Answer: Confucian

Context: The early Manchu rulers also established two foundations of legitimacy which help to explain the stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the neo-Confucian culture which they adopted from earlier dynasties. Manchu rulers and Han Chinese scholar-official elites gradually came to terms with each other. The examination system offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of Kangxi Dictionary demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while the Sacred Edict of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. The second major source of stability was the Central Asian aspect of their Manchu identity which allowed them to appeal to Mongol, Tibetan and Uighur constituents. The Qing used the title of Emperor (Huangdi) in Chinese while among Mongols the Qing monarch was referred to as Bogda khan (wise Khan), and referred to as Gong Ma in Tibet. Qianlong propagated the image of himself as Buddhist sage rulers, patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. In the Manchu language, the Qing monarch was alternately referred to as either Huwangdi (Emperor) or Khan with no special distinction between the two usages. The Kangxi Emperor also welcomed to his court Jesuit missionaries, who had first come to China under the Ming. Missionaries including Tomás Pereira, Martino Martini, Johann Adam Schall von Bell, Ferdinand Verbiest and Antoine Thomas held significant positions as military weapons experts, mathematicians, cartographers, astronomers and advisers to the emperor. The relationship of trust was however lost in the later Chinese Rites controversy.

Question: What type of learning did the early Manchu leaders respect?


Answer: Sacred Edict of 1670

Question: What declaration solidified Confucian values?


Answer: Mongol, Tibetan and Uighur

Question: Who did the Manchu appeal to?


Answer: Jesuit missionaries

Question: What Christians did Kangxi allow in his court?


Answer: Wu Sangui

Context: Yet controlling the "Mandate of Heaven" was a daunting task. The vastness of China's territory meant that there were only enough banner troops to garrison key cities forming the backbone of a defense network that relied heavily on surrendered Ming soldiers. In addition, three surrendered Ming generals were singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the Qing dynasty, ennobled as feudal princes (藩王), and given governorships over vast territories in Southern China. The chief of these was Wu Sangui, who was given the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou, while generals Shang Kexi and Geng Jingzhong were given Guangdong and Fujian provinces respectively.

Question: Who was the most important Ming general?


Answer: Yunnan and Guizhou

Question: What provinces did Sangui control?


Answer: Shang Kexi and Geng Jingzhong

Question: Name the other two important Ming generals?


Answer: Guangdong and Fujian

Question: Which provinces did Kexi and Jingzhong receive?


Answer: 1673

Context: As the years went by, the three feudal lords and their extensive territories became increasingly autonomous. Finally, in 1673, Shang Kexi petitioned Kangxi for permission to retire to his hometown in Liaodong province and nominated his son as his successor. The young emperor granted his retirement, but denied the heredity of his fief. In reaction, the two other generals decided to petition for their own retirements to test Kangxi's resolve, thinking that he would not risk offending them. The move backfired as the young emperor called their bluff by accepting their requests and ordering that all three fiefdoms to be reverted to the crown.

Question: When did Kexi retire?


Answer: his son

Question: Who did Kexi thing should take over for him?


Answer: all three fiefdoms to be reverted to the crown.

Question: What happened when Kexi, and the two other generals all retired?


Answer: eight years

Context: Faced with the stripping of their powers, Wu Sangui, later joined by Geng Zhongming and by Shang Kexi's son Shang Zhixin, felt they had no choice but to revolt. The ensuing Revolt of the Three Feudatories lasted for eight years. Wu attempted, ultimately in vain, to fire the embers of south China Ming loyalty by restoring Ming customs, ordering that the resented queues be cut, and declaring himself emperor of a new dynasty. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they extended their control as far north as the Yangtze River, nearly establishing a divided China. Wu then hesitated to go further north, not being able to coordinate strategy with his allies, and Kangxi was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China which took several decades to recover. Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han Chinese Green Standard Army, who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by Kangxi, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard Soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han Chinese were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing the rebels instead of Bannermen. Similarly, in northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing used Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Chinese Generals such as Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as the primary military forces. This choice was due to the rocky terrain, which favoured infantry troops over cavalry, to the desire to keep Bannermen in the reserves, and, again, to the belief that Han troops were better at fighting other Han people. These Han generals achieved victory over the rebels. Also due to the mountainous terrain, Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were also retaken by the Han Chinese Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchus only participating in dealing with logistics and provisions. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on the Qing side during the war. 213 Han Chinese Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen.

Question: How long did the Revolt of the Three Feudatories last?


Answer: Wu

Question: Who declared himself emperor?


Answer: 1681

Question: When did the Qing regain power over southern China?


Answer: other Han people

Question: Who did the Qing think were the better soldiers to battle Han Chinese?


Answer: 400,000

Question: How many Green Standard Army soldiers were on the Qing side?


Answer: 1673-1674

Context: The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673-1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han Chinese (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers.

Question: When did Wu destroy the Qing armies?


Answer: 900,000

Question: How many soldiers did the Qing fight back with?


Answer: crushed by the Green Standard Army

Question: What happened to Wu's army?


Answer: Dzungars

Context: To extend and consolidate the dynasty's control in Central Asia, the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against the Dzungars in Outer Mongolia. The Kangxi Emperor was able to successfully expel Galdan's invading forces from these regions, which were then incorporated into the empire. Galdan was eventually killed in the Dzungar–Qing War. In 1683, Qing forces received the surrender of Taiwan from Zheng Keshuang, grandson of Koxinga, who had conquered Taiwan from the Dutch colonists as a base against the Qing. Zheng Keshuang was awarded the title "Duke Haicheng" (海澄公) and was inducted into the Han Chinese Plain Red Banner of the Eight Banners when he moved to Beijing. Several Ming princes had accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan in 1661-1662, including the Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui and Prince Zhu Honghuan (朱弘桓), son of Zhu Yihai, where they lived in the Kingdom of Tungning. The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan in 1683 back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives in exile since their lives were spared from execution. Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi's forces for series of battles over Albazin, the far eastern outpost of the Tsardom of Russia. Zheng's former soldiers on Taiwan like the rattan shield troops were also inducted into the Eight Banners and used by the Qing against Russian Cossacks at Albazin. The 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk was China's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries. After Galdan's death, his followers, as adherents to Tibetan Buddhism, attempted to control the choice of the next Dalai Lama. Kangxi dispatched two armies to Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing.

Question: Who did Kangxi fight?


Answer: Dzungar–Qing War

Question: When was Galdan killed?


Answer: Outer Mongolia

Question: Where did Kangxi lead an army?


Answer: 1683

Question: When did Taiwan fall?


Answer: Russia

Question: What European country did Kangxi fight?


Answer: 1722

Context: After the Kangxi Emperor's death in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong (雍親王), became the Yongzheng Emperor. In the later years of Kangxi's reign, Yongzheng and his brothers had fought, and there were rumours that he had usurped the throne(most of the rumours believe that Yongzheng's brother Yingzhen (Kangxi's 14th son) is the real successor of Kangxi Emperor, the reason why Yingzhen failed to sit on the throne is because Yongzheng and his confidant Keduo Long tampered the content of Kangxi's testament at the night when Kangxi passed away), a charge for which there is little evidence. In fact, his father had trusted him with delicate political issues and discussed state policy with him. When Yongzheng came to power at the age of 45, he felt a sense of urgency about the problems which had accumulated in his father's later years and did not need instruction in how to exercise power. In the words of one recent historian, he was "severe, suspicious, and jealous, but extremely capable and resourceful," and in the words of another, turned out to be an "early modern state-maker of the first order."

Question: When did Kangxi die?


Answer: Prince Yong

Question: Who took Kangxi's place?


Answer: 45

Question: How old was Yongzheng when he took over?


Answer: anti-Manchu writer

Context: He moved rapidly. First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and reversed what he saw as his father's laxness by cracking down on unorthodox sects and by decapitating an anti-Manchu writer his father had pardoned. In 1723 he outlawed Christianity and expelled Christian missionaries, though some were allowed to remain in the capital. Next, he moved to control the government. He expanded his father's system of Palace Memorials which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and created a small Grand Council of personal advisors which eventually grew into the emperor's de facto cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize that the financial crisis was even greater than he had thought, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local landowning elites and mounted a campaign to enforce collection of the land tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in the north, in the south and lower Yangzi valley, where Kangxi had wooed the elites, there were long established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted.

Question: Who did Yongzheng behead?


Answer: Christianity

Question: What religion did Yongzheng ban?


Answer: collection of the land tax

Question: What did Yongzheng crack down on?


Answer: 1723

Question: When did Yongzheng ban christianity?


Answer: Zhu Zhiliang

Context: In 1725 Yongzheng bestowed the hereditary title of Marquis on a descendant of the Ming dynasty Imperial family, Zhu Zhiliang, who received a salary from the Qing government and whose duty was to perform rituals at the Ming tombs, and was also inducted the Chinese Plain White Banner in the Eight Banners. Later the Qianlong Emperor bestowed the title Marquis of Extended Grace posthumously on Zhu Zhuliang in 1750, and the title passed on through twelve generations of Ming descendants until the end of the Qing dynasty.

Question: Who did Yongzheng call Marquis?


Answer: 1725

Question: When did Yongzheng give this title?


Answer: perform rituals

Question: What was Zhu's job?


Answer: 1727

Context: Yongzheng also inherited diplomatic and strategic problems. A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up the Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local Miao chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance.

Question: When was the Treaty of Kyakhta written?


Answer: Russia

Question: Who was the partner in the Treaty of Kyakhta?


Answer: territory and trading rights

Question: What did the treaty give to the Russians?


Answer: Mongolia

Question: What did the Qing get from the Treaty of Kyakhta?


Answer: 3,400 books

Context: Qianlong's reign saw the launch of several ambitious cultural projects, including the compilation of the Siku Quanshu, or Complete Repository of the Four Branches of Literature. With a total of over 3,400 books, 79,000 chapters, and 36,304 volumes, the Siku Quanshu is the largest collection of books in Chinese history. Nevertheless, Qianlong used Literary Inquisition to silence opposition. The accusation of individuals began with the emperor's own interpretation of the true meaning of the corresponding words. If the emperor decided these were derogatory or cynical towards the dynasty, persecution would begin. Literary inquisition began with isolated cases at the time of Shunzhi and Kangxi, but became a pattern under Qianlong's rule, during which there were 53 cases of literary persecution.

Question: How many books were in the Siku Quanshu?


Answer: 36,304 volumes

Question: How many volumes were in the Siku Quanshu?


Answer: Qianlong

Question: Who created the Siku Quanshu?


Answer: 53

Question: How many literary persecutions were there under Qianlongs reign?


Answer: potato and peanut

Context: China also began suffering from mounting overpopulation during this period. Population growth was stagnant for the first half of the 17th century due to civil wars and epidemics, but prosperity and internal stability gradually reversed this trend. The introduction of new crops from the Americas such as the potato and peanut allowed an improved food supply as well, so that the total population of China during the 18th century ballooned from 100 million to 300 million people. Soon all available farmland was used up, forcing peasants to work ever-smaller and more intensely worked plots. The Qianlong Emperor once bemoaned the country's situation by remarking "The population continues to grow, but the land does not." The only remaining part of the empire that had arable farmland was Manchuria, where the provinces of Jilin and Heilongjiang had been walled off as a Manchu homeland. The emperor decreed for the first time that Han Chinese civilians were forbidden to settle. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18 provinces) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing.

Question: What crops helped the Chinese?


Answer: prosperity and internal stability

Question: What led to overpopulation in China?


Answer: 100 million

Question: How many people lived in China at the start of the 18th century?


Answer: 300 million

Question: How many people lived in China at the end of the 20th century?


Answer: Manchuria

Question: What was the last part of China with farmland left?


Answer: Manchuria

Context: However Qing rule saw an massively increasing amount of Han Chinese both illegally and legally streaming into Manchuria and settling down to cultivate land as Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese peasants to rent on their land and grow grain, most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted as they went over the Great Wall and Willow Palisade, during the eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands which were part of coutrier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands, in garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population.

Question: Where did Hans go to to find land?


Answer: 500,000 hectares

Question: How much land did the Han cultivate?


Answer: 80%

Question: What percent of the population in Manchuria was Han?


Answer: Manchuria and Inner Mongolia

Context: Han Chinese farmers were resettled from north China by the Qing to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation. Wasteland was reclaimed by Han Chinese squatters in addition to other Han who rented land from Manchu landlords. Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia so that Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s. Qianlong allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite him issuing edicts in favor of banning them from 1740–1776. Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area. Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, the path linking Jinzhou, Fengtian, Tieling, Changchun, Hulun, and Ningguta was settled by Han Chinese during the Qianlong Emperor's rule, and Han Chinese were the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800. To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing sold formerly Manchu only lands along the Sungari to Han Chinese at the beginning of the Daoguang Emperor's reign, and Han Chinese filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s according to Abbe Huc.

Question: Where were starving Han sent by the Qing?


Answer: tens of thousands of hectares

Question: How much land did the Han farm in Inner Mongolia?


Answer: "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands

Question: What other types of land were the Han allowed to farm?


Answer: Qianlong

Question: Who was the emperor in the later half of the 18th century?


Answer: Han Chinese

Question: What ethnicity was the majority in urban Manchuria?


Answer: European states

Context: However, the 18th century saw the European empires gradually expand across the world, as European states developed economies built on maritime trade. The dynasty was confronted with newly developing concepts of the international system and state to state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in nearby India and on the islands that are now Indonesia. The Qing response, successful for a time, was in 1756 to establish the Canton System, which restricted maritime trade to that city and gave monopoly trading rights to private Chinese merchants. The British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments.

Question: Which empires grew during the 18th century?


Answer: India

Question: What country near China did the Europeans first control?


Answer: Canton

Question: What was the only city the Chinese allowed the Europeans into to trade?


Answer: maritime trade

Question: What were the economies of the European empires built on?


Answer: British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company

Question: Which two European companies traded in Canton?


Answer: silk, tea, and ceramics

Context: Demand in Europe for Chinese goods such as silk, tea, and ceramics could only be met if European companies funneled their limited supplies of silver into China. In the late 1700s, the governments of Britain and France were deeply concerned about the imbalance of trade and the drain of silver. To meet the growing Chinese demand for opium, the British East India Company greatly expanded its production in Bengal. Since China's economy was essentially self-sufficient, the country had little need to import goods or raw materials from the Europeans, so the usual way of payment was through silver. The Daoguang Emperor, concerned both over the outflow of silver and the damage that opium smoking was causing to his subjects, ordered Lin Zexu to end the opium trade. Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year.

Question: What products from China did Europeans want?


Answer: silver

Question: What did the Chinese want in return?


Answer: imbalance of trade and the drain of silver

Question: What were the British and French concerned about?


Answer: opium

Question: What else did the Chinese want from the British?


Answer: Bengal

Question: Where was opium made?


Answer: British

Context: The First Opium War revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing junks, was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of the British Royal Navy. British soldiers, using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmaneuvered and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow to China. The Treaty of Nanjing, the first of the unequal treaties, demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the five ports of Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo and Shanghai to western trade and missionaries, and to cede Hong Kong Island to Britain. It revealed many inadequacies in the Qing government and provoked widespread rebellions against the already hugely unpopular regime.

Question: Who fought the Qing in the First Opium War?


Answer: 1842

Question: When did the Qing surrender to the British?


Answer: Treaty of Nanjing,

Question: What treaty marked the end of the First Opium War?


Answer: Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo and Shanghai

Question: What 5 ports did the treaty force open?


Answer: Hong Kong Island

Question: What island was given to the British?


Answer: The Taiping Rebellion

Context: The Taiping Rebellion in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of anti-Manchu sentiment threatening the stability of the dynasty. Hong Xiuquan, a failed civil service candidate, led the Taiping Rebellion, amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine. In 1851 Hong Xiuquan and others launched an uprising in Guizhou province, established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with Hong himself as king, claiming he often had visions of God and that he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, footbinding, judicial torture, and the worship of idols were all banned. However, success and subsequent authority and power led to internal feuds, defections and corruption. In addition, British and French troops, equipped with modern weapons, had come to the assistance of the Qing imperial army. It was not until 1864 that Qing armies under Zeng Guofan succeeded in crushing the revolt. The rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers; it was also "bloodiest civil war of all time." Between 20 and 30 million people died during its fourteen-year course from 1850 to 1864. After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the Muslims and Miao people of China against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the Dungan Revolt (1862–77) in the northwest and the Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) in Yunnan.

Question: What marked the first occurence of anti-Manchu feeling?


Answer: Hong Xiuquan

Question: Who led the Rebellion?


Answer: 1851

Question: When did the Rebellion start?


Answer: Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

Question: What entity was established in Guizhou province?


Answer: Hong

Question: Who was king of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom?


Answer: unsatisfied

Context: The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing, gave grudging support to the Qing government during the Taiping and Nian Rebellions. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives were lost, and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing.

Question: Were the European empires satisfied or unsatisfied by the Treaty of Nanjing?


Answer: Qing government

Question: Who did the Europeans support during the Rebellions?


Answer: 1854

Question: When did the British try to redo the Treaty of Nanjing?


Answer: 1860

Context: Ratification of the treaty the following year led to resumption of hostilities and in 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing, the emperor and his court fled the capital for the imperial hunting lodge at Rehe. Once in Beijing, the Anglo-French forces looted the Old Summer Palace, and in an act of revenge for the arrest of several Englishmen, burnt it to the ground. Prince Gong, a younger half-brother of the emperor, who had been left as his brother's proxy in the capital, was forced to sign the Convention of Beijing. Meanwhile, the humiliated emperor died the following year at Rehe.

Question: Whed did the British and French invade Beijing?


Answer: Rehe

Question: Where did the emperor go?


Answer: burnt it to the ground

Question: What happened to the Old Summer Palace?


Answer: Convention of Beijing

Question: What did Prince Gong sign?


Answer: Zuo Zongtang

Context: Chinese generals and officials such as Zuo Zongtang led the suppression of rebellions and stood behind the Manchus. When the Tongzhi Emperor came to the throne at the age of five in 1861, these officials rallied around him in what was called the Tongzhi Restoration. Their aim was to adopt western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values. Zeng Guofan, in alliance with Prince Gong, sponsored the rise of younger officials such as Li Hongzhang, who put the dynasty back on its feet financially and instituted the Self-Strengthening Movement. The reformers then proceeded with institutional reforms, including China's first unified ministry of foreign affairs, the Zongli Yamen; allowing foreign diplomats to reside in the capital; establishment of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service; the formation of modernized armies, such as the Beiyang Army, as well as a navy; and the purchase from Europeans of armament factories.

Question: Who put down the rebellions?


Answer: five

Question: How old was Tongzhi when he came to power?


Answer: 1861

Question: What year did Tongzhi take power?


Answer: western military technology

Question: What would the Chinese use to continue Confucian values?


Answer: Beiyang Army

Question: What was the name of a modern Chinese Army?


Answer: Russian

Context: The dynasty lost control of peripheral territories bit by bit. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the Russian Empire took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the Tientsin Massacre of 1870, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The Sino-French War began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on the French. A French invasion of Taiwan was halted and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the Battle of Bang Bo. However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the Treaty of Tientsin (1885) and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam.

Question: Who did the Chinese lose territory to in exchange for help?


Answer: 1870

Question: When was the Tientsin Massacre?


Answer: 1858

Question: When was the Cochinchina Campaign?


Answer: Indochina

Question: Which territory did France control?


Answer: murder of French nuns

Question: What triggered the Tientsin Massacre?


Answer: naval weakness

Context: Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China’s nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go......In the Arrow War (1856–60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia, and defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884–85). But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."

Question: What was the main problem the Qing had in preventing invasion from Europe?


Answer: (1856–60)

Question: When was the Arrow War?


Answer: Gulf of Zhili

Question: Where did the French and English land in 1860?


Answer: Edward L. Dreyer

Question: Which historian blamed naval weakness for European imperialism in China?


Answer: Gapsin Coup

Context: In 1884, pro-Japanese Koreans in Seoul led the Gapsin Coup. Tensions between China and Japan rose after China intervened to suppress the uprising. Japanese Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi and Li Hongzhang signed the Convention of Tientsin, an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895 was a military humiliation. The Treaty of Shimonoseki recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan. The terms might have been harsher, but when Japanese citizen attacked and wounded Li Hongzhang, an international outcry shamed the Japanese into revising them. The original agreement stipulated the cession of Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, but Russia, with its own designs on the territory, along with Germany and France, in what was known as the Triple Intervention, successfully put pressure on the Japanese to abandon the peninsula.

Question: What coup happened in 1884?


Answer: pro-Japanese Koreans

Question: Who was involved in the Gapsin Coup?


Answer: Tensions

Question: What resulted between the Chinese and Japanese after the Coup?


Answer: Itō Hirobumi and Li Hongzhang

Question: Who signed the Convention of Tientsin?


Answer: 1895

Question: When did the First Sino-Japanese War happen?


Answer: Cixi

Context: These years saw an evolution in the participation of Empress Dowager Cixi (Wade–Giles: Tz'u-Hsi) in state affairs. She entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine to the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850–1861) and came to power in 1861 after her five-year-old son, the Tongzhi Emperor ascended the throne. She, the Empress Dowager Ci'an (who had been Xianfeng's empress), and Prince Gong (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), staged a coup that ousted several regents for the boy emperor. Between 1861 and 1873, she and Ci'an served as regents, choosing the reign title "Tongzhi" (ruling together). Following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the Guangxu Emperor, took the throne, in violation of the dynastic custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began. In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent.

Question: What was the name of Xianfeng's concubine?


Answer: Tongzhi

Question: Who was Cixi's son?


Answer: 1875

Question: When did Tongzhi Emperor die?


Answer: Guangxu

Question: Who took over from Tongzhi?


Answer: Summer Palace

Context: From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the Summer Palace. On November 1, 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in the southern part of Shandong Province (the Juye Incident). In response, Germany used the murders as a pretext for a naval occupation of Jiaozhou Bay. The occupation prompted a "scramble for concessions" in 1898, which included the German lease of Jiazhou Bay, the Russian acquisition of Liaodong, and the British lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong.

Question: Where did the Empress Dowager spend most of her time?


Answer: November 1, 1897,

Question: When were two missionaries killed?


Answer: Shandong Province

Question: Where were the missionaries killed?


Answer: Juye Incident

Question: What was the murders of the missionaries called?


Answer: Hundred Days' Reform of 1898

Context: In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as Kang Youwei were given positions of influence. The emperor issued a series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the bureaucracy, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the empress dowager stepped in to call them off, arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and the goals of reform were implanted.

Question: What did the emperor do in response to so many defeats by the Europeans?


Answer: Kang Youwei

Question: Name an advisor to Guangxu?


Answer: empress dowager

Question: Who took over the policy of China?


Answer: North China

Context: Widespread drought in North China, combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government, created conditions that led to the emergence of the Righteous and Harmonious Fists, or "Boxers." In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter. A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies (the Eight-Nation Alliance) then entered China without diplomatic notice, much less permission. Cixi declared war on all of these nations, only to lose control of Beijing after a short, but hard-fought campaign. She fled to Xi'an. The victorious allies drew up scores of demands on the Qing government, including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials.

Question: Where was there a drought?


Answer: Righteous and Harmonious Fists

Question: What was another name for the Boxers?


Answer: 1900

Question: When did the Boxers begin to kill missionaries and Chinese Christians?


Answer: A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies

Question: Who invaded China?


Answer: Xi'an

Question: Where did Cixi go after Beijing fell to the 8 armies?


Answer: issued an imperial edict

Context: By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun in China, and it was growing continuously. To overcome such problems, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an imperial edict in 1901 calling for reform proposals from the governors-general and governors and initiated the era of the dynasty's "New Policies", also known as the "Late Qing Reform". The edict paved the way for the most far-reaching reforms in terms of their social consequences, including the creation of a national education system and the abolition of the imperial examinations in 1905.

Question: What did Cixi do in 1901?


Answer: "Late Qing Reform"

Question: What were the governments New Policies also called?


Answer: 1905

Question: When were imperial examinations halted?


Answer: 1908

Context: The Guangxu Emperor died on November 14, 1908, and on November 15, 1908, Cixi also died. Rumors held that she or Yuan Shikai ordered trusted eunuchs to poison the Guangxu Emperor, and an autopsy conducted nearly a century later confirmed lethal levels of arsenic in his corpse. Puyi, the oldest son of Zaifeng, Prince Chun, and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. This was followed by the dismissal of General Yuan Shikai from his former positions of power. In April 1911 Zaifeng created a cabinet in which there were two vice-premiers. Nonetheless, this cabinet was also known by contemporaries as "The Royal Cabinet" because among the thirteen cabinet members, five were members of the imperial family or Aisin Gioro relatives. This brought a wide range of negative opinions from senior officials like Zhang Zhidong. The Wuchang Uprising of October 10, 1911, led to the creation of a new central government, the Republic of China, in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen as its provisional head. Many provinces soon began "separating" from Qing control. Seeing a desperate situation unfold, the Qing government brought Yuan Shikai back to military power. He took control of his Beiyang Army to crush the revolution in Wuhan at the Battle of Yangxia. After taking the position of Prime Minister and creating his own cabinet, Yuan Shikai went as far as to ask for the removal of Zaifeng from the regency. This removal later proceeded with directions from Empress Dowager Longyu.

Question: What year did Guangxu die?


Answer: 1908

Question: What year did Cixi die?


Answer: Prince Chun

Question: Who ruled after Guangxu?


Answer: two

Question: How old was Prince Chun?


Answer: 1911

Question: What year was the Republic of China created?


Answer: Yuan Shikai

Context: With Zaifeng gone, Yuan Shikai and his Beiyang commanders effectively dominated Qing politics. He reasoned that going to war would be unreasonable and costly, especially when noting that the Qing government had a goal for constitutional monarchy. Similarly, Sun Yat-sen's government wanted a republican constitutional reform, both aiming for the benefit of China's economy and populace. With permission from Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai began negotiating with Sun Yat-sen, who decided that his goal had been achieved in forming a republic, and that therefore he could allow Yuan to step into the position of President of the Republic of China.

Question: Who led the Qing?


Answer: Sun Yat-sen

Question: Who negotiated with Yuan Shikai to prevent war?


Answer: Sun Yat-sen,

Question: Who led the Republic of China?


Answer: Yuan

Question: Who became the President?


Answer: 1912

Context: On 12 February 1912, after rounds of negotiations, Longyu issued an imperial edict bringing about the abdication of the child emperor Puyi. This brought an end to over 2,000 years of Imperial China and began an extended period of instability of warlord factionalism. The unorganized political and economic systems combined with a widespread criticism of Chinese culture led to questioning and doubt about the future. In the 1930s, the Empire of Japan invaded Northeast China and founded Manchukuo in 1932, with Puyi, as the emperor. After the invasion by the Soviet Union, Manchukuo collapsed in 1945.

Question: What year did the end of Imperial China occur?


Answer: 2,000 years

Question: How long did Imperial China last for?


Answer: 1932

Question: When was Manchukuo created?


Answer: Han Chinese and Manchus

Context: The early Qing emperors adopted the bureaucratic structures and institutions from the preceding Ming dynasty but split rule between Han Chinese and Manchus, with some positions also given to Mongols. Like previous dynasties, the Qing recruited officials via the imperial examination system, until the system was abolished in 1905. The Qing divided the positions into civil and military positions, each having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into a and b categories. Civil appointments ranged from attendant to the emperor or a Grand Secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private.

Question: Who split the leadership roles in the Qing dynasty?


Answer: imperial examination system

Question: Where did the Qing find their officials?


Answer: nine

Question: How many ranks were there in civil service in the Qing dynasty?


Answer: Emperor

Context: The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries[c]), each headed by two presidents[d] and assisted by four vice presidents.[e] In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the state examinations. The Grand Secretariat,[f] which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming, lost its importance during the Qing and evolved into an imperial chancery. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming formed the core of the Qing "Outer Court," which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the Forbidden City.

Question: Who was the main leader of the Qing?


Answer: Manchu noblemen and Han officials

Question: Which ethnicities made up the Qing government?


Answer: evolved into an imperial chancery

Question: What happened to the Grand Secretariat?


Answer: imperial family and Manchu nobility

Context: In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "Inner Court," which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the Grand Council.[g] It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Mongols, but it soon took over other military and administrative duties and served to centralize authority under the crown. The Grand Councillors[h] served as a sort of privy council to the emperor.

Question: Who controlled the "Inner Court"?


Answer: Forbidden City

Question: Where was the Inner Court?


Answer: core institution of the inner court

Question: What was the Grand Council?


Answer: square emblem

Context: From the early Qing, the central government was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it. The Han Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule. The distinction between Han Chinese and Manchus extended to their court costumes. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, for example, members of his family were distinguished by garments with a small circular emblem on the back, whereas Han officials wore clothing with a square emblem.

Question: What shape of emblem signified a Han official?


Answer: circular

Question: What shape of emblam signified members of the royal family?


Answer: Manchu and a Han Chinese

Question: Which two ethnicities made up each position in government?


Answer: Lifan Yuan

Context: In addition to the six boards, there was a Lifan Yuan unique to the Qing government. This institution was established to supervise the administration of Tibet and the Mongol lands. As the empire expanded, it took over administrative responsibility of all minority ethnic groups living in and around the empire, including early contacts with Russia — then seen as a tribute nation. The office had the status of a full ministry and was headed by officials of equal rank. However, appointees were at first restricted only to candidates of Manchu and Mongol ethnicity, until later open to Han Chinese as well.

Question: Who governed the areas of Tibet and Mongolia?


Answer: Lifan Yuan

Question: Who administered the minority groups?


Answer: six

Question: How many boards were there in the Qing government?


Answer: Zongli Yamen

Context: Even though the Board of Rites and Lifan Yuan performed some duties of a foreign office, they fell short of developing into a professional foreign service. It was not until 1861 — a year after losing the Second Opium War to the Anglo-French coalition — that the Qing government bowed to foreign pressure and created a proper foreign affairs office known as the Zongli Yamen. The office was originally intended to be temporary and was staffed by officials seconded from the Grand Council. However, as dealings with foreigners became increasingly complicated and frequent, the office grew in size and importance, aided by revenue from customs duties which came under its direct jurisdiction.

Question: What was the foreign service called?


Answer: Board of Rites and Lifan Yuan

Question: Who performed the tasks of the Zongli Yamen before it was created?


Answer: Second Opium War

Question: What was the war called fought between the British and French against the Qing?


Answer: Kangxi

Context: There was also another government institution called Imperial Household Department which was unique to the Qing dynasty. It was established before the fall of the Ming, but it became mature only after 1661, following the death of the Shunzhi Emperor and the accession of his son, the Kangxi Emperor. The department's original purpose was to manage the internal affairs of the imperial family and the activities of the inner palace (in which tasks it largely replaced eunuchs), but it also played an important role in Qing relations with Tibet and Mongolia, engaged in trading activities (jade, ginseng, salt, furs, etc.), managed textile factories in the Jiangnan region, and even published books. Relations with the Salt Superintendents and salt merchants, such as those at Yangzhou, were particularly lucrative, especially since they were direct, and did not go through absorptive layers of bureaucracy. The department was manned by booi,[o] or "bondservants," from the Upper Three Banners. By the 19th century, it managed the activities of at least 56 subagencies.

Question: Which emperor followed Shunzhi?


Answer: Jiangnan region

Question: Where were textile factories located?


Answer: jade, ginseng, salt, furs

Question: What did China trade with Tibet and Mongolia?


Answer: 18th century

Context: Qing China reached its largest extent during the 18th century, when it ruled China proper (eighteen provinces) as well as the areas of present-day Northeast China, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet, at approximately 13 million km2 in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all of which in China proper, but later this number was increased to 22, with Manchuria and Xinjiang being divided or turned into provinces. Taiwan, originally part of Fujian province, became a province of its own in the late 19th century, but was ceded to the Empire of Japan in 1895 following the First Sino-Japanese War. In addition, many surrounding countries, such as Korea (Joseon dynasty), Vietnam frequently paid tribute to China during much of this period. Khanate of Kokand were forced to submit as protectorate and pay tribute to the Qing dynasty in China between 1774 and 1798.

Question: What century did Qing China stretch to its largest?


Answer: 13 million km2

Question: How many kilometers was Qing China at its height?


Answer: 22

Question: How many provinces were there at the height of Qing China?


Answer: 1895

Question: When did Japan take over Taiwan?


Answer: First Sino-Japanese

Question: How did the Japanese win Taiwan?


Answer: Hubei and Hunan

Context: The Qing organization of provinces was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming dynasty, later made into eighteen provinces by splitting for example, Huguang into Hubei and Hunan provinces. The provincial bureaucracy continued the Yuan and Ming practice of three parallel lines, civil, military, and censorate, or surveillance. Each province was administered by a governor (巡撫, xunfu) and a provincial military commander (提督, tidu). Below the province were prefectures (府, fu) operating under a prefect (知府, zhīfǔ), followed by subprefectures under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the county, overseen by a county magistrate. The eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of viceroy or governor-general (總督, zongdu) was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The Viceroy of Zhili, who was responsible for the area surrounding the capital Beijing, is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight.

Question: What two provinces were formed from Huguang?


Answer: governor

Question: What was the name of the highest ranking official in a province?


Answer: prefectures

Question: What were provinces broken up into?


Answer: China proper

Question: What is another name for the main 18 provinces?


Answer: eight

Question: How many viceroys were there in China Proper?


Answer: mid-18th century

Context: By the mid-18th century, the Qing had successfully put outer regions such as Inner and Outer Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang under its control. Imperial commissioners and garrisons were sent to Mongolia and Tibet to oversee their affairs. These territories were also under supervision of a central government institution called Lifan Yuan. Qinghai was also put under direct control of the Qing court. Xinjiang, also known as Chinese Turkestan, was subdivided into the regions north and south of the Tian Shan mountains, also known today as Dzungaria and Tarim Basin respectively, but the post of Ili General was established in 1762 to exercise unified military and administrative jurisdiction over both regions. Dzungaria was fully opened to Han migration by the Qianlong Emperor from the beginning. Han migrants were at first forbidden from permanently settling in the Tarim Basin but were the ban was lifted after the invasion by Jahangir Khoja in the 1820s. Likewise, Manchuria was also governed by military generals until its division into provinces, though some areas of Xinjiang and Northeast China were lost to the Russian Empire in the mid-19th century. Manchuria was originally separated from China proper by the Inner Willow Palisade, a ditch and embankment planted with willows intended to restrict the movement of the Han Chinese, as the area was off-limits to civilian Han Chinese until the government started colonizing the area, especially since the 1860s.

Question: When did Tibet become part of Qing China?


Answer: Lifan Yuan

Question: What was the main government entity that ran the territories like Tibet?


Answer: Xinjiang

Question: What is another name for Chinese Turkestan?


Answer: Qianlong

Question: Which emperor allowed Han migration to Dzungaria?


Answer: military generals

Question: Who first ran Manchuria?


Answer: khan

Context: With respect to these outer regions, the Qing maintained imperial control, with the emperor acting as Mongol khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and protector of Muslims. However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884. During The Great Game era, taking advantage of the Dungan revolt in northwest China, Yaqub Beg invaded Xinjiang from Central Asia with support from the British Empire, and made himself the ruler of the kingdom of Kashgaria. The Qing court sent forces to defeat Yaqub Beg and Xinjiang was reconquered, and then the political system of China proper was formally applied onto Xinjiang. The Kumul Khanate, which was incorporated into the Qing empire as a vassal after helping Qing defeat the Zunghars in 1757, maintained its status after Xinjiang turned into a province through the end of the dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution up until 1930. In early 20th century, Britain sent an expedition force to Tibet and forced Tibetans to sign a treaty. The Qing court responded by asserting Chinese sovereignty over Tibet, resulting in the 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention signed between Britain and China. The British agreed not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet, while China engaged not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet. Furthermore, similar to Xinjiang which was converted into a province earlier, the Qing government also turned Manchuria into three provinces in the early 20th century, officially known as the "Three Northeast Provinces", and established the post of Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces to oversee these provinces, making the total number of regional viceroys to nine.

Question: What title did the emperor hold in Mongolia?


Answer: Yaqub Beg

Question: Who ruled Kashgaria?


Answer: British

Question: Who supported Beg?


Answer: early 20th century

Question: When did the British invade Tibet?


Answer: 1906 Anglo-Chinese Convention

Question: What was the name of the agreement between Britain and the Chinese that kept the British out of Tibet?


Answer: Nurhaci

Context: The early Qing military was rooted in the Eight Banners first developed by Nurhaci to organize Jurchen society beyond petty clan affiliations. There were eight banners in all, differentiated by color. The yellow, bordered yellow, and white banners were known as the "Upper Three Banners" and were under the direct command of the emperor. Only Manchus belonging to the Upper Three Banners, and selected Han Chinese who had passed the highest level of martial exams could serve as the emperor's personal bodyguards. The remaining Banners were known as the "Lower Five Banners." They were commanded by hereditary Manchu princes descended from Nurhachi's immediate family, known informally as the "Iron cap princes". Together they formed the ruling council of the Manchu nation as well as high command of the army. Nurhachi's son Hong Taiji expanded the system to include mirrored Mongol and Han Banners. After capturing Beijing in 1644, the relatively small Banner armies were further augmented by the Green Standard Army, made up of those Ming troops who had surrendered to the Qing, which eventually outnumbered Banner troops three to one. They maintained their Ming era organization and were led by a mix of Banner and Green Standard officers.[citation needed]

Question: Who created the Eight Banners?


Answer: color

Question: How were the 8 banners recognized?


Answer: Upper Three Banners

Question: What were the banners called that were under direct leadership of the emperor?


Answer: Manchus

Question: What ethnicity made up the Upper Three Banners?


Answer: Lower Five Banners

Question: What were the rest of the banners called?


Answer: along ethnic lines

Context: Banner Armies were organized along ethnic lines, namely Manchu and Mongol, but included non-Manchu bondservants registered under the household of their Manchu masters. The years leading up to the conquest increased the number of Han Chinese under Manchu rule, leading Hong Taiji to create the Eight Han Banners (zh), and around the time of the Qing takeover of Beijing, their numbers rapidly swelled. Han Bannermen held high status and power in the early Qing period, especially immediately after the conquest during Shunzhi and Kangxi's reign where they dominated Governor-Generalships and Governorships across China at the expense of both Manchu Bannermen and Han civilians. Han also numerically dominated the Banners up until the mid 18th century. European visitors in Beijing called them "Tartarized Chinese" or "Tartarified Chinese". It was in Qianlong's reign that the Qianlong Emperor, concerned about maintaining Manchu identity, re-emphasized Manchu ethnicity, ancestry, language, and culture in the Eight Banners and started a mass discharge of Han Bannermen from the Eight Banners, either asking them to voluntarily resign from the Banner rolls or striking their names off. This led to a change from Han majority to a Manchu majority within the Banner system, and previous Han Bannermen garrisons in southern China such as at Fuzhou, Zhenjiang, Guangzhou, were replaced by Manchu Bannermen in the purge, which started in 1754. The turnover by Qianlong most heavily impacted Han banner garrisons stationed in the provinces while it less impacted Han Bannermen in Beijing, leaving a larger proportion of remaining Han Bannermen in Beijing than the provinces. Han Bannermen's status was decreased from that point on with Manchu Banners gaining higher status. Han Bannermen numbered 75% in 1648 Shunzhi's reign, 72% in 1723 Yongzheng's reign, but decreased to 43% in 1796 during the first year of Jiaqing's reign, which was after Qianlong's purge. The mass discharge was known as the Disbandment of the Han Banners (zh). Qianlong directed most of his ire at those Han Bannermen descended from defectors who joined the Qing after the Qing passed through the Great Wall at Shanhai Pass in 1644, deeming their ancestors as traitors to the Ming and therefore untrustworthy, while retaining Han Bannermen who were descended from defectors who joined the Qing before 1644 in Liaodong and marched through Shanhai pass, also known as those who "followed the Dragon through the pass" (從龍入關; cong long ru guan).

Question: How were Banner's organized?


Answer: Manchu and Mongol

Question: Which two ethnicities made up the majority of the Banner Armies?


Answer: Han Bannermen

Question: Which ethnicity dominated the army in the reigns of Shunzhi and Kangxi?


Answer: Qianlong's reign

Question: When did Manchu ethnicity become important again in the Eight Banners?


Answer: "Tartarized Chinese" or "Tartarified Chinese"

Question: What did the Europeans call Han Bannermen?


Answer: Taiping Rebellion

Context: Early during the Taiping Rebellion, Qing forces suffered a series of disastrous defeats culminating in the loss of the regional capital city of Nanjing in 1853. Shortly thereafter, a Taiping expeditionary force penetrated as far north as the suburbs of Tianjin, the imperial heartlands. In desperation the Qing court ordered a Chinese official, Zeng Guofan, to organize regional and village militias into an emergency army called tuanlian. Zeng Guofan's strategy was to rely on local gentry to raise a new type of military organization from those provinces that the Taiping rebels directly threatened. This new force became known as the Xiang Army, named after the Hunan region where it was raised. The Xiang Army was a hybrid of local militia and a standing army. It was given professional training, but was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders — mostly members of the Chinese gentry — could muster. The Xiang Army and its successor, the Huai Army, created by Zeng Guofan's colleague and mentee Li Hongzhang, were collectively called the "Yong Ying" (Brave Camp).

Question: What caused the Qing armies to lose many battles?


Answer: Nanjing

Question: What city did the Qing lose in 1853?


Answer: Xiang Army

Question: What was Zeng Guofan?


Answer: Zeng Guofan

Question: Who created a new type of army to thwart the Taiping rebels?


Answer: Hunan region where it was raised

Question: What was the Xiang Army named after?


Answer: Qi Jiguang

Context: Zeng Guofan had no prior military experience. Being a classically educated official, he took his blueprint for the Xiang Army from the Ming general Qi Jiguang, who, because of the weakness of regular Ming troops, had decided to form his own "private" army to repel raiding Japanese pirates in the mid-16th century. Qi Jiguang's doctrine was based on Neo-Confucian ideas of binding troops' loyalty to their immediate superiors and also to the regions in which they were raised. Zeng Guofan's original intention for the Xiang Army was simply to eradicate the Taiping rebels. However, the success of the Yongying system led to its becoming a permanent regional force within the Qing military, which in the long run created problems for the beleaguered central government.

Question: Who inspired Zeng Guofan in creating his army?


Answer: repel raiding Japanese pirates

Question: What did Qi Jiguang's private army do?


Answer: eradicate the Taiping rebels

Question: What was the original plan for the Xiang Army?


Answer: Yongying corps

Context: First, the Yongying system signaled the end of Manchu dominance in Qing military establishment. Although the Banners and Green Standard armies lingered on as a drain on resources, henceforth the Yongying corps became the Qing government's de facto first-line troops. Second, the Yongying corps were financed through provincial coffers and were led by regional commanders, weakening central government's grip on the whole country. Finally, the nature of Yongying command structure fostered nepotism and cronyism amongst its commanders, who laid the seeds of regional warlordism in the first half of the 20th century.

Question: What entity became the main Qing troops?


Answer: provincial coffers

Question: Who paid for the Yongying?


Answer: regional commanders

Question: Who led the Yongying?


Answer: 1860

Context: By the late 19th century, the most conservative elements within the Qing court could no longer ignore China's military weakness. In 1860, during the Second Opium War, the capital Beijing was captured and the Summer Palace sacked by a relatively small Anglo-French coalition force numbering 25,000. The advent of modern weaponry resulting from the European Industrial Revolution had rendered China's traditionally trained and equipped army and navy obsolete. The government attempts to modernize during the Self-Strengthening Movement were initially successful, but yielded few lasting results because of the central government's lack of funds, lack of political will, and unwillingness to depart from tradition.

Question: When was the Second Opium War?


Answer: 25,000

Question: How big was the French-British army?


Answer: Self-Strengthening Movement

Question: What was the Qing governments attempt to create a modern socity called?


Answer: sacked

Question: What happened to the Summer Palace?


Answer: Japan

Context: Losing the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 was a watershed. Japan, a country long regarded by the Chinese as little more than an upstart nation of pirates, annihilated the Qing government's modernized Beiyang Fleet, then deemed to be the strongest naval force in Asia. The Japanese victory occurred a mere three decades after the Meiji Restoration set a feudal Japan on course to emulate the Western nations in their economic and technological achievements. Finally, in December 1894, the Qing government took concrete steps to reform military institutions and to re-train selected units in westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were collectively called the New Army. The most successful of these was the Beiyang Army under the overall supervision and control of a former Huai Army commander, General Yuan Shikai, who used his position to build networks of loyal officers and eventually become President of the Republic of China.

Question: Who beat the Chinese in the First Sino-Japanese War?


Answer: Beiyang Fleet

Question: Which fleet did the Japanese destroy?


Answer: 1894

Question: When did the Qing decide to modernize their military?


Answer: the New Army

Question: What was the new modern army called?


Answer: General Yuan Shikai

Question: Who became the President of the Republic of China?


Answer: population growth

Context: The most significant fact of early and mid-Qing social history was population growth. The population doubled during the 18th century. People in this period were also remarkably on the move. There is evidence suggesting that the empire's rapidly expanding population was geographically mobile on a scale, which, in term of its volume and its protracted and routinized nature, was unprecedented in Chinese history. Indeed, the Qing government did far more to encourage mobility than to discourage it. Migration took several different forms, though might be divided in two varieties: permanent migration for resettlement, and relocation conceived by the party (in theory at least) as a temporary sojourn. Parties to the latter would include the empire's increasingly large and mobile manual workforce, as well as its densely overlapping internal diaspora of local-origin-based merchant groups. It would also included the patterned movement of Qing subjects overseas, largely to Southeastern Asia, in search of trade and other economic opportunities.

Question: What happened in early and middle Qing history?


Answer: doubled

Question: How much did the population grow during the 18th century?


Answer: permanent migration for resettlement, and relocation conceived by the party (in theory at least) as a temporary sojourn

Question: What were the 2 types of migration during the 18th century?


Answer: five

Context: According to statute, Qing society was divided into relatively closed estates, of which in most general terms there were five. Apart from the estates of the officials, the comparatively minuscule aristocracy, and the degree-holding literati, there also existed a major division among ordinary Chinese between commoners and people with inferior status. They were divided into two categories: one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people. The majority of the population belonged to the first category and were described as liangmin, a legal term meaning good people, as opposed to jianmin meaning the mean (or ignoble) people. Qing law explicitly stated that the traditional four occupational groups of scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants were "good", or having a status of commoners. On the other hand, slaves or bondservants, entertainers (including prostitutes and actors), and those low-level employees of government officials were the "mean people". Mean people were considered legally inferior to commoners and suffered unequal treatments, forbidden to take the imperial examination.

Question: How many estates were there in Qing society?


Answer: the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people

Question: What 2 groups were normal Chinese broken into?


Answer: liangmin

Question: What was the legal term for commoner?


Answer: tea, silk and manufactures

Context: By the end of the 17th century, the Chinese economy had recovered from the devastation caused by the wars in which the Ming dynasty were overthrown, and the resulting breakdown of order. In the following century, markets continued to expand as in the late Ming period, but with more trade between regions, a greater dependence on overseas markets and a greatly increased population. After the re-opening of the southeast coast, which had been closed in the late 17th century, foreign trade was quickly re-established, and was expanding at 4% per annum throughout the latter part of the 18th century. China continued to export tea, silk and manufactures, creating a large, favorable trade balance with the West. The resulting inflow of silver expanded the money supply, facilitating the growth of competitive and stable markets.

Question: What did China export?


Answer: silver

Question: What did the Chinese get paid for their goods?


Answer: end of the 17th century

Question: When did the Chinese economy finally recover after the wars with the Mings?


Answer: reduced the tax burden

Context: The government broadened land ownership by returning land that had been sold to large landowners in the late Ming period by families unable to pay the land tax. To give people more incentives to participate in the market, they reduced the tax burden in comparison with the late Ming, and replaced the corvée system with a head tax used to hire laborers. The administration of the Grand Canal was made more efficient, and transport opened to private merchants. A system of monitoring grain prices eliminated severe shortages, and enabled the price of rice to rise slowly and smoothly through the 18th century. Wary of the power of wealthy merchants, Qing rulers limited their trading licenses and usually refused them permission to open new mines, except in poor areas. These restrictions on domestic resource exploration, as well as on foreign trade, are held by some scholars as a cause of the Great Divergence, by which the Western world overtook China economically.

Question: What did the Qing do to reform land ownership?


Answer: rise slowly and smoothly

Question: What happened to the price of rice during the 18th century?


Answer: Western world overtook China economically

Question: What was the Great Divergence?


Answer: 300 million

Context: By the end of the 18th century the population had risen to 300 million from approximately 150 million during the late Ming dynasty. The dramatic rise in population was due to several reasons, including the long period of peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops China received from the Americas, including peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice from Southeast Asia led to a huge increase in production. Merchant guilds proliferated in all of the growing Chinese cities and often acquired great social and even political influence. Rich merchants with official connections built up huge fortunes and patronized literature, theater and the arts. Textile and handicraft production boomed.

Question: What was China's population at the end of the 18th century?


Answer: peace and stability in the 18th century and the import of new crops

Question: What were the reasons for the population explosion during the 18th century?


Answer: peanuts, sweet potatoes and maize. New species of rice

Question: What crops were imported?


Answer: poetry and often skilled in painting

Context: The Qing emperors were generally adept at poetry and often skilled in painting, and offered their patronage to Confucian culture. The Kangxi and Qianlong Emperors, for instance, embraced Chinese traditions both to control them and to proclaim their own legitimacy. The Kangxi Emperor sponsored the Peiwen Yunfu, a rhyme dictionary published in 1711, and the Kangxi Dictionary published in 1716, which remains to this day an authoritative reference. The Qianlong Emperor sponsored the largest collection of writings in Chinese history, the Siku Quanshu, completed in 1782. Court painters made new versions of the Song masterpiece, Zhang Zeduan's Along the River During the Qingming Festival whose depiction of a prosperous and happy realm demonstrated the beneficence of the emperor. The emperors undertook tours of the south and commissioned monumental scrolls to depict the grandeur of the occasion. Imperial patronage also encouraged the industrial production of ceramics and Chinese export porcelain.

Question: What arts were the Qing emperors good at?


Answer: Peiwen Yunfu

Question: What was the rhyme dictionary called that was published by Kangxi?


Answer: 1716

Question: When was the Kangxi Dictionary published?


Answer: 1782

Question: When was the Siku Quanshu finished?


Answer: Four Wangs and the individualists Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707)

Context: Yet the most impressive aesthetic works were done among the scholars and urban elite. Calligraphy and painting remained a central interest to both court painters and scholar-gentry who considered the Four Arts part of their cultural identity and social standing. The painting of the early years of the dynasty included such painters as the orthodox Four Wangs and the individualists Bada Shanren (1626–1705) and Shitao (1641–1707). The nineteenth century saw such innovations as the Shanghai School and the Lingnan School which used the technical skills of tradition to set the stage for modern painting.

Question: Name three painters?


Answer: Shanghai School and the Lingnan School

Question: What two schools of art were created in the 19th century?


Answer: Calligraphy and painting

Question: Name two arts of the Four Arts?


Answer: Poetry

Context: Literature grew to new heights in the Qing period. Poetry continued as a mark of the cultivated gentleman, but women wrote in larger and larger numbers and poets came from all walks of life. The poetry of the Qing dynasty is a lively field of research, being studied (along with the poetry of the Ming dynasty) for its association with Chinese opera, developmental trends of Classical Chinese poetry, the transition to a greater role for vernacular language, and for poetry by women in Chinese culture. The Qing dynasty was a period of much literary collection and criticism, and many of the modern popular versions of Classical Chinese poems were transmitted through Qing dynasty anthologies, such as the Quantangshi and the Three Hundred Tang Poems. Pu Songling brought the short story form to a new level in his Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, published in the mid-18th century, and Shen Fu demonstrated the charm of the informal memoir in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, written in the early 19th century but published only in 1877. The art of the novel reached a pinnacle in Cao Xueqin's Dream of the Red Chamber, but its combination of social commentary and psychological insight were echoed in highly skilled novels such as Wu Jingzi's The Scholars (1750) and Li Ruzhen's Flowers in the Mirror (1827).

Question: What was the sign of a gentleman?


Answer: women

Question: Who started writing poety during the Qing dynasty?


Answer: Strange Stories

Question: What was the name of Pu Songling's collection of short stories?


Answer: Cao Xueqin

Question: Who wrote the novel Dream of the Red Chamber?


Answer: Six Chapters of a Floating Life

Question: What was the name of Shen Fu's memoir?


Answer: Yuan Mei

Context: Cuisine aroused a cultural pride in the accumulated richness of a long and varied past. The gentleman gourmet, such as Yuan Mei, applied aesthetic standards to the art of cooking, eating, and appreciation of tea at a time when New World crops and products entered everyday life. The Suiyuan Shidan written by him, detailed the culinary esthetics and theory, along with a wide range of recipes from the ruling period of Qianlong during Qing Dynasty. The Manchu Han Imperial Feast originated at the court. Although this banquet was probably never common, it reflected an appreciation by Han Chinese for Manchu culinary customs. Nevertheless, culinary traditionalists such as Yuan Mei lambasted the opulent culinary rituals of the Manchu Han Imperial Feast, saying that it is cause in part by "...the vulgar habits of bad chefs" and that "Display this trite are useful only for welcoming new relations through one’s gates or when the boss comes to visit." (皆惡廚陋習。只可用之於新親上門，上司入境)

Question: Who wrote the Suiyuan Shidan?


Answer: recipes

Question: What was the Suiyaun Shidan about?


Answer: appreciation by Han Chinese for Manchu culinary customs

Question: What was the Manchu Han Imperial Feast?


Answer: pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas

Context: The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the descendants of the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Americas. Pueblos indígenas (indigenous peoples) is a common term in Spanish-speaking countries. Aborigen (aboriginal/native) is used in Argentina, whereas "Amerindian" is used in Quebec, The Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean. Indigenous peoples are commonly known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, which include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives.

Question: Who are the indigenous people of the Americas descended from?


Answer: Pueblos indígenas

Question: What is a common term in Spanish speaking countries for the indigenous peoples?


Answer: Amerindian

Question: In Quebec, The Guianas and places in the Caribbean where English is spoken, what is the preferred term for the indigenous people of the Americas?


Answer: Aborigen

Question: What term is used in Argentina to refer to the original peoples of a continent?


Answer: Native Americans

Question: How are the indigenous people most commonly referred to by citizens of the U.S.?


Answer: Asia

Context: According to the prevailing theories of the settlement of the Americas, migrations of humans from Asia (in particular North Asia) to the Americas took place via Beringia, a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. The majority of experts agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration via Beringia took place at least 13,500 years ago, with disputed evidence that people had migrated into the Americas much earlier, up to 40,000 years ago. These early Paleo-Indians spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there since their genesis, described by a wide range of creation myths.

Question: Where do most theories today attribute the settlement of the Americas as originating from?


Answer: a land bridge which connected the two continents

Question: What was Beringia?


Answer: Beringia

Question: How did humans cross over to the Americas from Asia?


Answer: 13,500 years ago

Question: Most experts can at least agree that the earliest pre-modern human migration took place when?


Answer: a wide range of creation myths

Question: How do the indigenous peoples explain how they came to live in the Americas?


Answer: Indian

Context: Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. The Americas came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the names "Indies" and "Indian", which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the aboriginal peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by indigenous peoples but has been embraced by many over the last two centuries.[citation needed] Even though the term "Indian" does not include the Aleuts, Inuit, or Yupik peoples, these groups are considered indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Question: What incorrect term for the indigenous population originated with Christopher Columbus?


Answer: East Indies

Question: Where did Columbus believe he had arrived?


Answer: West Indies

Question: Because of Columbus' mistake, the Americas came to be known as what?


Answer: some kind of racial or cultural unity

Question: What is implied by the global term of "Indian"?


Answer: indigenous

Question: Despite fitting under the umbrella label of "Indian", Aleuts, Inuit and Yupik peoples are still considered to be what to the Americas?


Answer: hunter-gatherers

Context: Although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in Amazonia, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time and work in reshaping and cultivating the flora indigenous to the Americas. Although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires.

Question: What were many of the indigenous people of the Americas traditionally?


Answer: agricultural endowment

Question: What remains as a testament to the time and work the indigenous people spent cultivating the flora of the Americas?


Answer: farming, hunting, and gathering

Question: What did many of the societies practice a mix of?


Answer: indigenous

Question: Large cities, chiefdoms, monuments and empires were just some of the things created by which peoples?


Answer: aquaculture and agriculture

Question: What did many segments of the indigenous population also practice?


Answer: indigenous

Context: Many parts of the Americas are still populated by indigenous peoples; some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. At least a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, and Nahuatl, count their speakers in millions. Many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, but also cater to modern needs. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples.

Question: Belize, Chile and Greenland are just some countries with sizable populations of what peoples?


Answer: Many parts of the Americas

Question: Where are there still populations of indigenous peoples?


Answer: At least a thousand

Question: How many different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas?


Answer: religion, social organization, and subsistence practices

Question: What do many indigenous cultures still practice to different extends to this day?


Answer: Western culture

Question: What have some indigenous peoples managed to remain in relative isolation from?


Answer: ongoing

Context: The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, provide the subject of ongoing research and discussion. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the land bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to north west North America (Alaska). Alaska was a glacial refugia because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.

Question: How Paleo-Indians migrated to the Americas is still a matter for what type of research?


Answer: last

Question: When did humans inhabit North and South America's continents?


Answer: falling sea levels

Question: What allowed people to move across Beringia to North America?


Answer: snowfall

Question: A small population could exist in Alaska because of it's lack of any significant what?


Answer: Laurentide Ice Sheet

Question: What confined the nomadic inhabitants to East Beringia for thousands of years?


Answer: single

Context: Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years. Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets.

Question: What do studies on the genetics of the first American inhabitants conclude about their ancestral population?


Answer: in isolation

Question: Where did the single ancestral population of all the indigenous peoples of the Americas likely develop?


Answer: 10–20,000 years

Question: How many years may the isolation of the peoples in Beringia lasted?


Answer: 16,500 years ago

Question: When did the glaciers begin to melt?


Answer: Pleistocene megafauna

Question: What did the people follow in the corridors between the ice sheets?


Answer: directly ancestral

Context: The data indicate that the individual was from a population directly ancestral to present South American and Central American Native American populations, and closely related to present North American Native American populations. The implication is that there was an early divergence between North American and Central American plus South American populations. Hypotheses which posit that invasions subsequent to the Clovis culture overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas were ruled out.

Question: What does the data indicate about the population the individual was from?


Answer: present North American Native American

Question: What populations is the individual closely related to?


Answer: early

Question: What type of divergence is implicated to have occurred between North American and South American populations?


Answer: ruled out

Question: Theories that there were invasions which overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas have been what?


Answer: before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492

Context: While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus' initial landing. "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the great indigenous civilizations of the Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya civilizations) and those of the Andes (Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca Confederation, Cañaris).

Question: The term Pre-Columbian technically refers to which era?


Answer: 1492

Question: When was Columbus' first voyage?


Answer: conquered or significantly influenced

Question: In practice, Pre-Columbian refers to the history of the indigenous cultures of America prior to Europeans doing what to them?


Answer: "Pre-Columbian"

Question: What term is used most often when discussing the great civilizations of the Americas?


Answer: Andes

Question: What area of the Americas did the Inca Empire, Moche culture and Muisca confederation hail from?


Answer: pre-Columbian

Context: Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, and Nahua peoples, had their own written records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and Christian pyres destroyed many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.

Question: Urban settlements and complex societal hierarchies are just some of the hallmarks established by which civilizations?


Answer: Some of these civilizations

Question: What had long faded prior to the first European and African arrivals?


Answer: oral history and through archaeological investigations

Question: How do we know about some of the civilizations that were gone by the time of European arrival?


Answer: written records

Question: What did European colonists destroy on their pyres?


Answer: a few documents

Question: What gave today's historians a glimpse of the culture and knowledge of the indigenous civilizations?


Answer: many accomplishments

Context: According to both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations at the time of European encounter had achieved many accomplishments. For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan, the ancient site of Mexico City, with an estimated population of 200,000. American civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding.

Question: What had the civilizations in the Americas achieved by the time the Europeans encountered them?


Answer: one of the largest cities in the world

Question: What had the Aztec civilization constructed?


Answer: 200,000

Question: How big was the population of the Aztec cit of Tenochtitlan?


Answer: American

Question: Astronomy and mathematics were also accomplishments of which civilizations?


Answer: thousands

Question: How many years of selective breeding did it take to domesticate maize?


Answer: lives and cultures of the peoples of the continents

Context: The European colonization of the Americas forever changed the lives and cultures of the peoples of the continents. Although the exact pre-contact population of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Native American populations diminished by between 80 and 90% within the first centuries of contact with Europeans. The leading cause was disease. The continent was ravaged by epidemics of diseases such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, which were brought from Europe by the early explorers and spread quickly into new areas even before later explorers and colonists reached them. Native Americans suffered high mortality rates due to their lack of prior exposure to these diseases. The loss of lives was exacerbated by conflict between colonists and indigenous people. Colonists also frequently perpetrated massacres on the indigenous groups and enslaved them. According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 whites and 30,000 Native Americans.

Question: What did the European colonization forever change?


Answer: between 80 and 90%

Question: How much did the population of the Americas decrease after first contact with the Europeans?


Answer: disease

Question: What was the leading cause of death for the native population after European contact?


Answer: smallpox, measles, and cholera

Question: What triad of disease epidemics ravaged the American continent?


Answer: lack of prior exposure

Question: Why did Native Americans suffer such high mortality rates to the diseases?


Answer: the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola

Context: The first indigenous group encountered by Columbus were the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola who represented the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70% of the Taínos had died. They had no immunity to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population. Increasing punishment of the Taínos for revolting against forced labour, despite measures put in place by the encomienda, which included religious education and protection from warring tribes, eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion.

Question: Who was the first group of indigenous people Columbus encountered?


Answer: dominant culture

Question: What did the Taínos represent in the Greater Antilles and Bahamas?


Answer: 70%

Question: What percentage of the Taínos were dead thirty years after contact with Columbus?


Answer: no immunity to European diseases

Question: Why were outbreaks of measles and smallpox able to so easily decimate the Taínos' population?


Answer: Increasing punishment

Question: What led to the last great Taínos rebellion?


Answer: suicidal

Context: Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from the cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison. Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries. Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace.

Question: What behaviors did the Taínos begin to adopt after years of mistreatment?


Answer: aborting or killing

Question: What did Taínos women start doing to their infants?


Answer: violent poison

Question: Why would ingesting untreated cassava be a bad idea?


Answer: Francisco Barrionuevo

Question: Who was sent to negotiate a peace treaty with the rebels?


Answer: thirteen

Question: How many years was a Taínos Cacique able to hold ou in the Baoruco Mountain Range?


Answer: epidemic disease

Context: Various theories for the decline of the Native American populations emphasize epidemic diseases, conflicts with Europeans, and conflicts among warring tribes. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives. Some believe that after first contacts with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the death of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years. Smallpox killed up to one third of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518. By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca Civil War. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture.

Question: What was the overwhelming reason for the decline of Native American populations?


Answer: 90 to 95%

Question: Old World diseases accounted for up to what percentage of deaths among the native New World population?


Answer: 150 years

Question: How long did it take for the Old World diseases to decimate the native population to the extent it did?


Answer: Smallpox

Question: What disease killed almost a third of the population of Hispaniola in 1518?


Answer: By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac

Question: How did smallpox cause the Inca Civil War?


Answer: between 50 and 67 per cent

Context: Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 per cent of the Aboriginal population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans. Some 90 per cent of the native population near Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in 1617–1619. In 1633, in Plymouth, the Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. The 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic and 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians. In 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832).

Question: What percent of the Aboriginal population of North America was killed in the first hundred years after first contact by smallpox and measles?


Answer: 90 per cent

Question: How much of the native population near Massachusetts was killed by smallpox in the epidemic between 1617 and 1619?


Answer: Europeans

Question: Who were the Native Americans exposed to smallpox because of?


Answer: by 1679

Question: When did smallpox read the lands of the Iroquois?


Answer: a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans

Question: What did the Indian Vaccination Act of 1832 establish?


Answer: Spanish

Context: The Spanish Empire and other Europeans brought horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. The re-introduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America and of Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison.

Question: What Empire brought horses to the Americas?


Answer: profound

Question: What kind of impact did the re-emergence of horses have on some Native American cultures?


Answer: 7500 years

Question: How long had horses been extinct in the Americas prior to their re-introduction?


Answer: great success

Question: What did some tribes achieve by domesticating horses?


Answer: horses

Question: What enabled some tribes to expand territory, increase trade and capture more game?