Answer: Henri Bergson

Context: In Du "Cubisme" Metzinger and Gleizes explicitly related the sense of time to multiple perspective, giving symbolic expression to the notion of ‘duration’ proposed by the philosopher Henri Bergson according to which life is subjectively experienced as a continuum, with the past flowing into the present and the present merging into the future. The Salon Cubists used the faceted treatment of solid and space and effects of multiple viewpoints to convey a physical and psychological sense of the fluidity of consciousness, blurring the distinctions between past, present and future. One of the major theoretical innovations made by the Salon Cubists, independently of Picasso and Braque, was that of simultaneity, drawing to greater or lesser extent on theories of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, Charles Henry, Maurice Princet, and Henri Bergson. With simultaneity, the concept of separate spatial and temporal dimensions was comprehensively challenged. Linear perspective developed during the Renaissance was vacated. The subject matter was no longer considered from a specific point of view at a moment in time, but built following a selection of successive viewpoints, i.e., as if viewed simultaneously from numerous angles (and in multiple dimensions) with the eye free to roam from one to the other.

Question: In Du Cubisme who so Metzinger and Gleizes relate the sense of time to?


Answer: The Salon Cubists

Question: The Cubist used what kind of treatment of space and time?


Answer: relative motion)

Context: This technique of representing simultaneity, multiple viewpoints (or relative motion) is pushed to a high degree of complexity in Gleizes' monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing), exhibited at the 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or, Le Fauconnier’s Abundance shown at the Indépendants of 1911, and Delaunay's City of Paris, shown at the Indépendants in 1912. These ambitious works are some of the largest paintings in the history of Cubism. Léger’s The Wedding, also shown at the Salon des Indépendants in 1912, gave form to the notion of simultaneity by presenting different motifs as occurring within a single temporal frame, where responses to the past and present interpenetrate with collective force. The conjunction of such subject matter with simultaneity aligns Salon Cubism with early Futurist paintings by Umberto Boccioni, Gino Severini and Carlo Carrà; themselves made in response to early Cubism.

Question: What did the technique in Gliezes' piece Le Depiquage represent?


Answer: Léger

Question: Who painted the Wedding, show at Salon des Independants in 1912?


Answer: Le Dépiquage des Moissons (Harvest Threshing)

Question: Which of Gliezes pieces was featured at Salon de la Section d'Or?


Answer: Armory Show

Context: Cubism and modern European art was introduced into the United States at the now legendary 1913 Armory Show in New York City, which then traveled to Chicago and Boston. In the Armory show Pablo Picasso exhibited La Femme au pot de moutarde (1910), the sculpture Head of a Woman (Fernande) (1909–10), Les Arbres (1907) amongst other cubist works. Jacques Villon exhibited seven important and large drypoints, his brother Marcel Duchamp shocked the American public with his painting Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912). Francis Picabia exhibited his abstractions La Danse à la source and La Procession, Seville (both of 1912). Albert Gleizes exhibited La Femme aux phlox (1910) and L'Homme au balcon (1912), two highly stylized and faceted cubist works. Georges Braque, Fernand Léger, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Roger de La Fresnaye and Alexander Archipenko also contributed examples of their cubist works.

Question: What was the name of the show that introduced Cubism to the USA?


Answer: New York City

Question: In what city did the show that introduced Cubism to the USA take place?


Answer: Les Arbres

Question: Which 1907 piece did Picasso present in the show that introduced Cubism to the USA?


Answer: La Femme aux phlox

Question: What 1910 piece did Albert Gleizes present in that show that introduced Cubism to the USA?


Answer: Head of a Woman

Context: Cubist sculpture developed in parallel to Cubist painting. During the autumn of 1909 Picasso sculpted Head of a Woman (Fernande) with positive features depicted by negative space and vice versa. According to Douglas Cooper: "The first true Cubist sculpture was Picasso's impressive Woman's Head, modeled in 1909–10, a counterpart in three dimensions to many similar analytical and faceted heads in his paintings at the time." These positive/negative reversals were ambitiously exploited by Alexander Archipenko in 1912–13, for example in Woman Walking. Joseph Csaky, after Archipenko, was the first sculptor in Paris to join the Cubists, with whom he exhibited from 1911 onwards. They were followed by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and then in 1914 by Jacques Lipchitz, Henri Laurens and Ossip Zadkine.

Question: What was the name of the 1909 Cubist sculpture Picassos created?


Answer: The first true Cubist sculpture

Question: What Douglas Cooper call Picasso's 1909 Cubist sculpture?


Answer: Woman Walking

Question: Which Alexander Archipenko piece was similar to other Cubist scupltures of that time?


Answer: 'crystal' Cubism

Context: A significant modification of Cubism between 1914 and 1916 was signaled by a shift towards a strong emphasis on large overlapping geometric planes and flat surface activity. This grouping of styles of painting and sculpture, especially significant between 1917 and 1920, was practiced by several artists; particularly those under contract with the art dealer and collector Léonce Rosenberg. The tightening of the compositions, the clarity and sense of order reflected in these works, led to its being referred to by the critic Maurice Raynal (fr) as 'crystal' Cubism. Considerations manifested by Cubists prior to the outset of World War I—such as the fourth dimension, dynamism of modern life, the occult, and Henri Bergson's concept of duration—had now been vacated, replaced by a purely formal frame of reference.

Question: What did the critic Maurice Raynal begin to refer to Cubism in around 1917-1920?


Answer: Henri Bergson's

Question: Who's concept of duration was left behind for a for more concrete frame's of references?


Answer: 1914 and 1916

Question: What was the first time period that a significant change began to happen in Cubism?


Answer: between 1917 and 1920

Question: What was the second time period that a significant change began to happen in Cubism?


Answer: 1914

Context: The most innovative period of Cubism was before 1914. After World War I, with the support given by the dealer Léonce Rosenberg, Cubism returned as a central issue for artists, and continued as such until the mid-1920s when its avant-garde status was rendered questionable by the emergence of geometric abstraction and Surrealism in Paris. Many Cubists, including Picasso, Braque, Gris, Léger, Gleizes, and Metzinger, while developing other styles, returned periodically to Cubism, even well after 1925. Cubism reemerged during the 1920s and the 1930s in the work of the American Stuart Davis and the Englishman Ben Nicholson. In France, however, Cubism experienced a decline beginning in about 1925. Léonce Rosenberg exhibited not only the artists stranded by Kahnweiler’s exile but others including Laurens, Lipchitz, Metzinger, Gleizes, Csaky, Herbin and Severini. In 1918 Rosenberg presented a series of Cubist exhibitions at his Galerie de l’Effort Moderne in Paris. Attempts were made by Louis Vauxcelles to claim that Cubism was dead, but these exhibitions, along with a well-organized Cubist show at the 1920 Salon des Indépendants and a revival of the Salon de la Section d’Or in the same year, demonstrated it was still alive.

Question: Before what year was Cubism considered the most innovative?


Answer: Léonce Rosenberg

Question: With the assistance of what dealer did Cubism return as a central consideration for artists after World War I?


Answer: 1918

Question: In what year did Rosenberg exhibit Cubist works at Galerie de l’Effort Moderne?


Answer: Paris

Question: In which city did Galerie de l’Effort Moderne take place?


Answer: Gris, Léger and Gleizes

Context: The reemergence of Cubism coincided with the appearance from about 1917–24 of a coherent body of theoretical writing by Pierre Reverdy, Maurice Raynal and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and, among the artists, by Gris, Léger and Gleizes. The occasional return to classicism—figurative work either exclusively or alongside Cubist work—experienced by many artists during this period (called Neoclassicism) has been linked to the tendency to evade the realities of the war and also to the cultural dominance of a classical or Latin image of France during and immediately following the war. Cubism after 1918 can be seen as part of a wide ideological shift towards conservatism in both French society and culture. Yet, Cubism itself remained evolutionary both within the oeuvre of individual artists, such as Gris and Metzinger, and across the work of artists as different from each other as Braque, Léger and Gleizes. Cubism as a publicly debated movement became relatively unified and open to definition. Its theoretical purity made it a gauge against which such diverse tendencies as Realism or Naturalism, Dada, Surrealism and abstraction could be compared.

Question: Name the three artists who were in part resonsible for the reemergence of Cubism between 1917 and 1924.


Answer: Pierre Reverdy, Maurice Raynal and Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler

Question: Name the three writers who were in part resonsible for the reemergence of Cubism between 1917 and 1924.


Answer: conservatism

Question: In 1918 which way did the French idealogies shift that effected Cubism?


Answer: art and architecture.

Context: Cubism formed an important link between early-20th-century art and architecture. The historical, theoretical, and socio-political relationships between avant-garde practices in painting, sculpture and architecture had early ramifications in France, Germany, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia. Though there are many points of intersection between Cubism and architecture, only a few direct links between them can be drawn. Most often the connections are made by reference to shared formal characteristics: faceting of form, spatial ambiguity, transparency, and multiplicity.

Question: What two things did Cubism in the early 20th century form an important link between?


Answer: faceting of form, spatial ambiguity, transparency, and multiplicity.

Question: What are the four formal characteristics that are usually connected with Cubism?


Answer: France, Germany, the Netherlands and Czechoslovakia

Question: In which four countries were the impacts of avant garde art particularly strong?


Answer: the dissolution and reconstitution of three-dimensional form

Context: Architectural interest in Cubism centered on the dissolution and reconstitution of three-dimensional form, using simple geometric shapes, juxtaposed without the illusions of classical perspective. Diverse elements could be superimposed, made transparent or penetrate one another, while retaining their spatial relationships. Cubism had become an influential factor in the development of modern architecture from 1912 (La Maison Cubiste, by Raymond Duchamp-Villon and André Mare) onwards, developing in parallel with architects such as Peter Behrens and Walter Gropius, with the simplification of building design, the use of materials appropriate to industrial production, and the increased use of glass.

Question: In Cubism what was architechtural interested base on?


Answer: Raymond Duchamp-Villon and André Mare

Question: Who said that Cubism was becoming an influetial aspect in modern architecture ?


Answer: glass

Question: Increased use of what material marked Cubism influence in architecture?


Answer: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

Context: Cubism was relevant to an architecture seeking a style that needed not refer to the past. Thus, what had become a revolution in both painting and sculpture was applied as part of "a profound reorientation towards a changed world". The Cubo-Futurist ideas of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti influenced attitudes in avant-garde architecture. The influential De Stijl movement embraced the aesthetic principles of Neo-plasticism developed by Piet Mondrian under the influence of Cubism in Paris. De Stijl was also linked by Gino Severini to Cubist theory through the writings of Albert Gleizes. However, the linking of basic geometric forms with inherent beauty and ease of industrial application—which had been prefigured by Marcel Duchamp from 1914—was left to the founders of Purism, Amédée Ozenfant and Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (better known as Le Corbusier,) who exhibited paintings together in Paris and published Après le cubisme in 1918. Le Corbusier's ambition had been to translate the properties of his own style of Cubism to architecture. Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier concentrated his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922, Le Corbusier and his cousin Jeanneret opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres. His theoretical studies soon advanced into many different architectural projects.

Question: The ideas of which Cubo Futurist influenced the avant-garde in architecture?


Answer: Neo-plasticism

Question: The De Stijl movement took part in the aesthetic principles of what?


Answer: Piet Mondrian

Question: Who developed Neo Plasticism?


Answer: Gino Severini

Question: Who linked De Stijl to Cubist theory?


Answer: his cousin Jeanneret

Question: Who did Le Corbusier open his Paris studio with in 1922?


Answer: 10-by-3-meter

Context: At the 1912 Salon d'Automne an architectural installation was exhibited that quickly became known as Maison Cubiste (Cubist House), signed Raymond Duchamp-Villon and André Mare along with a group of collaborators. Metzinger and Gleizes in Du "Cubisme", written during the assemblage of the "Maison Cubiste", wrote about the autonomous nature of art, stressing the point that decorative considerations should not govern the spirit of art. Decorative work, to them, was the "antithesis of the picture". "The true picture" wrote Metzinger and Gleizes, "bears its raison d'être within itself. It can be moved from a church to a drawing-room, from a museum to a study. Essentially independent, necessarily complete, it need not immediately satisfy the mind: on the contrary, it should lead it, little by little, towards the fictitious depths in which the coordinative light resides. It does not harmonize with this or that ensemble; it harmonizes with things in general, with the universe: it is an organism...". "Mare's ensembles were accepted as frames for Cubist works because they allowed paintings and sculptures their independence", writes Christopher Green, "creating a play of contrasts, hence the involvement not only of Gleizes and Metzinger themselves, but of Marie Laurencin, the Duchamp brothers (Raymond Duchamp-Villon designed the facade) and Mare's old friends Léger and Roger La Fresnaye". La Maison Cubiste was a fully furnished house, with a staircase, wrought iron banisters, a living room—the Salon Bourgeois, where paintings by Marcel Duchamp, Metzinger (Woman with a Fan), Gleizes, Laurencin and Léger were hung—and a bedroom. It was an example of L'art décoratif, a home within which Cubist art could be displayed in the comfort and style of modern, bourgeois life. Spectators at the Salon d'Automne passed through the full-scale 10-by-3-meter plaster model of the ground floor of the facade, designed by Duchamp-Villon. This architectural installation was subsequently exhibited at the 1913 Armory Show, New York, Chicago and Boston, listed in the catalogue of the New York exhibit as Raymond Duchamp-Villon, number 609, and entitled "Facade architectural, plaster" (Façade architecturale).

Question: How big was the model of La Maison Cubiste?


Answer: Woman with a Fan

Question: Which Metzinger piece was hung in La Maison Cubiste?


Answer: a fully furnished house

Question: What was La Maison Cubiste ?


Answer: Cubist architecture is very rare

Context: The original Cubist architecture is very rare. There is only one country in the world where Cubism was really applied to architecture – namely Bohemia (today Czech Republic) and especially its capital, Prague. Czech architects were the first and only ones in the world to ever design original Cubist buildings. Cubist architecture flourished for the most part between 1910–1914, but the Cubist or Cubism-influenced buildings were also built after the World War I. After the war, the architectural style called Rondo-Cubism was developed in Prague fusing the Cubist architecture with round shapes.

Question: Is original Cubist architecture rare?


Answer: Bohemia (today Czech Republic

Question: Which country applied Cubism to architecture the most?


Answer: Rondo-Cubism

Question: What was for the form of architectural Cubism in Prague called?


Answer: dynamism

Context: In their theoretical rules, the Cubist architects expressed the requirement of dynamism, which would surmount the matter and calm contained in it, through a creative idea, so that the result would evoke feelings of dynamism and expressive plasticity in the viewer. This should be achieved by shapes derived from pyramids, cubes and prisms, by arrangements and compositions of oblique surfaces, mainly triangular, sculpted facades in protruding crystal-like units, reminiscent of the so-called diamond cut, or even cavernous that are reminiscent of the late Gothic architecture. In this way, the entire surfaces of the facades including even the gables and dormers are sculpted. The grilles as well as other architectural ornaments attain a three-dimensional form. Thus, new forms of windows and doors were also created, e. g. hexagonal windows. Czech Cubist architects also designed Cubist furniture.

Question: What was the essential piece Cubist architects explained in their theoretical rules?


Answer: hexagonal

Question: What's window shapes di Czech Cubist architects use?


Answer: dynamism and expressive plasticity

Question: What feelings should Cubist architecture evoke in viewer?


Answer: Pavel Janák, Josef Gočár, Vlastislav Hofman, Emil Králíček and Josef Chochol

Context: The leading Cubist architects were Pavel Janák, Josef Gočár, Vlastislav Hofman, Emil Králíček and Josef Chochol. They worked mostly in Prague but also in other Bohemian towns. The best-known Cubist building is the House of the Black Madonna in the Old Town of Prague built in 1912 by Josef Gočár with the only Cubist café in the world, Grand Café Orient. Vlastislav Hofman built the entrance pavilions of Ďáblice Cemetery in 1912–1914, Josef Chochol designed several residential houses under Vyšehrad. A Cubist streetlamp has also been preserved near the Wenceslas Square, designed by Emil Králíček in 1912, who also built the Diamond House in the New Town of Prague around 1913.

Question: Who were the leading Cubist architects?


Answer: Prague

Question: Where did the leading Cubist architects work?


Answer: House of the Black Madonna

Question: What is the best known Cubist architecture building?


Answer: Old Town of Prague

Question: Where is the House of the Black Madonna located?


Answer: Vlastislav Hofman

Question: Who built the House of the Black Madonna?


Answer: The influence of cubism extended to other artistic fields,

Context: The influence of cubism extended to other artistic fields, outside painting and sculpture. In literature, the written works of Gertrude Stein employ repetition and repetitive phrases as building blocks in both passages and whole chapters. Most of Stein's important works utilize this technique, including the novel The Making of Americans (1906–08). Not only were they the first important patrons of Cubism, Gertrude Stein and her brother Leo were also important influences on Cubism as well. Picasso in turn was an important influence on Stein's writing.

Question: Did cubism influence other fields outside of painting and scuplture?


Answer: Gertrude Stein

Question: Who's written works used repitition that was similar to Cubist art?


Answer: Leo

Question: What was Gertrude Stein's brother's name?


Answer: The Making of Americans

Question: What was the title of Gertrude Stein's 1906-1908 book?


Answer: Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, André Salmon and Pierre Reverdy

Context: The poets generally associated with Cubism are Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, André Salmon and Pierre Reverdy. As American poet Kenneth Rexroth explains, Cubism in poetry "is the conscious, deliberate dissociation and recombination of elements into a new artistic entity made self-sufficient by its rigorous architecture. This is quite different from the free association of the Surrealists and the combination of unconscious utterance and political nihilism of Dada." Nonetheless, the Cubist poets' influence on both Cubism and the later movements of Dada and Surrealism was profound; Louis Aragon, founding member of Surrealism, said that for Breton, Soupault, Éluard and himself, Reverdy was "our immediate elder, the exemplary poet." Though not as well remembered as the Cubist painters, these poets continue to influence and inspire; American poets John Ashbery and Ron Padgett have recently produced new translations of Reverdy's work. Wallace Stevens' "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird" is also said to demonstrate how cubism's multiple perspectives can be translated into poetry.

Question: Which poets are closely alligned with Cubism?


Answer: Kenneth Rexroth

Question: What is the name of the american Poet who is associated with talking about the rigiorous architecture of Cubism?


Answer: John Ashbery and Ron Padgett

Question: Which two American poets have recently created new traslations of Reverdy's work?


Answer: Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird

Question: What is the name of Wallace Steven's work that explains how cubism can be translated into poetry?


Answer: Chinese political philosophy

Context: Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn Period, specifically with Confucius in the 6th century BC. Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools. Philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism. The Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Taoism advocated a proto-anarchism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Prior to China's adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century.

Question: What specifically dates back with Confucius in the 6th century BC?


Answer: 6th century BC

Question: Chinese political philosophy dates back to what century?


Answer: the social and political breakdown of the country

Question: Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to what?


Answer: Mohism

Question: What advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism?


Answer: ancient Greece

Context: Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's Republic, which was followed by Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and Politics. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, including the Roman statesman Cicero.

Question: Western political philosophy originates in what philosophy?


Answer: philosophy of ancient Greece

Question: What philosophy has dates back to at least Plato?


Answer: city-states

Question: Ancient Greece was dominated by what?


Answer: Indian political philosophy

Context: Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya).

Question: What demarcates a clear distinction between nation and state, as well as religion and state?


Answer: The institutions of state

Question: What was divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order?


Answer: Mantranga

Question: What was the governing body of the Hindu states?


Answer: Chanakya

Context: Chanakya, 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher. The Arthashastra provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state. Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor. Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu.

Question: Who was the 4th Century BC Indian political philosopher?


Answer: The Arthashastra

Question: What provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler?


Answer: the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu

Question: What is an example of a code of law in ancient India?


Answer: Plato

Context: The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderatation of the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the City of Man (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth.

Question: Who heavily influenced the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo?


Answer: the moderatation of the Stoicism

Question: What was a key change brought about by Christian thought?


Answer: Augustine

Question: Who also preached that one was not a member of his or her city?


Answer: City of Man

Question: What does Civitas terrena mean?


Answer: City of God

Question: What does Civitas Dei mean?


Answer: The rise of Islam

Context: The rise of Islam, based on both the Qur'an and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth—in effect all philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Hellenic view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the Caliphate. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna.

Question: What strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region?


Answer: Early Islamic philosophy

Question: What emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion?


Answer: the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers

Question: Who challenged the early Islamic philosophy's views?


Answer: Hellenic view

Question: What type of views did the "rationalist" Mutaziite philosophers hold?


Answer: political

Context: Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam—i.e., the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad—thus making it essentially theocratic. However, in the Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah (power), sultan, ummah, cemaa (obligation)-and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an—i.e., ibadah (worship), din (religion), rab (master) and ilah (deity)—is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character.

Question: The clashes between Ehl-i Sunna and Shia had what kind of character?


Answer: Islam

Question: Islamic political philosophy was rooted in what sources?


Answer: The political conceptions of Islam

Question: What is taken as the basis of an analysis?


Answer: Medieval political philosophy in Europe

Context: Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazalite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics though subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance.

Question: What was heavily influenced by Christian thinking?


Answer: Mutazalite Islamic thinking

Question: Medieval political philosophy had much in common with what type of thinking?


Answer: St. Thomas Aquinas

Question: Who was the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe?


Answer: Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince

Context: One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of the classical period, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the di Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the secure and powerful state. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.

Question: What was one of the most influential works during the period?


Answer: 1532

Question: When was Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince published?


Answer: Niccolò Machiavelli

Question: Who wrote The Prince?


Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Who was well known for his theory of the social contract?


Answer: state

Context: These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of natural order was not introduced, the social sciences could not evolve independently of theistic thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.

Question: What would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified?


Answer: government

Question: What refers to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state?


Answer: the physical world

Question: Society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to what?


Answer: free trade

Context: Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment. After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.

Question: The concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of what?


Answer: religion

Question: The enlightenment was an outright attack on what?


Answer: Protestant churches

Question: What increasingly challenged the Roman Catholic dominance of theology?


Answer: François Marie Arouet de Voltaire

Question: Who was the most outspoken critic of the church in France?


Answer: Ottoman Empire

Context: In the Ottoman Empire, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the New World and the advanced civilizations of the Aztec, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially the Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives.

Question: In what area did these ideological reforms not take place until much later?


Answer: The Iroquois philosophy

Question: Whose philosophy gave much to Christian thought of the time?


Answer: Benjamin Franklin

Question: Who was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy?


Answer: John Locke

Context: John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work Two Treatises of Government. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the divine right of kings became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man.

Question: Who was responsible for the work Two Treatises of Government?


Answer: Sir Robert Filmer

Question: Locke refuted whose political theory?


Answer: unnecessary

Question: According to Locke, an absolute ruler is proposed by Hobbes is what?


Answer: Friedrich Engels

Context: The Marxist critique of capitalism — developed with Friedrich Engels — was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Though Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again". Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.

Question: Who developed the Marxist critique of capitalism?


Answer: The Marxist critique of capitalism

Question: What was one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century?


Answer: The industrial revolution

Question: What produced a parallel revolution in political thought?


Answer: World War I

Context: World War I was a watershed event in human history, changing views of governments and politics. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism - and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also on a smaller level Luxemburgism (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage. However, a group of central European economists led by Austrian School economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new socialist and fascist doctrines of government power as being different brands of political totalitarianism.

Question: What was a watershed event in human history?


Answer: 1917

Question: When was The Russian Revolution?


Answer: The Russian Revolution of 1917

Question: What brought communism?


Answer: a group of central European economists

Question: What did Ludwig Von Mises and Friedrich Hayek run?


Answer: John Rawls

Context: From the end of World War II until 1971, when John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with Marxism dominating the field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968 led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment.

Question: Who published A Theory of Justice?


Answer: A Theory of Justice

Question: What did John Rawls publish?


Answer: Europe

Question: What continent saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy?


Answer: revolutionary ideology

Question: The events of May 1968 led to an increased interest in what?


Answer: Communism

Context: Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the social contract by philosophers Charles W. Mills in his book The Racial Contract and Carole Patemen in her book The Sexual Contract that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively.

Question: What remained an important focus during the 1950s and 1960s?


Answer: pragmatic approach

Question: There was a marked trend towards what type of approach to political issues?


Answer: Charles W. Mills

Question: Who wrote The Racial Contract?


Answer: Carole Patemen

Question: Who wrote The Sexual Contract?


Answer: A Theory of Justice

Context: In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints.

Question: What did John Rawsl publish?


Answer: John Rawls

Question: Who Published A Theory of Justice?


Answer: 1971

Question: When was A Theory of Justice published?


Answer: Robert Nozick

Question: Who wrote Anarchy, State, and Utopia?


Answer: Frankfurt School,

Context: Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation.

Question: Herbert Marcuse was from what school?


Answer: Freudian

Question: Thinkers out of the Frankfurt School combined Marxian and what other perspective?


Answer: Guy Debord

Question: Who in particular moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption?


Answer: The liberal-communitarian debate

Context: Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective.These and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.

Question: What is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems?


Answer: greater local control

Question: What type of control do communitarians tend to support?


Answer: policies which encourage the growth of social capital

Question: What type of economic and social policies do Communitarians tend to support?


Answer: the end of the 20th century

Context: A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike liberals who understand liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of anyother person. To a liberal, a slave who is not interfered with may be free, yet to a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, jurist Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The capability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by legal scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it.

Question: When did republicanism and the capability approach arise?


Answer: The resurgent republican movement

Question: What aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty?


Answer: The capability approach

Question: Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen pioneered what approach?


Answer: a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element

Context: An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by metallic bonding character. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions). Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a defined stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are also sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types (see also: Van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle for information on classifying bonding in binary compounds).

Question: What is an alloy?


Answer: metallic bonding character

Question: What are alloys defined by?


Answer: depending on bond types

Question: When are Zintl considered alloys?


Answer: a single phase

Question: What is solid solution metal elements classified as?


Answer: impure

Context: An alloy is a mixture of either pure or fairly pure chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal, such as wrought iron, in that, with an alloy, the added impurities are usually desirable and will typically have some useful benefit. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements; at least one of which being a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble, dissolving into the mixture.

Question: What kind of substance is an alloy?


Answer: they will be soluble, dissolving into the mixture

Question: What happens when an alloy is mixed with a molten base?


Answer: two or more elements

Question: What is an alloy composed of?


Answer: wrought iron

Question: What other metal is impure like alloy?


Answer: Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron

Context: When the alloy cools and solidifies (crystallizes), its mechanical properties will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft and malleable, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, like copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will be much harder and stronger. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron produces an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength and toughness (which is much higher than pure iron), and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.

Question: How is steel produced?


Answer: aluminium

Question: What kind of metal is soft like copper?


Answer: chromium

Question: What can be added to steel to enhance is corrosion resistance?


Answer: steel

Question: What is superior to pure iron?


Answer: crystallizes

Question: What is another word for when alloys solidify?


Answer: If the metals remain soluble when solid

Context: Although the elements usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If the mixture cools and the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. These alloys are called intermetallic alloys because, if cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys separate within the crystals, forming intermetallic phases that serve to reinforce the crystals internally.

Question: What causes an alloy to form a solid solution?


Answer: to reinforce the crystals internally

Question: What is the purpose of intermetallic phases?


Answer: intermetallic alloys

Question: What are alloys called when the insoluble elements don't separate until after crystallization occurs?


Answer: silver and gold

Context: Some alloys occur naturally, such as electrum, which is an alloy that is native to Earth, consisting of silver and gold. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is made by mixing the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern-steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different components.

Question: What is electrum made of?


Answer: electrum

Question: What alloy is formed naturally?


Answer: bronze

Question: Which was on of the first alloys made by humans?


Answer: bronze

Question: What metal is made by combining tin and copper?


Answer: 1900s

Question: Around what time where alloys starting to get made by humans?


Answer: The primary metal

Context: The term alloy is used to describe a mixture of atoms in which the primary constituent is a metal. The primary metal is called the base, the matrix, or the solvent. The secondary constituents are often called solutes. If there is a mixture of only two types of atoms, not counting impurities, such as a copper-nickel alloy, then it is called a binary alloy. If there are three types of atoms forming the mixture, such as iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called a ternary alloy. An alloy with four constituents is a quaternary alloy, while a five-part alloy is termed a quinary alloy. Because the percentage of each constituent can be varied, with any mixture the entire range of possible variations is called a system. In this respect, all of the various forms of an alloy containing only two constituents, like iron and carbon, is called a binary system, while all of the alloy combinations possible with a ternary alloy, such as alloys of iron, carbon and chromium, is called a ternary system.

Question: The matrix and the solvent are other names for what?


Answer: The secondary constituents

Question: What is another name for solutes?


Answer: quaternary alloy

Question: What is the name of an alloy that has four constituents?


Answer: ternary alloy

Question: A five-part alloy is known as?


Answer: very brittle

Context: Although an alloy is technically an impure metal, when referring to alloys, the term "impurities" usually denotes those elements which are not desired. These impurities are often found in the base metals or the solutes, but they may also be introduced during the alloying process. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that simply contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.

Question: What is a characteristic of iron sulfide?


Answer: unwanted impurities

Question: What makes pure metals impure metals?


Answer: remove excess impurities

Question: Using fluxes and chemical additives during the alloying process does what?


Answer: Lithium, sodium and calcium

Question: What are the three common impurities in aluminum alloys?


Answer: Steel

Context: The term "alloy" is sometimes used in everyday speech as a synonym for a particular alloy. For example, automobile wheels made of an aluminium alloy are commonly referred to as simply "alloy wheels", although in point of fact steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. Steel is such a common alloy that many items made from it, like wheels, barrels, or girders, are simply referred to by the name of the item, assuming it is made of steel. When made from other materials, they are typically specified as such, (i.e.: "bronze wheel," "plastic barrel," or "wood girder").

Question: What is the name of a common alloy?


Answer: automobile wheels

Question: What is something on a car that sometimes is made of alloy?


Answer: alloys

Question: Steel and other very practical metals are also named what?


Answer: combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals

Context: Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals that often enhance its properties. For example, steel is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties such as tensile strength and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the prehistoric period now known as the bronze age; it was harder than pure copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc.

Question: What can be done to a metal to enhance its properties?


Answer: alloys

Question: Pure metals have a higher electrical and thermal conductivity than what?


Answer: Bronze

Question: When copper and tin is mixed, what is made?


Answer: prehistoric period

Question: When was the bronze age?


Answer: Brass

Question: Copper and zinc combine to make what?


Answer: heat treatment

Context: Alloys are often made to alter the mechanical properties of the base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation, such as hammering or bending, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. However, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree that steel does.

Question: What kind of treatment can be made to alter it's properties?


Answer: annealing

Question: Softening metals can be achieved by?


Answer: heat treatment

Question: Aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened by?


Answer: recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects

Question: Annealling softens metals by achieving what?


Answer: heterogeneous

Context: At a certain temperature, (usually between 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C), depending on carbon content), the base metal of steel undergoes a change in the arrangement of the atoms in its crystal matrix, called allotropy. This allows the small carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal, diffusing into the iron matrix. When this happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution, or mixed with the iron, forming a single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the iron will gradually change into its low temperature allotrope. When this happens the carbon atoms will no longer be soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into the spaces between the crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, being formed of two phases; the carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite. This type of heat treatment produces steel that is rather soft and bendable. However, if the steel is cooled quickly the carbon atoms will not have time to precipitate. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform intrinsically when the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, making it very hard and brittle.

Question: What is the name of steel when it is being formed of two phases?


Answer: carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite

Question: What are the two phases when steel becomes heterogenous?


Answer: very hard and brittle

Question: What are the characteristics of steel if it is cooled to quickly?


Answer: If the steel is cooled slowly

Question: Soft and bendable steel is caused by what?


Answer: 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C)

Question: Allotrophy happens between what temperatures?


Answer: steel

Context: Conversely, most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, which produce the opposite effects that steel does. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, and then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates to form different crystal phases, precipitation hardening alloys separate to form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneous, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.

Question: Precipitation hardening alloys produce the opposite effects of?


Answer: heat-treatable alloys

Question: Precipitation hardening alloys are sometimes also?


Answer: When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly

Question: What makes alloys more softer than normal?


Answer: substitutional alloys

Context: When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms. With the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other, so cannot successfully replace an atom in the crystals of the base metal. The smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the atoms in the crystal matrix, called the interstices. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix. Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are replaced with nickel and chromium atoms.

Question: Bronze and brass are examples of what?


Answer: substitutional alloys

Question: Tin or zinc atoms in place of copper atoms create?


Answer: Steel

Question: What is the name of one interstitial alloy?


Answer: interstitial and substitutional

Question: Stainless steel is an example of what two alloys?


Answer: meteoric iron

Context: The use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of iron meteorites which occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.

Question: What was one of the first alloys used by humans?


Answer: nickel and iron

Question: What is meteoric iron composed of?


Answer: tools, weapons, and nails

Question: What can forged meteoric iron make?


Answer: iron meteorites

Question: Where does meteoric iron come from?


Answer: occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space

Question: How does meteoric iron come to earth?


Answer: Greenland

Context: Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit people. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Eventually, humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore, and, around 2500 BC, began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which is much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams. Arrowheads from the Chinese Qin dynasty (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.

Question: Where is the only iron deposit on earth?


Answer: 2500 BC

Question: Around what time did bronze start being formed?


Answer: brass

Question: What does copper and zinc form to make?


Answer: Great Britain

Question: Where is tin mostly found?


Answer: Copper

Question: Which metal important to the ancients is the hardest one?


Answer: dissolves

Context: Mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft paste, or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for plating objects with precious metals, called gilding, such as armor and mirrors. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.

Question: What does mercury make most metals do?


Answer: 200 BC

Question: Since when have Amalgams been used?


Answer: mercury-tin amalgams

Question: What did ancient Romans use to gild their armor?


Answer: Mercury

Question: Gold and silver were extracted from their ores by using?


Answer: purely aesthetic purposes

Context: Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC, Archimedes was commissioned by the king to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle.

Question: Ancient civilizations often alloyed metals for what reason?


Answer: copper

Question: Red gold is made by combining gold with?


Answer: 250 BC

Question: Around what time was the Archimedes' principle discovered?


Answer: Archimedes

Question: Who shouted "Eureka!" while checking the purity of a crown?


Answer: less valuable substances

Question: Buyers were often deceived when precious metals were mixed with?


Answer: tin

Context: The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin was much too soft to be used for any practical purpose. However, in the Bronze age, tin was a rare metal and, in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, was often valued higher than gold. To make jewelry, forks and spoons, or other objects from tin, it was usually alloyed with other metals to increase its strength and hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes sometimes were added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of things, ranging from practical items, like dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items such as ear rings and hair clips.

Question: Pewter is mostly made up of?


Answer: too soft

Question: Why was tin was rarely used for everyday use?


Answer: tin

Question: During the bronze age, which metal was valued higher than gold in Europe and the Mediterranean?


Answer: alloyed with other metals

Question: What was done to tin to make it stronger?


Answer: lead, antimony, bismuth or copper

Question: What metals were alloyed with tin to make it stronger?


Answer: Anatolia

Context: The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the early Middle Ages.

Question: Where did smelting of iron begin?


Answer: around 1800 BC

Question: When did the smelting of iron first begin?


Answer: around 700 AD

Question: When did iron making technology begin in Japan?


Answer: carbon

Question: Pig iron is composed of iron and what else?


Answer: lower melting point

Question: What makes Pig iron different from regular iron?


Answer: 1100 BC

Context: While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal is much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the penetration of carbon was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.

Question: Heat treatment of steel has been know since what time?


Answer: Middle Ages

Question: When did iron start to become melted by people?


Answer: Benjamin Huntsman

Question: Who created the first process for the mass production of tool steel?


Answer: 1740

Question: When did Benjamin Huntsman begin to melt blister steel in a crucible


Answer: produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron

Context: With the introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages, pig iron was able to be produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes of reducing the carbon in the liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling was introduced during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Sir Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process was able to produce the first large scale manufacture of steel. Once the Bessemer process began to gain widespread use, other alloys of steel began to follow. Mangalloy, an alloy of steel and manganese exhibiting extreme hardness and toughness, was one of the first alloy steels, and was created by Robert Hadfield in 1882.

Question: What did the blast furnace help do to pig iron in the middle ages?


Answer: steel

Question: By reducing carbon in liquid pig iron, what was created?


Answer: 1700s

Question: When did puddling start occurring?


Answer: 1858

Question: When was the Bessemer process developed?


Answer: Mangalloy

Question: Steel and manganese combines form to make what?


Answer: Alfred Wilm

Context: In 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. After quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and magnesium, Wilm discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, duralumin was one of the first "age hardening" alloys to be used, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.

Question: Who discovered precipitation hardening alloys?


Answer: 1906

Question: When were precipitation hardening alloys discovered?


Answer: harden over time

Question: What happens to precipitation hardening alloys after they quenched?


Answer: duralumin

Question: One of the first "age hardening" alloys used were called?


Answer: duralumin

Question: What was used in the construction of modern aircraft?


Answer: Pacific Ocean

Context: Norfolk Island (i/ˈnɔːrfək ˈaɪlənd/; Norfuk: Norf'k Ailen) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia, 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) directly east of mainland Australia's Evans Head, and about 900 kilometres (560 mi) from Lord Howe Island. The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia. Together with two neighbouring islands, it forms one of Australia's external territories. It has 1,796 inhabitants living on a total area of about 35 km2 (14 sq mi). Its capital is Kingston.

Question: In what ocean is Norfolk Island found?


Answer: about 900 kilometres (560 mi)

Question: How far away is the nearest land mass to Norfolk Island?


Answer: Kingston

Question: What is the capital city of Norfolk Island?


Answer: 1,796

Question: How many people live on Norfolk Island?


Answer: 1,412 kilometres (877 mi)

Question: How far away is Evans Head from Norfolk Island?


Answer: East Polynesians

Context: Norfolk Island was colonised by East Polynesians but was long unpeopled when it was settled by Great Britain as part of its settlement of Australia from 1788. The island served as a convict penal settlement from 6 March 1788 until 5 May 1855, except for an 11-year hiatus between 15 February 1814 and 6 June 1825, when it lay abandoned. On 8 June 1856, permanent civilian residence on the island began when it was settled from Pitcairn Island. In 1913, the UK handed Norfolk over to Australia to administer as an external territory.

Question: Who was Norfolk Island colonised by?


Answer: a convict penal settlement

Question: What purpose did Norfolk Island serve for the majority of the time from 1788 until 1855?


Answer: 8 June 1856

Question: What date did civilians begin to permanently reside in Norfolk Island?


Answer: Pitcairn Island

Question: Where did the first permanent civilians of Norfolk Island settle from in 1856?


Answer: 1913

Question: In what year did the UK hand Norfolk Island over to Australia to administrate?


Answer: 1786

Context: Sir John Call argued the advantages of Norfolk Island in that it was uninhabited and that New Zealand flax grew there. In 1786 the British government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonisation of New South Wales. The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken due to Empress Catherine II of Russia's decision to restrict sales of hemp. Practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from Russia.

Question: In what year did the British government include Norfolk Island as a auxiliary settlement?


Answer: John Call

Question: Who proposed the idea to include Norfolk Island as a British auxiliary settlement in 1786?


Answer: New South Wales

Question: In including Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, what Australian state did the British government plan to colonise?


Answer: Empress Catherine II of Russia

Question: What woman influenced the decision by the British to settle Norfolk Island?


Answer: Russia

Question: Where was the majority of the hemp and flax used by the Royal Navy imported from?


Answer: 1794

Context: As early as 1794, Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose suggested its closure as a penal settlement, as it was too remote and difficult for shipping and too costly to maintain. The first group of people left in February 1805, and by 1808 only about 200 remained, forming a small settlement until the remnants were removed in 1813. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings, so that there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from other European powers, to visit and lay claim to the place. From 15 February 1814 to 6 June 1825 the island was abandoned.

Question: When did Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose start suggesting Norfolk Island be closed as a penal settlement?


Answer: it was too remote and difficult for shipping and too costly to maintain

Question: Why did Francis Grose think that Norfolk Island should be closed as a penal settlement?


Answer: February 1805

Question: When did the first group of people leave Norfolk Island?


Answer: 200

Question: By 1808, how many people remained on Norfolk Island?


Answer: to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings

Question: Why did a small group of people remain on Norfolk Island, after others had already left?


Answer: the British government

Context: In 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send "the worst description of convicts". Its remoteness, previously seen as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of recalcitrant male prisoners. The convicts detained have long been assumed to be a hardcore of recidivists, or 'doubly-convicted capital respites' – that is, men transported to Australia who committed fresh colonial crimes for which they were sentenced to death, and were spared the gallows on condition of life at Norfolk Island. However, a recent study has demonstrated, utilising a database of 6,458 Norfolk Island convicts, that the reality was somewhat different: more than half were detained at Norfolk Island without ever receiving a colonial conviction, and only 15% had been reprieved from a death sentence. Furthermore, the overwhelming majority of convicts sent to Norfolk Island had committed non-violent property sentences, and the average length of detention was three years.

Question: Who instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to send the worst convicts to Norfolk Island?


Answer: Its remoteness

Question: What previous disadvantage of Norfolk Island was seen as an advantage for holding male convicts?


Answer: the gallows

Question: What were the prisoners on Norfolk Island spared from on the the mainland?


Answer: 6,458

Question: How many convicts are listed in the database at Norfolk Island?


Answer: three years

Question: What was the average length of a prisoner's detention at Norfolk Island?


Answer: Tahitians and the HMS Bounty mutineers

Context: On 8 June 1856, the next settlement began on Norfolk Island. These were the descendants of Tahitians and the HMS Bounty mutineers, including those of Fletcher Christian. They resettled from the Pitcairn Islands, which had become too small for their growing population. On 3 May 1856, 193 persons left Pitcairn Islands aboard the "Morayshire". On 8 June 194 persons arrived, a baby having been born in transit. The Pitcairners occupied many of the buildings remaining from the penal settlements, and gradually established traditional farming and whaling industries on the island. Although some families decided to return to Pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island's population continued to grow. They accepted additional settlers, who often arrived with whaling fleets.

Question: Who were the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island descended from?


Answer: the Pitcairn Islands

Question: Where did the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island settle from?


Answer: 193

Question: On May 3, 1856, how many Pitcairners left for Norfolk Island?


Answer: Morayshire

Question: What was the name of the ship the Pitcairners traveled on to Norfolk Island?


Answer: farming and whaling industries

Question: What trades did the Pitcairners establish while on Norfolk Island?


Answer: 1901

Context: After the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, Norfolk Island was placed under the authority of the new Commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory. During World War II, the island became a key airbase and refuelling depot between Australia and New Zealand, and New Zealand and the Solomon Islands. The airstrip was constructed by Australian, New Zealand and United States servicemen during 1942. Since Norfolk Island fell within New Zealand's area of responsibility it was garrisoned by a New Zealand Army unit known as N Force at a large Army camp which had the capacity to house a 1,500 strong force. N Force relieved a company of the Second Australian Imperial Force. The island proved too remote to come under attack during the war and N Force left the island in February 1944.

Question: When was the Commonwealth of Australia created?


Answer: World War II

Question: During what major event did Norfolk Island become an important airbase and refuelling station?


Answer: Australian, New Zealand and United States servicemen

Question: Who contructed the airbase used on Norfolk Island during World War II?


Answer: New Zealand

Question: Norfolk Island fell under whose responsibility during World War II?


Answer: February 1944

Question: When did N Force leave Norfolk Island during the time of World War II?


Answer: Financial problems and a reduction in tourism

Context: Financial problems and a reduction in tourism led to Norfolk Island's administration appealing to the Australian federal government for assistance in 2010. In return, the islanders were to pay income tax for the first time but would be eligible for greater welfare benefits. However, by May 2013 agreement had not been reached and islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare. An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on 12 March 2015 to replace self-government with a local council but against the wishes of the Norfolk Island government. A majority of Norfolk Islanders have objected to the Australian plan to make changes to Norfolk Island without first consulting them and allowing their say with 68% of voters against forced changes.

Question: What lead to Norfolk Island asking for assistance from Australia in 2010?


Answer: greater welfare benefits

Question: What benefit were residents of Norfolk Island told they would receive as a result of Australia's assistance?


Answer: islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare

Question: What actually ended up happening after Norfolk Island asked Australia for help?


Answer: replace self-government with a local council

Question: An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on March 12, 2015, to do what for Norfolk Island?


Answer: 68%

Question: What percentage of Norfolk Island voters were against the changes brought by Australia?


Answer: South

Context: Norfolk Island is located in the South Pacific Ocean, east of the Australian mainland. Norfolk Island is the main island of the island group the territory encompasses and is located at 29°02′S 167°57′E / 29.033°S 167.950°E / -29.033; 167.950. It has an area of 34.6 square kilometres (13.4 sq mi), with no large-scale internal bodies of water and 32 km (20 mi) of coastline. The island's highest point is Mount Bates (319 metres (1,047 feet) above sea level), located in the northwest quadrant of the island. The majority of the terrain is suitable for farming and other agricultural uses. Phillip Island, the second largest island of the territory, is located at 29°07′S 167°57′E / 29.117°S 167.950°E / -29.117; 167.950, seven kilometres (4.3 miles) south of the main island.

Question: What part of the Pacific Ocean is Norfolk Island located?


Answer: east

Question: What direction is Norfolk Island in relation to Australia?


Answer: 29°02′S 167°57′E / 29.033°S 167.950°E / -29.033; 167.950

Question: What are the coordinates for Norfolk Island?


Answer: Mount Bates

Question: What is the name of the mountain at Norfolk Island's highest point?


Answer: Phillip Island

Question: What is the name of the second largest island of the territory of Norfolk Island?


Answer: cliff faces

Context: The coastline of Norfolk Island consists, to varying degrees, of cliff faces. A downward slope exists towards Slaughter Bay and Emily Bay, the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston. There are no safe harbour facilities on Norfolk Island, with loading jetties existing at Kingston and Cascade Bay. All goods not domestically produced are brought in by ship, usually to Cascade Bay. Emily Bay, protected from the Pacific Ocean by a small coral reef, is the only safe area for recreational swimming, although surfing waves can be found at Anson and Ball Bays.

Question: What is the coastline of Norfolk made of?


Answer: Slaughter Bay and Emily Bay

Question: Where is the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston, Norfolk Islands, currently located?


Answer: by ship

Question: How are goods imported to Norfolk Island?


Answer: Cascade Bay

Question: Where are imported goods usually sent on Norfolk Island?


Answer: Anson and Ball Bays

Question: Where can you go to surf on Norfolk Island?


Answer: 51

Context: Norfolk Island has 174 native plants; 51 of them are endemic. At least 18 of the endemic species are rare or threatened. The Norfolk Island palm (Rhopalostylis baueri) and the smooth tree-fern (Cyathea brownii), the tallest tree-fern in the world, are common in the Norfolk Island National Park but rare elsewhere on the island. Before European colonization, most of Norfolk Island was covered with subtropical rain forest, the canopy of which was made of Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island pine) in exposed areas, and the palm Rhopalostylis baueri and tree ferns Cyathea brownii and C. australis in moister protected areas. The understory was thick with lianas and ferns covering the forest floor. Only one small tract (5 km2) of rainforest remains, which was declared as the Norfolk Island National Park in 1986.

Question: How many plants can only be found on Norfolk Island?


Answer: 18

Question: How many of the plants that can only be found on Norfolk Island are rare or threatened?


Answer: Norfolk Island National Park

Question: Where can the tallest tree-fern in the world be found?


Answer: subtropical rain forest

Question: What was the majority of Norfolk Island covered with, before European colonization?


Answer: 5 km2

Question: How much of the rainforest remains in Norfolk Island today?


Answer: land

Context: As a relatively small and isolated oceanic island, Norfolk has few land birds but a high degree of endemicity among them. Many of the endemic species and subspecies have become extinct as a result of massive clearance of the island's native vegetation of subtropical rainforest for agriculture, hunting and persecution as agricultural pests. The birds have also suffered from the introduction of mammals such as rats, cats, pigs and goats, as well as from introduced competitors such as common blackbirds and crimson rosellas.

Question: What type of bird does Norfolk Island have few of?


Answer: massive clearance of the island's native vegetation

Question: What is one reason that has caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to become extinct?


Answer: hunting and persecution as agricultural pests

Question: What is the second thing that caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to become extinct?


Answer: mammals

Question: What non-bird animals caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to suffer?


Answer: common blackbirds and crimson rosellas

Question: What non-native birds caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to suffer?


Answer: Nepean Island

Context: The Norfolk Island Group Nepean Island is also home to breeding seabirds. The providence petrel was hunted to local extinction by the beginning of the 19th century, but has shown signs of returning to breed on Phillip Island. Other seabirds breeding there include the white-necked petrel, Kermadec petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Australasian gannet, red-tailed tropicbird and grey ternlet. The sooty tern (known locally as the whale bird) has traditionally been subject to seasonal egg harvesting by Norfolk Islanders.

Question: What island in the Norfolk Island Group is home to breeding seabirds?


Answer: The providence petrel

Question: What near extinct bird of Norfolk Island has shown signs of population increase?


Answer: Phillip Island

Question: Where has the providence petrel been seen breeding on Norfolk Island?


Answer: the white-necked petrel, Kermadec petrel

Question: What other types of petrels breed on Phillip Island?


Answer: the whale bird

Question: What is the sooty tern known as on Norfolk Island?


Answer: Cetaceans

Context: Cetaceans were historically abundant around the island as commercial hunts on the island was operating until 1956. Today, numbers of larger whales have disappeared, but even today many species such humpback whale, minke whale, sei whale, and dolphins can be observed close to shores, and scientific surveys have been conducted regularly. Southern right whales were once regular migrants to the Norfolk hence naming the island as the "Middle ground" by whalers, but had been severely depleted by historical hunts, and further by illegal Soviet and Japan whaling, resulting in none of very few, if remnants still live, right whales in these regions along with Lord Howe Island.

Question: What used to be abundant in the waters around Norfolk Island?


Answer: 1956

Question: When did commercial sea hunts on Norfolk Island stop operating?


Answer: humpback whale, minke whale, sei whale

Question: What are some species of whales that can be seen around Norfolk Island today?


Answer: dolphins

Question: What other species can be seen close to the shores of Norfolk Island?


Answer: Southern right whales

Question: What type of whales were once common in Norfolk Island, but hardly any remain today?


Answer: Sixty-two percent

Context: Sixty-two percent of islanders are Christians. After the death of the first chaplain Rev G. H. Nobbs in 1884, a Methodist church was formed and in 1891 a Seventh-day Adventist congregation led by one of Nobbs' sons. Some unhappiness with G. H. Nobbs, the more organised and formal ritual of the Church of England service arising from the influence of the Melanesian Mission, decline in spirituality, the influence of visiting American whalers, literature sent by Christians overseas impressed by the Pitcairn story, and the adoption of Seventh-day Adventism by the descendants of the mutineers still on Pitcairn, all contributed to these developments. The Roman Catholic Church began work in 1957 and in the late 1990s a group left the former Methodist (then Uniting Church) and formed a charismatic fellowship. In 2011, 34 percent of the ordinary residents identified as Anglican, 13 percent as Uniting Church, 12 percent as Roman Catholic and three percent as Seventh-day Adventist. Nine percent were from other religions. Twenty four percent had no religion, and seven percent did not indicate a religion. Typical ordinary congregations in any church do not exceed 30 local residents as of 2010[update]. The three older denominations have good facilities. Ministers are usually short-term visitors.

Question: Christians make up what percentage of the population of Norfolk Island?


Answer: Rev G. H. Nobbs

Question: Who was the first chaplain of Norfolk Island?


Answer: a Methodist church

Question: What type of church was formed after Rev G.H. Nobbs' death in 1884?


Answer: one of Nobbs' sons

Question: Who led Norfolk Island's first Seventh-day Adventist church?


Answer: 30

Question: Typical church congregations on Norfolk Island as of 2010 don't exceed what number?


Answer: English and a creole language known as Norfuk

Context: Islanders speak both English and a creole language known as Norfuk, a blend of 18th-century English and Tahitian. The Norfuk language is decreasing in popularity as more tourists travel to the island and more young people leave for work and study reasons; however, there are efforts to keep it alive via dictionaries and the renaming of some tourist attractions to their Norfuk equivalents. In 2004 an act of the Norfolk Island Assembly made it a co-official language of the island. The act is long-titled: "An Act to recognise the Norfolk Island Language (Norf'k) as an official language of Norfolk Island." The "language known as 'Norf'k'" is described as the language "that is spoken by descendants of the first free settlers of Norfolk Island who were descendants of the settlers of Pitcairn Island". The act recognises and protects use of the language but does not require it; in official use, it must be accompanied by an accurate translation into English. 32% of the total population reported speaking a language other than English in the 2011 census, and just under three-quarters of the ordinarily resident population could speak Norfuk.

Question: What languages do residents of Norfolk Island speak?


Answer: 18th-century English and Tahitian

Question: What is the Norfuk language a mixture of?