Answer: The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon

Context: In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon, and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine, while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.

Question: Which work published in 1712 explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education?


Answer: over five

Question: In the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) how many colums of text were dedicated to wine?


Answer: technical subjects

Question: Was the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) more dedicated to technical subjects or scientific theory?


Answer: 1771

Question: In what year was the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica published?


Answer: Germany

Question: The Encyclopaedia Britannica was modelled along the same lines as a work from which country?


Answer: anonymity

Context: More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary, and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays, and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated – and won – the competitions. Of a total of 2300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 – perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

Question: What enforced contest rule guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging?


Answer: wealthier strata of society

Question: Were the vast majority of contest participants from the wealthier strata of society or the popular classes?


Answer: poetry

Question: Women's education common stressed which literary genre?


Answer: 49

Question: How many prize competitions did women win out of the 2300 in France?


Answer: poetry

Question: What literary genre were the majority of female winning contest entries?


Answer: Paris

Context: The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686; by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

Question: Where was the Cafe Procope established in 1686?


Answer: around 400

Question: By the 1720s. how many cafes were in Paris?


Answer: The Café Procope

Question: In which Cafe was the Encyclopedie created?


Answer: bruits

Question: Were bruits or newspapers allegedly a better source of information?


Answer: Scotland

Context: During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. they promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment, and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – "liberty, fraternity, and equality" Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the "Illuminati" founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

Question: Where did Freemasonry originate?


Answer: England

Question: Where did Freemasonry first spread?


Answer: France

Question: In what country was Freemaonry particularly prevalent?


Answer: Freemasonry

Question: What was the most popular of all Enlightenment associations?


Answer: Illuminati

Question: Which group was copied from the Freemasons and founded in Bavaria in 1776?


Answer: Locke

Context: Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property", and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn". Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Question: Who is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property"?


Answer: labor

Question: Locke believed that the natural right to property is derived from what?


Answer: French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

Question: Locke's theory of natural rights influenced what French document?


Answer: Frederick the Great

Context: Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

Question: Which king of Prussia saw himself as the leader of the Enlightenment?


Answer: Voltaire

Question: Which Enlightenment theorist was extended an invitation to live at the palace after being iprisoned by the French government?


Answer: Frederick the Great,

Question: Who was the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786?


Answer: Benjamin Franklin

Context: Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

Question: Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?


Answer: both directions

Question: Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?


Answer: John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733)

Question: As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?


Answer: The Age of Reason

Question: All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?


Answer: science and religion

Question: Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?


Answer: the Grub Street Hacks

Context: The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters, and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself". Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. More importantly, according to Darnton, the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.

Question: What term was given to the writers of Grub Street?


Answer: pamphlets

Question: Libelles were generally written in what form?


Answer: the Grub Street hacks

Question: Which group inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, according to Darnton?


Answer: the libelles

Question: Which works by the Grub Street Hacks "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."?


Answer: Coffeehouses

Context: Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and, because of their size, might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs - rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.

Question: Which venue created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life could gather and share ideas?


Answer: nobles

Question: Coffehouses were criticized by which group of people, fearing the possiblity of an environmentin which class was disregarded?


Answer: Monarchs

Question: Which societal group believed they held a divine right to rule and resented the idea of their subjects convening to discuss political matters?


Answer: Monarchs

Question: What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?


Answer: upper

Context: A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by M D Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

Question: Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes?


Answer: natural history

Question: Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy?


Answer: René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur

Question: Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes?


Answer: 1730s

Context: Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.

Question: In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent?


Answer: British

Question: The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities?


Answer: the Parisian lodge

Question: Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles?


Answer: British

Question: Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"?


Answer: Grand Architect

Question: What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe?


Answer: Coffeehouses

Context: Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.

Question: Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities?


Answer: the Enlightenment

Question: Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery?


Answer: 1711

Question: In what year was The Spectator published?


Answer: The Spectator

Question: Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters?


Answer: Roman Catholic Church

Context: The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

Question: Who was the major opponent to Freemasonry?


Answer: France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico

Question: Which countries had a large Catholic element and therefore had confrontation with Freemasons?


Answer: downplay

Question: Do American historians downplay or attribute the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution?


Answer: the Loyalists

Question: Who was the political enemy of the Patriots?


Answer: non-political

Question: Were the Masons political or non-political in the American Revolution?


Answer: Siècle des Lumières

Context: The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and ending the abuses of the church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the principle of absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy.

Question: How was the Enlightenment known in French?


Answer: The Enlightenment

Question: Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?


Answer: individual liberty and religious tolerance

Question: In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?


Answer: Roman Catholic Church

Question: The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?


Answer: Paris

Context: In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries, and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.

Question: Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?


Answer: Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Question: Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?


Answer: reason

Question: Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?


Answer: Montesquieu

Question: Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?


Answer: the United States Constitution

Question: Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?


Answer: the Encyclopédie

Context: The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire; Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); and Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an opposing intellectual movement known as Romanticism.

Question: What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?


Answer: thirty-five

Question: The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?


Answer: 1733

Question: Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?


Answer: 1754

Question: When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?


Answer: 1789

Question: What year did the French Revolution begin?


Answer: Counter-Enlightenment.

Context: There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority; and a second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith. Both lines of thought were opposed by the conservative Counter-Enlightenment.

Question: What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?


Answer: Spinoza

Question: The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?


Answer: Spinoza

Question: Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?


Answer: René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others

Question: Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?


Answer: John Locke

Context: The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

Question: Who is credited with the concept of separating church and state?


Answer: The "Radical Enlightenment"

Question: Which term describes John Locke's movement to seperate church and state?


Answer: 1632

Question: In what year was John Locke born?


Answer: the realm of individual conscience

Question: In what realm did John Locke feel the government lacked authority?


Answer: the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source

Context: A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the Deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note that, "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law, and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647–1706) observed that in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion].". He believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions".

Question: According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism?


Answer: Pierre Bayle

Question: Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men?


Answer: Voltaire

Question: Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined?


Answer: Voltaire

Question: Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society?


Answer: women and the lower classes

Context: The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude," and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude". Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

Question: Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere?


Answer: coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges

Question: Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation?


Answer: "the opinion of the multitude,"

Question: Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what?


Answer: "the blind and noisy multitude"

Question: d'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom?


Answer: reading materials

Context: The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial, and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France at least, the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.

Question: The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment?


Answer: the Industrial Revolution

Question: Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices?


Answer: demand for information

Question: In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for?


Answer: France

Question: In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century?


Answer: just one-tenth of the total

Question: The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage?


Answer: performers' and composers'

Context: As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

Question: Whose incomes did public concerts help support?


Answer: operas and oratorios

Question: Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work?


Answer: Haydn and Mozart

Question: Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals?


Answer: Viennese Classical

Question: What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share?


Answer: 1635

Context: The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines, and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens". Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership; although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people". For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.

Question: What year was the Academy of Science in France founded?


Answer: scientists

Question: Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?"


Answer: 13 percent

Question: What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science?


Answer: elite Parisian scholars

Question: The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group?


Answer: interpreters of the sciences for the people

Question: How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves?


Answer: northern Europe

Context: Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Question: Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located?


Answer: Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh

Question: Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe?


Answer: Edinburgh

Question: Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies?


Answer: the medical university at Montpellier

Question: Which of France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment?


Answer: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines

Context: The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.

Question: How can associationism be defined?


Answer: associationism,

Question: What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward?


Answer: the Renaissance

Question: Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period?


Answer: universal encyclopedias

Context: However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail, and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

Question: What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?


Answer: to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work

Question: What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?


Answer: Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers

Question: Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?


Answer: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot

Question: In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?


Answer: d'Alembert's

Question: Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?


Answer: natural history

Context: Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

Question: Anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology are all studies of which subject?


Answer: Rousseau

Question: Who criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier?


Answer: scientific societies and academies

Question: Who replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development during the Enlightenment?


Answer: the 18th century

Question: Which century is considered by some as a "drab" period, however saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics, the development of biological taxonomy, a new understanding of magnetism, and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline?


Answer: Newtonianism

Question: Voltaire and Emilie du Chatelet populatized which scientific philosophy?


Answer: the development of free speech and thought

Context: Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.

Question: Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of what?


Answer: chemist Joseph Black

Question: Who discovered carbon dioxide or fixed air?


Answer: geologist James Hutton

Question: Who created the argument for deep time?


Answer: James Watt

Question: Who invented the steam engine?


Answer: the Montgolfier Brothers

Question: Who launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon in November 1783?


Answer: Crimes and Punishments (1764)

Context: Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples, and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.

Question: For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?


Answer: 22

Question: Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?


Answer: Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787)

Question: Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?


Answer: 1783

Question: In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?


Answer: transmission of knowledge

Context: Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities. However, contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge, while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members, and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

Question: What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?


Answer: to create knowledge

Question: Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?


Answer: 1789

Question: By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?


Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle

Question: Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?


Answer: 1789

Context: The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.

Question: The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?


Answer: Locke

Question: Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?


Answer: "consent of the governed"

Question: The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies?


Answer: governance paradigm shift

Question: According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?


Answer: An Essay on the History of Civil Society

Context: Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen, and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents; Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign", rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract.

Question: In what work did Ferguson explain how humans advanced from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract?


Answer: 1767

Question: In what year did Ferguson publish An Essay on the History of Civil Society?


Answer: four

Question: How many stages of progress did Ferguson theorize?


Answer: David Hume

Question: Who, along with Adam Ferguson, criticized the idea of social contract theorists?


Answer: 18th century

Context: In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences, and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and, in residence, world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life.

Question: What century produced the first Russian univeristy, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press?


Answer: the individual

Question: What did the Russian enlightenment focus on instead of societal enlightenment?


Answer: Voltaire

Question: From whom did Catherine the Great receive assistance in her Enlightenment ideals via correspondence?


Answer: Bertrand Russell

Context: Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation, and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues, by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.

Question: Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation?


Answer: 16th-century Protestants

Question: Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from?


Answer: Martin Luther

Question: Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment?


Answer: the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment

Context: Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power". This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion", born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates ... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power". Nevertheless, it took another century before cultural approach became central to the historiography, as typified by Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (1979).

Question: How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution?


Answer: men of letters

Question: Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville?


Answer: the rise of "public opinion"

Question: From where did Tocqueville believe the illusory power of the men of letters came from?


Answer: Moses Mendelssohn

Context: Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge – of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage", tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another". "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance." The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness". According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.

Question: Which Jewish philosopher referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason?


Answer: "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage"

Question: How did Immanuel Kant describe the Enlightenment?


Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: For whom was Enlightenment mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance?"


Answer: the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance

Question: According to historian Roy Porter, what was the Age of Enlightenment trying to capture?


Answer: Thomas Jefferson

Context: These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia, and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.

Question: John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist?


Answer: the United States Constitution

Question: Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document?


Answer: Isaac Newton

Question: Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived?


Answer: openness to the public

Context: In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. It is important to note, however, that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public; women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

Question: From a historical standpoint, what was one of the most important features of the debating society?


Answer: all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee

Question: Were debates only open to certain economic classes, or could all attend?


Answer: politics and the role of women

Question: What were some of the issues discussed in addition to debates on religion?


Answer: social conditions

Context: Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.

Question: What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment?


Answer: bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state

Question: How did Habermas describe the public sphere?


Answer: the "bourgeois public sphere"

Question: The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe?


Answer: the ideas themselves

Context: Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century, and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority".

Question: What do Jonathon Israel claim caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th centure and early 19th century?


Answer: largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority

Question: What does Israel argue Western civilization was based on until the 1650s?


Answer: social and economic

Question: Jonathon Israel rejects the notion that the revolutionary ideas were by products of what transformations?


Answer: 1650 to the end of the 18th century

Question: What time period does Johnathon Israel focus on?


Answer: realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture

Context: One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of "common concern," and argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.

Question: How was the public sphere defined?


Answer: late 17th century and 18th century

Question: During what centuries was the rise of the public sphere?


Answer: common concern

Question: What term did Habermas give to describe the areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously exlusive territory of the state and religious authorities?


Answer: reason

Question: The argument of the public sphere was founded on what?


Answer: secrecy of all sorts

Question: The values of the bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to the supreme, considering everything open to criticism, and the opposition of what?


Answer: France

Context: Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. The Encyclopédie, for example, narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority") demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon, and are largely forgotten today as a result.

Question: Book sellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness in what country, especially?


Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: Which work narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes?


Answer: France

Question: Many publishing companies were located outside of which country to avoid overzealous censors?


Answer: criminals and political corruption

Question: Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about what topics than they were in political theory itself?


Answer: general works

Question: What was the term given to books that did not have a dominant motif and contained something to offend almost everyone in authority?


Answer: Malesherbes

Context: A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. The Encyclopédie, for example, condemned not only by the King but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. But many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.

Question: Who helped The Encyclopedie find its way into print using the French censorship law creatively?


Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: The King and Clement XII condemned which literary work?


Answer: 70

Question: What percentage of books borrowed in England, Germany, and Norath America were novels?


Answer: 1

Question: What percentage of books borrowed were of a religious nature in England, Germany, and North America?


Answer: free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation

Context: The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation". Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public", then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic".

Question: What did the Republic of Letters support?


Answer: the "reading public"

Question: Once everyone was a part of what group did Kant believe all of society would be enlightened?


Answer: Diderot and Voltaire

Question: Who were two of the figures that participated in the Republic of Letters?


Answer: written communication

Question: What did Immanuel Kant consider essential to his conception of the public sphere?


Answer: Jonathan Israel

Context: Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and promoted the "enlightened" ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.

Question: Who called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture?


Answer: established authorities

Question: To what did the journals shift attention of the cultivated public away from and towards novelty and innovation?


Answer: toleration and intellectual objectivity

Question: What enlightened ideas were promoted by the journals?


Answer: science and reason

Question: The journals were a source of knowledge derived from what topics?


Answer: from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words

Context: Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.

Question: How did dictionaries and encyclopedias change in the 18th century?


Answer: to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite

Question: What movement were dictionaries and encyclopedias trying to promote?


Answer: tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology

Question: How did the content of encyclopedias change in the 18th century?


Answer: secular affairs, particularly science and technology

Question: Encyclopedias in the 18th century tended to focus more strongly on what topics, rather than theology?


Answer: according to a "tree of knowledge."

Context: The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.

Question: How was the Encyclopedie arranged?


Answer: the arts and sciences

Question: The rise of empiricism caused a division between which two subjects?


Answer: philosophy

Question: What was considered the trunk of the tree of knowledge?


Answer: quarto and octavo

Question: Which editions of the Encyclopedie were less expensive and more accessible to the non-elite?


Answer: 25 000

Question: How many copies of the Encyclopedie were estimated to be in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution?


Answer: Royal Society of London

Context: In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe, and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate," and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act", and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible; "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution". In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

Question: Which society in England also played a significant role in the public sphere and spread of Enlightenment ideas?


Answer: 1662

Question: In what year was the Royal Society of London given a royal charter?


Answer: Robert Boyle

Question: Whose method based knowledge on experiementation, which had to be witnessed?


Answer: Oxford professors

Question: Who were considered more reliable witnesses than the Oxfordshire peasants?


Answer: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution"

Question: What two factors were taken into account in credibility in the Royal Society?


Answer: "confessional"

Context: The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional" – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues, and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority". After this date everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in," and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity".

Question: Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revoled around what subject?


Answer: "confessional"

Question: Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues were called what?


Answer: second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century

Question: During what time period did a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in"?


Answer: the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority"

Question: The aim of confessional debates was to establish which bloc of faith should have what?


Answer: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges

Context: German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed that "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism. He argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

Question: According to German historian Reinhart Koselleck, which two social structures left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment?


Answer: Thomas Munck

Question: Which Scottish professor believes that Masons were not a major radical or reformist network in their own right?


Answer: political thought

Question: Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspriting what type of thinking?


Answer: egalitarianism

Question: Daniel Roche claims that Masonry promoted what idea by only attracting men of similar social background?


Answer: noble women

Question: The presence of whom in the French "lodges of adoption" formed in the 1780s was die to the close ties shared with aristocratic society?


Answer: alphabetical

Context: Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. The historian Charles Porset, commenting on alphabetization, has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Reason as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.

Question: What ordering scheme did readers prefer?


Answer: Charles Porset

Question: Who believed the avoidance of thematic and heirarhical systems allowed free interpretation of the works and caused them to beomce an example of eglitarianism?


Answer: the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply

Question: Why did Encyclopedias and dictionaries become more popular during the Age of Reason?


Answer: 63

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published between 1760 and 1769?


Answer: 148

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published in the decade preceding the French Revolution?


Answer: a high rise in the availability of food

Context: One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

Question: What caused an increasingly literate population to develop in the Enlightenment era?


Answer: education

Question: Instead of paying more for food, on what did people spend their money?


Answer: Popularization

Question: Which ideal endeavoured to make information available to the greatest number of people?


Answer: Sir Isaac Newton

Question: Who wrote the celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica?


Answer: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

Question: Which work of Isaac Newton was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze it in the vernacular?


Answer: environmental changes

Context: Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to best capitalize on environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that cannot predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral, but not physiological, circadian rhythms in quail.

Question: For what do Circadian rhythms let an organism prepare?


Answer: resources

Question: What can an organism that uses circadian rhythms use to its advantage that others can not?


Answer: selective advantage

Question: By better using resources, how does that improve an organism's chances of surviving?


Answer: internal metabolic

Question: By improving what processes does the use of circadian rhythms serve to benefit the individual?


Answer: fruit flies

Question: What insect has been studied concerning the inheritability of rhythms?


Answer: Arctic animals

Context: Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.

Question: What type of animals have been shown to have circadian rhythms only at certain times?


Answer: sunrises and sunsets

Question: What daily feature do animals that show limited circadian rhythms need?


Answer: autumn, winter and spring

Question: In a study, when did reindeer at 70 degrees north only show circadian rhythms?


Answer: 78 degrees

Question: At what degree north did reindeer show rhythms only in autumn and summer?


Answer: other Arctic animals

Question: What aninmals do researchers think might also show a variance in circadian rhythms in different seasons?


Answer: central oscillator

Context: The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock-Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis, as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions), plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. Gene expression of CCA1 and LHY oscillates and peaks in the early morning, whereas TOC1 gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of CCA1, LHY, and PRR7 and 9 in the morning loop but also of GI and ELF4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of TOC1 gene functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component repressilator model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals.

Question: What produces a self-sustaining rhythm?


Answer: morning

Question: When do the CCA1 and LHY function?


Answer: evening

Question: Which loop that consists of GI and ELF4 functions?


Answer: negative feedback loop

Question: What was the previous belief of feedback in the gene loop?


Answer: Andrew Millar

Question: What researcher showed that the gene feedback loop serves as a repressor?


Answer: sleep disorder FASPS

Context: A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.[citation needed]

Question: What is the Drosophila gene the cause of?


Answer: period

Question: What is the Drosophila gene also known as?


Answer: FASPS

Question: What is Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome?


Answer: biological clock

Question: What kind of clock have genetic functions?


Answer: time of the day

Question: What does the body interpret from the gene feedback loop?


Answer: airline pilots

Context: Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often cross several timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to fatigue. The NTSB cites this as contributing to many accidents[unreliable medical source?] and has conducted several research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.

Question: Whose work habits and environment prevents them from maintaining a regular sleep pattern?


Answer: fatigue

Question: What can the lack of regular sleep patterns cause?


Answer: NTSB

Question: What organizations cites this disruption of sleep patterns as a cause of accidents?


Answer: research studies

Question: What has the NTSB conducted to find the cause of pilot fatigue?


Answer: combating fatigue

Question: Of what does the NTSB want to find a means of doing?


Answer: 4th century B.C.E

Context: The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B.C.E., when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree. The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the Noon and Midnight Manual and the Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year.

Question: What is the earliest recorded instance of circadian rhythm?


Answer: Androsthenes

Question: What ship captain described daily leaf movements?


Answer: tamarind

Question: What tree leaves did Androsthenes describe?


Answer: medical

Question: What type of Chinese texts mention circadian process in humans?


Answer: 13th century

Question: When did the Chinese use diurnal rhythms to remember Acu-points?


Answer: when to flower

Context: Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others. Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment. These rhythms are endogenously generated and self-sustaining and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Important features include two interacting transcription-translation feedback loops: proteins containing PAS domains, which facilitate protein-protein interactions; and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment allows appropriate changes in a plant's physiological state, conferring an adaptive advantage. A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather.

Question: What is the plant expression of circadian rhythm?


Answer: pollinators

Question: What do plants need to attract to their flowering?


Answer: light cycle

Question: With what feature of environment do plants need to be in sync?


Answer: Anticipation of changes

Question: What does adaptive advantage allow for plants?


Answer: agriculture

Question: Where can an understanding of circadian rhythms of plants be an advantage?


Answer: prokaryotic cyanobacteria

Context: The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC) of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of ATP. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.[citation needed]

Question: What has the simplest known circadian clock?


Answer: three proteins

Question: With how many proteins can the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus are needed to reproduce its effect?


Answer: DNA

Question: What type of feedback mechanism was previously thought to be needed to sustain the clock?


Answer: 22-hour

Question: How long a rhythm were researchers able to sustain in the in vitro experiment?


Answer: KaiA, KaiB, KaiC

Question: What were the only proteins necessary to the circadian timekeeper experiment?


Answer: light–dark cycle

Context: The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a free-running rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each "day", depending on whether their "day", their endogenous period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called zeitgebers (from the German, "time-givers"). Totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.[page needed]

Question: To what is the circadian rhythm tied?


Answer: total darkness

Question: What conditions will produce a free-running rhythm in humans?


Answer: zeitgebers

Question: What are the environmental factors that can change the rhythm?


Answer: photoreceptors

Question: What do blind mole rats have in place of vision?


Answer: Melatonin

Context: Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at roughly 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset are more strongly correlated with phase markers than the onset of sleep. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels is more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.

Question: What chemical is absent or low during daylight?


Answer: 9 p.m

Question: When is the melatonin onset?


Answer: Melatonin

Question: At its onset, what can be measured in blood or saliva?


Answer: hormone

Question: The presence of what is a circadian marker?


Answer: melatonin phase

Question: What are the more reliable markers in determining sleep timing?


Answer: temperatures

Context: For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. Though variation is great among normal chronotypes, the average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time. Baehr et al. found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 04:00 (4 a.m.) for morning types but at about 06:00 (6 a.m.) for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types.

Question: What physical factor must be continuously monitored during temperature studies>


Answer: 05:00

Question: At what time does the average adult human reach his lowest temperature?


Answer: two hours

Question: How long before wake time is the lowest temperature reached?


Answer: 04:00

Question: When does the temperature of morning type young adults reach its lowest?


Answer: 06:00

Question: What is the time of lowest temperature for evening type young adults?


Answer: Patrick and Gilbert

Context: In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours. In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature. In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by Auguste Forel, Ingeborg Beling, and Oskar Wahl to see whether this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.[citation needed] Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the "period" gene, the first discovered genetic determinant of behavioral rhythmicity. Joseph Takahashi discovered the first mammalian circadian clock mutation (clockΔ19) using mice in 1994. However, recent studies show that deletion of clock does not lead to a behavioral phenotype (the animals still have normal circadian rhythms), which questions its importance in rhythm generation.

Question: Who noticed that sleepiness increases and decreases in a 24 hour period?


Answer: J.S. Szymanski

Question: Who showed the animals could maintain activity in the absence of light and temperature changes?


Answer: bees

Question: What animals rhythmic feeding times were studied in the early 20th century ?


Answer: "period"

Question: What gene did Konopka and Benzer map in the early 1970 s?


Answer: circadian clock

Question: What mutation did Takahashi discover in 1994?


Answer: single cell

Context: It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. This was shown by Gene Block in isolated mollusk BRNs.[clarification needed] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.[citation needed]

Question: Inside of what can the molecular circadian clock operate?


Answer: cell-autonomous

Question: By functioning within a single, what is the system?


Answer: endocrine glands

Question: What section of the brain periodically releases hormones?


Answer: biological clock

Question: How are sleep and wake cycles as well as body functions coordinated?


Answer: synchronise

Question: What do body hormone receptors do with the body's organs?


Answer: Light

Context: Light is the signal by which plants synchronize their internal clocks to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the dark but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB, the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.

Question: What signals plants to synchronize their internal clocks?


Answer: photoreceptors

Question: What do plants use to sense light?


Answer: phytochromes and cryptochromes

Question: What receptors absorb red and blue light in plants?


Answer: phyA

Question: Which phytochrome found in seedlings deteriorates with light and growth?


Answer: phyB

Question: What is the main phytochrome found in seedling grown in light?


Answer: 28-hour

Context: Studies by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 and by Derk-Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all,[citation needed] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions.[page needed]

Question: What time cycle did studies in 1938 and 1990s use on humans?


Answer: time cues

Question: What conditions were suppressed in the 28 hour wake-sleep cycle studies ?


Answer: month

Question: How long did the suppression of time clues study last?


Answer: forced desynchrony

Question: What is this forced type of study called?


Answer: 24.18 hours

Question: When in the cycle do wake-sleep cycles break off from the circadian period?


Answer: profound consequences

Context: Shift-work or chronic jet-lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.[medical citation needed] In humans, shift-work that favors irregular eating times is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift-work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation.

Question: What effect does jet-lag and shift-work have on the human body?


Answer: body mass

Question: Animals that eat during resting periods show what body increase?


Answer: insulin sensitivity

Question: How does irregular eating during shift-work effect insulin?


Answer: higher body mass

Question: Besides insulin sensitivity, what other effect does shift-work have on the body?


Answer: Shift-work

Question: What type of work can lead to heart, hypertension and inflammation?


Answer: abusive drugs

Context: Studies conducted on both animals and humans show major bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and abusive drugs. It is indicated that these abusive drugs affect the central circadian pacemaker. Individuals suffering from substance abuse display disrupted rhythms. These disrupted rhythms can increase the risk for substance abuse and relapse. It is possible that genetic and/or environmental disturbances to the normal sleep and wake cycle can increase the susceptibility to addiction.

Question: What do studies show has a bidirectional relationship with the circadian system?


Answer: circadian pacemaker

Question: What do abusive drugs effect in the circadian system?


Answer: disrupted rhythms

Question: What do drug abusers show in their circadian processes?


Answer: abuse and relapse

Question: What can the disrupted circadian system cause?


Answer: susceptibility to addiction

Question: What can disruption to genetics and environment in the sleep cycle cause?


Answer: photosensitive proteins

Context: What drove circadian rhythms to evolve has been an enigmatic question. Previous hypotheses emphasized that photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms may have originated together in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high levels of damaging ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. However, evidence for this is lacking, since the simplest organisms with a circadian rhythm, the cyanobacteria, do the opposite of this - they divide more in the daytime. Recent studies instead highlight the importance of co-evolution of redox proteins with circadian oscillators in all three kingdoms of life following the Great Oxidation Event approximately 2.3 billion years ago. The current view is that circadian changes in environmental oxygen levels and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of daylight are likely to have driven a need to evolve circadian rhythms to preempt, and therefore counteract, damaging redox reactions on a daily basis.

Question: What is theorized to have evolved with circadian rhythms?


Answer: replicating DNA

Question: What is thought that circadian rhythm evolved to protect?


Answer: ultraviolet radiation

Question: From what did DNA need to be protected in the earliest cells?


Answer: redox reactions

Question: One possible reason for the development of the circadian system is the need to counteract what ?


Answer: Great Oxidation Event

Question: What environmental event occurred 2.3 million years ago?


Answer: cellular/metabolic events

Context: Mutations or deletions of clock gene in mice have demonstrated the importance of body clocks to ensure the proper timing of cellular/metabolic events; clock-mutant mice are hyperphagic and obese, and have altered glucose metabolism. In mice, deletion of the Rev-ErbA alpha clock gene facilitates diet-induced obesity and changes the balance between glucose and lipid utilization predisposing to diabetes. However, it is not clear whether there is a strong association between clock gene polymorphisms in humans and the susceptibility to develop the metabolic syndrome.

Question: What is the body clock gene in animals necessary to ensure?


Answer: hyperphagic and obese

Question: What do mice without the clock gene become?


Answer: glucose metabolism

Question: Beside obesity, how else does the lack of a circadian clock effect the mice?


Answer: not clear

Question: How certain is it that these circadian clock effects are the same in humans?


Answer: Rev-ErbA alpha clock

Question: What gene needs to be deleted to cause obesity in mice?