Answer: monks and nuns

Context: European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were also founded by Kings (University of Naples Federico II, Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Kraków) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.

Question: Who presided over classes at a scholae monasticae?


Answer: monastic schools

Question: What is a scholae monasticae?


Answer: Latin Church

Question: What church is said to be responsible for the formation of universities?


Answer: immediate forerunners

Question: In the chronology of academic institutions, where are Christian cathedral schools compared to universities?


Answer: early medieval period

Question: During which era did universities grow out of already extant schools?


Answer: Greek

Context: All over Europe rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.

Question: Which ancient texts began to see more study after universities were formed?


Answer: humanism

Question: What outlook developed the creation of the university system?


Answer: to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge

Question: Why did rulers and governments in Europe form universities?


Answer: city governments

Question: What type of governments were involved in creating universities?


Answer: more than 3000 pages

Context: The rediscovery of Aristotle's works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated –fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought." After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this "scholasticism" were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students.

Question: Roughly how many pages of the works of Aristotle were translated by the 12th century?


Answer: Western thought

Question: Richard Dales believes that the work of Aristotle represents the turning point of what?


Answer: scholasticism

Question: What word described the early attempts to understand the work of Aristotle?


Answer: reason

Question: What faculty did scholars attempt to use to prove the thoughts of Aristotle?


Answer: Latin

Question: What language did 12th century scholars studying Aristotle speak in?


Answer: Latin

Context: The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and Great Britain) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. There were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in these areas which were congruent with their focus, so scholars would travel north or south based on their interests and means. There was also a difference in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris. Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna. Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of government."

Question: Which language was used in lectures in early European universities?


Answer: medicine

Question: For what subjects did professors use the work of Hippocrates?


Answer: arts and theology

Question: What type of subjects did the universities of northern Europe focus on?


Answer: bachelor's degrees

Question: What type of degree was given out at a English university?


Answer: Mediterranean universities

Context: Their endowment by a prince or monarch and their role in training government officials made these Mediterranean universities similar to Islamic madrasas, although madrasas were generally smaller and individual teachers, rather than the madrasa itself, granted the license or degree. Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, some medieval Islamic madrasahs became universities. George Makdisi and others, however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world. Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.

Question: What type of university was an Islamic madrasa akin to?


Answer: prince or monarch

Question: What type of individual funded a Mediterranean university?


Answer: individual teachers

Question: From where did a degree come in a madrasa?


Answer: 10th

Question: In which century did Islamic madrasas start to transform into universities?


Answer: Al-Andalus

Context: Many scholars (including Makdisi) have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the religious madrasahs in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades). Other scholars see this argument as overstated. Lowe and Yasuhara have recently drawn on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.

Question: Madrasas in which specific location are said to have guided the formation of medieval universities?


Answer: a global context

Question: Some scholars think that universities come from what, rather than solely local influences?


Answer: Sicily

Question: Al-Andalus was an Emirate of which entity?


Answer: the Crusades

Question: During what notable Middle East conflict is it believed by some that Universities received influence from madrasas?


Answer: late 15th century to 1800

Context: During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first university was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe and Eastern Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. It should be noted that the identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries.

Question: What was the time span of the Early Modern period?


Answer: about 400 years

Question: At the completion of the Middle Ages how long had universities existed?


Answer: twenty-nine

Question: How many universities were within Europe at the closure of the middle ages?


Answer: 143

Question: How many universities were within Europe by the completion of the 18th century?


Answer: 34

Question: The German Empire had how many universities?


Answer: the Thirty Years' War

Context: The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War, disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state.

Question: What war most curtailed the spread of universities in the 17th century?


Answer: University of Paris

Question: Which university is said to have started faculty governance?


Answer: the state

Question: Which entity started to appoint the administration of universities in the 17th century?


Answer: the nation-state.

Question: The control of universities by the state can be attributed to the advancement in the development of what?


Answer: student-controlled

Question: How would one describe the control of universities before nation-states in the 17th century?


Answer: masters

Context: Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters," provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization.

Question: What were the faculty who supervised students in the University of Paris called?


Answer: a standard

Question: The structure of the University of Paris served as what for other universities?


Answer: specialists

Question: What type of student did schools that focus on very specific topics aim to create?


Answer: University of Oxford

Question: Which university had teaching which was more general, and not centralized?


Answer: at least three

Question: How many styles did the University of Paris model end up taking when applied to other universities?


Answer: the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages

Context: Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy (and astrology), law, grammar and rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives. Other scholars within the university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities. Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the University of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship.

Question: What was the source of educational material in Early Modern age universities?


Answer: Galen and Arabic scholarship

Question: What sources did Early Modern age universities rely on for medical curricula?


Answer: Humanist

Question: The concentration on students to live honorable lives is an example of what form of thought?


Answer: medicine

Question: Niccolò Leoniceno was a professor of what subject?


Answer: Andreas Alciatus

Question: Which individual added a humanist view into the Corpus Juris?


Answer: humanist

Context: Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.

Question: Discovery and exposition were examples of the focus of what type of university scholar?


Answer: the humanities

Question: A concentration on the study of the self resulted in what field of study?


Answer: Galen

Question: What work did Vesalius push the study of?


Answer: the printing press

Question: What spread the use of texts by Galen within universities?


Answer: without tuition fees

Context: There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact.

Question: In multiple countries in Europe students can attend a university with what kind if financial burden?


Answer: around 2005

Question: Until what year were public universities in nordic nation free of tuition?


Answer: foreign students

Question: What kind of students pay fees in public universities in Denmark?


Answer: exempted from tuition fees

Question: In terms of Universities in Denmark what is the fee status for citizens of EFA states?


Answer: increased

Question: What happened to public grants in nordic universities that continued to allow foreign students?


Answer: college

Context: Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries university is often contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.[citation needed] "Varsity" is still in common usage in Scotland.

Question: In Ireland what word is mainly used instead of university?


Answer: Varsity

Question: Scotland is said to frequently refer to university as what?


Answer: uni

Question: Spain refers to a university in what other way?


Answer: varsity

Question: The nation of Ghana shortens university to what?


Answer: 19th

Question: In what century was it believed that the UK used the word varsity to refer to a university?


Answer: two

Context: In Canada, "college" generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while "university" connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings) into large research universities with many PhD granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but aren't geared toward research (such as Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).

Question: A college teaches students for how many years in Canada?


Answer: non-degree-granting

Question: What type of institution is a college in Canada?


Answer: four

Question: How many years does a degree-granting university in Canada spend teaching students?


Answer: medical schools

Question: What is McGill University in Canada an example of?


Answer: undergraduate

Question: What type of university is St Francis Xavier in Canada?


Answer: at least one

Context: Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

Question: How many vice presidents do most universities have?


Answer: a board of trustees

Question: What kind of board does a university commonly have?


Answer: government-run higher education boards

Question: Who controls public universities?


Answer: schools or faculties

Question: What are the different departments of a university called?


Answer: business corporations

Question: Besides students, what is the source of funds of private universities?


Answer: varies widely

Context: The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.

Question: How does the financial backing of universities around the world differ?


Answer: fees which students attending the university

Question: Outside of state funded schools, and funds coming from donors, how might a university collect funds?


Answer: accommodation

Question: In nations that accept students from through the world what might the university offer to a student?


Answer: intergovernmental

Context: Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the Academy of European Law, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organisation dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and the United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute, a post-graduate university specialised in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organisation, set up by the member states of the European Union.

Question: What is a university formed through a bilateral treaty known as?


Answer: Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University

Question: In terms of intergovernmental universities, what is EUCLID?


Answer: sustainable development

Question: What is a mission of EUCLID as it relates to signatory nations?


Answer: post-graduate

Question: What type of school is the European University Institute?


Answer: social sciences

Question: What type of study does the European University Institute focus on?


Answer: Irish language and Irish culture

Context: A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland in the early days of Irish independence collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture. Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic higher education system.

Question: What was a focus of the National University of Ireland during the beginning of Irish Independence?


Answer: Argentina

Question: In what nation did the University Revolution occur?


Answer: 1918

Question: In what year did Argentina's University Revolution occur?


Answer: Reforms

Question: What was the result of the University Revolution in Argentina?


Answer: 1963

Context: In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."

Question: In what year did the Robbins report say that universities should have four objectives to remain balanced?


Answer: the United Kingdom

Question: What nation did the 1963 Robbins Report focus on?


Answer: general powers of the mind

Question: What should a university promote, according to the Robbins Report?


Answer: research in balance with teaching

Question: Universities should maintain what, according to the Robbins Report?


Answer: a common culture and common standards of citizenship

Question: The Robbins Report says universities should transmit what?


Answer: 19th

Context: Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of Strathclyde. The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe.

Question: Ending with what century did religion play a smaller part in the curriculum of universities?


Answer: the German university model

Question: what model of university structure was being used throughout the world at the finish of the 19th century?


Answer: science

Question: What was the focus of universities in the 20th century?


Answer: chairman of the University Grants Committee

Question: Who was Sir Keith Murray?


Answer: the University of Strathclyde

Question: What university did Sir Samuel Curran contribute to the creation of?


Answer: the end of the early modern period

Context: By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

Question: At the end of what period would universities become alike to contemporary universities?


Answer: mechanistic

Question: What type of focus did universities have at the end of the early modern period?


Answer: humanities

Question: What replaced theological studies in universities at the completion of the early modern period?


Answer: the modern state

Question: The change in universities towards the completion of the early modern period is credited with the formation of what entity?


Answer: Aristotle

Question: The study of the humanities at the end of the early modern period replaced the study of the work of what individual?


Answer: limited resources

Context: The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.

Question: Scientists and universities were competing for what?


Answer: free

Question: What type of education did private benefactors hope to provide to the public?


Answer: an alternative to traditional universities

Question: Governments created universities to serve as what?


Answer: private benefactors

Question: What type of entity created competition with government created universities?


Answer: more than 80%

Context: Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450–1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources.

Question: What percentage of scientists from 1450–1650 in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were taught in a university?


Answer: considerable reluctance

Question: On the part of universities what was their reaction to giving up the Aristotelian system?


Answer: University of Wittenberg

Question: What university was Melancthon from?


Answer: legitimacy and respectability

Question: The acceptance of new concepts and sciences by universities brought these ideas what?


Answer: Cartesian

Question: What type of epistemology was adopted for a short period of time in European universities?


Answer: Aristotelian

Context: Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge.

Question: What type of epistemology served as the foundation of knowledge constructions and training scholars in universities?


Answer: autonomy

Question: The scientific revolution contributed to what, in terms of science?


Answer: a general scholar

Question: There was disagreement between universities and scientists over schools focusing on science, and the idea of what?


Answer: the scientific revolution

Question: A hierarchy of scientific disciplines came out of what?


Answer: first

Question: Where did students after the scientific revolution put science on the scale of importance?


Answer: the scientific revolution

Context: Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the scientific revolution. Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.

Question: The study of humanism among those studying math, astronomy and medicine is said to have caused what?


Answer: changes in science

Question: Resisting what caused many scientists to court private benefactors?


Answer: princely courts

Question: Where might a scientist find a friendly private benefactor?


Answer: Richard S. Westfall

Question: Which historian argues that traditionalism in a university system hindered attempts to form new views on knowledge and nature?


Answer: elite

Context: The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to separation of church and state in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials might also serve as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became pontifex maximus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success.

Question: The members of what class were priests in ancient Rome?


Answer: Jupiter

Question: Which God exemplified just rule for the Romans?


Answer: 509–27 BC

Question: What was the time span of the Roman Republic?


Answer: church and state

Question: What kind of political separation did not exist in Rome?


Answer: Punic Wars

Question: As a result of what war were many new temples built by victorious generals?


Answer: faith or dogma

Context: Roman religion was thus practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination.

Question: What characteristics were not inherent in Roman religious practice?


Answer: social order

Question: What was brought forth by religion in Rome?


Answer: household shrine

Question: What religious feature did each Roman home have?


Answer: religious observances

Question: What type of celebrations made up the Roman calendar?


Answer: Vestals

Question: What religious group was in charge of Rome's sacred flame?


Answer: great number

Context: The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists. The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury.

Question: How deities did the Romans have?


Answer: Greeks

Question: What group was an influence to Roman culture?


Answer: religious

Question: What sort of practices did the Greeks offer to Rome's culture?


Answer: Greek

Question: What myths did the Romans adapt to their needs?


Answer: Etruscan

Question: What religion influenced augury for the Romans?


Answer: personal choice

Context: Imported mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiratorial (coniuratio), or subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity, as with the senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC.

Question: What was the practice of religion to the Romans?


Answer: public religion

Question: What was the standard practice in Roman religious life?


Answer: mysteries

Question: What part of Roman religious practice involved secrecy?


Answer: conservative Romans

Question: What group viewed the mysteries as suspicious or subversive?


Answer: morality and unity

Question: What did the mysteries seem to threaten that made the Romans occasionally attempt to ban them?


Answer: preserving tradition

Context: As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability. One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona, and gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems. The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. For example, religious disputes helped cause the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Question: To the Romans what did them think promoted social stability?


Answer: absorb

Question: What did the Romans tend to do with local religions and deities in conquered areas?


Answer: tolerance

Question: What facet of religion was not an issue for Roman?


Answer: remote provinces

Question: To what areas of the Roman empire did the Romans take their deities?


Answer: religious heritage

Question: What facet of a foreign people did Rome add to itself to promote order?


Answer: emperors

Context: In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways in which Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Rejection of the state religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio.

Question: After the Republic collapsed, what addition was made to the religions of Rome?


Answer: Augustus

Question: Who was the first Roman emperor?


Answer: emperor

Question: For whose well being were public vows made in the empire?


Answer: Imperial cult

Question: What did the Romans use as a means of expanding their rule throughout the empire?


Answer: treason

Question: As what during the time of the Roman empire was rejection of the state religion viewed?


Answer: Aeneas

Context: Rome had a semi-divine ancestor in the Trojan refugee Aeneas, son of Venus, who was said to have established the nucleus of Roman religion when he brought the Palladium, Lares and Penates from Troy to Italy. These objects were believed in historical times to remain in the keeping of the Vestals, Rome's female priesthood. Aeneas had been given refuge by King Evander, a Greek exile from Arcadia, to whom were attributed other religious foundations: he established the Ara Maxima, "Greatest Altar," to Hercules at the site that would become the Forum Boarium, and he was the first to celebrate the Lupercalia, an archaic festival in February that was celebrated as late as the 5th century of the Christian era.

Question: What mythical figure did the Romans consider to be semi-divine?


Answer: Roman religion

Question: Of what did Aeneas establish the central feature?


Answer: Vestals

Question: Who were the keepers of Aeneas's sacred objects?


Answer: Lupercalia

Question: What ancient festival was celebrated until the 5th century?


Answer: Hercules

Question: To whom did Aeneas set up an alter in Rome?


Answer: Romulus and Remus

Context: The myth of a Trojan founding with Greek influence was reconciled through an elaborate genealogy (the Latin kings of Alba Longa) with the well-known legend of Rome's founding by Romulus and Remus. The most common version of the twins' story displays several aspects of hero myth. Their mother, Rhea Silvia, had been ordered by her uncle the king to remain a virgin, in order to preserve the throne he had usurped from her father. Through divine intervention, the rightful line was restored when Rhea Silvia was impregnated by the god Mars. She gave birth to twins, who were duly exposed by order of the king but saved through a series of miraculous events.

Question: What mythical characters were involved in the founding of Rome?


Answer: hero myth

Question: What type of story was the Romulus and Remus tale?


Answer: Rhea Silvia

Question: Who was the mother of Romulus and Remus?


Answer: Mars

Question: What god was the father of Romulus and Remus?


Answer: miraculous

Question: What type of events saved the twins of Roman myth?


Answer: religious

Context: Romulus was credited with several religious institutions. He founded the Consualia festival, inviting the neighbouring Sabines to participate; the ensuing rape of the Sabine women by Romulus's men further embedded both violence and cultural assimilation in Rome's myth of origins. As a successful general, Romulus is also supposed to have founded Rome's first temple to Jupiter Feretrius and offered the spolia opima, the prime spoils taken in war, in the celebration of the first Roman triumph. Spared a mortal's death, Romulus was mysteriously spirited away and deified.

Question: What type of organization did Romulus establish?


Answer: Jupiter

Question: According to myth, what god's temple did Romulus found?


Answer: spoils taken in war

Question: What did Romulus offer to Jupiter in the first Roman Triumph?


Answer: Consualia

Question: What religious festival did Romulus found?


Answer: deified

Question: Instead of death, what happened to Romulus?


Answer: religious institutions

Context: Each of Rome's legendary or semi-legendary kings was associated with one or more religious institutions still known to the later Republic. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius instituted the fetial priests. The first "outsider" Etruscan king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, founded a Capitoline temple to the triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva which served as the model for the highest official cult throughout the Roman world. The benevolent, divinely fathered Servius Tullius established the Latin League, its Aventine Temple to Diana, and the Compitalia to mark his social reforms. Servius Tullius was murdered and succeeded by the arrogant Tarquinius Superbus, whose expulsion marked the beginning of Rome as a republic with annually elected magistrates.

Question: To what were the first kings of Rome associated?


Answer: Jupiter, Juno and Minerva

Question: To what group of deities did Lucius Tarquinius Priscus establish a temple?


Answer: Tarquinius Superbus

Question: The removal of whom marked the beginning of the Roman Republic?


Answer: Capitoline

Question: Where was the temple to the triad gods established?


Answer: Latin League,

Question: What organization did Servius Tullius found?


Answer: creation

Context: Rome offers no native creation myth, and little mythography to explain the character of its deities, their mutual relationships or their interactions with the human world, but Roman theology acknowledged that di immortales (immortal gods) ruled all realms of the heavens and earth. There were gods of the upper heavens, gods of the underworld and a myriad of lesser deities between. Some evidently favoured Rome because Rome honoured them, but none were intrinsically, irredeemably foreign or alien. The political, cultural and religious coherence of an emergent Roman super-state required a broad, inclusive and flexible network of lawful cults. At different times and in different places, the sphere of influence, character and functions of a divine being could expand, overlap with those of others, and be redefined as Roman. Change was embedded within existing traditions.

Question: What type of myth did Rome not have?


Answer: immortal gods

Question: To the Romans who ruled all aspects of heaven and earth?


Answer: Rome honoured them

Question: What did the Romans do for those deities that favored Rome?


Answer: lawful

Question: What did Rome make the myriad various cults?


Answer: Change

Question: What was basic facet of Roman religious experience?


Answer: Jupiter

Context: Several versions of a semi-official, structured pantheon were developed during the political, social and religious instability of the Late Republican era. Jupiter, the most powerful of all gods and "the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested", consistently personified the divine authority of Rome's highest offices, internal organization and external relations. During the archaic and early Republican eras, he shared his temple, some aspects of cult and several divine characteristics with Mars and Quirinus, who were later replaced by Juno and Minerva. A conceptual tendency toward triads may be indicated by the later agricultural or plebeian triad of Ceres, Liber and Libera, and by some of the complementary threefold deity-groupings of Imperial cult. Other major and minor deities could be single, coupled, or linked retrospectively through myths of divine marriage and sexual adventure. These later Roman pantheistic hierarchies are part literary and mythographic, part philosophical creations, and often Greek in origin. The Hellenization of Latin literature and culture supplied literary and artistic models for reinterpreting Roman deities in light of the Greek Olympians, and promoted a sense that the two cultures had a shared heritage.

Question: To the Romans who was the most powerful of the gods?


Answer: divine authority

Question: What did Jupiter personify in regards to Rome's highest offices?


Answer: Mars and Quirinus

Question: What gods did Juno and Minerva replace in Roman religious practice?


Answer: Greek in origin

Question: From where does the practice of linking various gods into grouping come?


Answer: heritage

Question: Of what did the linking of Greek and Roman deities promote a feeling?


Answer: commonplace

Context: The impressive, costly, and centralised rites to the deities of the Roman state were vastly outnumbered in everyday life by commonplace religious observances pertaining to an individual's domestic and personal deities, the patron divinities of Rome's various neighborhoods and communities, and the often idiosyncratic blends of official, unofficial, local and personal cults that characterised lawful Roman religion. In this spirit, a provincial Roman citizen who made the long journey from Bordeaux to Italy to consult the Sibyl at Tibur did not neglect his devotion to his own goddess from home:

Question: What type of religious practices outnumbered the state observances?


Answer: lawful Roman

Question: To what did the mixture of official and individual religious practices pertain?


Answer: impressive, costly, and centralised

Question: What were the characteristics of state religious observances?


Answer: individual

Question: Who made the choices of personal religious practices in Rome?


Answer: patron

Question: What type of deities did Roman communities have?


Answer: forty

Context: Roman calendars show roughly forty annual religious festivals. Some lasted several days, others a single day or less: sacred days (dies fasti) outnumbered "non-sacred" days (dies nefasti). A comparison of surviving Roman religious calendars suggests that official festivals were organized according to broad seasonal groups that allowed for different local traditions. Some of the most ancient and popular festivals incorporated ludi ("games," such as chariot races and theatrical performances), with examples including those held at Palestrina in honour of Fortuna Primigenia during Compitalia, and the Ludi Romani in honour of Liber. Other festivals may have required only the presence and rites of their priests and acolytes, or particular groups, such as women at the Bona Dea rites.

Question: How many religious celebrations did Rome have?


Answer: sacred days

Question: What type of day were there more of in Rome?


Answer: seasonal

Question: With what were Roman festivals organized in accordance?


Answer: local

Question: What traditions did the seasonal festivals incorporate?


Answer: particular groups

Question: Instead of the public, what did some religious rites only require?


Answer: fulfillment of religious vows

Context: Other public festivals were not required by the calendar, but occasioned by events. The triumph of a Roman general was celebrated as the fulfillment of religious vows, though these tended to be overshadowed by the political and social significance of the event. During the late Republic, the political elite competed to outdo each other in public display, and the ludi attendant on a triumph were expanded to include gladiator contests. Under the Principate, all such spectacular displays came under Imperial control: the most lavish were subsidised by emperors, and lesser events were provided by magistrates as a sacred duty and privilege of office. Additional festivals and games celebrated Imperial accessions and anniversaries. Others, such as the traditional Republican Secular Games to mark a new era (saeculum), became imperially funded to maintain traditional values and a common Roman identity. That the spectacles retained something of their sacral aura even in late antiquity is indicated by the admonitions of the Church Fathers that Christians should not take part.

Question: What type of festivals happened when events warranted them?


Answer: The triumph

Question: What is an example of an event organized religious celebration?


Answer: public display

Question: In what aspect of the festival did political figures try to out do each other?


Answer: Imperial

Question: Under what auspices did public displays come during the Principate?


Answer: emperors

Question: Who paid for the most lavish of festival events?


Answer: reinterpretation

Context: The meaning and origin of many archaic festivals baffled even Rome's intellectual elite, but the more obscure they were, the greater the opportunity for reinvention and reinterpretation — a fact lost neither on Augustus in his program of religious reform, which often cloaked autocratic innovation, nor on his only rival as mythmaker of the era, Ovid. In his Fasti, a long-form poem covering Roman holidays from January to June, Ovid presents a unique look at Roman antiquarian lore, popular customs, and religious practice that is by turns imaginative, entertaining, high-minded, and scurrilous; not a priestly account, despite the speaker's pose as a vates or inspired poet-prophet, but a work of description, imagination and poetic etymology that reflects the broad humor and burlesque spirit of such venerable festivals as the Saturnalia, Consualia, and feast of Anna Perenna on the Ides of March, where Ovid treats the assassination of the newly deified Julius Caesar as utterly incidental to the festivities among the Roman people. But official calendars preserved from different times and places also show a flexibility in omitting or expanding events, indicating that there was no single static and authoritative calendar of required observances. In the later Empire under Christian rule, the new Christian festivals were incorporated into the existing framework of the Roman calendar, alongside at least some of the traditional festivals.

Question: What did obscure festivals offer Romans the opportunity to do?


Answer: reform

Question: What did Augustus wish to do for Roman religion?


Answer: Ovid

Question: What poet wrote a long poem describing Roman religious holidays?


Answer: authoritative calendar

Question: What was lacking in the presentation of religious events in Rome?


Answer: Christian

Question: Under whose rule were new Christian festivals added to previous Roman holidays?


Answer: ritual

Context: The Latin word templum originally referred not to the temple building itself, but to a sacred space surveyed and plotted ritually through augury: "The architecture of the ancient Romans was, from first to last, an art of shaping space around ritual." The Roman architect Vitruvius always uses the word templum to refer to this sacred precinct, and the more common Latin words aedes, delubrum, or fanum for a temple or shrine as a building. The ruins of temples are among the most visible monuments of ancient Roman culture.

Question: Around what aspect did the Romans a lot space?


Answer: augury

Question: What religious practice did Rome use to determine ritual?


Answer: templum

Question: What Roman word was used to refer to the scared precinct?


Answer: aedes, delubrum, or fanum

Question: What common Latin words were used to mean a shrine or building?


Answer: temples

Question: What monuments were the some of most visible of Roman culture?


Answer: prayer

Context: All sacrifices and offerings required an accompanying prayer to be effective. Pliny the Elder declared that "a sacrifice without prayer is thought to be useless and not a proper consultation of the gods." Prayer by itself, however, had independent power. The spoken word was thus the single most potent religious action, and knowledge of the correct verbal formulas the key to efficacy. Accurate naming was vital for tapping into the desired powers of the deity invoked, hence the proliferation of cult epithets among Roman deities. Public prayers (prex) were offered loudly and clearly by a priest on behalf of the community. Public religious ritual had to be enacted by specialists and professionals faultlessly; a mistake might require that the action, or even the entire festival, be repeated from the start. The historian Livy reports an occasion when the presiding magistrate at the Latin festival forgot to include the "Roman people" among the list of beneficiaries in his prayer; the festival had to be started over. Even private prayer by an individual was formulaic, a recitation rather than a personal expression, though selected by the individual for a particular purpose or occasion.

Question: What did each offering require to be valid in Roman religion?


Answer: useless

Question: What did Pliny the Elder think that a sacrifice without prayer was?


Answer: Prayer

Question: What act alone had power in Roman thought?


Answer: personal expression

Question: What was missing in the formulas of prayer in Rome?


Answer: correct verbal formulas

Question: What knowledge was of importance in the potency of prayer?


Answer: daylight

Context: Sacrifice to deities of the heavens (di superi, "gods above") was performed in daylight, and under the public gaze. Deities of the upper heavens required white, infertile victims of their own sex: Juno a white heifer (possibly a white cow); Jupiter a white, castrated ox (bos mas) for the annual oath-taking by the consuls. Di superi with strong connections to the earth, such as Mars, Janus, Neptune and various genii – including the Emperor's – were offered fertile victims. After the sacrifice, a banquet was held; in state cults, the images of honoured deities took pride of place on banqueting couches and by means of the sacrificial fire consumed their proper portion (exta, the innards). Rome's officials and priests reclined in order of precedence alongside and ate the meat; lesser citizens may have had to provide their own.

Question: When did the sacrifices to the deities of the heavens occur?


Answer: white

Question: What color was the sacrifice mandated to be for heaven deities?


Answer: banquet

Question: What event was held after the sacrifice?


Answer: fertile

Question: What type of sacrifices were offered to gods with earth connections?


Answer: officials and priests

Question: Who ate the meat of the sacrifice during the after sacrifice banquet?


Answer: nighttime

Context: Chthonic gods such as Dis pater, the di inferi ("gods below"), and the collective shades of the departed (di Manes) were given dark, fertile victims in nighttime rituals. Animal sacrifice usually took the form of a holocaust or burnt offering, and there was no shared banquet, as "the living cannot share a meal with the dead". Ceres and other underworld goddesses of fruitfulness were sometimes offered pregnant female animals; Tellus was given a pregnant cow at the Fordicidia festival. Color had a general symbolic value for sacrifices. Demigods and heroes, who belonged to the heavens and the underworld, were sometimes given black-and-white victims. Robigo (or Robigus) was given red dogs and libations of red wine at the Robigalia for the protection of crops from blight and red mildew.

Question: When were the gods below and the dead celebrated?


Answer: dark, fertile

Question: What type of sacrifice victims were the dark gods offered?


Answer: burnt offering

Question: How was the sacrifice to the gods below handled?


Answer: shared banquet

Question: What daylight event was not celebrated after the dark sacrifice?


Answer: Color

Question: What feature had importance in sacrifices?


Answer: divine agencies

Context: The same divine agencies who caused disease or harm also had the power to avert it, and so might be placated in advance. Divine consideration might be sought to avoid the inconvenient delays of a journey, or encounters with banditry, piracy and shipwreck, with due gratitude to be rendered on safe arrival or return. In times of great crisis, the Senate could decree collective public rites, in which Rome's citizens, including women and children, moved in procession from one temple to the next, supplicating the gods.

Question: What elements had the power of benefit or harm in Roman religion?


Answer: gratitude

Question: What was expected when the divine intervention benefited the patron?


Answer: Divine

Question: What kind of intervention could be sought to avoid disasters?


Answer: public rites

Question: What act was decreed in times of crisis in Rome?


Answer: supplicating the gods

Question: What was the point of public procession to the god's temples?


Answer: Extraordinary

Context: Extraordinary circumstances called for extraordinary sacrifice: in one of the many crises of the Second Punic War, Jupiter Capitolinus was promised every animal born that spring (see ver sacrum), to be rendered after five more years of protection from Hannibal and his allies. The "contract" with Jupiter is exceptionally detailed. All due care would be taken of the animals. If any died or were stolen before the scheduled sacrifice, they would count as already sacrificed, since they had already been consecrated. Normally, if the gods failed to keep their side of the bargain, the offered sacrifice would be withheld. In the imperial period, sacrifice was withheld following Trajan's death because the gods had not kept the Emperor safe for the stipulated period. In Pompeii, the Genius of the living emperor was offered a bull: presumably a standard practise in Imperial cult, though minor offerings (incense and wine) were also made.

Question: What type of circumstances were called for in times of extreme difficulties?


Answer: every animal born

Question: What offering was Jupiter promised during the Second Punic War?


Answer: Hannibal

Question: From whom was Rome asking for protection?


Answer: withheld

Question: What happened to the sacrifice if the god failed to uphold the agreement?


Answer: bull

Question: What was the offering for the Emperor in Pompeii?


Answer: entrails

Context: The exta were the entrails of a sacrificed animal, comprising in Cicero's enumeration the gall bladder (fel), liver (iecur), heart (cor), and lungs (pulmones). The exta were exposed for litatio (divine approval) as part of Roman liturgy, but were "read" in the context of the disciplina Etrusca. As a product of Roman sacrifice, the exta and blood are reserved for the gods, while the meat (viscera) is shared among human beings in a communal meal. The exta of bovine victims were usually stewed in a pot (olla or aula), while those of sheep or pigs were grilled on skewers. When the deity's portion was cooked, it was sprinkled with mola salsa (ritually prepared salted flour) and wine, then placed in the fire on the altar for the offering; the technical verb for this action was porricere.

Question: What were the exta of a sacrifice?


Answer: disciplina Etrusca

Question: How were the exta read in Roman religious practice?


Answer: exta and blood

Question: What part of the sacrifice were reserved for the gods?


Answer: meat

Question: What part of the sacrifice was shared among humans?


Answer: fire on the altar

Question: Into what was the god's portion of the sacrifice placed?


Answer: Human

Context: Human sacrifice in ancient Rome was rare but documented. After the Roman defeat at Cannae two Gauls and two Greeks were buried under the Forum Boarium, in a stone chamber "which had on a previous occasion [228 BC] also been polluted by human victims, a practice most repulsive to Roman feelings". Livy avoids the word "sacrifice" in connection with this bloodless human life-offering; Plutarch does not. The rite was apparently repeated in 113 BC, preparatory to an invasion of Gaul. Its religious dimensions and purpose remain uncertain.

Question: What type of sacrifice was rare in Rome?


Answer: Human sacrifice

Question: What act was repulsive to Romans?


Answer: buried

Question: How were sacrifices of humans carried out in Rome?


Answer: Gaul

Question: Before the invasion of what area was human sacrifice carried out?


Answer: 113 BC

Question: When was the invasion of Gaul by Rome?


Answer: First Punic War

Context: In the early stages of the First Punic War (264 BC) the first known Roman gladiatorial munus was held, described as a funeral blood-rite to the manes of a Roman military aristocrat. The gladiator munus was never explicitly acknowledged as a human sacrifice, probably because death was not its inevitable outcome or purpose. Even so, the gladiators swore their lives to the infernal gods, and the combat was dedicated as an offering to the di manes or other gods. The event was therefore a sacrificium in the strict sense of the term, and Christian writers later condemned it as human sacrifice.

Question: During what war was the first gladiator munus held?


Answer: funeral blood-rite

Question: How was the gladiatorial combat described?


Answer: death

Question: What was not the ultimate purpose of gladiatorial rites?


Answer: as an offering

Question: In what way was gladiatorial combat considered?


Answer: human sacrifice

Question: How did later Christians view Gladiatorial combats?


Answer: L. Junius Brutus

Context: The small woolen dolls called Maniae, hung on the Compitalia shrines, were thought a symbolic replacement for child-sacrifice to Mania, as Mother of the Lares. The Junii took credit for its abolition by their ancestor L. Junius Brutus, traditionally Rome's Republican founder and first consul. Political or military executions were sometimes conducted in such a way that they evoked human sacrifice, whether deliberately or in the perception of witnesses; Marcus Marius Gratidianus was a gruesome example.

Question: Who was the founder of the Roman Republic?


Answer: woolen dolls

Question: What were stand-ins for child sacrifices to Mania?


Answer: Mother of the Lares

Question: Who was Mania in Roman religion?


Answer: L. Junius Brutus

Question: What leader was the first consul of the Roman Republic?


Answer: executions

Question: What acts were sometimes arranged so as to be sacrifices?


Answer: human sacrifice

Context: Officially, human sacrifice was obnoxious "to the laws of gods and men." The practice was a mark of the "Other", attributed to Rome's traditional enemies such as the Carthaginians and Gauls. Rome banned it on several occasions under extreme penalty. A law passed in 81 BC characterised human sacrifice as murder committed for magical purposes. Pliny saw the ending of human sacrifice conducted by the druids as a positive consequence of the conquest of Gaul and Britain. Despite an empire-wide ban under Hadrian, human sacrifice may have continued covertly in North Africa and elsewhere.

Question: What act did Romans view as obnoxious?


Answer: enemies

Question: To whom was human sacrifice usually attributed?


Answer: banned it

Question: What did Rome do about human sacrifice?


Answer: murder

Question: As what did the law of 81 BC view human sacrifice?


Answer: Hadrian

Question: What ruler banned human sacrifice empire wide?


Answer: wife

Context: A pater familias was the senior priest of his household. He offered daily cult to his lares and penates, and to his di parentes/divi parentes at his domestic shrines and in the fires of the household hearth. His wife (mater familias) was responsible for the household's cult to Vesta. In rural estates, bailiffs seem to have been responsible for at least some of the household shrines (lararia) and their deities. Household cults had state counterparts. In Vergil's Aeneid, Aeneas brought the Trojan cult of the lares and penates from Troy, along with the Palladium which was later installed in the temple of Vesta.

Question: Which individual in the household was responsible for the Vesta cult?


Answer: pater familias

Question: Who was the senior priest of the household in Rome?


Answer: Aeneas

Question: Which ancient hero brought the lares cult to Rome?


Answer: Troy

Question: From what city did Aeneas bring the lares cult?


Answer: Palladium

Question: What was put in the temple of Vesta?


Answer: ritualised

Context: Religious law centered on the ritualised system of honours and sacrifice that brought divine blessings, according to the principle do ut des ("I give, that you might give"). Proper, respectful religio brought social harmony and prosperity. Religious neglect was a form of atheism: impure sacrifice and incorrect ritual were vitia (impious errors). Excessive devotion, fearful grovelling to deities and the improper use or seeking of divine knowledge were superstitio. Any of these moral deviations could cause divine anger (ira deorum) and therefore harm the State. The official deities of the state were identified with its lawful offices and institutions, and Romans of every class were expected to honour the beneficence and protection of mortal and divine superiors. Participation in public rites showed a personal commitment to their community and its values.

Question: On what kind of system was Roman religious law focused?


Answer: Religious neglect

Question: What form of religion was atheism considered to be?


Answer: harmony and prosperity.

Question: What results did proper religious practices produce?


Answer: divine anger

Question: What could deviations from proper religious practices cause?


Answer: commitment

Question: What did participation in public religious rites show about the individual?


Answer: state

Context: Official cults were state funded as a "matter of public interest" (res publica). Non-official but lawful cults were funded by private individuals for the benefit of their own communities. The difference between public and private cult is often unclear. Individuals or collegial associations could offer funds and cult to state deities. The public Vestals prepared ritual substances for use in public and private cults, and held the state-funded (thus public) opening ceremony for the Parentalia festival, which was otherwise a private rite to household ancestors. Some rites of the domus (household) were held in public places but were legally defined as privata in part or whole. All cults were ultimately subject to the approval and regulation of the censor and pontifices.

Question: What organization payed for the maintenance official cults?


Answer: private individuals

Question: Who funded non-official religious cults?


Answer: own communities

Question: What group benefited from non- official cults?


Answer: Vestals

Question: What group presented the opening ceremonies of the Parentalia festival?


Answer: censor and pontifices

Question: What individuals had the right to regulate all cults?


Answer: separate priestly caste

Context: Rome had no separate priestly caste or class. The highest authority within a community usually sponsored its cults and sacrifices, officiated as its priest and promoted its assistants and acolytes. Specialists from the religious colleges and professionals such as haruspices and oracles were available for consultation. In household cult, the paterfamilias functioned as priest, and members of his familia as acolytes and assistants. Public cults required greater knowledge and expertise. The earliest public priesthoods were probably the flamines (the singular is flamen), attributed to king Numa: the major flamines, dedicated to Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, were traditionally drawn from patrician families. Twelve lesser flamines were each dedicated to a single deity, whose archaic nature is indicated by the relative obscurity of some. Flamines were constrained by the requirements of ritual purity; Jupiter's flamen in particular had virtually no simultaneous capacity for a political or military career.

Question: What was lacking as to the profession of a priest class in Rome?


Answer: highest

Question: What authority in a community sponsored religious rites?


Answer: Specialists

Question: What type of religious participants were available for consultation?


Answer: flamines

Question: What were the earliest priesthoods?


Answer: paterfamilias

Question: Which member of a family functioned as priest?


Answer: rex sacrorum

Context: In the Regal era, a rex sacrorum (king of the sacred rites) supervised regal and state rites in conjunction with the king (rex) or in his absence, and announced the public festivals. He had little or no civil authority. With the abolition of monarchy, the collegial power and influence of the Republican pontifices increased. By the late Republican era, the flamines were supervised by the pontifical collegia. The rex sacrorum had become a relatively obscure priesthood with an entirely symbolic title: his religious duties still included the daily, ritual announcement of festivals and priestly duties within two or three of the latter but his most important priestly role – the supervision of the Vestals and their rites – fell to the more politically powerful and influential pontifex maximus.

Question: Who supervised sacred rites during the era of kings?


Answer: civil

Question: What type of authority did the rex sacrorum lack?


Answer: Republican pontifices

Question: What group's power increased after the rise of the Roman Republic?


Answer: pontifex maximus

Question: What individual became more powerful during the late Republic?


Answer: rex sacrorum

Question: By the late Republic, what position had become largely symbolic?


Answer: collegia

Context: Public priests were appointed by the collegia. Once elected, a priest held permanent religious authority from the eternal divine, which offered him lifetime influence, privilege and immunity. Therefore, civil and religious law limited the number and kind of religious offices allowed an individual and his family. Religious law was collegial and traditional; it informed political decisions, could overturn them, and was difficult to exploit for personal gain. Priesthood was a costly honour: in traditional Roman practice, a priest drew no stipend. Cult donations were the property of the deity, whose priest must provide cult regardless of shortfalls in public funding – this could mean subsidy of acolytes and all other cult maintenance from personal funds. For those who had reached their goal in the Cursus honorum, permanent priesthood was best sought or granted after a lifetime's service in military or political life, or preferably both: it was a particularly honourable and active form of retirement which fulfilled an essential public duty. For a freedman or slave, promotion as one of the Compitalia seviri offered a high local profile, and opportunities in local politics; and therefore business. During the Imperial era, priesthood of the Imperial cult offered provincial elites full Roman citizenship and public prominence beyond their single year in religious office; in effect, it was the first step in a provincial cursus honorum. In Rome, the same Imperial cult role was performed by the Arval Brethren, once an obscure Republican priesthood dedicated to several deities, then co-opted by Augustus as part of his religious reforms. The Arvals offered prayer and sacrifice to Roman state gods at various temples for the continued welfare of the Imperial family on their birthdays, accession anniversaries and to mark extraordinary events such as the quashing of conspiracy or revolt. Every January 3 they consecrated the annual vows and rendered any sacrifice promised in the previous year, provided the gods had kept the Imperial family safe for the contracted time.

Question: What group selected public priests in Rome?


Answer: lifetime

Question: What was the term of office for a priest in Rome?


Answer: law

Question: What limited an individual's access to religious offices?


Answer: costly

Question: Because of the lack of pay, what was the type of honor in being a priest?


Answer: Roman citizenship

Question: What did a priesthood in the Imperial cult gain a provencial?


Answer: six

Context: The Vestals were a public priesthood of six women devoted to the cultivation of Vesta, goddess of the hearth of the Roman state and its vital flame. A girl chosen to be a Vestal achieved unique religious distinction, public status and privileges, and could exercise considerable political influence. Upon entering her office, a Vestal was emancipated from her father's authority. In archaic Roman society, these priestesses were the only women not required to be under the legal guardianship of a man, instead answering directly to the Pontifex Maximus.

Question: How many Vestals were there in Rome?


Answer: hearth

Question: Of what was Vesta the goddess?


Answer: vital flame

Question: Of what were the Vestals protectors?


Answer: political influence

Question: What was the benefit of being a Vestal?


Answer: Pontifex Maximus

Question: To whom did the Vestal answer?


Answer: chastity

Context: A Vestal's dress represented her status outside the usual categories that defined Roman women, with elements of both virgin bride and daughter, and Roman matron and wife. Unlike male priests, Vestals were freed of the traditional obligations of marrying and producing children, and were required to take a vow of chastity that was strictly enforced: a Vestal polluted by the loss of her chastity while in office was buried alive. Thus the exceptional honor accorded a Vestal was religious rather than personal or social; her privileges required her to be fully devoted to the performance of her duties, which were considered essential to the security of Rome.

Question: What vow was required of Vestals?


Answer: essential

Question: How were the Vestals' devotion to Rome's security viewed to be ?


Answer: buried alive

Question: What was the punishment for the loss of a Vestal's chastity?


Answer: devoted

Question: What was a Vestal expected to be to her duties?


Answer: religious

Question: What was the honor granted a Vestal ?


Answer: Vesta's flame

Context: The Vestals embody the profound connection between domestic cult and the religious life of the community. Any householder could rekindle their own household fire from Vesta's flame. The Vestals cared for the Lares and Penates of the state that were the equivalent of those enshrined in each home. Besides their own festival of Vestalia, they participated directly in the rites of Parilia, Parentalia and Fordicidia. Indirectly, they played a role in every official sacrifice; among their duties was the preparation of the mola salsa, the salted flour that was sprinkled on every sacrificial victim as part of its immolation.

Question: Where could a householder rekindle the home's flame?


Answer: Lares and Penates

Question: For what state artifacts did the Vestals care?


Answer: Vestalia

Question: What was the Vestal festival called?


Answer: mola salsa

Question: To what part of official state sacrifices did the Vestals attend?


Answer: Indirect

Question: What was the nature of the role of the Vestals in state sacrifices?


Answer: Vestals

Context: Augustus' religious reformations raised the funding and public profile of the Vestals. They were given high-status seating at games and theatres. The emperor Claudius appointed them as priestesses to the cult of the deified Livia, wife of Augustus. They seem to have retained their religious and social distinctions well into the 4th century, after political power within the Empire had shifted to the Christians. When the Christian emperor Gratian refused the office of pontifex maximus, he took steps toward the dissolution of the order. His successor Theodosius I extinguished Vesta's sacred fire and vacated her temple.

Question: What group's status was improved by Augustus' religious reforms?


Answer: seating

Question: What advantage was there in being a Vestal at games?


Answer: Livia

Question: For whose cult were the Vestals appointed as priestesses?


Answer: 4th century

Question: Until what time did the Vestal retain their social distinctions?


Answer: Theodosius I

Question: Which emperor disbanded the Vestals?


Answer: sacred precinct

Context: Public religion took place within a sacred precinct that had been marked out ritually by an augur. The original meaning of the Latin word templum was this sacred space, and only later referred to a building. Rome itself was an intrinsically sacred space; its ancient boundary (pomerium) had been marked by Romulus himself with oxen and plough; what lay within was the earthly home and protectorate of the gods of the state. In Rome, the central references for the establishment of an augural templum appear to have been the Via Sacra (Sacred Way) and the pomerium. Magistrates sought divine opinion of proposed official acts through an augur, who read the divine will through observations made within the templum before, during and after an act of sacrifice. Divine disapproval could arise through unfit sacrifice, errant rites (vitium) or an unacceptable plan of action. If an unfavourable sign was given, the magistrate could repeat the sacrifice until favourable signs were seen, consult with his augural colleagues, or abandon the project. Magistrates could use their right of augury (ius augurum) to adjourn and overturn the process of law, but were obliged to base their decision on the augur's observations and advice. For Cicero, himself an augur, this made the augur the most powerful authority in the Late Republic. By his time (mid 1st century BC) augury was supervised by the college of pontifices, whose powers were increasingly woven into the magistracies of the cursus honorum.

Question: In what area did public rites take place in Rome?


Answer: augur

Question: What person marked the religious area ritually?


Answer: sacred space

Question: What was the original meaning of the templum in Latin?


Answer: Romulus

Question: Who designated the first boundary of Rome?


Answer: divine will

Question: What did augers seek to understand through observances?


Answer: examination of entrails

Context: Haruspicy was also used in public cult, under the supervision of the augur or presiding magistrate. The haruspices divined the will of the gods through examination of entrails after sacrifice, particularly the liver. They also interpreted omens, prodigies and portents, and formulated their expiation. Most Roman authors describe haruspicy as an ancient, ethnically Etruscan "outsider" religious profession, separate from Rome's internal and largely unpaid priestly hierarchy, essential but never quite respectable. During the mid-to-late Republic, the reformist Gaius Gracchus, the populist politician-general Gaius Marius and his antagonist Sulla, and the "notorious Verres" justified their very different policies by the divinely inspired utterances of private diviners. The senate and armies used the public haruspices: at some time during the late Republic, the Senate decreed that Roman boys of noble family be sent to Etruria for training in haruspicy and divination. Being of independent means, they would be better motivated to maintain a pure, religious practice for the public good. The motives of private haruspices – especially females – and their clients were officially suspect: none of this seems to have troubled Marius, who employed a Syrian prophetess.

Question: What process did haruspicy use to divine the will of the gods?


Answer: liver

Question: Which of the entrails was especially important to augury?


Answer: Etruscan

Question: To which group can haruspicy to traced?


Answer: diviners

Question: What type of private individual had several generals and politicians used to validate their actions?


Answer: public haruspices

Question: What type of diviners did the armies use to determine the will of the gods?


Answer: Prodigies

Context: Prodigies were transgressions in the natural, predictable order of the cosmos – signs of divine anger that portended conflict and misfortune. The Senate decided whether a reported prodigy was false, or genuine and in the public interest, in which case it was referred to the public priests, augurs and haruspices for ritual expiation. In 207 BC, during one of the Punic Wars' worst crises, the Senate dealt with an unprecedented number of confirmed prodigies whose expiation would have involved "at least twenty days" of dedicated rites.

Question: What were considered to be natural transgressions by the Romans?


Answer: conflict and misfortune

Question: Of what were prodigies predictors?


Answer: divine anger

Question: What did prodigies show the Romans?


Answer: dedicated rites

Question: What did the expiation of a prodigy impose?


Answer: Senate

Question: What group determined the truth of a prodigy?


Answer: Livy

Context: Livy presents these as signs of widespread failure in Roman religio. The major prodigies included the spontaneous combustion of weapons, the apparent shrinking of the sun's disc, two moons in a daylit sky, a cosmic battle between sun and moon, a rain of red-hot stones, a bloody sweat on statues, and blood in fountains and on ears of corn: all were expiated by sacrifice of "greater victims". The minor prodigies were less warlike but equally unnatural; sheep become goats, a hen become a cock (and vice versa) – these were expiated with "lesser victims". The discovery of an androgynous four-year-old child was expiated by its drowning and the holy procession of 27 virgins to the temple of Juno Regina, singing a hymn to avert disaster: a lightning strike during the hymn rehearsals required further expiation. Religious restitution is proved only by Rome's victory.

Question: What author wrote of disaster prodigies?


Answer: lesser victims

Question: What type of sacrifices were required to expiate the minor prodigies ?


Answer: greater victims

Question: Of what did the greater prodigies require in sacrifice?


Answer: widespread failure

Question: Of what did Livy think the prodigies proved about Roman religion?


Answer: Rome's victory

Question: What is the only proof of religious success over prodigies?


Answer: educated elite

Context: Roman beliefs about an afterlife varied, and are known mostly for the educated elite who expressed their views in terms of their chosen philosophy. The traditional care of the dead, however, and the perpetuation after death of their status in life were part of the most archaic practices of Roman religion. Ancient votive deposits to the noble dead of Latium and Rome suggest elaborate and costly funeral offerings and banquets in the company of the deceased, an expectation of afterlife and their association with the gods. As Roman society developed, its Republican nobility tended to invest less in spectacular funerals and extravagant housing for their dead, and more on monumental endowments to the community, such as the donation of a temple or public building whose donor was commemorated by his statue and inscribed name. Persons of low or negligible status might receive simple burial, with such grave goods as relatives could afford.

Question: From what source does information of Roman thought about the afterlife come?


Answer: archaic

Question: What type of practices were those affecting the care of the dead?


Answer: afterlife

Question: What did the ancient Romans expect after death?


Answer: gods

Question: With whom did the early Romans expect to associate?


Answer: monumental endowments

Question: What did later Romans invest in rather than grave offerings?


Answer: Funeral and commemorative

Context: Funeral and commemorative rites varied according to wealth, status and religious context. In Cicero's time, the better-off sacrificed a sow at the funeral pyre before cremation. The dead consumed their portion in the flames of the pyre, Ceres her portion through the flame of her altar, and the family at the site of the cremation. For the less well-off, inhumation with "a libation of wine, incense, and fruit or crops was sufficient". Ceres functioned as an intermediary between the realms of the living and the dead: the deceased had not yet fully passed to the world of the dead and could share a last meal with the living. The ashes (or body) were entombed or buried. On the eighth day of mourning, the family offered further sacrifice, this time on the ground; the shade of the departed was assumed to have passed entirely into the underworld. They had become one of the di Manes, who were collectively celebrated and appeased at the Parentalia, a multi-day festival of remembrance in February.

Question: What type of rites varied in accordance with status and religion?


Answer: sow

Question: What was the grave sacrifice in Cicero's time?


Answer: less well-off

Question: What class gave only wine and food as a grave offering?


Answer: Parentalia

Question: What was the multi day of remembrance for the dead?


Answer: Ceres

Question: What goddess was an intermediary between the dead and the living?


Answer: Christian

Context: In the later Imperial era, the burial and commemorative practises of Christian and non-Christians overlapped. Tombs were shared by Christian and non-Christian family members, and the traditional funeral rites and feast of novemdialis found a part-match in the Christian Constitutio Apostolica. The customary offers of wine and food to the dead continued; St Augustine (following St Ambrose) feared that this invited the "drunken" practices of Parentalia but commended funeral feasts as a Christian opportunity to give alms of food to the poor. Christians attended Parentalia and its accompanying Feralia and Caristia in sufficient numbers for the Council of Tours to forbid them in AD 567. Other funerary and commemorative practices were very different. Traditional Roman practice spurned the corpse as a ritual pollution; inscriptions noted the day of birth and duration of life. The Christian Church fostered the veneration of saintly relics, and inscriptions marked the day of death as a transition to "new life".

Question: What group's burial practices over-lapped with the Roman's?


Answer: Tombs

Question: What items were shared among Christian and non- Christians?


Answer: alms of food

Question: What did St Augustine believe that funeral feasts gave an opportunity for?


Answer: AD 567

Question: When was Christian attendance at Parentalia become forbidden by the Christians?


Answer: ritual pollution

Question: How did the Romans view the corpse of the dead?


Answer: standard pattern

Context: Roman camps followed a standard pattern for defense and religious ritual; in effect they were Rome in miniature. The commander's headquarters stood at the centre; he took the auspices on a dais in front. A small building behind housed the legionary standards, the divine images used in religious rites and in the Imperial era, the image of the ruling emperor. In one camp, this shrine is even called Capitolium. The most important camp-offering appears to have been the suovetaurilia performed before a major, set battle. A ram, a boar and a bull were ritually garlanded, led around the outer perimeter of the camp (a lustratio exercitus) and in through a gate, then sacrificed: Trajan's column shows three such events from his Dacian wars. The perimeter procession and sacrifice suggest the entire camp as a divine templum; all within are purified and protected.

Question: How were Roman camps laid out?


Answer: defense and religious ritual

Question: For what purpose were Roman camps arranged?


Answer: Rome

Question: Of what were Roman camps diminutive versions?


Answer: commander's headquarters

Question: What was in the center of each Roman camp?


Answer: divine templum

Question: What does the religious rites performed before battle suggest that the camp has become?


Answer: religious

Context: Each camp had its own religious personnel; standard bearers, priestly officers and their assistants, including a haruspex, and housekeepers of shrines and images. A senior magistrate-commander (sometimes even a consul) headed it, his chain of subordinates ran it and a ferocious system of training and discipline ensured that every citizen-soldier knew his duty. As in Rome, whatever gods he served in his own time seem to have been his own business; legionary forts and vici included shrines to household gods, personal deities and deities otherwise unknown. From the earliest Imperial era, citizen legionaries and provincial auxiliaries gave cult to the emperor and his familia on Imperial accessions, anniversaries and their renewal of annual vows. They celebrated Rome's official festivals in absentia, and had the official triads appropriate to their function – in the Empire, Jupiter, Victoria and Concordia were typical. By the early Severan era, the military also offered cult to the Imperial divi, the current emperor's numen, genius and domus (or familia), and special cult to the Empress as "mother of the camp." The near ubiquitous legionary shrines to Mithras of the later Imperial era were not part of official cult until Mithras was absorbed into Solar and Stoic Monism as a focus of military concordia and Imperial loyalty.

Question: What type of personnel did every camp have?


Answer: senior magistrate-commander

Question: What officer headed the religious personnel of a Roman camp?


Answer: emperor

Question: In the Imperial era, what cult did legionnaires follow?


Answer: Rome's official festivals

Question: Even in other places, of what did the legions keep observance?


Answer: Empress

Question: What person was considered to be "Mother of the camp''?


Answer: devotio

Context: The devotio was the most extreme offering a Roman general could make, promising to offer his own life in battle along with the enemy as an offering to the underworld gods. Livy offers a detailed account of the devotio carried out by Decius Mus; family tradition maintained that his son and grandson, all bearing the same name, also devoted themselves. Before the battle, Decius is granted a prescient dream that reveals his fate. When he offers sacrifice, the victim's liver appears "damaged where it refers to his own fortunes". Otherwise, the haruspex tells him, the sacrifice is entirely acceptable to the gods. In a prayer recorded by Livy, Decius commits himself and the enemy to the dii Manes and Tellus, charges alone and headlong into the enemy ranks, and is killed; his action cleanses the sacrificial offering. Had he failed to die, his sacrificial offering would have been tainted and therefore void, with possibly disastrous consequences. The act of devotio is a link between military ethics and those of the Roman gladiator.

Question: What was a Roman general's most extreme offering?


Answer: Decius Mus

Question: What Roman general had a dream of his fate in battle?


Answer: Roman gladiator

Question: With what does the devotio link to military ethics?


Answer: disastrous consequences

Question: By dying what did Decius avoid for the battle?


Answer: Livy

Question: Who wrote a detailed account of the demise of Decius Mus?