Answer: marketing

Question: The crash was caused in part by the confusion and misrepresentation of what in video games?


Answer: artwork

Context: The system's launch represented not only a new product, but also a reframing of the severely damaged home video game market segment as a whole. The video game market crash of 1983 had occurred in significant part due to a lack of consumer and retailer confidence in video games, which had in turn been due partially to confusion and misrepresentation in the marketing of video games. Prior to the NES, the packaging of many video games presented bombastic artwork which exaggerated the graphics of the actual game. In terms of product identity, a single game such as Pac-Man would appear in many versions on many different game consoles and computers, with large variations in graphics, sound, and general quality between the versions. By stark contrast, Nintendo's marketing strategy aimed to regain consumer and retailer confidence, by delivering a singular platform whose technology was not in need of heavy exaggeration and whose qualities were clearly defined.

Question: What specifically was misrepresented on game products?


Answer: confidence

Question: Nintendo's marketing strategy aimed at what aspect of the consumer via realism?


Answer: $475

Context: For its complete North American release, the Nintendo Entertainment System was progressively released over the ensuing years in four different bundles: the Deluxe Set, the Control Deck, the Action Set and the Power Set. The Deluxe Set, retailing at US$199.99 (equivalent to $475 in 2016), included R.O.B., a light gun called the NES Zapper, two controllers, and two Game Paks: Gyromite, and Duck Hunt. The Basic Set, retailing at US$89.99 with no game, and US$99.99 bundled with "Super Mario Bros." The Action Set, retailing in 1988 for US$149.99, came with the Control Deck, two game controllers, an NES Zapper, and a dual Game Pak containing both Super Mario Bros. and Duck Hunt. In 1989, the Power Set included the console, two game controllers, a NES Zapper, a Power Pad, and a triple Game Pak containing Super Mario Bros, Duck Hunt, and World Class Track Meet. In 1990, a Sports Set bundle was released, including the console, an NES Satellite infrared wireless multitap adapter, four game controllers, and a dual Game Pak containing Super Spike V'Ball and Nintendo World Cup. Two more bundle packages were later released using the original model NES console. The Challenge Set of 1992 included the console, two controllers, and a Super Mario Bros. 3 Game Pak for a retail price of US$89.99. The Basic Set, first released in 1987, was repackaged for a retail US$89.99. It included only the console and two controllers, and no longer was bundled with a cartridge. Instead, it contained a book called the Official Nintendo Player's Guide, which contained detailed information for every NES game made up to that point.

Question: How much was the selling price equivalent to in today's money?


Answer: US$199.99

Question: How much did the Deluxe NES sell for?


Answer: US$99.99

Question: How much did the console sell for bundled with just the Super Mario Bros. game?


Answer: Duck Hunt

Question: Super Mario Bros was paired with which game in the Action Set?


Answer: US$89.99

Question: The Basic Set sold for how much at release?


Answer: unlicensed clone market

Context: The unlicensed clone market has flourished following Nintendo's discontinuation of the NES. Some of the more exotic of these resulting systems have gone beyond the functionality of the original hardware and have included variations such as a portable system with a color LCD (e.g. PocketFami). Others have been produced with certain specialized markets in mind, such as an NES clone that functions as a rather primitive personal computer, which includes a keyboard and basic word processing software. These unauthorized clones have been helped by the invention of the so-called NES-on-a-chip.

Question: What thrived after the NES was discontinued?


Answer: color LCD

Question: What feature does the PocketFami have?


Answer: chip

Question: The NES was duplicated on which medium in order to make clones easy to produce?


Answer: playing card

Context: The NES was released after the "video game crash" of the early 1980s, whereupon many retailers and adults had regarded electronic games as being merely a passing fad, and many believed at first that the NES was another fad. Before the NES/Famicom, Nintendo was known as a moderately successful Japanese toy and playing card manufacturer, and the popularity of the NES/Famicom helped the company grow into an internationally recognized name almost synonymous with video games as Atari had been during the 2600 era and set the stage for Japanese dominance of the video game industry. With the NES, Nintendo also changed the relationship of console manufacturers and third-party software developers by restricting developers from publishing and distributing software without licensed approval. This led to higher quality software titles, which helped to change the attitude of a public that had grown weary from poorly produced titles for other game systems of the day.

Question: Nintendo produced toys and what other item before its game system?


Answer: Atari

Question: Nintendo's era was compared with who as another video game manufacturer?


Answer: licensed approval

Question: Nintendo required what from its software developers?


Answer: higher quality

Question: What did licensing lead to regarding games?


Answer: Tengen

Context: Atari Games created a line of NES products under the name Tengen and took a different approach. The company attempted to reverse engineer the lockout chip to develop its own "Rabbit" chip. However, Tengen also obtained a description of the lockout chip from the United States Patent and Trademark Office by falsely claiming that it was required to defend against present infringement claims in a legal case. Nintendo sued Tengen for copyright infringement, which Tengen lost as it could not prove that the legally obtained patent documents had not been used by the reverse engineering team. Tengen's antitrust claims against Nintendo were never finally decided.

Question: Atari created NES products under which name?


Answer: copyright infringement

Question: What did Nintendo sue Tengen for?


Answer: "Rabbit" chip

Question: Tengen reverse engineered the lockout chip to develop what animal monikered prototype?


Answer: United States Patent and Trademark Office

Question: Tengen got a description of Nintendo's chip from whom?


Answer: December 1993

Context: In December 1993, the Famicom received a similar redesign. It also loads cartridges through a covered slot on the top of the unit and uses non-hardwired controllers. Because HVC-101 used composite video output instead of being RF only like the HVC-001, Nintendo marketed the newer model as the AV Famicom (AV仕様ファミコン, Eibui Shiyō Famikon?). Since the new controllers don't have microphones on them like the second controller on the original console, certain games such as the Disk System version of The Legend of Zelda and Raid on Bungeling Bay will have certain tricks that cannot be replicated when played on an HVC-101 Famicom without a modded controller. However, the HVC-101 Famicom is compatible with most NES controllers due to having the same controller port. Nintendo had also released a 3D graphic capable headset. However, this peripheral was never released outside Japan.[citation needed]

Question: What month and year did the Famicom receive a redesign?


Answer: HVC-101

Question: What used composite video output?


Answer: HVC-001

Question: What device was RF only?


Answer: AV Famicom

Question: What was the newer model called?


Answer: 3D graphic capable headset

Question: What did Nintendo release in Japan only?


Answer: Ricoh

Context: The NES uses a custom-made Picture Processing Unit (PPU) developed by Ricoh. All variations of the PPU feature 2 kB of video RAM, 256 bytes of on-die "object attribute memory" (OAM) to store the positions, colors, and tile indices of up to 64 sprites on the screen, and 28 bytes of on-die palette RAM to allow selection of background and sprite colors. The console's 2 kB of onboard RAM may be used for tile maps and attributes on the NES board and 8 kB of tile pattern ROM or RAM may be included on a cartridge. The system has an available color palette of 48 colors and 6 grays. Up to 25 simultaneous colors may be used without writing new values mid-frame: a background color, four sets of three tile colors and four sets of three sprite colors. The NES palette is based on NTSC rather than RGB values. A total of 64 sprites may be displayed onscreen at a given time without reloading sprites mid-screen. The standard display resolution of the NES is 256 horizontal pixels by 240 vertical pixels.

Question: Who developed Nintendo's PPU?


Answer: 2

Question: How many kb of Video RAM did the PPU have?


Answer: 48

Question: The system has how many colors available on it?


Answer: 6

Question: How many grays could be used as well?


Answer: 256 horizontal pixels by 240 vertical pixels

Question: What is the standard display resolution of the NES?


Answer: Nintendo Advanced Video Gaming System

Context: Encouraged by these successes, Nintendo soon turned its attention to the North American market. Nintendo entered into negotiations with Atari to release the Famicom under Atari’s name as the name Nintendo Advanced Video Gaming System. The deal was set to be finalized and signed at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show in June 1983. However, Atari discovered at that show that its competitor Coleco was illegally demonstrating its Coleco Adam computer with Nintendo's Donkey Kong game. This violation of Atari's exclusive license with Nintendo to publish the game for its own computer systems delayed the implementation of Nintendo's game console marketing contract with Atari. Atari's CEO Ray Kassar was fired the next month, so the deal went nowhere, and Nintendo decided to market its system on its own.g[›]

Question: Nintendo agreed with Atari to release the Famicom under what name?


Answer: June 1983

Question: When was the Summer Consumer Electronics Show held?


Answer: Coleco

Question: Which company was illegally demonstrating a Nintendo game?


Answer: Ray Kassar

Question: What was the name of the fired Atari CEO?


Answer: Entertainment System

Context: To differentiate Nintendo's new home platform from the early 1980s' common perception of a troubled and shallow video game market, the company freshened its product nomenclature and positioning, and it established a strict product approval and licensing policy. The overall system was referred to as an "Entertainment System" instead of a "video game system", which was centered upon a machine called a "Control Deck" instead of a "console", and which featured software cartridges called "Game Paks" instead of "video games". The 10NES lockout chip system acted as a lock-and-key coupling of each Game Pak and Control Deck, deterring the copying or production of NES games which had not first achieved Nintendo's licensed approval. The packaging of the launch lineup of NES games bore pictures of a very close representation of the actual onscreen graphics of the game, which were of sufficiently recognizable quality on their own. Symbols on the launch games' packaging clearly indicated the genre of the game, in order to reduce consumer confusion. A 'seal of quality' was printed on all appropriately licensed game and accessory packaging. The initial seal stated, "This seal is your assurance that Nintendo has approved and guaranteed the quality of this product". This text was later changed to "Official Nintendo Seal of Quality".

Question: What was Nintendo's euphemism for "video game system?"


Answer: Control Deck

Question: What did Nintendo use instead of the word console?


Answer: Game Pak

Question: What was the term used by Nintendo instead of "video games?"


Answer: seal of quality

Question: What was printed on all licensed games and accessories by Nintendo?


Answer: Official Nintendo Seal of Quality

Question: The seal of quality took on what eventual name?


Answer: hardwired

Context: The original model Famicom featured two game controllers, both of which were hardwired to the back of the console. The second controller lacked the START and SELECT buttons, but featured a small microphone. Relatively few games made use of this feature. The earliest produced Famicom units initially had square A and B buttons. This was changed to the circular designs because of the square buttons being caught in the controller casing when pressed down and glitches within the hardware causing the system to freeze occasionally while playing a game.

Question: How were the Famicom controllers attached to the console?


Answer: SELECT

Question: The second Famicom controller lacked START and what other button?


Answer: microphone

Question: What did the second Famicom controller have as a unique feature?


Answer: square

Question: What shape were the A and B buttons on the earliest Famicom controllers?


Answer: circular

Question: What shape did the A and B buttons eventually become?


Answer: summer 1988

Context: Nintendo was not as restrictive as Sega, which did not permit third-party publishing until Mediagenic in late summer 1988. Nintendo's intention, however, was to reserve a large part of NES game revenue for itself. Nintendo required that they be the sole manufacturer of all cartridges, and that the publisher had to pay in full before the cartridges for that game be produced. Cartridges could not be returned to Nintendo, so publishers assumed all the risk. As a result, some publishers lost more money due to distress sales of remaining inventory at the end of the NES era than they ever earned in profits from sales of the games. Because Nintendo controlled the production of all cartridges, it was able to enforce strict rules on its third-party developers, which were required to sign a contract by Nintendo that would obligate these parties to develop exclusively for the system, order at least 10,000 cartridges, and only make five games per year. A 1988 shortage of DRAM and ROM chips also reportedly caused Nintendo to only permit 25% of publishers' requests for cartridges. This was an average figure, with some publishers receiving much higher amounts and others almost none. GameSpy noted that Nintendo's "iron-clad terms" made the company many enemies during the 1980s. Some developers tried to circumvent the five game limit by creating additional company brands like Konami's Ultra Games label; others tried circumventing the 10NES chip.

Question: When did Sega finally permit third-party publishing?


Answer: Mediagenic

Question: What was the name of the 1st company Sega permitted?


Answer: cartridges

Question: Nintendo was the sole manufacturer of what component for third-party developers?


Answer: risk

Question: As cartridges couldn't be returned to Nintendo, the developers took on the entirety of what?


Answer: 1988

Question: What year was there a shortage of DRAM and ROM chips?


Answer: zero insertion force

Context: When Nintendo released the NES in the US, the design styling was deliberately different from that of other game consoles. Nintendo wanted to distinguish its product from those of competitors and to avoid the generally poor reputation that game consoles had acquired following the video game crash of 1983. One result of this philosophy was to disguise the cartridge slot design as a front-loading zero insertion force (ZIF) cartridge socket, designed to resemble the front-loading mechanism of a VCR. The newly designed connector worked quite well when both the connector and the cartridges were clean and the pins on the connector were new. Unfortunately, the ZIF connector was not truly zero insertion force. When a user inserted the cartridge into the NES, the force of pressing the cartridge down and into place bent the contact pins slightly, as well as pressing the cartridge’s ROM board back into the cartridge itself. Frequent insertion and removal of cartridges caused the pins to wear out from repeated usage over the years and the ZIF design proved more prone to interference by dirt and dust than an industry-standard card edge connector. These design issues were not alleviated by Nintendo’s choice of materials; the console slot nickel connector springs would wear due to design and the game cartridge copper connectors were also prone to tarnishing. Many players would try to alleviate issues in the game caused by this corrosion by blowing into the cartridges, then reinserting them, which actually hurt the copper connectors by speeding up the tarnishing.

Question: What does ZIF stand for?


Answer: VCR

Question: The ZIF insertion used by Nintendo was set to emulate what device?


Answer: bent the contact pins slightly

Question: The force of pushing in the cartridge did what to the device over eventual use?


Answer: nickel

Question: What material were the connector springs made of?


Answer: copper

Question: What material comprised the game cartridge connectors?


Answer: Nintendo Authorized Repair Centers

Context: In response to these hardware flaws, "Nintendo Authorized Repair Centers" sprang up across the U.S. According to Nintendo, the authorization program was designed to ensure that the machines were properly repaired. Nintendo would ship the necessary replacement parts only to shops that had enrolled in the authorization program. In practice, the authorization process consisted of nothing more than paying a fee to Nintendo for the privilege. In a recent trend, many sites have sprung up to offer Nintendo repair parts, guides, and services that replace those formerly offered by the authorized repair centers.

Question: To address the shoddy hardware, what popped up across the United States?


Answer: ensure that the machines were properly repaired

Question: What did the repair centers promise?


Answer: paying a fee

Question: What was done to have the privilege of working on an NES for repair?


Answer: radio frequency (RF)

Context: Video output connections varied from one model of the console to the next. The original HVC-001 model of the Family Computer featured only radio frequency (RF) modulator output. When the console was released in North America and Europe, support for composite video through RCA connectors was added in addition to the RF modulator. The HVC-101 model of the Famicom dropped the RF modulator entirely and adopted composite video output via a proprietary 12-pin "multi-out" connector first introduced for the Super Famicom/Super Nintendo Entertainment System. Conversely, the North American re-released NES-101 model most closely resembled the original HVC-001 model Famicom, in that it featured RF modulator output only. Finally, the PlayChoice-10 utilized an inverted RGB video output.

Question: The HVC-001 featured which kind of mod output?


Answer: composite video

Question: The HVC-101 lost the RF and adopted which output for use in North America and Europe?


Answer: 12

Question: The Super NES had how many pins in its proprietary connector?


Answer: RF modulator

Question: The re-released NES-101 model in North America went back to what perceived primitive output?


Answer: 7

Context: The NES dropped the hardwired controllers, instead featuring two custom 7-pin ports on the front of the console. Also in contrast to the Famicom, the controllers included with the NES were identical to each other—the second controller lacked the microphone that was present on the Famicom model and possessed the same START and SELECT buttons as the primary controller. Some NES localizations of games, such as The Legend of Zelda, which required the use of the Famicom microphone in order to kill certain enemies, suffered from the lack of hardware to do so.

Question: How many pins did the controller ports have on the NES?


Answer: identical

Question: Unlike the Famicom, the NES controllers possessed what consistent feature?


Answer: primary controller

Question: The second controller possessed the START and SELECT buttons as what other device?


Answer: Famicom microphone

Question: What did the Legend of Zelda require in certain instances to kill enemies?


Answer: Dendy

Context: A thriving market of unlicensed NES hardware clones emerged during the climax of the console's popularity. Initially, such clones were popular in markets where Nintendo never issued a legitimate version of the console. In particular, the Dendy (Russian: Де́нди), an unlicensed hardware clone produced in Taiwan and sold in the former Soviet Union, emerged as the most popular video game console of its time in that setting and it enjoyed a degree of fame roughly equivalent to that experienced by the NES/Famicom in North America and Japan. A Famicom clone was marketed in Argentina under the name of "Family Game", resembling the original hardware design. The Micro Genius (Simplified Chinese: 小天才) was marketed in Southeast Asia as an alternative to the Famicom; Samurai was the popular PAL alternative to the NES; and in Central Europe, especially Poland, the Pegasus was available. Samurai was also available in India in early 90s which was the first instance of console gaming in India.

Question: What was the name of the NES clone produced in Taiwan?


Answer: Soviet Union

Question: Where was the Dendy sold?


Answer: Argentina

Question: Which country marketed a clone called "Family Game?"


Answer: Pegasus

Question: What was the name of the clone in Poland?


Answer: Samurai

Question: India's first gaming console was also a clone, called what?


Answer: 11.7

Context: The NES Test Station's front features a Game Pak slot and connectors for testing various components (AC adapter, RF switch, Audio/Video cable, NES Control Deck, accessories and games), with a centrally-located selector knob to chose which component to test. The unit itself weighs approximately 11.7 pounds without a TV. It connects to a television via a combined A/V and RF Switch cable. By actuating the green button, a user can toggle between an A/V Cable or RF Switch connection. The television it is connected to (typically 11" to 14") is meant to be placed atop it.

Question: How much does the NES unit weigh in pounds?


Answer: typically 11" to 14"

Question: How large was the typical television recommended for the device?


Answer: atop

Question: Where was the Television meant to be placed?


Answer: Game Pak slot

Question: What's the name of the feature on the front of the front of the NES test device?


Answer: 74%

Context: It is estimated that in the 11th century Ashkenazi Jews composed only three percent of the world's Jewish population, while at their peak in 1931 they accounted for 92 percent of the world's Jews. Immediately prior to the Holocaust, the number of Jews in the world stood at approximately 16.7 million. Statistical figures vary for the contemporary demography of Ashkenazi Jews, oscillating between 10 million and 11.2 million. Sergio DellaPergola in a rough calculation of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews, implies that Ashkenazi make up less than 74% of Jews worldwide. Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews worldwide.

Question: According to Sergio DellaPergola, what percent of Jews worldwide do Ashkenazi Jews's make up?


Answer: 11th century

Question: During what century did Ashkenazi Jews make up around three percent of the Jewish population worldwide?


Answer: Holocaust

Question: Prior to which major event were there approximately 16.7 million Jews in the world?


Answer: 1931

Question: During what year did Ashkenazi Jews account for 92 percent of Jews worldwide?


Answer: 92 percent

Question: By 1931, what percentage of the world’s Jews were Ashkenazi Jews?


Answer: 16.7 million

Question: How many Jews were there in the world just prior to the Holocaust?


Answer: three percent of the world's Jewish population, while at their peak in 1931 they accounted for 92 percent

Question: From the 11th century until 1931, the population of Ashkenazi Jews grew by what percent?


Answer: Sergio DellaPergola

Question: Who made rough calculations and implied that Ashkenazi Jews make up less than 74% of the Jewish population worldwide?


Answer: 10 million and 11.2 million

Question: The present-day population of Ashkenazi Jews is thought to be between which two numbers?


Answer: Yoma

Context: In the Yoma tractate of the Babylonian Talmud the name Gomer is rendered as Germania, which elsewhere in rabbinical literature was identified with Germanikia in northwestern Syria, but later became associated with Germania. Ashkenaz is linked to Scandza/Scanzia, viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes, as early as a 6th-century gloss to the Historia Ecclesiastica of Eusebius. In the 10th-century History of Armenia of Yovhannes Drasxanakertc'i (1.15) Ashkenaz was associated with Armenia, as it was occasionally in Jewish usage, where its denotation extended at times to Adiabene, Khazaria, Crimea and areas to the east. His contemporary Saadia Gaon identified Ashkenaz with the Saquliba or Slavic territories, and such usage covered also the lands of tribes neighboring the Slavs, and Eastern and Central Europe. In modern times, Samuel Krauss identified the Biblical "Ashkenaz" with Khazaria.

Question: In which tractate of the Babylonian Talmud is the name Gomer given as Germania?


Answer: cradle of Germanic tribes

Question: Ashkenaz is linked to Scandza/Scanzia, which is viewed as what?


Answer: Slavic

Question: Saadia Gaon identified Ashkenaz with the Saquliba or what territories?


Answer: Saadia Gaon

Question: Who identified Ashkenaz with the Saquliba or Slavic territories?


Answer: Germanikia in northwestern Syria

Question: Even though Gomer is rendered as Germania in the Yoma tractate of the Babylonian Talmud, in other rabbinical literature it was identified with what?


Answer: King Dagobert I of the Franks

Context: No evidence has yet been found of a Jewish presence in antiquity in Germany beyond its Roman border, nor in Eastern Europe. In Gaul and Germany itself, with the possible exception of Trier and Cologne, the archeological evidence suggests at most a fleeting presence of very few Jews, primarily itinerant traders or artisans. A substantial Jewish population emerged in northern Gaul by the Middle Ages, but Jewish communities existed in 465 CE in Brittany, in 524 CE in Valence, and in 533 CE in Orleans. Throughout this period and into the early Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures, mostly through conversion to Christianity.[better source needed] King Dagobert I of the Franks expelled the Jews from his Merovingian kingdom in 629. Jews in former Roman territories faced new challenges as harsher anti-Jewish Church rulings were enforced.

Question: Who expelled the Jews from his Merovingian kingdom in 629?


Answer: very few Jews

Question: Does the archeological record suggest that there was a rather large or small population of Jews in Gaul and Germany?


Answer: traders or artisans

Question: In antiquity, most Jews in Gaul or Germany probably occupied what two roles?


Answer: 465 CE

Question: In what year did Jewish communities exist in Brittany?


Answer: conversion to Christianity

Question: During the Middle Ages, some Jews assimilated into the dominant Greek and Latin cultures by doing what?


Answer: 47.5%

Context: People of Ashkenazi descent constitute around 47.5% of Israeli Jews (and therefore 35–36% of Israelis). They have played a prominent role in the economy, media, and politics of Israel since its founding. During the first decades of Israel as a state, strong cultural conflict occurred between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews (mainly east European Ashkenazim). The roots of this conflict, which still exists to a much smaller extent in present-day Israeli society, are chiefly attributed to the concept of the "melting pot". That is to say, all Jewish immigrants who arrived in Israel were strongly encouraged to "melt down" their own particular exilic identities within the general social "pot" in order to become Israeli.

Question: What percentage of Israeli Jews are people of Ashkenazi descent?


Answer: Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews

Question: When Israel was in its infancy as a state, there were cultural conflicts between which two groups?


Answer: the concept of the "melting pot"

Question: What was the conflict between Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews attributed to?


Answer: 35–36%

Question: What percentage of all Israelis are thought to be of Ashkenazi descent?


Answer: east European Ashkenazim

Question: When Israel was in its infancy as a state, the Ashkenazi Jews involved in conflicts with Sephardic Jews were mainly what type of Jews?


Answer: Yiddishkeit

Context: Culturally, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by the concept of Yiddishkeit, which means "Jewishness" in the Yiddish language. Yiddishkeit is specifically the Jewishness of Ashkenazi Jews. Before the Haskalah and the emancipation of Jews in Europe, this meant the study of Torah and Talmud for men, and a family and communal life governed by the observance of Jewish Law for men and women. From the Rhineland to Riga to Romania, most Jews prayed in liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew, and spoke Yiddish in their secular lives. But with modernization, Yiddishkeit now encompasses not just Orthodoxy and Hasidism, but a broad range of movements, ideologies, practices, and traditions in which Ashkenazi Jews have participated and somehow retained a sense of Jewishness. Although a far smaller number of Jews still speak Yiddish, Yiddishkeit can be identified in manners of speech, in styles of humor, in patterns of association. Broadly speaking, a Jew is one who associates culturally with Jews, supports Jewish institutions, reads Jewish books and periodicals, attends Jewish movies and theater, travels to Israel, visits historical synagogues, and so forth. It is a definition that applies to Jewish culture in general, and to Ashkenazi Yiddishkeit in particular.

Question: Culturally, an Ashkenazi Jew can be identified by what concept?


Answer: a far smaller number of Jews still speak Yiddish

Question: Is there a larger or smaller number of Jews that speak Yiddish today than in the past?


Answer: "Jewishness"

Question: What does Yiddishkeit mean in the Yiddish language?


Answer: liturgical Ashkenazi Hebrew

Question: In the past most Jews prayed in what language?


Answer: Yiddish

Question: In the past, while most Jews prayed in one language, they used which other language in their secular lives?


Answer: For roughly a thousand years

Context: In an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose ancestry can be traced to the Jews who settled in Central Europe. For roughly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in Europe, despite living in many countries, with little inflow or outflow from migration, conversion, or intermarriage with other groups, including other Jews. Human geneticists have argued that genetic variations have been identified that show high frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews, but not in the general European population, be they for patrilineal markers (Y-chromosome haplotypes) and for matrilineal markers (mitotypes). However, a 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA, from the University of Huddersfield in England, suggests that at least 80 percent of the Ashkenazi maternal lineages derive from the assimilation of mtDNAs indigenous to Europe, probably as a consequence of conversion. Since the middle of the 20th century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities and with people of other nations and faiths.

Question: For what period of time were the Ashkenazim a reproductively isolated population in Europe?


Answer: University of Huddersfield in England

Question: A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA was conducted by what university?


Answer: Central Europe

Question: In an ethnic sense, Ashkenazi Jews can trace their ancestry to Jews who settled where?


Answer: many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, both with members of other Jewish communities and with people of other nations and faiths

Question: In the last 50-60 years, have more or less Ashkenazi Jews intermarried with people outside of their community?


Answer: high frequencies

Question: Human geneticists argue that genetic variations have been identified that show high or low frequencies among Ashkenazi Jews?


Answer: have not always been warm

Context: Relations between Ashkenazim and Sephardim have not always been warm. North African Sepharadim and Berber Jews were often looked upon by Ashkenazim as second-class citizens during the first decade after the creation of Israel. This has led to protest movements such as the Israeli Black Panthers led by Saadia Marciano a Moroccan Jew. Nowadays, relations are getting better. In some instances, Ashkenazi communities have accepted significant numbers of Sephardi newcomers, sometimes resulting in intermarriage.

Question: In the past have relations between Ashkenazim and Sephardim tended to be warm or cold?


Answer: led to protest movements

Question: What did Saadia Marciano do with the Israeli Black Panthers?


Answer: as second-class citizens

Question: How did the Ashkenazim view north African Sepharadim and Berber Jews?


Answer: Saadia Marciano

Question: Who led the Israeli Black Panthers?


Answer: Moroccan Jew

Question: Where was Saadia Marciano from?


Answer: 35 to 55 percent

Context: A 2010 study by Bray et al., using SNP microarray techniques and linkage analysis found that when assuming Druze and Palestinian Arab populations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome, between 35 to 55 percent of the modern Ashkenazi genome can possibly be of European origin, and that European "admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome" with this reference point. Assuming this reference point the linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population was interpreted as "matches signs of interbreeding or 'admixture' between Middle Eastern and European populations". On the Bray et al. tree, Ashkenazi Jews were found to be a genetically more divergent population than Russians, Orcadians, French, Basques, Italians, Sardinians and Tuscans. The study also observed that Ashkenazim are more diverse than their Middle Eastern relatives, which was counterintuitive because Ashkenazim are supposed to be a subset, not a superset, of their assumed geographical source population. Bray et al. therefore postulate that these results reflect not the population antiquity but a history of mixing between genetically distinct populations in Europe. However, it's possible that the relaxation of marriage prescription in the ancestors of Ashkenazim that drove their heterozygosity up, while the maintenance of the FBD rule in native Middle Easterners have been keeping their heterozygosity values in check. Ashkenazim distinctiveness as found in the Bray et al. study, therefore, may come from their ethnic endogamy (ethnic inbreeding), which allowed them to "mine" their ancestral gene pool in the context of relative reproductive isolation from European neighbors, and not from clan endogamy (clan inbreeding). Consequently, their higher diversity compared to Middle Easterners stems from the latter's marriage practices, not necessarily from the former's admixture with Europeans.

Question: What percentage of the modern Ashkenazi genome could possibly be of European origin?


Answer: admixture is considerably higher

Question: Is the percentage of admixture in the modern Ashkenazi genome higher or lower than previously thought?


Answer: a genetically more divergent population

Question: Were Ashkenazi Jews found to be a more or less genetically divergent population than Russians, Orcadians, French, and Basques?


Answer: more diverse

Question: In one study it was found that the Ashkenazim were more or less diverse than their Middle Eastern relatives?


Answer: Ashkenazim are supposed to be a subset, not a superset

Question: Were the Ashkenazim thought to be a subset or superset of their assumed geographical source population?


Answer: ancient Levantine origins

Context: Genetic studies on Ashkenazim have been conducted to determine how much of their ancestry comes from the Levant, and how much derives from European populations. These studies—researching both their paternal and maternal lineages—point to a significant prevalence of ancient Levantine origins. But they have arrived at diverging conclusions regarding both the degree and the sources of their European ancestry. These diverging conclusions focus particularly on the extent of the European genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages.

Question: Genetic studies on Ashkenazim have found a significant prevalence of what type of origins?


Answer: they have arrived at diverging conclusions

Question: Have studies on the genetics of the Ashkenazim come to similar or divergent conclusions regarding the degree and sources of their European ancestry?


Answer: researching both their paternal and maternal lineages

Question: Have these studies on Ashkenazim genetics researched their paternal lineages, maternal lineages, or both?


Answer: the Levant

Question: Genetic studies on the Ashkenazim have tried to determine how much of their ancestry is derived from European populations and from where?


Answer: Sefarad

Context: Sometime in the early medieval period, the Jews of central and eastern Europe came to be called by this term. In conformity with the custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was denominated Sefarad (Obadiah 20), France was called Tsarefat (1 Kings 17:9), and Bohemia was called the Land of Canaan. By the high medieval period, Talmudic commentators like Rashi began to use Ashkenaz/Eretz Ashkenaz to designate Germany, earlier known as Loter, where, especially in the Rhineland communities of Speyer, Worms and Mainz, the most important Jewish communities arose. Rashi uses leshon Ashkenaz (Ashkenazi language) to describe German speech, and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred to the Crusaders as Ashkenazim. Given the close links between the Jewish communities of France and Germany following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to both the Jews of medieval Germany and France.

Question: The custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names meant that Spain was referred to as what?


Answer: Tsarefat

Question: The custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names meant that France was called?


Answer: 1 Kings 17:9

Question: The reference to France as Tsarefat was taken from which biblical passage?


Answer: as Ashkenazim

Question: How did Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters refer to the Crusaders?


Answer: medieval Germany and France

Question: Following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to the Jews of what two places?


Answer: a brief period of stability

Context: Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire around 800, including northern Italy and Rome, brought on a brief period of stability and unity in Francia. This created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle again north of the Alps. Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those once enjoyed under the Roman Empire. In addition, Jews from southern Italy, fleeing religious persecution, began to move into central Europe.[citation needed] Returning to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took up occupations in finance and commerce, including money lending, or usury. (Church legislation banned Christians from lending money in exchange for interest.) From Charlemagne's time to the present, Jewish life in northern Europe is well documented. By the 11th century, when Rashi of Troyes wrote his commentaries, Jews in what came to be known as "Ashkenaz" were known for their halakhic learning, and Talmudic studies. They were criticized by Sephardim and other Jewish scholars in Islamic lands for their lack of expertise in Jewish jurisprudence (dinim) and general ignorance of Hebrew linguistics and literature. Yiddish emerged as a result of language contact with various High German vernaculars in the medieval period. It was written with Hebrew letters, and heavily influenced by Hebrew and Aramaic.

Question: Did Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire bring about a brief period of upheaval or stability in Francia?


Answer: north of the Alps

Question: Charlemagne's expansion of the Frankish empire created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle where?


Answer: Roman Empire

Question: Charlemagne granted the Jews freedoms similar to those enjoyed under which previous empire?


Answer: finance and commerce

Question: When Jews began to return to Frankish lands many took up occupations in which two fields?


Answer: Yiddish

Question: Which language emerged as a result of language contact with various High German vernaculars during the medieval period?


Answer: shtetls

Context: The answer to why there was so little assimilation of Jews in central and eastern Europe for so long would seem to lie in part in the probability that the alien surroundings in central and eastern Europe were not conducive, though contempt did not prevent some assimilation. Furthermore, Jews lived almost exclusively in shtetls, maintained a strong system of education for males, heeded rabbinic leadership, and scorned the life-style of their neighbors; and all of these tendencies increased with every outbreak of antisemitism.

Question: The lack of assimilation of Jews in central and eastern Europe lies in part to the fact that they lived almost exclusively in what?


Answer: a strong system of education

Question: A lack of assimilation of Jews in central and eastern Europe is also attributed to males taking part in what type of system?


Answer: increased with every outbreak of antisemitism

Question: In central and eastern Europe it is thought that Jewish scorn for the life-style of their neighbors increased due to what?


Answer: heeded rabbinic leadership

Question: Besides living in shtetls, maintaining a strong system of education for males, and scorning the life-style of their neighbors, Jews in central and eastern Europe also did what?


Answer: Rabbi Elijah of Chelm

Context: According to 16th-century mystic Rabbi Elijah of Chelm, Ashkenazi Jews lived in Jerusalem during the 11th century. The story is told that a German-speaking Palestinian Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed Dolberger. So when the knights of the First Crusade came to siege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger's family members who was among them rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to Worms to repay the favor. Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form of halakhic questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the 11th century.

Question: Who noted that Ashkenazi Jews lived in Jerusalem during the 11th century?


Answer: halakhic questions

Question: Another piece of evidence of German communities in the holy city in the second half of the 11th century is due to what items being sent from Germany to Jerusalem?


Answer: 16th-century

Question: Mystic Rabbi Elijah of Chelm is from what century?


Answer: Worms

Question: In the story told by mystic Rabbi Elijah of Chelm, one of the German's family members rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to where in order to repay a previous favor?


Answer: 8.8 million

Context: Of the estimated 8.8 million Jews living in Europe at the beginning of World War II, the majority of whom were Ashkenazi, about 6 million – more than two-thirds – were systematically murdered in the Holocaust. These included 3 million of 3.3 million Polish Jews (91%); 900,000 of 1.5 million in Ukraine (60%); and 50–90% of the Jews of other Slavic nations, Germany, Hungary, and the Baltic states, and over 25% of the Jews in France. Sephardi communities suffered similar depletions in a few countries, including Greece, the Netherlands and the former Yugoslavia. As the large majority of the victims were Ashkenazi Jews, their percentage dropped from nearly 92% of world Jewry in 1931 to nearly 80% of world Jewry today. The Holocaust also effectively put an end to the dynamic development of the Yiddish language in the previous decades, as the vast majority of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, around 5 million, were Yiddish speakers. Many of the surviving Ashkenazi Jews emigrated to countries such as Israel, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and the United States after the war.

Question: At the beginning of World War II, about how many Jews lived in Europe?


Answer: about 6 million

Question: Of the large number of Jews living in Europe at the beginning of World War II, about how many were Ashkenazi?


Answer: 91%

Question: What percentage of Polish Jews were killed during the Holocaust?


Answer: nearly 80%

Question: The percentage of Ashkenazi Jews went from being close to 92% of all Jews in the world in 1931 prior to WWII to what percentage today?


Answer: Yiddish

Question: The vast majority of the Jewish victims of the Holocaust spoke which language?


Answer: customs

Context: Religious Jews have Minhagim, customs, in addition to Halakha, or religious law, and different interpretations of law. Different groups of religious Jews in different geographic areas historically adopted different customs and interpretations. On certain issues, Orthodox Jews are required to follow the customs of their ancestors, and do not believe they have the option of picking and choosing. For this reason, observant Jews at times find it important for religious reasons to ascertain who their household's religious ancestors are in order to know what customs their household should follow. These times include, for example, when two Jews of different ethnic background marry, when a non-Jew converts to Judaism and determines what customs to follow for the first time, or when a lapsed or less observant Jew returns to traditional Judaism and must determine what was done in his or her family's past. In this sense, "Ashkenazic" refers both to a family ancestry and to a body of customs binding on Jews of that ancestry. Reform Judaism, which does not necessarily follow those minhagim, did nonetheless originate among Ashkenazi Jews.

Question: For religious Jews, what does Minhagim mean?


Answer: Orthodox Jews

Question: What type of Jew is required to follow the customs of their ancestors without the option of picking and choosing?


Answer: religious law

Question: For religious Jews, what does Halakha mean?


Answer: a family ancestry and to a body of customs binding on Jews of that ancestry

Question: For religious Jews, "Ashkenazic" refers to what two things?


Answer: Ashkenazi Jews

Question: Reform Judaism originated among what type of Jew?


Answer: Israel

Context: As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Europe, mostly in the form of aliyah to Israel, or immigration to North America, and other English-speaking areas; and Europe (particularly France) and Latin America, the geographic isolation that gave rise to Ashkenazim has given way to mixing with other cultures, and with non-Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are no longer isolated in distinct geographic locales. Hebrew has replaced Yiddish as the primary Jewish language for many Ashkenazi Jews, although many Hasidic and Hareidi groups continue to use Yiddish in daily life. (There are numerous Ashkenazi Jewish anglophones and Russian-speakers as well, although English and Russian are not originally Jewish languages.)

Question: Most of the Ashkenazi Jews moved away from Europe either immigrating to North America, or other English speaking areas but most to which place?


Answer: Hebrew

Question: For most Ashkenazi Jews, Yiddish was replaced with what language?


Answer: many Hasidic and Hareidi groups

Question: What two groups continue to use Yiddish in daily life?


Answer: a clear, homogeneous genetic subgroup

Context: A 2006 study found Ashkenazi Jews to be a clear, homogeneous genetic subgroup. Strikingly, regardless of the place of origin, Ashkenazi Jews can be grouped in the same genetic cohort – that is, regardless of whether an Ashkenazi Jew's ancestors came from Poland, Russia, Hungary, Lithuania, or any other place with a historical Jewish population, they belong to the same ethnic group. The research demonstrates the endogamy of the Jewish population in Europe and lends further credence to the idea of Ashkenazi Jews as an ethnic group. Moreover, though intermarriage among Jews of Ashkenazi descent has become increasingly common, many Haredi Jews, particularly members of Hasidic or Hareidi sects, continue to marry exclusively fellow Ashkenazi Jews. This trend keeps Ashkenazi genes prevalent and also helps researchers further study the genes of Ashkenazi Jews with relative ease. It is noteworthy that these Haredi Jews often have extremely large families.

Question: A 2006 study found Ashkenazi Jews to be a what?


Answer: ethnic group

Question: Ashkenazi Jews, regardless of their place of origin, belong to the same what?


Answer: Hasidic or Hareidi sects

Question: Members of which two Haredi Jewish sects continue to marry exclusively within the Ashkenazi Jewish population?


Answer: Haredi Jews often have extremely large families

Question: Do Haredi Jews tend to have large or small families?


Answer: 2%

Context: Ashkenazi Jews have a noted history of achievement in Western societies in the fields of exact and social sciences, literature, finance, politics, media, and others. In those societies where they have been free to enter any profession, they have a record of high occupational achievement, entering professions and fields of commerce where higher education is required. Ashkenazi Jews have won a large number of the Nobel awards. While they make up about 2% of the U.S. population, 27% of United States Nobel prize winners in the 20th century, a quarter of Fields Medal winners, 25% of ACM Turing Award winners, half the world's chess champions, including 8% of the top 100 world chess players, and a quarter of Westinghouse Science Talent Search winners have Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.

Question: What percentage of the US population is comprised of Ashkenazi Jews?


Answer: 8%

Question: What percentage of the top 100 world chess players come from the Ashkenazi Jewish community?


Answer: 27%

Question: What percentage of Nobel award winners from the United States in the 20th century have been Ashkenazi Jews?


Answer: a quarter

Question: About how many Fields Medal winners have been Ashkenazi Jews?


Answer: half the world's chess champions

Question: About how many of the world's chess champions come from the Ashkenazi Jewish community?


Answer: the destruction of the First Temple

Context: Although the Jewish people in general were present across a wide geographical area as described, genetic research done by Gil Atzmon of the Longevity Genes Project at Albert Einstein College of Medicine suggests "that Ashkenazim branched off from other Jews around the time of the destruction of the First Temple, 2,500 years ago ... flourished during the Roman Empire but then went through a 'severe bottleneck' as they dispersed, reducing a population of several million to just 400 families who left Northern Italy around the year 1000 for Central and eventually Eastern Europe."

Question: Researcher Gil Atzmon suggests that Ashkenazim branched off from other Jews around the time of what?


Answer: 2,500 years ago

Question: The destruction of the First Temple was how many years ago?


Answer: 1000

Question: It is estimated that 400 families left Northern Italy around what year?


Answer: Central and eventually Eastern Europe

Question: Ashkenazi families that left Northern Italy went where?


Answer: Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish populations

Context: A 2001 study by Nebel et al. showed that both Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jewish populations share the same overall paternal Near Eastern ancestries. In comparison with data available from other relevant populations in the region, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent. The authors also report on Eu 19 (R1a) chromosomes, which are very frequent in Central and Eastern Europeans (54%–60%) at elevated frequency (12.7%) in Ashkenazi Jews. They hypothesized that the differences among Ashkenazim Jews could reflect low-level gene flow from surrounding European populations and/or genetic drift during isolation. A later 2005 study by Nebel et al., found a similar level of 11.5% of male Ashkenazim belonging to R1a1a (M17+), the dominant Y-chromosome haplogroup in Central and Eastern Europeans.

Question: A 2001 study by Nebel et al. showed that which two populations share the same overall paternal Near Eastern ancestries?


Answer: 54%–60%

Question: Levels of the Eu 19 (R1a) chromosome are typically seen between what two percentages in Central and Eastern Europeans?


Answer: 12.7%

Question: Levels of the Eu 19 (R1a) chromosome were seen in what percentage of the Ashkenazi Jewish population?


Answer: low-level gene flow from surrounding European populations and/or genetic drift during isolation

Question: The difference in percentages of the levels of Eu 19 (R1a) chromosomes between Central and Eastern Europeans and the Ashkenazi population would indicate what?


Answer: shifted steadily eastward

Context: They established communities throughout Central and Eastern Europe, which had been their primary region of concentration and residence until recent times, evolving their own distinctive characteristics and diasporic identities. In the late Middle Ages the center of gravity of the Ashkenazi population, and its traditional cultural life, shifted steadily eastward, out of the German lands into Poland and Lithuania (including present-day Belarus and Ukraine). In the course of the late 18th and 19th centuries, those Jews who remained in or returned to the German lands experienced a cultural reorientation; under the influence of the Haskalah and the struggle for emancipation, as well the intellectual and cultural ferment in urban centers, they gradually abandoned the use of Yiddish, while developing new forms of Jewish religious life and cultural identity.

Question: In the late Middle Ages, the Ashkenazi population shifted in which direction?


Answer: German lands

Question: In the late Middle Ages, as the Ashkenazi population shifted it moved from what location?


Answer: Poland and Lithuania (including present-day Belarus and Ukraine)

Question: In the late Middle Ages, as the Ashkenazi population shifted it moved into which location?


Answer: a cultural reorientation

Question: In the late 18th and 19th centuries, Jews who returned to German lands experienced what?


Answer: Ashkenaz

Context: The name Ashkenazi derives from the biblical figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, son of Khaphet, son of Noah, and a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10). The name of Gomer has often been linked to the ethnonym Cimmerians. Biblical Ashkenaz is usually derived from Assyrian Aškūza (cuneiform Aškuzai/Iškuzai), a people who expelled the Cimmerians from the Armenian area of the Upper Euphrates, whose name is usually associated with the name of the Scythians. The intrusive n in the Biblical name is likely due to a scribal error confusing a waw ו with a nun נ.

Question: The name of Ashkenazi derives from which biblical figure?


Answer: Gomer

Question: Ashkenaz was the first son of whom?


Answer: Cimmerians

Question: The name of Gomer has often been linked to what ethnonym?


Answer: Cimmerians

Question: Assyrian Aškūza expelled which group from the Armenian area of the Upper Euphrates?


Answer: the Levant

Context: The genome-wide genetic study carried out in 2010 by Behar et al. examined the genetic relationships among all major Jewish groups, including Ashkenazim, as well as the genetic relationship between these Jewish groups and non-Jewish ethnic populations. The study found that contemporary Jews (excluding Indian and Ethiopian Jews) have a close genetic relationship with people from the Levant. The authors explained that "the most parsimonious explanation for these observations is a common genetic origin, which is consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant".

Question: Recent studies have found that contemporary Jews (excluding Indian and Ethiopian Jews) have a close genetic relationship to the people of what area?


Answer: all major Jewish groups

Question: The genome-wide genetic study carried out in 2010 by Behar et al. examined the genetic relationships among which Jewish groups?


Answer: non-Jewish ethnic populations

Question: The genome-wide genetic study carried out in 2010 by Behar et al. examined the genetic relationship between Jewish groups and what other population?


Answer: Archaic Era of Greece

Context: The history of Jews in Greece goes back to at least the Archaic Era of Greece, when the classical culture of Greece was undergoing a process of formalization after the Greek Dark Age. The Greek historian Herodotus knew of the Jews, whom he called "Palestinian Syrians", and listed them among the levied naval forces in service of the invading Persians. While Jewish monotheism was not deeply affected by Greek Polytheism, the Greek way of living was attractive for many wealthier Jews. The Synagogue in the Agora of Athens is dated to the period between 267 and 396 CE. The Stobi Synagogue in Macedonia, was built on the ruins of a more ancient synagogue in the 4th century, while later in the 5th century, the synagogue was transformed into Christian basilica.

Question: The history of Jews in Greece goes back to which era?


Answer: Herodotus

Question: Which Greek historian knew of the Jews?


Answer: 267 and 396 CE

Question: The Synagogue in the Agora of Athens is dated to the period between which two dates?


Answer: "Palestinian Syrians"

Question: What did the Greek historian Herodotus refer to the Jews as?


Answer: the invading Persians

Question: The Greek historian Herodotus listed the Jews as the levied naval forces in service to whom?


Answer: 97%

Context: In an essay on Sephardi Jewry, Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs summarized the demographic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years, noting that at the end of the 11th century, 97% of world Jewry was Sephardic and 3% Ashkenazi; by the end of XVI century, the: 'Treaty on the redemption of captives', by Gracian of the God's Mother, Mercy Priest, who was imprisoned by Turks, cites a Tunisian Hebrew, made captive when arriving to Gaeta, who aided others with money, named: 'Simon Escanasi', in the mid-17th century, "Sephardim still outnumbered Ashkenazim three to two", but by the end of the 18th century, "Ashkenazim outnumbered Sephardim three to two, the result of improved living conditions in Christian Europe versus the Ottoman Muslim world." By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly 92% of world Jewry. These factors are sheer demography showing the migration patterns of Jews from Southern and Western Europe to Central and Eastern Europe.

Question: According to Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, at the end of the 11th century, what percentage of the world's Jewry was Sephardic?


Answer: 3%

Question: According to Daniel Elazar at the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, at the end of the 11th century, what percentage of the world's Jewry was Ashkenazi?


Answer: 92%

Question: By 1931, Ashkenazi Jews were what percentage of the world Jewry?


Answer: in a manner unrelated to its original meaning

Context: In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used in a manner unrelated to its original meaning, often applied to all Jews who settled in Europe and sometimes including those whose ethnic background is actually Sephardic. Jews of any non-Ashkenazi background, including Mizrahi, Yemenite, Kurdish and others who have no connection with the Iberian Peninsula, have similarly come to be lumped together as Sephardic. Jews of mixed background are increasingly common, partly because of intermarriage between Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi, and partly because many do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life experiences as Jews.

Question: In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used in what manner?


Answer: all Jews who settled in Europe and sometimes including those whose ethnic background is actually Sephardic

Question: In Israel, the term Ashkenazi is now used to refer to whom?


Answer: Jews of mixed background are increasingly common

Question: Are Jews of mixed backgrounds more or less common today?


Answer: Ashkenazi Jews

Context: In this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi is Sephardic, since most non-Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews follow Sephardic rabbinical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically Sephardic. By tradition, a Sephardic or Mizrahi woman who marries into an Orthodox or Haredi Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her children to be Ashkenazi Jews; conversely an Ashkenazi woman who marries a Sephardi or Mizrahi man is expected to take on Sephardic practice and the children inherit a Sephardic identity, though in practice many families compromise. A convert generally follows the practice of the beth din that converted him or her. With the integration of Jews from around the world in Israel, North America, and other places, the religious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew is blurring, especially outside Orthodox Judaism.

Question: By tradition, when a Sephardic or Mizrahi woman marries into an Orthodox or Haredi Ashkenazi Jewish family she raises her children to be which type of Jew?


Answer: children inherit a Sephardic identity

Question: When an Ashkenazi woman marries a Sephardi or Mizrahi man it is expected that her children will take on which kind of identity?


Answer: the practice of the beth din that converted him or her

Question: A convert generally follows which practice?


Answer: 1890s

Context: But after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emerged, especially when France was wracked by the Dreyfus affair in the 1890s. In the 1920s and 1930s, Ashkenazi Jews from Europe arrived in large numbers as refugees from antisemitism, the Russian revolution, and the economic turmoil of the Great Depression. By the 1930s, Paris had a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in diverse political movements. After the Vichy years and the Holocaust, the French Jewish population was augmented once again, first by Ashkenazi refugees from Central Europe, and later by Sephardi immigrants and refugees from North Africa, many of them francophone.

Question: When did the Dreyfus affair occur?


Answer: the 1920s and 1930s

Question: In what years did large numbers of Jews arrive in France?


Answer: antisemitism, the Russian revolution, and the economic turmoil of the Great Depression

Question: What three factors led to large numbers of Jews moving to France?


Answer: a vibrant Yiddish culture, and many Jews were involved in diverse political movements

Question: By the 1930s, Paris was noted for which two things related to Jews?


Answer: prayer book

Context: The term Ashkenazi also refers to the nusach Ashkenaz (Hebrew, "liturgical tradition", or rite) used by Ashkenazi Jews in their Siddur (prayer book). A nusach is defined by a liturgical tradition's choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers and melodies used in the singing of prayers. Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews are Nusach Sefard (not to be confused with the Sephardic ritual), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, and Nusach Ari, as used by Lubavitch Hasidim.

Question: What is the Siddur?


Answer: the nusach Ashkenaz

Question: The term Ashkenazi also refers to what?


Answer: "liturgical tradition", or rite

Question: The nusach Ashkenaz refers to what in Hebrew?


Answer: Nusach Sefard (not to be confused with the Sephardic ritual), which is the general Polish Hasidic nusach, and Nusach Ari

Question: Two other major forms of nusach among Ashkenazic Jews are what?


Answer: Lubavitch Hasidim

Question: Nusach Ari is used by whom?


Answer: three types of genetic origin testing

Context: Efforts to identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis began in the 1990s. Currently, there are three types of genetic origin testing, autosomal DNA (atDNA), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and Y-chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA). Autosomal DNA is a mixture from an individual's entire ancestry, Y-DNA shows a male's lineage only along his strict-paternal line, mtDNA shows any person's lineage only along the strict-maternal line. Genome-wide association studies have also been employed to yield findings relevant to genetic origins.

Question: How many types of genetic origin testing currently exist?


Answer: the 1990s

Question: When did efforts begin to try and identify the origins of Ashkenazi Jews through DNA analysis?


Answer: a male's lineage only along his strict-paternal line

Question: What does Y-DNA show?


Answer: autosomal DNA (atDNA), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and Y-chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA)

Question: What are the three types of origin testing?


Answer: a mixture from an individual's entire ancestry

Question: Autosomal DNA is what?


Answer: 40%

Context: In 2006, a study by Behar et al., based on what was at that time high-resolution analysis of haplogroup K (mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from just four women, or "founder lineages", that were "likely from a Hebrew/Levantine mtDNA pool" originating in the Middle East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Additionally, Behar et al. suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA is originated from ~150 women, and that most of those were also likely of Middle Eastern origin. In reference specifically to Haplogroup K, they suggested that although it is common throughout western Eurasia, "the observed global pattern of distribution renders very unlikely the possibility that the four aforementioned founder lineages entered the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool via gene flow from a European host population".

Question: A 2006 study by Behar et al, suggested that what percentage of the current Ashkenazi population was descended from "founder lineages"?


Answer: from just four women

Question: A 2006 study by Behar et al, suggested that a large percentage of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from how many women?


Answer: founder lineages

Question: The women that a large percentage of the current Ashkenazi population is descended from are also known as what?


Answer: Hebrew/Levantine

Question: The founder lineages were likely from what type of mtDNA pool?


Answer: in the later 19th century

Context: Speculation that the Ashkenazi arose from Khazar stock surfaced in the later 19th century and has met with mixed fortunes in the scholarly literature. In late 2012 Eran Elhaik, a research associate studying genetics at the Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, argued for Khazar descent in his paper The Missing Link of Jewish European Ancestry: Contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian Hypotheses. A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA found no significant evidence of Khazar contribution to the Ashkenazi Jewish DNA, as would be predicted by the Khazar hypothesis.

Question: When did the idea that the Ashkenazi may have come from Khazar stock come about?


Answer: argued for Khazar descent

Question: Did Eran Elhaik, from Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health argue for or against Khazar descent?


Answer: no significant evidence of Khazar contribution to the Ashkenazi Jewish DNA

Question: What did a 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA find in regards to the Khazar descent idea?


Answer: the 2nd and 3rd centuries

Context: Sporadic epigraphic evidence in grave site excavations, particularly in Brigetio (Szőny), Aquincum (Óbuda), Intercisa (Dunaújváros), Triccinae (Sárvár), Savaria (Szombathely), Sopianae (Pécs), and Osijek in Croatia, attest to the presence of Jews after the 2nd and 3rd centuries where Roman garrisons were established, There was a sufficient number of Jews in Pannonia to form communities and build a synagogue. Jewish troops were among the Syrian soldiers transferred there, and replenished from the Middle East, after 175 C.E. Jews and especially Syrians came from Antioch, Tarsus and Cappadocia. Others came from Italy and the Hellenized parts of the Roman empire. The excavations suggest they first lived in isolated enclaves attached to Roman legion camps, and intermarried among other similar oriental families within the military orders of the region.Raphael Patai states that later Roman writers remarked that they differed little in either customs, manner of writing, or names from the people among whom they dwelt; and it was especially difficult to differentiate Jews from the Syrians. After Pannonia was ceded to the Huns in 433, the garrison populations were withdrawn to Italy, and only a few, enigmatic traces remain of a possible Jewish presence in the area some centuries later.

Question: Grave site excavations near where Roman garrisons were established attest to the presence of Jews after what centuries?


Answer: a synagogue

Question: The large number of Jews in Pannonia formed communities and built what?


Answer: 433

Question: In what year were the Roman garrison populations withdrawn to Italy?


Answer: 1095

Context: With the onset of the Crusades in 1095, and the expulsions from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany (15th century), Jewish migration pushed eastward into Poland (10th century), Lithuania (10th century), and Russia (12th century). Over this period of several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, business management, and financial services, due to several presumed factors: Christian European prohibitions restricting certain activities by Jews, preventing certain financial activities (such as "usurious" loans) between Christians, high rates of literacy, near universal male education, and ability of merchants to rely upon and trust family members living in different regions and countries.

Question: What year marked the onset of the Crusades?


Answer: Poland (10th century), Lithuania (10th century), and Russia (12th century)

Question: As Jews were expelled from England, France, and parts of Germany they head into which three countries?


Answer: 1290

Question: What year were the expulsions from England?


Answer: 1394

Question: What year were the expulsions from France?


Answer: Jewish migration pushed eastward

Question: After expulsions from England and France, Jewish migration headed in which direction?


Answer: Rabbi Berechiah

Context: In the Midrash compilation, Genesis Rabbah, Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as German tribes or as German lands. It may correspond to a Greek word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Palestinian Jews, or the text is corrupted from "Germanica." This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by Germamia, which evidently stands for Germany, and which was suggested by the similarity of the sound.

Question: What is the name of the Rabbi mentioned in relation to the Genesis Rabbah?


Answer: Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah

Question: What are the three German tribes or German lands talked about by Rabbi Berechiah?


Answer: the Talmud

Question: Rabbi Berechiah's view is based on what?


Answer: Genesis Rabbah

Question: What is the name of the Midrash compilation?


Answer: a comparatively stable socio-political environment

Context: In the generations after emigration from the west, Jewish communities in places like Poland, Russia, and Belarus enjoyed a comparatively stable socio-political environment. A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries precipitated the development of the Hasidic movement as well as major Jewish academic centers. After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to pogroms in the east and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since 1750.

Question: After emigration from the west, did Jewish communities in places like Poland have a stable or unstable sociopolitical environment?


Answer: A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries

Question: What precipitated the development of the Hasidic movement?


Answer: in the 19th and 20th centuries

Question: Massive western emigration occurred around what time?


Answer: 1750

Question: Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since when?


Answer: the chief Ashkenazi rabbi

Context: Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in halakhic matters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain religious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. These political parties result from the fact that a portion of the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties; although the electoral map changes from one election to another, there are generally several small parties associated with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role of religious parties, including small religious parties that play important roles as coalition members, results in turn from Israel's composition as a complex society in which competing social, economic, and religious interests stand for election to the Knesset, a unicameral legislature with 120 seats.

Question: Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel follow the authority of whom in certain matters?


Answer: a unicameral legislature with 120 seats

Question: What is the Knesset?


Answer: halakhic matters

Question: Religious Ashkenazi Jews look to the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in which matters?


Answer: social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism"

Context: New developments in Judaism often transcend differences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism" often bring together younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In recent years, there has been increased interest in Kabbalah, which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the Yeshiva framework. Another trend is the new popularity of ecstatic worship in the Jewish Renewal movement and the Carlebach style minyan, both of which are nominally of Ashkenazi origin.

Question: What two things were mentioned as contributing to bringing younger Jews together in North American cities?


Answer: Kabbalah

Question: What do many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the Yeshiva framework?


Answer: ecstatic worship

Question: Which new trend has been associated with the Jewish Renewal movement?


Answer: Syrian Jewish community

Context: Several famous people have Ashkenazi as a surname, such as Vladimir Ashkenazy. However, most people with this surname hail from within Sephardic communities, particularly from the Syrian Jewish community. The Sephardic carriers of the surname would have some Ashkenazi ancestors since the surname was adopted by families who were initially of Ashkenazic origins who moved to Sephardi countries and joined those communities. Ashkenazi would be formally adopted as the family surname having started off as a nickname imposed by their adopted communities. Some have shortened the name to Ash.

Question: Most people with the surname Ashkenazi, hail from which particular community?


Answer: Ash

Question: Some people with the surname shorten it to what?


Answer: Vladimir Ashkenazy

Question: What famous person is mentioned as having the surname Ashkenazi?


Answer: Middle Eastern peoples

Context: A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al. found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." "Past research found that 50–80 percent of DNA from the Ashkenazi Y chromosome, which is used to trace the male lineage, originated in the Near East," Richards said.

Question: It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common with what other people?


Answer: uncommon in the general European population

Question: It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are uncommon with what other people?


Answer: the Middle East

Question: The findings related to the Y-chromosomes suggest that males ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to where?


Answer: 80 percent

Context: In 2013, however, a study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by a team led by Martin B. Richards of the University of Huddersfield in England reached different conclusions, again corroborating the pre-2006 origin hypothesis. Testing was performed on the full 16,600 DNA units composing mitochondrial DNA (the 2006 Behar study had only tested 1,000 units) in all their subjects, and the study found that the four main female Ashkenazi founders had descent lines that were established in Europe 10,000 to 20,000 years in the past while most of the remaining minor founders also have a deep European ancestry. The study states that the great majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Near East (i.e., they were non-Israelite), nor were they recruited in the Caucasus (i.e., they were non-Khazar), but instead they were assimilated within Europe, primarily of Italian and Old French origins. Richards summarized the findings on the female line as such: "[N]one [of the mtDNA] came from the North Caucasus, located along the border between Europe and Asia between the Black and Caspian seas. All of our presently available studies including my own, should thoroughly debunk one of the most questionable, but still tenacious, hypotheses: that most Ashkenazi Jews can trace their roots to the mysterious Khazar Kingdom that flourished during the ninth century in the region between the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire." The 2013 study estimated that 80 percent of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe, and only 8 percent from the Near East, while the origin of the remainder is undetermined. According to the study these findings "point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities."

Question: A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe?


Answer: 8 percent

Question: A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women from the Near East?


Answer: while the origin of the remainder is undetermined

Question: A 2013 study estimates that what percentage of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women of undetermined origins?


Answer: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews

Context: A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as both groups – the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews – shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen. Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins.

Question: In a 2010 study, which two groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent analysis?


Answer: modern-day Italians

Question: The 2010 study found that what modern population is most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews?


Answer: inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire

Question: Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be genetically similar due to what two factors?


Answer: 30 geneticists

Context: A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, from 13 universities and academies, from 9 countries, assembling the largest data set available to date, for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. "Thus, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corroborates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region", the authors concluded.

Question: How many geneticists carried out the 2013 trans-genome study?


Answer: found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews

Question: What did the 2013 trans-genome study find in regards to Ashkenazi Jews and Khazar origins?


Answer: 13 universities and academies

Question: How many universities and academies participated in the 2013 trans-genome study?


Answer: through what is now Italy

Context: The origins of the Ashkenazim are obscure, and many theories have arisen speculating about their ultimate provenance. The most well supported theory is the one that details a Jewish migration through what is now Italy and other parts of southern Europe. The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since pre-Christian times. Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until 212 CE, when Emperor Caracalla granted all free peoples this privilege. Jews were required to pay a poll tax until the reign of Emperor Julian in 363. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. But, after Christianity became the official religion of Rome and Constantinople in 380, Jews were increasingly marginalized.

Question: The most well supported theory on the origins of the Ashkenazim is one that details a Jewish migration through which modern day country?


Answer: pre-Christian times

Question: The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since what time?


Answer: 212 CE

Question: Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until what year?


Answer: Emperor Caracalla

Question: Who gave Jews the right to full Roman citizenship?


Answer: 8th and 9th century

Context: Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as the 8th and 9th century. By the 11th century Jewish settlers, moving from southern European and Middle Eastern centers, appear to have begun to settle in the north, especially along the Rhine, often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers. Thus Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, invited Jacob ben Yekutiel and his fellow Jews to settle in his lands; and soon after the Norman Conquest of England, William the Conqueror likewise extended a welcome to continental Jews to take up residence there. Bishop Rüdiger Huzmann called on the Jews of Mainz to relocate to Speyer. In all of these decisions, the idea that Jews had the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenues, and enlarge trade seems to have played a prominent role. Typically Jews relocated close to the markets and churches in town centres, where, though they came under the authority of both royal and ecclesiastical powers, they were accorded administrative autonomy.

Question: Jewish communities were seen north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as which centuries?


Answer: 11th century

Question: Jewish settlers appear along the Rhine by what century?


Answer: often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers

Question: What two factors contributed the increase in Jewish settlers along the Rhine and other similar areas?


Answer: the first half of the 11th century

Context: In the first half of the 11th century, Hai Gaon refers to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz, by which he undoubtedly means Germany. Rashi in the latter half of the 11th century refers to both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz. During the 12th century, the word appears quite frequently. In the Mahzor Vitry, the kingdom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in regard to the ritual of the synagogue there, but occasionally also with regard to certain other observances.

Question: When did Hai Gaon refer to questions that had been addressed to him from Ashkenaz?


Answer: Germany

Question: Who is Hai Gaon thought to be referring to when he says Ashkenaz?


Answer: both the language of Ashkenaz and the country of Ashkenaz

Question: In the latter half of the 11th century, Rashi refers to what two things?


Answer: the Middle Ages

Context: France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the Middle Ages, by the time of the French Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the Inquisition and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly German Alsace, and speaking mainly Yiddish. The two communities were so separate and different that the National Assembly emancipated them separately in 1790 and 1791.

Question: When did France expel its original Jewish population?


Answer: two distinct Jewish populations

Question: By the time of the French Revolution there were how many distinct Jewish populations?


Answer: Fertile Crescent

Context: Various studies have arrived at diverging conclusions regarding both the degree and the sources of the non-Levantine admixture in Ashkenazim, particularly in respect to the extent of the non-Levantine genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi maternal lineages, which is in contrast to the predominant Levantine genetic origin observed in Ashkenazi paternal lineages. All studies nevertheless agree that genetic overlap with the Fertile Crescent exists in both lineages, albeit at differing rates. Collectively, Ashkenazi Jews are less genetically diverse than other Jewish ethnic divisions.

Question: All studies agree that genetic overlap with what location exists in both lineages?


Answer: 2002

Context: Before 2006, geneticists had largely attributed the ethnogenesis of most of the world's Jewish populations, including Ashkenazi Jews, to Israelite Jewish male migrants from the Middle East and "the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism." Thus, in 2002, in line with this model of origin, David Goldstein, now of Duke University, reported that unlike male Ashkenazi lineages, the female lineages in Ashkenazi Jewish communities "did not seem to be Middle Eastern", and that each community had its own genetic pattern and even that "in some cases the mitochondrial DNA was closely related to that of the host community." In his view this suggested "that Jewish men had arrived from the Middle East, taken wives from the host population and converted them to Judaism, after which there was no further intermarriage with non-Jews."

Question: What year did David Goldstein report that unlike male Ashkenazi lineages, the female lineages in Ashkenazi Jewish communities did not seem to be Middle Eastern?


Answer: five thousand

Context: A 2006 study by Seldin et al. used over five thousand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure. The results showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' European population groups". Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the "northern" population group, while most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the "southern" group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the "southern" group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".

Question: In a 2006 study, how many autosomal SNPs were used?


Answer: Saint Athanasius of Alexandria

Context: Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (/ˌæθəˈneɪʃəs/; Greek: Ἀθανάσιος Ἀλεξανδρείας, Athanásios Alexandrías; c. 296–298 – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor or, primarily in the Coptic Orthodox Church, Athanasius the Apostolic, was the twentieth bishop of Alexandria (as Athanasius I). His episcopate lasted 45 years (c. 8 June 328 – 2 May 373), of which over 17 were spent in five exiles ordered by four different Roman emperors. Athanasius is a renowned Christian theologian, a Church Father, the chief defender of Trinitarianism against Arianism, and a noted Egyptian leader of the fourth century.

Question: Who was the twentieth bishop of Alexandria?


Answer: Athanasius the Great

Question: What was one nickname for Saint Athanasius of Alexandria?


Answer: 45 years

Question: For how many years was Saint Athanasius of Alexandria a bishop?


Answer: 17

Question: How many years was Saint Athanasius of Alexandria in exile?


Answer: 2 May 373

Question: When did Saint Athanasius die?


Answer: Athanasius the Great

Question: What name is Saint Athanasius also known as?


Answer: Alexandria

Question: Of what city was he bishop?


Answer: 45 years

Question: How long did his episcopate last?


Answer: Athanasius the Confessor

Question: What is another name that Saint Athanasius is know as?


Answer: 326

Context: T. Gilmartin, (Professor of History, Maynooth, 1890), writes in Church History, Vol. 1, Ch XVII: On the death of Alexander, five months after the termination of the Council of Nice, Athanasius was unanimously elected to fill the vacant see. He was most unwilling to accept the dignity, for he clearly foresaw the difficulties in which it would involve him. The clergy and people were determined to have him as their bishop, Patriarch of Alexandria, and refused to accept any excuses. He at length consented to accept a responsibility that he sought in vain to escape, and was consecrated in 326, when he was about thirty years of age.

Question: In what year was Athanasius consecrated?


Answer: about thirty years of age

Question: How old was Athanasius when he became the Patriarch of Alexandria?


Answer: He was most unwilling to accept

Question: Did Athanasius want to be the Patriarch of Alexandria?


Answer: people were determined to have him

Question: Did the people want Athanasius as their bishop?


Answer: five months

Question: How long after the Council of Nice did Saint Athanasius die?


Answer: unwilling

Question: Was Saint Athanasius willing or unwilling to fill the vacancy?


Answer: in 326

Question: In what year was he consecrated?


Answer: thirty years of age.

Question: How old was he when he was consecrated?


Answer: Upper Egypt

Context: Through the influence of the Eusebian faction at Constantinople, an Arian bishop, George of Cappadocia, was now appointed to rule the see of Alexandria. Athanasius, after remaining some days in the neighbourhood of the city, finally withdrew into the desert of Upper Egypt, where he remained for a period of six years, living the life of the monks, devoting himself to the composition of a group of writings; "Apology to Constantius", the "Apology for his Flight", the "Letter to the Monks", and the "History of the Arians".

Question: Where did Athanasius remain for 6 years while living as a monk?


Answer: Letter to the Monks

Question: What is name of one of the compositions composed by Athanasius while he lived as a monk?


Answer: George of Cappadocia

Question: Who took over after Athanasius?


Answer: the Eusebian faction at Constantinople

Question: Who influenced George of Cappadocia to become the new ruler?


Answer: the desert of Upper Egypt

Question: To where did Saint Athanasius withdraw?


Answer: the Eusebian faction at Constantinople

Question: Who influenced the appointment of George of Cappadocia?


Answer: six years

Question: How long did he spend in the desert?


Answer: Apology to Constantius

Question: What is one thing he wrote during this time?


Answer: George of Cappadocia

Question: Who was appointed to rule the see of Alexandria?


Answer: Julian

Context: The Arians no longer presented an unbroken front to their orthodox opponents. The Emperor Constantius, who had been the cause of so much trouble, died 4 November, 361 and was succeeded by Julian. The proclamation of the new prince's accession was the signal for a pagan outbreak against the still dominant Arian faction in Alexandria. George, the usurping Bishop, was flung into prison and murdered. An obscure presbyter of the name of Pistus was immediately chosen by the Arians to succeed him, when fresh news arrived that filled the orthodox party with hope. An edict had been put forth by Julian permitting the exiled bishops of the "Galileans" to return to their "towns and provinces". Athanasius received a summons from his own flock, and he accordingly re-entered his episcopal capitol on 22 February, 362.

Question: Who succeeded Emperor Constantius?


Answer: Pistus

Question: Who succeeded George of Cappadocia?


Answer: 362

Question: In what year did Athanasius return to his episcopal capitol?


Answer: 361

Question: In what year did Emperor Constantius die?


Answer: murdered

Question: How did George of Cappadocia die in prison?


Answer: The Arians no longer presented an unbroken front

Question: Were the Arians united in their oppostion?


Answer: 22 February, 362

Question: When did Athanasius re-enter the capitol?


Answer: Julian

Question: Who succeeded the Emperor Constantius?


Answer: An obscure presbyter of the name of Pistus

Question: Who then succeeded George?


Answer: flung into prison and murdered

Question: What happened to the usurping bishop, George?


Answer: Arian

Context: The accession of Valens gave a fresh lease of life to the Arian party. He issued a decree banishing the bishops who had been deposed by Constantius, but who had been permitted by Jovian to return to their sees. The news created the greatest consternation in the city of Alexandria itself, and the prefect, in order to prevent a serious outbreak, gave public assurance that the very special case of Athanasius would be laid before the emperor. But the saint seems to have divined what was preparing in secret against him. He quietly withdrew from Alexandria, 5 October, and took up his abode in a country house outside the city. Valens, who seems to have sincerely dreaded the possible consequences of another popular outbreak, within a few weeks issued orders allowing Athanasius to return to his episcopal see.

Question: What party benefited from the accession of Valens?


Answer: Constantius

Question: Valens issued a decree banishing the bishops that were deposed by who?


Answer: Athanasius

Question: What saint fled from Alexandria on 5 October to a country house outside Alexandria?


Answer: Alexandria

Question: Valens' banishment of Athanasius created the greatest consternation in what city?


Answer: banishing the bishops who had been deposed by Constantius

Question: What did the decree of Valens do?


Answer: case of Athanasius would be laid before the emperor

Question: When the people in the city were concerned about Athanasius, what did the prefect do?


Answer: withdrew from Alexandria, 5 October

Question: What did Athanasius do to protect himself?


Answer: issued orders allowing Athanasius to return to his episcopal see

Question: How did Valens get him to return?


Answer: Athanasius

Context: His biography of Anthony the Great entitled Life of Antony(Βίος καὶ Πολιτεία Πατρὸς Ἀντωνίου, Vita Antonii) became his most widely-read work. Translated into several languages, it played an important role in the spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and Western Christianity. Depicting Anthony as an illiterate and holy man who through his existence in a primordial landscape has an absolute connection to the divine truth, the biography also resembles the life of his biographer Athanasius. It later served as an inspiration to Christian monastics in both the East and the West. The so-called Athanasian Creed dates from well after Athanasius's death and draws upon the phraseology of Augustine's De trinitate.

Question: Who wrote the biography entitled Life of Antony?