevents the protein from being produced in the body. In the absence of CD47, the immune system attacks and kills cancer cells. The groundbreaking therapy has proven incredibly effective in animal testing so far. To test the treatment on human cancers, researchers implanted human cancer tumors in to mice. In the absence of treatment, these tumors would continue to grow in the mice. But this all changed when the CD47 antibody was used. The new cell therapy cured or shrunk human strands of breast, ovary, colon, bladder, brain, liver, and prostate tumors during trials. Of course, killing cancer cells isn’t the difficult part of treating cancer. The hard part is finding a treatment that kills cancer cells while keeping healthy cells alive. The CD47 antibody delivers here too. Overall, the mice suffered from a brief period of anemia as their bodies reacted to the treatment. That’s it. The anemia occurs because the body’s blood cells use CD47 for the same “don’t eat me” purpose. With suppressed levels of CD47, blood cell levels temporarily drop. The body quickly reacts, though, and counters by producing more blood cells. Blood cell levels then return to normal. Given the havoc current cancer treatments like chemotherapy wreak on a patient’s body, this is a huge accomplishment. The treatment has proven effective "on every single human primary tumor that we tested,” Weissman said. “We showed that even after the tumor has taken hold, the antibody can either cure the tumor or slow its growth and prevent metastasis.” The early results are so promising that the California Institute of Regenerative Medicine has given the Stanford team a $20 million grant to continue its work. In January, Stanford

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As California farmers face a fourth year of the state’s historic drought, they’re finding water in unexpected places — like Chevron’s Kern River oil field, which has been selling recycled wastewater from oil production to farmers in California’s Kern County. Each day, Chevron recycles and sells 21 million gallons of wastewater to farmers, which is then applied on about 10 percent of Kern County’s farmland. According to the findings of a study recently published in the “Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences”, trace amounts of 2-Butoxyethanol (2-BE), a chemical compound used in drilling fluid (and can also be found in cosmetics and household paint), were found in the drinking water of three Pennsylvanian homes; a finding which only adds to the growing concern that fracking poses risks to public health. The New York Times reported that although the study researchers at Pennsylvania State University said the drinking water samples contained traces of the chemical, the traces they did find were only tiny concentrations and posed no immediate health risk. However, the fact that the contamination exists at all has the environmental scientists questioning the integrity of frack wells in the Marcellus Shale. The Marcellus Shale is an enormous subterranean natural gas field and the largest source of natural gas in America. The three homes where the 2-BE was found in the drinking water are located in Bradford County, Pennsylvania, close to gas wells, which were built in 2009 over the Marcellus formation. The oils and gas industry has long maintained that due to the fact that fracking takes place thousands of feet under drinking water aquifers, the injected drilling chemicals used to break up rocks to release the trapped gas, pose no health risks. That beings said, in this particular study, what the researchers note is that the contamination may not have come from the actual fracking process occurring far below the aquifers, but from the drill wells, caused by a lack of integrity. Scott Anderson, a senior policy analyst with the Environment Defense fund, said that well integrity was typically poor around 2008 and 2009, and that the industry has strengthened its practices since this time. Anderson said that “Industry knows how to construct wells

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A statistician could... |Develop metrics to help a baseball team manager evaluate a player.||Work with public health officials to estimate the number of people afflicted with flu in a region.| |Analyze the failure rates of engine parts exposed to extreme weather conditions.||Develop and interpret a sampling survey so that governments can predict population growth.| Key Facts & Information |Overview||Statisticians use the power of math and probability theory to answer questions that affect the lives of millions of people. They tell educators which teaching method works best, tell policy-makers what levels of pesticides are acceptable in fresh fruit, tell doctors which treatment works best, and tell builders which type of paint is the most durable. They are employed in virtually every type of industry imaginable, from engineering, manufacturing, and medicine to animal science, food production, transportation, and education. Everybody needs a statistician!| |Key Requirements||Curious, detail-oriented, and able to find patterns and relationships within raw data, thanks to excellent analytical, logic, and communication skills.| |Minimum Degree||Bachelor's degree| |Subjects to Study in High School||Chemistry, physics, biology, computer science, geometry, algebra II, pre-calculus, calculus, English; if available, statistics, environmental science, economics| |Projected Job Growth (2014-2024)||Much Faster than Average (21% or more) In Demand!| |Interview||Read this interview with a General Electric industrial statistician who helps design products ranging from medical scanners to washing machines, so that they have the highest possible quality, low failure rates, and can operate well in a wide range of climates and conditions.| Training, Other Qualifications A bachelor's degree in statistics or mathematics is sufficient for an entry level job with the Federal Government, but most higher level jobs, or jobs outside of the government require a master's degree, and research and academic jobs generally require a PhD. Education and Training The minimum education required in this field is a bachelor's degree in mathematics or statistics. Depending on the particular job, a statistician may need a major in some other subject, such as economics or biology, with a minor in statistics. A

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A statistician could... |Develop metrics to help a baseball team manager evaluate a [...] statistician with only a bachelor's degree does very routine work. A graduate degree or sometimes multiple graduate degrees are required for the more advanced jobs. A doctoral degree is generally required for those who teach in colleges and universities. Because computers are used extensively for statistical applications, a strong background in computer science is highly recommended. For positions involving quality and productivity improvement, training in engineering or physical science is useful. A background in biological, chemical, or health science is important for positions involving the preparation and testing of pharmaceutical or agricultural products. Courses in economics and business administration are helpful for many jobs in market research, business analysis, and forecasting. Good communications skills are important for prospective statisticians in industry who often need to explain technical matters to persons without statistical expertise. An understanding of business and the economy also is valuable for those who plan to work in private industry. Nature of the Work Statisticians collect and analyze mathematical data to solve problems and make predictions on future outcomes. They may apply their knowledge of statistical methods to a variety of subject areas, such as biology, economics, engineering, medicine, public health, psychology, marketing, education, and sports. Some statisticians work to develop the theories on which statistical techniques are based. Using statistical techniques, statisticians can make forecasts on population growth, economic conditions, or the outcome of elections. One technique that is especially useful to statisticians is sampling—obtaining information about a population of people or group of things by surveying a small portion of the total. For example, to determine the size of the audience for particular programs, television-rating services survey only a few thousand families, rather than all viewers. Statisticians decide where and how to gather the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will collect and tabulate the data. Finally, statisticians analyze, interpret, and summarize the data using computer software. Statisticians are employed by nearly every government agency. Some government statisticians develop surveys that measure population growth, consumer prices, or unemployment. Other statisticians work for scientific, environmental, and agricultural agencies and may help figure out the average level of pesticides in drinking water, the number of endangered species living in a particular area, or the number of people aff

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A statistician could... |Develop metrics to help a baseball team manager evaluate a [...] licted with a particular disease. Statisticians also are employed in national defense agencies, determining the accuracy of new weapons and the likely effectiveness of defense strategies. In business and industry, statisticians play an important role in quality control and in product development and improvement. In an automobile company, for example, statisticians might design experiments to determine the failure time of engines exposed to extreme weather conditions by running individual engines until failure and breakdown. Working for a pharmaceutical company, statisticians might develop and evaluate the results of clinical trials to determine the safety and effectiveness of new medications. At a computer software firm, statisticians might help construct new statistical software packages to analyze data more accurately and efficiently. In addition to product development and testing, some statisticians also are involved in deciding what products to manufacture, how much to charge for them, and to whom the products should be marketed. Statisticians also may manage assets and liabilities, determining the risks and returns of certain investments. Statisticians also work on the research and marketing problems of many industries. The insurance industry employs statisticians, as do state and federal governments. The primary purpose of market research and public opinion research companies is to collect and interpret statistics. Statisticians in industry often work on quality control and product development issues. In a computer company, for instance, statisticians might design experiments that determine the failure rate of keyboards or the error rate of software. Universities employ statisticians both to teach and to do research. Statisticians may have other titles according to their specialty. For example, those who conduct economic research may be called econometricians. Those who work to improve the basic mathematical theories behind statistical work are often called mathematical statisticians. Statisticians who collect and analyze data in the biological sciences are sometimes known as biostatisticians. Statisticians generally work regular hours in an office environment. Sometimes, they may work more hours to meet deadlines. Some statisticians travel to provide advice on research projects, supervise and set up surveys, or gather statistical data. While advanced communications devices, such as email and teleconferencing, are making it easier for statisticians to work with clients in different areas, there still are situations that require the statistician to be present, such as during meetings or while gathering data. On the Job - Report results of statistical analys

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A statistician could... |Develop metrics to help a baseball team manager evaluate a [...] es, including information in the form of graphs, charts, and tables. - Process large amounts of data for statistical modeling and graphic analysis, using computers. - Identify relationships and trends in data, as well as any factors that could affect the results of research. - Analyze and interpret statistical data to identify significant differences in relationships among sources of information. - Prepare data for processing by organizing information, checking for any inaccuracies, and adjusting and weighting the raw data. - Evaluate the statistical methods and procedures used to obtain data to ensure validity, applicability, efficiency, and accuracy. - Evaluate sources of information to determine any limitations in terms of reliability or usability. - Plan data-collection methods for specific projects and determine the types and sizes of sample groups to be used. - Design research projects that apply valid scientific techniques and use information obtained from baselines or historical data to structure uncompromised and efficient analyses. - Develop an understanding of fields to which statistical methods are to be applied to determine whether methods and results are appropriate. - Supervise and provide instructions for workers collecting and tabulating data. - Apply sampling techniques or use complete enumeration bases to determine and define groups to be surveyed. - Adapt statistical methods to solve specific problems in many fields, such as economics, biology, and engineering. - Develop and test experimental designs, sampling techniques, and analytical methods. - Examine theories, such as those of probability and inference, to discover mathematical bases for new or improved methods of obtaining and evaluating numerical data. Companies That Hire Statisticians Explore what you might do on the job with one of these projects... - A Box Office Disappointment: Why the Book is Always Better than the Movie - Animal Magnetism: Do Large Mammals Align Themselves with Earth's Magnetic Field? - Are More Expensive Golf Balls Worth It? - Baseball Bat Debate: What's Better, Wood or Aluminum? - Basketball: The Geometry of Banking a Basket - Basketball: Will You Bank the Shot? - Bet You Can't Hit Me! The Science of Catapult Statistics - Boys and Girls All Around

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A statistician could... |Develop metrics to help a baseball team manager evaluate a [...] the Town - Can Adults Pass a Middle School Science Test? - Correlation of Coronal Mass Ejections with the Solar Sunspot Cycle - Crossed Up: Does Crossed Hand/Eye Dominance Affect Basketball Shooting Percentage? - Decisions, Decisions: Judging a Book by Its Cover? - Dice Probabilities - Do People Prefer Virtual Reality Headsets over 2D Pictures? - Do People Take Longer When Someone Is Waiting? Perception vs. Reality - Does Birth Order Affect Grade Point Average? - Does Body Size Matter? - Does Gender Affect Color Preference? - Dry Spells, Wet Spells: How Common Are They? - Evolution of Friendship Groups Over Time Do you have a specific question about a career as a Statistician that isn't answered on this page? Post your question on the Science Buddies Ask an Expert Forum. - American Statistical Association: www.amstat.org - O*Net Online. (2009). National Center for O*Net Development. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http://www.onetonline.org/ - U.S. Census Bureau. (2010, October 18). World Statistics Day: Statistics All Around Us. Retrieved April 9, 2014, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=piSCkkSvoMo - Hahn, G. (n.d.). Never a Dull Day: The Life of an Industrial Statistician! Retrieved October 16, 2009, from http://www.amstat.org/meetings/jsm/2000/usei/quality.PDF - Net Industries. (2009). Statistician Job Description, Career as a Statistician, Salary, Employment - Definition and Nature of the Work, Education and Training Requirements, Getting the Job. Retrieved October 16, 2009, from http://careers.stateuniversity.com/pages/228/Statistician.html We'

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Earthquake in Iran. This lesson, we’ll learn about an earthquake in Iran in 2003, and why it did so much damage. The day Bam changed forever. Download Policy: Content on the Website is provided to you AS IS for your information and personal use and may not be sold / licensed / shared on other websites without getting consent from its author.While downloading, if for some reason you are not able to download a presentation, the publisher may have deleted the file from their server. This lesson, we’ll learn about an earthquake in Iran in 2003, and why it did so much damage. The town of Bam in Iran is an oasis in the desert, where date palms and orange trees grow. In 2003, over 100,000 people lived in Bam. And many tourists came by to see its famous castle, over 2000 years old. But on 26th December 2003, Bam changed forever. At 5.36 in the morning, while people were still asleep, an earthquake struck. It measured 6.5 on the Richter scale. It left 43,000 people dead and many thousands homeless. Over 70% of Bam lay in ruins, including the old castle. News of the disaster shocked the world. The Iranian army and local people began the search for survivors. People came from all over Iran to help. Food, blankets, shelters, medicines, and money poured in from more than 20 other countries. Oxfam, the Red Cross, and other aid agencies sent people and equipment. Why was there so much damage? region. Sadly, much of Bam was built from mud bricks that cracked easily. And many people could not afford builders, so they built their own homes – badly. So, when the earthquake struck, most of the buildings collapsed, killing people asleep inside. Grief – and anger There was much grief in Iran about the deaths in Bam. There was also anger. ‘We all know Iran is at risk from earthquakes’ said one man, ‘but we are not ready for them. We have building rules, but nobody pays much attention. The government does not enforce the rules. And they don’t tell us what to do in earthquakes. They

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In our "Question of the Day" feature for this year's Ideas Special Report, our readers tackle some of the emerging issues that are defining our time. For businesses across U.S., the watchword of the new American economy is sustainability. "Every type of company is jockeying to get the most-stringent green certification for their plants," writes senior editor Megan McArdle on the rise of green technology in the July/August issue. "Windmills are no longer the stuff of quaint Dutch paintings or environmentalist fantasies; they're sprouting on farms, on mountain ridges, even on the ocean. President Obama seems to launch a new energy initiative every week, always promising more green jobs to offset any temporary pain in the pocketbook." In 2010, one-tenth of our electricity came from renewable sources. But most of that was hydroelectric power, not wind or solar--and hydroelectric output has actually dropped by almost a third since 1997. That fall has more than offset the rise of wind power, meaning we now generate less electricity from renewables than we did in 1997.Nuclear generation has risen, making our electricity output slightly less carbon-intensive than back then. But whether it will continue to rise in the wake of Japan's nuclear disaster remains to be seen.Green technology, especially in automobiles, may get a big boost from higher fossil-fuel prices. That's the good news. The bad news is that those higher prices result from higher demand in the developing world. When we consume less oil, we may not be slowing the rate of fossil-fuel consumption; we may simply be transferring that consumption somewhere else.Unless we somehow stop burning fossil fuels, all the carbon currently under the Earth's surface will end up in the atmosphere in the next few hundred years. And as the physicist Robert B. Laughlin recently pointed out in The American Scholar, from the Earth's point of view, a few hundred years is less than the blink of an eye. Even if we burn fossil fuels at a slower pace, temperatures will still rise, the oceans will still acidify, human lives will be much altered.

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Glass door to the ancient past FOUND ON MARS Red dust-stained geologists now working in vitro Rock-boffins have used data from satellites to scope out impact-crater glass on Mars for a glimpse into its past, based on the theory that glass formed during hypervelocity happenings can encapsulate and preserve earthly bio-signatures. A study lead by Brown University's Peter Schultz found that organic matter, including plant matter, was entombed by molten glass formed in asteroid and comet impacts occurring millions of years ago in Argentina. When the study was published, the rock-boffin suggested that something similar could also have happened on Mars millions of years ago. The paper, Preserved glass-rich impactites on Mars, and published in Geology, is the first step in detecting the existence of impact glass on Mars. "The work done by Pete and others showed us that glasses are potentially important for preserving bio-signatures. Knowing that, we wanted to go look for them on Mars and that’s what we did here," Kevin Cannon, a PhD student at Brown and the lead author of the new research, said in a press release. "Before this paper nobody had been able to definitively detect them on the surface," he added. The hassle of distinguishing impact glass from its surroundings on the Red Planet's surface was immense. It required measuring the spectra of light reflected off of minerals and rocks on the surface, although impact glass unfortunately does not have a particularly strong spectral signal, although Cannon has seemingly found a way to tease that signal out. The Nili Fossae trough, a likely location for glass-encapsulated life. Cannon took to the laboratory to mix up powders with a similar composition of Martian rocks and then fired them in an oven to form glass. By measuring the spectral signal from that glass, Cannon used an algorithm designed to pick out similar signals in data from the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM), which flies aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. This technique enabled the boffins to pinpoint deposits around several crater central peaks, the craggy mounds that often form in the center of a crater during a large impact. The fact that the deposits were found on central peaks is a

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Understanding AES-XTS – part 3 To understand the more generalized ways to securely tweak a block cipher with more than one tweak, we need to understand how to multiply bit vectors. Defining a way to add vectors of bits is easy. Adding the vectors component by component works the way that we'd like the operation to work. Defining a way to multiply bit vectors is slightly more complicated. To do this, we can identify a vector (b0,b1,…bk) with the polynomial b0 + b1 x + … + bk xk. To multiply two bit vectors we then mutiply the polynomials that they correspond to and then reduce this product modulo a polynomial of degree k. If we pick the polynomial that we used for this reduction in the right way, then this definition of multiplication works the way we'd like it to work. In particular, we need this polynomial to act much like a prime number: it should have no factors aside from itself and 1. In the following, any multiplication of bit vectors is done in this way. Now suppose that E is a block cipher, N and a1 through ak are bit strings and that i1 through ik are integers. Phil Rogaway showed that if E is a secure block cipher then the construction EK(N, i1, …,ik, M) = EK(M Å D) Å D , where D = a^(i1)…a^(ik) EK(N), is also a secure block cipher that uses the k + 1 tweaks N and i1 through ik.This construction is often called "Rogaway's XEX construction," after the fact that it performs an XOR operation, then an encryption operation, and then another XOR operation. This diagram shows this construction. The SISWG modified Rogaway's XEX construction slightly to form the basis of the XTS mode of operation. They did this by limiting the number of tweaks to two and by increasing the number of keys used from one to two. The two tweaks correspond to the sector and block number where data is stored. The use of two keys instead of one should not be interpreted as a criticism of Rogaway's XEX construction. Instead, a more appropriate interpretation is that is the use of two keys is a result of the influence of the commercial

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Rep. John Lewis (D-Ga.) was the youngest speaker at the 1963 March on Washington. The then-23-year-old leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee represented the young, aggressive arm of the civil rights movement that was working in the deep South. SNCC had grown impatient with the slow pace of progress, and Lewis used his time at the podium to convey that restlessness. ‘‘We want our freedom and we want it now,’’ he said. His speech,which contained notes of militancy, was a point of tension in the hours preceding the historic march. Lewis recounted his memories of the time in a wide-ranging conversation with The Washington Post this summer. From the very outset of the modern-day civil right movement there was a conscious deliberate effort to make the movement a truly interracial movement because those of us that came out of the Southern wing of the movement were committed to this idea of a beloved community. That’s what Dr. King taught us. That’s what he preached about. [In Nashville] every Tuesday night, 20 or 30 students would meet at a Methodist church. There we became imbued with the philosophy of nonviolence. We created a circle of trust, a band of brothers and sisters. ...If people were committed to the philosophy and the discipline of nonviolence, committed to the idea of an integrated society, you could look beyond the question of race. When you’d be sitting at a lunch counter and someone would spit on you or pour hot coffee on you or pull you off the lunch counter stool, they didn’t just pick on you or harass you or try to abuse you simply because you happen to be African American. If one of your white brothers or sisters were participating, they received the same abuse and sometime the abuse that they received was much stronger. Because a lot of white Southerners thought that they were betraying them, they were turncoats. I don’t want to use the word. But they were called N-lovers. So when I came here to go on the Freedom Rides in May of 1961, there were seven whites and six African Americans. Blacks and whites could board a Trailways bus and be seated together in Washington, D.C., but that changed as you went south. The Freedom Ride became one of the most integrated

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Rep. John Lewis (D-Ga.) was the youngest speaker at the 1963 [...] efforts during that period. By the time they got to Montgomery... they were beaten by an angry mob. They even beat the reporters.The white participants, they would single them out during the Freedom Rides. During the sit-in many were severely beaten and seriously injured. We met with President Kennedy in June of 1963. In that meeting there were just the six African American leaders, and we were called the “Big Six.” President Kennedy wanted to meet with us because of all of the turmoil and discontent and frustration that was burning all across the country. I hadn’t heard anyone say anything about a March on Washington. All of a sudden in the meeting A. Philip Randolph spoke up in his baritone and said, “Mr. President, the black masses are restless, and we are going to march on Washington.” You could tell President Kennedy didn’t like that idea. He started turning in his chair and moving around. He said, “Brother Randolph — or Mr. Randolph — if you bring all of these people to Washington, won’t there be violence and chaos and we will never get a civil rights bill through Congress?” and Mr. Randolph responded by saying, “Mr. President, this will be an orderly, peaceful and nonviolent protest.” We came out on the lawn and spoke to the press. We said “We had a meaningful and productive meeting with the president. We are going to march on Washington.” Randolph was the spokesperson. We met in New York on July 2, 1963, at the Roosevelt Hotel. From that meeting, we invited four major white religious and labor leaders to join us. I don’t want to open up old wounds, but one major labor leader refused to sign on. Walter Reuther, the head of the UAW, signed on. In the meantime, Dr. King had already participated in a march in Detroit with Walter Reuther and Rev. C.L. Franklin. It was there that he used the phrase “I have a dream.” It was important that we include religious leaders, because we were trying to build what we call a coalition of conscience and it was important that we get the different church groups, Protestant, Catholic, Jewish. You had Eugene Carson Blake. Matthew Ahmann, who was from

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Rep. John Lewis (D-Ga.) was the youngest speaker at the 1963 [...] Chicago. Rabbi Joachim Prinz of Newark. Somehow, some way, we worked well together. The six of us plus the four. We became like brothers. Randolph would say things like, “Brothers, let’s stay together.” There was some debate about whether Bayard Rustin should be the chair of the march or the chief organizer of the march. Some people objected to Bayard Rustin being the chair because he had been once arrested on moral charges. Also there were accusations that he had once been associated with the Young Communist Party. We didn’t want anything to smear the march. We selected Randolph to be the chair and let him choose his deputy, and we knew he would select Bayard Rustin. People went all across America. A guy like Eugene Carson Blake had so many contacts with religious leaders. On the day of the march, people had signs: “The churches of Iowa,” “The churches of Minnesota.” The Jewish community responded. Organized labor responded. Many of the people that provided security — if you look at some of those old photographs you see the guys with the little caps — they were labor out of New York. Then there was Rachelle Horowitz, the transportation coordination. We could call almost anytime of day, anytime of night and say, “Rochelle: How many people are coming out of New York? How many people are coming out of Philadelphia? How many people are coming out Boston? How many people are going to be on that train coming out of New Orleans? How many buses?” And she could give us a count. The NAACP, the Urban League, the CORE people, the SNCC people, ministers, the churches, the black churches and many of the white churches were tied in to come, and they showed up in force, too. Sometimes I say that the movement during that time became almost a religious movement. People looked like they were going to church. They put on their best. The heard the call, they responded. It was like a great camp meeting. I tell you, Dr. King, he preached that day. He knew he was preaching. He knew he was getting over. During the delivery of that speech, I think most people felt we were prepared and ready to

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Rep. John Lewis (D-Ga.) was the youngest speaker at the 1963 [...] march into Hell’s fire. You had been lifted, you had been inspired. On that morning, early that morning, the ten of us came up to Capitol Hill and we met with the chair of the House Judiciary Committee, the chairperson of the Senate Judiciary Committee, speakers, Majority Leaders. Democrats and Republicans. We were on Constitution Avenue, the ten of us, and we were prepared to march to the Lincoln Memorial. We were supposed to be leading the march, they were already marching. It was like: “There go my people. Let me catch up with them.” They kind of just pushed us. When A. Philip Randolph introduced me, I stood up and I went to the podium. I looked to my right, and I saw all of SNCC, saw young men up in the trees. I looked straight ahead, and I saw all of these people, men and women, they had their feet, their legs in the water trying to cool off. Black, white. Then I said: “This is it. Let’s start speaking.” We all had to prepare a speech. It was supposed to be a certain length. The SNCC communications director made advanced copies of the speech available, and it got out. Most of us stayed at the Capitol Hilton at 16th and K. Dr. King stayed at the Willard. During that evening, a note was put under my door at the hotel, and it was from Bayard Rustin, saying in effect: “John, some have a problem with your speech, and there will be a meeting. We want you to come to the meeting.” It was about 11 p.m. I was trying to go in early to get a good night’s sleep. I got the note, and I went downstairs and there was several representatives there. Dr. King was not in that meeting. SNCC field secretary Courtland Cox was there. I said this speech represents the people that the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee has been working with in the black belt of Alabama, in Mississippi, in southwest Georgia. They wanted me to speak not only for them. but for the indigenous people in these states. In the original speech I said: “In good conscience, we cannot support wholeheartedly the administration’s

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Rep. John Lewis (D-Ga.) was the youngest speaker at the 1963 [...] civil rights bill, for it is too little and too late. There’s not one thing in the bill that will protect our people from police brutality. This bill will not protect young children and old women from police dogs and fire hoses, for engaging in peaceful demonstrations,” or something to that effect. Then I went on: “You tell us to wait. We cannot be patient.” I said, “We want our freedom, and we want it now.” So Bayard Rustin was being really facetious and cynical. He said: “John, you cannot say you cannot be patient. The Catholic Church believes in being patient.” I think he was just sort of playing on words and thought it was an easy thing to sort of compromise on. Down further in the speech, I talked about the fact that we were involved in a serious revolution and that the black masses were restless. I got that from A. Philip Randolph They wanted me to delete that. At the bottom, near the end of the speech, I said something like: “If we don’t see meaningful progress here today, there will come a day when we will not confine our marching to the South. We will be forced to march through the South the way Sherman did — nonviolently.” And people objected to that, they thought it was inflammatory. The next day when we arrived, around 1 p.m. on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, Bayard and Mr. Randolph said the archbishop still would not give the invocation. It has always been rumored that the archbishop was very close to Robert Kennedy and President Kennedy. Some people felt that someone in the Kennedy administration said not to give the invocation if those lines stayed in the speech. I was resisting it. That was the urging of the SNCC people. They were saying: “This is John’s speech. This represents the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. They’re not asking anyone else to change their speech.” And I remember Mr. [Roy] Wilkins coming over and saying ‘Why can’t we change that?’ And we had the pointing of fingers, and I said to them, “This is our speech. This is my speech.” And he sort of backed off. Then Dr

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Rep. John Lewis (D-Ga.) was the youngest speaker at the 1963 [...] . King and A. Philip Randolph got in there. And Dr. King said, “John, this doesn’t sound like you.” And then Mr. Randolph said: “John, for the sake of unity — We’ve come together. Let’s stay together. Can we change this?” So I dropped all reference to Sherman marching through the South. I remember Bayard Rustin saying at one time … he was concerned about the logistics more than anything else, and I’ve heard this several times since. Even, I heard it today that the Kennedy administration had someone waiting to pull the sound system as I spoke. All of the liquor stores were closed. None of the police officers could be on leave. There were several thousand troops surrounding the city just in case there was an outbreak of violence. Everything was so orderly, so peaceful, so quiet. It was more like a day of jubilee. I met Malcolm X for the first time the night before the march. He was in the lobby of the Capitol Hilton. And after the march was all over, I know he accused us of giving in to a white president or something like that. He said it was supposed to be a march and we allowed it to become a picnic. For that crowd to be interracial it sent a message that this movement was not just about African Americans. It was about all Americans. To see that presence of blacks and whites, I don’t think people had seen that in America before. Some of the media and park police said 250,000. I think it was many, many more people. When the program was all over, there were still people trying to get into Washington. ... White and black people from all over take great pride in saying, “I was there.” President Kennedy was so proud at the end of the march. He was beaming like a proud father. He was almost giddy. He went around, he shook every single hand. He said: “You did a good job. You did a good job,” and when he got to Dr. King, he said “And you had a dream.” The history of the whole struggle is embodied in that day.

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When it comes to Security then you need to be very punctual about the safety of your system. You can not say that you are safe by only comparing with old measurements/resources which make your system safe. Hacking enthusiasts are always up to finding new ways to crack the security and enter the system. To really get the idea of what exactly to do next, instead of following old security tips, you need to actually know the process so you can better determine and apply desired changes. If you are familiar with the term website hacking then you probably know that term DDOS. And this is one of that kind of attack seen usually on the internet nowadays. And we are about to tell you how to DDoS but before you need to clearly know what this is about: What is DDoS? DDoS, which is stands for Distributed Denial Of Service and has a huge effect on the internet and its users. It is simply focused on overwhelming the server or system by using various methods to shut down the system. When talking about websites then attacker makes a huge network or bots to send a request to your site server to the maximum of its capacity so the legit users can’t access the site. A DDoS attack can crash the whole site badly. It can be a type of blitzkrieg, DNS server amplification or other types. The force to shut down the system/server or keep it busy as much as possible to prevent the real users to access can be done in more than one manner. And it totally depends on server capacity for how much requests you need to send a single time to make this happen. Usually, a shared server crash easily whereas to perform an attack on VPS or dedicated server is way too difficult and you really need a superbly broad network or bots and environment to make this happen. To Perform DDoS attack you need to go through these simple steps. We will give you a brief idea on how to DDoS a server. Let’s take a look at below steps explanation: As we already said that this attack can be performed in various manners, you can also use a different method but here we are running this process using a software as well as the command prompt. Using a software to perform this kind of attack is easy because non-techky or tech knowledgeable person can even use a software after following instructions and can get started right away anytime. Step 1# Starting the Software

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When it comes to Security then you need to be very punctual about the safety of your system. [...] To get started with a software to perform DDoS you need to install one of the best ones which will actually work. Download this software from Sourceforge.net, this software is known as LOIC(Low Orbit Ion Cannon). After one downloading the software, you need to extract it on your windows system and open it. Step 2# Target A Site After opening LOIC on your windows system you need to Target a website in which you want to perform this action. Here you will see Select your target box area inside which you have two other boxes contains options to put the Website URL and IP address. If you have the website URL which you want to target then put it inside the first box, Or if you have the IP then put that in the second box. After that hit the “Lock on” button. Step# 3 Configure it Be patient and don’t move your fingers towards the big button because still you need to configure and let the software know the configuration of your attack. Now, go to the third section says Attack options, let the Timeout and HTTP Subsite same but inside TCP / UDP message box type any Random message. Also let the port same (80) if you are attacking a website, then select the method UDP. Uncheck wait for reply and let the Threads at 10. Usually, the Thread should be 10 but if you have pretty good processor/configuration then you can increase it upto 20 which will increase the capability of your attack. Step# 4 Final Step (Attack) Now its the time to press the trigger, you see that big button which says IMMA CHARGIN MAH LAZER so hit that. Once you have pressed that you will see the regarding info and the progress of your attack. On request column, under Attack status, you will see how many times the resources of the site has been requested. Or if you are doing ddos on Minecraft server then it will show you for how many times it has requested the resource from Minecraft server. This is just an automated DDoS attack which will work with LOIC and the info you will feed inside of it. If you want to do it manually then you can use command prompt for this purpose. Check out below steps to know exactly how

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales ovate, c. 3 mm long, minutely latticed, dark brown; fronds closely spaced near apex. Fronds dimorphic, the fertile fronds much narrower and held above the sterile ones. Sterile frond: stipe c. 10–25 cm long; lamina suberect, narrowly ovate to narrowly elliptic, c. 20–40 cm long, rarely forked, acute, undulating, gradually tapering into a narrow wing on stipe, glabrous, glossy; veins pinnate, distinct, with anastomosing veinlets between. Fertile frond: stipe erect, c. 20–50 cm long; lamina erect, very narrow, c. 10–20 cm long, 6–9 mm wide, narrowly decurrent, covered by sporangia beneath, except midvein and narrow margins. Christmas Is. A terrestrial species sometimes growing on basaltic rock, but usually in deep, phosphate-rich soil. It is mostly confined to shaded positions in tall rainforest on the plateau, often growing with Bolbitis heteroclita and Corymborkis veratrifolia. A tropical and subtropical SE Asian species, distributed from India and SW China through Indo-China to Malesia as far as Sulawesi, preferring regions with some climatic seasonality. Ch.Is.: no precise locality, C.W.Andrews 89 (K); Phosphate Hill, H.N.Ridley 176 (K); sheltered valley close to Aldrich Hill, D.A.Powell 457 (K); plateau, gully floor, line 256, D.J. & B.P.Du Puy CI18 (CBG, K); plateau, NE slope of Murray Hill, D.J.& B.P.Du Puy CI87 (CBG, K). Leptochilus decurrens is often found with Bolbitis heteroclita, which it closely resembles in habit

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] , both having narrow, fertile fronds with acrostichoid sporangia. It can be distinguished by its entire fronds. Despite this close resemblance, the 2 genera are currently classified in separate families due to differences in the rhizome anatomy, venation pattern, and the presence of articulated stipes. Leptochilus listeri, described as a species of Acrostichum, was considered endemic on Christmas Is. (Baker, loc. cit.). It was compared to A. variabile Hook., now considered a synonym of L. decurrens, in the type description. There appears to be no character to justify the separation of the two taxa. A. variabile Hook. was described from Ceylon and the name has not been applied to Christmas Is. material. MicrosorumLink Hort. Berol. 2: 110(1833) from the Greek mikros (small), indicating the small sori of some species Type: M. irregulare Link Epiphytic, lithophytic or terrestrial ferns; rhizome short- to long-creeping; scales latticed, peltate, scattered mainly on rhizome; fronds scattered along rhizome. Stipe grooved above, sometimes ±absent; vascular strands various. Fronds erect to pendulous, simple to deeply pinnatisect, ±glabrous, sometimes coriaceous, articulate on rhizome; veinlets anastomosing, forming many areolae, with included, free veinlets. Sori small to large, circular, irregularly distributed or in rows on either side of midvein of lamina lobes; indusium absent; paraphyses sometimes present. An Old World genus of c. 45–60 species, distributed from Africa and the Indian Oceanic islands through SE Asia and Malesia to Australia and the Pacific islands; 2 species on Christmas Is. They occur in various habitats, from damp, shaded rocks near streams to open sites exposed to full sun. The genus is sometimes split into 2 genera, those with large sori and pinnatif

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] id fronds being removed to the genus Phymatodes C.Presl. Most species can be easily placed in 1 of these 2 groups, but there is also an almost complete range of intermediate species. Many species are very variable and a full taxonomic revision of the genus is required. Acrostichum punctatum L., Sp. Pl. 2nd edn, 2: 1524 (1763).T: China, J.Fothergill; n.v., apparently lost. Epithet from the Latin punctatus (spotted), in reference to the small, dot-like sori scattered over the apical half of the frond. A robust, epiphytic or occasionally lithophytic fern, forming large clumps; rhizome creeping, glaucous; scales ovate, c. 2 mm long, peltate, acute, latticed, dark brown; fronds closely spaced. Fronds subsessile, articulate on short spurs from rhizome, erect to arching, linear-elliptic, entire, abruptly acute, c. 60–120 cm long, c. 6–11 cm wide, tapering to a broad or narrow wing at frond base, glabrous, somewhat coriaceous, pale green; venation pinnate, with many anastomosing veinlets, the veins not easily observed in living specimens. Sori small, to 1.5 mm diam., irregularly and often densely scattered in apical half of frond. Christmas Is. Abundant as an epiphyte in the rainforest on the plateau and upper terraces, and on limestone pinnacles and rocks in open but humid sites. Occasionally in open situations among other ferns in old quarries. A common and widely distributed species in the lowland tropics and subtropics, from Africa, the Indian Oceanic islands, India and southern China, through Indo-China, the Philippines and Malesia to Australia (Qld) and the Pacific islands. Ch.Is.: common everywhere, C.W.Andrews 108 (K); plate

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] au, H.N.Ridley 194 (K); on Planchonella nitida, D.A.Powell 290 (K); Headridge Hill, below the wireless station, B.Molesworth Allen P7 (K); track to Grants Well, SW of Hanitch Hill, D.J. & B.P.Du Puy CI7 (CBG, K). This species resembles Asplenium nidus L., but it forms untidy clumps rather than the characteristic rosettes of the Bird's Nest Fern. The root ball of A. nidus sometimes forms a suitably moisture-retentive substrate on which this species can flourish. A terrestrial or lithophytic fern, forming spreading patches; rhizome creeping, glaucous; scales ovate, c. 4 mm long, peltate, acuminate, latticed, dark brown; fronds scattered, c. 2–5 cm apart. Stipe usually 15–45 cm long, articulate on a short spur from rhizome. Fronds stiffly erect, usually 25–50 cm long, pinnatisect, with 1–9 pairs of lobes, occasionally entire, glabrous, coriaceous, often yellowish; lobes narrowly oblong, acuminate, to 19 cm long, separated by broad sinuses; veinlets anastomosing. Sori large, circular, c. 2.5–4 mm diam., slightly sunken, usually in single rows on either side of midveins of lobes, sometimes in double rows in reduced fronds or very large fronds. Christmas Is. Terrestrial or lithophytic, growing on limestone rock and poor soil in road cuttings, old quarries and other disturbed sites, often in full sun. Has become much more common following clearance of forest for phosphate mining. Distributed from Africa to SE Asia, including India, southern China and Indo-China, the Philippines and through Malesia to Australia (Qld, ?N.T., W.A.) and the Pacific islands (Polynesia).

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] Ch.Is.: rocks above Flying Fish Cove, H.N.Ridley 162 (K); Phosphate Hill, old quarry, D.A.Powell 126 (K); no precise locality, D.A.Powell 292 (K); old mine site, 0.5 km N of airport, R.Shivas 932 (PERTH); cutting on Irvine Hill Rd., D.J. & B.P.Du Puy CI4 (CBG, K). This species is very variable in its frond morphology, and even very small fronds which are few-lobed or entire can be fertile. Specimens with 2 rows of sori on either side of midveins of the lobes are often placed in M. nigrescens (Blume) J.Sm.. Most specimens on Christmas Is. have single rows of sori, but occasionally the larger specimens, or specimens with reduced fronds, may bear double rows of sori. The specimens are otherwise identical, and it is not possible to recognise 2 distinct taxa on the basis of this character. PyrrosiaMirb. Hist. Nat. Veg. 3: 471, 5: 91(1802) from the Greek pyros (fire), perhaps from the burnt appearance of the fertile portions of the fronds Type: P. chinensis Mirb. Epiphytic, lithophytic or terrestrial ferns; rhizome usually long-creeping, densely scaly; scales peltate or basally attached, sometimes ciliate, ±confined to the rhizome; fronds scattered. Stipe not deeply grooved, sometimes very short; vascular strands several. Fronds erect to pendulous, usually simple and entire, minutely stellate-hairy beneath, coriaceous, articulate on short spurs from rhizome, sometimes dimorphic, the fertile fronds or portions of fronds narrow and elongated; venation obscure, anastomosing. Sori circular, in 1–several

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] rows on either side of midvein, usually confined to apical half of frond, sometimes confluent; indusium absent; paraphyses present. The 51 species in this Old World genus are distributed from Africa and Madagascar throughout SE Asia including India, China, Japan and Indo-China, the Philippines and Malesia to Australia, the SW Pacific islands and New Zealand; 1 variable species on Christmas Is. The greatest diversity is in SE Asia. They mainly occur in regions with high rainfall and humidity but also tolerate seasonally dry climates. R.E.Holttum, Fl. Malaya (Ferns) 2nd edn, 2: 141–149 (1968); D.L.Jones & S.C.Clemesha, Austral. Ferns & Fern Allies 2nd edn, 197–199 (1981); P.Hovenkamp, A monograph of the genus Pyrrosia (1986). Acrostichum lanceolatum L., Sp. Pl. 2: 1067 (1753).T: Sri Lanka, Herb. P.Hermann vol. 1, fol. 3, no. 380; syn: BM. Epithet from the Latin lanceolatus (lanceolate, but which in the sense of C.Linnaeus meant narrowly elliptic), in reference to the shape of the fronds. Epiphytic fern, often forming extensive colonies; rhizome slender, wiry, creeping, scaly; scales appressed, narrowly ovate, c. 3 mm long, peltate, acuminate, ciliate, becoming chocolate-brown; fronds scattered, c. 1.5–3.5 cm apart. Stipe c. 2–4 cm long, stellate-hairy. Fronds suberect to pendulous, linear to elliptic, c. 5–20 cm long, obtuse, acute or acuminate, entire, decurrent, the margins often incurved,

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] minutely stellate-hairy beneath, coriaceous, dimorphic, the fertile fronds longer and narrower than the sterile fronds, usually fertile only in apical half. Sori circular, densely covering fertile portion of frond, the outer sporangia maturing first, with a central cluster of paraphyses. Christmas Is. Abundant high in the canopy of trees in the plateau rainforest, on small trees in scrubby forest, even in exposed situations such as the edge of the inland cliffs. The creeping and much-branched rhizome forms a tangle of intercrossing shoots, allowing the fern to cover entire branches. Common throughout Malesia and widely distributed in Africa, Madagascar and the Mascarenes, and from India and southern China through Indo-China, the Philippines and Malesia to Australia (Qld) and the SW Pacific islands. Ch.Is.: no precise locality, D.A.Powell 226 (K); Phosphate Hill, B.Molesworth Allen P2 (K); Grants Well, R.Shivas 809 (PERTH); walk to West White Beach, R.Shivas 923 & 924 (PERTH); fallen branch on drill line near track to Grants Well, D.J. & B.P.Du Puy CI12 (K). The fronds are used for dressing cuts in some of the Pacific islands. A.E.OrchardAustralian Biological Resources Study, GPO Box 767, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, 2601(M.Is.) Relatively small epiphytic or rock-dwelling ferns; rhizomes erect or tufted or creeping, scaly. Fronds entire or pinnate; petiole continuous (not articulate); lamina with long stiff hairs, or glabrous. Sori round or oval, unprotected; sporangium with a 1-rowed stalk; spores tetrahedral–globose and green (containing chlorophyll). Gametophyte at

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] first filamentous, later elongate or cordate. A family of about 6–10 genera and 200–400 species, the majority of which belong to Grammitis. The family is distributed from S America to New Zealand, Australia and Malaysia, with a few species extending to subantarctic regions.; 1 genus on Macquarie Is. Some authors treat this group as a tribe of the cosmopolitan family Polypodiaceae. GrammitisSw. J. Bot. (Schrader) 1800 (2): 3, 17(1801) from the Greek gramme (a line), in reference to the sori which are often elongate or coalescing Type: G. marginella (Sw.) Sw. Fronds entire, linear to spathulate, glabrous or hairy. Sori naked, round, oval or elongate, often oblique, in a single row on either side of midrib, remote from margins. A genus of 150–400 species, distributed as for the family, in humid forests, shrubland and herbfields; about 10 species in Australia, 1 of which extends to Macquarie Is. T.F.Cheeseman, Vasc. Fl. Macquarie Is. 40 (1919), as Polypodium; B.W.Taylor, Fl. Veg. Soils Macquarie Is. 155–156 (1955), as Polypodium; B.S.Parris, A revision of the genus Grammitis Sw. (Filicales: Grammitidaceae) in Australia, Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 70: 21–43 (1975); B.S.Parris, An analysis of the Grammitis poeppigiana – G. magellanica complex in the South Atlantic and south Indian Oceans, Fern Gaz. 12: 165–168 (1981); G.R.Copson, An Annotated Atlas of the Vascular Fl

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] ora of Macquarie Island, ANARE Res. Notes 18: 26 (1984). Polypodium poeppigiana Mett., Polyp. 37 (1857).T: Cape of Good Hope, E.F.Poeppig; B n.v., fide B.S.Parris & D.R.Given, New Zealand J. Bot. 14: 90 (1976). G. nana Brack., U.S. Expl. Exped., Filic. 16: 1 (1854), non Fée (1853).T: Orange Harbour, Tierra del Fuego, C.Wilkes; holo: US n.v.; iso: K n.v., fide B.S.Parris & D.R.Given, loc. cit. G. australis var. nana Franch., Mission Sci. Cap. Horn 5 Bot.: 397 (1889); Polypodium billardierei f. nana (Franch.) Skottsb., Kongl. Svenska. Vetenskapsakad. Handl. 56: 167 (1916); Grammitis billardierei f. nana (Franch.) de la Sota, Opera Lilloana 5: 208 (1960).T: Packsaddle Anchorage, Tierra del Fuego, Hahn; holo: P n.v., fide B.S.Parris & D.R.Given, op. cit. 91. G. armstrongii Tindale, Contr. New South Wales Natl. Herb. 3(2): 88 (1961).T: Thredbo River Gorge, Kosciusko, N.S.W., Jan. 1951, L.A.S.Johnson & E.F.Constable NSW P3086; holo: NSW n.v; iso: US n.v. G. kerguelensis Tardieu

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A terrestrial fern, sometimes forming small clumps; rhizome creeping; scales [...] , Adansonia 2: 114 (1962) T: Kerguelen Is., Butte aux Fougères Molloy, Cours; holo: P n.v., fide B.S.Parris & D.R.Given, op. cit. 91. Illustrations: B.S.Parris, Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 70: 27 fig. 1A, B (1975), as G. armstrongii; B.S.Parris & D.R.Given, New Zealand J. Bot. 14: 90, figs 1. 2a & b. (1976), as G. armstrongii; B.D.Duncan & G.Isaac, Ferns & Allied Pl. Victoria, Tasmania & S. Australia 148, fig. 14.1 (1986). Terrestrial, mat-forming; rhizome prostrate, slender, creeping, freely branched, densely scaly; scales papery, brown, ovate, 2.5–4 mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide; fronds crowded. Lamina entire, spathulate to narrowly oblanceolate, 7–28 mm long, 1.5–4 mm wide, but usually 10–16 mm long and 2–4 mm wide, tapering to base, rounded at tip, coriaceous, glabrous or young fronds with sparse, red-brown, septate hairs on margins and midrib; veins indistinct. Sori 1 or 2 towards tip of frond, tending to coalesce into 1 more or less circular mass. Spores c. 0.05 mm diam., greenish. Macquarie Is. Widespread but rare in rock crevices and in cushions of Azorella and bryophytes. Extends from southern S America (Chile and Argentina) to Falkland, South Georgia, Tristan da Cunha, Gough, Kerguelen

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Help the poor on your way Accroding to UNICEF, 22000 children die each day due to poverty. 805 million people all over the world do not have enough food to eat. More than 750 million people lack adequate access to clean drinking water. It may surprise you to find out that poverty has made some great strides in the past few years. Indeed, in the past 20 years, the world’s undernourished has decreased by 50%. Life expectancy has also increased by 1/3. How much you can give to help the poor and needy? That means for instance, instead of dishing out a dollar a day for a can of soda from the vending machine at school or work, maybe you can save this money two days of the week. Then give this money to a poor person you know in your neighborhood, a local soup kitchen or to a worthy cause abroad. This is one of the simplest ways to help the world’s poor, and also it helps you to do the other things more effectively. Basically, all you need to do is stay informed on the issues. You can help them by social media. Recently, social media has become one of the most fantastical ways a person can help the world’s poor (among other ventures). This is perhaps the easiest way to help. Many people have Facebook pages, Twitters, or websites. All you need to do is either post on their pages to bring up the idea of helping the world’s poor, or post on your own about the various issues. Also, you can easily follow many different organizations, including The Borgen Project, and retweet them or post about them on Facebook or other websites. Overall, your voice will be heard. (The Social Media of Congress can be found here and here). (Also Twitter) Although you can call Congress, or post on their Facebook pages, there are on ways to help the world’s poor and to “get political.” If you are willing, you can always arrange a meeting with Congressional staffers to tell them what issues (like reducing global poverty) you are interested in. You can also mobilize those around you; just one person calling into Congress will make a difference, but if multiple people in an area call Congress about the same issue and around the same time, there will be a bigger

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No one can deny that having a healthy, fair skin is critical to a living a perfectly wonderful life. It frees you from the wrath of symptoms caused by skin diseases. Skin is perhaps one of the most important parts of your body for it protects you from a host of diseases that may pose a threat to your existence. It is our body’s main line of defence. It guards you from all infections and insulates your body from the ever-fluctuating external environment in order to keep a relatively stable body temperature. It is the body’s main point of contact to the outside world, sending constant information to the brain about pain, heat, texture, cold, etc. With this in mind, there is no doubt that proper skin care and staying away from skin damaging activities will do yourself and your skin particularly, a big favor. Like most part of our body, the skin is also likely to develop cancer. Cancer is a result of an uncontrolled cell growth in one part of the body. Unlike normal cells which are programmed to divide, grow, and die at a certain time, cancer cells lack the internal machinery to control growth and as a result cause severe damage to normal cells that will be outnumbered along the process in a certain biological locality. Technically, the body reacts in many ways to cancer cells but this abnormality causes other diseases to suffer nutritional death. Cancer cells were found to cause the body to produce numerous blood vessel connections along the cancerous portion thereby depriving normal cells with nutrients. Some cells even detach from their point of origin and travel to other parts of the body to start a new colony of cancer cells. Skin cancers are either melanoma or non-melanoma cancers. Non-melanomas are cancers which arise from skin cells other than melanocytes cells. Melanomas are cancerous melanocytes cells that produce melanin, a pigment that gives the skin its characteristic color. The sun is one of the key enemies of the skin. Although sunlight helps the skin synthesize vitamin D (cholecalciferol), excessive and prolonged exposure to the sun causes damage and wrinkling.

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Social media sites like Facebook are regularly being used to abuse teachers, says a survey. Of the 1,500 teachers who responded, 42% reported things like insulting comments, allegations of inappropriate behaviour and having photos passed around the internet. One 27-year-old teacher told Newsbeat how she fell into depression and had to go on medication because of the way she was targeted online. “It doesn’t matter whether you’re 13 or 30,” he said. “The behaviour is still the same and the consequences are still the same. “It can still hurt just as much and have an impact on confidence and if it takes place in school, your willingness to want to go to school.” Richard says there’s a big gap between what many people think is acceptable online, compared with the real world. “Sometime it’s not taken down, sometimes the support networks aren’t in place,” he said. “Schools are unclear and perhaps don’t have guidance or the confidence to know what they can do and whether they can act.” He also reckons social networking sites should be quicker to take down cases of online bullying. - Don’t post personal information online, like your address, your email address or mobile number. Keep personal information as general as possible. - Never let anyone have access to your passwords. Check the privacy settings on accounts like Facebook and make sure you know how to keep your personal information private. - Think very carefully before posting photos of yourself online. Once your picture is online, anyone can download it and share it or even change it. - Never respond or retaliate, as this can just make things worse. It might be difficult, but try to ignore the bullies. - Block any users that send you nasty messages. - Save and print out any bullying messages, posts, pictures or videos you receive or see. - Make a note of the dates and times of bullying messages, along with any details you have about the sender’s ID and the URL. - Don’t pass on cyberbullying videos or messages. - If you’re being bullied repeatedly, think about changing your user ID, nickname or profile. - Don’t ignore it. If you see cyberbullying going on, report it and offer your support. - Google yourself every now and

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Requirements for a History Major (without Secondary Certification) Students majoring in history are required to complete at least 39 credit hours, including a course in writing history (HST 200 - Writing History), any three 200-level foundation courses, six 300-level electives, two junior seminars, and the Capstone. Requirements for a History Major (with Secondary Teaching Certification) Students majoring in history with secondary teaching certification are required to complete at least 39 credit hours, including a course in writing history (HST 200 - Writing History), two World history courses (HST 203 - World History to 1500 A.D. and HST 204 - World History since 1500) and two American history courses (HST 205 - American History to 1877 and HST 206 - American History since 1877), and the Capstone. Students pursuing teacher certification must also take SST 310 and six 300-level electives in history. Only 1 of the foundation courses can come from the 100-level. The electives in history for all majors must include at least one 300-level course in United States history, one 300-level course in European history, and one 300-level course in non-Western history. All students must also take three additional 300-level history courses. An Internship (HST 490) may be substituted for a 300-level elective. Each student will select those courses in consultation with his or her major advisor. Majors must maintain a GPA of at least 2.0 in courses in the department and must receive a grade of C or better in HST 200 and 495. Majors seeking teacher certification must maintain a GPA of at least 3.0 in the major. B.A. or B.S. Degree Requirements Students planning to enter a program of graduate study in history should earn a B.A. degree. Candidates for the B.A. degree must demonstrate third-semester proficiency in a foreign language, either by completing successfully a 2

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Requirements for a History Major (without Secondary Certification) Students majoring in [...] 01-level language course or by passing a proficiency examination in the language chosen. History and social studies majors will have the opportunity to complete a B.S. degree. The B.S. option is designed to give students training in scientific analysis that they can apply to their careers in teaching and historical research. A B.S. in history can be fulfilled by taking the following courses. Please note that STA 215 is a prerequisite for HST 290 (or ED 370 if student is majoring in group social studies or fulfilling requirements for a Secondary Certification). Students who choose to earn a B.S. degree must complete the following cognate sequence: Students who choose to earn a B.S. degree with Secondary Certification must complete the following cognate sequence: History Foundation Courses The following restrictions apply to the history foundation requirements: - Students who take HST 101 may only count one of the following foundation courses toward the major: HST 203 or HST 204. - Students who take HST 102 may only count one of the following foundation courses toward the major: HST 207 or HST 208. - Students who take HST 103 may only count one of the following courses toward the major: HST 205 or HST 206. Category 2: European History Category 3: Nonwestern History Depending on the topic studied, these courses may be used for any of the three categories. Consult with your advisor. Junior Seminar in History History majors (non-teaching certification) are required to take either two junior seminars OR one junior seminar plus completion of a senior thesis. All history majors are required to take the Capstone: Transfer students seeking a major in history must complete at least 12 credits in history at Grand Valley, including a minimum of two upper-level courses. Ordinarily, transfer students will complete the Capstone course (HST 495) at Grand Valley. Suggested Order of Coursework for a History Major (without Secondary Teaching Certification) - Four general education Foundations

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Requirements for a History Major (without Secondary Certification) Students majoring in [...] courses - Any two 200-level history courses - Three 300-level history elective courses - One foreign language course (B.A. candidates) - Three 300-level history courses - One history junior seminar - Four elective courses - Two general education Issues courses Suggested Order of Coursework for a History Major (with Secondary Teaching Certification) Postgraduate students seeking teacher certification with a major in history must present a history major that includes courses in American, European, and world history and must have obtained a major GPA of at least 3.0 in previous work. Postgraduate students whose degree in history was completed more than three years prior to Grand Valley admission must demonstrate currency by completing at least two upper-level history courses at Grand Valley; such students must maintain a minimum GPA of 3.0 in those courses. Students should also consult the chair or the assistant chair for an evaluation of their previous work and to discuss appropriate courses. Additional Course Information Courses at the 100-level are introductory courses designed to fulfill the general education requirement in historical perspectives. Courses at the 200-level are introductory courses designed to prepare students for advanced study in history; HST 203 and HSC 210 also fulfill the general education requirement in Historical Perspectives. Courses at the 300-level focus on particular regions, eras or themes; they are intended for history majors and minors, social studies majors, and other interested students. All 300- and 400-level courses have prerequisites; 600 level courses are intended for graduate students and very well-qualified seniors. We strongly encourage students to serious contemplate taking advantage of the various semester and year-long study abroad opportunities offered by Grand Valley State University. History courses taken abroad may count toward the major or minor if granted prior permission by the Department of History chairperson. Click here for the program description.

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Nurpur Noon is a historical village in Sargodha District, Punjab, Pakistan. It was settled in the nineteenth century by the noon family, who moved here from Mitha Tiwana, along with their staff and people to cutivate the lands. Nurpur noon, which is one of the fifteen villages belonging to the Noon family, was resided by the family chief. Nurpur Noon is inhabited by over 8,000 people. It is a self sustained community, having schools, medical clinics, ironmongers, carpenters, traditional craftsmen in leather arts, clay arts, etc. The village is surrounded by citrus, mango, lychee, Guava and date orchards. The date and Mango orchards are over a hundred years old. It also has a very successful stud farm which is owned by Malik Adnan Hayat Khan Noon. Nurpur Noon is also a historic political seat, which has produced some great leaders for over a century. Before the independence, Nawab Malik Mohammad Hayat Noon served as a Provincial Darbari. His son, Sir Malik Feroz Khan Noon served in the Viceroy's council of India, the War Cabinet of Prime Minister Winston Churchill and served on other posts before independence. He also played a pivotal role in the independence movement for Pakistan. After the creation of Pakistan, he eventually elected Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1958. The political legacy was carried on by Malik Nur Hayat Noon, who served as Federal Minister in several successive governments. Malik Adnan Hayat Noon has also been active in the political arena and was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan. The youngest members of this distinguished family, Malik Saif Ullah Khan Noon and Malik Taimur Hayat Khan Noon, are the sons of Malik Adnan Hayat Noon Friday, August 18, 2006 Nature, in the broadest sense, is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe and etc. Nature refers to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The term generally does not include manufactured objects and human interaction unless qualified in ways such as, human nature or the whole of nature. Nature is also generally distinguished from the spiritual or supernatural.

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If you're new to beading, you'll probably want to start out with a simple project that will give you confidence working with the tools and techniques. Choosing a project that is too difficult is likely to cause unneeded frustration. Basic Beading with Stretch Cord Beading with stretch cord is the easiest way to begin making handmade jewelry. Once you've mastered this method, you can graduate to making projects with beading wire and clasps. To begin beading, you might want to start with a stretch cord bracelet. This type of project is very easy to make because it requires no clasp. - Cut a piece of stretch cord measuring about nine inches. - String beads in the desired pattern until your bracelet measures between seven and eight inches in length. - Tie a knot in the cord. - Secure the knot with a dab of clear fingernail polish. - Use scissors to trim the excess cord. The Beaded Bracelet on Stretch Cord tutorial shows this process in greater detail. Using Beading Wire and Clasps Once you've mastered creating simple jewelry with stretch cord, you can graduate to making a necklace using beading wire and a clasp. You can find all sorts of closures at your local craft store, from basic hooks and eyes to lobster clasps, S-hooks, pieces that screw together, and those round closures where you have to thread one side through the other. Use whatever you think will look nice with your beads. - Drape the wire around your neck. Decide how long you would like it to be, then add a couple inches to each side for good measure. If you're making the necklace as a gift, remember that most people like necklaces between 16 and 18 inches in length. - Before you string any beads, you will want to secure one of your closures to the end of your wire. To do this, simply slide the closure onto the wire, fold over an inch or two and loop the wire around the hole in the closure one or two times to secure. - Crimp beads give a nice finished look to a piece. They look like regular spacer beads, and you can usually find them in gold or silver to match whatever closure you are using on your piece. Crimp beads

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If you're new to beading, you'll probably want to start out with a simple [...] hold the wire snugly in place so the beads won't shift around on the wire as much. If you're planning to use a crimp bead, slide one on now. Make sure that it's as close to the closure as possible and that both layers of the wire are going through it. Use your crimping pliers to smoosh the bead down flat against the wire. - String your beads on in whatever manner you desire. You can buy beading needles, but especially with large beads its just as easy to string the beads using the wire as your needle. Use spacers if you like. - When you get within a couple inches of the end of the wire, slide on a crimp bead, if you're using one, then slide the other end of your closure onto the wire, wrapping it a couple of times and sliding the end back down under the crimp bead and the first couple of beads. - Pull tight and trim any excess wire. Crimp your bead, if you're using one. The Beaded Antique Key Necklace tutorial illustrates the process of making a beaded necklace with this method in greater detail. Simple Stitching Techniques for Beads Often, stitches are used to link beads or to apply them to a surface such as fabric. Some of the common beading techniques for stitched beads include: - Daisy chain: The daisy chain is used to create a row of beads that resembles a chain of flowers. Sometimes, a larger bead is used in the center of the stitch to create a more elaborate effect. - Peyote stitch: The peyote stitch has several variations, including flat, even, and odd-count as well as zipping up or joining flat peyote. - Brick stitch: The brick stitch one of the most versatile beading techniques, since it can be used to make dangling earrings as well as beaded fringe. - Twill stitch: Once you've mastered the twill stitch, you'll be well on your way to creating anklets, chokers, belts, and bracelets in almost any design you can

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A large tract of open water has formed in the Beaufort Sea (NASA MODIS), in this false colour image it can be seen as a darkening in the orange of the sea ice under the white of the cloud. This has been driven by strong winds away from Banks Island and towards Chukchi (NCEP/NCAR). previously. Basically a sensor that is used by NSIDC to measure extent has failed early this month, so I need to find an alternative until NSIDC extent and concentration are reliable again. I usually use the regional extent calculated by Wipneus based on Cryosphere Today regions. Until NSIDC get through the tricky process of transferring to a new sensor I'll have to use the regional AMSR2 calculated by Wipneus and based on a different satellite and sensor. So how do AMSR2 and NSIDC Extent compare? The following graph is for data for the whole Arctic, NSIDC extent subtracted from AMSR2 extent. The difference varies with time through the year with a seasonal cycle, so it might be possible to work around this using an offset table for each region, but I'm not happy doing that with only three years of overlap and lacking extreme years like 2007 or 2012. What is notable is the large negative excursion recently due to the NSIDC sea ice concentration sensor problem, NSIDC extent increases by 0.8M km^2 on 7 and 10 April above the levels preceding, this shows the danger of using that data. NSIDC state that the sensor problem was first noticed on 5 April 2016. So the above noted, below I show Beaufort extent for NSIDC extent (Wipneus' calculation based on NSIDC concentration), this is shown together with AMSR2 for 2016. The fall in extent this year is early, exactly how early is not clear due to the difference in timing between NSIDC extent (2016 light purple) and AMSR2 (2016 blue). However it is reasonable to presume it is probably the earliest drop in extent that starts the summer drop. This drop in extent may not continue, for a start it is wind driven, furthermore as the melt begins in earnest there is a tongue

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A large tract of open water has formed in the Beaufort Sea (NASA MODIS [...] of multi year ice visible in images from the ASCAT satellite. ASCAT shows thicker multi year ice as brighter than first year ice, and multi year ice tends to be more resistant to melt than first year ice. As extent only needs a concentration above 15% sea ice cover a relatively small amount of ice resisting melt can keep extent up. The significance of this early open water in Beaufort lies in the ice albedo feedback. Basically because ice is white it reflects most of the sunlight away from the surface, when the ice melts to reveal darker ocean it increases absorption of sunlight which warms the ocean and melts more ice. So a tract of open ocean at the start of the season can give the melt a kick start, especially as the sunlight reaches its strongest in late June. As of March PIOMAS modelled volume was at the lowest on record by some margin. And the ice that was there was the thinnest on record. This should make it easier for the ice albedo feedback to work on what ice is there. In my previous post I showed a series of close ups of Beaufort ice thickness as measured by the Cryosat 2 satellite. According to both PIOMAS and Cryosat 2 the ice in Beaufort is the thinnest on record. So the sea ice in Beaufort has entered the melt season very thin indeed and it faces a possible early kick start to the ice albedo feedback. This may have implications for other regions. In a quick filler post just before I posted this I updated the situation regards the August Extent Loss Oscillation, I should have done that last year but was distracted by other interests. Now it is updated and last August's losses suggest a continuation of what seems to be a four year cycle in August NSIDC extent losses. Most years since 2007 have seen summer dominated by the Arctic Dipole atmospheric pattern, the average vector wind from NCEP/NCAR for early summer (June & July) is shown below. With such early open water in Beaufort, which the ice albedo feedback should act to increase, any pool of warm surface water subject to those winds could end up attacking Chukchi and

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Permian Basin and its Gondwanan Sediments in Central Xizang (Tibet) and Himalayas pp. 123-146, 3 plates, in English Permian sedimentary rocks in the both central Tibet (Lhasa Block) and Northern Himalayas (northern margin of the Indian Plate) bear a Gondwanana flora and fauna and display similar sedimentary features. These indicate that there was no large biogeographic barrier or sea-way separating the Lhasa Block from the Himalayas and both of them were integral parts of the Gondwanan supercontinent during the Permian period. Permian deposits in the study area formed in an epi-continental of cratonic basin, which was open to the Paleo-Tethys in the north. In the Tibetan Himalayas, the Permian deposits are dominated by siliciclastics in the south and skeletal limestones in the north, representing barrier-lagoon systems and carbonate platforms with reefs respectively. A mega-cycle of transgression-regression has been recognized and interpreted to be a result of eustasy. In the Lhasa Block, the Permian is characterized by alternating chert-banded and skeletal carbonates, representing repeated progradation of carbonate platforms from offshore lower energy to shoal and reef higher energy settings. A thick coarse clastic wedge (up to 4000 m thick) occurs in the Lower Permian of Pomi, northern margin of the Lhasa block. It may represent an intracontinental rift, which probably marks the separation of the Qiangtang Block from the Gondwanaland. A sedimentary gap between Permian and Triassic in most areas and a paleo-karst surface filled with Triassic shale in the uppermost Permian at Kangmar indicate that the latest Permian was an uplifting period. It may represent a pre-rifting stage of the following Triassic rifting, in which Neo-Tethys began to open. Keywords: Permian, Gondwana, Tibet, Himalayas

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Did Australian Aborigines reach America first? Thursday, 30 September 2010by Jacqui Hayes SYDNEY: Cranial features distinctive to Australian Aborigines are present in hundreds of skulls that have been uncovered in Central and South America, some dating back to over 11,000 years ago [9000 BCE or older]. Evolutionary biologist Walter Neves of the University of São Paulo, whose findings are reported in a cover story in the latest issue of Cosmos magazine, has examined these skeletons and recovered others, and argues that there is now a mass of evidence indicating that at least two different populations colonised the Americas. He and colleagues in the United States, Germany and Chile argue that first population was closely related to the Australian Aborigines and arrived more than 11,000 years ago. The second population to arrive was of humans of 'Mongoloid' appearance - a cranial morphology distinctive of people of East and North Asian origin - who entered the Americas from Siberia and founded most (if not all) modern Native American populations, he argues. "The results suggest a clear biological affinity between the early South Americans and the South Pacific population. This association allowed for the conclusion that the Americas were occupied before the spreading of the classical Mongoloid morphology in Asia," Neves says. Until about a decade ago, the dominant theory in American archaeology circles was that the 'Clovis people' - whose culture is defined by the stone tools they used to kill megafauna such as mammoths - was the first population to arrive in the Americas. They were thought to have crossed the Bering Strait from Siberia into Alaska at the end of the last Ice Age, some 10,000 or so years ago, following herds of megafauna across a land bridge created as water was locked up in glaciers and ice sheets. But in the late 1990s, Neves and his colleagues re-examined a female skeleton that had been excavated in the 1970s in an extensive cave system in Central Brazil known as Lapa Vermelha. The skeleton - along with a treasure trove of other finds - had been first unearthed by a Brazilian-French archae

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Did Australian Aborigines reach America first? Thursday, 30 September 20 [...] ological team that disbanded shortly after its leader, Annette Laming-Emperare, died suddenly. A dispute between participants kept the find barely examined for more than a decade. The oldest female skeleton, dubbed Luzia, is between 11,000 and 11,400 years old. The dating is not exact because the material in the bones used for dating - collagen - has long since degraded; hence, only the layers of charcoal or sediment above and below the skeleton could be dated. "We believe she is the oldest skeleton in the Americas," Neves said. Luzia has a very projected face; her chin sits out further than her forehead, and she has a long, narrow brain case, measured from the eyes to the back of the skull; as well as a low nose and low orbits, the space where the eyes sit. These facial features are indicative of what Neves calls the 'generalised cranial morphology' - the morphology of anatomically modern humans, who first migrated out of Africa more than 100,000 years ago, and made it as far as Australia some 50,000 years ago, and Melanesia 40,000 years ago. New finds in seven sites When Neves first announced his discovery of Luzia in the late 1990s, he faced criticism from a number of archaeologists, who claimed the dating was not accurate. He has since returned to excavate four other sites, and is still cataloguing skeletons from the most recent dig. In total, there are now hundreds of skeletons with the cranial morphology similar to Australian Aborigines, found in seven sites - as far north as Florida in the United States to Palli Aike in southern Chile. In 2005, he published a paper in the U.S journal, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, analysing the characteristics of a further 81 skeletons he recovered from one of four sites, in which he said strengthened his argument that there were migrations to the Americas from at least two major populations. Not related to Native Americans In June 2010

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Career Opportunities in a New World of Advanced Technology and Sustainable Abundance Do you remember your young and full of world-changing ideas self? Those may have been exciting times for some of us. However, choosing and committing ourselves to a career or educational path was never short of challenges and setbacks. Yet, for those fortunate enough to have had access to formal education or training, having a degree may have helped secure good jobs, good pays, and a comfortable life; not necessarily happiness and fulfillment, though. One may wonder how today’s young ones, the so-called Millennial generation, are doing; in particular, as we look around and see a mix of high unemployment, increased inactivity and precarious work (even for graduates) in advanced economies, as well as persistently high working poverty and low access to education or training in the developing world. In fact, the number of young people out of work globally is reckoned to be close to that of the entire population of the United States. We can’t help but ask ourselves what will happen to this overflow of young people in a world where advanced technology and automation is fast replacing more and more jobs typically done by people. We already see it coming with tablets on restaurant tables taking people’s orders, software guiding our shopping online, 3D printing, and even driverless vehicles. So, are Millennials facing a much more daunting task at meeting their needs, let alone, their aspirations? Well, with greater challenges come greater opportunities. When we think about it, with machines replacing backbreaking work, or offloading a lot of mundane decision-making and tasks, people will be able to do other more fulfilling and productive things. At the same time, brand new jobs are being created to support the existence of technological advances. Who would have thought a company needed a social media strategist, and a social media team, or specialists in online education, online advertising, and data mining and modeling? On the other hand, humans are likely to be valued for their unique skills and capabilities like creativity, flexibility, and caregiving. As such, activities that cannot be performed by machines and high-technology devices, no matter how sophisticated, will be highly valued. Futurist Thomas Frey predicts several job titles like Plant Psychologist and Memory Augmentation Therapist, by 2030, which is not

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By Romi Elnagar “What we are fighting to protect is the survival of this generation and the continuation of the human race,” fifteen-year-old climate activist Xiuhtezcatl Roske- Martinez told the United Nations General Assembly on June 29. “My father raised me in the Mexica [Aztec] tradition. I learned from [him] is that …every living thing is connected because we all draw life from the same earth and we all drink from the same waters. What I learned from my cultural heritage is that this life is a gift and it is our responsibility to respect and protect that which gives us life. “I stand before you representing the indigenous peoples of this earth, and those that will inherit the effects of our climate crisis that we face today as a global community. “We are facing a crisis that affects every living system on our planet. What a lot of people fail to see or simply ignore is that climate change isn’t an issue that is far-off in the future; it isn’t solely affecting the icecaps and the poles or the sea level rise in our oceans. It’s affecting us right here, right now and will only continue to get worse. “We are approaching twenty-one years of United Nation climate talks and in the last twenty years of negotiations, almost no agreements have been made on a binding climate recovery plan. Our window of opportunity to take action is shrinking as the problem exponentially increases. We need you to take action at COP 21 [2015 Paris Climate Conference] before it’s too late. “We need to reconnect with the earth and end this mindset that we have that we can take whatever we want without ever giving back or understanding the harm that we are doing to the planet. It’s this mindset of destruction, of greed, that is tearing apart our planet. We need to change the fundamental beliefs of our entire society. “We have to remember that we are all indigenous to this Earth and that we are all connected.” – Xiuhtezcatl Roske-Martinez ‘s speech can be viewed at http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2015/07/05/video-15-year-old-climate-warrior-address-un-calls-climate-change-human-right

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By Romi Elnagar “What we are fighting to protect is the survival of this [...] s-issue UN DECLARATION ON THE RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES The following are two of some 15 paragraphs dealing with indigenous rights to their lands, environment and the conservation of “their vital medicinal plants, animals and minerals.” Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain and strengthen their distinctive spiritual relationship with their traditionally owned or otherwise occupied and used lands, territories, waters and coastal seas and other resources and to uphold their responsibilities to future generations in this regard. Indigenous peoples have the right to the conservation and protection of the environment and the productive capacity of their lands or territories and resources. States shall establish and implement assistance programmes for indigenous peoples for such conservation and protection, without discrimination. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS NATIVE AMERICANS Global climate change will disproportionately affect the poorest and most vulnerable in human society; Native Americans will suffer from climate change, yet they are the least responsible for it. The concerns of Indians are recognized by the Obama Administration, if only verbally. At the beginning of May, it released its Third National Climate Assessment, which warns that the consequences of climate change, both now and in the future, “will undermine indigenous ways of life that have persisted for thousands of years.” Among the “key vulnerabilities” of indigenous peoples, the Assessment’s Chapter 12, which deals exclusively with indigenous communities, identifies permafrost thaw and the loss of Arctic sea ice, as well as food insecurity and loss of traditional knowledge about ecosystems. “Climate change poses particular threats to Indigenous Peoples’ health, well- being, and ways of life,” the report warns. “Chronic stresses such as extreme poverty are being exacerbated by climate change impacts such as reduced access to traditional foods, decreased water quality, and increasing exposure to health and safety hazards.” The Assessment goes on to observe that erosion and flooding— the results of climate change—are forcing communities in some areas of Alaska, Louisiana, the Pacific Islands, and other coastal locations to move away from “historical homelands to which their traditions and cultural identities are tied

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By Romi Elnagar “What we are fighting to protect is the survival of this [...] .“ In Louisiana, the rising sea level threatens tribes like the Houma, the Pointe-au-Chien, the Atakapa-Ishak and the Biloxi-Chitimacha Choctaw, all of whom are recognized by the state but not by the federal government. They have hunted and fished in the marshes along the coast for hundreds of years, but were cheated out of their tribal lands by the oil companies and others, who told them they were signing leases, which were in fact quit-claim deeds. Since the 1930’s they have seen companies dredge the wetlands for thousands of miles for pipelines and navigation canals. And they have watched as the wetlands disappear, a process that has been directly attributed to the activity of the oil and gas companies on which so many Louisianans –including tribal members—depend upon for their livelihoods. A study by the US Geological Survey claims that 36 percent of wetland loss is due to actions of these companies. The study was commissioned by the oil and gas industry. Because they lack federal recognition, tribes have not been compensated for the heavy losses caused by BP Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010; the oyster beds and shrimp fishing of the Point-au-Chien tribe were devastated, for example. The Bayou Interfaith Shared Community Organizers, a local group, says the oil companies petitioned the Bureau of Indian Affairs against recognition of the Houma tribe. Changes in procedures made by the Obama Administration at the end of June may ease the path to recognition for some tribes; at the time of this writing, it is unclear if this will be the case with the Louisiana tribes. From Louisiana to the Pacific Northwest, climate change is stressing tribes as never before. The Sauk-Suiattle people on the northern Washington state coast are moving offices and homes upstream and away from rivers that increasing threaten to flood in the wake of glacial melt and global warming. “Because of the warming climate, [river migration] is much more likely and poses an unacceptable level of risk to the Sauk-Suiattle Tribe over the next several decades,” says a report by a private environmental planning

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By Romi Elnagar “What we are fighting to protect is the survival of this [...] company, Natural Systems Design, which warns of severe and irretrievable damages and possible loss of life will result if residents and facilities are not moved out of their current location. The EPA and the US Geological Survey have also warned that the river will reach the tribe’s housing in twenty-five years, or sooner if the rate of global warming speeds up. Part of the tribe’s problem is that logging has disturbed the watershed farther upstream, and global warming has reduced nearby glaciers by more than half in the last century. The tribe’s fishing is also affected by global warming. The salmon which spawn on the Sauk River are affected by higher temperatures, which make it harder and harder for them to survive and grow. The Quinault and the Quileute on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state also face relocation in the wake of rising sea levels.. There are fears of an earthquake like the Fukushima disaster in 2011 and the Quileute are moving an entire village to higher ground. Further north, rising sea levels have caused erosion, collapseing homes into the sea in Alaska. While global climate change means that coastal communities suffer from a surfeit of water, elsewhere climate change means drought, affecting Indian communities and non-natives alike throughout the southwestern US. Researchers from NASA as well as Cornell and Columbia universities predict that global climate change will lead to increasingly several droughts in the coming decades. In the past, tribes could simply pull up stakes when local conditions became untenable, but when land is divided and owned by individuals, and Mother Earth no longer belongs to all her children, that’s not possible. Water, too, is now being commercialized and privatized, and that bodes ill for the future for Native Americans and non-natives alike. In California, severe drought has led to water restrictions throughout the state, with the Sierra snowpack this year on the order of 10-15% of normal. Tribes such as the Hoopa Valley Tribe on the Klamath and Trinity Rivers, and the Yocha Dehe Wintun Nation in Yolo County have suffered. The Hoopa Valley Reservation has had mandatory water restrictions, and this summer has been completely without water when

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By Romi Elnagar “What we are fighting to protect is the survival of this [...] tanks ran dry. The high number of arson fires, and problems at the water treatment plant have compounded the problems, and low water levels in Trinity Lake promote bacterial growth, which affects the migratory fish population. NATIVE AMERICANS CONFRONT CORPORATIONS TO SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT Drilling offshore in the Arctic by Shell Oil is bitterly opposed by Native Americans and environmentalists. In June, Earthjustice, Friends of the Earth, the Sierra Club, the National Resources Defense Council and the Iñupiat (an Inuit, native Alaskan people) were among 12 groups that announced their intention to challenge the Interior Department’s renewal of the lease in the Chukchi Sea, where Shell plans to drill for oil. The groups criticized the rushed decision, made in time to suit the oil company’s schedule, as mistaken and unlawful. They say that such a decision will cause global warming to increase above the 2 degrees Celsius limit agreed upon by nations around the world, which many now say is too high a limit. In spite of this opposition, and in spite of its lip service to environmentalism such as its recommendations about the Arctic in its 2014 National Climate Assessment, in July the Obama Administration granted Royal Dutch Shell the final permits to drill. The Arctic Ocean is a complex ecosystem say native people, and climate change is seriously affecting coastal communities there, melting the ice needed for whaling activities and to support hunters. The amount of ice each year is unpredictable and fluctuates because global warming is just beginning its impact, say Native Alaskans Colleen Swan and Shearer in Conductive Chronicle. They say the Arctic is not yet well understood by scientists, such as those from NOAA, and there still is not enough information for government to be issuing permits for oil development offshore. Environmentalists and Native Alaskans fear that there is a 3-to- 1 chance that oil drilling will result in a spill, and there is no way to clean that up given conditions in the Arctic. They point out that drilling activities in the leased area threaten crucial habitat for endangered Pacific walrus

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By Romi Elnagar “What we are fighting to protect is the survival of this [...] , including mothers and calves in an area rich in food, the Hanna Shoal. Drilling could cause herds to move away from foraging areas, which are not easy for them to find. “The oil companies and the government who issues … permits will continue with business as usual and the oil companies will recover. They have reserves to fall back on. We don’t. Once we lose our livelihood, our subsistence way of life, it’s gone for a long, long time.” This is the predicament in which hunter-gatherers and marginal communities around the world are finding themselves. IN PERU, INDIGENOUS PEOPLES STRUGGLE AGAINST OIL COMPANIES Not only in the US and Canada, but in Latin America, too, Native Americans have suffered the encroachments of corporations like Shell Oil on their lands. In the Amazon, indigenes led by Alberto Pizango and his organization, AIDESEP [“Interethnic Association for the Development of the Peruvian Rainforest” in English], gained international attention when their nonviolent resistance to oil companies was met by force from the Peruvian government. In 2008, the US and Peru concluded a free trade agreement, under which Peru was to change its laws to allow foreign companies to exploit resources. Indigenous tribes insisted that some of the new government regulations threatened the safety of their natural resources, and began protests in August 2008. The Peruvian Congress repealed two of the laws required under the agreement, and promised to examine and vote on others. When that didn’t happen, protests and blockades resumed in April 2009. That summer, clashes with the government turned violent. During a confrontation in the jungle near the town of Bagua on June 5, 2009, forty-one Indians were killed and more than 200 injured when hundreds of nonviolent protesters were attacked by the Peruvian police, The government came under international criticism, particularly from human rights groups, for its brutality in the incident and for undermining press freedom. The Prime Minister later resigned and apologized for failing to consult with the Indians, but Pizango was forced to seek asylum

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By Romi Elnagar “What we are fighting to protect is the survival of this [...] in Nicaragua, and upon his return was arrested on charges of sedition. He and other defendants in the case are currently awaiting the outcome of their trial and are facing life imprisonment. Other oil companies besides Shell have also been accused of exploiting natural resources and polluting indigenous lands in the Amazon. Occidental Petroleum recently settled a ten-yearlong lawsuit against it by EarthRights Interational and Amazon Watch, who litigated on behalf of the Achuar people on the Corientes River in northern Peru. The suit alleged pollution from oil drilling and was settled out of court. The attorney for EarthRights said that the case could set a precedent because American courts agreed that a company could be sued in the US for damages that company caused overseas. The company had been pumping wastewater from its wells directly into rivers and streams, a practice outlawed in the US. Children had sickened and died from drinking the water. Under the settlement, the Achuar people were awarded money for education, health care, and community development, including activities to raise money and food, such as a fish farm. Their lands are far from cleaned up, though, with high levels of heavy metals, volatile organic compounds and hydrocarbons remaining, and the Indians are asking the Peruvian government why the cleanup is being terminated. The Achuar are not alone in their struggle against government and big corporations. “Climate change is affecting the whole planet… and everything is out of balance,” Shoshone-Bannock Tribes Vice-Chairman Lee Juan Tyler, told leaders of Northwest tribes at a conference last March. “We need to sit together for our future. Men are going to destroy our own mystical place if we don’t.” Romi Elnagar is a retired teacher-librarian. She has written for Green Horizon on Native Americans, and on nuclear power. She can be contacted at [email protected]

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Researchers at the University of Utah report in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B that women who have twins are more likely to live longer, have more children over their lifetime and have offspring closer together, compared with women who had singletons. The catch is that these women had twins naturally, in the era well before the advent of contraception or infertility treatments like in-vitro fertilization that now make multiple births relatively common. The scientists worked with a unique collection of health records known as the Utah Population Database, which includes vital statistics on 1.6 million people who lived in Utah from the early 1800s to the 1970s. The university group divided their data into two population cohorts — those born before and after 1870, when contraceptives started to emerge. In the end the researchers analyzed data on 58,786 non-polygamous women who lived to age 50 or longer. Women who were born before 1870 and had twins had a 7.6% lower risk of dying each year than women who had singletons. Women born after 1870 who had twins also enjoyed lower mortality, but with only a 3.3% reduction in risk compared with moms of singletons. Evolutionarily, says the study’s lead author, Ken Smith, director of the Utah Population Database and a professor of family consumer studies at University of Utah, living longer provides a selective advantage. “The argument is that people have to live long enough to bear children and rear them so the offspring live long enough to reach sexual maturity so they in turn can reproduce,” he says. “People who are less able to do that are selected against, and they tend to disappear from the population.” Mothers of twins, in other words, may be fitter for survival. Having multiple births clearly takes a toll on the mother; previous studies have shown that women who have twins, triplets or other sets of multiples suffer more complications at birth and many long-term effects from carrying more than one child in utero. (Not to mention the headache of raising two babies at once.) But, says Smith, if women are able to survive giving birth to twins, that may indicate that she is endowed with some combination of genetic,

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The degree to which a food is satiating largely depends its compositional makeup rather than its nutritional value -- although highly satiating foods also tend to be highly nutritious. Satiety, or the physical sensation of fullness, is generally short-lived after eating refined food products or foods rich in simple sugars. Although a food’s capacity to satisfy is typically the result of a combination of characteristics, most highly satiating foods have one trait in common -- they’re rich in fiber. Beans, peas and lentils are among the most satiating foods because they’re high in complex carbohydrates, protein and fiber. Complex carbohydrates and protein are satiating because they take longer to break down and absorb than simple carbohydrates. Fiber is an indigestible carbohydrate that increases satiety without contributing calories. The physical bulk of insoluble fiber heightens the feeling of fullness, while soluble fiber promotes satiety and stable blood sugar levels by slowing digestion in the stomach and small intestines. In general, legumes are also rich in a wide array of nutrients, including iron, magnesium, folate, vitamin B-6 and antioxidant compounds. Whole grains such as brown rice, oats, wheat berries, quinoa, buckwheat, barley and whole-grain products including breads and pastas provide satiation in much the same way as legumes -- they’re high in fiber, complex carbohydrates and protein. Not only are whole grains more filling than their easily digestible refined counterparts, they’re also generally lower in calories, making whole grains an ideal choice for achieving and maintaining a healthy weight. Although corn is comparably lower in protein than other whole grains, it’s still an excellent source of complex carbohydrates and a good source of fiber. With just 31 calories per cup, plain, air-popped popcorn is a highly satiating snack. Fruits and Vegetables Fresh fruits and vegetables that contain a relatively high amount of water and fiber while providing relatively few calories are known as high-volume foods. These foods rank as some of the most satiating, largely because water is filling and fiber helps regulate digestion. By weight

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The degree to which a food is satiating largely depends its compositional makeup rather than its nut [...] , melons, berries and citrus fruits are mostly water, as are apples and pears. Of these foods, raspberries and pears are particularly fiber-rich. High-fiber vegetables that also have a high water content include artichokes, turnips, carrots, bell peppers, broccoli, dark leafy greens, eggplant, Brussels sprouts, tomatoes and squash. High-volume fruits and vegetables generally qualify as nutrient-dense foods, because they tend to be rich in vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients. Nuts and Seeds Nuts and seeds are excellent sources of heart-healthy monounsaturated fat, protein and fiber. Their fat content is largely what makes them satiating -- fat helps slow the release of food from your stomach to your intestines, making you feel fuller longer. Although nuts and seeds contain significant amounts of both types of fiber, they’re generally higher in the insoluble type, which promotes stable blood glucose levels. A handful of nuts or seeds goes a long way -- an ounce of almonds or sunflower seeds supplies about 160 calories and more than 3 grams of fiber. Most nuts and seeds are also rich in a myriad of nutrients and phytonutrients, including iron, magnesium and B vitamins. - USDA Nutrient Data Laboratory: Foods List - MayoClinic.com: Overeating -- What Causes It? - MayoClinic.com: Dietary Fiber: Essential For a Healthy Diet - American Dietetic Association Complete Food and Nutrition Guide; Roberta Larson Duyff, M.S., R.D. - Wellness Foods A to Z; Sheldon Margen, M.D., et al. - Various types of beans image by Nikolay Okhitin from Fotolia.com

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To Economics of Slave Trade Endnotes The Economics of the Slave Trade An overall look at the economic situation of the United States between 1790 and 1860 sees amazing growth and expansion. Market dynamics and sensibilities switched from small and localized, more personal relationships to large and impersonal interregional relationships. These larger and less personal trade networks were developed within a framework that contained less barter and more currency, credit, and interest. Much of the economic growth in the period was due to the discovery of cotton, which accounted for about half of the nations overseas exports in the period from 1830 to 1860, as a cash crop. Older cash crops, such as tobacco, were at the mercy of boom and bust cycles of demand and had to be cautiously exploited. Cotton, however was the building block for industrial expansion in Britain and the North and continual increasing demand meant that Southern planters could gamble on the amount of land and labor they poured into its production. The sale of Southern cotton had a multiplier effect which enriched both the Northeast and West. In the South, cotton brought economic attention and mass demographic movement away from Virginia, Maryland, Delaware and North Carolina and to the new Southwest in Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Florida, Arkansas, and Texas. This expansion and the subsequent cotton empire that was created was only made possible by the massive slave labor system that was used to make it work. Within this structure, slave trading grew and became a complex and interregional industry both as propagator and a result of the system. One way of looking at this growth (that I have attempted) is by comparing the economic terms of slave sales in the early and late antebellum period and the factors that decided those terms. Through examining newspaper advertisements, a popular method of selling slaves, a change in the terms of sale and the flexibility of those terms is seen. These observations can only be seen within an understanding of the economy of the period, which shows the factors behind the sale terms. Combining these newspaper trends with a synthesis of contemporary economics point to the idea that the slave trade before 1815 was dominated by personal interactions on a local level and the late antebellum slave trade functioned in a complex, interregional nature. The later period was

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] composed of a large number of forces, both economic and non-economic that also complicated the slave market. This transition from locally based, personal market relations to interregionally based, impersonal market relations in the domestic slave trade industry paralleled the growth and maturing of the United States economy as a whole. The period between 1790 and 1815 was a tenuous one for United States economics. The farmers and few artisans that populated the Northern and Western countryside were economically isolated and limited to local markets for transactions due to high transport costs. Within these local markets, most trading occurred without the use of currency and relied on barter and slips of paper with amounts written on them. Trading networks did exist, but functioned like spokes on a wheel where market dynamics were geared almost exclusively from the hinterland toward the nearest urban seaport. Even those producers that lived near enough to an urban coastal center were at the mercy of British trade restrictions. In the South, tobacco crops lacked their booming pre-Revolutionary market and plantations were in a state of transformation, looking for alternate products.1 The structure of the economy in this period left little opportunity for major capital accumulation which was necessary to build the type of industrialized system that was developing in Britain. Writing about this situation in 1792, Tench Coxe noticed that the nation was not yet traversed by artificial roads and canals, the rivers of which above their natural navigation have been hitherto very little improved, many of whose people are at this moment closely settled upon lands which actually sink from one-fifth to one-half of the value of their crops in the mere charges of transporting them to the seaport towns . . .2 However, this time period saw the seeds of the coming economic expansion that would flower after 1815. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 opened the Mississippi River Valley to a steady stream of southbound trade. In the Northeast, rapid urbanization nearly tripled the size of New York between 1790 and 1810 and expanded the market sensibilities of the hinterland population striving to supply the growing cities.3 These developments were coupled with the conclusion of the war with Britain in 1815,

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] the establishment of unrestricted trade with most of Europe and the beginning of the exportation of cotton to Britain as a major cash crop. The decision by Southern planters to start growing cotton was influenced by forces that pulled the planters to cotton just as they pushed the planters away from tobacco and some other crops like indigo. The break with Britain basically dealt a death sentence to indigo production in the South. Colonial indigo production had been subsidized by British manufacturers who were playing a part in the empires mercantile triangular trade. As part of a separate nation, indigo producers in the new United States lost their benefits. Demand for Chesapeake tobacco also slowed after 1790 because tobacco, as a luxury item, was expendable in the economic tough times. The Napoleanic Wars basically killed whatever remained of the industry in the early 19th century. While 1792 saw 30,000 hogshead of tobacco exported to France, only a few hundred were sent in some of the years from 1800-1816.4 A solution to these economic problems was found in short staple cotton. The invention of Whitneys cotton gin in 1793 gave Southern planters a new cash crop to grow and a productive reason to keep and accumulate slaves. Short staple cotton usually contains seeds which cling tightly to its fiber, but were separated easily by the new gin. The fiber or cotton "lint" that remained after the seeds were taken out could be easily spun into thread and then made into a cheap and durable cloth.5 Thanks to the expanding British textile industry with a fully mechanized spinning and weaving process which used cotton cloth as its main product, there was no drop in demand for Southern cotton in the entire antebellum period. In order to keep producing all planters had to do was increase their land and slaveholdings, as a land and labor intensive crop, bigger was better. The land for this production was in the newly settled Southwest that only really started taking shape by the 1820s, and the labor was supplied by slaves either brought or sold to this region. The numbers showing how cotton expanded are staggering. Negligible amounts of cotton were exported in the 1790s

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] as the gin just started to take effect. By 1815 there were 150 thousand bales produced and this number increased to 4541 thousand bales by 1859.6 So by 1815, the structure was in place for the beginning of a vigorous cotton trade that Douglass C. North says funded the economic growth of the nation in the antebellum period. North says, that because of the idea of a multiplier effect, any income made from the development of a single lucrative crop (cotton) based on the labor of slaves in the South would have left the region.7 The form in which cotton revenue filtered through the economy occurred in transportation charges to Northern and foreign merchants, import of foodstuffs and supplies from the West to feed slaves and planters, and import of manufactured goods from the North for luxury and practical purposes. The Souths income became capital for the North and West and allowed them to use that capital on infrastructure improvements in the form of canals and railroads and industrial improvements in the form of factories.8 Under this structure, banks and currency gained in importance throughout the antebellum period. There were two types of banks in the antebellum United States: state chartered and federally chartered banks. Although these banks differed in who controlled them and who their customers were, they both functioned to print paper notes in exchange for promises to pay and acted as creditors in a wide variety of loans. The paper money printed by state and federal banks acted like a cashiers check and could be devalued when in use at a distance from the branch that held its corresponding funds. Although it was used to trade and exchange goods, it could only be "cashed" for gold or silver at the place it was printed. The growth of these banks was unstable during the early antebellum period due to a lack of faith in their solvency and political obstruction over the legality and power dynamics of controlling the money institutions. However, the number of banks, which had stood at less than 200 up until about 1815, had skyrocketed to about 1600 in 1860. Since paper money was printed by these banks, the increased number and location of these banks meant an increase

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] in the use of paper money throughout the period.9 Within the South the growing importance of cotton as a major export had significant demographic repercussions. The land in the Southwestern states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and later Texas became important for its ability to produce high cotton yields at low land and production costs. Both planters and slaves moved to these areas in massive numbers between the years of 1810 and 1839, not only creating new societies, but changing the ones in the old South that they left.10 These moves were financed with money and credit from the Northeast and Great Britain who, thanks to growing textile production, could use every bale of cotton that was produced.11 The labor system that fueled westward expansion and led to the rise of the cotton empire was African-American slavery. The supply of labor within this system was provided through the domestic slave trade which functioned in a cycle to both cause the system based on supply and result from the system based on demand. Slaves were either transported from one state to another by their owners or by slave traders. Although it is difficult to know how many slaves were transported by either of these groups, it is possible to get a picture of where slaves were moving from and where they went. It is no surprise that states like Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and North Carolina had net losses of slaves in every decade between 1800 and 1850. At the same time states like Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Texas saw nothing but net gains in slave amounts.11 The fact that the numbers of slaves moving to the Southwest increased through the period meant that even if the percentage of slaves being transported by slave traders remained low and constant, the aggregate number of slaves being traded increased greatly. In addition to this interregional trade there was also a booming market for intrastate trade. These numbers again are hard to secure, but once a slave was transported to the west or Southwest, they were not necessarily kept in the same place. All of this moving around meant that the slave trading industry had to mature and become more complex through the period to deal with the demand. If cotton was stabilizing the economy for the whole nation and slave labor was needed to produce that cotton then the supply of

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] that slave labor was of the utmost importance to the people involved. Frederic Bancroft was valid in ending his influential 1931 work with the statement that "slave-trading was vastly more important than (numbers and dollar amounts) suggests: it was absolutely necessary to the continuance of this most highly prized property and to the economic, social and political conditions dependent on it."12 A look at the domestic slave trade in the period before 1815 shows a small and very regionalized industry, paralleling the countrys economy at the time. In the period before 1807 most large slave purchases were still done via the Atlantic trade. Cities like Savannah and New Orleans existed as domestic slave trading centers, but were not yet fully linked as part of an interregional network. Slave owners engaged in the markets had a diverse number of reasons for the purchases and the sales they made. Bancroft has written that at the time, a popular belief was that slaves that were American born "were the only slaves fit for house-servants or even partially skilled laborers."13 Regardless of the validity of the statement, the fact that Creoles usually had more experience with the English language made them prized as house slaves. Even in those early days, Southern planters had started to move West. Many of the slaves sold domestically before 1815 were eventually brought to areas like Georgia, Kentucky and Tennessee. However, the trade was usually conducted locally between slaveholders and not over long distances through impersonal professional brokers, whose numbers were just beginning to grow as they moved from international trading to domestic trading.14 There were also many sales that just occurred within a town or county. These sales did not count as part of a migratory pattern, but only as part of the redistribution of wealth within the society. Most slave owners only had one or two slaves and the purchases they made were rare events. In this time period the arrival of a new town or the growth of a local market might enable a farmer to sell more and subsequently might buy a slave in order to increase production. So, everything from a beginning of major population migration to a small farmer wanting to increase production output might account for purchase motivation in the period before 1815. For all of the sales made

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] to those people moving to the West or increasing their role in market production, there was someone trying to gain financially by making a sale and their motivation was just as varied. In this period there was trade going on between slave owners in the North who were attempting to sell off their slaves before gradual emancipation laws took effect. The growing legal restrictions on slavery in the North were seen as an opportunity for a few people to make a profit from a losing situation. The number of sales from this group is debatable, but the sales did occur and were coupled with the sale of some kidnapped freedmen to account for a significant number being traded to the South.15 Within the South there was also selling motivation for planters. The ever quickening end of the tobacco boom saw a change in crop production. As tobacco, a labor intensive crop, was replaced with grains and other less intensive crops, the labor need was diminished.16 If a planter was in debt and needed to raise money, the selling of slaves was often a decision that allowed other resources like land to be kept. Some sales were simply due to dynamics between the slaves and masters. One advertisement for the sale of a slave said that "the cause of [the slaves] being sold is that he does not like to live with his present master."17 So, everything from economic and demographic trends to interpersonal relationships helped to create a domestic slave market. Once the decision to buy or sell a slave was made by a planter, there were a few options to be taken. Newspapers of the time, which were readily available to the majority of populace, were full of advertisements for both public auctions of many slaves and private individual or group sales. Even those planters that lived away from a town could have easy access to the news. In 1818 the Carter family on the Shirley plantation received at least one newspaper, The Richmond Enquirer in their home. The years subscription cost only $6.00.18 In this early period, domestic sales still might have to compete with foreign ones. A New Orleans advertisement in 1807 read, "For Sale, Two likely American Negro BOYS. One about 20, and the other about 24 years of age."19 In a busy port like New Orleans the

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] domestic market had strong competition. Not all sales at this time were being orchestrated by slaveholders themselves, increasingly domestic trading was being taken over by professional brokers and agents who for years had been controlling the foreign trade. An ad in a paper in Charleston, South Carolina in 1814 for "A prime likely African Negro Wench 18 years of age . . ." was ended "Apply to Samuel Browne, Commission Broker, No. 232 King-street."20 Samuel Browne was one of the growing number of professional brokers that had acquired enough capital to set up a business (and an office) based solely on buying and selling. He even ran his own advertisement in the paper that day(traders used newspapers to set up meetings as well as sales), but it is interesting to note that slave trading was just one of the roles that Browne played as an all-purpose merchant. 21 He had acquired enough capital to open a trading business, but his market was not large or developed enough to specialize in one task. However, just running a newspaper advertisement as a sales tool did not always ensure a buyer. On May 9, 1814 a notice was posted reading: For Sale, A NEGRO WOMAN and her two Boy Children about 5 and 1 year old, also a Boy about 13 and a Girl about 11 years of age. The whole are prime country born negroes brought up about the House and very smart, will be sold low and on easy terms. Also an excellent Chair Horse, remarkable gentle, which would be bartered for 1 or 2 good Milch Cows accustomed to the city.22 The advertisement was still running in the paper in late November of that year, there had been no buyer yet. This occurrence is telling about the early antebellum domestic slave trade; there were those who had a demand to be met and those who had a supply to release, but these sides were still in the process of creating a stable market in a time when market relations were new. The instability and immaturity of the trade can be seen in the terms of payment and pricing that occurred once the sides did come together. An ad from 1814, where barter is still being used

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] along with cash to negotiate market relations read: Negroes wanted. A liberal price, and CASH payment will be given for 15 or 20 prime young negroes of both sexes, who have been accustomed to field work. A greater number will be purchased, payable in Cash, and balance paid in prime UPLAND COTTON, delivered in Augusta, (Georgia) . . .23 This advertisement showed that the early antebellum slave trade still contained some pre-capitalist dynamics and at the same time a tendency by these early traders to compensate for the lack of complex banking and currency structures in the economy in order to add maturity to the market. These early sales were still relatively local and personal events in the lives of the slaveholders and they were willing to make accommodations that a larger and less personal market would not. One trader announced that "sixty valuable slaves, will be exchanged for cotton which will be taken at fair valuation; to be delivered in Augusta or Savannah, as may best suit the purchaser."24 This trade, while not local in origin, showed the localized view of the traders at the time by understanding that travel (to and from the market) was time and energy consuming. When these sales were made in cash, the immaturity of banking and currency relations was evident. The average price of a slave in the period from 1800 to 1815 was between $250 and $300. At the same time however, a prime field hand in the New Orleans market varied from $500 to $800.25 These prices are highly subjective though, because of the small amount of currency that was actually being traded. Currency notes were only able to be redeemed at their bank of printing and the small number and dispersed nature of the banks at the time meant that bills were being traded at a distance from their home. This allowed for a devaluation of the bills and an inflation of prices in some luxury items like slaves. While cash could usually be obtained(at least in part) for the sale of a slave, that cash meant different things in different places.26 The lack of published prices in many of the newspaper advertisements of the time was in part

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] a recognition of the contemporary instability and flexibility of market dynamics. Following the boom of cotton and economic activity in the post 1815 period these relations would become more complex as the industry of slave trading matured. If purchase and sale motivation in the early antebellum period reflected a small regional system that was beginning to expand, the late antebellum period saw a multifaceted and diverse interregional system with endless motivations. The moves to Kentucky and Tennessee in the period before 1820 were only the beginning of Southern expansion as Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas were added to the society. The cotton production that supplied both the impetus and the finances for these moves needed to be supplied with a labor source and it was the domestic slave trade industry that supplied it. The profits that came with the production of cotton were placed back into the factors that made that profit and the prestige that came from it. Land and slaves created wealth that paid for more land and slaves. Within this cycle, the buying and selling of slaves became an important and complex industry in which slaves were bought and sold for many reasons including the paying of debts, investment, personal conflicts between masters and slaves and providing emergency cash.27 The expansion of the slave market saw different groups enter into the formula as buyers and sellers. For instance the courts and sheriffs offices in South Carolina were the largest property salesmen in the antebellum period. The auctions run by these groups, usually on the first Monday of each month, were called Sale Days and could last for one or two days. The nature of these sales ranged from probate sales to debtor auctions, but all involved law enforcement officers in charge of selling slaves for revenue. These auctions included both individual and group sales and involved both local and regional trade. However, while the number of court and non-court sales was about equal from 1820 to 1860, non-court sales were over three times more likely to be interregional. These court run Sale Days account for some of the growth of the slave market in the period, but it was the expansion of professional slave traders that dominated the scene.28 The moves out West were orchestrated by land speculators that made large profits capitalizing on demographic shifts. Many of these

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] men also speculated in the labor that would work this land and turned their capital into a business. Slave traders were still providing planters and small farmers with individual sales to increase their productivity or solve a labor shortage, but they were also setting up large trading networks and holding that required a large capital investment. Due to the larger, interregional nature of the industry in the late antebellum period, these traders took a different approach to their business than their predecessors of twenty or thirty years earlier. These traders were no longer all purpose merchants like Samuel Browne nor did they offer to make selling accommodations "as may best suit the purchaser." Professional traders had to be aware of transportation and market changes that would affect the movement and prices of their large capital investments. In a letter on January 23, 1855 to slavetraders Z.B. Oakes and A.J. McElveen, one of their business associates says: Cotton is down which you Know is our only chance and the rivers are down so if cotton was worth any thing we could not get it into market; but I (mark?) you to be patient as I will effect a sale as soon as pissible and you should hear from me immediately afterwards You both Know it requires a man of a deal of patience to trade in negro property.29 As the slave trade grew and became especially interregional, the intersection and tie in between transportation and markets became important to men like this whose fortunes could be dependent on whether the river was high or low. Railroads also became a factor in the growing industry both because of the large amounts that they could carry and the pace and ease of the travel. While in Virginia in the mid-1850s, Frederick Law Olmsted observed that a freight car on his train was filled with about 40 or 50 slaves bound for the Southwest. They had been purchased by traders who were then transporting them to be sold in a distant market.30 Preserving the health and condition of large numbers of slaves in transit was always in the traders best interest, and transportation advancements, like the five railroad lines that began operations in South Carolina in the period from 1833-1855, were always utilized.31 The growth of cotton

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] as a cash crop and the huge profits that came out of its exportation funded an expansion of the banking system and economic structure of the South in the late antebellum period. It is not surprising that as the number of banks increased in the South, the amount and variety of banking functions in place in the society increased. So, economic arrangements became more complex as banking and market relations became more an everyday part of peoples lives. Barter and slips of paper signifying debt were eventually replaced with cash, interest, mortgages, payment plans, and bonds. This trend can be seen in the slave advertisements of the time. The terms for sales during the 1850s in South Carolina reflect a complicated and thoroughly mature economic structure. One ad for a "prime gang of one hundred and nine NEGROES" were given the following terms of sale: Conditions--one-third cash, balance by bond in one, two, three, and four years, equal successive annual instalments with interest to be paid annually from the date, secured by mortgage of the negroes and approved personal security.32 Here the sale is a lot more complex than just a trade of slaves for cotton. A payment schedule was set up, in cash, where the balance of the sale would be paid off over a four year period while interest accrued. These terms of payment show up in many contemporary advertisements in Charleston indicating they may have been relatively standard. However, while some advertisements did not include such complex terms, they nonetheless showed the maturity of the market. These ads simply stated, "conditions cash; purchasers to pay for papers."33 This term meant that the seller believed(and probably was right to do so) that cash was being circulated widely and regularly enough that a buyer would be able to present many hundreds of dollars in currency at the time of purchase. While trading networks and the payment terms of slave sales were becoming more complex, the setting of the sale prices themselves had contributing factors that were both new and old. At work at the same time as these factors were more conventional economic determinants like the price of cotton and land. The slave trading and cotton industries went hand in hand so the same page of the newspaper that contained an advertisement for slaves also contained a report on yesterdays cotton prices.34 While traveling in the lower Mississippi

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] in the late 1850s, Frederick Law Olmsted searched in vain for a newspaper with news in it and not just economic information. He finally finds a copy of The Natchez Free Trader, but it contained "nothing but cotton and river news."35 The expansion of slave trading offered more of an opportunity for regional variance in slave pricing, but these regions were united by the underlying assumption that a system being made rich by cotton and the labor of slaves could always use more slaves. This idea accounted not only for the steady climb of antebellum slave prices, but the growing complexity of antebellum slave trading. While average early antebellum prices for slaves remained constant in the two to three hundred dollar range, the remainder of the antebellum period saw a major price inflation and prices reaching well over $1000. With the expansion of interregional slave trading, the local market dynamics and activities that work to set merchandise prices were linked together to establish an interdependent market. Events in one area could raise the price of slaves in an another. For example the 1849 outbreak of cholera in some Southern areas saw a death toll among slaves that might have been about ten thousand. This caused a small economic panic in some of the slave markets that feared a drop in supply and a growth in demand. Subsequently the price of slaves went up all over the South.36 The setting of prices also had factors that were not even related to economic trends. The establishment of what have been called "fancy-girl" markets is one example of this. Some big cities, like New Orleans and Louisville had special markets where "girls, young, shapely, and usually light in color, went as house servants with special services required."37 These slaves were officially sold as house servants, but both buyers and sellers understood that sexual motivation lay behind the purchase and the (forced or consentual) sexual service of female slaves was really being sold. These girls could be sold for as much as $5000 at the same time that skilled male laborers were valued at only half as much. The special nature of these sales made the "fancy girl" markets a very glaring example of how as the slave system expanded in the antebellum period, there was much more than a economic labor market involved in the trading

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Joshua R. Greenberg December 20, 1995 Go To [...] of slaves.38 Late antebellum domestic slave trading had become so interregional and complex as an economic venture that the factors contributing to it were more numerous and more than just economic supply and demand of labor was involved . The growth of the United States economy in the period from 1790 to 1860 can be seen in terms of an expansion and a growing complexity. The local market relations that existed before canals and railroads were personally run on trade and a mixture of cash and barter. With the growth of the Souths cotton industry in the period after 1815, the country branched out and developed an interregional trade system that was structured around a growing number of banks and currency. By the 1850s a complex and mature United States economy was strong enough to do things like put hundreds of millions of dollars into the building of the interstate railroad network. Within the South these economic changes were most easily seen in demographic changes. A massive number of people moved from the old economic centers in Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and North Carolina to new fertile lands in Arkansas, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, and Texas. They moved to accumulate land and slaves in order to produce the cotton that would fund the countrys growth. As market relations became interregional, businesslike, and impersonal so did the slave trade, with the help of professional traders. As the countrys economy moved to incorporate more cash and banking techniques in the place of barter and trade; the slave trade took the same steps. The transportation and industrial advancements of the period were not lost on slavetraders who used the advancements to increase business. The general trend of the slave trade in the antebellum period was toward growth. Prices grew, purchase and sale motivation factors grew, and the physical area that traders were working within grew. This growth made late antebellum slave trading a complex and interregional occurrence that was driven by a multitude of factors both economic and non-economic. While personal economics and whim on a local level had structured the slave trade before 1815, the complex interregional nature of the later trade was composed, not only of the sum of these local factors, but also a number of larger economic and non-economic forces. By moving

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LED technology is a durable, adaptable and ecological lighting system with very low consumption. In 1990 the first blue LEDs were manufactured. Production of white light LEDs began soon after. With this relatively recent advance, the LED system emerged as the highest profile light source with the best prospects. All large lighting system manufacturers are now committed to this technology, which will be the principal light source of the future.. Advantages of LED technology The advantages of LED technology can be summed up as follows: • Saving of 60% to 90% in electricity consumption over conventional lighting. • Cold light: the light emitted doesn’t heat offices or other rooms, so it indirectly helps to reduce the amount of energy consumed by air conditioning units. • LED lights don’t require either ballast or starters, which also consume energy and normally wear out. Using LED technology allows savings to be made on replacements and labour. • Traditional fluorescent lights flicker constantly, negatively affecting staff and leading to sick leave. LED lights turn on instantly, without flickering. • The gas in fluorescent lights contains mercury, an environmentally harmful substance, and lights must be removed by an authorised dealer. LED lamps and tubes are mercury-free. • Normal fluorescent lights that aren’t protected by airtight housing end up with a layer of dust on the top, which reduces lumens (less light). Something similar happens when the reflectors on the light cover are in a poor state of repair. Fluorescent LEDs don’t need reflectors on their covers and emit light at an angle of only 180 degrees, which means 100% of the light emitted is used. • LED lamps have a lifetime of 30,000 to 50,000 hours. • From its first year in use, a normal fluorescent light experiences a considerable decrease in lumens due to deterioration of the light. In subsequent years, if the light’s still working, the loss of lumens is even greater. LEDs undergo no significant loss of lumens for at least 10 years. • LEDs adapt easily to connections already on the market, which means you don’t need to change accessories, lamp fittings or covers in most cases. • LEDs are

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LED technology is a durable, adaptable and ecological lighting system with very low consumption. In [...] more impact resistant than traditional lamps and fluorescent tubes, and are less likely to be damaged during installation. • Roschi Technology provides a two-year guarantee on its LED lamps, with free replacement on site. • Our range of LED products enables us to work in a large variety of applications (indoor, outdoor, industrial lighting, gardens, street lighting) with a wide choice of colour and power. • With all these advantages, LEDs not only allow enormous savings to be made on electrical energy and labour and time to replace worn out lamps. They also reduce emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere, avoid the contamination that can occur with the mercury in fluorescent lamps and conventional energy-saving lamps, and improve the workplace environment. LED lights are, without a doubt, the future of all lighting. What is an LED? LEDs are solid state semiconductor devices (making them tough, reliable, long-lasting and vibration-proof) that can convert electrical energy directly into light. The inside of an LED is a small semiconductor encapsulated in an epoxy resin housing. In comparison with other systems, LEDs have no filaments or other mechanical parts that are likely to break or wear out due to fusing. LEDs have no stage at which they stop functioning: they just gradually wear out during their lifetime. It’s estimated that at around 50,000 hours their luminous flux drops to less than 70% of initial output. That’s equivalent to approximately six years of use 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. An enormous reduction in maintenance costs can be made, as the lamps don’t need replacing. In addition, their makeup allows them to start instantly at 100% intensity with no initial flickering or waiting, regardless of the temperature. Unlike other systems, they don’t wear out because of the number of times they’re switched on. LEDs are easy to control and can produce effects and allow energy monitoring more easily and less expensively than other devices. LED devices are environmentally friendly, as they’re mercury-free, have a longer lifetime and save a large amount of energy. This is an important point to bear in mind for any facility,

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The daily course of prehistoric life inevitably involved dealing with death. This case-study focused on a large prehistoric cemetery consisting of four distinguishable chronological phases. It is generally accepted that the cemetery was founded as a small burial ground during the period of Bell Beaker culture, which assumption is confirmed by a handful of stratigraphical observations. All the early graves (i.e. those of Bell Beaker culture and the following Chłopice-Veselé group) are located in the northern part of the site. This conclusion is further supported by the distribution of typologically early artefacts as well as by the spatial and quantitative patterns of stone and metal objects. A model of temporal development has been constructed, supporting the idea of continuity in the burial customs and the long-term usage of the site, which expanded to the south and east during the Nitra and Únětice cultural phases. The exploration of a large amount of data by means of GIS procedures and statistics has been fundamental to the argument proposed in this article. The contribution of GIS tools is considerable, since they made it possible to support – by the exploitation of mass data – the validity of some earlier hypotheses formulated on the basis of a few chronologically valid observations by the excavator in the 1970s (Ondráček 1972). Such tools were also instrumental in raising new questions, which seem to be highly relevant for the study of large archaeological sites. At this site they have served to bring to light the underlying rules in the deposition of artefacts that were associated with gender and status. Although the interpretation of these regularities is not straightforward on the basis of results of the methods presented, they prove the existence of structured mortuary behaviour. Such strong patterns of burial rite must correspond to well-organised mental concepts and performed practices of ritual transformation of the dead during the funeral. The dead underwent a passage (van Gennep 1960) from a community member to a stylised ancestor whose appearance in the grave had to fit the commonly shared mental image of such social persona. While some traces of remaining individuality can still be discerned in the overall variation of the archaeological record, the major part of it consists of a repeated application of two distinct cultural templates of gendered burial evolving through time. We can estimate the degree

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The daily course of prehistoric life inevitably involved dealing with death. This case-study [...] of such regularities by the amounts of total variance represented by factors #1-4 in Table 3 (they cumulatively account for slightly more than 50% of the overall variability). Although the burials in Holešov show a high degree of normativity and citation of earlier funerary rituals that happened within the same local cultural context, the possibility cannot be excluded that some reflection of social standing of the deceased and relationships with other members of the community can be rendered from the data accessible to archaeologists. The variation and clustering in burial complexity, as revealed by the methodology applied in this article, can be explained partly by the evolution of funerary customs during the Stone Age/Bronze Age transition period, but in other ways seems to depict an outline of social categories such as gender, age and status. The repeated, ritualised acts of burying, during which respect is paid to appropriate social categories and rules, is a structured practice running in its specific rhythm within a formally delimited part of the cultural landscape designated as a burial ground or cemetery. Such a place develops in time and space and this process is inseparably interwoven with the continuously transforming social fabric of the community that uses it. Thus the cemetery has its temporality as a specific kind of taskscape (Ingold 2010). The community conducting the rites of passage that centred on a dead body was at the same time itself undergoing a ritual transformation (Gansum and Oestigaard 2004). The impact of individual deaths on the living and the roles they played in the necessary rituals must have depended on their contextual relationships (were they relatives, peers, close/distant friends, enemies, members of the same/different institutions, socially superior/inferior etc.). Even if the living were not touched directly, they participated in the social network, where any change can shift the distribution of tensions across the whole structure. The dynamics of such collective transformations, if taken into account, raise questions about the discernibility of an individual's social identity in burial, which can best be spoken of as relative and relational rather than absolute and fixed (Bruck 2004). We probably cannot hope for more than occasional insights into

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Sunday, May 17, 2009 Our week of learning - 17th May We've been doing a fair bit of "tv schooling" for the last few weeks. I'm incorporating the ABC school shows into our morning's work - I watch them with him so I can answer any questions or know what's going to come up in discussion! He's watching the shows designed for his age, but also ones aimed at middle & upper primary as well. This week ranged from spelling rules, rap music, telling time, life in Holland, how planes work, building cubby houses, healthy living, making friends, and emus! English: Lots of reading. We discussed several spelling rules (plurals, -ing, and prefixes dis & re). Maths: MEP lessons (77, 88, 89, 102, 103). We're moving ahead with the MEP curriculum by pulling some lessons out that he either hadn't done before or that I thought he needed more practice on. He has been very silly lately doing his worksheets and when I was talking to him about why he was acting up, it seems that he thinks the work is too easy and he's bored. So full-steam ahead on some stuff that's a bit more challenging! Science & Technology: Back to our Australian animals unit - we read some books about the Platypus and he added another page to his powerpoint presentation. HSIE (Human Society and it's environment): We watched half a National Geographic video on Australian Aborigines. Creative & Practical Arts: Drama class. Plus he made a couple of masks using paper plates, and has started making one of his face out of plaster-of-paris (he made a flour & water dough that he could imprint his face in as the mold, then we filled it up with plaster). LOTE (Languages other than English): Time & days of the week in Spanish. PDHPE (Personal Development, Health & Physical Education): Auskick training and circus class, plus we did a 3km walk together around the neighbourhood. Life skills (cooking, gardening, housekeeping): It doesn't sound like much, but he finally opened a can with the can op

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Newtonian Secondary Offset? If you own a Newtonian telescope, you may have heard about secondary mirror offset and wondered about its purpose. The process of offsetting means that instead of installing the secondary centered geometrically in the tube beneath the focuser, it is positioned slightly away from the focuser and toward the primary. This is done because the optical and mechanical axes of Newtonians are not the same - due to the 45o angle of the secondary mirror, the geometric center of the mirror is not the optical center. Offsetting the secondary is meant to ensure a fully illuminated field of view without vignetting - a loss of light at the edge of the field of view. In the illustration below, the red lines show what happens in a mirror that is not offset. The red dot from a laser collimator helps to identify the optical axis. In the photo of the offset secondary mirror here, the "return" position of the laser dot is seen slightly above the center of the secondary mirror, indicating the location of the optical center. Here's the formula for determining the amount of offset: Offset = Diameter of Primary x Diameter of secondary divided by 4 x FL of primary As an example, in an 8" f/7 scope you would generally have a 1.52" secondary; plugging those figures into the formula, the amount of both offsets would be only a little over .05". That's certainly not very much. You can easily check this out by visiting telescope-making author Mel Bartels' web site, which calculates this for any telescope: http://www.bbastrodesigns.com/diagonal.htm In a properly collimated system, the secondary appears positioned in the center of the focuser drawtube. This assumes the mirrors are perfectly aligned, which requires a center dot on the primary mirror plus some basic collimation tools. An offset in the direction away from the focuser (the "transverse" offset) requires that the spider vanes be slightly shorter on one side. An offset toward the primary involves only a simple adjustment to the secondary holder, which you actually do when lining up the secondary directly under the focuser. After reading discussions on both sides of the issue, I'm persuaded that a full offset (toward the primary and away from the focuser) is unnecessary in

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Newtonian Secondary Offset? If you own a Newtonian telescope, you may have [...] most cases. Bryan Greer of Protostar (manufacturer of secondary mirrors and spiders) explains it this way: When you get to the final collimation step of tilt adjusting the primary, you are pointing the primary back at the optical center of the secondary. Once again, the light cone will be intercepted perfectly symmetrically. The only consequence of not offsetting is that the primary mirror is no longer pointed exactly down the middle of the tube. It will end up oh-so-slightly tilted up towards the focuser. But this causes no optical problems at all, as there is nothing sacred about having a perfect 90-degree reflection at the secondary. Collimation, vignetting symmetry, and concentricity of the optical axis within the focuser drawtube are all still perfect. Then why would anyone choose to fully offset the secondary? Many experts feel it isn't necessary, even in large fast scopes, since the size of most secondary mirrors is ample enough to provide full field illumination. One exception is when the size of the secondary is at the absolute minimum, in which case a non-offset secondary would not intercept the entire cone of light coming from the primary mirror. Typically this situation occurs in Newtonian telescopes intended primarily for planetary observation where the secondary mirror size is kept as small as possible to get the best image contrast. Offset also is an issue for long exposure astrophotography because tracking will be a bit more accurate if the optical and mechanical axes are coincident. Similarly, there's a body of opinion that says a full offset will improve the accuracy of digital setting circles on scopes with Dobsonian mounts. If you've done a good job of collimation, you'll probably find that in the process of centering the secondary mirror beneath the focuser drawtube you've induced an offset toward the primary by pure serendipity!Published in the April 2008 issue of the NightTimes

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THE WASHINGTON POST | By Lindsey Bever | January 7, 2015 It was a midnight ride in 1775 that earned Paul Revere his place in American history. After riding the countryside on horseback warning of a British invasion, the silversmith cast cannons from iron, made gunpowder and printed Massachusetts’s first currency during the Revolutionary War. Two decades later, the war hero tucked two dozen silver coins and a silver plate engraved with a date — July 4, 1795 — into a leather pouch. That day, Revere and Massachusetts Gov. Samuel Adams placed the pouch under a cornerstone at the Massachusetts State House. In 1855, the contents were moved into a brass box and reburied. On Tuesday at Boston’s Museum of Fine Arts, the world got a look at what Revere and Adams thought was worth remembering. Museum conservator Pam Hatchfield opened the 10-pound box during a news conference, using a porcupine quill and her grandfather’s dental tool to remove each item. The box contained a Massachusetts commonwealth seal, a page from Massachusetts colony records, five folded newspapers, a dozen coins — including a 1652 “pine tree shilling” — and the inscribed silver plate, which still had fingerprints on it, she said. he silver plate was “probably made by Paul Revere and engraved by him,” museum director Malcolm Rogers said, according to CNN. “That was the treasure at the end.” The time capsule was first exhumed in 1855, when the items were documented, cleaned and placed into the box. At the time, other items, such as newspapers, were added to the mix, and the box was cemented beneath a granite cornerstone. Historians have since worried the items were ruined by water leaks, the Boston Globe reported. The box was rediscovered on Dec. 11 during building maintenance. Hatchfield spent seven hours working to remove the time capsule from the stone. Coins, believed to have been tossed on top of the box for good luck, spilled out when as she chiseled away, according to the newspaper. Once the box was freed, it was X-rayed to give conservators a glimpse inside. Hatchfield did

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Theme: My Responsibility to My Family Today’s Lesson: Loving My Brothers and Sisters Scripture Reference: Genesis 21:1-21 Memory Verse: I John 4:16 (Compiled and written by Martin W. Wiles) Children will learn how important obedience is. Incorporated into the theme of obedience will be teachings on what their responsibilities are in the family. This will include their relationship with their parents, siblings, and others who are in authority. Today, we will read a story about two brothers: Isaac and Ishmael. They had the same father but a different mother. These two brothers did get along very well, and eventually one left home. Let’s say our memory verse together. God is love. Whoever lives in love lives in God, and God in him. I John 4:16 MEV Have children make a LOVE CARD. Give each child a piece of card stock paper to fold. Write GOD'S LOVE on the outside of the card. Let them decorate the outside with stickers, glitter, hearts, foam hearts, or crosses. On the inside, let them list the people they should love. “I Will Love” can be the beginning prompt. Children can be encouraged to stand their LOVE CARD on their dinner table at home. Bible Story Time: What are some ways you can show love to your brother or sister? What are some ways you can help your parents take care of your brother or sister? Do you think you should tell your brother or sister you love them? A very long time ago, there lived a man named Abraham. His wife’s name was Sarai. They were getting very old, and they didn’t have any children to carry on the family name after they died. Abraham prayed to God and asked Him to give him a son, and God promised He would. Abraham’s son wasn’t born right away. In fact, a long time passed and God still hadn’t given him a son. Abraham and Sarai were getting older. Abraham may have thought God had forgotten about His promise. Reflection: Do you ever feel as if God has forgotten what you have prayed and asked Him about? Abraham and his wife decided they needed to help God out. Instead of waiting for God

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Theme: My Responsibility to My Family Today’s Lesson: Loving My [...] to do what He had promised, Abraham’s wife gave her servant to Abraham to marry. Maybe she could have a son. Sure enough, she did. They named him Ishmael. But God wasn’t happy with what Abraham and Sarai had done. He had promised them a son, and he would give them a son. Some years later, Abraham’s wife got pregnant and had a son. This was the son God had promised. They named him Isaac. Reflection: Do we sometimes have to be patient with God to answer our prayers? Later, Abraham gave a big party to celebrate Isaac’s birth. But Ishmael was jealous of his brother even though he was just a baby. Ishmael’s mother was jealous too. Abraham’s wife noticed both of them making fun of Isaac. She got very mad. Reflection: Have you ever made fun of your brother or sister because you thought your mom or dad was giving them more attention than they were you? Sarai told Abraham to send Ishmael and his mother away. Abraham loved Ishmael and Isaac. They were both his sons. But he listened to his wife and sent them away. God promised Abraham He would take care of Ishmael and his mother. Abraham gave Ishmael and his mother food and sent them away into the wilderness. Before long, the food and water ran out. Ishmael’s mother, Hagar, put Ishmael under a bush where he could get some shade. She thought both of them were going to die. When Ishmael’s mother was just about to give up hope, an angel appeared to her and told her not to be afraid. Then he opened her eyes and she saw a well with water in it. They wouldn’t die after all. God loved both of these brothers, but jealousy led them to separate from each other. Had they loved each other as they should have done, they could have lived together and had fun together. Since Ishmael was older, he could even have helped his father and mother take care of his brother. God wants us to love everyone, including our brothers and sisters. They may do things that get on our nerves or even make us mad, but we should love them anyway. After

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One out of five Americans will develop at least one skin cancer during his or her lifetime. In fact, there are more skin cancers in the U.S. population than all other cancers combined. People of all races and skin color can develop skin cancer. If that surprises you, you’re not alone. Many people are under the notion that only Caucasians are at risk of getting skin cancer. However, skin cancer can also occur in African Americans, Hispanics, Asians and other non-Caucasian ethnic groups. Most skin cancers occur from increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation from natural sunlight and other artificial sources, like tanning beds. While individuals with fair skin and light eyes are at increased risk of developing skin cancer, other factors exist that may increase one’s risk. Some of these factors include tanning lamp use, immunosuppression, previous treatment with radiation and certain chemical exposures. The two most common types of skin cancer are basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. These cancers usually develop on parts of the body exposed to the sun, like the head and neck. However, they may also develop on areas of the body not ordinarily exposed to the sun. These types of skin cancers are unlikely to spread to other parts of the body if treated early. However, if left untreated, they can grow and invade nearby structures and cause disfigurement, loss of function and mobility, and rarely, may affect other organs. Melanomas are not as common as basal cell and squamous cell cancers and can occur anywhere on the body. In men, they commonly occur on the chest and back. In women, the legs are the most common site of occurrence. Interestingly, in darker pigmented individuals, like African Americans and Asians, melanomas commonly occur on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Melanomas are curable if detected early. However, unlike basal and squamous cell carcinomas, they are much more likely to spread to other organs, and can be fatal if left untreated. Skin cancers are often noticed by patients when they become symptomatic. Common symptoms include soreness, bleeding, or spots that just do not seem to heal. Though skin cancer may be symptomatic, often, there are no symptoms and the cancer is detected by dermatologists during routine

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Yet, it seems we tend to focus so much on the HOWS and this leaves mathematical thinking as 'doing school', I think, rather than the real learning and discoveries of maths. We have been exploring how our number system is based upon 10 and what that means regarding place values. A benefit we are discovering from having a base 10 number system is that we can multiply / divide numbers by 10, 100, 1 000 etc easily. Yesterday we explored how and more importantly WHY we can multiply numbers easily by 10, 100, 1 000 etc easily. To find out about dividing, I wrote the following on the board and the children used the I see / think / wonder routine to record their thoughts: We then shared what we noticed, theories we had, and our wonderings: Most of us had discovered (a few already knew) the HOWS of dividing by 10, 100 etc, but the WHYS are more important. Looking at our gathered wonderings, students chose a question they found interesting and spent time exploring it and then sharing their theories or discoveries with others. Even those wonderings that at first sounded 'simple' became actually quite complex when trying to understand the WHYS behind them. Whilst sharing, some students had used strategies which we had previously done when finding the WHYS behind multiplying by 10, 100 etc. Some students explained to us why this works using a place value grid. They explained how we can see each digit changing its place value: This helped us to also see why numbers grew smaller when we divide them. Other examples were explored: We took our thinking further by exploring how each digit changes with decimal numbers: Another pair shared how they used our multiplication strategy with the division which helps us see what we actually do to the number. We then used the same number and had a choice of dividing it by 10, 100 or 1 000. A few students decided they wanted to challenge themselves further by dividing it by 10 000: By using the split strategy, we felt we could really see what we were doing when we divided by 10, 100 etc. (Some of us used a calculator when divid

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 2013 term. Are there microscopes powerful enough to see atoms? If so, what do electrons look like? Yes, but they are not optical microscopes, which at best can resolve down to about a micron. Atomic force microscopes provide a three-dimensional image with sub-atomic resolution, and electron microscopes can also image atoms. However, there are good fundamental reasons why we'll never see a picture of an electron - in Friday's class, we'll see how Heisenberg's uncertainty principle means that we can know the location of an electron only in terms of a probability. Just wondering if you could tell us what kind of questions we should expect on midterms. Would they be multiple choice, fill in the blanks, short answer or a mix/other? Just so we can start to study accordingly. Thanks alot:) Check out the assessment page of the course website - there is a sample midterm exam posted there. Basically, they're a mix of multiple-choice and short-answer questions. For the suggested practice questions for this chapter, are we only supposed to do the black questions from the assignment list or all of the questions on the list? All of them - but you'll only have the answers for the RED ones unless you've purchased the solutions manual. Ok i was doing a practice problem and noticed one the units was a "pm" and the answer has to be meters. I checked in the back of the text for unit conversions but didnt find it...so what is a pm???? A picometre = 10^-12^ m. I want to get on the companion website for the text but, it requires a code that I don't think I have becasue I bought my book used. Is there anyway to get one?Thanks No question - just wanted to say I'm really loving the way you've structured the lectures, especially the clicker questions! Very unique & fun. Are the online quizzes open-book, so we can look at all our notes and our textbooks as we do them? Re: companion website - here's Prentice Hall's advice on getting an Access Code. The benefit is probably marginal, though, so I suggest you just spend your

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 20 [...] time with the textbook - the online stuff will just present some of the same things in a slightly different way.Re: clickers; glad you like them, I do too.Re: online quizzes; absolutely, go ahead and use your notes and textbook. Do we need to know the names of the scientists that contributed the theories/principles? (ex: Heisenberg, de Broglie, Schrodinger...) Many of the textbook Qs refer to the table of the electromagnetic spectrum; for example they ask what kind of radiation (visible, UV, microwave...) is a wave with __wavelength. Do we need to memorize the wavelengths of each kind of light? I don't have a question. I just wanted to tell you that I love your accent! Re: wavelength ranges. While it is possible that we can ask you about anything you've been taught, we tend to not ask questions that rely solely on you having rote memorized a table of data. I do think it is reasonable that you know the wavelengths of visible light (400-750 nm) and the general order i.e. radio > microwave > IR > visible > UV > x-ray > gamma.Re: famous scientists; see answer above. We're not going to ask you "who came up with the uncertainty principle?", but we might just ask "what is the significance of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle [in the following instance]?". The names are provided partly for interest's sake, but also because people often find things easier to remember when they're associated with a person. The ideas associated with the 3 scientists you mentioned as well as Planck, Hund and Pauli are all important concepts from Chapter 6.Re: accent; thanks. So at this point, do we also know everything we need to tackle quiz #2? Just wondering if there is a study group organized yet? or is there some sort of message board where students can discuss questions together? Re: quiz #2; yes.Re: message board - no, but it is a good idea. What I will do is post an invitation on the blog for students to ask other students questions, and I will refrain from comment

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 20 [...] ing under that post. It might be a good place to ask your question about study groups. Could you possibly provide us with a sample of the "info sheet" we will have for the test just so when we are working on questions etc, we will know what we will be givin during the test and what we will have to memorize. Thanks!Also...is there a differnt midterm for each chem 101 section or do we all take the same test?Thanks again! I sure can - there's a data sheet at the back of your lab manual.The midterm is the same for all four sections. During high school chemistry I was always taught that the elements Al, Ga, In, Sn, Tl, Pb, Bi, and Po were also transition metals, and that Ge and Sb were metalloids. In this course, because of the electron orbitals, should we consider these to be nonmetals and only elements up to those in column 12 to be transition metals? You were probably taught that they were metals, as opposed to transition metals, and that is quite true. The s- and f-blocks are also metals. In class, I called the p-block "main group elements" without discriminating between metals, metalloids and non-metals; we don't cover this subject in 101 because, as you pointed out, you already know it! your notes say that as the principal quantum number 'n' in the bohr model approaches infinity, energy = zero, but a higher orbit means a higher energy state, are these contradictory?thank you! It sounds contradictory, but it's not - the sign of the energy is negative. Read "the energy states of the hydrogen atom" from section 6.3 of your textbook for a more detailed explanation. I don't know if this is more of a physics question or a chem question, but:Since work is transfer of energy and is equal to force times displacement, and since energy is quantized. Does this mean that both force and displacement would be quantized as well? when doing electron configurations...when is it that you have to jump to the 4f and 5f orbitals?? we were confused as

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 20 [...] to when these are applicable??? andddd why is it that no two electrons have the same 4 quantum numbers...we have a general idea but want a real answer!! thanks.... Re: quantization –yes, but I’m not sure how much sense it makes to think about it in classical terms. At the kind of scale at which it might become important, we can’t locate particles with confidence as they become more wave-like in character (see Heisenberg uncertainty principle).Re: electron configurations, a “real answer”... In the solution to the Schrodinger equation, 3 quantum #’s (n, l, ml) arise from the space geometry of the solution and the 4th arises from electron spin. No 2 electrons can have an identical set of quantum #’s according to Pauli, so the quantum #’s set limits on the # of electrons which can occupy a given state and therefore give insight into the building up of the periodic table of the elements. As for the Pauli exclusion principle – it’s part of one of our most basic observations of nature: particles of half-integer spin must have antisymmetric wavefunctions, and particles of integer spin must have symmetric wavefunctions. If we write a mathematical description of the wavefunction for a two electron system, it will vanish identically if the states of the electrons are the same, implying that it is impossible for both electrons to occupy the same state.When do you fill the 4f and 5f orbitals? Look carefully at the periodic table, and you’ll notice that the atomic number increases in a jump between Ba (56) and Lu (71) – in between are the 14 lanthanide elements (the 4f orbitals are being filled). Similarly, between Ra (88) and Lr (103), the 14 actinide elements appear (the 5f orbitals are being filled. So: for any condensed electron configuration – first find the element, then go one row up and to the far right to find the noble gas corresponding to the core electrons, e.g. for thallium (Tl, element 81), this would be [Xe] (element 54). So you need

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 20 [...] to account for 27 valence electrons. These are 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p1 – because you have to cross the s, f, d and enter the p block in traversing the periodic table from the left hand side to get to Tl. Dr. McIndoe:I was doing the second online quiz and I encountered questions 06-mc-027 and 06-mc-036. For the choices they only had the letters a to e but there was nothing beside these letters. I looked at the question above and below the two questions to see if the letters correspond (i.e. to see if the question uses the same answers as the previous/next question) but they don't. Is this some sort of mistake or did I miss something? I probably shouldn't post my student # online but I'll come to talk to you at a lecture if you want. These questions have images under each of the options; I'm not sure why your browser failed to render them. Contact Dr. Briggs (email@example.com), the course coordinator, and he will be able to discount these questions for you. Hello. I am just wondering about an inconsistency in the periodic tables we have been shown. The table that was put up during the lectures show the lanthanides group from atomic number 56 - 70, but on the back of our lab manuals it shows the lanthanides as atomic numbers 57 - 71. The same problem can be said for the actinides. I am just wondering which one is correct. By the way, I think you are doing a great job in the course; I am really enjoying the lectures. The one that was put up in lectures is correct, and it is the one you'll get in the midterms and final. There IS a copy of the new one somewhere in your lab manual, at the start of the old exams section I believe. The new one is consistent with the textbook.Just why so many PTs are printed incorrectly is actually due to a long-standing argument about, you guessed it, electron configurations. The argument centres around whether La or Lu is the Group 3 element.

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 20 [...] Even though the argument was cleared up over 50 years ago (it's Lu), this minor error has persisted. Hi Dr. McIndoe,I just finished the third lab quiz and on it I encountered a question regarding ionic separation. I can't remember this concept or find it in the text (it isn't even on wikipedia!). Just wondering if you could refresh my memory or point me in the right direction..Thanks! I'm really digging your class! It's just asking for the distance between cation and anion, so it is a question about ionic size (Section 7.3 of your notes).The Wikipedia is an amazing resource, great for background and (surprisingly?) accurate for scientific material, but it can rapidly drown you in information...Glad you like the class, I appreciate the feedback.An aside: I've had more questions about the data sheet; it's on the assessment page or just click here. Hi - I have a question about using Heisenberg's uncertainty formula. In your class example you multiplied the 1% uncertainty with the velocity. In the questions in the textbook (6.45, 6.46) they seem to put just the uncertainty (in the solution they have 0.01x10^5 m/s in the formula for a given velocity of 3.00x10^5 m/s +-1%).So what exactly do you put as the value for delta v?Thank you If the uncertainty is given as e.g. 3.00 +/- 0.01 × 10^5^, use the uncertainty directly (in this case, 0.01 +/- 10^5^). However, if it is given as a percentage, e.g. 3.00 +/- 1% × 10^5, you have to work out the absolute uncertainty by multiplying the percentage error (1% or 0.01) by the original quantity (i.e. 0.01 × 3.00 × 10^5^ = 0.03 × 10^5^). Hello:What is the difference

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 20 [...] between Zeff and the attraction of an atom on its electrons? Because as you go down a column the attraction on outer electrons decreases but Zeff increases slightly.Also, does Zeff vary depending on which subshell of electrons you are considering for a particular atom? Thanks :) You're asking essentially the difference between the effective nuclear charge (how many protons are the electrons in a given subshell experiencing attraction to) and the first ionization energy (how easy is it to remove the outermost - highest energy - electron). Zeff increases slightly as you go down a group because the approximation that the core electrons are "perfect shielders" is not, well, perfect. The first ionization energy decreases as we go down a group because the electrons are further away from the nucleus (in higher subshells) and can therefore be more easily removed.Yes, Zeff does depend on what subshell you're considering! The 1s electrons of gold, for example, experience as Zeff of 79, because they have no shielding. The 2s electrons of gold have a Zeff of 79 - 2 = 77, because the 1s electrons screen some of the charge. The 3s have 79 - 2 - 8 = 69, and so on. Hello, I just checked the scores on my first three quizzes and had a question. For the one about the correct electron configuration of Mo, you say it's one of the ones following exception where it only has one s electron so it can get a half-full d subshell. Are we supposed to guess this from where it is? Because you said in the lectures that the only ones we need to know are Cu and Cr. Ohh, is that what ionic separation meant? I thought you meant lattice energy, or something like that - like how much it takes to separate ions. Oops. Re: Mo electron configuration; yes, Mo is in the same group as Cr so has the same electron configuration. I am mildly surprised that this question was set - W is the next element down and it has a 6s2 5d4 configuration, and there are a LOT of other exceptions among the heavier transition metals that you

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For students taking Chemistry 101 at the University of Victoria in the Fall 20 [...] couldn't be expected to predict (e.g. Ru, Rh, Pd). However, the quizzes are open book and your textbook has a complete PT with electron configurations of all elements in it (near the end of Ch. 6). If you're ever unsure about a quiz answer: consult your textbook. Just wanted to open by saying that I'm really enjoying your lectures. You have a pace that's easy to follow and make things really clear. I was just reading up on electron spin and wondered if an electron can ever "change" it's direction of spin. If it's striped to another atom in an ionic bond will it retain its original polarity/spin direction, and pair only with a complimentary atom, or can it change direction? I hope the question is clear enough.Thanks. Thanks. Yes, electrons can change their spin, and there is an entire type of spectroscopy (electron spin resonance, ESR) that relies on this phenomenon. It can't happen of course when electrons are paired in an orbital (if one of a set of paired electrons flipped its spin, it would violate the Pauli exclusion principle), so ESR is applicable only to paramagnetic compounds (those with at least one unpaired electron). Which of the magnetic quantum numbers correspond to which plane?Thank you. We can't tell. The main thing is the respective orientations of the orbitals with respect to one another, e.g. that the 3 p orbitals are all perpendicular to each other. In quiz 2 there was a question that asked what the electron configuration was of a ground state molybdenum. Apparently it is one of the exceptions to the rule, but I do not think that we learned about it in class; as you said the only anomalous elements were copper and chromium. ?. See my answer above re: Mo. I didn't say Cr and Cu were the only ones that were anomalous, just that they were the ones you should learn. As you go further down the periodic table, anomalous electronic configurations become increasingly common, due to the similarity in energy of the outermost orbitals, and there is very little point

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Music and Time| Monthly Scientific Journal «Music and Time» themed covers a wide range of issues and publishes scientific, educational, methodical and methodological materials and reviews in the field of the history of music as an art form, history and theory of music culture in the light of various ethnic traditions, forms of musical activities (including the composer , interpretive, educational, scientific, theoretical, journalistic, etc.). Particular attention is paid to the general and special music theory, philosophy, music, psychology of music, the culture aspect of musical activities (relating to research involving human problems in the world of culture, in the social and cultural creativity), types of music in the functioning of society, etc. The journal publishes articles in which: - Provides a historical analysis of the formation and development of musical culture in its historical, cultural, and application context; - Sets out the results of the author (s) survey, which showed an impact on the cultural process of previously unknown facts of music history; - Examines the theory and practice of performing and pedagogical innovations, representing the scientific and historical value; - Deals with the history and development of science and performing schools and trends, the role of their founders - the leading performers and theorists (musicologists, historians, culture) - in the development of world music culture, the establishment and validation of theoretical concepts in the development of new methods of applied study of musical culture; - Provides a summary of the historical and scientific material to recreate a complete picture of the formation and development of individual and related sciences, exploring the musical aesthetics, semiotics, source, psychology, art, music cultural studies, theory and history of the musical language, the theory and practice of performance, music education, and so on. etc.; - The questions of the history and development of music societies and organizations; - Sets out the results of the author (s) of research in the special theory of music in the assembly of its disciplines: melody, rhythm, harmony, polyphony (counterpoint), theory and analysis of musical forms, art compositions instrumentovedeniya: orchestration and theory of orchestral styles, history of theoretical exercise; - The results of research challenges the classification of the sciences of music, tracks the evolution of the areas of scientific knowledge; - Developed the theory, methodology or practical guide to study the artifacts

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Saturday, August 4, 2012 Nigeria: Akwete Cloth -- An Igbo Textile Art BY MCPHILIPS NWACHUKWU AND APPOLOS OZIOGU IBEBABUCHI/VANGUARD WEAVING is an ancient craft of man dating to the early new stone age when he learnt to make a rough kind of clothing from the fibers of flax plants. Weaving is described as the orderly interlacing of fibres and pressing them together to make the cloth. In Nigeria, cloth weaving is universally practised in most urban areas and cities like Abeokuta, Ilorin, Iseyin, Akwete, Okene, Benin, Sokoto, Borno, Kano, Bida and Iseyin area among others. Raffia and cotton are most-widely used in cloth-weaving in Nigeria. Cloth is material of great economic, cultural, political and social importance. Before the introduction of coinage currency in Nigeria, cloth was used as trade good and currency item. It is worn for body beautification and decoration, and for ceremonies. There are different types of cloth-making among various ethnic groups of Nigeria. The Yoruba are famous for Aso-Oke traditional fabric weaving. Aso-oke is just a local homespun cotton cloth woven by men as narrow-strip cloth, usually woven with vertical stripes in different colours on background colour. The Hausa are known for Kura cloth-making which is deep blue black and shining design. The Igbo also are known widely for Akwete-cloth weaving which is basically done by women. Akwete cloth is a special woven fabric by Igbo women in Akwete area near Aba in Abia State. It is originally referred to as "Akwa Miri" (Cloth of the water) meaning towel. Akwete cloth weaving is said to be as old as the Igbo nation. Socio-cultural importance: Because of the dexterity of the weavers who demonstrated evincingly great mastery of technique and beauty of design, the art of Akwete-cloth weaving was erroneously believed to have been introduced from Okene in Kwara state where a similar but highly developed style

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Saturday, August 4, 2012 Nigeria: Akwete Cl [...] earlier existed. Patterns of red and black designs: However, Akwete cloth comes in different colours and designs. Some are in the patterns of red and black designs, interwoven in geometric patterns on the white ground which is favoured by Igbo men. It is mainly used as a towel for bathing. The Akwete cloths, woven from sisal-hemp fibres are of coarse type, used by masqueraders, and by warriors as headgears, while those made from raffia fibres are used on religious occasions like the Ozo titleship, and for mourning by women. But the most popular Akwete cloth is the type of cotton fabric woven from cotton fibres in colourful patterns; the weavers have much preference for bright and strong colour like red and yellow. Traditionally, the raw cotton fibres that surround and protect cotton seeds do undergo some processes before use, namely: First, ginning process, by which the cotton seeds are removed from the fibres by rolling a rod over the cotton ball. Second, bowing process, which involves making cotton fibres fluffy by flicking the string of a small bow against them until they look like cotton wool. Third, spinning process, which is done by pulling the fibres into threads. Processing of the cotton fibres from the cotton seeds is not the same with that of the raffia fibres. Raffia as we know is the fibre from the fresh leaf of the palm tree. The process of extracting fibre from the thorny raffia palm frond demands a special skill by the woman weaver. She first of all starts from the tip, the distal end by splitting it, and then gently pulls down to the inflorescence. Weaving as gender defined job: She dries the fibres in the sun or by the fire place to make them dry enough for use in weaving. Generally, it is women who process the raffia fibres or cotton fibres or any other kind of fibres for used in weaving. Wide vertical loom: Weaving is done on a loom. There are two types of loom namely: horizontal loom which is used by men weavers; vertical loom, used by women we

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Saturday, August 4, 2012 Nigeria: Akwete Cl [...] avers. Both types of loom operate on the same principle. An Akwete woman weaves on a wide vertical loom which produces cloth about 115cm wide x 1609cm long; the length of the finished product is normally twice the height of the loom. Thus, after processing the cotton to desired thread form, the weaver fixes a set of threads on the loom to form the warp and then the weft thread (net-work of thread) is passed over and under the warped thread. The weft thread can be passed over more than one warped thread at a time to produce variations of thread colours and patterns in the woven cloth. As the weaving progresses, the finished cloth is slipped down over the lower beam and up and back. Then, the weaver uses a weaving stick to separate the odd and eve warp thread before she winds the weft thread onto a long narrow stick which is passed from side to side. It is expedient to reiterate that Akwete cloth is usually made of cotton thread, and the decorative motifs are produced with cotton threads of a heavier texture or rayon silk. Politics of cloth: The decorative motifs appear mostly on one side of the cloth, though they can appear on both sides. The decorative motifs are given names which are suggestive of their appearance. A few among them are animals heart; children's fingers; comb; earring; snake-back; stool and tortoise. However, some weavers can give different names to motifs that are not suggestive of their appearance. In the olden days, the "tortoise" motif (ikaki) is only worn by members of royal families and if anybody from non-royal family dares wear it, he or she could be punished or be sold into slavery. The "ebe" design is specially reserved for use as a protective talisman for pregnant women or warriors. Most of these designs or motifs are by inspiration because the weavers claim that certain motifs are revealed to them by the gods, and as a result, no weaver is allowed to copy the design and it therefore dies with its owner.

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Linux Lab #9 (50pts) Due Wednesday June 15 Use the script command to make a log of your activities. The log should be named Lab9.HOSTNAME.DATE where HOSTNAME is your hostname (fetched from an environment variable or inline execution) and DATE is the current date and time in the format MMDDYY (fetched with inline execution). (E.g. "Lab9.LINFORD3040.052305") In answering direct questions below (as marked by the question-mark '?'), use a shell comment to give your answer. For example, if I say: "What is the command to give you the system time?" You should type, at the command prompt, "# date is the command" or something to that effect. The important part is the hash-mark '#' which causes the shell to ignore everything behind it. I strongly recommend that you use two terminals: one to run the script command and one to test your commands before executing them under script. It's also a good idea to use shell comments to say which part of the assignment the following commands are for. Do not run any program which generates lots of escape- and meta-characters inside a terminal running the 'script' command. This includes man, vi, and pico. Install Apache 1.3 from Source - Make sure you are not root - Copy /public_3040/apache_1.3.33.tar.gz from my laptop to the current user's home directory - Use gunzip to decompress the archive. Notice that the ".gz" is removed from the archive - Use tar to list the archive's contents - Use tar to verbosely extract the archive - Enter the apache source directory - Configure the apache source tree with the following options: - The destination installation directory is /usr/local/apache13 - The server will run under UID wwwrun - The server will run under GID www - All modules are enabled by default - Disable the following modules: - Build the source tree - Become root - Set your umask to 022 - Install the newly-built apache - Use ln to make a symbolic link from /usr/local/apache13/bin/

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The sedentary lifestyle coupled with a near complete lack of any form of physical activity whatsoever, on in plain and simple words being a “couch potato” is quite widely recognized as a leading risk factor for all kinds of ailments ranging from Diabetes to obesity to high blood pressure. Those of us who don’t believe in starting and/or maintaining an exercise regimen might end up being at a higher risk from such deadly diseases as Myocardial Infarction and stroke. Nevertheless, protection from blood pressure related illnesses is not the only advantage of exercise. There are many other additional benefits as well. Controlling your weight Obesity is increasingly becoming the bane of the 21st century and our sedentary lifestyles contribute to it no end. Most kinds of physical activity play a key role in not only getting rid of excess weight but also greatly help in keeping it off as well. In a nutshell, we gain weight when the body consumes less calories then it imbibes. Conversely it is lost when we consume less and burn more as the body dips into its stores of fatty deposits to keep itself energized. Therefore, plenty of exercise along with a healthy diet creates a new set point for the body and enables it to not just lose weight but successfully keep it off as well. Regular exercise (provided it’s something you like doing on an everyday basis) can not only improve our mood but may help control the stress of our everyday lives while combating both depression as well as anxiety. Continuous physical activity that is maintained regularly tones up our muscles while simultaneously increasing both our endurance as well as our stamina. This is because regular cardiovascular workouts increase the oxygen supply to different organs and in effect ‘turbo-charge’ our bodies meaning that we have more energy to successfully accomplish our everyday tasks. Any kind of physical activity, be it swimming, walking, martial arts or weight training, builds the endurance of the muscle groups being exercised and in the long run it increases our overall strength, thereby enabling us to do things we could never have dared try before. Helps to sleep better: Once exercise becomes habitual to our lifestyle we may find that we are able to sleep a whole lot better than we ever used to before. With the cravat, however that such exercise should not be undertaken too close to

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