Answer: molybdenum

Context: Uranium is more plentiful than antimony, tin, cadmium, mercury, or silver, and it is about as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum. Uranium is found in hundreds of minerals, including uraninite (the most common uranium ore), carnotite, autunite, uranophane, torbernite, and coffinite. Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such as phosphate rock deposits, and minerals such as lignite, and monazite sands in uranium-rich ores (it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0.1% uranium).

Question: Along with arsenic, what metal is roughly as abundant as uranium?


Answer: antimony

Question: Along with silver, mercury, tin and cadmium, what metal is uranium more plentiful than?


Answer: uraninite

Question: What is the most prevalent uranium ore?


Answer: lignite

Question: What mineral sometimes contains uranium?


Answer: phosphate

Question: What types of rocks sometimes contain uranium?


Answer: uranium-234

Context: Natural uranium consists of three major isotopes: uranium-238 (99.28% natural abundance), uranium-235 (0.71%), and uranium-234 (0.0054%). All three are radioactive, emitting alpha particles, with the exception that all three of these isotopes have small probabilities of undergoing spontaneous fission, rather than alpha emission. There are also five other trace isotopes: uranium-239, which is formed when 238U undergoes spontaneous fission, releasing neutrons that are captured by another 238U atom; uranium-237, which is formed when 238U captures a neutron but emits two more, which then decays to neptunium-237; uranium-233, which is formed in the decay chain of that neptunium-237; and finally, uranium-236 and -240, which appear in the decay chain of primordial plutonium-244. It is also expected that thorium-232 should be able to undergo double beta decay, which would produce uranium-232, but this has not yet been observed experimentally.

Question: What is the least prevalent major isotope of natural uranium?


Answer: 0.71%

Question: What is the natural abundance of uranium-235?


Answer: uranium-239

Question: What isotope of uranium is formed when 238U experiences spontaneous fission?


Answer: uranium-233

Question: When uranium isotope is formed from the decay of neptunium-237?


Answer: thorium-232

Question: What isotope is it theorized will form uranium-2343 after double beta decay?


Answer: 4.6 billion

Context: An additional 4.6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be in sea water (Japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water using ion exchangers was technically feasible). There have been experiments to extract uranium from sea water, but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water. In 2012, ORNL researchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed HiCap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules, atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water, according to results verified by researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

Question: About how many tonnes of uranium is theorized to be present in the sea?


Answer: HiCap

Question: What did ORNL call their material that performs surface retention on solid molecules?


Answer: carbonate

Question: The presence of what substance in sea water has resulted in low yields when attempting to extract uranium?


Answer: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory

Question: Where were ORNL's results verified?


Answer: 2012

Question: When was HiCap announced?


Answer: Uranium-235

Context: Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium-235 has the distinction of being the only naturally occurring fissile isotope. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons, and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor. Another fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology. While uranium-238 has a small probability for spontaneous fission or even induced fission with fast neutrons, uranium-235 and to a lesser degree uranium-233 have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat in nuclear power reactors, and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium (238U) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating.

Question: What is the sole fissile isotope that occurs in nature?


Answer: Uranium-238

Question: What can be turned into plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor?


Answer: uranium-233

Question: What uranium isotope is produced from thorium?


Answer: uranium-233

Question: Along with uranium-235, what isotope is noted for having a high fission cross-section for slow neutrons?


Answer: Depleted uranium

Question: What is 238U?


Answer: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

Context: A person can be exposed to uranium (or its radioactive daughters, such as radon) by inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. The amount of uranium in air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that process phosphate fertilizers, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work near a modern battlefield where depleted uranium weapons have been used, or live or work near a coal-fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium. Houses or structures that are over uranium deposits (either natural or man-made slag deposits) may have an increased incidence of exposure to radon gas. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for uranium exposure in the workplace as 0.25 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.2 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and a short-term limit of 0.6 mg/m3. At levels of 10 mg/m3, uranium is immediately dangerous to life and health.

Question: What is OSHA?


Answer: 0.25 mg/m3

Question: What is the OSHA uranium exposure limit for an 8-hour workday?


Answer: recommended exposure limit

Question: What does REL stand for?


Answer: 0.2 mg/m3

Question: What is the NIOSH uranium exposure standard over an 8-hour workday?


Answer: 10 mg/m3

Question: At what level of exposure does uranium become imminently dangerous to health?


Answer: triuranium octoxide

Context: The most common forms of uranium oxide are triuranium octoxide (U 3O 8) and UO 2. Both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of environmental conditions. Triuranium octoxide is (depending on conditions) the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature. Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel. At ambient temperatures, UO 2 will gradually convert to U 3O 8. Because of their stability, uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal.

Question: Along with UO2, what is the commonest form of uranium oxide?


Answer: Triuranium octoxide

Question: What is the stablest uranium compound?


Answer: Uranium dioxide

Question: In what form is uranium most often used as fuel for nuclear reactors?


Answer: 79 CE

Context: The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79 CE, when it was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes. Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples, Italy, by R. T. Gunther of the University of Oxford in 1912. Starting in the late Middle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal, Bohemia (now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic), and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry. In the early 19th century, the world's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines.

Question: What was the earliest year in recorded history that uranium oxide was used?


Answer: Italy

Question: In what county was glass with uranium oxide content found?


Answer: yellow

Question: What color of ceramic glaze was extracted from uranium oxide?


Answer: 1912

Question: In what year was yellow uranium oxide glass discovered?


Answer: the University of Oxford

Question: What institution did R.T. Gunther belong to?


Answer: Chicago Pile-1

Context: On 2 December 1942, as part of the Manhattan Project, another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self-sustained nuclear chain reaction, Chicago Pile-1. Working in a lab below the stands of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 400 short tons (360 metric tons) of graphite, 58 short tons (53 metric tons) of uranium oxide, and six short tons (5.5 metric tons) of uranium metal, a majority of which was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant in a makeshift production process.

Question: What was the first self-sustained nuclear chain reaction created by human beings called?


Answer: 2 December 1942

Question: On what date was the first self-sustained nuclear chain reaction created artificially?


Answer: Manhattan

Question: What project was Fermi working for?


Answer: University of Chicago

Question: On the campus of what educational institution was Chicago Pile-1 created?


Answer: 53

Question: How many metric tons of uranium oxide was used in Chicago Pile-1?


Answer: orange-red

Context: Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass producing orange-red to lemon yellow hues. It was also used for tinting and shading in early photography. The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the planet Uranus. Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Research by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Enrico Fermi and others, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derived plutonium-239. The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is an ongoing concern for public health and safety. See Nuclear proliferation.

Question: Along with lemon yellow, what color is produced in uranium glass?


Answer: Martin Heinrich Klaproth

Question: Who discovered uranium in pitchblende?


Answer: Eugène-Melchior Péligot

Question: Who was responsible for first isolating uranium?


Answer: Henri Becquerel

Question: Who discovered that uranium was radioactive?


Answer: Little Boy

Question: What was the first nuclear weapon used in a war called?


Answer: 0.7204%

Context: In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2742%) and uranium-235 (0.7204%). Isotope separation concentrates (enriches) the fissionable uranium-235 for nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants, except for gas cooled reactors and pressurised heavy water reactors. Most neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235 must impact other uranium-235 atoms to sustain the nuclear chain reaction. The concentration and amount of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is called a 'critical mass'.

Question: What percentage of uranium in nature is uranium-235?


Answer: critical mass

Question: What is the term for the amount of uranium-235 needed to sustain a nuclear chain reaction?


Answer: uranium-238

Question: What is the most prevalent natural isotope of uranium?


Answer: 99.2742%

Question: What percentage of natural uranium is isotope 238?


Answer: pressurised heavy water

Question: Along with gas cooled reactors, what type of reactor doesn't use uranium-235?


Answer: high-density penetrators

Context: The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high-density penetrators. This ammunition consists of depleted uranium (DU) alloyed with 1–2% other elements, such as titanium or molybdenum. At high impact speed, the density, hardness, and pyrophoricity of the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets. Tank armor and other removable vehicle armor can also be hardened with depleted uranium plates. The use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the US, UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil (see Gulf War Syndrome).

Question: What is uranium used for most often in the military?


Answer: molybdenum

Question: Along with titanium, what element often makes up the portion of high-density penetrators not made of depleted uranium?


Answer: 1–2%

Question: What percentage of high-density penetrators is not made up of depleted uranium?


Answer: Persian Gulf

Question: Along with the Balkans, in what geographical location did a war take place where the UK used depleted uranium munitions?


Answer: Gulf War Syndrome

Question: What illness is possibly tied to the use of depleted uranium munitions?


Answer: Martin Heinrich Klaproth

Context: The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was an oxide of uranium). He named the newly discovered element after the planet Uranus, (named after the primordial Greek god of the sky), which had been discovered eight years earlier by William Herschel.

Question: Who discovered uranium?


Answer: 1789

Question: In what year did the discovery of uranium occur?


Answer: Berlin

Question: In what city was uranium discovered?


Answer: sodium diuranate

Question: What did Klaproth probably create when he dissolved pitchblende in nitric acid?


Answer: William Herschel

Question: Who discovered the planet Uranus?


Answer: 0.01 to 0.25%

Context: Uranium ore is mined in several ways: by open pit, underground, in-situ leaching, and borehole mining (see uranium mining). Low-grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25% uranium oxides. Extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore. High-grade ores found in Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 23% uranium oxides on average. Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali. The leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, called yellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides U3O8. Yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion.

Question: What percentage range of uranium oxide is usually contained in low-grade uranium ore?


Answer: borehole

Question: Along with underground, open pit and in-situ leaching, what sort of mining is used to mine uranium?


Answer: Canada

Question: In what country are high-grade uranium ores notably found?


Answer: Saskatchewan

Question: In what province of Canada is the Athabasca Basin?


Answer: 23%

Question: What is the average percentage of uranium oxide contained in the ores mined in the Athabasca Basin?


Answer: Little Boy

Context: Two major types of atomic bombs were developed by the United States during World War II: a uranium-based device (codenamed "Little Boy") whose fissile material was highly enriched uranium, and a plutonium-based device (see Trinity test and "Fat Man") whose plutonium was derived from uranium-238. The uranium-based Little Boy device became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people (see Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki). Initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare, and that nuclear proliferation could be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks, but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world.

Question: What was the uranium-based bomb made by the US in World War II called?


Answer: Fat Man

Question: What was the codename of the plutonium-based bomb created in the Second World War?


Answer: 6 August 1945

Question: On what date was Little Boy detonated?


Answer: 12,500

Question: What was the equivalent yield in TNT of the Little Boy bomb, in tonnes?


Answer: Hiroshima

Question: Over what city was Little Boy detonated?


Answer: Canada

Context: In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides, with Canada (27.9% of world production) and Australia (22.8%) being the largest producers and Kazakhstan (10.5%), Russia (8.0%), Namibia (7.5%), Niger (7.4%), Uzbekistan (5.5%), the United States (2.5%), Argentina (2.1%), Ukraine (1.9%) and China (1.7%) also producing significant amounts. Kazakhstan continues to increase production and may have become the world's largest producer of uranium by 2009 with an expected production of 12,826 tonnes, compared to Canada with 11,100 t and Australia with 9,430 t. In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons.

Question: As of 2005, what country was the largest producer of uranium oxides?


Answer: 2.1%

Question: What percentage of world uranium oxide production is produced by Argentina?


Answer: Uzbekistan

Question: What country produced 5.5% of the world's concentrated uranium oxide in 2005?


Answer: seventeen

Question: How many countries produced concentrated uranium oxides in 2005?


Answer: 9,430

Question: How many tonnes of uranium was Australia expected to produce in 2009?


Answer: United States

Context: During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, an estimated 600 short tons (540 metric tons) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) have been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian Federation and several other former Soviet states. Police in Asia, Europe, and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources. From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by the federal government of the United States, spent approximately US $550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia. This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Scientific American reported in February 2006 that in some of the facilities security consisted of chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair. According to an interview from the article, one facility had been storing samples of enriched (weapons grade) uranium in a broom closet before the improvement project; another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a shoe box.

Question: Who was the Soviet Union's opponent in the Cold War?


Answer: 40,000

Question: How many nuclear warheads can be made with 540 metric tons of highly enriched weapons grade uranium?


Answer: US $550 million

Question: What was the expenditure of the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program between 1993 and 2005?


Answer: weapons grade

Question: What is another term for uranium that is enriched?


Answer: 16

Question: Approximately how many times did police capture shipments of bomb-grade plutonium or uranium between 1993 and 2005?


Answer: green

Context: Salts of many oxidation states of uranium are water-soluble and may be studied in aqueous solutions. The most common ionic forms are U3+ (brown-red), U4+ (green), UO+ 2 (unstable), and UO2+ 2 (yellow), for U(III), U(IV), U(V), and U(VI), respectively. A few solid and semi-metallic compounds such as UO and US exist for the formal oxidation state uranium(II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state. Ions of U3+ liberate hydrogen from water and are therefore considered to be highly unstable. The UO2+ 2 ion represents the uranium(VI) state and is known to form compounds such as uranyl carbonate, uranyl chloride and uranyl sulfate. UO2+ 2 also forms complexes with various organic chelating agents, the most commonly encountered of which is uranyl acetate.

Question: What is the color of U4+?


Answer: uranium(VI)

Question: What state is represented by the UO2+ 2 ion?


Answer: uranyl carbonate

Question: Along with uranyl sulfate and uranyl chloride, what compound is formed by the UO2+ 2 ion?


Answer: uranyl acetate

Question: What common complex is formed by the UO2+ 2 ion with organic chelating agents?


Answer: Citrobacter

Context: Some organisms, such as the lichen Trapelia involuta or microorganisms such as the bacterium Citrobacter, can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment. Citrobacter species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol phosphate (or other similar organic phosphates). After one day, one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used in bioremediation to decontaminate uranium-polluted water. The proteobacterium Geobacter has also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water. The mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices increases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant.

Question: What microorganism can notably absorb a very high concentrate of uranium?


Answer: glycerol phosphate

Question: What is given to Citrobacter to cause it to absorb uranyl ions?


Answer: Trapelia involuta

Question: What lichen is known to absorb a uranium concentration nearly 300 times higher than the amount in the environment?


Answer: Geobacter

Question: What protobacterium notably bioremediates ground water uranium?


Answer: Glomus intraradices

Question: What fungus is known to cause uranium content in its symbiotic plant roots to increase?


Answer: 482 to 572

Context: Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) reacts with hydrogen to form uranium hydride. Even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This property makes uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uranium carbide, nitride, and halide compounds. Two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist: an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 °C.

Question: At what temperature range in degrees Fahrenheit will uranium metal form uranium hydride?


Answer: hydrogen

Question: What does uranium metal react with to create uranium hydride?


Answer: 250 °C

Question: Above what temperature is the β form of uranium hydride created?


Answer: nitride

Question: Along with uranium carbide and halide, what type of compound is often created with uranium hydride?


Answer: Two

Question: How many crystal modifications of uranium hydride are extant?


Answer: diuranium tricarbide

Context: Uranium carbides and uranium nitrides are both relatively inert semimetallic compounds that are minimally soluble in acids, react with water, and can ignite in air to form U 3O 8. Carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide (UC), uranium dicarbide (UC 2), and diuranium tricarbide (U 2C 3). Both UC and UC 2 are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal to carbon monoxide at high temperatures. Stable below 1800 °C, U 2C 3 is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of UC and UC 2 to mechanical stress. Uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal to nitrogen include uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride (UN 2), and diuranium trinitride (U 2N 3).

Question: Along with uranium monocarbide and uranium dicarbide, what is a notable carbide of uranium?


Answer: 1800 °C

Question: Below what temperature is U2C3 stable?


Answer: 3% and 5%

Context: To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction should be between 3% and 5%. This process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. To be considered 'depleted', the uranium-235 isotope concentration should be no more than 0.3%. The price of uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35% uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price of depleted uranium hexafluoride above $130 per kilogram in July 2007 from $5 in 2001.

Question: Between what percent fraction range of uranium-235 is uranium regarded as enriched?


Answer: 2001

Question: In what year did the cost of uranium notably begin to increase?


Answer: 0.3%

Question: What is the maximum uranium-235 isotope concentration for uranium to be considered depleted?


Answer: $5

Question: What was the price of a kilogram of depleted uranium hexafluoride in 2001?


Answer: $130

Question: How much did a kilogram of depleted uranium hexafluoride cost as of July 2007?


Answer: kidney

Context: Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because, besides being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal. Uranium is also a reproductive toxicant. Radiological effects are generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of 238U decay, has a very short range, and will not penetrate skin. Uranyl (UO2+ 2) ions, such as from uranium trioxide or uranyl nitrate and other hexavalent uranium compounds, have been shown to cause birth defects and immune system damage in laboratory animals. While the CDC has published one study that no human cancer has been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium, exposure to uranium and its decay products, especially radon, are widely known and significant health threats. Exposure to strontium-90, iodine-131, and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons. Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration of uranium hexafluoride has resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were associated with the generation of highly toxic hydrofluoric acid and uranyl fluoride rather than with uranium itself. Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium is pyrophoric; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature.

Question: Along with the heart, brain and liver, what system is notably affected by exposure to uranium?


Answer: alpha radiation

Question: What is the main form of 238U decay?


Answer: hexavalent

Question: What type of uranium compounds are uranium trioxide and uranyl nitrate?


Answer: room

Question: At what temperature will grains of uranium metal spontaneously ignite in air?


Answer: gas centrifuge

Context: The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF 6) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 using high-speed centrifuges, is the cheapest and leading enrichment process. The gaseous diffusion process had been the leading method for enrichment and was used in the Manhattan Project. In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedly diffused through a silver-zinc membrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium 238 is heavier it diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235). The molecular laser isotope separation method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution. An alternative laser method of enrichment is known as atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS) and employs visible tunable lasers such as dye lasers. Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion.

Question: What is the name of the most widely used enrichment process?


Answer: uranium hexafluoride

Question: What compound is UF6?


Answer: gaseous diffusion

Question: What enrichment process was used by the Manhattan Project?


Answer: uranium hexafluoride

Question: In the gaseous diffusion process, what is diffused through a silver-zinc membrane?


Answer: heavier

Question: How does the weight of uranium-238 compare to that of uranium-235?


Answer: U

Context: Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-white metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all its isotopes are unstable (with half-lives of the six naturally known isotopes, uranium-233 to uranium-238, varying between 69 years and 4.5 billion years). The most common isotopes of uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for almost 99.3% of the uranium found in nature) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons, accounting for 0.7% of the element found naturally). Uranium has the second highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements, lighter only than plutonium. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, but slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite.

Question: What is uranium's symbol on the Periodic Table of Elements?


Answer: 92

Question: What is the atomic number of uranium?


Answer: silvery-white

Question: What color is uranium?


Answer: 6

Question: How many valence electrons are contained in an atom of uranium?


Answer: actinide

Question: Of what series in the Periodic Table of Elements is uranium a part?


Answer: noble gases

Context: Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements (with an exception of the noble gases) and their compounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature. Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly. When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide. Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry.

Question: What non-metal elements does uranium notably not react to?


Answer: uranium oxide

Question: What coats uranium metal in air?


Answer: Hydrochloric

Question: Along with nitric acids, what acids dissolve uranium?


Answer: uranium dioxide

Question: What is a notable form uranium ore is converted into after extraction?


Answer: cold water

Question: What reacts with finely divided uranium?


Answer: World War II

Context: During the later stages of World War II, the entire Cold War, and to a lesser extent afterwards, uranium-235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons. Initially, two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple device that uses uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses plutonium-239 derived from uranium-238. Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission/fusion bomb (thermonuclear weapon) was built, that uses a plutonium-based device to cause a mixture of tritium and deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion. Such bombs are jacketed in a non-fissile (unenriched) uranium case, and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material by fast neutrons from the nuclear fusion process.

Question: During what war was uranium-235 first used to create nuclear weapons?


Answer: 238

Question: From what isotope of uranium is plutonium-239 derived?


Answer: deuterium

Question: What is mixed with tritium and experiences nuclear fusion in a fission/fusion bomb?


Answer: thermonuclear weapon

Question: What is another name for a fission/fusion bomb?


Answer: unenriched

Question: What does non-fissile mean?


Answer: nitrate

Context: Uranium was also used in photographic chemicals (especially uranium nitrate as a toner), in lamp filaments for stage lighting bulbs, to improve the appearance of dentures, and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranium salts are mordants of silk or wool. Uranyl acetate and uranyl formate are used as electron-dense "stains" in transmission electron microscopy, to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and in negative staining of viruses, isolated cell organelles and macromolecules.

Question: What product of uranium was used as toner?


Answer: Uranyl acetate

Question: Along with uranyl formate, what product of uranium is used in transmission electron microscopy?


Answer: stage

Question: What light bulbs use lamp filaments containing uranium?


Answer: wood

Question: Along with leather, what industry uses uranium in dyes and stains?


Answer: silk

Question: In addition to wool, what is uranium salt a mordant of?


Answer: French

Context: In 1972, the French physicist Francis Perrin discovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa, collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors. The ore deposit is 1.7 billion years old; then, uranium-235 constituted about 3% of the total uranium on Earth. This is high enough to permit a sustained nuclear fission chain reaction to occur, provided other supporting conditions exist. The capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the nuclear waste products has been cited by the U.S. federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository.

Question: Of what nationality was Perrin?


Answer: Gabon

Question: In what county was the Oklo mine located?


Answer: 1.7 billion years

Question: How old are the ore deposits in the Oklo mine?


Answer: 3%

Question: When the Oklo mine ore deposits came into being, what percentage of uranium on Earth consisted of uranium-235?


Answer: Yucca Mountain

Question: Where in the United States is there a nuclear waste repository?


Answer: 40

Context: Uranium's average concentration in the Earth's crust is (depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million, or about 40 times as abundant as silver. The Earth's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to contain 1017 kg (2×1017 lb) of uranium while the oceans may contain 1013 kg (2×1013 lb). The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million (up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers), and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion.

Question: How many times more abundant than silver is uranium in the Earth's crust?


Answer: 1013

Question: How many kilograms of uranium may be contained in the oceans?


Answer: phosphate fertilizers

Question: Why is the concentrate of uranium in farmland so high?


Answer: 3 parts per billion

Question: What is the concentration of uranium in sea water?


Answer: Uranium-238

Context: Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half-life of about 4.468×109 years, roughly the age of the Earth. Uranium-235 has a half-life of about 7.13×108 years, and uranium-234 has a half-life of about 2.48×105 years. For natural uranium, about 49% of its alpha rays are emitted by each of 238U atom, and also 49% by 234U (since the latter is formed from the former) and about 2.0% of them by the 235U. When the Earth was young, probably about one-fifth of its uranium was uranium-235, but the percentage of 234U was probably much lower than this.

Question: What isotope of uranium has the most stability?


Answer: 4.468×109 years

Question: About how old is the Earth?


Answer: 2.48×105 years

Question: What is the half-life of uranium-234?


Answer: one-fifth

Question: What fraction of the Earth's uranium was uranium-235 during the Earth's youth?


Answer: 49%

Question: What percentage of the alpha rays of natural uranium are emitted by 234U?


Answer: excreted

Context: Most ingested uranium is excreted during digestion. Only 0.5% is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested, whereas absorption of the more soluble uranyl ion can be up to 5%. However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body, whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when inhaled by way of dust into the lungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard. After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends to bioaccumulate and stay for many years in bone tissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates. Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium cannot penetrate the skin.

Question: What happens to a majority of ingested uranium?


Answer: 5%

Question: Up to what percentage of uranyl ion can be absorbed when ingested?


Answer: 0.5%

Question: About what percentage of uranium oxide is absorbed when ingested?


Answer: phosphates

Question: What does uranium have an affinity for?


Answer: bone tissue

Question: Where does uranium accumulate in the body?


Answer: nomination of the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, the Viceroy of India, and the colonial governors

Context: Appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, the Viceroy of India, and the colonial governors, as well as on nominations from within the United Kingdom. As the Empire evolved into the Commonwealth, nominations continued to come from the Commonwealth realms, in which the monarch remained head of state. These overseas nominations have been discontinued in realms that have established their own Orders—such as the Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit—but members of the Order are still appointed in the British Overseas Territories.

Question: How were the appointments to the Order of the British Empire made?


Answer: the monarch

Question: What remained the head of state of the British Empire?


Answer: Empire

Question: What evolved as the Commonwealth nominations continued?


Answer: established their own Orders

Question: Why did the oversea nominations discontinue?


Answer: Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit

Question: What countries established new orders?


Answer: Any individual made a member of the Order for gallantry

Context: Any individual made a member of the Order for gallantry could wear an emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves on the same riband, ribbon or bow as the badge. It could not be awarded posthumously and was effectively replaced in 1974 with the Queen's Gallantry Medal. If recipients of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry received promotion within the Order, whether for gallantry or otherwise, they continued to wear also the insignia of the lower grade with the oak leaves. However, they only used the post-nominal letters of the higher grade.

Question: Who could wear a emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves?


Answer: 1974

Question: What year was it replaced?


Answer: two crossed silver oak leaves on the same riband, ribbon or bow as the badge

Question: What was the emblem?


Answer: Queen's Gallantry Medal

Question: What kind of medal was replaced in 1974?


Answer: lower grade with the oak leaves

Question: They continued to wear what the insignia of what?


Answer: Honorary knighthoods

Context: Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where Queen Elizabeth II is not Head of State, and may permit use of post-nominal letters but not the title of Sir or Dame. Occasionally honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame - Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. Honorary appointees who later become a citizen of a Commonwealth realm can convert their appointment from honorary to substantive, then enjoy all privileges of membership of the order including use of the title of Sir and Dame for the senior two ranks of the Order. An example is Irish broadcaster Terry Wogan, who was appointed an honorary Knight Commander of the Order in 2005 and on successful application for dual British and Irish citizenship was made a substantive member and subsequently styled as "Sir Terry Wogan KBE".

Question: Who are appointed to citizens of nations?


Answer: citizens of nations

Question: Where was Queen Elizabeth ll not Head of State?


Answer: Sir or Dame

Question: What is honorary appointees are incorrectly referred to?


Answer: Bill Gates or Bob Geldof

Question: Who are examples of Sir of Dame?


Answer: Terry Wogan

Question: What is an example of irish broadcaster?


Answer: Prelate; the Dean; the Secretary; the Registrar; the King of Arms; and the Usher

Context: The Order has six officials: the Prelate; the Dean; the Secretary; the Registrar; the King of Arms; and the Usher. The Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Order's Prelate. The Dean of St Paul's is ex officio the Dean of the Order. The Order's King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. The Usher of the Order is known as the Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod; he does not – unlike his Order of the Garter equivalent, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod – perform any duties related to the House of Lords.

Question: Who are the six officials of The Order?


Answer: ex officio the Dean of the Order

Question: Who was The Dean of St. Paul?


Answer: The Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England

Question: Who serves as the Order's Prelate?


Answer: The Order's King of Arms

Question: Who is not a member of the College of Arms?


Answer: Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod

Question: What is the Usher of the Order?


Answer: Appointments to the Order of the British Empire

Context: Appointments to the Order of the British Empire were discontinued in those Commonwealth realms that established a national system of honours and awards such as the Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit. In many of these systems, the different levels of award and honour reflect the Imperial system they replaced. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand all have (in increasing level of precedence) Members of, Officers of, and Companions to (rather than Commanders of) their respective orders, with both Australia and New Zealand having Knights and Dames as their highest classes.

Question: Who was discontinued in the Commonwealth realms?


Answer: Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit

Question: Who established a national system of honours and awards?


Answer: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand

Question: How were the different levels of award and honour reflected the imperial system?


Answer: Knights and Dames

Question: What were the highest class?


Answer: The members of The Beatles

Context: The members of The Beatles were made MBEs in 1965. John Lennon justified the comparative merits of his investiture by comparing military membership in the Order: "Lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE [status] received theirs for heroism in the war – for killing people… We received ours for entertaining other people. I'd say we deserve ours more." Lennon later returned his MBE insignia on 25 November 1969 as part of his ongoing peace protests. Other criticism centres on the claim that many recipients of the Order are being rewarded with honours for simply doing their jobs; critics claim that the civil service and judiciary receive far more orders and honours than leaders of other professions.

Question: Who were MBE'S?


Answer: 1965

Question: In what year was the Beatles made MBE's?


Answer: John Lennon

Question: Who compared military membership in the Order?


Answer: John Lennon

Question: Who said "lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE received thris for heroism in the war.


Answer: 25 November 1969

Question: When did John Lennon return his MBE insignia?


Answer: order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy

Context: The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is the "order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy", rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations and public service outside the Civil Service. It was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, and comprises five classes, in civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male, or dame if female. There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order.

Question: Who was the most excellent Order of the British Empire?


Answer: 4 June 1917

Question: When was the order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy established?


Answer: "order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy

Question: Who rewarded contributions to the arts and sciences?


Answer: King George V

Question: Who established the chivalry of british constiutional monarchy?


Answer: knight if male, or dame if female

Question: Who is the recipient?


Answer: Medal of the Order of the British Empire

Context: At the foundation of the Order, the "Medal of the Order of the British Empire" was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the "British Empire Medal". It stopped being awarded by the United Kingdom as part of the 1993 reforms to the honours system, but was again awarded beginning in 2012, starting with 293 BEMs awarded for the Queen's Diamond Jubilee. In addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. In 2004, a report entitled "A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System" by a Commons committee recommended to phase out the Order of the British Empire, as its title was "now considered to be unacceptable, being thought to embody values that are no longer shared by many of the country’s population".

Question: What was instituted to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation?


Answer: British Empire Medal

Question: What was the medal renamed as?


Answer: 1922

Question: In what year was the Medal of the Order of the British Empire established?


Answer: 1993

Question: When was it stopped being rewarded?


Answer: 293

Question: How many BEM's were awarded for the Queen's Diamond Jubilee?


Answer: 1940

Context: From 1940, the Sovereign could appoint a person as a Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire for gallantry for acts of bravery (not in the face of the enemy) below the level required for the George Medal. The grade was determined by the same criteria as usual, and not by the level of gallantry (and with more junior people instead receiving the British Empire Medal). Oddly, this meant that it was awarded for lesser acts of gallantry than the George Medal, but, as an Order, was worn before it and listed before it in post-nominal initials. From 14 January 1958, these awards were designated the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry.

Question: From what year could the Sovereign appoint a person as Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire?


Answer: below the level required for the George Medal

Question: Of what acts did the Members of the Order of the British Empire appoint?


Answer: 14 January 1958

Question: When was the awards designated the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry?


Answer: same criteria as usual, and not by the level of gallantry

Question: What grade was determined?


Answer: Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander

Context: Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix Sir, and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix Dame, to their forenames.[b] Wives of Knights may prefix Lady to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Knights or spouses of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Clergy of the Church of England or the Church of Scotland do not use the title Sir or Dame as they do not receive the accolade (i.e., they are not dubbed "knight" with a sword), although they do append the post-nominal letters.

Question: Who would prefix Sir, and Dames Grand Cross?


Answer: Dames Grand Cross

Question: Who would prefix Dame, to their forenames?


Answer: Wives of Knights

Question: Who would prefix Lady to their surnames?


Answer: peers and princes

Question: Such forms are not used by whom?


Answer: Clergy of the Church of England or the Church of Scotland

Question: Who wouldn't use the title Sir of Dame?


Answer: India

Context: India, while remaining an active member of the Commonwealth, chose as a republic to institute its own set of honours awarded by the President of India who holds a republican position some consider similar to that of the monarch in Britain. These are commonly referred to as the Padma Awards and consist of Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri in descending order. These do not carry any decoration or insignia that can be worn on the person and may not be used as titles along with individuals' names.

Question: Who has set honours awarded by the President of India?


Answer: President of India who holds a republican position some consider similar to that of the monarch in Britain

Question: What is referred to as the Padma Awards?


Answer: President of India

Question: Who holds a republican position some consider to monarch of Britain?


Answer: Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri

Question: What does the Padma Awards consist of?


Answer: Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri

Question: What does not carry any decoration or insignia that can be worn on the person?


Answer: 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross

Context: The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross, 845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the total number of members of the fourth and fifth classes, but no more than 858 Officers and 1,464 Members may be appointed per year. Foreign recipients, as honorary members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Although the Order of the British Empire has by far the highest number of members of the British Orders of Chivalry, with over 100,000 living members worldwide, there are fewer appointments to knighthoods than in other orders.

Question: How many Knights are in The Order?


Answer: 8,960

Question: How many commanders are in The Order?


Answer: 845

Question: How many Knights and Dames Commander?


Answer: 858 Officers and 1,464 Members

Question: How many officers and members maybe be appointed per year?


Answer: Order of the British Empire

Question: Who has the highest numbers of the British Orders of Chivalry?


Answer: positions in the order of precedence

Context: Members of all classes of the Order are assigned positions in the order of precedence. Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of Ladies of the Order, however, are not assigned any special precedence. As a general rule, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives (see order of precedence in England and Wales for the exact positions).

Question: What are the Members of classes of the Order assigned to?


Answer: Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law

Question: Who of the male members feature on the order?


Answer: relatives of Ladies of the Order

Question: Who are not assigned any special precedence?


Answer: fathers or husbands

Question: Who can individuals derive precedence from?


Answer: mothers or wives

Question: Who can individuals can not derive precedence from?


Answer: 1715

Context: French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution. Some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. The Philosophes, the French term for the philosophers of the period, widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons and coffee houses, and through printed books and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the church, and paved the way for the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment.

Question: What year did the Enlightenment begin according to French historians?


Answer: scientific revolution

Question: Recent historians begin the period of Enlightenment in the 1620's which was also the start of what revolution?


Answer: the Enlightenment.

Question: A variety of movements such as liberalism and neoclassicism's intellectual heritage can be traced back to what period of time?


Answer: The Philosophes

Question: What was the French term for philosophers in the period of Enlightenment?


Answer: 1715

Question: In what year did Louis XIV die?


Answer: 1789

Question: In what year did the French Revolution begin?


Answer: 1620s

Question: In what decade did the scientific revolution begin?


Answer: Francis Hutcheson

Context: Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers". Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy.

Question: Who said that virtue provides "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers"?


Answer: David Hume

Question: Who was a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy?


Answer: Adam Smith

Question: Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by David Hume and what other philosopher?


Answer: Francis Hutcheson

Question: Which moral philosopher said "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers"?


Answer: David Hume and Adam Smith

Question: Which two men were Francis Hutecheson's proteges?


Answer: the scientific method

Question: The nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation together are called what?


Answer: moral

Question: What type of philosopher was Francis Hutcheson?


Answer: skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions

Question: In what areas of philosophy did Hume become a major figure?


Answer: scientific topics

Context: The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700–1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.

Question: What kind of topics began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment?


Answer: James Thomson

Question: Who penned a poem called "Poem to the Memory of Newton" to mourn the loss and praise the legacy of Newton?


Answer: Newtonian system

Question: Sir Richard Blackmore committed what system to verse in Creation?


Answer: 1727

Question: What year was Newton's death?


Answer: James Thomson

Question: Who wrote "Poem to the Memory of Newton?"


Answer: 1727

Question: In what year did Newton die?


Answer: Newton

Question: Whose death in 1727 prompted poems to be written in his honour for decades?


Answer: Sir Richard Blackmore

Question: Who wrote Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books?


Answer: 1712

Question: In what year was Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books written?


Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Context: John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.

Question: Who developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought?


Answer: Leviathan

Question: Thomas Hobbes ushered in the new debate of social contract theory through which work of his?


Answer: social contract theory

Question: What did John Locke base his governance philosophy on?


Answer: social contract theory

Question: What did John Locke base his governance philosphy in?


Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Which English philosopher wrote Leviathan in 1651?


Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Who developed the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative?"


Answer: the artificial character of the political order

Question: Which of Hobbes' ideas led to the distinction between civil society and the state?


Answer: the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights

Context: Both Rousseau and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies, and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke the law of nature is grounded on mutual security, or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature; you cannot surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights.

Question: How does John Locke define mutual security?


Answer: perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property

Question: What do Locke's idea of natural rights include?


Answer: because it is morally reprehensible

Question: Why did John Locke believe that one person cannot enslave another?


Answer: enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights

Question: What was John Locke's one exception to denouncing slavery?


Answer: Second Treatise

Question: In which of John Locke's works are natural rights most famously defined and discussed?


Answer: Thomas Jefferson

Context: Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. Thomas Jefferson in the Jefferson Bible went further; he dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the resurrection of Jesus after his death. He tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.

Question: Who dropped any passages dealing with miracles or visitations of angels from his work the Jefferson Bible?


Answer: Thirty Years' War

Question: The Enlightenment era religious commentary was, in part, a response to which war?


Answer: a return to simple Scripture

Question: What did the Enlightenment mean for moderate Christians?


Answer: avoid

Question: Did John Locke want to foster or avoid increased detailed debate on the essence of Christianity?


Answer: France

Context: The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes and where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government for the most part ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

Question: In which country did the Enlightenment become associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism?


Answer: Isaac Newton

Question: Which of the Enlightenment's leaders did the British government give a knighthood and lucrative government office?


Answer: France

Question: In which country did the government respond with hostility to the Enlightenment, even imprisoning philosophes?


Answer: varied

Question: Was government response to the Enlightenment uniformly positive or widely varied?


Answer: middle

Question: In which class did the Enlightenment reach deepest, expressing a nationalistic tone?


Answer: Terror during the French Revolution

Context: The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. Its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." However, its detractors accuse it of 'shallow' rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start there was a Counter-Enlightenment in which conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment, because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.

Question: By 1794, what did those against the Enlightenment point to as confirmation of their predictions?


Answer: Romantic

Question: Which type of philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment?


Answer: materialism and skepticism

Question: What two ideas did conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attack as evil forces that encouraged immorality?


Answer: French Revolution

Context: There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment; the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes' Discourse on Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.

Question: Most scholars use the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars or which other battle as a convenient date to end the Enlightenment?


Answer: Louis XV

Question: French historians generally use the beginning of which King's reign to date the start of the Enlightenment?


Answer: Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments)

Question: What do French historians commonly call the Age of Enlightenment?


Answer: 1637

Question: In what year was Descartes' Discourse on Method published?


Answer: 1687

Question: In what year was Issaac Newton's Principia Mathematica published?


Answer: rise of the modern nation state

Context: The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, and an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions; the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.

Question: The creation of the public sphere is associated with the rise of capitalism and which other historical trend?


Answer: Capitalism

Question: What increased society's autonomy, self-awareness, and need for exchange of information?


Answer: 1720

Question: In what year did the aristocracy move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris?


Answer: music

Context: The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste, and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives, and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment".

Question: The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on what other form of publication?


Answer: Dictionnaire de musique

Question: What publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a leading text in the late 18th century and was published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris?


Answer: 1776

Question: In what year was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period published?


Answer: Die Zauberflöte (1791)

Question: What Mozart piece did Rose Rosengard Subotnik conclude is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment"?


Answer: Enlightenment and Romantic

Question: Which two perspectives did Rose Rosengard Subotnik use to compare Mozart's Die Cauberflote?


Answer: salon

Context: Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic, and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

Question: What was the principal social institution of the republic during the French Enlightenment?


Answer: open

Question: Was French society open or fearful of female participation in the literary sphere during the Enlightenment?


Answer: salonnières

Question: What female occupation allowed women to play an essential part in the French Enlightenment?


Answer: French Revolution

Question: Which event destroyed the former patronage and corporatism of France and allowed women to participate in society?


Answer: Troyes, France

Context: The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.

Question: Where was Bibliotheque Bleue located?


Answer: largely rural and semi-literate

Question: For what audience were the books of the Bibliotheque Bleue written?


Answer: The Tatler and The Spectator

Question: Which two influential periodicals were closely associated with London coffee house culture and were sold from 1909 to 1714?


Answer: Bibliothèque Bleue

Question: What collection of cheaply produced books represents the lower class' desire to participate in the Enlightenment?


Answer: French polite society

Context: The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As E. C. Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social". The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.

Question: Who was the target audience of natural history?


Answer: erudition

Question: Many texts had explicit instructive purposes as Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for what?


Answer: taste (le goût)

Question: The idea of what quality was a social indicator that provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class?


Answer: specific discourse of the genre

Question: Was the target audience of natural history evidenced more by the price of publications or its specific discourse of the genre?


Answer: John Harris

Context: The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries; instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions, and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy, and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.

Question: Who drafted the first technical dictionary?


Answer: Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences

Question: What was the first technical dictionary drafted by John Harris titled?


Answer: science and technology

Question: Did the Lexicon Technicum focus on theological and biographical entries or science and technology?


Answer: 1704

Question: What year was the Lexicon Technicum published?


Answer: English

Question: In what language was the Lexicon Technicum written?


Answer: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

Context: The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pembarton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

Question: What book was published in 1686 specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing?


Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle

Question: Who was the author of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)?


Answer: Sarah Trimmer

Question: Who wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782)?


Answer: eleven

Question: How many editions were published of Sarah Trimmer's history textbook for children?


Answer: Principia

Question: Emilie du Chatelet's translation of what Newton work was published after her death in 1756?


Answer: Middle Ages

Context: The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as 'academic contests') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages, and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. By roughly 1725, however, this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.

Question: The practice of contests dates back to what time period?


Answer: generally religious and/or monarchical

Question: Previous to 1725, what subject matter was focused on by the concours academiques?


Answer: theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice

Question: Which topics of public controversy became more widely discussed around 1725?


Answer: public

Question: Were the concours academiques public or private matters?


Answer: Oxford

Context: The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the "virtuosi", who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."

Question: Where did the first English coffeehouse open in 1650?


Answer: less

Question: According to Brian Cowan, was learning more or less formal in coffehouses as opposed to private institutions?


Answer: penny universities

Question: What term did Brian Cowan give Oxford coffeehouses?


Answer: Freemasonry

Context: Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.

Question: Diderot, Voltaire, Mozart, Goethe, and Benjamin Franklin were all members of what secret network?


Answer: powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists

Question: To whom was Freemasonry most attractive?


Answer: Europe

Question: Freemasonry expanded rapidly to nearly every country in which continent?


Answer: enlightened absolutism

Context: The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick I of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. The Americans Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson came to Europe during the period and contributed actively to the scientific and political debate, and the ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Question: Trying to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance became known as what?


Answer: Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson

Question: Which two Americans travelled to Europe during the Enlightenment and actively contributed to the scienific and political debate?


Answer: Declaration of Independence and the Constitution

Question: The ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into which two United States documents?


Answer: preceded

Question: Did the scientific revolution precede or follow the Age of Enlightenment?


Answer: 20th

Context: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought, and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).

Question: Kant's work continued to shape German thought and European philosophy well into what century?


Answer: 1724

Question: In what year was Immanuel Kant born?


Answer: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791)

Question: For which work is Mary Wollstonecraft best known?


Answer: 1791

Question: In what year was A Vindication on the Rights of Woman published?


Answer: reason

Question: Mary Wollstonecraft argued for a society based on what idea?


Answer: Hume

Context: Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a 'science of man', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.

Question: The basis of classical liberalism comes from whose philosophical concepts?


Answer: Hume

Question: Whose philosophical concepts directly influenceed James Madison and thus the U.S. Constitution?


Answer: Dugald Stewart

Question: Who popularised Hume's philosophical concepts?


Answer: social contract

Context: Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law; in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature, both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.

Question: What did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agree was necessary for a man to live in civil society?


Answer: Rousseau

Question: Who wrote Discourse on Inequality?


Answer: Locke

Question: Which theorist wrote Two Treatises of Government?


Answer: to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom

Question: For what reason did Rousseau feel people joined into civil society?


Answer: state of war

Question: From which state does Locke believe it is virtually improssible to break free?


Answer: enlightened despots

Context: In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year as the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

Question: Leaders of the Enlightenment that helped design laws and programs to reform the court system are called what by historians?


Answer: Joseph II of Austria

Question: Which enlightened despot was so over-enthusiastic that revolts broke out and nearly all of his programs were reversed?


Answer: Poland

Question: In what country was the model constitution of 1791 in effect for only one year?


Answer: Russia

Question: From what country was Enlightenment leader Catherine the Great?


Answer: moral fruits

Context: Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g. disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

Question: Did Mendelssohn and Spinoza judge religion on its moral fruits or logic of its theology??


Answer: organized religion

Question: What did Enlightenment scholars seek to curtail and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war?


Answer: politics

Question: Spinoza was determined to remove what from contemporary and historical theology?


Answer: what they found most convincing

Question: Did Moses Mendelssohn advise to follow a specific organized religion, or to whatever one found most convincing?


Answer: Scotland

Context: In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.

Question: Who did Voltaire say that France looked to for ideas of civilization?


Answer: agronomist

Question: What was the profession of James Anderson?


Answer: James Hutton

Question: Who was the first modern geologist?


Answer: physicist and chemist

Question: William Cullen and Joseph Black shared what two occupations?


Answer: 1733

Context: The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term 'Lumières' (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?") the German term became 'Aufklärung' (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like "les Lumières" (French), "illuminismo" (Italian), "ilustración" (Spanish) and "Aufklärung" (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment."

Question: In what year was the French term Lumieres first used?


Answer: Aufklärung

Question: What term became the German equivalent to the French term Lumieres?


Answer: 19th

Question: In what century did the term Enlightenment emerge in English?


Answer: illuminismo

Question: What is the Italian equivalent to the French term Lumieres?


Answer: overlapping

Question: Did the terms, Enlightenment, Lumieres, Aufklarung and illuminismo refer to distinct or overlapping movements?


Answer: lowered

Context: The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century"." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas".

Question: Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods?


Answer: increased

Question: Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution?


Answer: Industrial Revolution

Question: The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution?


Answer: musicians

Context: As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers, and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

Question: A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members?


Answer: middle

Question: Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews?


Answer: keyboard

Question: Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially?


Answer: keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble

Question: Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for?


Answer: mid-18th century

Context: In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors". These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who, in any case, were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.

Question: By what century in France had the men of letters fused with the elites?


Answer: Grub Street

Question: What was the term for the oppositional literary sphere of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be-authors"?


Answer: not

Question: Could the London market support the large numbers of writers that were emerging?


Answer: very poorly

Question: Were men travelling to London to become authors paid well or poorly by the publishing-bookselling guilds?


Answer: the Enlightenment

Context: The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market – such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese – found journal success more difficult, and more often than not, a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

Question: During which movement were the first scientific and literary journals established?


Answer: the Parisian Journal des Sçavans

Question: What was the title of the first scientific and literary journal?


Answer: 1665

Question: In what year did the first scientific and literary journal appear?


Answer: French and Latin

Question: Which two languages were the most dominant languages of scientific and literary publications?


Answer: Holland

Question: Where were the vast majority of French language periodicals produced?