Answer: in the 18th century

Context: The word "police" was borrowed from French into the English language in the 18th century, but for a long time it applied only to French and continental European police forces. The word, and the concept of police itself, were "disliked as a symbol of foreign oppression" (according to Britannica 1911). Before the 19th century, the first use of the word "police" recorded in government documents in the United Kingdom was the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714 and the creation of the Marine Police in 1798.

Question: When did the French language adopt the word 'police'?


Answer: Britannica 1911

Question: Which dictionary said police were 'a symbol of foreign oppression'?


Answer: English

Question: What language did French borrow the word 'police' from?


Answer: 1798

Question: When were the Marine Police created in the UK?


Answer: the appointment of Commissioners of Police for Scotland in 1714

Question: What was the first use of 'police' in the UK?


Answer: Patrick Colquhoun

Context: In 1797, Patrick Colquhoun was able to persuade the West Indies merchants who operated at the Pool of London on the River Thames, to establish a police force at the docks to prevent rampant theft that was causing annual estimated losses of £500,000 worth of cargo. The idea of a police, as it then existed in France, was considered as a potentially undesirable foreign import. In building the case for the police in the face of England's firm anti-police sentiment, Colquhoun framed the political rationale on economic indicators to show that a police dedicated to crime prevention was "perfectly congenial to the principle of the British constitution." Moreover, he went so far as to praise the French system, which had reached "the greatest degree of perfection" in his estimation.

Question: Who convinced the West Indies merchants in London to establish police?


Answer: docks

Question: Where did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?


Answer: 1797

Question: When did the West Indies merchants in London create a police force?


Answer: £500,000

Question: How much cargo had been being stolen from West Indies merchants in London each year?


Answer: "the greatest degree of perfection"

Question: How did Colquhoun praise the French police?


Answer: 50

Context: With the initial investment of £4,200, the new trial force of the Thames River Police began with about 50 men charged with policing 33,000 workers in the river trades, of whom Colquhoun claimed 11,000 were known criminals and "on the game." The force was a success after its first year, and his men had "established their worth by saving £122,000 worth of cargo and by the rescuing of several lives." Word of this success spread quickly, and the government passed the Marine Police Bill on 28 July 1800, transforming it from a private to public police agency; now the oldest police force in the world. Colquhoun published a book on the experiment, The Commerce and Policing of the River Thames. It found receptive audiences far outside London, and inspired similar forces in other cities, notably, New York City, Dublin, and Sydney.

Question: What was the initial size of the Thames River Police force?


Answer: 33,000

Question: How many dock workers were the Thames River Police policing?


Answer: 11,000

Question: How many dock workers did Colquhoun say were criminals?


Answer: 28 July 180

Question: When was the Thames River Police made a public service?


Answer: £122,000

Question: How much cargo theft did the Thames River Police prevent in its first year?


Answer: stipendiary system

Context: Colquhoun's utilitarian approach to the problem – using a cost-benefit argument to obtain support from businesses standing to benefit – allowed him to achieve what Henry and John Fielding failed for their Bow Street detectives. Unlike the stipendiary system at Bow Street, the river police were full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees. His other contribution was the concept of preventive policing; his police were to act as a highly visible deterrent to crime by their permanent presence on the Thames. Colquhoun's innovations were a critical development leading up to Robert Peel's "new" police three decades later.

Question: How did the Bow Street group pay their employees?


Answer: Henry and John Fielding

Question: Who started the Bow Street detectives?


Answer: Robert Peel

Question: Who came up with the concept of the 'new' police?


Answer: full-time, salaried officers prohibited from taking private fees

Question: How did the Thames River Police pay their employees?


Answer: full-time

Question: What schedule did the Thames River Police employees work?


Answer: Glasgow Police Act

Context: Meanwhile, the authorities in Glasgow, Scotland successfully petitioned the government to pass the Glasgow Police Act establishing the City of Glasgow Police in 1800. Other Scottish towns soon followed suit and set up their own police forces through acts of parliament. In Ireland, the Irish Constabulary Act of 1822 marked the beginning of the Royal Irish Constabulary. The Act established a force in each barony with chief constables and inspectors general under the control of the civil administration at Dublin Castle. By 1841 this force numbered over 8,600 men.

Question: Which law established Glasgow's police?


Answer: 1800

Question: When was Glasgow's police force established?


Answer: Irish Constabulary Act

Question: Which law established Ireland's police?


Answer: 1822

Question: When was Ireland's police force established?


Answer: Royal Irish Constabulary

Question: What was Ireland's police force called?


Answer: Peel

Context: Peel, widely regarded as the father of modern policing, was heavily influenced by the social and legal philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, who called for a strong and centralized, but politically neutral, police force for the maintenance of social order, for the protection of people from crime and to act as a visible deterrent to urban crime and disorder. Peel decided to standardise the police force as an official paid profession, to organise it in a civilian fashion, and to make it answerable to the public.

Question: Who was the 'father of modern policing'?


Answer: Jeremy Bentham

Question: Whose philosophy influenced Peel?


Answer: neutral

Question: What political position did Bentham think police should have?


Answer: as an official paid profession

Question: How did Peel standardize police?


Answer: in a civilian fashion

Question: How did Peel organize police?


Answer: 1829

Context: The 1829 Metropolitan Police Act created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers, and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different to the 'Continental model' of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state.

Question: When was the Metropolitan Police Act passed?


Answer: the judicial system

Question: What did the Metropolitan Police Act say police were a subset of?


Answer: France

Question: Where was the 'Continental model' of police from?


Answer: the authority of the monarch

Question: What part of the government did French police work under?


Answer: 1566

Context: In 1566, the first police investigator of Rio de Janeiro was recruited. By the 17th century, most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions. On July 9, 1775 a Cavalry Regiment was created in the state of Minas Gerais for maintaining law and order. In 1808, the Portuguese royal family relocated to Brazil, because of the French invasion of Portugal. King João VI established the "Intendência Geral de Polícia" (General Police Intendancy) for investigations. He also created a Royal Police Guard for Rio de Janeiro in 1809. In 1831, after independence, each province started organizing its local "military police", with order maintenance tasks. The Federal Railroad Police was created in 1852.

Question: When did Rio get its first police investigator?


Answer: most captaincies already had local units with law enforcement functions

Question: How had the Rio police grown by the 17th century?


Answer: July 9, 1775

Question: When did Minas Gerais get a cavalry regiment?


Answer: Brazil

Question: Where did the Portuguese royal family move in 1808?


Answer: French

Question: Who invaded Portugal in 1808?


Answer: 1729

Context: In Canada, the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary was founded in 1729, making it the first police force in present-day Canada. It was followed in 1834 by the Toronto Police, and in 1838 by police forces in Montreal and Quebec City. A national force, the Dominion Police, was founded in 1868. Initially the Dominion Police provided security for parliament, but its responsibilities quickly grew. The famous Royal Northwest Mounted Police was founded in 1873. The merger of these two police forces in 1920 formed the world-famous Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Question: When did Canada get its first police?


Answer: Royal Newfoundland Constabulary

Question: What was Canada's first police force?


Answer: 1834

Question: When was the Toronto police created?


Answer: 1838

Question: When was the Montreal police created?


Answer: 1873

Question: When were the first Mounties created?


Answer: poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses

Context: In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]

Question: What were the Old West's local police options?


Answer: The Army

Question: Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?


Answer: Army

Question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?


Answer: Pinkerton National Detective Agency

Question: Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?


Answer: German and French

Context: Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850.

Question: Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept?


Answer: 1705

Question: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published?


Answer: Traité de la Police

Question: What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?


Answer: Nicolas Delamare

Question: Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?


Answer: Political economist and civil servant

Question: What was von Hornigk's career?


Answer: mercantilist theory

Context: As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft,according to Foucault the police had an administrative,economic and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographic concerns and needed to be incorporated within the western political philosophy system of raison d'état and therefore giving the superficial appearance of empowering the population (and unwittingly supervising the population), which, according to mercantilist theory, was to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), and surveillance of prices.

Question: Which economic theory did Foucault say supported the police?


Answer: procuring abundance

Question: How did Foucault describe the social duty of police?


Answer: Foucault

Question: Who wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?


Answer: because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.

Question: Why did the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?


Answer: Edwin Chadwick

Context: Edwin Chadwick's 1829 article, "Preventive police" in the London Review, argued that prevention ought to be the primary concern of a police body, which was not the case in practice. The reason, argued Chadwick, was that "A preventive police would act more immediately by placing difficulties in obtaining the objects of temptation." In contrast to a deterrent of punishment, a preventive police force would deter criminality by making crime cost-ineffective - "crime doesn't pay". In the second draft of his 1829 Police Act, the "object" of the new Metropolitan Police, was changed by Robert Peel to the "principal object," which was the "prevention of crime." Later historians would attribute the perception of England's "appearance of orderliness and love of public order" to the preventive principle entrenched in Peel's police system.

Question: Who wrote 'Preventive Police'?


Answer: 1829

Question: When was 'Preventive Police' published?


Answer: London Review

Question: Where was 'Preventive Police' published?


Answer: prevention

Question: What did Chadwick say police should be focused on?


Answer: a deterrent of punishment

Question: What was the alternative to prevention?


Answer: patrol duties

Context: Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed]

Question: What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically?


Answer: on patrol

Question: Where do some think the most important police work happens?


Answer: prevent crime by their presence

Question: How do patrol officers affect crime?


Answer: 1993

Context: The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention.

Question: When did Nadelmann write about global policing?


Answer: 1995

Question: When did Sheptycki write about global policing?


Answer: international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing

Question: What terms have been used to describe policing beyond one country?


Answer: 2002

Context: Historical studies reveal that policing agents have undertaken a variety of cross-border police missions for many years (Deflem, 2002). For example, in the 19th century a number of European policing agencies undertook cross-border surveillance because of concerns about anarchist agitators and other political radicals. A notable example of this was the occasional surveillance by Prussian police of Karl Marx during the years he remained resident in London. The interests of public police agencies in cross-border co-operation in the control of political radicalism and ordinary law crime were primarily initiated in Europe, which eventually led to the establishment of Interpol before the Second World War. There are also many interesting examples of cross-border policing under private auspices and by municipal police forces that date back to the 19th century (Nadelmann, 1993). It has been established that modern policing has transgressed national boundaries from time to time almost from its inception. It is also generally agreed that in the post–Cold War era this type of practice became more significant and frequent (Sheptycki, 2000).

Question: When did Deflem write about cross-border policing?


Answer: anarchist agitators and other political radicals

Question: What groups did European police work against across borders in the 19th century?


Answer: Prussian

Question: Which police force monitored Karl Marx?


Answer: Interpol

Question: What international police agency was created before WW2?


Answer: post–Cold War

Question: In what era did cross-border policing increase?


Answer: the English Channel region

Context: Not a lot of empirical work on the practices of inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing has been undertaken. A notable exception is James Sheptycki's study of police cooperation in the English Channel region (2002), which provides a systematic content analysis of information exchange files and a description of how these transnational information and intelligence exchanges are transformed into police case-work. The study showed that transnational police information sharing was routinized in the cross-Channel region from 1968 on the basis of agreements directly between the police agencies and without any formal agreement between the countries concerned. By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, which formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union, there were worries that much, if not all, of this intelligence sharing was opaque, raising questions about the efficacy of the accountability mechanisms governing police information sharing in Europe (Joubert and Bevers, 1996).

Question: Where did Sheptycki study police cooperation?


Answer: 2002

Question: When did Sheptycki write about police cooperation?


Answer: 1968

Question: When did the Channel region establish routine cross-border policing?


Answer: 1992

Question: When was the Schengen Treaty signed?


Answer: formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union

Question: What did the Schengen Treaty do for policing?


Answer: outside of Europe

Context: Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity.

Question: Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied?


Answer: Alain

Question: Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices?


Answer: Intelligence-led

Question: What kind of policing has become common practice?


Answer: make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic

Question: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police?


Answer: the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity

Question: What paradox did Sheptycki point out?


Answer: in United Nations peacekeeping

Context: Police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states is another form of transnational policing that has garnered attention. This form of transnational policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set to grow in the years ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict (Goldsmith and Sheptycki, 2007) With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark and there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions (Hills, 2009).

Question: Where has transnational policing become more important?


Answer: Goldsmith and Sheptycki

Question: Who wrote about police development-aid in 2007?


Answer: weak, failed or failing states

Question: What kind of countries get assistance with policing?


Answer: With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark

Question: What concern did Hills raise about power imbalances?


Answer: there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions

Question: What concern did Hills raise about police models?


Answer: Lloyd, et al.

Context: Perhaps the greatest question regarding the future development of transnational policing is: in whose interest is it? At a more practical level, the question translates into one about how to make transnational policing institutions democratically accountable (Sheptycki, 2004). For example, according to the Global Accountability Report for 2007 (Lloyd, et al. 2007) Interpol had the lowest scores in its category (IGOs), coming in tenth with a score of 22% on overall accountability capabilities (p. 19). As this report points out, and the existing academic literature on transnational policing seems to confirm, this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement.

Question: Who wrote the Global Accountability Report for 2007?


Answer: this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement

Question: Why is transnational policing so unaccountable?


Answer: 22%

Question: How accountable is Interpol?


Answer: Interpol

Question: What is the least-accountable IGO?


Answer: "less than lethal" or "less-lethal"

Context: They can also be armed with non-lethal (more accurately known as "less than lethal" or "less-lethal") weaponry, particularly for riot control. Non-lethal weapons include batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons. Police officers often carry handcuffs to restrain suspects. The use of firearms or deadly force is typically a last resort only to be used when necessary to save human life, although some jurisdictions (such as Brazil) allow its use against fleeing felons and escaped convicts. A "shoot-to-kill" policy was recently introduced in South Africa, which allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians. With the country having one of the highest rates of violent crime, president Jacob Zuma states that South Africa needs to handle crime differently from other countries.

Question: What should non-lethal weapons properly be called?


Answer: batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons

Question: What are common less-lethal weapons?


Answer: The use of firearms or deadly force

Question: What is supposed to be the last resort for police?


Answer: allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians

Question: What is South Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?


Answer: Brazil

Question: Where can police shoot fleeing convicts?


Answer: radio

Context: Modern police forces make extensive use of radio communications equipment, carried both on the person and installed in vehicles, to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly. In recent years, vehicle-installed computers have enhanced the ability of police communications, enabling easier dispatching of calls, criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds, and updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis. Other common pieces of police equipment include flashlights/torches, whistles, police notebooks and "ticket books" or citations.

Question: How do modern police often communicate?


Answer: carried both on the person and installed in vehicles

Question: Where do police have radios?


Answer: to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly

Question: Why do police use radios?


Answer: criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds

Question: What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?


Answer: updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis

Question: What have computers in police cars enabled for reporting?


Answer: primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence

Context: Unmarked vehicles are used primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence. Some police forces use unmarked or minimally marked cars for traffic law enforcement, since drivers slow down at the sight of marked police vehicles and unmarked vehicles make it easier for officers to catch speeders and traffic violators. This practice is controversial, with for example, New York State banning this practice in 1996 on the grounds that it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers.

Question: When do police often use unmarked cars?


Answer: for traffic law enforcement

Question: What use of unmarked cars is controversial?


Answer: it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers

Question: Why did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?


Answer: 1996

Question: When did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?


Answer: they allow for more open interaction with the public

Context: Motorcycles are also commonly used, particularly in locations that a car may not be able to reach, to control potential public order situations involving meetings of motorcyclists and often in escort duties where motorcycle police officers can quickly clear a path for escorted vehicles. Bicycle patrols are used in some areas because they allow for more open interaction with the public. In addition, their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot.

Question: Why do some cops use bicycles to patrol?


Answer: their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot

Question: How do bicycles help catch some suspects?


Answer: Motorcycles

Question: What do police use to control motorcyclist events?


Answer: August Vollmer

Context: In the United States, August Vollmer introduced other reforms, including education requirements for police officers. O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than broader focus on crime prevention.

Question: Who was O.W. Wilson a student of?


Answer: August Vollmer

Question: Who introduced education requirements for US police?


Answer: to reduce their vulnerability to corruption

Question: Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?


Answer: Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department

Question: Where did Wilson reduce police corruption?


Answer: an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries

Question: How did Wilson recruit more qualified police?


Answer: safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest

Context: In Miranda the court created safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest. The court held that "The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way, unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination"

Question: What does Miranda provide?


Answer: self-incrimination

Question: What does the 5th Amendment protect against?


Answer: Fifth

Question: Which amendment prevents self-incrimination?


Answer: 1968

Context: In Terry v. Ohio (1968) the court divided seizure into two parts, the investigatory stop and arrest. The court further held that during an investigatory stop a police officer's search " [is] confined to what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed, and the intrusion, which [is] made for the sole purpose of protecting himself and others nearby, [is] confined to ascertaining the presence of weapons" (U.S. Supreme Court). Before Terry, every police encounter constituted an arrest, giving the police officer the full range of search authority. Search authority during a Terry stop (investigatory stop) is limited to weapons only.

Question: When was the Terry v. Ohio case?


Answer: investigatory stop and arrest

Question: Which two parts did Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?


Answer: what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed

Question: What is an investigatory stop's search limited to?


Answer: constables

Context: All police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain aspects of police operations, such as a power to authorize a search of a suspect's house (section 18 PACE in England and Wales) by an officer of the rank of Inspector, or the power to authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours by a Superintendent.

Question: What is the legal status of UK police officers?


Answer: authorize a search of a suspect's house

Question: What can only Inspector-ranked UK officers do?


Answer: authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours

Question: What can only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?


Answer: arrest

Question: What powers of a new UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?


Answer: To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law

Context: In contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained in time, and where, without interference of the police, the realization of the private right would be impeded. This would, for example, allow police to establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper in a case where the guest cannot pay the bill at nighttime because his wallet had just been stolen from the restaurant table.

Question: Why do some police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?


Answer: the realization of the private right

Question: What could be impeded without police interference?


Answer: establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper

Question: How could police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?


Answer: five waters

Context: Punjab (Urdu, Punjabi: پنجاب, panj-āb, "five waters": listen (help·info)), also spelled Panjab, is the most populous of the four provinces of Pakistan. It has an area of 205,344 square kilometres (79,284 square miles) and a population of 91.379.615 in 2011, approximately 56% of the country's total population. Its provincial capital and largest city is Lahore. Punjab is bordered by the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir to the northeast and Punjab and Rajasthan to the east. In Pakistan it is bordered by Sindh to the south, Balochistān and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and Islamabad and Azad Kashmir to the north.

Question: What does Punjab mean?


Answer: four

Question: How many provinces does Pakistan have?


Answer: 205,344 square kilometres (79,284 square miles)

Question: How large is Punjab?


Answer: 91.379.615

Question: What is Punjab's population?


Answer: Lahore

Question: What is Punjab's biggest city?


Answer: the alluvial plain of the Indus River

Context: Punjab's geography mostly consists of the alluvial plain of the Indus River and its four major tributaries in Pakistan, the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers. There are several mountainous regions, including the Sulaiman Mountains in the southwest part of the province, and Margalla Hills, Salt Range, and Pothohar Plateau in the north. Agriculture is the chief source of income and employment in Punjab; wheat and cotton are the principal crops. Since independence, Punjab has become the seat of political and economic power; it remains the most industrialised province of Pakistan. It counts for 39.2% of large scale manufacturing and 70% of small scale manufacturing in the country. Its capital Lahore is a major regional cultural, historical, and economic centre.

Question: What plain is Punjab in?


Answer: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers

Question: What are the Indus River's tributaries?


Answer: 39.2%

Question: How much of Pakistan's large-scale manufacturing is in Punjab?


Answer: 70%

Question: How much of Pakistan's small-scale manufacturing is in Punjab?


Answer: wheat and cotton

Question: What crops does Punjab grow?


Answer: second largest

Context: Punjab is Pakistan's second largest province in terms of land area at 205,344 km2 (79,284 sq mi), after Balochistan, and is located at the north western edge of the geologic Indian plate in South Asia. The province is bordered by Kashmir (Azad Kashmir, Pakistan and Jammu and Kashmir, India) to the northeast, the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan to the east, the Pakistani province of Sindh to the south, the province of Balochistan to the southwest, the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and the Islamabad Capital Territory to the north.

Question: How large is Punjab compared to the other three provinces?


Answer: Balochistan

Question: What is Pakistan's largest province?


Answer: 79,284

Question: How many square miles is Punjab?


Answer: Punjab and Rajasthan

Question: What Indian states are on the east side of Punjab, Pakistan?


Answer: Sindh

Question: What Pakistani province is south of Punjab?


Answer: Punjab

Context: The capital and largest city is Lahore which was the historical capital of the wider Punjab region. Other important cities include Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Sargodha, Multan, Sialkot, Bahawalpur, Gujrat, Sheikhupura, Jhelum and Sahiwal. Undivided Punjab is home to six rivers, of which five flow through Pakistani Punjab. From west to east, these are: the Indus, Jhelum, Beas, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. Nearly 60% of Pakistan's population lives in the Punjab. It is the nation's only province that touches every other province; it also surrounds the federal enclave of the national capital city at Islamabad. In the acronym P-A-K-I-S-T-A-N, the P is for Punjab.

Question: Which province in Pakistan borders the other 3 provinces?


Answer: Islamabad

Question: What is Pakistan's capital?


Answer: five

Question: How many rivers are in Punjab, Pakistan?


Answer: Sutlej

Question: What is the easternmost river in Punjab?


Answer: Nearly 60%

Question: How much of Pakistan's population lives in Punjab?


Answer: 48

Context: There are 48 departments in Punjab government. Each Department is headed by a Provincial Minister (Politician) and a Provincial Secretary (A civil servant of usually BPS-20 or BPS-21). All Ministers report to the Chief Minister, who is the Chief Executive. All Secretaries report to the Chief Secretary of Punjab, who is usually a BPS-22 Civil Servant. The Chief Secretary in turn reports to the Chief Minister. In addition to these departments, there are several Autonomous Bodies and Attached Departments that report directly to either the Secretaries or the Chief Secretary.

Question: How many departments does the Punjab administration have?


Answer: a Provincial Minister (Politician) and a Provincial Secretary

Question: Who heads each government department?


Answer: the Chief Minister

Question: Who do the Provincial Ministers report to?


Answer: the Chief Secretary of Punjab

Question: Who do the Provincial Secretaries report to?


Answer: usually a BPS-22 Civil Servant

Question: What rank is the Chief Secretary?


Answer: Panchanada

Context: Punjab during Mahabharata times was known as Panchanada. Punjab was part of the Indus Valley Civilization, more than 4000 years ago. The main site in Punjab was the city of Harrapa. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into the Indo-Aryan civilisation. The Vedic civilisation flourished along the length of the Indus River. This civilisation shaped subsequent cultures in South Asia and Afghanistan. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the Gandhara Mahajanapadas, Achaemenids, Macedonians, Mauryas, Kushans, Guptas, and Hindu Shahi. It also comprised the Gujar empire for a period of time, otherwise known as the Gurjara-Pratihara empire. Agriculture flourished and trading cities (such as Multan and Lahore) grew in wealth.

Question: What was Punjab formerly known as?


Answer: the Indus Valley Civilization

Question: What ancient civilization lived in Punjab?


Answer: more than 4000 years ago

Question: When was Punjab part of the Indus Valley Civilization?


Answer: Harrapa

Question: What was the major Indus city in Punjab?


Answer: the Lahore-Multan railroad

Question: What were bricks taken from Harrapa for the construction of?


Answer: Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans

Context: Due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attacks and influence from the west and witnessed centuries of foreign invasions by the Greeks, Kushans, Scythians, Turks, and Afghans. The city of Taxila, founded by son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram. It was reputed to house the oldest university in the world,[citation needed] Takshashila University. One of the teachers was the great Vedic thinker and politician Chanakya. Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the Maurya Empire. It is a UN World Heritage site, valued for its archaeological and religious history.

Question: Who has invaded Punjab?


Answer: son of Taksh the son Bharat who was the brother of Ram

Question: Who founded Taxila?


Answer: Takshashila University

Question: What is said to be the world's oldest university?


Answer: great Vedic thinker and politician

Question: Who was Chanakya?


Answer: the Maurya Empire

Question: What empire was Taxila a center of learning of?


Answer: Drangiana, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Seistan

Context: The northwestern part of the South Asia, including Punjab, was repeatedly invaded or conquered by various foreign empires, such as those of Tamerlane, Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan. Having conquered Drangiana, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Seistan in ten days, Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush and was thus fully informed of the magnificence of the country and its riches in gold, gems and pearls. However, Alexander had to encounter and reduce the tribes on the border of Punjab before entering the luxuriant plains. Having taken a northeasterly direction, he marched against the Aspii (mountaineers), who offered vigorous resistance, but were subdued.[citation needed] Alexander then marched through Ghazni, blockaded Magassa, and then marched to Ora and Bazira. Turning to the northeast, Alexander marched to Pucela, the capital of the district now known as Pakhli. He entered Western Punjab, where the ancient city of Nysa (at the site of modern-day Mong) was situated. A coalition was formed against Alexander by the Cathians, the people of Multan, who were very skilful in war. Alexander invested many troops, eventually killing seventeen thousand Cathians in this battle, and the city of Sagala (present-day Sialkot) was razed to the ground. Alexander left Punjab in 326 B.C. and took his army to the heartlands of his empire.[citation needed]

Question: Where did Alexander the Great conquer in 10 days?


Answer: northeasterly

Question: From which direction did Alexander enter Punjab?


Answer: riches in gold, gems and pearls

Question: What wealth did Alexander hope to find?


Answer: mountaineers

Question: Who were the Aspii?


Answer: the people of Multan

Question: Who were the Cathians?


Answer: Muslim

Context: The Punjabis followed a diverse plethora of faiths, mainly comprising Hinduism[citation needed] , when the Muslim Umayyad army led by Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Southern Punjab in 712, by defeating Raja Dahir. The Umayyad Caliphate was the second Islamic caliphate established after the death of Muhammad. It was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty, whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph. Although the Umayyad family originally came from the city of Mecca, their capital was Damascus. Muhammad bin Qasim was the first to bring message of Islam to the population of Punjab.[citation needed] Punjab was part of different Muslim Empires consisting of Afghans and Turkic peoples in co-operation with local Punjabi tribes and others.[citation needed] In the 11th century, during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni, the province became an important centre with Lahore as its second capital[citation needed] of the Ghaznavid Empire based out of Afghanistan. The Punjab region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of Punjab region.

Question: What religion did Punjab become?


Answer: dargahs

Question: What did missionary Muslims build in Punjab?


Answer: Muhammad bin Qasim

Question: Who led the Umayyad army?


Answer: Sindh and Southern Punjab

Question: Where did the Umayyads conquer?


Answer: Raja Dahir

Question: Who did the Umayyads defeat?


Answer: the general of the Hindu Maratha Empire

Context: In 1758, the general of the Hindu Maratha Empire, Raghunath Rao conquered Lahore and Attock. Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali, was driven out of Punjab. Lahore, Multan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Kashmir and other subahs on the south and eastern side of Peshawar were under the Maratha rule for the most part. In Punjab and Kashmir, the Marathas were now major players. The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 1761, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded the Maratha territory of Punjab and captured remnants of the Maratha Empire in Punjab and Kashmir regions and re-consolidated control over them.

Question: Who was Raghunath Rao?


Answer: Lahore and Attock

Question: Who did Rao conquer in 1758?


Answer: 1761

Question: When was the Third Battle of Panipat?


Answer: Maratha

Question: Who ruled most of the eastern part of Peshawar?


Answer: Ahmad Shah Abdali

Question: Who captured part of the Maratha Empire in 1761?


Answer: mid-fifteenth century

Context: In the mid-fifteenth century, the religion of Sikhism was born. During the Mughal empire, many Hindus increasingly adopted Sikhism. These became a formidable military force against the Mughals and later against the Afghan Empire. After fighting Ahmad Shah Durrani in the later eighteenth century, the Sikhs took control of Punjab and managed to establish the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, which lasted from 1799 to 1849. The capital of Ranjit Singh's empire was Lahore, and the empire also extended into Afghanistan and Kashmir. Bhangi Misl was the fist Sikh band to conquer Lahore and other towns of Punjab. Syed Ahmad Barelvi a Muslim, waged jihad and attempted to create an Islamic state with strict enforcement of Islamic law. Syed Ahmad Barelvi in 1821 with many supporters and spent two years organising popular and material support for his Punjab campaign. He carefully developed a network of people through the length and breadth of India to collect funds and encourage volunteers, travelling widely throughout India attracting a following among pious Muslims. In December 1826 Sayyid Ahmad and his followers clashed with Sikh troops at Akora Khattak, but with no decisive result. In a major battle near the town of Balakot in 1831, Sayyid Ahmad and Shah Ismail Shaheed with volunteer Muslims were defeated by the professional Sikh Army.

Question: When did Sikhism begin?


Answer: Mughal empire

Question: In which empire did many Hindus become Sikhs?


Answer: December 1826

Question: When did Ahmad fight at Akora Khattak?


Answer: 1831

Question: When did Ahmad fight at Balakot?


Answer: the professional Sikh Army

Question: Who won at Balakot?


Answer: summer of 1839

Context: Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death in the summer of 1839 brought political chaos and the subsequent battles of succession and the bloody infighting between the factions at court weakened the state. Relationships with neighbouring British territories then broke down, starting the First Anglo-Sikh War; this led to a British official being resident in Lahore and the annexation in 1849 of territory south of the Satluj to British India. After the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the Sikh Empire became the last territory to be merged into British India. In Jhelum 35 British soldiers of HM XXIV regiment were killed by the local resistance during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.[citation needed]

Question: When did Ranjit Singh die?


Answer: political chaos

Question: What did Ranjit Singh's death cause?


Answer: 1849

Question: When was part of Punjab annexed into British India?


Answer: 1849

Question: When was the Second Anglo-Sikh War?


Answer: the Sikh Empire

Question: What was the last territory added to British India?


Answer: 1965 and 1971

Context: Punjab witnessed major battles between the armies of India and Pakistan in the wars of 1965 and 1971. Since the 1990s Punjab hosted several key sites of Pakistan's nuclear program such as Kahuta. It also hosts major military bases such as at Sargodha and Rawalpindi. The peace process between India and Pakistan, which began in earnest in 2004, has helped pacify the situation. Trade and people-to-people contacts through the Wagah border are now starting to become common. Indian Sikh pilgrims visit holy sites such as Nankana Sahib.

Question: When did India and Pakistan fight in Punjab?


Answer: Pakistan's nuclear program

Question: What is Kahuta an important location for?


Answer: Sargodha and Rawalpindi

Question: Where does Punjab have major military bases?


Answer: 2004

Question: When did India and Pakistan begin serious peace talks?


Answer: Sikh pilgrims

Question: Who visits Nankana Sahib?


Answer: by May

Context: The onset of the southwest monsoon is anticipated to reach Punjab by May, but since the early 1970s the weather pattern has been irregular. The spring monsoon has either skipped over the area or has caused it to rain so hard that floods have resulted. June and July are oppressively hot. Although official estimates rarely place the temperature above 46 °C, newspaper sources claim that it reaches 51 °C and regularly carry reports about people who have succumbed to the heat. Heat records were broken in Multan in June 1993, when the mercury was reported to have risen to 54 °C. In August the oppressive heat is punctuated by the rainy season, referred to as barsat, which brings relief in its wake. The hardest part of the summer is then over, but cooler weather does not come until late October.

Question: When do monsoons traditionally happen in Punjab?


Answer: since the early 1970s

Question: When did Punjab's weather pattern become unpredictable?


Answer: 51 °C

Question: How hot do newspapers say it has gotten in Punjab?


Answer: 54 °C

Question: What was the record heat spike in Multan?


Answer: June 1993

Question: When was the record heat spike in Multan?


Answer: Punjabi

Context: The major and native language spoken in the Punjab is Punjabi (which is written in a Shahmukhi script in Pakistan) and Punjabis comprise the largest ethnic group in country. Punjabi is the provincial language of Punjab. There is not a single district in the province where Punjabi language is mother-tongue of less than 89% of population. The language is not given any official recognition in the Constitution of Pakistan at the national level. Punjabis themselves are a heterogeneous group comprising different tribes, clans (Urdu: برادری) and communities. In Pakistani Punjab these tribes have more to do with traditional occupations such as blacksmiths or artisans as opposed to rigid social stratifications. Punjabi dialects spoken in the province include Majhi (Standard), Saraiki and Hindko. Saraiki is mostly spoken in south Punjab, and Pashto, spoken in some parts of north west Punjab, especially in Attock District and Mianwali District.

Question: What is Punjab's major language?


Answer: in a Shahmukhi script

Question: How is Punjabi written?


Answer: Punjabis

Question: What is the largest ethnic group in Pakistan?


Answer: 89%

Question: What minimum percent of each Punjab district speaks Punjabi natively?


Answer: south Punjab

Question: Where is Saraiki usually spoken?


Answer: the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab

Context: The Government of Punjab is a provincial government in the federal structure of Pakistan, is based in Lahore, the capital of the Punjab Province. The Chief Minister of Punjab (CM) is elected by the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab to serve as the head of the provincial government in Punjab, Pakistan. The current Chief Minister is Shahbaz Sharif, who became the Chief Minister of Punjab as being restored after Governor's rule starting from 25 February 2009 to 30 March 2009. Thereafter got re-elected as a result of 11 May 2013 elections. The Provincial Assembly of the Punjab is a unicameral legislature of elected representatives of the province of Punjab, which is located in Lahore in eastern Pakistan. The Assembly was established under Article 106 of the Constitution of Pakistan as having a total of 371 seats, with 66 seats reserved for women and eight reserved for non-Muslims.

Question: Who elects the Chief Minister?


Answer: 2009

Question: In what year did Sharif become CM?


Answer: 11 May 2013

Question: When was Sharif re-elected CM?


Answer: unicameral

Question: What kind of legislature is the Provincial Assembly?


Answer: 371

Question: How many seats are in the Provincial Assembly?


Answer: quadrupled

Context: Punjab has the largest economy in Pakistan, contributing most to the national GDP. The province's economy has quadrupled since 1972. Its share of Pakistan's GDP was 54.7% in 2000 and 59% as of 2010. It is especially dominant in the service and agriculture sectors of Pakistan's economy. With its contribution ranging from 52.1% to 64.5% in the Service Sector and 56.1% to 61.5% in the agriculture sector. It is also major manpower contributor because it has largest pool of professionals and highly skilled (technically trained) manpower in Pakistan. It is also dominant in the manufacturing sector, though the dominance is not as huge, with historical contributions raging from a low of 44% to a high of 52.6%. In 2007, Punjab achieved a growth rate of 7.8% and during the period 2002–03 to 2007–08, its economy grew at a rate of between 7% to 8% per year. and during 2008–09 grew at 6% against the total GDP growth of Pakistan at 4%.

Question: How much has Punjab's economy grown since 1972?


Answer: 54.7%

Question: How much of Pakistan's GDP came from Punjab in 2000?


Answer: 59%

Question: How much of Pakistan's GDP came from Punjab in 2010?


Answer: largest pool of professionals and highly skilled (technically trained) manpower in Pakistan

Question: What manpower does Punjab provide?


Answer: 6%

Question: How much did Punjab's economy grow in 2008-09?


Answer: coastline

Context: Despite the lack of a coastline, Punjab is the most industrialised province of Pakistan; its manufacturing industries produce textiles, sports goods, heavy machinery, electrical appliances, surgical instruments, vehicles, auto parts, metals, sugar mill plants, aircraft, cement, agricultural machinery, bicycles and rickshaws, floor coverings, and processed foods. In 2003, the province manufactured 90% of the paper and paper boards, 71% of the fertilizers, 69% of the sugar and 40% of the cement of Pakistan.

Question: What geographic feature does Punjab not have?


Answer: surgical instruments

Question: What medical product does Punjab manufacture?


Answer: bicycles and rickshaws

Question: What transportation products does Punjab manufacture?


Answer: 90%

Question: How much of Pakistan's paper products does Punjab manufacture?


Answer: 69%

Question: How much of Pakistan's sugar does Punjab manufacture?


Answer: tropical wet and dry

Context: Despite its tropical wet and dry climate, extensive irrigation makes it a rich agricultural region. Its canal-irrigation system established by the British is the largest in the world. Wheat and cotton are the largest crops. Other crops include rice, sugarcane, millet, corn, oilseeds, pulses, vegetables, and fruits such as kinoo. Livestock and poultry production are also important. Despite past animosities, the rural masses in Punjab's farms continue to use the Hindu calendar for planting and harvesting.

Question: What kind of climate does Punjab have?


Answer: the British

Question: Who built Punjab's irrigation system?


Answer: Wheat and cotton

Question: What are Punjab's largest crops?


Answer: rice, sugarcane, millet, corn, oilseeds, pulses, vegetables, and fruits such as kinoo

Question: What are Punjab's secondary crops?


Answer: the Hindu calendar

Question: What calendar do Punjab's farmers use?


Answer: electricity

Context: As of June 2012[update], Pakistan's electricity problems were so severe that violent riots were taking place across Punjab. According to protesters, load shedding was depriving the cities of electricity 20–22 hours a day, causing businesses to go bust and making living extremely hard. Gujranwala, Toba Tek Singh, Faisalabad, Sialkot, Bahawalnagar and communities across Khanewal District saw widespread rioting and violence on Sunday 17 June 2012, with the houses of several members of parliament being attacked as well as the offices of regional energy suppliers Fesco, Gepco and Mepco being ransacked or attacked.

Question: What kind of problem caused riots in June 2012?


Answer: 20–22 hours a day

Question: How long were cities without electricity in June 2012?


Answer: Gujranwala, Toba Tek Singh, Faisalabad, Sialkot, Bahawalnagar and communities across Khanewal District

Question: Where were there riots in June 2012?


Answer: Fesco, Gepco and Mepco

Question: Which energy companies' offices were attacked by rioters?


Answer: Calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran

Context: The structure of a mosque is simple and it expresses openness. Calligraphic inscriptions from the Quran decorate mosques and mausoleums in Punjab. The inscriptions on bricks and tiles of the mausoleum of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (1320 AD) at Multan are outstanding specimens of architectural calligraphy. The earliest existing building in South Asia with enamelled tile-work is the tomb of Shah Yusuf Gardezi (1150 AD) at Multan. A specimen of the sixteenth century tile-work at Lahore is the tomb of Sheikh Musa Ahangar, with its brilliant blue dome. The tile-work of Emperor Shah Jahan is of a richer and more elaborate nature. The pictured wall of Lahore Fort is the last line in the tile-work in the entire world.

Question: What kind of inscriptions decorate Punjab's burial places?


Answer: 1320 AD

Question: When did Rukn-e-Alam die?


Answer: 1150 AD

Question: When did Gardezi die?


Answer: sixteenth century

Question: When was Ahangar's tomb built?


Answer: blue

Question: What color tile was used in Ahangar's tomb?


Answer: fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints

Context: The fairs held at the shrines of Sufi saints are called urs. They generally mark the death anniversary of the saint. On these occasions devotees assemble in large numbers and pay homage to the memory of the saint. Soul inspiring music is played and devotees dance in ecstasy. The music on these occasions is essentially folk and appealing. It forms a part of the folk music through mystic messages. The most important urs are: urs of Data Ganj Buksh at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Sultan Bahu at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Shah Jewna at Jhang, urs of Hazrat Mian Mir at Lahore, urs of Baba Farid Ganj Shakar at Pakpattan, urs of Hazrat Bahaudin Zakria at Multan, urs of Sakhi Sarwar Sultan at Dera Ghazi Khan, urs of Shah Hussain at Lahore, urs of Hazrat Bulleh Shah at Kasur, urs of Hazrat Imam Bari (Bari Shah Latif) at Rawalpindi-Islamabad and urs of Shah Inayar Qadri (the murrshad of Bulleh Shah) in Lahore.

Question: What are urs?


Answer: the death anniversary of the saint

Question: When are urs held?


Answer: folk

Question: What genre of music is played at urs?


Answer: Lahore

Question: Where is Buksh's shrine?


Answer: Multan

Question: Where is Zakria's shrine?


Answer: The national horse and cattle show

Context: Exhibitions and annual horse shows in all districts and a national horse and cattle show at Lahore are held with the official patronage. The national horse and cattle show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held. It not only encourages and patronises agricultural products and livestock through the exhibitions of agricultural products and cattle but is also a colourful documentary on the rich cultural heritage of the province with its strong rural roots.

Question: What is Punjab's biggest festival?


Answer: Lahore

Question: Where is the national horse and cattle show held?


Answer: sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions

Question: What happens at the national horse and cattle show?


Answer: Jahangir's Tomb

Context: The province is home to several historical sites, including the Shalimar Gardens, the Lahore Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Rohtas Fort and the ruins of the ancient city of Harrapa. The Anarkali Market and Jahangir's Tomb are prominent in the city of Lahore as is the Lahore Museum, while the ancient city of Taxila in the northwest was once a major centre of Buddhist and Hindu influence. Several important Sikh shrines are in the province, including the birthplace of the first Guru, Guru Nanak. (born at Nankana Sahib). There are a few famous hill stations, including Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro.

Question: What famous tomb is in Lahore?


Answer: Nankana Sahib

Question: Where was Nanak born?


Answer: Guru Nanak

Question: Who was the first Sikh Guru?


Answer: Murree, Bhurban, Patriata and Fort Munro

Question: What famous hill stations are in Punjab?


Answer: Badshahi Mosque

Question: What famous mosque is in Punjab?


Answer: Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah

Context: Among the Punjabi poets, the names of Sultan Bahu, Bulleh Shah, Mian Muhammad Baksh, and Waris Shah and folk singers like Inayat Hussain Bhatti and Tufail Niazi, Alam Lohar, Sain Marna, Mansoor Malangi, Allah Ditta Lona wala, Talib Hussain Dard, Attaullah Khan Essa Khailwi, Gamoo Tahliwala, Mamzoo Gha-lla, Akbar Jat, Arif Lohar, Ahmad Nawaz Cheena and Hamid Ali Bela are well-known. In the composition of classical ragas, there are such masters as Malika-i-Mauseequi (Queen of Music) Roshan Ara Begum, Ustad Amanat Ali Khan, Salamat Ali Khan and Ustad Fateh Ali Khan. Alam Lohar has made significant contributions to folklore and Punjabi literature, by being a very influential Punjabi folk singer from 1930 until 1979.

Question: Who are some well-known Punjab poets?


Answer: folk singers

Question: What is Allah Ditta Lona Wala's career?


Answer: Malika-i-Mauseequi

Question: Who is the 'Queen of Music'?


Answer: from 1930 until 1979

Question: When was Alam Lohar an important Punjabi folk singer?


Answer: Ghazals and folk songs

Context: For the popular taste however, light music, particularly Ghazals and folk songs, which have an appeal of their own, the names of Mehdi Hassan, Ghulam Ali, Nur Jehan, Malika Pukhraj, Farida Khanum, Roshen Ara Begum, and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan are well-known. Folk songs and dances of the Punjab reflect a wide range of moods: the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons. Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi depict the joy of living. Love legends of Heer Ranjha, Mirza Sahiban, Sohni Mahenwal and Saiful Mulk are sung in different styles.

Question: What kind of music does Malika Pukhraj perform?


Answer: the rains, sowing and harvesting seasons

Question: What do Punjab folk songs often reflect?


Answer: Luddi, Bhangra and Sammi

Question: Who sings about the joy of living?


Answer: Love

Question: What does Heer Ranjha sing about?


Answer: Ghazals and folk songs

Question: What kind of music does Roshen Ara Begum perform?


Answer: relatively few

Context: Among the vast varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens:

Question: Of the huge amount of microorganisms, how many cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals?


Answer: Infectious disease

Question: Interplay between pathogens and defenses of hosts results in what?


Answer: ability of that pathogen to damage the host

Question: What does the severity of a disease resulting from a pathogen depend on?


Answer: cause damage

Question: What can a host's immune system do to a host?


Answer: host defenses

Question: What do clinicians classify infectious microorganisms according to the status of?


Answer: satisfy Koch's postulates

Context: One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture. Epidemiology is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic (occasional occurrence), endemic (regular cases often occurring in a region), epidemic (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or pandemic (a global epidemic).

Question: What is one way of proving that a given disease is infectious?


Answer: patients and not in healthy controls

Question: What must an infectious agent only be identified in to satisfy the first of Koch's postulates?


Answer: patients who contract the agent also develop the disease

Question: What is Koch's second postulate?


Answer: because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual

Question: Why can't Koch's postulates be applied ethically for many human diseases?


Answer: Treponema pallidum

Question: What is the causative spirochete of syphilis?


Answer: when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person

Context: Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.

Question: When are infectious diseases called contagious diseases?


Answer: infectious disease

Question: What is a contagious disease a subset of?


Answer: especially infective or easily transmitted

Question: What sets a contagious disease after from a standard infectious disease?


Answer: medical

Question: Diseases with vector transmission or sexual transmission don't often require what type of isolation?


Answer: specialized connotation of the word "contagious"

Question: What is not always respected in popular use?


Answer: when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies.

Context: Infection begins when an organism successfully enters the body, grows and multiplies. This is referred to as colonization. Most humans are not easily infected. Those who are weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections. Individuals who have a suppressed immune system are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections. Entrance to the host at host-pathogen interface, generally occurs through the mucosa in orifices like the oral cavity, nose, eyes, genitalia, anus, or the microbe can enter through open wounds. While a few organisms can grow at the initial site of entry, many migrate and cause systemic infection in different organs. Some pathogens grow within the host cells (intracellular) whereas others grow freely in bodily fluids.

Question: When does infection begin?


Answer: humans

Question: What group is not easily infected?


Answer: weak, sick, malnourished, have cancer or are diabetic

Question: What group of humans have increased susceptibility to chronic or persistent infections?


Answer: Individuals who have a suppressed immune system

Question: What individuals are particularly susceptible to opportunistic infections?


Answer: intracellular

Question: What is it called when a pathogen grows within the host cells?


Answer: nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound

Context: Wound colonization refers to nonreplicating microorganisms within the wound, while in infected wounds, replicating organisms exist and tissue is injured. All multicellular organisms are colonized to some degree by extrinsic organisms, and the vast majority of these exist in either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with the host. An example of the former is the anaerobic bacteria species, which colonizes the mammalian colon, and an example of the latter is various species of staphylococcus that exist on human skin. Neither of these colonizations are considered infections. The difference between an infection and a colonization is often only a matter of circumstance. Non-pathogenic organisms can become pathogenic given specific conditions, and even the most virulent organism requires certain circumstances to cause a compromising infection. Some colonizing bacteria, such as Corynebacteria sp. and viridans streptococci, prevent the adhesion and colonization of pathogenic bacteria and thus have a symbiotic relationship with the host, preventing infection and speeding wound healing.

Question: What does wound colonization refer to?


Answer: replicating

Question: What type of organisms exist and injure tissue in infected wounds?


Answer: extrinsic organisms

Question: What are all multcellular organisms colonized to some degree by?


Answer: only a matter of circumstance

Question: What's the difference between an infection and a colonization?


Answer: anaerobic bacteria

Question: What species colonizes the mammalian colon?


Answer: Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization

Context: Because it is normal to have bacterial colonization, it is difficult to know which chronic wounds are infected. Despite the huge number of wounds seen in clinical practice, there are limited quality data for evaluated symptoms and signs. A review of chronic wounds in the Journal of the American Medical Association's "Rational Clinical Examination Series" quantified the importance of increased pain as an indicator of infection. The review showed that the most useful finding is an increase in the level of pain [likelihood ratio (LR) range, 11-20] makes infection much more likely, but the absence of pain (negative likelihood ratio range, 0.64-0.88) does not rule out infection (summary LR 0.64-0.88).

Question: Why is it difficult to now which chronic wounds are infected?


Answer: symptoms and signs

Question: What is there limited quality data for evaluating despite the huge number of wounds seen in a clinical practice?


Answer: infection

Question: What is increased pain an indicator of?


Answer: absence of pain

Question: What does not rule out infection?


Answer: damage

Context: Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.

Question: Disease can arise when an organism inflicts what on the host?


Answer: toxins

Question: What can a microorganism cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of?


Answer: paralyzes muscles

Question: What does the of toxin Clostridium tetani releases do?


Answer: staphylococcus

Question: What releases toxins which product shock and sepsis?


Answer: less than 5%

Question: What percentage of people infected with polio develop disease?


Answer: body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection

Context: Persistent infections occur because the body is unable to clear the organism after the initial infection. Persistent infections are characterized by the continual presence of the infectious organism, often as latent infection with occasional recurrent relapses of active infection. There are some viruses that can maintain a persistent infection by infecting different cells of the body. Some viruses once acquired never leave the body. A typical example is the herpes virus, which tends to hide in nerves and become reactivated when specific circumstances arise.

Question: Why do persistent infections occur?


Answer: the infectious organism

Question: What are persistent infections characterized by the continual presence of?


Answer: by infecting different cells of the body

Question: How can some viruses main a persistent infection?


Answer: Some viruses

Question: What never leave the body when acquired?


Answer: in nerves

Question: Where does the herpes virus hide?


Answer: an infectious agent either directly or indirectly

Context: Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.

Question: What does diagnosis of an infectious sometimes involve identifying?


Answer: clinical

Question: Many minor infectious diseases are diagnosed by what type of presentation?


Answer: without knowledge of the specific causative agent

Question: How are minor infectious diseases treated?


Answer: all known infectious agents

Question: What can be identified given sufficient effort?


Answer: greatly outweighed by the cost

Question: Why is it often not worth bothering to identify an infectious agent?


Answer: by medical history and physical examination

Context: Diagnosis of infectious disease is nearly always initiated by medical history and physical examination. More detailed identification techniques involve the culture of infectious agents isolated from a patient. Culture allows identification of infectious organisms by examining their microscopic features, by detecting the presence of substances produced by pathogens, and by directly identifying an organism by its genotype. Other techniques (such as X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR) are used to produce images of internal abnormalities resulting from the growth of an infectious agent. The images are useful in detection of, for example, a bone abscess or a spongiform encephalopathy produced by a prion.

Question: How is diagnosis of infectious disease almost always initiated?


Answer: detailed identification

Question: What does taking a culture of an infectious agent isolated from a patient allow?


Answer: microscopic features

Question: What features of an infectious organism does a culture allow examining?


Answer: its genotype

Question: What can organisms be directly identified by?


Answer: X-rays, CAT scans, PET scans or NMR

Question: What technique can be used to produce images of internal abnormalities?


Answer: Microbiological

Context: Microbiological culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease. In a microbial culture, a growth medium is provided for a specific agent. A sample taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid is then tested for the presence of an infectious agent able to grow within that medium. Most pathogenic bacteria are easily grown on nutrient agar, a form of solid medium that supplies carbohydrates and proteins necessary for growth of a bacterium, along with copious amounts of water. A single bacterium will grow into a visible mound on the surface of the plate called a colony, which may be separated from other colonies or melded together into a "lawn". The size, color, shape and form of a colony is characteristic of the bacterial species, its specific genetic makeup (its strain), and the environment that supports its growth. Other ingredients are often added to the plate to aid in identification. Plates may contain substances that permit the growth of some bacteria and not others, or that change color in response to certain bacteria and not others. Bacteriological plates such as these are commonly used in the clinical identification of infectious bacterium. Microbial culture may also be used in the identification of viruses: the medium in this case being cells grown in culture that the virus can infect, and then alter or kill. In the case of viral identification, a region of dead cells results from viral growth, and is called a "plaque". Eukaryotic parasites may also be grown in culture as a means of identifying a particular agent.

Question: What type of culture is a principal tool used to diagnose infectious disease?


Answer: growth

Question: What type of medium is provided for a specific agent in a microbial culture?


Answer: nutrient agar

Question: What are most pathogenic bacteria easily grown on?


Answer: a colony

Question: What is it called when a visible mound forms on the surface of a plate?


Answer: a "plaque"

Question: What is a region of dead cells resulting from viral growth called?


Answer: some microbes

Context: In the absence of suitable plate culture techniques, some microbes require culture within live animals. Bacteria such as Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum can be grown in animals, although serological and microscopic techniques make the use of live animals unnecessary. Viruses are also usually identified using alternatives to growth in culture or animals. Some viruses may be grown in embryonated eggs. Another useful identification method is Xenodiagnosis, or the use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent. Chagas disease is the most significant example, because it is difficult to directly demonstrate the presence of the causative agent, Trypanosoma cruzi in a patient, which therefore makes it difficult to definitively make a diagnosis. In this case, xenodiagnosis involves the use of the vector of the Chagas agent T. cruzi, an uninfected triatomine bug, which takes a blood meal from a person suspected of having been infected. The bug is later inspected for growth of T. cruzi within its gut.

Question: What are live animals required by?


Answer: animals

Question: What can Mycobacterium leprae and Treponema pallidum be grown in?


Answer: embryonated

Question: What type of eggs may some viruses be grown in?


Answer: use of a vector to support the growth of an infectious agent

Question: What is Xenodiagnosis?


Answer: the causative agent

Question: What is it difficult to demonstrate the presence of in Chagas disease?


Answer: diagnosis of infectious disease

Context: Another principal tool in the diagnosis of infectious disease is microscopy. Virtually all of the culture techniques discussed above rely, at some point, on microscopic examination for definitive identification of the infectious agent. Microscopy may be carried out with simple instruments, such as the compound light microscope, or with instruments as complex as an electron microscope. Samples obtained from patients may be viewed directly under the light microscope, and can often rapidly lead to identification. Microscopy is often also used in conjunction with biochemical staining techniques, and can be made exquisitely specific when used in combination with antibody based techniques. For example, the use of antibodies made artificially fluorescent (fluorescently labeled antibodies) can be directed to bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen. A fluorescence microscope is then used to detect fluorescently labeled antibodies bound to internalized antigens within clinical samples or cultured cells. This technique is especially useful in the diagnosis of viral diseases, where the light microscope is incapable of identifying a virus directly.

Question: What is microscopy used for?


Answer: microscopic examination

Question: What do virtually all culture techniques rely on at some point?


Answer: light microscope

Question: What can samples obtained from patients viewed directly under?


Answer: when used in combination with antibody based techniques.

Question: When is microscopy exquisitely specific?


Answer: bind to and identify a specific antigens present on a pathogen

Question: What can antibodies with artificial fluorescence be directed to do?


Answer: a number of basic dyes

Context: Other microscopic procedures may also aid in identifying infectious agents. Almost all cells readily stain with a number of basic dyes due to the electrostatic attraction between negatively charged cellular molecules and the positive charge on the dye. A cell is normally transparent under a microscope, and using a stain increases the contrast of a cell with its background. Staining a cell with a dye such as Giemsa stain or crystal violet allows a microscopist to describe its size, shape, internal and external components and its associations with other cells. The response of bacteria to different staining procedures is used in the taxonomic classification of microbes as well. Two methods, the Gram stain and the acid-fast stain, are the standard approaches used to classify bacteria and to diagnosis of disease. The Gram stain identifies the bacterial groups Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, both of which contain many significant human pathogens. The acid-fast staining procedure identifies the Actinobacterial genera Mycobacterium and Nocardia.

Question: What do almost all cells readily stain with?


Answer: electrostatic attraction

Question: Why do cells easily stain with dyes?


Answer: negatively charged

Question: What electronic charge do cellular molecules have?


Answer: a dye

Question: What is Geimsa stain?


Answer: Two

Question: How many methods comprise standard approaches used to classify bacteria and diagnose disease?


Answer: enzymes

Context: The isolation of enzymes from infected tissue can also provide the basis of a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease. For example, humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase, and the presence of these enzymes are characteristic of specific types of viral infections. The ability of the viral protein hemagglutinin to bind red blood cells together into a detectable matrix may also be characterized as a biochemical test for viral infection, although strictly speaking hemagglutinin is not an enzyme and has no metabolic function.

Question: What needs to be isolated from infected tissue to provide a biochemical diagnosis of an infectious disease?


Answer: RNA replicases

Question: What enzyme's presence is characteristic of specific types of viral infections?


Answer: red blood cells

Question: What does the protein hemagglutinin bind together?


Answer: humans can make neither RNA replicases nor reverse transcriptase

Question: Why are the presence of certain enymzes a tell tale sign of a virus?


Answer: Serological

Context: Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "Strep throat" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive.

Question: What methods are highly sensitive, specifc and rapid tests used to identify microorganisms?


Answer: bind specifically to an antigen

Question: What are serological tests based upon the ability of an antibody to do?


Answer: a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent

Question: What is the antigen bound to by the antibody usually?


Answer: a chain of events

Question: What does the binding set off that will result in something visibly obvious in various ways?


Answer: S. pyogenes

Question: What is the causative agent of "strep throat"?


Answer: Complex serological techniques

Context: Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as Immunoassays. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro - magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus.

Question: What are immunoassays?


Answer: electro - magnetic or particle radiation

Question: What type of signal do immunoassays produce?


Answer: unknowns can be compared to that of standards

Question: What allows quantitation of the target antigen?


Answer: generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent

Question: Immunoassays are able to detect what type of proteins?


Answer: polymerase chain reaction

Context: Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.

Question: What does the acronym PCR expand to?


Answer: PCR

Question: What will be the ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics in the near future?


Answer: virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified

Question: What has the catalog of infectious agents grown to the point of?


Answer: grow within the human body

Question: What must an infectious agent do to cause disease?


Answer: infectious agents

Question: What are primers derived from the genomes of?


Answer: ability to detect any infectious agent

Context: Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.

Question: What technological ability with regards to detection is currently available?


Answer: cost and application

Question: What are the remaining blockades to the use or PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis?


Answer: clostridial diseases

Question: What are some diseases which won't benefit from PCR methods?


Answer: significant proliferation of the infectious agent

Question: PCR can't detect the presence of any bacteria when what doesn't occur?


Answer: AZT

Context: There is usually an indication for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large.

Question: What is used in the treatment of AIDS?


Answer: monitoring the composition of patient blood samples

Question: How was the course of AIDS followed?


Answer: resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk

Question: What could be done by understanding how the disease was transmitted?


Answer: geographical origins of the virus

Question: What did the genotypic identification of HIV later enable?


Answer: Molecular diagnostics

Question: What is now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people before the onset of the illnes?


Answer: infections from being passed from one person to another

Context: Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.

Question: What can wearing gowns and face masks help prevent?


Answer: Frequent hand washing

Question: What is the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms?


Answer: prevention

Question: Avoiding drugs and using condoms are other forms of what?


Answer: prevention

Question: Why is it important to cook foods well?


Answer: avoiding

Question: What should one do with foods that have been left outside for a long time?


Answer: prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases

Context: One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.

Question: Recognizing the different characteristics of various diseases is one way to do what?


Answer: virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness

Question: What are some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated?


Answer: Ebola

Question: What virus' strains incapacitate their victims extremely quickly before killing them?


Answer: victims experience only internal hemorrhaging

Question: Why is the initial stage of Ebola not very contagious?


Answer: travel long distances

Question: What does the low virulence of HIV allow victims to do?


Answer: transmission rate of infectious diseases

Context: Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump to and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001.

Question: Recognizing the effects of small-world networks allows one to decrease what?


Answer: extensive interactions

Question: What type of interactions happen within groups of infected individuals in epidemics?


Answer: focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps

Question: What is a way of drastically reducing infection rates?


Answer: needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users

Question: What is an example of a success implementation of preventing transmission jumps?


Answer: 2001

Question: When was vaccination used to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus?


Answer: immunity

Context: Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens. There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.

Question: What is resistance to infection known technically as?


Answer: following a disease

Question: When may immunity be acquired?


Answer: primary pathogens

Question: What is knowledge of protective antigens more complete for?


Answer: a measure of protection

Question: What does herd immunity offer to vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity?


Answer: immunity

Question: Vaccination is a way in which what may be acquired?