Answer: 1917

Context: In 1899, the memorial, by the Berlin sculptor Ernst Gustav Herter (1846–1917), finally came to rest, although subject to repeated vandalism, in the Bronx, at 164th Street and the Grand Concourse, or Joyce Kilmer Park near today's Yankee Stadium. (In 1999, it was moved to 161st Street and the Concourse.) In 2007, Christopher Gray of The New York Times described it as "a writhing composition in white Tyrolean marble depicting Lorelei, the mythical German figure, surrounded by mermaids, dolphins and seashells."

Question: When did Herter die?


Answer: 1846

Question: When was Herter born?


Answer: sculptor

Question: What was Herter's career?


Answer: 164th Street and the Grand Concourse, or Joyce Kilmer Park

Question: Where was Herter's Heine memorial placed in 1899?


Answer: 161st Street and the Concourse

Question: Where was Herter's Heine memorial moved in 1999?


Answer: C. B. J. Snyder

Context: The peninsular borough's maritime heritage is acknowledged in several ways.The City Island Historical Society and Nautical Museum occupies a former public school designed by the New York City school system's turn-of-the-last-century master architect C. B. J. Snyder. The state's Maritime College in Fort Schuyler (on the southeastern shore) houses the Maritime Industry Museum. In addition, the Harlem River is reemerging as "Scullers' Row" due in large part to the efforts of the Bronx River Restoration Project, a joint public-private endeavor of the city's parks department. Canoeing and kayaking on the borough's namesake river have been promoted by the Bronx River Alliance. The river is also straddled by the New York Botanical Gardens, its neighbor, the Bronx Zoo, and a little further south, on the west shore, Bronx River Art Center.

Question: Who designed the City Island Historical Society and Nautical Museum's building?


Answer: Fort Schuyler

Question: Where is the NY Maritime College?


Answer: a former public school

Question: What was the City Island Historical Society and Nautical Museum's building originally?


Answer: the Harlem River

Question: What is 'Scullers' Row'?


Answer: Bronx River

Question: Which river is near the New York Botanical Gardens?


Answer: national issues

Context: The Bronx has several local newspapers, including The Bronx News, Parkchester News, City News, The Riverdale Press, Riverdale Review, The Bronx Times Reporter, Inner City Press (which now has more of a focus on national issues) and Co-Op City Times. Four non-profit news outlets, Norwood News, Mount Hope Monitor, Mott Haven Herald and The Hunts Point Express serve the borough's poorer communities. The editor and co-publisher of The Riverdale Press, Bernard Stein, won the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Writing for his editorials about Bronx and New York City issues in 1998. (Stein graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1959.)

Question: What does the Inner City Press now focus on?


Answer: Bernard Stein

Question: Who is the Riverdale Press's editor?


Answer: for his editorials about Bronx and New York City issues

Question: Why did Stein win a Pulitzer?


Answer: 1998

Question: When did Stein win a Pulitzer?


Answer: the Bronx High School of Science

Question: Where did Stein graduate from?


Answer: News 12 The Bronx

Context: The City of New York has an official television station run by the NYC Media Group and broadcasting from Bronx Community College, and Cablevision operates News 12 The Bronx, both of which feature programming based in the Bronx. Co-op City was the first area in the Bronx, and the first in New York beyond Manhattan, to have its own cable television provider. The local public-access television station BronxNet originates from Herbert H. Lehman College, the borough's only four year CUNY school, and provides government-access television (GATV) public affairs programming in addition to programming produced by Bronx residents.

Question: What channel in the Bronx does Cablevision run?


Answer: Bronx Community College

Question: Where is the official city TV station broadcast from?


Answer: Herbert H. Lehman College

Question: What is the Bronx's only 4-year CUNY college?


Answer: 1946

Context: Mid-20th century movies set in the Bronx portrayed densely settled, working-class, urban culture. Hollywood films such as From This Day Forward (1946), set in Highbridge, occasionally delved into Bronx life. Paddy Chayefsky's Academy Award-winning Marty was the most notable examination of working class Bronx life was also explored by Chayefsky in his 1956 film The Catered Affair, and in the 1993 Robert De Niro/Chazz Palminteri film, A Bronx Tale, Spike Lee's 1999 movie Summer of Sam, centered in an Italian-American Bronx community, 1994's I Like It Like That that takes place in the predominantly Puerto Rican neighborhood of the South Bronx, and Doughboys, the story of two Italian-American brothers in danger of losing their bakery thanks to one brother's gambling debts.

Question: When was 'From This Day Forward' released?


Answer: Highbridge

Question: Where was 'From This Day Forward' set?


Answer: 1956

Question: When was 'The Catered Affair' released?


Answer: working class Bronx life

Question: What did 'The Catered Affair' explore?


Answer: an Italian-American Bronx community

Question: What was 'Summer of Sam' about?


Answer: the South Bronx

Context: Starting in the 1970s, the Bronx often symbolized violence, decay, and urban ruin. The wave of arson in the South Bronx in the 1960s and 1970s inspired the observation that "The Bronx is burning": in 1974 it was the title of both a New York Times editorial and a BBC documentary film. The line entered the pop-consciousness with Game Two of the 1977 World Series, when a fire broke out near Yankee Stadium as the team was playing the Los Angeles Dodgers. Numerous fires had previously broken out in the Bronx prior to this fire. As the fire was captured on live television, announcer Howard Cosell is wrongly remembered to have said something like, "There it is, ladies and gentlemen: the Bronx is burning". Historians of New York City frequently point to Cosell's remark as an acknowledgement of both the city and the borough's decline. A new feature-length documentary film by Edwin Pagan called Bronx Burning is in production in 2006, chronicling what led up to the numerous arson-for-insurance fraud fires of the 1970s in the borough.

Question: Where was arson a big problem in the Bronx?


Answer: 1974

Question: When was the phrase "The Bronx is burning" first widespread?


Answer: BBC

Question: Who made a documentary called "The Bronx is burning"?


Answer: New York Times

Question: Who published an editorial called "The Bronx is burning"?


Answer: Edwin Pagan

Question: Who made a film called 'Bronx Burning'?


Answer: 1979

Context: Bronx gang life was depicted in the 1974 novel The Wanderers by Bronx native Richard Price and the 1979 movie of the same name. They are set in the heart of the Bronx, showing apartment life and the then-landmark Krums ice cream parlor. In the 1979 film The Warriors, the eponymous gang go to a meeting in Van Cortlandt Park in the Bronx, and have to fight their way out of the borough and get back to Coney Island in Brooklyn. A Bronx Tale (1993) depicts gang activities in the Belmont "Little Italy" section of the Bronx. The 2005 video game adaptation features levels called Pelham, Tremont, and "Gunhill" (a play off the name Gun Hill Road). This theme lends itself to the title of The Bronx Is Burning, an eight-part ESPN TV mini-series (2007) about the New York Yankees' drive to winning baseball's 1977 World Series. The TV series emphasizes the boisterous nature of the team, led by manager Billy Martin, catcher Thurman Munson and outfielder Reggie Jackson, as well as the malaise of the Bronx and New York City in general during that time, such as the blackout, the city's serious financial woes and near bankruptcy, the arson for insurance payments, and the election of Ed Koch as mayor.

Question: When was 'The Warriors' movie released?


Answer: 1974

Question: When was 'The Wanderers' published?


Answer: 1993

Question: When was 'A Bronx Tale' released?


Answer: 1979

Question: When was 'The Wanderers' movie released?


Answer: 1974

Question: When was 'The Wanderers' published?


Answer: 1979

Question: When was 'The Wanderers' movie released?


Answer: 1979

Question: When was 'The Warriors' movie released?


Answer: 1993

Question: When was 'A Bronx Tale' released?


Answer: 1981

Context: The 1981 film Fort Apache, The Bronx is another film that used the Bronx's gritty image for its storyline. The movie's title is from the nickname for the 41st Police Precinct in the South Bronx which was nicknamed "Fort Apache". Also from 1981 is the horror film Wolfen making use of the rubble of the Bronx as a home for werewolf type creatures. Knights of the South Bronx, a true story of a teacher who worked with disadvantaged children, is another film also set in the Bronx released in 2005. The Bronx was the setting for the 1983 film Fuga dal Bronx, also known as Bronx Warriors 2 and Escape 2000, an Italian B-movie best known for its appearance on the television series Mystery Science Theatre 3000. The plot revolves around a sinister construction corporation's plans to depopulate, destroy and redevelop the Bronx, and a band of rebels who are out to expose the corporation's murderous ways and save their homes. The film is memorable for its almost incessant use of the phrase, "Leave the Bronx!" Many of the movie's scenes were filmed in Queens, substituting as the Bronx. Rumble in the Bronx was a 1995 Jackie Chan kung-fu film, another which popularised the Bronx to international audiences. Last Bronx, a 1996 Sega game played on the bad reputation of the Bronx to lend its name to an alternate version of post-Japanese bubble Tokyo, where crime and gang warfare is rampant.

Question: When was 'Fort Apache' released?


Answer: 2005

Question: When was 'Fuga dal Bronx' released?


Answer: Italian

Question: What origin was 'Escape 2000'?


Answer: 1989

Context: Bronx native Nancy Savoca's 1989 comedy, True Love, explores two Italian-American Bronx sweethearts in the days before their wedding. The film, which debuted Annabella Sciorra and Ron Eldard as the betrothed couple, won the Grand Jury Prize at that year's Sundance Film Festival. The CBS television sitcom Becker, 1998–2004, was more ambiguous. The show starred Ted Danson as Dr. John Becker, a doctor who operated a small practice and was constantly annoyed by his patients, co-workers, friends, and practically everything and everybody else in his world. It showed his everyday life as a doctor working in a small clinic in the Bronx.

Question: When was 'True Love' released?


Answer: comedy

Question: What genre was 'True Love'?


Answer: Annabella Sciorra and Ron Eldard

Question: Who starred in 'True Love'?


Answer: 1990

Context: Penny Marshall's 1990 film Awakenings, which was nominated for several Oscars, is based on neurologist Oliver Sacks' 1973 account of his psychiatric patients at Beth Abraham Hospital in the Bronx who were paralyzed by a form of encephalitis but briefly responded to the drug L-dopa. Robin Williams played the physician; Robert De Niro was one of the patients who emerged from a catatonic (frozen) state. The home of Williams' character was shot not far from Sacks' actual City Island residence. A 1973 Yorkshire Television documentary and "A Kind of Alaska", a 1985 play by Harold Pinter, were also based on Sacks' book.

Question: When did "Awakenings" come out?


Answer: Oliver Sacks

Question: Whose real story is 'Awakenings' based on?


Answer: neurologist

Question: What is Sacks' career?


Answer: 1985

Question: When was 'A Kind of Alaska' performed?


Answer: Harold Pinter

Question: Who wrote 'A Kind of Alaska'?


Answer: 1948

Context: The Bronx has been featured significantly in fiction literature. All of the characters in Herman Wouk's City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder (1948) live in the Bronx, and about half of the action is set there. Kate Simon's Bronx Primitive: Portraits of a Childhood is directly autobiographical, a warm account of a Polish-Jewish girl in an immigrant family growing up before World War II, and living near Arthur Avenue and Tremont Avenue. In Jacob M. Appel's short story, "The Grand Concourse" (2007), a woman who grew up in the iconic Lewis Morris Building returns to the Morrisania neighborhood with her adult daughter. Similarly, in Avery Corman's book The Old Neighborhood (1980), an upper-middle class white protagonist returns to his birth neighborhood (Fordham Road and the Grand Concourse), and learns that even though the folks are poor, Hispanic and African-American, they are good people.

Question: When was 'City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder' published?


Answer: about half

Question: How much of 'City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder' is set in the Bronx?


Answer: Herman Wouk

Question: Who wrote 'City Boy: The Adventures of Herbie Bookbinder'?


Answer: 2007

Question: When was 'The Grand Concourse' published?


Answer: Jacob M. Appel

Question: Who wrote 'The Grand Concourse'?


Answer: Tom Wolfe

Context: By contrast, Tom Wolfe's Bonfire of the Vanities (1987) portrays a wealthy, white protagonist, Sherman McCoy, getting lost off the Major Deegan Expressway in the South Bronx and having an altercation with locals. A substantial piece of the last part of the book is set in the resulting riotous trial at the Bronx County Courthouse. However, times change, and in 2007, the New York Times reported that "the Bronx neighborhoods near the site of Sherman's accident are now dotted with townhouses and apartments." In the same article, the Reverend Al Sharpton (whose fictional analogue in the novel is "Reverend Bacon") asserts that "twenty years later, the cynicism of The Bonfire of the Vanities is as out of style as Tom Wolfe's wardrobe."

Question: Who wrote 'Bonfire of the Vanities'?


Answer: 1987

Question: When was 'Bonfire of the Vanities' published?


Answer: Sherman McCoy

Question: Who was the main character of 'Bonfire of the Vanities'?


Answer: white

Question: What race was Sherman McCoy?


Answer: off the Major Deegan Expressway in the South Bronx

Question: Where did McCoy get lost?


Answer: human beings

Context: Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. The meaning of the term humanism has fluctuated according to the successive intellectual movements which have identified with it. Generally, however, humanism refers to a perspective that affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. In modern times, humanist movements are typically aligned with secularism, and today humanism typically refers to a non-theistic life stance centred on human agency and looking to science rather than revelation from a supernatural source to understand the world.

Question: What can be seen as of essential importance to a practiced of humanism?


Answer: freedom and progress

Question: What is a common tenant of humanism?


Answer: intellectual movements

Question: What can be credited for the changes in the definition of humanism?


Answer: secularism

Question: These days humanism could be viewed as a form of what?


Answer: science

Question: Instead of turning to a spiritual or divine source practicers of humanism turn to what?


Answer: philanthropy

Context: Gellius says that in his day humanitas is commonly used as a synonym for philanthropy – or kindness and benevolence toward one's fellow human being. Gellius maintains that this common usage is wrong, and that model writers of Latin, such as Cicero and others, used the word only to mean what we might call "humane" or "polite" learning, or the Greek equivalent Paideia. Gellius became a favorite author in the Italian Renaissance, and, in fifteenth-century Italy, teachers and scholars of philosophy, poetry, and rhetoric were called and called themselves "humanists". Modern scholars, however, point out that Cicero (106 – 43 BCE), who was most responsible for defining and popularizing the term humanitas, in fact frequently used the word in both senses, as did his near contemporaries. For Cicero, a lawyer, what most distinguished humans from brutes was speech, which, allied to reason, could (and should) enable them to settle disputes and live together in concord and harmony under the rule of law. Thus humanitas included two meanings from the outset and these continue in the modern derivative, humanism, which even today can refer to both humanitarian benevolence and to scholarship.

Question: What was humanism once considered the same as?


Answer: Gellius

Question: Who has disagreed with this connotation of the word?


Answer: Italian Renaissance

Question: In which period did Gellius gain fame?


Answer: Cicero

Question: Who is credited with clarifying and making the term humanitas commonplace?


Answer: speech

Question: What is the characteristic that most separates humans from animals?


Answer: supernatural

Context: During the French Revolution, and soon after, in Germany (by the Left Hegelians), humanism began to refer to an ethical philosophy centered on humankind, without attention to the transcendent or supernatural. The designation Religious Humanism refers to organized groups that sprang up during the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is similar to Protestantism, although centered on human needs, interests, and abilities rather than the supernatural. In the Anglophone world, such modern, organized forms of humanism, which are rooted in the 18th-century Enlightenment, have to a considerable extent more or less detached themselves from the historic connection of humanism with classical learning and the liberal arts.

Question: At the time of the French Revolution what previous focus of humanism was removed?


Answer: supernatural

Question: Protestantism differs from Humanism in its focus is on what?


Answer: 18th-century Enlightenment

Question: What do current tenants humanism have their origins in?


Answer: Religious Humanism

Question: What was a name for humanism believers who emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?


Answer: 1808

Context: In 1808 Bavarian educational commissioner Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer coined the term Humanismus to describe the new classical curriculum he planned to offer in German secondary schools, and by 1836 the word "humanism" had been absorbed into the English language in this sense. The coinage gained universal acceptance in 1856, when German historian and philologist Georg Voigt used humanism to describe Renaissance humanism, the movement that flourished in the Italian Renaissance to revive classical learning, a use which won wide acceptance among historians in many nations, especially Italy.

Question: In what year did the term humanism gain yet another layer of meaning?


Answer: Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer

Question: Who can be credited with assisting the word humanism with finding a home in the English language?


Answer: Georg Voigt

Question: Who was responsible for yet another definition of the philosophy in 1856?


Answer: Italy

Question: What nation was highly receptive to the new definition of this concept?


Answer: French Enlightenment

Context: But in the mid-18th century, during the French Enlightenment, a more ideological use of the term had come into use. In 1765, the author of an anonymous article in a French Enlightenment periodical spoke of "The general love of humanity ... a virtue hitherto quite nameless among us, and which we will venture to call 'humanism', for the time has come to create a word for such a beautiful and necessary thing". The latter part of the 18th and the early 19th centuries saw the creation of numerous grass-roots "philanthropic" and benevolent societies dedicated to human betterment and the spreading of knowledge (some Christian, some not). After the French Revolution, the idea that human virtue could be created by human reason alone independently from traditional religious institutions, attributed by opponents of the Revolution to Enlightenment philosophes such as Rousseau, was violently attacked by influential religious and political conservatives, such as Edmund Burke and Joseph de Maistre, as a deification or idolatry of humanity. Humanism began to acquire a negative sense. The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of the word "humanism" by an English clergyman in 1812 to indicate those who believe in the "mere humanity" (as opposed to the divine nature) of Christ, i.e., Unitarians and Deists. In this polarised atmosphere, in which established ecclesiastical bodies tended to circle the wagons and reflexively oppose political and social reforms like extending the franchise, universal schooling, and the like, liberal reformers and radicals embraced the idea of Humanism as an alternative religion of humanity. The anarchist Proudhon (best known for declaring that "property is theft") used the word "humanism" to describe a "culte, déification de l’humanité" ("worship, deification of humanity") and Ernest Renan in L’avenir de la science: pensées de 1848 ("The Future of Knowledge: Thoughts on 1848") (1848–49), states: "It is my deep conviction that pure humanism will be the religion of the future, that is, the cult of all that pertains to humanity—all of life, sanctified and raised to the level of a moral value."

Question: During which period was the philosophy of humanism next updated?


Answer: idolatry of humanity

Question: What was the criticism of Humanism made by conservatives of the time?


Answer: liberal reformers and radicals

Question: Who continued to support the belief system despite its critics?


Answer: Ernest Renan

Question: Who felt that humanism would surely be a major "religion" today?


Answer: centred on humankind

Context: At about the same time, the word "humanism" as a philosophy centred on humankind (as opposed to institutionalised religion) was also being used in Germany by the so-called Left Hegelians, Arnold Ruge, and Karl Marx, who were critical of the close involvement of the church in the repressive German government. There has been a persistent confusion between the several uses of the terms: philanthropic humanists look to what they consider their antecedents in critical thinking and human-centered philosophy among the Greek philosophers and the great figures of Renaissance history; and scholarly humanists stress the linguistic and cultural disciplines needed to understand and interpret these philosophers and artists.

Question: What was the main difference between humanism and the religions of the time?


Answer: Karl Marx

Question: What well known socialist adopted the usage of this term in Germany?


Answer: Greek philosophers

Question: Who did benevolent believers in humanism turn to for ideas about the philosophy?


Answer: linguistic and cultural disciplines

Question: Where did the learned believers place their focus?


Answer: Gathas of Zarathustra

Context: Another instance of ancient humanism as an organised system of thought is found in the Gathas of Zarathustra, composed between 1,000 BCE – 600 BCE in Greater Iran. Zarathustra's philosophy in the Gathas lays out a conception of humankind as thinking beings dignified with choice and agency according to the intellect which each receives from Ahura Mazda (God in the form of supreme wisdom). The idea of Ahura Mazda as a non-intervening deistic divine God/Grand Architect of the universe tied with a unique eschatology and ethical system implying that each person is held morally responsible for their choices, made freely in this present life, in the afterlife. The importance placed on thought, action, responsibility, and a non-intervening creator was appealed to by, and inspired a number of, Enlightenment humanist thinkers in Europe such as Voltaire and Montesquieu.

Question: Which ancient text provides an example of the humanist way of thinking?


Answer: 1,000 BCE – 600 BCE

Question: When was this writing penned?


Answer: afterlife

Question: When was this writing penned?


Answer: Voltaire

Question: What well know scholar was inspired by Humanism?


Answer: Yellow Emperor

Context: In China, Yellow Emperor is regarded as the humanistic primogenitor.[citation needed] Sage kings such as Yao and Shun are humanistic figures as recorded.[citation needed] King Wu of Zhou has the famous saying: "Humanity is the Ling (efficacious essence) of the world (among all)." Among them Duke of Zhou, respected as a founder of Rujia (Confucianism), is especially prominent and pioneering in humanistic thought. His words were recorded in the Book of History as follows (translation):[citation needed]

Question: Who was known as being a founder of humanism thought in China?


Answer: Duke of Zhou

Question: What early adopter and developer of is associated with Confucianism?


Answer: Book of History

Question: What early adopter and developer of is associated with Confucianism?


Answer: Wu of Zhou

Question: Who is known for the thought that humanity is the most important thing in the world?


Answer: 6th century BCE

Context: In the 6th century BCE, Taoist teacher Lao Tzu espoused a series of naturalistic concepts with some elements of humanistic philosophy. The Silver Rule of Confucianism from Analects XV.24, is an example of ethical philosophy based on human values rather than the supernatural. Humanistic thought is also contained in other Confucian classics, e.g., as recorded in Zuo Zhuan, Ji Liang says, "People is the zhu (master, lord, dominance, owner or origin) of gods. So, to sage kings, people first, gods second"; Neishi Guo says, "Gods, clever, righteous and wholehearted, comply with human." Taoist and Confucian secularism contain elements of moral thought devoid of religious authority or deism however they only partly resembled our modern concept of secularism.

Question: When were humanism beliefs mixed with another philosophy by a Taoist thinker?


Answer: Silver Rule of Confucianism

Question: What is an example of Humanism based philosophy that focused on ethics?


Answer: Ji Liang

Question: Who can be credited with saying essentially humans are the gods of gods?


Answer: Zuo Zhuan

Question: Where could you read this information?


Answer: Thales of Miletus

Context: 6th-century BCE pre-Socratic Greek philosophers Thales of Miletus and Xenophanes of Colophon were the first in the region to attempt to explain the world in terms of human reason rather than myth and tradition, thus can be said to be the first Greek humanists. Thales questioned the notion of anthropomorphic gods and Xenophanes refused to recognise the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. These Ionian Greeks were the first thinkers to assert that nature is available to be studied separately from the supernatural realm. Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of rational inquiry from Ionia to Athens. Pericles, the leader of Athens during the period of its greatest glory was an admirer of Anaxagoras. Other influential pre-Socratics or rational philosophers include Protagoras (like Anaxagoras a friend of Pericles), known for his famous dictum "man is the measure of all things" and Democritus, who proposed that matter was composed of atoms. Little of the written work of these early philosophers survives and they are known mainly from fragments and quotations in other writers, principally Plato and Aristotle. The historian Thucydides, noted for his scientific and rational approach to history, is also much admired by later humanists. In the 3rd century BCE, Epicurus became known for his concise phrasing of the problem of evil, lack of belief in the afterlife, and human-centred approaches to achieving eudaimonia. He was also the first Greek philosopher to admit women to his school as a rule.

Question: Who was one of the first Greeks to adopt a humanistic outlook?


Answer: Athens

Question: Where did this type of thinking next travel to?


Answer: Democritus

Question: Who first introduced the idea that matter is made of atoms?


Answer: Epicurus

Question: Who was the first person to provide education opportunities to females?


Answer: Middle Ages and the Early Modern period

Context: Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement in Europe of the later Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. The 19th-century German historian Georg Voigt (1827–91) identified Petrarch as the first Renaissance humanist. Paul Johnson agrees that Petrarch was "the first to put into words the notion that the centuries between the fall of Rome and the present had been the age of Darkness". According to Petrarch, what was needed to remedy this situation was the careful study and imitation of the great classical authors. For Petrarch and Boccaccio, the greatest master was Cicero, whose prose became the model for both learned (Latin) and vernacular (Italian) prose.

Question: When did the first wave of Humanism reach Europe?


Answer: Petrarch

Question: Who was thought to be the original believer of humanism in of the Renaissance period?


Answer: Cicero

Question: The study and following of classical writers was said to be a solution to what issue?


Answer: age of Darkness

Question: The study and following of classical writers was said to be a solution to what issue?


Answer: the Jewish Kabbalah

Context: In the high Renaissance, in fact, there was a hope that more direct knowledge of the wisdom of antiquity, including the writings of the Church fathers, the earliest known Greek texts of the Christian Gospels, and in some cases even the Jewish Kabbalah, would initiate a harmonious new era of universal agreement. With this end in view, Renaissance Church authorities afforded humanists what in retrospect appears a remarkable degree of freedom of thought. One humanist, the Greek Orthodox Platonist Gemistus Pletho (1355–1452), based in Mystras, Greece (but in contact with humanists in Florence, Venice, and Rome) taught a Christianised version of pagan polytheism.

Question: What is one religious text that was thought to eventually lead to a peace between all?


Answer: Renaissance Church authorities

Question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?


Answer: era of universal agreement

Question: Who gave followers of Humanism the ability to think out of bounds?


Answer: Florence, Venice, and Rome

Question: What cities may have influenced the beliefs of Gemistus Pleto?


Answer: Latin literary texts

Context: The humanists' close study of Latin literary texts soon enabled them to discern historical differences in the writing styles of different periods. By analogy with what they saw as decline of Latin, they applied the principle of ad fontes, or back to the sources, across broad areas of learning, seeking out manuscripts of Patristic literature as well as pagan authors. In 1439, while employed in Naples at the court of Alfonso V of Aragon (at the time engaged in a dispute with the Papal States) the humanist Lorenzo Valla used stylistic textual analysis, now called philology, to prove that the Donation of Constantine, which purported to confer temporal powers on the Pope of Rome, was an 8th-century forgery. For the next 70 years, however, neither Valla nor any of his contemporaries thought to apply the techniques of philology to other controversial manuscripts in this way. Instead, after the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Turks in 1453, which brought a flood of Greek Orthodox refugees to Italy, humanist scholars increasingly turned to the study of Neoplatonism and Hermeticism, hoping to bridge the differences between the Greek and Roman Churches, and even between Christianity itself and the non-Christian world. The refugees brought with them Greek manuscripts, not only of Plato and Aristotle, but also of the Christian Gospels, previously unavailable in the Latin West.

Question: How were humanist able to identify the development of humanist thought?


Answer: Patristic literature

Question: What was included in this quest for knowledge of the belief system?


Answer: philology

Question: If your were unsure of the authenticity of an ancient text how could you verify it?


Answer: Byzantine Empire

Question: What caused a large migration of Greek refuges in the 1450s?


Answer: Greek manuscripts

Question: What caused a large migration of Greek refuges in the 1450s?


Answer: 1517

Context: After 1517, when the new invention of printing made these texts widely available, the Dutch humanist Erasmus, who had studied Greek at the Venetian printing house of Aldus Manutius, began a philological analysis of the Gospels in the spirit of Valla, comparing the Greek originals with their Latin translations with a view to correcting errors and discrepancies in the latter. Erasmus, along with the French humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, began issuing new translations, laying the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Henceforth Renaissance humanism, particularly in the German North, became concerned with religion, while Italian and French humanism concentrated increasingly on scholarship and philology addressed to a narrow audience of specialists, studiously avoiding topics that might offend despotic rulers or which might be seen as corrosive of faith. After the Reformation, critical examination of the Bible did not resume until the advent of the so-called Higher criticism of the 19th-century German Tübingen school.

Question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?


Answer: Erasmus

Question: When are these texts first able to reach a large amount of people?


Answer: Lefèvre d'Étaples

Question: Erasmus can be said to have lit the match that sparked a radical change in thinking in his era along with who?


Answer: the Bible

Question: What text still remained without the type of thorough review that others texts had received by the 18th century?


Answer: P. Terentius Afer

Context: The words of the comic playwright P. Terentius Afer reverberated across the Roman world of the mid-2nd century BCE and beyond. Terence, an African and a former slave, was well placed to preach the message of universalism, of the essential unity of the human race, that had come down in philosophical form from the Greeks, but needed the pragmatic muscles of Rome in order to become a practical reality. The influence of Terence's felicitous phrase on Roman thinking about human rights can hardly be overestimated. Two hundred years later Seneca ended his seminal exposition of the unity of humankind with a clarion-call:

Question: What author had a great impact in Rome?


Answer: Terence

Question: Who was able to spread the idea of equality among all through his words?


Answer: the Greeks

Question: From where did this school of thought emerge?


Answer: Seneca

Question: Who again issued the same type of challenge centuries later


Answer: universalism

Question: What was the name of the main belief Terence offered


Answer: A. C. Crombie

Context: Better acquaintance with Greek and Roman technical writings also influenced the development of European science (see the history of science in the Renaissance). This was despite what A. C. Crombie (viewing the Renaissance in the 19th-century manner as a chapter in the heroic March of Progress) calls "a backwards-looking admiration for antiquity", in which Platonism stood in opposition to the Aristotelian concentration on the observable properties of the physical world. But Renaissance humanists, who considered themselves as restoring the glory and nobility of antiquity, had no interest in scientific innovation. However, by the mid-to-late 16th century, even the universities, though still dominated by Scholasticism, began to demand that Aristotle be read in accurate texts edited according to the principles of Renaissance philology, thus setting the stage for Galileo's quarrels with the outmoded habits of Scholasticism.

Question: Who felt that looking to these ancient documents for new ideas was not the way to mover forward?


Answer: technical writings

Question: Closer examination of what information allowed for further progress in scientific knowledge?


Answer: Renaissance humanists

Question: What group was neutral about this issue as they felt the subject unimportant?


Answer: 16th century,

Question: When did even the scholars and professors began to at least end to examine the works of Aristotle?


Answer: Leonardo da Vinci

Context: Just as artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci – partaking of the zeitgeist though not himself a humanist – advocated study of human anatomy, nature, and weather to enrich Renaissance works of art, so Spanish-born humanist Juan Luis Vives (c. 1493–1540) advocated observation, craft, and practical techniques to improve the formal teaching of Aristotelian philosophy at the universities, helping to free them from the grip of Medieval Scholasticism. Thus, the stage was set for the adoption of an approach to natural philosophy, based on empirical observations and experimentation of the physical universe, making possible the advent of the age of scientific inquiry that followed the Renaissance.

Question: Who felt that the further examination and knowledge of studies in the arena of humanism could further art?


Answer: Juan Luis Vives

Question: Who helped to further the movement away from Scholasticism of the time?


Answer: universities

Question: Where did this initiate?


Answer: Aristotelian

Question: What type of philosophy was essential to this forwarding of thought?


Answer: Early humanists

Context: Early humanists saw no conflict between reason and their Christian faith (see Christian Humanism). They inveighed against the abuses of the Church, but not against the Church itself, much less against religion. For them, the word "secular" carried no connotations of disbelief – that would come later, in the nineteenth century. In the Renaissance to be secular meant simply to be in the world rather than in a monastery. Petrarch frequently admitted that his brother Gherardo's life as a Carthusian monk was superior to his own (although Petrarch himself was in Minor Orders and was employed by the Church all his life). He hoped that he could do some good by winning earthly glory and praising virtue, inferior though that might be to a life devoted solely to prayer. By embracing a non-theistic philosophic base, however, the methods of the humanists, combined with their eloquence, would ultimately have a corrosive effect on established authority.

Question: Who was able to reconcile their religious beliefs with those of humanism?


Answer: secular

Question: What phrase that has come to be associated with a lack of faith was not seen as an issue for Christians?


Answer: Renaissance

Question: During what time period did secular have a more neutral connotation?


Answer: Gherardo

Question: Petrarch felt that although he tried to do his own form of good whose life may have more meaning?


Answer: Harriet Martineau

Context: Eliot and her circle, who included her companion George Henry Lewes (the biographer of Goethe) and the abolitionist and social theorist Harriet Martineau, were much influenced by the positivism of Auguste Comte, whom Martineau had translated. Comte had proposed an atheistic culte founded on human principles – a secular Religion of Humanity (which worshiped the dead, since most humans who have ever lived are dead), complete with holidays and liturgy, modeled on the rituals of what was seen as a discredited and dilapidated Catholicism. Although Comte's English followers, like Eliot and Martineau, for the most part rejected the full gloomy panoply of his system, they liked the idea of a religion of humanity. Comte's austere vision of the universe, his injunction to "vivre pour altrui" ("live for others", from which comes the word "altruism"), and his idealisation of women inform the works of Victorian novelists and poets from George Eliot and Matthew Arnold to Thomas Hardy.

Question: What abolitionist was greatly affected by the writings of Comte?


Answer: atheistic

Question: What type of idea did he pose which was focused on facets of humanism?


Answer: religion of humanity

Question: What main idea did the English believers of Comte's philosophy take from his writings?


Answer: altruism

Question: What currently used word was based in ideas from this philosopher?


Answer: F.C.S. Schiller

Context: Active in the early 1920s, F.C.S. Schiller labelled his work "humanism" but for Schiller the term referred to the pragmatist philosophy he shared with William James. In 1929, Charles Francis Potter founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included Julian Huxley, John Dewey, Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann. Potter was a minister from the Unitarian tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published Humanism: A New Religion. Throughout the 1930s, Potter was an advocate of such liberal causes as, women’s rights, access to birth control, "civil divorce laws", and an end to capital punishment.

Question: What 19th century author associated his works with humanism?


Answer: 1929

Question: When was the first public group for Humanist founded?


Answer: Charles Francis Potter

Question: Who created this group?


Answer: 1930

Question: When did Charles Potter and Clara Potter publish their first writings on Humanism?


Answer: Abraham Maslow

Context: Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in response to Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory and B. F. Skinner's Behaviorism. The approach emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. Psychologists Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow introduced a positive, humanistic psychology in response to what they viewed as the overly pessimistic view of psychoanalysis in the early 1960s. Other sources include the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology.

Question: Who wotked with Carl Rogers on humanistic phycology?


Answer: psychological perspective

Question: What is human phycology?


Answer: 20th century

Question: In what century did humanistic phycology rise in prominence?


Answer: psychoanalysis

Question: They introduced it in response to what?


Answer: Western Unitarian Conference

Context: Raymond B. Bragg, the associate editor of The New Humanist, sought to consolidate the input of Leon Milton Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference. Bragg asked Roy Wood Sellars to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the Humanist Manifesto in 1933. Potter's book and the Manifesto became the cornerstones of modern humanism, the latter declaring a new religion by saying, "any religion that can hope to be a synthesising and dynamic force for today must be shaped for the needs of this age. To establish such a religion is a major necessity of the present." It then presented 15 theses of humanism as foundational principles for this new religion.

Question: What groups thoughts did he seek to include?


Answer: Raymond B. Bragg,

Question: Who became responsible in part for the editing of The New Humanist?


Answer: 15

Question: How many cornerstones of this new way of thinking or religion were presented>


Answer: Humanist Manifesto

Question: What was the name of the material that was produced from this groups and the opinions of others?


Answer: cultural and educational reform

Context: Renaissance humanism was an activity of cultural and educational reform engaged in by civic and ecclesiastical chancellors, book collectors, educators, and writers, who by the late fifteenth century began to be referred to as umanisti – "humanists". It developed during the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries, and was a response to the challenge of scholastic university education, which was then dominated by Aristotelian philosophy and logic. Scholasticism focused on preparing men to be doctors, lawyers or professional theologians, and was taught from approved textbooks in logic, natural philosophy, medicine, law and theology. There were important centres of humanism at Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.

Question: What was the main action of humanism during the Renaissance>


Answer: late fifteenth century

Question: When did a new term for those who followed Humanism emerge?


Answer: Naples

Question: Where was one main concentration of Humanism?


Answer: umanisti

Question: What was the new term for believers of Humanism philosophy?


Answer: narrow pedantry

Context: Humanists reacted against this utilitarian approach and the narrow pedantry associated with it. They sought to create a citizenry (frequently including women) able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity and thus capable of engaging the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. This was to be accomplished through the study of the studia humanitatis, today known as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy. As a program to revive the cultural – and particularly the literary – legacy and moral philosophy of classical antiquity, Humanism was a pervasive cultural mode and not the program of a few isolated geniuses like Rabelais or Erasmus as is still sometimes popularly believed.

Question: What was it about the utilitatian beliefs that humanism believers did not like?


Answer: women

Question: What group that had been to this point neglected was included in this thought?


Answer: humanities

Question: What foundation of study allowed for the accomplishment of the goal of a scholarly people?


Answer: pervasive cultural mode

Question: Was the humanism of the time limited to scholars?


Answer: capacity of people

Context: Contemporary humanism entails a qualified optimism about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that all people can live up to the Humanist ideals without help. If anything, there is recognition that living up to one's potential is hard work and requires the help of others. The ultimate goal is human flourishing; making life better for all humans, and as the most conscious species, also promoting concern for the welfare of other sentient beings and the planet as a whole. The focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world a better place for those who come after. In 1925, the English mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead cautioned: "The prophecy of Francis Bacon has now been fulfilled; and man, who at times dreamt of himself as a little lower than the angels, has submitted to become the servant and the minister of nature. It still remains to be seen whether the same actor can play both parts".

Question: What is contemporary humanism optimistic about?


Answer: human flourishing

Question: What is the main goal of humanism optimistic?


Answer: making life better

Question: What is human flourishing?


Answer: purely good

Question: What doesnt conetemporary humanism believe about human nature?


Answer: religious rituals

Context: Religious humanism is an integration of humanist ethical philosophy with religious rituals and beliefs that centre on human needs, interests, and abilities. Though practitioners of religious humanism did not officially organise under the name of "humanism" until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, non-theistic religions paired with human-centred ethical philosophy have a long history. The Cult of Reason (French: Culte de la Raison) was a religion based on deism devised during the French Revolution by Jacques Hébert, Pierre Gaspard Chaumette and their supporters. In 1793 during the French Revolution, the cathedral Notre Dame de Paris was turned into a "Temple to Reason" and for a time Lady Liberty replaced the Virgin Mary on several altars. In the 1850s, Auguste Comte, the Father of Sociology, founded Positivism, a "religion of humanity". One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organisations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in 1853 in London. This early group was democratically organised, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts. The Ethical Culture movement was founded in 1876. The movement's founder, Felix Adler, a former member of the Free Religious Association, conceived of Ethical Culture as a new religion that would retain the ethical message at the heart of all religions. Ethical Culture was religious in the sense of playing a defining role in people's lives and addressing issues of ultimate concern.

Question: What was included in religious humanism that was similiar to other religion?


Answer: 19th and early 20th centuries

Question: When did practicers of religious humanism form under the name Humanism?


Answer: Jacques Hébert

Question: Who founded a religion whose cornerstone was deism?


Answer: 1793

Question: During what time was a religious state replaced in the Notre Dame cathedral with a symbol of Humanism?


Answer: Ezra Pound

Context: Polemics about humanism have sometimes assumed paradoxical twists and turns. Early 20th century critics such as Ezra Pound, T. E. Hulme, and T. S. Eliot considered humanism to be sentimental "slop" (Hulme)[citation needed] or "an old bitch gone in the teeth" (Pound) and wanted to go back to a more manly, authoritarian society such as (they believed) existed in the Middle Ages. Postmodern critics who are self-described anti-humanists, such as Jean-François Lyotard and Michel Foucault, have asserted that humanism posits an overarching and excessively abstract notion of humanity or universal human nature, which can then be used as a pretext for imperialism and domination of those deemed somehow less than human. "Humanism fabricates the human as much as it fabricates the nonhuman animal", suggests Timothy Laurie, turning the human into what he calls "a placeholder for a range of attributes that have been considered most virtuous among humans (e.g. rationality, altruism), rather than most commonplace (e.g. hunger, anger)". Nevertheless, philosopher Kate Soper notes that by faulting humanism for falling short of its own benevolent ideals, anti-humanism thus frequently "secretes a humanist rhetoric".

Question: Who was one early naysayer of Humanism?


Answer: sentimental

Question: What was the main reason they disagreed with the beliefs?


Answer: Timothy Laurie

Question: Who stated Humanism creates of people placeholder?


Answer: Kate Soper

Question: Who stated that this argument was in fact support of Humanism?


Answer: 1997

Context: In his book, Humanism (1997), Tony Davies calls these critics "humanist anti-humanists". Critics of antihumanism, most notably Jürgen Habermas, counter that while antihumanists may highlight humanism's failure to fulfil its emancipatory ideal, they do not offer an alternative emancipatory project of their own. Others, like the German philosopher Heidegger considered themselves humanists on the model of the ancient Greeks, but thought humanism applied only to the German "race" and specifically to the Nazis and thus, in Davies' words, were anti-humanist humanists. Such a reading of Heidegger's thought is itself deeply controversial; Heidegger includes his own views and critique of Humanism in Letter On Humanism. Davies acknowledges that after the horrific experiences of the wars of the 20th century "it should no longer be possible to formulate phrases like 'the destiny of man' or the 'triumph of human reason' without an instant consciousness of the folly and brutality they drag behind them". For "it is almost impossible to think of a crime that has not been committed in the name of human reason". Yet, he continues, "it would be unwise to simply abandon the ground occupied by the historical humanisms. For one thing humanism remains on many occasions the only available alternative to bigotry and persecution. The freedom to speak and write, to organise and campaign in defence of individual or collective interests, to protest and disobey: all these can only be articulated in humanist terms."

Question: In what year was the book humanism published?


Answer: 20th century

Question: In what century was the horrific wars?


Answer: humanism

Question: What is the only alternative to bigotry and persecution on many occasions?


Answer: Tony Davies

Question: Who wrote the book humanism?


Answer: Seneca

Context: The ad fontes principle also had many applications. The re-discovery of ancient manuscripts brought a more profound and accurate knowledge of ancient philosophical schools such as Epicureanism, and Neoplatonism, whose Pagan wisdom the humanists, like the Church fathers of old, tended, at least initially, to consider as deriving from divine revelation and thus adaptable to a life of Christian virtue. The line from a drama of Terence, Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto (or with nil for nihil), meaning "I am a human being, I think nothing human alien to me", known since antiquity through the endorsement of Saint Augustine, gained renewed currency as epitomising the humanist attitude. The statement, in a play modeled or borrowed from a (now lost) Greek comedy by Menander, may have originated in a lighthearted vein – as a comic rationale for an old man's meddling – but it quickly became a proverb and throughout the ages was quoted with a deeper meaning, by Cicero and Saint Augustine, to name a few, and most notably by Seneca. Richard Bauman writes:

Question: Who quoted the line of Terence most notably?


Answer: ancient manuscripts

Question: What allowed for a deeper understanding and personal exploration of older philosophers theories?


Answer: Saint Augustine

Question: Who was the most influential supporter of the ideals of Terence?


Answer: Church fathers

Question: Who were the Humanists in agreement with about using these manuscripts in their quests for pure Christian living?


Answer: The Age of Reason

Context: Davies identifies Paine's The Age of Reason as "the link between the two major narratives of what Jean-François Lyotard calls the narrative of legitimation": the rationalism of the 18th-century Philosophes and the radical, historically based German 19th-century Biblical criticism of the Hegelians David Friedrich Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach. "The first is political, largely French in inspiration, and projects 'humanity as the hero of liberty'. The second is philosophical, German, seeks the totality and autonomy of knowledge, and stresses understanding rather than freedom as the key to human fulfilment and emancipation. The two themes converged and competed in complex ways in the 19th century and beyond, and between them set the boundaries of its various humanisms. Homo homini deus est ("The human being is a god to humanity" or "god is nothing [other than] the human being to himself"), Feuerbach had written.

Question: What writing was considered a bridge between two other major writings?


Answer: 18th-century

Question: Which century was the first writing from?


Answer: Feuerbach

Question: Who states imply that humans are their own Gods?


Answer: German

Question: What was the origin of the second writing?


Answer: molten

Context: Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as the result of a Mars-sized object with about 10% of the Earth's mass impacting the planet in a glancing blow. Some of this object's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.

Question: The initial state of earth was what?


Answer: a solid crust

Question: What formed on the outside of the earth after it cooled?


Answer: about 10% of the Earth's mass

Question: How does the mass of the moon compare to earth?


Answer: Outgassing and volcanic activity

Question: What created a primordial atmosphere on earth?


Answer: comets

Question: Ice from what source helped to create earths oceans?


Answer: molten

Question: Powerful volcanism contributed to cause early earth to be in what state?


Answer: water began accumulating

Question: What occurred in the atmosphere of the earth after the crust was formed?


Answer: Mars

Question: What size of object may have created the moon?


Answer: Condensing

Question: When water was creating the oceans what was happening to atmospheric water vapor?


Answer: 4,000 to 2,500 million years ago

Context: The Earth of the early Archean (4,000 to 2,500 million years ago) may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth's crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to subduct and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of erosion and subsequent tectonic events.

Question: During what time period was the Archean era?


Answer: Archean

Question: During what period did the earths crust cooling allow the creation of plates?


Answer: crustal material

Question: It is believed that a very warm earth would lead to more recycling of what?


Answer: cratonisation and continent formation

Question: What might have a very hot earth stopped from occurring?


Answer: erosion and subsequent tectonic events

Question: What do some believe accounts for the small amount of Archean rocks?


Answer: metamorphized deep-water sediments

Context: In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep-water sediments, such as graywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments and banded iron formations. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks were derived from volcanic island arcs, while the low-grade metamorphic rocks represent deep-sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island frogs and deposited in a forearc basin. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.

Question: What are Archean rocks composed of, in general?


Answer: Greenstone

Question: What type of formation is indicated by low and high grade metamorphic rocks?


Answer: volcanic island arcs

Question: From where did high grade Archean rocks originate?


Answer: deep-sea sediments

Question: Low grade metamorphic rocks are composed of what, generally?


Answer: sutured protocontinents

Question: What is a greenstone belt?


Answer: 2,500 to 541 million years ago

Context: The geologic record of the Proterozoic (2,500 to 541 million years ago) is more complete than that for the preceding Archean. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of these rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean-age ones, and plenty are unaltered. Study of these rocks show that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and wholly modern orogenic activity. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 Ma.

Question: During what time period did the Proterozoic era occur?


Answer: Archean

Question: What era came before the Proterozoic era?


Answer: shallow epicontinental seas

Question: In what type of sea did typical Proterozoic geology come to be?


Answer: rapid continental accretion

Question: What type of continental behavior was unique to the Proterozoic?


Answer: Rodinia

Question: What is the name for the large super continent that broke apart 750 million years ago?


Answer: 541 to 252 million years ago

Context: The Paleozoic spanned from roughly 541 to 252 million years ago (Ma) and is subdivided into six geologic periods; from oldest to youngest they are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth's land area.

Question: During what period was the Paleozoic era?


Answer: six

Question: How many periods of geology are within the Paleozoic era?


Answer: geologic periods

Question: The Permian is an example of what?


Answer: breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia

Question: After what continental event did the Paleozoic begin?


Answer: Pangaea

Question: What continent was formed at the end of the Paleozoic?


Answer: 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma.

Context: The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma. Cambrian continents are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a Neoproterozoic supercontinent called Pannotia. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. Continental drift rates may have been anomalously high. Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia remained independent continents following the break-up of the supercontinent of Pannotia. Gondwana started to drift toward the South Pole. Panthalassa covered most of the southern hemisphere, and minor oceans included the Proto-Tethys Ocean, Iapetus Ocean and Khanty Ocean.

Question: At what rough time did the Cambrian era start?


Answer: Pannotia

Question: What were the continents of the Cambrian area believed to have formerly been a part of?


Answer: Gondwana

Question: What continent moved to the southern-most part of the earth in the Cambrian era?


Answer: Panthalassa

Question: What continent ranged over the majority of the southern hemisphere of earth in the Cambrian?


Answer: independent continents

Question: Baltica and Sibera are examples of what thing, during the Cambrian era?


Answer: 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma.

Context: The Ordovician Period started at a major extinction event called the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events some time about 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma. During the Ordovician the southern continents were collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in the equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician the continents Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica were still independent continents (since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but Baltica began to move toward Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean to shrink between them. Also, Avalonia broke free from Gondwana and began to head north toward Laurentia. The Rheic Ocean was formed as a result of this. By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.

Question: How long ago did the Ordovician period begin?


Answer: the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction

Question: Which event precipitated the Ordovician period?


Answer: Gondwana

Question: What was the name of the large southernmost continent during the Ordovician?


Answer: Iapetus Ocean

Question: Which ocean decreased in size with the movement of Baltica in the Ordovician?


Answer: Avalonia

Question: What continent fractured off Gondwana in the direction of Laurentia?


Answer: stable greenhouse conditions

Context: The most-commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of an ice age, in the Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable greenhouse conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen isotopes in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time.

Question: What type of climate was normal in the Ordovician period?


Answer: the Hirnantian faunal stage

Question: What ice age signaled the end of the normal climate in the Ordovician period?


Answer: brachiopods

Question: Oxygen from what kind of fossil were used to date the Hirnantian faunal stage?


Answer: 0.5 to 1.5 million years

Question: How many years is the Hirnantian faunal stage believed to have lasted?


Answer: ice caps

Question: What started to develop on Gondwana as it moved over the south pole?


Answer: 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma.

Context: The Silurian is a major division of the geologic timescale that started about 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma. During the Silurian, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian ice caps were less extensive than those of the late Ordovician glaciation. The melting of ice caps and glaciers contributed to a rise in sea levels, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an unconformity. Other cratons and continent fragments drifted together near the equator, starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Euramerica. The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include Proto-Tethys, Paleo-Tethys, Rheic Ocean, a seaway of Iapetus Ocean (now in between Avalonia and Laurentia), and newly formed Ural Ocean.

Question: When was the Silurian period believed to have begun?


Answer: less extensive

Question: Compared to the Ordovician glaciation, how big were the ice caps on Gondwana during the Silurian?


Answer: a rise in sea levels

Question: What did the melting of ice on Gondwana add to?


Answer: Euramerica

Question: Which supercontinent formed during the Silurian?


Answer: Panthalassa

Question: Which ocean ranged the majority of the northern hemisphere in the Silurian period?


Answer: 419 to 359 Ma.

Context: The Devonian spanned roughly from 419 to 359 Ma. The period was a time of great tectonic activity, as Laurasia and Gondwana drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn. In these near-deserts, the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (hematite) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator Pangaea began to consolidate from the plates containing North America and Europe, further raising the northern Appalachian Mountains and forming the Caledonian Mountains in Great Britain and Scandinavia. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent of Gondwana. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo-Tethys, Proto-Tethys, Rheic Ocean and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica).

Question: During what time period was the Devonian era?


Answer: Euramerica (or Laurussia)

Question: Which continent was formed from the meeting of Laurentia and Baltica?


Answer: Old Red Sandstone

Question: Which sedimentary beds were created in the dry areas of Euramerica in the Devonian period?


Answer: Panthalassa

Question: What was the largest ocean referred to that existed in the Devonian period?


Answer: the northern Appalachian Mountains

Question: Which mountains associated with the USA were formed near the equator on Pangaea during the Devonian?


Answer: A global drop

Context: A global drop in sea level at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the Carboniferous; this created the widespread epicontinental seas and carbonate deposition of the Mississippian. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern Gondwana was glaciated throughout the period, though it is uncertain if the ice sheets were a holdover from the Devonian or not. These conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush coal swamps flourished within 30 degrees of the northernmost glaciers. A mid-Carboniferous drop in sea-level precipitated a major marine extinction, one that hit crinoids and ammonites especially hard. This sea-level drop and the associated unconformity in North America separate the Mississippian Period from the Pennsylvanian period.

Question: What occurred to the level of the sea when the Devonian period was finished?


Answer: Carboniferous

Question: During which period were epicontinental seas created?


Answer: lush coal swamps

Question: What was on the land at 30 degrees latitude north in the carboniferous period?


Answer: a major marine extinction

Question: What was the result in the decline in sea level in the middle of the Carboniferous period?


Answer: Mississippian Period

Question: The Pennsylvania period is separated by the drop in Carboniferous era sea levels from what other period?


Answer: mountain building

Context: The Carboniferous was a time of active mountain building, as the supercontinent Pangea came together. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America-Europe (Laurussia) along the present line of eastern North America. This continental collision resulted in the Hercynian orogeny in Europe, and the Alleghenian orogeny in North America; it also extended the newly uplifted Appalachians southwestward as the Ouachita Mountains. In the same time frame, much of present eastern Eurasian plate welded itself to Europe along the line of the Ural mountains. There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous the Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed the Rheic Ocean (closed by the assembly of South and North America), the small, shallow Ural Ocean (which was closed by the collision of Baltica, and Siberia continents, creating the Ural Mountains) and Proto-Tethys Ocean.

Question: What geologic events took place when Pangea combined during the Carboniferous?


Answer: Laurussia

Question: What was the continent that came to be North America and Europe called during the Carboniferous?


Answer: the Alleghenian orogeny

Question: What was the effect of Laurussia impacting Gondwana in North America?


Answer: the Ouachita Mountains

Question: The mountains forming to the southwest of the Appalachians in the Carboniferous are known as what?


Answer: the Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys

Question: Which two large oceans existed during the Carboniferous period?


Answer: Pangaea

Context: During the Permian all the Earth's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (Panthalassa, the universal sea), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.

Question: What supercontinent prevailed during the Permian era?


Answer: Panthalassa

Question: What was the largest ocean during the Permian called?


Answer: Paleo-Tethys Ocean

Question: There was an ocean between Gondwana and Asia in the Permian, what was it?


Answer: Cimmeria

Question: The moving of which continent contributed to the decrease in size of the Paleo-Tethys?


Answer: the Mesozoic Era

Question: During which period was the Tehtys Ocean dominant?


Answer: Panthalassa

Context: The remainder was the world-ocean known as Panthalassa ("all the sea"). All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through subduction of oceanic plates; thus, very little is known of the Triassic open ocean. The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic—especially late in the period—but had not yet separated. The first nonmarine sediments in the rift that marks the initial break-up of Pangea—which separated New Jersey from Morocco—are of Late Triassic age; in the U.S., these thick sediments comprise the Newark Supergroup. Because of the limited shoreline of one super-continental mass, Triassic marine deposits are globally relatively rare; despite their prominence in Western Europe, where the Triassic was first studied. In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west. Thus Triassic stratigraphy is mostly based on organisms living in lagoons and hypersaline environments, such as Estheria crustaceans and terrestrial vertebrates.

Question: Which ocean name is translated to mean "all the sea?"


Answer: subduction of oceanic plates

Question: What process obscures information aboutt he ocean during the Triassic period from inspection?


Answer: Pangaea was rifting

Question: What was occurring to Pangaea in the late Triassic?


Answer: Newark Supergroup

Question: Which sediements in the US are an indication of the break up of Pangaea?


Answer: terrestrial vertebrates

Question: What type of terrestrial animals are found from the Triassic period?


Answer: 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma.

Context: The Jurassic Period extends from about 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma. During the early Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land near either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. The Jurassic geological record is good in western Europe, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of the continent was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site and the renowned late Jurassic lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface. Though the epicontinental Sundance Sea left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the United States and Canada during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the alluvial deposits of the Morrison Formation. The first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern Cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia and the United Kingdom.

Question: During what years was the Jurassic period?


Answer: Pangaea

Question: Which supercontinent came apart in the Jurassic period?


Answer: Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula

Question: The Gulf of Mexico formed in the rift between North America and what other land mass?


Answer: Cretaceous Period

Question: At what point did the South Atlantic ocean begin to open?


Answer: lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen

Question: Which late Jurassic cultural sites are famous in Europe?


Answer: Pangaea

Context: During the Cretaceous, the late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent-margin orogenies that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies. Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous, Gondwana itself broke up as South America, Antarctica and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide.

Question: The current continents were formerly known as what continent?


Answer: Sevier and Laramide

Question: Which oregenies followed the Nevadan in the Cretaceous?


Answer: Gondwana

Question: South America was formerly which continent?


Answer: raising eustatic sea levels

Question: The rifting in the Cretaceous had what result on the oceans?


Answer: Gondwana

Question: Antarctica was a part of what supercontinent?


Answer: one-third

Context: To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central North America (the Western Interior Seaway) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged. The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Mid-ocean ridge activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton. These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe and China. In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.

Question: During the height of the Cretaceous transgression how much of the earths land mass was under water?


Answer: Phanerozoic

Question: What type of rock was the Cretaceous notable for forming the most amount of?


Answer: Phanerozoic

Question: The Cretaceous is a part of which geologic era?


Answer: North America

Question: Where can one find the Smoky Hill Chalk Member?


Answer: India

Question: Where are the Deccan Traps?


Answer: 66 million years

Context: The Cenozoic Era covers the 66 million years since the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event up to and including the present day. By the end of the Mesozoic era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present form. Laurasia became North America and Eurasia, while Gondwana split into South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent, which collided with the Asian plate. This impact gave rise to the Himalayas. The Tethys Sea, which had separated the northern continents from Africa and India, began to close up, forming the Mediterranean sea.

Question: How many years long was the Cenozoic Era?


Answer: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

Question: Which extinction marked the beginning of the Cenozoic Era?


Answer: Cenozoic Era

Question: What geologic period are we in currently?


Answer: Mesozoic

Question: At the end of which era had the continents taken roughly their current shape?


Answer: the Himalayas

Question: The collision of the Indian sub continent and the Asian plate created which mountain range?


Answer: three

Context: In many ways, the Paleocene continued processes that had begun during the late Cretaceous Period. During the Paleocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Supercontinent Laurasia had not yet separated into three continents. Europe and Greenland were still connected. North America and Asia were still intermittently joined by a land bridge, while Greenland and North America were beginning to separate. The Laramide orogeny of the late Cretaceous continued to uplift the Rocky Mountains in the American west, which ended in the succeeding epoch. South and North America remained separated by equatorial seas (they joined during the Neogene); the components of the former southern supercontinent Gondwana continued to split apart, with Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia pulling away from each other. Africa was heading north toward Europe, slowly closing the Tethys Ocean, and India began its migration to Asia that would lead to a tectonic collision and the formation of the Himalayas.

Question: How many continents did Laurasia break into?


Answer: North America

Question: In the Paleocene period Greenland was joined to which continent?


Answer: the Rocky Mountains

Question: What mountain chain in the Cretaceous was lifted as a result of the Laramide oregeny?


Answer: Neogene

Question: In which period did North and South america join?


Answer: Tethys

Question: Which ocean was closed when Africa moved northward during the Paleocene?


Answer: 56 million years ago - 33.9 million years ago

Context: During the Eocene (56 million years ago - 33.9 million years ago), the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago.[citation needed]

Question: During what years did the Eocene period take place?


Answer: Antarctica

Question: Australia was connected to which other continent at the start of the Eocene?


Answer: around 45 Ma

Question: How long ago did Antarctica and Australia split?


Answer: 40 million years

Question: Around how many years ago is the current ice age pattern believed to have begun?


Answer: keeping global temperatures high

Question: The mixing of equatorial currents with Antarctic waters in the Eocene resulted in what?


Answer: Eocene

Context: The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, creating the Himalayan orogeny.

Question: during which period did mountains form in the western part of North America?


Answer: Tethys Sea

Question: In the Eocene, in Europe, which sea ceased to be?


Answer: Tethys Sea

Question: The Mediterranean sea is a remaining part of which sea from the Eocene?


Answer: huge lakes

Question: What began to form in the flat basins in North America during the Eocene?


Answer: the Himalayan orogeny

Question: Which oregeny was created when India collided with Asia?


Answer: ice cap

Context: Antarctica continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent ice cap. Mountain building in western North America continued, and the Alps started to rise in Europe as the African plate continued to push north into the Eurasian plate, isolating the remnants of Tethys Sea. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and drifted north toward North America. It also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the continent.

Question: What permanent structure formed on Antarctica?


Answer: the Alps

Question: The lift of which mountain range in Europe was the result of the African plate moving north into the Eurasian?


Answer: Oligocene

Question: During what period was there a land bridge joining Europe and North America?


Answer: Antarctica

Question: In the Oligocene period South America broke free from what other continent?


Answer: the Antarctic Circumpolar Current

Question: Which current resulted in the cooling of Antarctica?


Answer: the Andes

Context: During the Miocene continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, the subduction zone along the Pacific Ocean margin of South America caused the rise of the Andes and the southward extension of the Meso-American peninsula. India continued to collide with Asia. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish-Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma (ICS 2004). Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea resulting in the Messinian salinity crisis near the end of the Miocene.

Question: The formation of which mountain range was the result of of what zone along the Pacific Ocean side of South America?


Answer: Asia

Question: Which continent was India colliding with in the Miocene?


Answer: The Tethys Seaway

Question: When Africa was colliding with Eurasia which seaway ceased to be during the Miocene?


Answer: 19 and 12 Ma

Question: Between what period of time did the Tethys disappear?


Answer: Messinian salinity crisis

Question: Which crisis occured towards the end of the Miocene period?


Answer: the Isthmus of Panama

Context: South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive marsupial faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about 2.58 million years ago (the start of the Quaternary Period), the current ice age began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years.

Question: What is the link between North and South America called?


Answer: Pliocene

Question: In which period did North and South America become linked?


Answer: Africa

Question: The Mediterranean was created by the collision of Europe and what?


Answer: the Quaternary Period

Question: What period came after the Pliocene?


Answer: marsupial faunas

Question: The Pliocene saw the end of what fauna in South America?


Answer: about 10,000 years ago

Context: The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. Ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from Vermont, Quebec, Ontario and Michigan. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in Scandinavia resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the Baltic Sea, including much of Finland. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries.

Question: How long ago did the last glacial period end?


Answer: Holocene

Question: During what period did sea levels rice 115 feet?


Answer: 35 metres (115 ft)

Question: By what height did sea levels rise at the end of the last glacial period?


Answer: Pleistocene

Question: Glaciars from what period depressed the height of northern lands by 591 feet?


Answer: Tyrrell Sea

Question: What sea did the Hudson Bay used to be a part of?


Answer: enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder

Context: A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the legitimized use of force. The term is most commonly associated with police services of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility. Police forces are often defined as being separate from military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors; however, gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.

Question: What does the state want a police force to do?


Answer: military units charged with civil policing

Question: What are gendarmerie?


Answer: military or other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors

Question: What are police usually separate from?


Answer: through taxes

Context: Law enforcement, however, constitutes only part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, but the predominant ones are concerned with the preservation of order. In some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree. The police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes.

Question: How are police usually paid?


Answer: late 18th and early 19th centuries

Question: When were police used to protect the class system?


Answer: public sector

Question: What kind of service are police?


Answer: corruption

Question: What problem do many police forces have?


Answer: through taxes

Question: How are police usually paid?


Answer: public sector

Question: What kind of service are police?


Answer: late 18th and early 19th centuries

Question: When were police used to protect the class system?


Answer: corruption

Question: What problem do many police forces have?


Answer: Chu and Jin

Context: Law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by "prefects" for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. They were appointed by local magistrates, who reported to higher authorities such as governors, who in turn were appointed by the emperor, and they oversaw the civil administration of their "prefecture", or jurisdiction. Under each prefect were "subprefects" who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area. Some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Prefects could also be women. The concept of the "prefecture system" spread to other cultures such as Korea and Japan.

Question: Which Chinese kingdoms developed law enforcement?


Answer: Spring

Question: What period was the Chu kingdom in?


Answer: Autumn

Question: What period was the Jin kingdom in?


Answer: Korea and Japan

Question: Which countries adopted the 'prefecture system' from China?


Answer: prefects

Question: What did ancient China call its police?


Answer: War of the Castilian Succession

Context: As one of their first acts after end of the War of the Castilian Succession in 1479, Ferdinand and Isabella established the centrally organized and efficient Holy Brotherhood (Santa Hermandad) as a national police force. They adapted an existing brotherhood to the purpose of a general police acting under officials appointed by themselves, and endowed with great powers of summary jurisdiction even in capital cases. The original brotherhoods continued to serve as modest local police-units until their final suppression in 1835.

Question: What war ended in 1479?


Answer: Ferdinand and Isabella

Question: Who formed Spain's first national police force?


Answer: Santa Hermandad

Question: What was Spain's first national police force called, in Spanish?


Answer: Holy Brotherhood

Question: What does Santa Hermandad mean?


Answer: 1835

Question: When did Spain suppress local police units?


Answer: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France

Context: In France during the Middle Ages, there were two Great Officers of the Crown of France with police responsibilities: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France. The military policing responsibilities of the Marshal of France were delegated to the Marshal's provost, whose force was known as the Marshalcy because its authority ultimately derived from the Marshal. The marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years' 'War, and some historians trace it back to the early 12th century. Another organisation, the Constabulary (French: Connétablie), was under the command of the Constable of France. The constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. Under King Francis I (who reigned 1515–1547), the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary. The resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France.

Question: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?


Answer: Great Officers of the Crown of France

Question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?


Answer: the Marshalcy

Question: What was the Marshal's force called?


Answer: the Constabulary

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in English?


Answer: Connétablie

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in French?


Answer: The Marshal of France and the Constable of France

Question: Which two entities in Medieval France had police duties?


Answer: Great Officers of the Crown of France

Question: How were the Marshal and Constable of France formally classified?


Answer: the Marshalcy

Question: What was the Marshal's force called?


Answer: the Constabulary

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in English?


Answer: Connétablie

Question: What was the Constable's force called, in French?


Answer: 1667

Context: The first centrally organised police force was created by the government of King Louis XIV in 1667 to police the city of Paris, then the largest city in Europe. The royal edict, registered by the Parlement of Paris on March 15, 1667 created the office of lieutenant général de police ("lieutenant general of police"), who was to be the head of the new Paris police force, and defined the task of the police as "ensuring the peace and quiet of the public and of private individuals, purging the city of what may cause disturbances, procuring abundance, and having each and everyone live according to their station and their duties".

Question: In what year did Paris get a police force?


Answer: King Louis XIV

Question: Who created Paris's police force?


Answer: Paris

Question: What was the largest European city in 1667?


Answer: lieutenant general of police

Question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in English?


Answer: lieutenant général de police

Question: What was the title of the head of Paris's police, in French?


Answer: Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie

Context: This office was first held by Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie, who had 44 commissaires de police (police commissioners) under his authority. In 1709, these commissioners were assisted by inspecteurs de police (police inspectors). The city of Paris was divided into 16 districts policed by the commissaires, each assigned to a particular district and assisted by a growing bureaucracy. The scheme of the Paris police force was extended to the rest of France by a royal edict of October 1699, resulting in the creation of lieutenants general of police in all large French cities and towns.

Question: Who was Paris's first head of police?


Answer: 44

Question: How many commissioners worked under Reynie?


Answer: 16

Question: How many policing districts was Paris divided into?


Answer: October 1699

Question: When was Paris's police system expanded to the rest of France?


Answer: 1709

Question: When were police inspectors added to Paris's police?