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Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds.[SEP]The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect.

The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect.[SEP]Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.

Although such reflectance properties are different from those of any terrestrial terrains, they are typical of the regolith surfaces of airless Solar System bodies.[SEP]Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected).

Two common optical albedos that are used in astronomy are the (V-band) geometric albedo (measuring brightness when illumination comes from directly behind the observer) and the Bond albedo (measuring total proportion of electromagnetic energy reflected).[SEP]Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.

Their values can differ significantly, which is a common source of confusion.[SEP]In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces.

In detailed studies, the directional reflectance properties of astronomical bodies are often expressed in terms of the five Hapke parameters which semi-empirically describe the variation of albedo with phase angle, including a characterization of the opposition effect of regolith surfaces.[SEP]One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo.

One of these five parameters is yet another type of albedo called the single-scattering albedo.[SEP]It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles.

It is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles.[SEP]It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.

It depends on properties of the material (refractive index), the size of the particle, and the wavelength of the incoming radiation.[SEP]An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by:

An important relationship between an object's astronomical (geometric) albedo, absolute magnitude and diameter is given by:[SEP]where is the astronomical albedo, is the diameter in kilometers, and is the absolute magnitude.

where is the astronomical albedo, is the diameter in kilometers, and is the absolute magnitude.[SEP]Radar Albedo In planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured.

Radar Albedo In planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured.[SEP]In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC).

In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC).[SEP]The echo power is measured in terms of radar cross-section, , , or (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power.

The echo power is measured in terms of radar cross-section, , , or (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power.[SEP]Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection.

Those components of the received echo that return from first-surface reflections (as from a smooth or mirror-like surface) are dominated by the OC component as there is a reversal in polarization upon reflection.[SEP]If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering.

If the surface is rough at the wavelength scale or there is significant penetration into the regolith, there will be a significant SC component in the echo caused by multiple scattering.[SEP]For most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo):

For most objects in the solar system, the OC echo dominates and the most commonly reported radar albedo parameter is the (normalized) OC radar albedo (often shortened to radar albedo):[SEP]where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius, .

where the denominator is the effective cross-sectional area of the target object with mean radius, .[SEP]A smooth metallic sphere would have .

A smooth metallic sphere would have .[SEP]Radar Albedos of Solar System Objects

Radar Albedos of Solar System Objects[SEP]The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references.

The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references.[SEP]Relationship to Surface Bulk Density In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections ( or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships:

Relationship to Surface Bulk Density In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections ( or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) and can be used to estimate the bulk density of a planetary surface to a depth of a meter or so (a few wavelengths of the radar wavelength which is typically at the decimeter scale) using the following empirical relationships:[SEP]Cool roof Daisyworld Emissivity Exitance Global dimming Irradiance Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation Opposition surge Polar see-saw Radar astronomy Solar radiation management

Cool roof Daisyworld Emissivity Exitance Global dimming Irradiance Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation Opposition surge Polar see-saw Radar astronomy Solar radiation management[SEP]Albedo Project Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site Ocean surface albedo look-up-table Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations A discussion of Lunar albedos reflectivity of metals (chart)

Albedo Project Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site Ocean surface albedo look-up-table Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations A discussion of Lunar albedos reflectivity of metals (chart)[SEP]Land surface effects on climate Climate change feedbacks Climate forcing Climatology Electromagnetic radiation Radiometry Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics) Radiation 1760s neologisms

A, or a, is the first letter and the first vowel of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet.[SEP]Its name in English is a (pronounced ), plural aes.

Its name in English is a (pronounced ), plural aes.[SEP]It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives.

It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives.[SEP]The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar.

The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar.[SEP]The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ.

The lowercase version can be written in two forms: the double-storey a and single-storey ɑ.[SEP]The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type.

The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type.[SEP]In the English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", are indefinite articles.

In the English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", are indefinite articles.[SEP]The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants (for that reason, it is also called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet).

The earliest certain ancestor of "A" is aleph (also written 'aleph), the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, which consisted entirely of consonants (for that reason, it is also called an abjad to distinguish it from a true alphabet).[SEP]In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.

In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended.[SEP]When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha.

When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter to represent the glottal stop—the consonant sound that the letter denoted in Phoenician and other Semitic languages, and that was the first phoneme of the Phoenician pronunciation of the letter—so they used their version of the sign to represent the vowel , and called it by the similar name of alpha.[SEP]In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.

In the earliest Greek inscriptions after the Greek Dark Ages, dating to the 8th century BC, the letter rests upon its side, but in the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.[SEP]The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged.

The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to their civilization in the Italian Peninsula and left the letter unchanged.[SEP]The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.

The Romans later adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write the Latin language, and the resulting letter was preserved in the Latin alphabet that would come to be used to write many languages, including English.[SEP]During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A".

During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter "A".[SEP]First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media.

First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other "permanent" media.[SEP]There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces.

There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces.[SEP]Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule.

Due to the "perishable" nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semicursive minuscule.[SEP]Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles.

Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles.[SEP]The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.

The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial.[SEP]At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe.

At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe.[SEP]Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain.

Among these were the semicursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain.[SEP]By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press.

By the 9th century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press.[SEP]This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.

This form was derived through a combining of prior forms.[SEP]15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today.

15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today.[SEP]These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version.

These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version.[SEP]The Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting; it consists of a circle and vertical stroke on the right ("ɑ").

The Italic form, also called script a, is used in most current handwriting; it consists of a circle and vertical stroke on the right ("ɑ").[SEP]This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers.

This slowly developed from the fifth-century form resembling the Greek letter tau in the hands of medieval Irish and English writers.[SEP]The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a").

The Roman form is used in most printed material; it consists of a small loop with an arc over it ("a").[SEP]Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form.

Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form.[SEP]In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown.

In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown.[SEP]Many fonts then made the right leg vertical.

Many fonts then made the right leg vertical.[SEP]In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form.

In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form.[SEP]Graphic designers refer to the Italic and Roman forms as "single decker a" and "double decker a" respectively.

Graphic designers refer to the Italic and Roman forms as "single decker a" and "double decker a" respectively.[SEP]Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type).

Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest (set in Roman type).[SEP]There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet).

There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a ("ɑ"), also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin "a" (such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet).[SEP]Use in writing systems

Use in writing systems[SEP]In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds: the near-open front unrounded vowel as in pad; the open back unrounded vowel as in father, which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound; the diphthong as in ace and major (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift; the modified form of the above sound that occurs before , as in square and Mary; the rounded vowel of water; the shorter rounded vowel (not present in General American) in was and what; a schwa, in many unstressed syllables, as in about, comma, solar.

In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds: the near-open front unrounded vowel as in pad; the open back unrounded vowel as in father, which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound; the diphthong as in ace and major (usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter) – this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift; the modified form of the above sound that occurs before , as in square and Mary; the rounded vowel of water; the shorter rounded vowel (not present in General American) in was and what; a schwa, in many unstressed syllables, as in about, comma, solar.[SEP]The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark.

The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark.[SEP]However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and .

However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and .[SEP]is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after and ) and French, the second most common in Spanish, and the most common in Portuguese.

is the third-most-commonly used letter in English (after and ) and French, the second most common in Spanish, and the most common in Portuguese.[SEP]About 8.167% of letters used in English texts tend to be ; the number is around 7.636% in French, 11.525% in Spanish, and 14.634% for Portuguese.

About 8.167% of letters used in English texts tend to be ; the number is around 7.636% in French, 11.525% in Spanish, and 14.634% for Portuguese.[SEP]Other languages In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or .

Other languages In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or .[SEP]An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel .

An exception is Saanich, in which (and the glyph Á) stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel .[SEP]In phonetic and phonemic notation: in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.

In phonetic and phonemic notation: in the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.[SEP]in X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.

in X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel.[SEP]In algebra, the letter a along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a variable, with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics.

In algebra, the letter a along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a variable, with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics.[SEP]Moreover, in 1637, René Descartes "invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra.

Moreover, in 1637, René Descartes "invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra.[SEP]In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.

In geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to denote segments, lines, rays, etc. A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A.[SEP]A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.

A" is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A-, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters.[SEP]A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek).

A" is used as a prefix on some words, such as asymmetry, to mean "not" or "without" (from Greek).[SEP]In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article, used to introduce noun phrases.

In English grammar, "a", and its variant "an", is an indefinite article, used to introduce noun phrases.[SEP]Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.

Finally, the letter A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere.[SEP]Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations ª : an ordinal indicator Å : Ångström sign ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification ("for all") @ : At sign ₳ : Argentine austral

Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations ª : an ordinal indicator Å : Ångström sign ∀ : a turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification ("for all") @ : At sign ₳ : Argentine austral[SEP]Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets

Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets[SEP]Semitic letter Aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive Α α : Greek letter Alpha, from which the following letters derive А а : Cyrillic letter A : Coptic letter Alpha 𐌀 : Old Italic A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A : Gothic letter aza/asks Ա ա : Armenian letter Ayb

Semitic letter Aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive Α α : Greek letter Alpha, from which the following letters derive А а : Cyrillic letter A : Coptic letter Alpha 𐌀 : Old Italic A, which is the ancestor of modern Latin A : Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A : Gothic letter aza/asks Ա ա : Armenian letter Ayb[SEP]History of the Alphabet

History of the Alphabet[SEP]ISO basic Latin letters Vowel letters

Alabama () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered by Tennessee to the north; Georgia to the east; Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south; and Mississippi to the west.[SEP]Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states.

Alabama is the 30th largest by area and the 24th-most populous of the U.S. states.[SEP]With a total of of inland waterways, Alabama has among the most of any state.

With a total of of inland waterways, Alabama has among the most of any state.[SEP]Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird.

Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird.[SEP]Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie" and the "Cotton State".

Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie" and the "Cotton State".[SEP]The state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia.

The state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia.[SEP]Alabama's capital is Montgomery, and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville.

Alabama's capital is Montgomery, and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville.[SEP]Its oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana.

Its oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana.[SEP]Greater Birmingham is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center.

Greater Birmingham is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center.[SEP]Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century.

Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century.[SEP]The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War.

The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War.[SEP]Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813.

Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813.[SEP]In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state.

In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state.[SEP]During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton, and widely used African American slave labor.

During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton, and widely used African American slave labor.[SEP]In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America, with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868.

In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America, with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868.[SEP]Following the American Civil War, Alabama would suffer decades of economic hardship, in part due to agriculture and a few cash crops being the main driver of the states economy.

Following the American Civil War, Alabama would suffer decades of economic hardship, in part due to agriculture and a few cash crops being the main driver of the states economy.[SEP]Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise and discriminate against African Americans from the late 19th century up until the 1960s.

Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise and discriminate against African Americans from the late 19th century up until the 1960s.[SEP]In the early 20th century, despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, white rural interests dominated the state legislature through the mid-20th century.

In the early 20th century, despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, white rural interests dominated the state legislature through the mid-20th century.[SEP]During this time, urban interests and African Americans were markedly under-represented.

During this time, urban interests and African Americans were markedly under-represented.[SEP]High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery march made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.

High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery march made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.[SEP]During and after World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries.