Question: What can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes?

Answer: mountain passes

<hl> The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. <hl> Many passes are closed in winter. A multitude of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access from abroad.

The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher <hl> mountain passes <hl> and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. A multitude of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access from abroad.


Question: What is a gene?

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

Answer: a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product

<hl> A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product , and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary <hl> The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

A gene is <hl> a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product <hl>, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

A gene is <hl> a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product <hl> , and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary


Question: What is the basis of inheritance of phenotypic traits?

Answer: The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring

<hl> A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. <hl> Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary <hl> The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring <hl> is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.


Question: What influence are most biological traits under?

Answer: polygenes (many different genes)

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. <hl> Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. <hl> Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of <hl> polygenes (many different genes) <hl> as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.


Question: What is one instantly visible genetic trait?

Answer: eye colour or number of limbs

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. <hl> Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs , and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life. <hl>

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as <hl> eye colour or number of limbs <hl>, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as <hl> eye colour or number of limbs <hl> , and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.


Question: What is one invisible genetic trait?

Answer: blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. <hl> Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life . <hl>

A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as <hl> blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life <hl>.

Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as <hl> blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life <hl> .


Question: What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Answer: different variants, known as alleles

<hl> Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles , in the population. <hl> These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to <hl> different variants, known as alleles <hl>, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to <hl> different variants, known as alleles <hl> , in the population.


Question: What do alleles do?

Answer: encode slightly different versions of a protein

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. <hl> These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein , which cause different phenotype traits. <hl> Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles <hl> encode slightly different versions of a protein <hl>, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

These alleles <hl> encode slightly different versions of a protein <hl> , which cause different phenotype traits.


Question: What do alleles cause?

Answer: different phenotype traits

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. <hl> These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits . <hl> Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause <hl> different phenotype traits <hl>. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause <hl> different phenotype traits <hl> .


Question: What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?

Answer: having a different allele of the gene

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. <hl> Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene . <hl> Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to <hl> having a different allele of the gene <hl>. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to <hl> having a different allele of the gene <hl> .


Question: What causes genes to evolve?

Answer: natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. <hl> Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles . <hl>

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to <hl> natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles <hl>.

Genes evolve due to <hl> natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles <hl> .


Question: What can regulatory regions of a gene be far removed from?

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

Answer: its coding regions

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. <hl> For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions , and coding regions can be split into several exons. <hl> Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from <hl> its coding regions <hl>, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from <hl> its coding regions <hl> , and coding regions can be split into several exons.


Question: What can coding regions be split into?

Answer: several exons

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. <hl> For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons . <hl> Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into <hl> several exons <hl>. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into <hl> several exons <hl> .


Question: What do some viruses store their genome in instead of DNA?

Answer: RNA

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. <hl> Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. <hl> Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in <hl> RNA <hl> instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.


Question: What are some gene products?

Answer: functional non-coding RNAs

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. <hl> Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs . <hl> Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are <hl> functional non-coding RNAs <hl>. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are <hl> functional non-coding RNAs <hl> .


Question: What is a broad, modern working definition of a gene?

Answer: any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. <hl> Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression. <hl>

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is <hl> any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product <hl> or by regulation of gene expression.


Question: Who first suggested the existence of discrete inheritable units?

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

Answer: Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)

<hl> The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) . <hl> From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by <hl> Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) <hl>. From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by <hl> Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) <hl> .


Question: If a distinct trait in edible pea plants is mathematically described as a 2n combination, what does n represent?

Answer: n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. <hl> He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas . <hl> Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where <hl> n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas <hl>. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where <hl> n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas <hl> .


Question: What is one thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?

Answer: independent assortment

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). <hl> Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment , the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance. <hl>

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate <hl> independent assortment <hl>, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

Mendel was also the first to demonstrate <hl> independent assortment <hl> , the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.


Question: What is another thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?

Answer: the distinction between dominant and recessive traits

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). <hl> Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits , the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance. <hl>

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, <hl> the distinction between dominant and recessive traits <hl>, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, <hl> the distinction between dominant and recessive traits <hl> , the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.


Question: What did Gregor Mendel explain his results in terms of?

Answer: discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. <hl> Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics . <hl> This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of <hl> discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics <hl>. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of <hl> discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics <hl> .


Question: What was the dominant theory of heredity prior to Mendel's work?

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Answer: one of blending inheritance

<hl> Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance , which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. <hl> Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was <hl> one of blending inheritance <hl>, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was <hl> one of blending inheritance <hl> , which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring.


Question: Who developed the theory of inheritance known as pangenesis?

Answer: Charles Darwin

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. <hl> Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. <hl> Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. <hl> Charles Darwin <hl> developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.


Question: What does the term gemmule describe?

Answer: hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. <hl> Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction . <hl> Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe <hl> hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction <hl>. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe <hl> hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction <hl> .


Question: What year was Mendel's work first published?

Answer: 1866

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. <hl> Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866 , it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research. <hl>

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in <hl> 1866 <hl>, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in <hl> 1866 <hl> , it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.


Question: Who are the three scientists that claimed to have reached conclusions similar to Mendel's?

Answer: Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. <hl> Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak , who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research. <hl>

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, <hl> Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak <hl>, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, <hl> Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak <hl> , who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.


Question: What ancient Greek word is the word 'gene' derived from?

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

Answer: γένος (génos)

<hl> The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". <hl> Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word <hl> γένος (génos) <hl> meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.


Question: What does the ancient Greek word 'génos' mean?

Answer: "race, offspring"

<hl> The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring" . <hl> Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning <hl> "race, offspring" <hl>. Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning <hl> "race, offspring" <hl> .


Question: What Danish botanist coined the word 'gene'?

Answer: Wilhelm Johannsen

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". <hl> Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905. <hl>

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist <hl> Wilhelm Johannsen <hl> to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.


Question: What was the word 'gene' used to describe in 1909?

Answer: the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". <hl> Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity , while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905. <hl>

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe <hl> the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity <hl>, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe <hl> the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity <hl> , while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.


Question: Who first used the word 'genetics' in 1905?

Answer: William Bateson

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". <hl> Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905. <hl>

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by <hl> William Bateson <hl> in 1905.


Question: What was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s?

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

Answer: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. <hl> Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. <hl> The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. <hl> Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) <hl> was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.


Question: Who studied the structure of DNA using x-ray crystallography?

Answer: Rosalind Franklin

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. <hl> The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. <hl> Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by <hl> Rosalind Franklin <hl> using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.


Question: What two scientists published a model of the double stranded DNA molecule?

Answer: James D. Watson and Francis Crick

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. <hl> The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. <hl> Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led <hl> James D. Watson and Francis Crick <hl> to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.


Question: What is one exception to the central dogma of molecular biology?

Answer: reverse transcription in retroviruses

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. <hl> This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses . <hl> The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as <hl> reverse transcription in retroviruses <hl>. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as <hl> reverse transcription in retroviruses <hl> .


Question: What is the modern study of genetics at the level of DNA known as?

Answer: molecular genetics

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. <hl> The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics . <hl>

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as <hl> molecular genetics <hl>.

The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as <hl> molecular genetics <hl> .


Question: When was the first sequence of a gene determined?

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

Answer: In 1972

<hl> In 1972 , Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. <hl> The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

<hl> In 1972 <hl>, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

<hl> In 1972 <hl> , Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein.


Question: What was the first gene to be sequenced?

Answer: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein

<hl> In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein . <hl> The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: <hl> the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein <hl>. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: <hl> the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein <hl> .


Question: Who developed chain termination DNA sequencing in 1977?

Answer: Frederick Sanger

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. <hl> The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. <hl> An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by <hl> Frederick Sanger <hl> improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.


Question: What did the devlopment of the chain termination DNA sequencing method do for the sequencing process?

Answer: improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool.

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. <hl> The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project. <hl>

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger <hl> improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. <hl> An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.


Question: What project used an automated version of the Sanger method in its early stages?

Answer: the Human Genome Project

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. <hl> An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project . <hl>

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of <hl> the Human Genome Project <hl>.

An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of <hl> the Human Genome Project <hl> .


Question: In what time span were the theories to integrate molecular genetic with Darwinian evolution developed?

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

Answer: the 1930s and 1940s

<hl> The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. <hl> Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency. ":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

The theories developed in <hl> the 1930s and 1940s <hl> to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.


Question: What are the theories that integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution called?

Answer: the modern evolutionary synthesis

<hl> The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis , a term introduced by Julian Huxley. <hl> Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency. ":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called <hl> the modern evolutionary synthesis <hl>, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called <hl> the modern evolutionary synthesis <hl> , a term introduced by Julian Huxley.


Question: Who proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?

Answer: George C. Williams

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. <hl> Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams ' gene-centric view of evolution. <hl> He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency. ":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as <hl> George C. Williams <hl>' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as <hl> George C. Williams <hl> ' gene-centric view of evolution.


Question: What is the definition of the concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?

Answer: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency."

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. <hl> He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency." :24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. <hl> Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: <hl> "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency." <hl>:24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: <hl> "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency." <hl> :24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit.


Question: Who popularized ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution?

Answer: Richard Dawkins

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency. ":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. <hl> Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins . <hl>

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by <hl> Richard Dawkins <hl>.

Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by <hl> Richard Dawkins <hl> .


Question: What do the vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in?

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

Answer: long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

<hl> The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) . <hl> DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in <hl> long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) <hl>. DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in <hl> long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) <hl> .


Question: What does DNA consist of?

Answer: a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). <hl> DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits , each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1 <hl>

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of <hl> a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits <hl>, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

DNA consists of <hl> a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits <hl> , each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1


Question: What type of sugar composes part of the DNA molecule?

Answer: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose)

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). <hl> DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose) , a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1 <hl>

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: <hl> a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose) <hl>, a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: <hl> a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose) <hl> , a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1


Question: What are the four bases used in nucleotide subunits?

Answer: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). <hl> DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine .:2.1 <hl>

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases <hl> adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine <hl>.:2.1

DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases <hl> adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine <hl> .:2.1


Question: Besides the sugar and the four bases, what else does DNA consist of?

Answer: a phosphate group

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). <hl> DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group , and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1 <hl>

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), <hl> a phosphate group <hl>, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), <hl> a phosphate group <hl> , and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1


Question: What is the backbone of a DNA double helix made of?

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Answer: phosphate-sugar

<hl> Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. <hl> The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the <hl> phosphate-sugar <hl> backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1


Question: What base pairs with thymine?

Answer: adenine

<hl> Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. <hl> The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with <hl> adenine <hl> base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1


Question: What base does guanine pair with?

Answer: cytosine

<hl> Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine . <hl> The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to <hl> cytosine <hl>. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to <hl> cytosine <hl> .


Question: What causes the specificity of base pairing?

Answer: adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. <hl> The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds . <hl> The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because <hl> adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds <hl>. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

The specificity of base pairing occurs because <hl> adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds <hl> .


Question: Due to the cause of the specificity of base pairing, what must be true of the two strands in a double helix?

Answer: The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. <hl> The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary , with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1 <hl>

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. <hl> The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary <hl>, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

<hl> The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary <hl> , with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1


Question: What causes the directionality of DNA strands?

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Answer: the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases

<hl> Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases , DNA strands have directionality. <hl> One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Due to <hl> the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases <hl>, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Due to <hl> the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases <hl> , DNA strands have directionality.


Question: What is known as the 3' end?

Answer: an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. <hl> One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose ; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. <hl> The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains <hl> an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose <hl>; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

One end of a DNA polymer contains <hl> an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose <hl> ; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule.


Question: What is known as the 5' end?

Answer: an exposed phosphate group

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. <hl> The other end contains an exposed phosphate group ; this is the 5' end. <hl> The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains <hl> an exposed phosphate group <hl>; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

The other end contains <hl> an exposed phosphate group <hl> ; this is the 5' end.


Question: What type of synthesis occurs in the 5'→3' direction?

Answer: Nucleic acid synthesis

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. <hl> Nucleic acid synthesis , including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2 <hl>

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. <hl> Nucleic acid synthesis <hl>, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

<hl> Nucleic acid synthesis <hl> , including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2


Question: Why does DNA replication and transcription occur in the 5'→3' direction?

Answer: because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. <hl> Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile .:27.2 <hl>

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, <hl> because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile <hl>.:27.2

Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, <hl> because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile <hl> .:27.2


Question: How does the expression of genes encoded in DNA begin?

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

Answer: by transcribing the gene into RNA

<hl> The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA , a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. <hl> RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins <hl> by transcribing the gene into RNA <hl>, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins <hl> by transcribing the gene into RNA <hl> , a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose.


Question: What is RNA?

Answer: a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA

<hl> The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA , but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. <hl> RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, <hl> a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA <hl>, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, <hl> a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA <hl> , but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose.


Question: What base does RNA have in place of thymine?

Answer: the base uracil

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. <hl> RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. <hl> RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains <hl> the base uracil <hl> in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1