Answer: lung cancer

Context: The stress of the war had taken its toll on the King's health, exacerbated by his heavy smoking and subsequent development of lung cancer among other ailments, including arteriosclerosis and thromboangiitis obliterans. A planned tour of Australia and New Zealand was postponed after the King suffered an arterial blockage in his right leg, which threatened the loss of the leg and was treated with a right lumbar sympathectomy in March 1949. His elder daughter Elizabeth, the heir presumptive, took on more royal duties as her father's health deteriorated. The delayed tour was re-organised, with Elizabeth and her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh, taking the place of the King and Queen. The King was well enough to open the Festival of Britain in May 1951, but on 23 September 1951, his left lung was removed by Clement Price Thomas after a malignant tumour was found. In October 1951, Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh went on a month-long tour of Canada; the trip had been delayed for a week due to the King's illness. At the State Opening of Parliament in November, the King's speech from the throne was read for him by the Lord Chancellor, Lord Simonds. His Christmas broadcast of 1951 was recorded in sections, and then edited together.

Question: What kind of cancer did the King develop?


Answer: arterial blockage

Question: What developed in the King's right leg that prevented him from touring Australia?


Answer: right lumbar sympathectomy

Question: What treatment helped prevent the loss of the King's right leg?


Answer: Elizabeth

Question: Who was the King's heir presumptive?


Answer: Duke of Edinburgh

Question: Who was Elizabeth's spouse?


Answer: Windsor Castle

Context: From 9 February for two days his coffin rested in St. Mary Magdalene Church, Sandringham, before lying in state at Westminster Hall from 11 February. His funeral took place at St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on the 15th. He was interred initially in the Royal Vault until he was transferred to the King George VI Memorial Chapel inside St. George's on 26 March 1969. In 2002, fifty years after his death, the remains of his widow, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, and the ashes of his younger daughter Princess Margaret, who both died that year, were interred in the chapel alongside him.

Question: What church did the King's funeral take place on the 15th?


Answer: 2002

Question: What year did Queen Elizabeth die?


Answer: 2002

Question: What year did Princess Margaret die?


Answer: King George VI Memorial Chapel

Question: In which chapel does King George's body lie in today?


Answer: low

Context: In the words of Labour Member of Parliament George Hardie, the abdication crisis of 1936 did "more for republicanism than fifty years of propaganda". George VI wrote to his brother Edward that in the aftermath of the abdication he had reluctantly assumed "a rocking throne", and tried "to make it steady again". He became king at a point when public faith in the monarchy was at a low ebb. During his reign his people endured the hardships of war, and imperial power was eroded. However, as a dutiful family man and by showing personal courage, he succeeded in restoring the popularity of the monarchy.

Question: How high was public faith in the monarchy when King George assumed the throne?


Answer: Labour Member of Parliament

Question: What position did George Hardie hold?


Answer: Edward

Question: Who was George VI's brother?


Answer: 100 megawatts

Context: Found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as from the power grid, inverters or generators. Small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, and so on.

Question: What is the largest rating of an electric motor?


Answer: batteries

Question: What is the main example of a DC power source?


Answer: alternating current

Question: What does AC stand for?


Answer: direct current

Question: What does DC stand for?


Answer: electric watches

Question: In what device are small motors commonly found?


Answer: Andrew Gordon

Context: Perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric current and a magnetic field, Ampère's force law, was discovered later by André-Marie Ampère in 1820. The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet (PM) was placed. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in physics experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlow's wheel was an early refinement to this Faraday demonstration, these and similar homopolar motors were to remain unsuited to practical application until late in the century.

Question: Who created the first electrostatic device?


Answer: André-Marie Ampère

Question: Who discovered the principles of magnetic and electric interactions?


Answer: 1821

Question: In what year did Faraday convert electrical energy into mechanical energy?


Answer: mercury

Question: What toxic substance originally served the function of brine in primitive motors?


Answer: 1827

Context: In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils. After Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices "electromagnetic self-rotors". Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three main components of practical DC motors: the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the magnetic fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings.

Question: In what year did Jedlik begin experimenting with electromagnetism?


Answer: rotor

Question: Besides the stator and the communicator, what is an element of a DC motor?


Answer: electromagnetic self-rotors

Question: What did Jedlik call his earliest devices?


Answer: commutator

Question: What discovery solved the problem of continuous rotation?


Answer: permanent magnets

Question: What did Jedlik's improved device eliminate the need for?


Answer: 1839/40

Context: After many other more or less successful attempts with relatively weak rotating and reciprocating apparatus the Prussian Moritz von Jacobi created the first real rotating electric motor in May 1834 that actually developed a remarkable mechanical output power. His motor set a world record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river. It was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance.

Question: When were developers competing with Jacobi able to match his accomplishments?


Answer: boat

Question: What was Jacobi's improved motor used to propel?


Answer: Moritz von Jacobi

Question: Who created the first real electric motor?


Answer: Jacobi himself

Question: Who broke the world record set by Jacobi's first motor?


Answer: four years

Question: How long did it take for Jacobi's first world record to be broken?


Answer: William Sturgeon

Context: The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools and a printing press. Due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.

Question: Who developed the first mnotor capable of being used for machinery?


Answer: Thomas Davenport

Question: Which inventor went bankrupt?


Answer: the high cost of primary battery power

Question: What was the main problem with applying early electric motors to industry?


Answer: electricity distribution

Question: What necessary technical development had yet to occur to make electric motors useful?


Answer: 600 revolutions per minute

Question: How fast did Sturgeon and Davenport's motors run?


Answer: non-fluctuating current

Context: A major turning point in the development of DC machines took place in 1864, when Antonio Pacinotti described for the first time the ring armature with its symmetrically grouped coils closed upon themselves and connected to the bars of a commutator, the brushes of which delivered practically non-fluctuating current. The first commercially successful DC motors followed the invention by Zénobe Gramme who, in 1871, reinvented Pacinotti's design. In 1873, Gramme showed that his dynamo could be used as a motor, which he demonstrated to great effect at exhibitions in Vienna and Philadelphia by connecting two such DC motors at a distance of up to 2 km away from each other, one as a generator. (See also 1873 : l'expérience décisive [Decisive Workaround] .)

Question: What made Pacinotti's motor an important advancement?


Answer: Zénobe Gramme

Question: Who created a motor similar to Pacinotti?


Answer: 2 km

Question: How far from each other were the motors in Gramme's demonstrations?


Answer: generator

Question: Besides a motor, what did Gramme use the other device for?


Answer: Vienna and Philadelphia

Question: In what two cities did Gramme conduct his demonstrations?


Answer: small air gap

Context: In 1886, Frank Julian Sprague invented the first practical DC motor, a non-sparking motor that maintained relatively constant speed under variable loads. Other Sprague electric inventions about this time greatly improved grid electric distribution (prior work done while employed by Thomas Edison), allowed power from electric motors to be returned to the electric grid, provided for electric distribution to trolleys via overhead wires and the trolley pole, and provided controls systems for electric operations. This allowed Sprague to use electric motors to invent the first electric trolley system in 1887–88 in Richmond VA, the electric elevator and control system in 1892, and the electric subway with independently powered centrally controlled cars, which were first installed in 1892 in Chicago by the South Side Elevated Railway where it became popularly known as the "L". Sprague's motor and related inventions led to an explosion of interest and use in electric motors for industry, while almost simultaneously another great inventor was developing its primary competitor, which would become much more widespread. The development of electric motors of acceptable efficiency was delayed for several decades by failure to recognize the extreme importance of a relatively small air gap between rotor and stator. Efficient designs have a comparatively small air gap. [a] The St. Louis motor, long used in classrooms to illustrate motor principles, is extremely inefficient for the same reason, as well as appearing nothing like a modern motor.

Question: What needs to exist between the rotor and stator for increased efficiency?


Answer: Frank Julian Sprague

Question: Which inventor created the first useful DC motor?


Answer: electric trolley system

Question: What was the transportation advancement made possible by Sprague's designs?


Answer: South Side Elevated Railway

Question: What was the name of Chicago's first electric trolley system?


Answer: Thomas Edison

Question: Who did Sprague work for early in his career?


Answer: more than half

Context: Application of electric motors revolutionized industry. Industrial processes were no longer limited by power transmission using line shafts, belts, compressed air or hydraulic pressure. Instead every machine could be equipped with its own electric motor, providing easy control at the point of use, and improving power transmission efficiency. Electric motors applied in agriculture eliminated human and animal muscle power from such tasks as handling grain or pumping water. Household uses of electric motors reduced heavy labor in the home and made higher standards of convenience, comfort and safety possible. Today, electric motors stand for more than half of the electric energy consumption in the US.

Question: How much energy do electric motors use in the modern United States?


Answer: agriculture

Question: In what domain did electric motors reduce reliance on humans and animals?


Answer: hydraulic pressure

Question: Besides shafts, belts and compressed air, what did electric motors reduce the need for?


Answer: in the home

Question: Where did electric motors improve convenience and safety?


Answer: Walter Baily

Context: In 1824, the French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first primitive induction motor. In the 1880s, many inventors were trying to develop workable AC motors because AC's advantages in long-distance high-voltage transmission were counterbalanced by the inability to operate motors on AC. The first alternating-current commutatorless induction motors were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having been demonstrated by the former in 1885 and by the latter in 1887. In 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferraris' research detailing the foundations of motor operation while however concluding that "the apparatus based on that principle could not be of any commercial importance as motor." In 1888, Tesla presented his paper A New System for Alternating Current Motors and Transformers to the AIEE that described three patented two-phase four-stator-pole motor types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting reluctance motor, another with a wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and the third a true synchronous motor with separately excited DC supply to rotor winding. One of the patents Tesla filed in 1887, however, also described a shorted-winding-rotor induction motor. George Westinghouse promptly bought Tesla's patents, employed Tesla to develop them, and assigned C. F. Scott to help Tesla, Tesla left for other pursuits in 1889. The constant speed AC induction motor was found not to be suitable for street cars but Westinghouse engineers successfully adapted it to power a mining operation in Telluride, Colorado in 1891. Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the three-phase cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the three-limb transformer in 1890. This type of motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications. However, he claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work. Although Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, these early Westinghouse motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors until B. G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891. By 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100 horsepower (HP) induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5 HP motor in 1897.

Question: Who built the first induction motor?


Answer: AC

Question: What type of power were early motors unable to use?


Answer: George Westinghouse

Question: Who bought Tesla's patents?


Answer: mining

Question: For what application was Tesla's motor first used?


Answer: squirrel-cage

Question: What's another name for the bar-winding-rotor?


Answer: brake to a stop

Context: A commutator is a mechanism used to switch the input of most DC machines and certain AC machines consisting of slip ring segments insulated from each other and from the electric motor's shaft. The motor's armature current is supplied through the stationary brushes in contact with the revolving commutator, which causes required current reversal and applies power to the machine in an optimal manner as the rotor rotates from pole to pole. In absence of such current reversal, the motor would brake to a stop. In light of significant advances in the past few decades due to improved technologies in electronic controller, sensorless control, induction motor, and permanent magnet motor fields, electromechanically commutated motors are increasingly being displaced by externally commutated induction and permanent-magnet motors.

Question: What would a rotor do without current reversal?


Answer: commutator

Question: What switches the input of most DC motors?


Answer: stationary brushes

Question: From where is current to the motor supplied?


Answer: externally commutated induction and permanent-magnet

Question: What two motor types are ascendant today?


Answer: reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings

Context: A commutated DC motor has a set of rotating windings wound on an armature mounted on a rotating shaft. The shaft also carries the commutator, a long-lasting rotary electrical switch that periodically reverses the flow of current in the rotor windings as the shaft rotates. Thus, every brushed DC motor has AC flowing through its rotating windings. Current flows through one or more pairs of brushes that bear on the commutator; the brushes connect an external source of electric power to the rotating armature.

Question: What does the communicator do?


Answer: AC

Question: What type of current is featured in brushed DC motors?


Answer: external

Question: Where do brushes get their power?


Answer: rotating

Question: What is the main feature of the shaft in a commutated DC motor?


Answer: electromagnet

Context: The rotating armature consists of one or more coils of wire wound around a laminated, magnetically "soft" ferromagnetic core. Current from the brushes flows through the commutator and one winding of the armature, making it a temporary magnet (an electromagnet). The magnetic field produced by the armature interacts with a stationary magnetic field produced by either PMs or another winding a field coil, as part of the motor frame. The force between the two magnetic fields tends to rotate the motor shaft. The commutator switches power to the coils as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does), but rather keeps rotating as long as power is applied.

Question: Current flowing to create a temporary magent is called what?


Answer: force between the two magnetic fields

Question: What rotates the motor shaft?


Answer: commutator

Question: What element of the motor keeps the poles from alligning?


Answer: compass

Question: What non-motor device demonstrates why a commutator is needed?


Answer: sparking

Context: Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. Sparks are created by the brushes making and breaking circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together adjacent sections – and hence coil ends – momentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The making and breaking of electric contact also generates electrical noise; sparking generates RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.

Question: How is RFI generated?


Answer: commutator

Question: What do brushes need to be in contact with?


Answer: friction

Question: What is created by contact between parts of the motor?


Answer: maximum speed

Question: What does sparking limit?


Answer: Brushes

Question: What motor components most need replacement and maintenance?


Answer: motor output

Context: Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking. (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

Question: What are large brushes favorable for?


Answer: speed

Question: Whate are small brushes favorable for?


Answer: small

Question: What type of brushes are cheapest?


Answer: Stiffer brush springs

Question: How can the speed of larger brushes be increased?


Answer: lower efficiency

Question: Besides wear, what is a downside of stiff brush springs?


Answer: speed control

Context: A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

Question: What can a PM motor not be adjusted for?


Answer: stators

Question: What is another name for PM fields?


Answer: field winding

Question: What design feature does a PM motor lack?


Answer: flux

Question: What do field windings provide?


Answer: To minimize overall weight and size

Context: To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Question: Why do miniature PM motors use high energy magnets?


Answer: neodymium-iron-boron alloy

Question: What are high energy magnets typically made of?


Answer: steel tube

Question: What does the outer housing of a miniature motor resemble?


Answer: least competitive

Question: How do PMs rate against other types of electric motors?


Answer: 1000 watts

Context: Operating at normal power line frequencies, universal motors are often found in a range less than 1000 watts. Universal motors also formed the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, the use of AC to power a motor originally designed to run on DC would lead to efficiency losses due to eddy current heating of their magnetic components, particularly the motor field pole-pieces that, for DC, would have used solid (un-laminated) iron and they are now rarely used.

Question: What is the typical maximum range of universal motors?


Answer: universal

Question: What type of motor was used in trailway traction applications?


Answer: efficiency losses

Question: What is the result of using AC power on a DC motor?


Answer: solid (un-laminated) iron

Question: What were universal motor pole pieces constructed from?


Answer: universal

Context: An advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have some characteristics more common in DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. Such motors are used in devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently, and often have high starting-torque demands. Multiple taps on the field coil provide (imprecise) stepped speed control. Household blenders that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC). Universal motors also lend themselves to electronic speed control and, as such, are an ideal choice for devices like domestic washing machines. The motor can be used to agitate the drum (both forwards and in reverse) by switching the field winding with respect to the armature.

Question: What kind of motor can employ both AC and DC?


Answer: commutator

Question: What component of a universal motor is most likely to fail?


Answer: starting

Question: When is torque most important in universal motor applications?


Answer: forwards and in reverse

Question: Switching the field winding in washing machines causes the drum to agitate how?


Answer: Multiple taps on the field coil provide

Question: How is stepped speed control achieved?


Answer: 10,000

Context: Whereas SCIMs cannot turn a shaft faster than allowed by the power line frequency, universal motors can run at much higher speeds. This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high speed and light weight are desirable. They are also commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, sanders, circular and jig saws, where the motor's characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 rpm, while many similar miniature grinders exceed 30,000 rpm.

Question: At around what RMP do weed trimmer motors operate?


Answer: 30,000

Question: At around what RMP do miniature grinders operate?


Answer: SCIMs

Question: What type of motor can universal motors operate much faster than?


Answer: high speed and light weight

Question: What attributes make universal motors desireable for consumer applications like hair dryers?


Answer: shape of the rotor bars

Context: Currents induced into this winding provide the rotor magnetic field. The shape of the rotor bars determines the speed-torque characteristics. At low speeds, the current induced in the squirrel cage is nearly at line frequency and tends to be in the outer parts of the rotor cage. As the motor accelerates, the slip frequency becomes lower, and more current is in the interior of the winding. By shaping the bars to change the resistance of the winding portions in the interior and outer parts of the cage, effectively a variable resistance is inserted in the rotor circuit. However, the majority of such motors have uniform bars.

Question: What determines the properties of speed and torque?


Answer: interior of the winding

Question: At high speed, where is the most current?


Answer: lower

Question: Is the current frequency higher or lower at high speed?


Answer: variable resistance

Question: Changing the shapes of the bars creates what?


Answer: rotor circuit

Question: Where can variable resistance be created?


Answer: rotor circuit

Context: In a WRIM, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire and is connected to slip rings on the motor shaft. An external resistor or other control devices can be connected in the rotor circuit. Resistors allow control of the motor speed, although significant power is dissipated in the external resistance. A converter can be fed from the rotor circuit and return the slip-frequency power that would otherwise be wasted back into the power system through an inverter or separate motor-generator.

Question: Where might a resistor be attached?


Answer: motor speed

Question: What can a resistor control?


Answer: inverter or separate motor-generator

Question: How might wasted power be salvaged?


Answer: rotor circuit

Question: From where may a converter be fed?


Answer: speed up

Context: When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation and net efficiency is also very poor.

Question: What will a motor do if the load is reduced?


Answer: slow down

Question: What will a motor do if the load is increased?


Answer: secondary resistors

Question: Where are slip losses dissipated?


Answer: very poor

Question: How efficient is such a design?


Answer: feedback steering wheels

Context: A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a relatively constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are used in force feedback steering wheels.

Question: How are torque motors used in computer gaming?


Answer: constant light tension

Question: A torque motor at low voltage provides what?


Answer: higher torque

Question: A torque motor at high voltage provides what?


Answer: gears or clutches

Question: In a tape drive, what is not needed if a torque motor is used?


Answer: electrical pulses

Context: Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup and, depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor. If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the motor will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing the return spring to pull back and close the throttle.

Question: What element of a combustion engine does a governor monitor?


Answer: return spring

Question: What is a governor connected to?


Answer: small

Question: What kinds of adjustments would a governor make?


Answer: reduce the current being applied to the motor

Question: What would a governor do to a too-fast running engine?


Answer: zero

Context: A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing magnets at the same rate as the AC and resulting magnetic field which drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. One type of synchronous motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed hence the name synchronous motor. Another type, for low load torque, has flats ground onto a conventional squirrel-cage rotor to create discrete poles. Yet another, such as made by Hammond for its pre-World War II clocks, and in the older Hammond organs, has no rotor windings and discrete poles. It is not self-starting. The clock requires manual starting by a small knob on the back, while the older Hammond organs had an auxiliary starting motor connected by a spring-loaded manually operated switch.

Question: How much slip does a synchronous motor have?


Answer: slip

Question: How does an induction motor produce torque?


Answer: manually

Question: Whithout rotor windings, how must a Hammond clock be started?


Answer: DC field

Question: How can a synchronous motor be made more like an induction motor?


Answer: Slip rings and brushes

Question: How is current brought to the rotor in a synchronous motor?


Answer: becomes temporarily magnetized

Context: Finally, hysteresis synchronous motors typically are (essentially) two-phase motors with a phase-shifting capacitor for one phase. They start like induction motors, but when slip rate decreases sufficiently, the rotor (a smooth cylinder) becomes temporarily magnetized. Its distributed poles make it act like a PMSM. The rotor material, like that of a common nail, will stay magnetized, but can also be demagnetized with little difficulty. Once running, the rotor poles stay in place; they do not drift.

Question: What do hysteresis synchronous motors' rotors do when slip rate decreases?


Answer: stay in place

Question: When in operation, what do hysteresis synchronous motors poles do?


Answer: induction motors

Question: What do hysteresis synchronous motors resemble at startup?


Answer: a smooth cylinder

Question: How can a hysteresis synchronous motor's rotor be described?


Answer: PMSM

Question: What do the distributed poles of a hysteresis synchronous motor resemble?


Answer: Doubly fed electric motors

Context: Doubly fed electric motors have two independent multiphase winding sets, which contribute active (i.e., working) power to the energy conversion process, with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for variable speed operation. Two independent multiphase winding sets (i.e., dual armature) are the maximum provided in a single package without topology duplication. Doubly-fed electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set.

Question: What type of motor has two independent multiphase winding sets?


Answer: contribute active (i.e., working) power to the energy conversion process

Question: What advanage do independent multiphase winding sets have?


Answer: variable speed operation

Question: What is one of the independent multiphase winding sets configured for?


Answer: twice the constant torque speed range

Question: Doubly fed motors have what advantage over single fed?


Answer: rapid acceleration

Context: Nothing in the principle of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate. If the soft magnetic material of the rotor is made in the form of a cylinder, then (except for the effect of hysteresis) torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a PM DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux.

Question: A coreless DC motor is distinguished by what?


Answer: iron core

Question: What is absent in a coreless DC motor?


Answer: winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure

Question: What forms can the rotor take?


Answer: Overheating

Context: Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under one ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air. Overheating might be an issue for coreless DC motor designs.

Question: What is a likely problem of coreless DC motors?


Answer: lighter

Question: How does a coreless rotor compare to traditional rotors in terms of weight?


Answer: accelerate much more rapidly

Question: What advantage does a coreless rotor have over traditional variants?


Answer: heat sink

Question: The lack of a metal mass in the core causes what function to be absent?


Answer: forced air

Question: How is a coreless motor cooled?


Answer: drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives

Context: These motors were originally invented to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives in the burgeoning computer industry, where minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance were critical. Pancake motors are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, robotic systems, industrial automation and medical devices. Due to the variety of constructions now available, the technology is used in applications from high temperature military to low cost pump and basic servos.

Question: What was the original purpose for pancake motors?


Answer: minimal time to reach operating speed and minimal stopping distance

Question: What are advantages of pancake motors?


Answer: high temperature

Question: For what type of military applications are pancake motors currently used?


Answer: high-performance

Question: What type of servo-controlled systems use pancake motors?


Answer: machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems

Context: A servomotor is a motor, very often sold as a complete module, which is used within a position-control or speed-control feedback control system mainly control valves, such as motor-operated control valves. Servomotors are used in applications such as machine tools, pen plotters, and other process systems. Motors intended for use in a servomechanism must have well-documented characteristics for speed, torque, and power. The speed vs. torque curve is quite important and is high ratio for a servo motor. Dynamic response characteristics such as winding inductance and rotor inertia are also important; these factors limit the overall performance of the servomechanism loop. Large, powerful, but slow-responding servo loops may use conventional AC or DC motors and drive systems with position or speed feedback on the motor. As dynamic response requirements increase, more specialized motor designs such as coreless motors are used. AC motors' superior power density and acceleration characteristics compared to that of DC motors tends to favor PM synchronous, BLDC, induction, and SRM drive applications.

Question: What may servo motors be used for?


Answer: speed, torque, and power

Question: What must be well understood when applying a servo motor for use?


Answer: winding inductance and rotor inertia

Question: What factors limit performance of servo motors?


Answer: conventional AC or DC motors

Question: Large, slow servos can use what types of motors?


Answer: As dynamic response requirements increase

Question: When might coreless motors be used in servo applications?


Answer: position feedback is continuous

Context: A servo system differs from some stepper motor applications in that the position feedback is continuous while the motor is running; a stepper system relies on the motor not to "miss steps" for short term accuracy, although a stepper system may include a "home" switch or other element to provide long-term stability of control. For instance, when a typical dot matrix computer printer starts up, its controller makes the print head stepper motor drive to its left-hand limit, where a position sensor defines home position and stops stepping. As long as power is on, a bidirectional counter in the printer's microprocessor keeps track of print-head position.

Question: How do servo motors differ from stepper motors?


Answer: a "home" switch

Question: How does a stepper system achieve stability?


Answer: position sensor

Question: What makes a printer home switch work?


Answer: bidirectional

Question: What kind of counter keeps track of a print head's position?


Answer: miss steps

Question: A stepper system's motor is relied on to not do what?


Answer: when precise rotations are required

Context: Stepper motors are a type of motor frequently used when precise rotations are required. In a stepper motor an internal rotor containing PMs or a magnetically soft rotor with salient poles is controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper motor may not rotate continuously; instead, it "steps"—starts and then quickly stops again—from one position to the next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence, the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down arbitrarily at any time.

Question: When are stepper motors most useful?


Answer: DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid

Question: What two devices can describe a stepper motor?


Answer: magnetic field produced by the energized field winding

Question: What do stepper motor rotors allign themselves with?


Answer: the stepper motor may not rotate continuously

Question: How does a stepper motor differ from a synchronous motor?


Answer: forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow down

Question: What types of velocities and positions is the stepper motor capable of?


Answer: proportionally control the power to the field windings

Context: Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of operation is often called microstepping. Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems, particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.

Question: What is a trait of a sophisticated stepper motor?


Answer: rotate extremely smoothly

Question: What does proportinal control of the field windings in a stepper motor achieve?


Answer: microstepping

Question: What is another name for smooth rotation?


Answer: digital servo-controlled system

Question: With what other device are stepper motors most versatile?


Answer: precision and speed limitations

Context: Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper motors are used for read/write head positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were used for the same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision and speed they offered was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk drive. As drive density increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper motors made them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed limitation made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was used for a while to position the heads. Modern drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth, something like a blade of a rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet wire) move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)

Question: Why were stepper motors abandoned in computer drive designs?


Answer: voice coil-based head actuator systems

Question: What do newer computer drives use instead of stepper motors?


Answer: perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force

Question: In what direction do modern coil actuators move?


Answer: the structure in a typical (cone type) loudspeaker

Question: To what device does the term, "voice coil" historically refer?


Answer: linear stepper motors or servomotors

Context: Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital photocopiers to move the optical scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers. Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the early 1990s have been replaced with large-format inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen and platen movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper motors or servomotors with closed-loop analog control systems.

Question: List two alternatives to rotary stepper motors in printer applications.


Answer: optical scanning element

Question: In scanners, what do stepper motors move?


Answer: print head carriage (of dot matrix and inkjet printers), and the platen or feed rollers

Question: In printers and copiers, what do stepper motors move?


Answer: back electromotive force

Context: Since the armature windings of a direct-current or universal motor are moving through a magnetic field, they have a voltage induced in them. This voltage tends to oppose the motor supply voltage and so is called "back electromotive force (emf)". The voltage is proportional to the running speed of the motor. The back emf of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance and brushes, must equal the voltage at the brushes. This provides the fundamental mechanism of speed regulation in a DC motor. If the mechanical load increases, the motor slows down; a lower back emf results, and more current is drawn from the supply. This increased current provides the additional torque to balance the new load.

Question: Voltage opposing the motor supply voltage is called what?


Answer: the running speed of the motor

Question: EMP is proportional to what?


Answer: back emf of the motor, plus the voltage drop across the winding internal resistance

Question: Voltage at the brushes is equal to what?


Answer: more current is drawn from the supply

Question: If load increases, what happens to current drawn?


Answer: fields in the air gap

Context: All the electromagnetic motors, and that includes the types mentioned here derive the torque from the vector product of the interacting fields. For calculating the torque it is necessary to know the fields in the air gap . Once these have been established by mathematical analysis using FEA or other tools the torque may be calculated as the integral of all the vectors of force multiplied by the radius of each vector. The current flowing in the winding is producing the fields and for a motor using a magnetic material the field is not linearly proportional to the current. This makes the calculation difficult but a computer can do the many calculations needed.

Question: What needs to be known to calculate torque?


Answer: FEA

Question: How are the many calculations to determine torque done?


Answer: from the vector product of the interacting fields

Question: How is torque determined?


Answer: the integral of all the vectors of force multiplied by the radius of each vector

Question: What is the formulia to determine torque?


Answer: torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density

Context: When optimally designed within a given core saturation constraint and for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and air-gap flux density, all categories of electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque (i.e., operating torque) within a given air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth, which determines the physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or generators.

Question: What are factors that determine shaft torque?


Answer: air-gap area with winding slots and back-iron depth

Question: Whate decides the size of an electromagnetic core?


Answer: magnetic core saturation or safe operating temperature rise and voltage

Question: What limits excessive torque?


Answer: brushless wound-rotor

Context: The brushless wound-rotor synchronous doubly-fed (BWRSDF) machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port). The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set, the active current of the BWRSDF machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.

Question: What is the only device with dual ported transformer circuit topology?


Answer: both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port

Question: What is a brushless wound-rotor?


Answer: a multiphase slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set

Question: How does a brushless wound rotor achieve stability?


Answer: eight times operating torque

Question: What is the theoretical maximum of a brushless wound rotor?


Answer: size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth

Context: The continuous torque density of conventional electric machines is determined by the size of the air-gap area and the back-iron depth, which are determined by the power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation. Despite the high coercivity of neodymium or samarium-cobalt PMs, continuous torque density is virtually the same amongst electric machines with optimally designed armature winding sets. Continuous torque density relates to method of cooling and permissible period of operation before destruction by overheating of windings or PM damage.

Question: What determines continuous torque density?


Answer: power rating of the armature winding set, the speed of the machine, and the achievable air-gap flux density before core saturation

Question: What three elements determine the size of the air-gap area and back iron depth?


Answer: method of cooling and permissible period of operation before destruction by overheating

Question: What does continuous torque density refer to?


Answer: virtually the same

Question: How does continuous torque density vary between well designed motors?


Answer: electrostatic

Context: An electrostatic motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based motors. They typically require a high-voltage power supply, although very small motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.[citation needed]

Question: What type of motor is based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge?


Answer: conventional coil-based motors

Question: What are electrostatic motors like two of?


Answer: high-voltage

Question: What type of power supply do electrostatic motors usually have?


Answer: Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon

Question: What two inventors developed the first electrostatic motors?


Answer: electrostatic motor

Question: Micro-electro mechanical systems prefer what type of motor?


Answer: Swiss Confederation

Context: Switzerland (/ˈswɪtsərlənd/), officially the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a country in Europe. While still named the "Swiss Confederation" for historical reasons, modern Switzerland is a federal directorial republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities, called Bundesstadt ("federal city").[note 3] The country is situated in Western and Central Europe,[note 4] and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found: among them are the two global and economic centres, Zürich and Geneva.

Question: What is the official name of Switzerland?


Answer: a federal directorial republic

Question: What type of government does Switzerland have?


Answer: 26

Question: How many cantons are in Switzerland's federal directorial republic?


Answer: the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura

Question: What 3 geographical features divide Switzerland?


Answer: approximately 8 million

Question: What is the population of Switzerland?


Answer: 1 August 1291

Context: The establishment of the Swiss Confederation is traditionally dated to 1 August 1291, which is celebrated annually as the Swiss National Day. The country has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. Nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to numerous international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association, but notably it is not part of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area. However the country does participate in the Schengen Area and the EU's single market through a number of bilateral treaties.

Question: What is the traditional date of the establishment of the Swiss Confederation?


Answer: 2002

Question: What year did Switzerland join the United Nations?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: What country is the birthplace of the Red Cross?


Answer: 1815

Question: In what year was Switzerland last involved in a war internationally?


Answer: Swiss National Day

Question: What Swiss holiday is celebrated on August 1st every year?


Answer: German, French, Italian and Romansh

Context: Straddling the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and Romansh. Therefore, the Swiss, although predominantly German-speaking, do not form a nation in the sense of a common ethnicity or language; rather, Switzerland's strong sense of identity and community is founded on a common historical background, shared values such as federalism and direct democracy, and Alpine symbolism. Due to its linguistic diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names: Schweiz [ˈʃvaɪts] (German);[note 5] Suisse [sɥis(ə)] (French); Svizzera [ˈzvittsera] (Italian); and Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ] (Romansh).[note 6]

Question: Which four main linguistic and cultural regions make up Switzerland?


Answer: German

Question: What is the predominant language in Switzerland?


Answer: Suisse

Question: What do the French Swiss call Switzerland?


Answer: Schweiz

Question: What do the German Swiss call Switzerland?


Answer: Svizzera

Question: What do the Italian Swiss call Switzerland?


Answer: top or close to the top

Context: Switzerland is one of the richest and wealthiest countries in the world. Switzerland ranks top or close to the top in several metrics of national performance, including government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic competitiveness, and human development. It has the highest nominal wealth (financial and non-financial assets) per adult in the world according to Credit Suisse and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product on the IMF list. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities with the highest quality of life in the world, with the former ranked 2nd globally, according to Mercer.

Question: How does Switzerland rank worldwide in areas such as quality of life and civil liberties?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: Which country has the highest nominal wealth per adult in the world according to Credit Suisse?


Answer: Zürich and Geneva

Question: Which two Swiss cities have been ranked as having the highest quality of life in the world?


Answer: financial and non-financial

Question: What assets are included in nominal wealth?


Answer: eighth-highest

Question: What is Switzerland's ranking for per capita gross domestic product on the IMF list?


Answer: Switzer

Context: The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, an obsolete term for the Swiss, which was in use during the 16th to 19th centuries. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, one of the Waldstätten cantons which formed the nucleus of the Old Swiss Confederacy. The name originates as an exonym, applied pars pro toto to the troops of the Confederacy. The Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for "Confederates", Eidgenossen (literally: comrades by oath), used since the 14th century.

Question: What was the Swiss term for Switzerland during the 16th - 19th centuries?


Answer: French Suisse

Question: Where did the English adjective Swiss originate from?


Answer: the Alemannic Schwiizer

Question: Where did the name Switzer originate from?


Answer: the Old Swiss Confederacy

Question: What did the Alemannic Schwiizer help form the nucleus of?


Answer: 972

Context: The toponym Schwyz itself is first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately perhaps related to suedan "to burn", referring to the area of forest that was burned and cleared to build. The name was extended to the area dominated by the canton, and after the Swabian War of 1499 gradually came to be used for the entire Confederation. The Swiss German name of the country, Schwiiz, is homophonous to that of the canton and the settlement, but distinguished by the use of the definite article (d'Schwiiz for the Confederation, but simply Schwyz for the canton and the town).

Question: In what year was the toponym Schwyz first attested as Old High German Suittes?


Answer: after the Swabian War of 1499

Question: At what time did the name Schwyz begin to be used by the entire Confederation?


Answer: Schwiiz

Question: What was the Swiss German name for Schwyz?


Answer: the Confederation

Question: What was the name d'Schwiiz used for?


Answer: Hallstatt and La Tène

Context: The earliest known cultural tribes of the area were members of the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel. La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC, possibly under some influence from the Greek and Etruscan civilisations. One of the most important tribal groups in the Swiss region was the Helvetii. Steadily harassed by the Germans, in 58 BC the Helvetii decided to abandon the Swiss plateau and migrate to western Gallia, but Julius Caesar's armies pursued and defeated them at the Battle of Bibracte, in today's western France, forcing the tribe to move back to its original homeland. In 15 BC, Tiberius, who was destined to be the second Roman emperor and his brother, Drusus, conquered the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire. The area occupied by the Helvetii—the namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica—first became part of Rome's Gallia Belgica province and then of its Germania Superior province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. Sometime around the start of the Common Era, the Romans maintained a large legionary camp called Vindonissa, now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers, near the town of Windisch, an outskirt of Brugg.

Question: What were the two earliest know cultural tribes in Switerland?


Answer: La Tène

Question: Which Swiss cultural tribe developed and flourished during the late Iron Age?


Answer: the Helvetii

Question: Which Swiss tribal group was defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Bribacti as they tried to escape the Swiss plateau?


Answer: 15 BC

Question: In what year did Tiberius conquer the Alps, integrating them into the Roman Empire?


Answer: Vindonissa

Question: What is the name of the large legionary camp, now a ruin, that the Romans maintained around the start of the Common Era?


Answer: about 260 AD

Context: In about 260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses, like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defense at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes), but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept, and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of German tribes.

Question: In what year did the fall of the Agri Decumates territory transform today's Switzerland?


Answer: raids by the Alamanni tribes

Question: In about 260 AD, what forced the people of Roman towns to find shelter in Roman fortresses?


Answer: the linear defence concept

Question: What was the name of the concept used by the Roman Empire when building another line of defense at the north border?


Answer: Germanic

Question: What increased pressure forced the Romans to abandon their line of defense concept at the end of the 4th century?


Answer: German tribes

Question: Who was allowed to settle on the Swiss plateau by the end of the 4th century?


Answer: the Kings of the Burgundians

Context: In the Early Middle Ages, from the end of the 4th century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century, forming Alemannia. Modern-day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy. The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century, following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians.

Question: From the end of the 4th century, what territory was the western extent of modern-day Switzerland part of?


Answer: the Swiss plateau

Question: Where did the Alemanni settle in the 5th century?


Answer: valleys of the Alps

Question: Where did the Alemanni settle in the 8th century, forming Alemannia?


Answer: Alemannia and Burgundy

Question: In the 8th century, what two kingdoms made up Modern-day Switzerland?


Answer: Frankish Empire

Question: What Empire did the entire region of Modern-day Switzerland become part of in the 6th century?


Answer: the Swiss plateau

Context: By 1200, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg. Some regions (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, later known as Waldstätten) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With the extinction of its male line in 1263 the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264; then the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.

Question: In 1200, what area did the houses of Savoy, Zahringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg comprise?


Answer: extinction of its male line in 1263

Question: In 1264 AD, what caused the Kyburg dynasty to fall?


Answer: the Habsburgs

Question: Who claimed the Kyburg lands after their fall in 1264 AD?


Answer: King Rudolph I

Question: Which Holy Roman Emperor were the Habsburgs under in 1273 AD?


Answer: Waldstätten

Question: What did the three regions of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden become known as?


Answer: By 1353

Context: By 1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Bern city states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the federation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains, particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire.

Question: In what year did the three original cantons join with five other cantons to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states?


Answer: end of the 15th century

Question: Which century did the Old Confederacy of the eight states exist until?


Answer: increased power and wealth

Question: What effect did the expansion of the three cantons into eight have on the status of the federation?


Answer: the confederates

Question: By 1460, who controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine?


Answer: Swabian War

Question: Which Swiss victory in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire?


Answer: Battle of Marignano

Context: The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of the federation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 (Wars of Kappel). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Peace of Westphalia, European countries recognized Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality.

Question: Which Battle was the first to interrupt the seeming invincibility of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1515?


Answer: religious

Question: What inter-cantonal conflicts resulted in the Wars of Kappel?


Answer: 1648

Question: In what year did European countries first recognize Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire?


Answer: 1529 and 1531

Question: In what two years were the Wars of Kappel?


Answer: European countries

Question: Under the Peace of Westphalia, who finally recognized Switzerland's neutrality?


Answer: the revolutionary French government

Context: In 1798, the revolutionary French government conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen joined France and Valtellina valley, the Cisalpine Republic, separating from Switzerland. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the occupation.

Question: Who conquered Switzerland in 1798?


Answer: a new unified constitution

Question: What did the French government impose on Switzerland in 1798, centralizing the Swiss government?


Answer: the cantons

Question: What was abolished with the introduction of the unified constitution in Switzerland?


Answer: Helvetic Republic

Question: What was the name of the new regime created when the Cisalpine Republic separated from Switzerland?


Answer: Helvetic

Question: Which unpopular republic destroyed centuries of Swiss traditions?


Answer: The Swiss

Context: When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside the French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth, much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government.

Question: Who refused to fight alongside the Helvetic Republic when it was invaded by the Russians and Austrians?


Answer: Russian and Austrian

Question: During the Helvetic Republic, which forces invaded Switzerland when war broke out between France and its rivals?


Answer: Act of Mediation

Question: What Act was the result of a meeting of Swiss politicians organized by Napolean?


Answer: Swiss autonomy

Question: What was the Act of Mediation responsible for restoring?


Answer: 19

Question: How many cantons were introduced as a Confederation by the Act of Mediation?


Answer: a separate alliance (the Sonderbund)

Context: The restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war (the Sonderbundskrieg) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the Sonderbund). The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties, most of which were through friendly fire. Yet however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland.

Question: What did Catholic cantons attempt to set up which caused a civil war in 1839?


Answer: the Sonderbundskrieg

Question: What was the name of the Swiss civil war in 1839?


Answer: major

Question: How big was the impact the Sonderbundskrieg had on the psychology and society of the Swiss and Switzerland?


Answer: friendly fire

Question: What was responsible for most of the 1100 casualties incurred during the Swiss civil war in 1839?


Answer: less than a month

Question: How long did the Swiss civil war in 1839 last?


Answer: American

Context: Thus, while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings, the Swiss drew up a constitution which provided for a federal layout, much of it inspired by the American example. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper house (the Council of States, two representatives per canton) and a lower house (the National Council, with representatives elected from across the country). Referenda were made mandatory for any amendment of this constitution.

Question: What example inspired much of a new Swiss constitution providing for a federal layout?


Answer: local issues

Question: Under the new Swiss constitution, what did the cantons have the right to self-govern?


Answer: two

Question: How many houses was the Swiss national assembly divided into?


Answer: Council of States

Question: What was the name of the upper house, which included 2 representatives from each canton?


Answer: National Council

Question: What was the name of the lower house, whose representatives were elected throughout the country?


Answer: World War II

Context: During World War II, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Under General Henri Guisan central command, a general mobilisation of the armed forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to one of organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers.

Question: Though invasion plans were drawn up the the Germans, which war did Switzerland escape attack during?


Answer: General Henri Guisan

Question: Who was the head of the Swiss central command during World War II?


Answer: armed forces

Question: What did General Henry Guisan order a general mobilisation of during World War II?


Answer: protect the economic heartland

Question: What was the original goal of the Swiss military strategy?


Answer: strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps

Question: What were the Reduit?


Answer: by both the Allies and by the Axis

Context: Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees and the International Red Cross, based in Geneva, played an important part during the conflict. Strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy, but not until the end of the 20th century.

Question: Who blockaded Switzerland's trade during World War II?


Answer: a crucial rail link through Vichy France

Question: What was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis?


Answer: over 300,000

Question: How many refugees did Switzerland intern during World War II?


Answer: end of the 20th century

Question: When did the financial relationship Switzerland had with Nazi Germany begin to raise controversy?


Answer: Geneva

Question: Where was the International Red Cross based?


Answer: women

Context: Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women the right to vote. Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level it was achieved in 1971 and, after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden (one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level, women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on the seven member Federal Council executive being Elisabeth Kopp, who served from 1984–1989, and the first female president being Ruth Dreifuss in 1999.

Question: Who did Switzerland finally grant the right to vote to following the rest of the Western republic?


Answer: 1971

Question: When were Switzerland women granted the right to vote on a federal level?


Answer: Elisabeth Kopp

Question: Who was the first woman to serve on the Federal Council?


Answer: 1999

Question: In what year did Ruth Dreifuss become president?


Answer: Ruth Dreifuss

Question: Who was Switzerland's first female president?


Answer: 2002

Context: In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican City as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, but is not a member of the European Economic Area. An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referenda on the EU issue; due to a mixed reaction from the population the membership application has been frozen. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU, and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria's entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter supranational bodies.

Question: In what year did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations?


Answer: Schengen treaty

Question: What did Swiss voters agree to join on June 5, 2005?


Answer: 55%

Question: What percentage of Swiss voters voted to join the Schengen treaty?


Answer: European Economic Area

Question: Though Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, what are they not a member of?


Answer: the EU

Question: What has completely surrounded Switzerland and Liechtenstein since 1995?


Answer: 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi)

Context: Extending across the north and south side of the Alps in west-central Europe, Switzerland encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and climates on a limited area of 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi). The population is about 8 million, resulting in an average population density of around 195 people per square kilometre (500/sq mi). The more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than the northern half. In the largest Canton of Graubünden, lying entirely in the Alps, population density falls to 27 /km² (70 /sq mi).

Question: How large is Switzerland?


Answer: 195 people per square kilometre (500/sq mi)

Question: What is the average population density of Switzerland?


Answer: 27 /km² (70 /sq mi)

Question: What is the population density of the largest Canton of Graubunden, located in the Alps?


Answer: southern

Question: Which half of Switzerland is more mountainous?


Answer: Alps

Question: Which mountain range does Switzerland extend over on both the north and south sides?


Answer: Swiss Alps

Context: Switzerland lies between latitudes 45° and 48° N, and longitudes 5° and 11° E. It contains three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps to the south, the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau, and the Jura mountains on the west. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, comprising about 60% of the country's total area. The majority of the Swiss population live in the Swiss Plateau. Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps many glaciers are found, totalling an area of 1,063 square kilometres (410 sq mi). From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers, such as the Rhine, Inn, Ticino and Rhône, which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe, among which are included Lake Geneva (also called le Lac Léman in French), Lake Constance (known as Bodensee in German) and Lake Maggiore. Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes, and contains 6% of Europe's stock of fresh water. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of the national territory. The largest lake is Lake Geneva, in western Switzerland shared with France. The Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva. Lake Constance is the second largest Swiss lake and, like the Lake Geneva, an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border to Austria and Germany. While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camarque region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam in the Netherlands, about 1000 km apart, both springs are only about 22 km apart from each other in the Swiss Alps.

Question: Which basic topographical area is in the south of Switzerland?


Answer: Swiss Plateau

Question: Which basic topographical area is in central Switzerland?


Answer: Jura mountains

Question: Which basic topographical area is in western Switzerland?


Answer: 60%

Question: How much of Switzerland's total area do the Alps comprise?


Answer: Lake Geneva

Question: What is the largest lake in Switzerland?


Answer: Monte Rosa

Context: 48 of Switzerland's mountains are 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea in altitude or higher. At 4,634 m (15,203 ft), Monte Rosa is the highest, although the Matterhorn (4,478 m or 14,692 ft) is often regarded as the most famous. Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m or 13,642 ft) Eiger and Mönch, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing the St. Moritz area in canton of Graubünden, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4,049 m or 13,284 ft).

Question: What is the highest mountain in Switzerland?


Answer: Matterhorn

Question: What is often regarded as the most famous mountain in Switzerland?


Answer: 48

Question: How many of Switzerland's mountains are at least 4000 meters above sea level?


Answer: Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais

Question: Where are both Monte Rosa and Matterhorn located?


Answer: mountaintops

Context: The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant near Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. There are some valley areas in the southern part of Switzerland where some cold-hardy palm trees are found. Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing. The less humid winters in the mountains may see long intervals of stable conditions for weeks, while the lower lands tend to suffer from inversion, during these periods, thus seeing no sun for weeks.

Question: Where are Switzerland's glacial conditions located?


Answer: warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall

Question: What is typical weather in Switzerland during the summer months?


Answer: sun

Question: What can the lower lands, suffering from inversion, sometimes lack for weeks?


Answer: Mediterranean

Question: What is the climate on Switzerland's southern tip?


Answer: föhn

Context: A weather phenomenon known as the föhn (with an identical effect to the chinook wind) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind, bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps. This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south. Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect. The driest conditions persist in all inner alpine valleys that receive less rain because arriving clouds lose a lot of their content while crossing the mountains before reaching these areas. Large alpine areas such as Graubünden remain drier than pre-alpine areas and as in the main valley of the Valais wine grapes are grown there.

Question: What is the weather phenomena characterized by an unexpected warm wind bringing low reletive humidity to the northern Alps during rainfall in the southern Alps?


Answer: all times

Question: At what time of year can the fohn occur?


Answer: crossing the mountains

Question: Where do clouds lose most of their content before getting to the inner alpine valleys?


Answer: wine

Question: What type of grapes are grown in the valley of Valais?


Answer: the south

Question: During the fohn, from which direction is the blowing wind more efficient?


Answer: first among 132 nations

Context: Switzerland's ecosystems can be particularly fragile, because the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains often form unique ecologies. The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable, with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes, and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing. The climatic, geological and topographical conditions of the alpine region make for a very fragile ecosystem that is particularly sensitive to climate change. Nevertheless, according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index, Switzerland ranks first among 132 nations in safeguarding the environment, due to its high scores on environmental public health, its heavy reliance on renewable sources of energy (hydropower and geothermal energy), and its control of greenhouse gas emissions.

Question: What rank was Switzerland in safeguarding the environment according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index?


Answer: plants not found at other altitudes

Question: What do mountainous regions have that make their ecosystems particularly fragile?


Answer: climate change

Question: What is the ecosystem in the alpine region particularly sensitive to?


Answer: renewable

Question: What sources of energy does Switzerland heavily rely on?


Answer: 1848

Context: The Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state. It is among the oldest constitutions in the world. A new Constitution was adopted in 1999, but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure. It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs, divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdiction and authority. There are three main governing bodies on the federal level: the bicameral parliament (legislative), the Federal Council (executive) and the Federal Court (judicial).

Question: When was Switzerland's Federal Constitution adopted?


Answer: 1999

Question: When was a new Constitution adopted in Switzerland?


Answer: three

Question: How many main governing bodies are on the federal level in Switzerland?


Answer: bicameral parliament

Question: What is the legislative body of the Swiss government called?


Answer: Federal Council

Question: What is the executive body of the Swiss government called?


Answer: 200

Context: The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses: the Council of States which has 46 representatives (two from each canton and one from each half-canton) who are elected under a system determined by each canton, and the National Council, which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation, depending on the population of each canton. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. When both houses are in joint session, they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly. Through referendums, citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives, introduce amendments to the federal constitution, thus making Switzerland a direct democracy.

Question: How many members are on the National Council?


Answer: 4 years

Question: How long do members of both houses of the Swiss Parliament serve?


Answer: Federal Assembly

Question: What are both houses of the Swiss Parliament collectively known as when both are in joint session?


Answer: referendums

Question: What can citizens use to challenge any law passed by Parliament?


Answer: initiatives

Question: What can citizens use to introduce amendments to the federal constitution?


Answer: The Federal Council

Context: The Federal Council constitutes the federal government, directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State. It is a collegial body of seven members, elected for a four-year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council. The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members, traditionally in rotation and for a one-year term; the President chairs the government and assumes representative functions. However, the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers, and remains the head of a department within the administration.

Question: What serves as the collective Head of State?


Answer: seven

Question: How many members are in the Federal Council?


Answer: Federal Assembly

Question: Who elects the members of the Federal Council?


Answer: one-year

Question: What is the traditional term for the President of the Confederation?


Answer: the Assembly

Question: Who elects the President of the Confederation from its 7 members?


Answer: three

Context: Direct democracy and federalism are hallmarks of the Swiss political system. Swiss citizens are subject to three legal jurisdictions: the commune, canton and federal levels. The 1848 federal constitution defines a system of direct democracy (sometimes called half-direct or representative direct democracy because it is aided by the more commonplace institutions of a representative democracy). The instruments of this system at the federal level, known as civic rights (Volksrechte, droits civiques), include the right to submit a constitutional initiative and a referendum, both of which may overturn parliamentary decisions.

Question: How many legal jurisdictions are Swiss citizens subject to?


Answer: commune, canton and federal levels

Question: What are the legal jurisdictions that Swiss citizens are subject to?


Answer: direct

Question: What type of democracy was defined in the 1848 federal constitution?


Answer: a constitutional initiative and a referendum

Question: What two things do citizens have the right to submit to overturn parliamentary decisions?


Answer: Direct democracy and federalism

Question: What are the two hallmarks of the Swiss political system?


Answer: 100,000

Context: Similarly, the federal constitutional initiative allows citizens to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote, if 100,000 voters sign the proposed amendment within 18 months.[note 8] Parliament can supplement the proposed amendment with a counter-proposal, and then voters must indicate a preference on the ballot in case both proposals are accepted. Constitutional amendments, whether introduced by initiative or in Parliament, must be accepted by a double majority of the national popular vote and the cantonal popular votes.[note 9]

Question: How many voters are needed to put a constitutional amendment to a national vote?


Answer: 18 months

Question: How long do citizens have to collect enough votes for a national vote on a constitutional amendment?


Answer: a counter-proposal

Question: What can Parliament supplement the amendment proposed by the citizens with?


Answer: indicate a preference

Question: What must voters do on the ballot when Parliament adds a supplement?


Answer: a double majority

Question: How much of the national popular vote and the cantonal popular vote is needed to pass a constitutional amendment?


Answer: all 26

Context: The cantons have a permanent constitutional status and, in comparison with the situation in other countries, a high degree of independence. Under the Federal Constitution, all 26 cantons are equal in status. Each canton has its own constitution, and its own parliament, government and courts. However, there are considerable differences between the individual cantons, most particularly in terms of population and geographical area. Their populations vary between 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden) and 1,253,500 (Zürich), and their area between 37 km2 (14 sq mi) (Basel-Stadt) and 7,105 km2 (2,743 sq mi) (Graubünden). The Cantons comprise a total of 2,485 municipalities. Within Switzerland there are two enclaves: Büsingen belongs to Germany, Campione d'Italia belongs to Italy.

Question: According to the Federal Constitution, how many cantons are equal in status?


Answer: population and geographical area

Question: What are the two major differences between cantons?


Answer: 1,253,500 (Zürich)

Question: What is the population of the largest canton?


Answer: 15,000 (Appenzell Innerrhoden)

Question: What is the population of the smallest canton?


Answer: 37 km2 (14 sq mi) (Basel-Stadt)

Question: How large is the smallest canton?


Answer: Congress of Vienna in 1815

Context: Traditionally, Switzerland avoids alliances that might entail military, political, or direct economic action and has been neutral since the end of its expansion in 1515. Its policy of neutrality was internationally recognised at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Only in 2002 did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations and it was the first state to join it by referendum. Switzerland maintains diplomatic relations with almost all countries and historically has served as an intermediary between other states. Switzerland is not a member of the European Union; the Swiss people have consistently rejected membership since the early 1990s. However, Switzerland does participate in the Schengen Area.

Question: When was Switzerland's policy of neutrality internationally recognized?


Answer: referendum

Question: What was Switzerland the first state to join the U.N. by?


Answer: European Union

Question: What have the Swiss people continually rejected membership in since the 1990's?


Answer: since the end of its expansion in 1515

Question: How long has Switzerland traditionally been neutral?


Answer: avoids

Question: How does Switzerland treat alliances that might entail military or political action?


Answer: since 2006

Context: A large number of international institutions have their seats in Switzerland, in part because of its policy of neutrality. Geneva is the birthplace of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Geneva Conventions and, since 2006, hosts the United Nations Human Rights Council. Even though Switzerland is one of the most recent countries to have joined the United Nations, the Palace of Nations in Geneva is the second biggest centre for the United Nations after New York, and Switzerland was a founding member and home to the League of Nations.

Question: How long has Switzerland hosted the United Nations Human Rights Council?


Answer: Palace of Nations in Geneva

Question: What is the second biggest centre for the U.N.?


Answer: Geneva

Question: Where did the Red Crescent Movement begin?


Answer: Switzerland

Question: Where is the League of Nations located?