Answer: Alberta and British Columbia

Context: This shift has already commenced in some countries; for instance, pharmacists in Australia receive remuneration from the Australian Government for conducting comprehensive Home Medicines Reviews. In Canada, pharmacists in certain provinces have limited prescribing rights (as in Alberta and British Columbia) or are remunerated by their provincial government for expanded services such as medications reviews (Medschecks in Ontario). In the United Kingdom, pharmacists who undertake additional training are obtaining prescribing rights and this is because of pharmacy education. They are also being paid for by the government for medicine use reviews. In Scotland the pharmacist can write prescriptions for Scottish registered patients of their regular medications, for the majority of drugs, except for controlled drugs, when the patient is unable to see their doctor, as could happen if they are away from home or the doctor is unavailable. In the United States, pharmaceutical care or clinical pharmacy has had an evolving influence on the practice of pharmacy. Moreover, the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.) degree is now required before entering practice and some pharmacists now complete one or two years of residency or fellowship training following graduation. In addition, consultant pharmacists, who traditionally operated primarily in nursing homes are now expanding into direct consultation with patients, under the banner of "senior care pharmacy."

Question: Which provinces in Canada limit the rights of pharmacists in prescribing?


Answer: the Australian Government

Question: Who pays Australian pharmacists for doing Home Medicines Reviews?


Answer: medicine use reviews

Question: What are pharmacists in the United Kingdom being increasingly paid for?


Answer: pharmaceutical care or clinical pharmacy

Question: What fields have increased in influence on pharmacy in the United States?


Answer: Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.)

Question: What degree is now mandatory in the U.S. in order to be a licensed pharmacist?


Answer: the mortar and pestle and the ℞ (recipere) character

Context: The two symbols most commonly associated with pharmacy in English-speaking countries are the mortar and pestle and the ℞ (recipere) character, which is often written as "Rx" in typed text. The show globe was also used until the early 20th century. Pharmacy organizations often use other symbols, such as the Bowl of Hygieia which is often used in the Netherlands, conical measures, and caduceuses in their logos. Other symbols are common in different countries: the green Greek cross in France, Argentina, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and India, the increasingly rare Gaper in the Netherlands, and a red stylized letter A in Germany and Austria (from Apotheke, the German word for pharmacy, from the same Greek root as the English word 'apothecary').

Question: What are the two symbols that signify pharmacy in English-speaking countries?


Answer: The show globe

Question: What symbol was employed until early in the 20th century?


Answer: the Netherlands

Question: What country uses the Bowl of Hygieia as a symbol of pharmacy?


Answer: Germany and Austria

Question: What countries use a red stylized A to signify pharmacy?


Answer: France, Argentina, the United Kingdom, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and India

Question: Which countries use the green Greek cross as a symbol of pharmacy?


Answer: a system of many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease

Context: The immune system is a system of many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. In many species, the immune system can be classified into subsystems, such as the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system, or humoral immunity versus cell-mediated immunity. In humans, the blood–brain barrier, blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and similar fluid–brain barriers separate the peripheral immune system from the neuroimmune system which protects the brain.

Question: What is the immune system?


Answer: a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms

Question: What does the immune system protect against?


Answer: the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system

Question: What are two of its subsystems?


Answer: the neuroimmune system

Question: What is the subsystem that protects the human brain?


Answer: biological structures and processes within an organism

Question: What is the immune system?


Answer: pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms

Question: What does the immune system protect against?


Answer: innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system

Question: What are two of its subsystems?


Answer: disease

Question: The immune system protects organisms against what?


Answer: pathogens

Question: What are the agents the immune system detects known as?


Answer: neuroimmune system

Question: Which part of the immune system protects the brain?


Answer: blood–brain barrier, blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier

Question: What separates the neuroimmune system and peripheral immune system in humans?


Answer: pathogens

Question: What are the agents detected by the immune system called?


Answer: innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system

Question: What are the two major subsystems of the immune system?


Answer: humoral immunity versus cell-mediated immunity

Question: What are the two different types of immunity?


Answer: neuroimmune system

Question: What is the immune system of the brained known as?


Answer: Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt

Context: Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt, and thereby avoid detection and neutralization by the immune system; however, multiple defense mechanisms have also evolved to recognize and neutralize pathogens. Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess a rudimentary immune system, in the form of enzymes that protect against bacteriophage infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern descendants, such as plants and invertebrates. These mechanisms include phagocytosis, antimicrobial peptides called defensins, and the complement system. Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt over time to recognize specific pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.

Question: How do pathogens avoid detection?


Answer: enzymes that protect against bacteriophage infections

Question: What kind of immune system do bacteria have?


Answer: eukaryotes

Question: Which other ancient organism formed basic immune mechanisms?


Answer: creates immunological memory

Question: How does adaptive/acquired immunity help in the future?


Answer: bacteriophage

Question: The immune systems of bacteria have enzymes that protect against infection by what kind of cells?


Answer: defensins

Question: What are antimicrobial peptides that evolved as immune defense in eukaryotes called?


Answer: vaccination

Question: The idea of acquired immunity in jawed vertebrates is the basis of what medical treatment?


Answer: Adaptive (or acquired) immunity

Question: What is the ability to recognize and adapt to new specific pathogens called?


Answer: autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer

Context: Disorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases and cancer. Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, acquired conditions such as HIV/AIDS, or the use of immunosuppressive medication. In contrast, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include Hashimoto's thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type 1, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.

Question: What can result from disorders of the immune system?


Answer: when the immune system is less active than normal

Question: When does immunodeficiency occur?


Answer: recurring and life-threatening infections

Question: What does immunodeficiency cause?


Answer: genetic disease

Question: Name one of the causes of immunodeficiency.


Answer: rheumatoid arthritis

Question: Name a common autoimmune disease.


Answer: Immunodeficiency

Question: What happens when the immune system less active than normal?


Answer: autoimmunity

Question: What is the term for a hyperactive immune system that attacks normal tissues?


Answer: Immunology

Question: What field involves the study of the immune system?


Answer: HIV/AIDS

Question: What acquired condition results in immunodeficiency in humans?


Answer: plague of Athens in 430 BC

Context: Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known reference to immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by Louis Pasteur in his development of vaccination and his proposed germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until Robert Koch's 1891 proofs, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the yellow fever virus by Walter Reed.

Question: What even is the earliest known reference to immunity?


Answer: scorpion

Question: Which animal's venom did Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis work with?


Answer: Louis Pasteur

Question: Who came up with germ theory?


Answer: Walter Reed

Question: Who discovered the Yellow Fever virus?


Answer: Robert Koch

Question: Who won the Nobel Prize in 1905?


Answer: microorganisms

Question: What did Robert Koch prove was the cause of infectious disease?


Answer: yellow fever virus

Question: What virus did Walter Reed discover?


Answer: Athens in 430 BC

Question: When was the first known historical reference to immunity?


Answer: immunological memory

Context: The immune system protects organisms from infection with layered defenses of increasing specificity. In simple terms, physical barriers prevent pathogens such as bacteria and viruses from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the innate immune system provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all plants and animals. If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the adaptive immune system, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an immunological memory, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.

Question: What is another name for an immune system's improved response?


Answer: the innate immune system

Question: Which system comes after an organism's physical barriers?


Answer: the adaptive immune system

Question: What protection comes after the innate response?


Answer: Innate immune systems

Question: What type of immune systems are found in all plants and animals?


Answer: adaptive immune system

Question: What immune system is activated by the innate response?


Answer: immunological memory

Question: What allows the adaptive immune system to react faster and more strongly each subsequent time a pathogen is encountered?


Answer: physical barriers

Question: What is the first line of defense against pathogens that prevents them from entering an organism?


Answer: self and non-self

Context: Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response.

Question: The adaptive immune system must distinguish between what types of molecules?


Answer: self molecules

Question: What molecules are parts of the body of an organism in immunology?


Answer: non-self molecules

Question: What molecules are recognized as foreign by the immune system?


Answer: antigens

Question: What term is shorthand for antibody generators?


Answer: specific immune receptors

Question: Antigens bind to what in order to elicit a response of the immune system?


Answer: pattern recognition receptors

Context: Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by pattern recognition receptors, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms, or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which (but not all) are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens. Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way. This system does not confer long-lasting immunity against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms.

Question: What part of the innate immune system identifies microbes and triggers immune response?


Answer: innate immune system

Question: For most organisms, what is the dominant system of defense?


Answer: microorganisms

Question: Pattern recognition receptors recognize components present in broad groups of what?


Answer: non-specific

Question: The innate immune system responds in a generic way, meaning it is what?


Answer: exoskeleton

Context: Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers. The waxy cuticle of many leaves, the exoskeleton of insects, the shells and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and skin are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection. However, as organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, other systems act to protect body openings such as the lungs, intestines, and the genitourinary tract. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other irritants from the respiratory tract. The flushing action of tears and urine also mechanically expels pathogens, while mucus secreted by the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract serves to trap and entangle microorganisms.

Question: What is a mechanical barrier in insects that protects the insect?


Answer: The waxy cuticle

Question: What is an example of a mechanical barrier on leaves?


Answer: coughing and sneezing

Question: What responses protect the lungs by mechanically ejecting pathogens from the respiratory system?


Answer: mucus

Question: What is secreted by the respiratory tract to trap microorganisms?


Answer: tears

Question: The flushing action of what expels pathogens from the eyes?


Answer: β-defensins

Context: Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete antimicrobial peptides such as the β-defensins. Enzymes such as lysozyme and phospholipase A2 in saliva, tears, and breast milk are also antibacterials. Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical barrier following menarche, when they become slightly acidic, while semen contains defensins and zinc to kill pathogens. In the stomach, gastric acid and proteases serve as powerful chemical defenses against ingested pathogens.

Question: What are the anitmicrobial peptides secreted by the skin called?


Answer: lysozyme and phospholipase A2

Question: What enzymes in saliva are antibacterial in nature?


Answer: defensins and zinc

Question: Semen contains what in order to kill pathogens?


Answer: gastric acid and proteases

Question: What compounds in the stomach protect against ingested pathogens?


Answer: menarche

Question: Vaginal secretions serve as a chemical protective barrier following what?


Answer: commensal flora

Context: Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. This reduces the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness. However, since most antibiotics non-specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics can lead to an "overgrowth" of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (a yeast infection). There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yogurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections.

Question: What serves as a biological barrier by competing for space and food in the GI tract?


Answer: fungi

Question: Most antibiotics target bacteria and don't affect what class of organisms?


Answer: lactobacilli

Question: What probiotic flora is found in unpasteurized yogurt?


Answer: pH or available iron

Question: Commensal flora can change what specific conditions of their environment in the gastrointestinal tract?


Answer: Inflammation

Context: Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection. The symptoms of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, and pain, which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue. Inflammation is produced by eicosanoids and cytokines, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include prostaglandins that produce fever and the dilation of blood vessels associated with inflammation, and leukotrienes that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes). Common cytokines include interleukins that are responsible for communication between white blood cells; chemokines that promote chemotaxis; and interferons that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down protein synthesis in the host cell. Growth factors and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.

Question: What is one of the first responses the immune system has to infection?


Answer: increased blood flow into tissue

Question: What causes the symptoms of inflammation?


Answer: eicosanoids and cytokines

Question: What compounds are released by injured or infected cells, triggering inflammation?


Answer: prostaglandins

Question: Eicosanoids include what compounds that result in fever and blood vessel dilation?


Answer: interleukins

Question: What cytokines are responsible for communication between white blood cells?


Answer: phagocytes

Context: Phagocytosis is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called 'phagocytes' that engulf, or eat, pathogens or particles. Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines. Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes trapped in an intracellular vesicle called a phagosome, which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a lysosome to form a phagolysosome. The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a respiratory burst that releases free radicals into the phagolysosome. Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring nutrients, but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism. Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals.

Question: What type of cells engulf or eat pathogens and foreign particles?


Answer: cytokines

Question: Phagocytes can be called to a specific location by what?


Answer: phagosome

Question: When a pathogen has been eaten by a phagocyte it becomes trapped in what vesicle?


Answer: phagolysosome

Question: What is formed when a phagosome fuses with a lysosome?


Answer: acquiring nutrients

Question: Phagocytosis first evolved as means of doing what?


Answer: Neutrophils and macrophages

Context: Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50% to 60% of the total circulating leukocytes. During the acute phase of inflammation, particularly as a result of bacterial infection, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called chemotaxis, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce a wide array of chemicals including enzymes, complement proteins, and regulatory factors such as interleukin 1. Macrophages also act as scavengers, ridding the body of worn-out cells and other debris, and as antigen-presenting cells that activate the adaptive immune system.

Question: What are two types of phagocytes that travel through the body to find invading pathogens?


Answer: Neutrophils

Question: What are the most abundant kind of phagocyte?


Answer: 50% to 60%

Question: What percentage of leukocytes do neutrophils represent?


Answer: chemotaxis

Question: What is the process in which neutrophils move towards the site of inflammation called?


Answer: interleukin 1

Question: What is a regulatory factor produced by macrophages?


Answer: Leukocytes

Context: Leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system. The innate leukocytes include the phagocytes (macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells), mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells. These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms. Innate cells are also important mediators in the activation of the adaptive immune system.

Question: What are white blood cells known as?


Answer: Leukocytes (white blood cells)

Question: What cells are the second arm of the innate immune system?


Answer: adaptive immune system

Question: Innate cells can act as mediators in the activation of what branch of the immune system?


Answer: macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells

Question: What are three kinds of phagocytes?


Answer: Dendritic cells

Context: Dendritic cells (DC) are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, as both have many spine-like projections, but dendritic cells are in no way connected to the nervous system. Dendritic cells serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they present antigens to T cells, one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system.

Question: What are the phagocytes that are located in tissues in contact with the external environment called?


Answer: neuronal dendrites

Question: Dendritic cells are named that because they resemble what?


Answer: T cells

Question: What are one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system?


Answer: T cells

Question: Dendritic cells present antigens to what cells of the adaptive nervous system?


Answer: missing self

Context: Natural killer cells, or NK cells, are a component of the innate immune system which does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self." This term describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (major histocompatibility complex) – a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells. They were named "natural killer" because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are "missing self." For many years it was unclear how NK cells recognize tumor cells and infected cells. It is now known that the MHC makeup on the surface of those cells is altered and the NK cells become activated through recognition of "missing self". Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR) which essentially put the brakes on NK cells.

Question: Natural killer cells recognize cells that should be targeted by a condition known as what?


Answer: Natural killer cells

Question: What is one part of the innate immune system that doesn't attack microbes directly?


Answer: MHC I (major histocompatibility complex)

Question: Missing self desribes cells that only have small amounts of what cell-surface marker?


Answer: killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR

Question: MHC antigens on normal body cells are recognized by what receptor on NK cells?


Answer: vertebrates

Context: The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific "non-self" antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.

Question: In what types of organisms did the adaptive immune system first evolve?


Answer: antigen presentation

Question: The adaptive immune system recognizes non-self antigens during a process called what?


Answer: pathogens or pathogen-infected cells

Question: Antigen specificity allows responses that are specific to certain types of what?


Answer: killer T cell and the helper T cell

Context: Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets. T cells recognize a "non-self" target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens (small fragments of the pathogen) have been processed and presented in combination with a "self" receptor called a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. There are two major subtypes of T cells: the killer T cell and the helper T cell. In addition there are regulatory T cells which have a role in modulating immune response. Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class I MHC molecules, while helper T cells and regulatory T cells only recognize antigens coupled to Class II MHC molecules. These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell. A third, minor subtype are the γδ T cells that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors.

Question: What are the two major subtypes of T cells?


Answer: regulatory T cells

Question: What kind of T cells have the purpose of modulating the immune response?


Answer: Class I MHC molecules

Question: Killer T cells can only recognize antigens coupled to what kind of molecules?


Answer: Class II MHC molecules

Question: Helper and regulatory T cells can only recognize antigens coupled to what kind of molecules?


Answer: γδ T cells

Question: What class of T cells recognizes intact antigens that are not associated with MHC receptors?


Answer: Killer T cells

Context: Killer T cells are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional. As with B cells, each type of T cell recognizes a different antigen. Killer T cells are activated when their T cell receptor (TCR) binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell. Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a co-receptor on the T cell, called CD8. The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen. When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases cytotoxins, such as perforin, which form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions, water and toxins to enter. The entry of another toxin called granulysin (a protease) induces the target cell to undergo apoptosis. T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses. T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T cells (see below).

Question: What kind of T cells kill cells that are infected with pathogens?


Answer: CD8

Question: What co-receptor on the T cell helps in recognizing the MHC-antigen complex?


Answer: T cell receptor (TCR)

Question: What is the receptor that killer T cells use to bind to specific antigens that are complexed with the MHC Class 1 receptor of another cell?


Answer: granulysin

Question: What toxin induces apoptosis in the target cell?


Answer: perforin

Question: When an activated killer T cell finds cells where the MHC 1 receptor has specific antigens, it releases cytotoxins such as what?


Answer: CD4 co-receptor

Context: Helper T cells express T cell receptors (TCR) that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The MHC:antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell's CD4 co-receptor, which recruits molecules inside the T cell (e.g., Lck) that are responsible for the T cell's activation. Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC:antigen complex than observed for killer T cells, meaning many receptors (around 200–300) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC:antigen in order to activate the helper cell, while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC:antigen molecule. Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen-presenting cell. The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types. Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells. In addition, helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell's surface, such as CD40 ligand (also called CD154), which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody-producing B cells.

Question: What co-receptor recruits molecules inside the T cell that are responsible for cell activation?


Answer: around 200–300

Question: How many receptors on a helper T cell must be bound to a MHC:antigen complex in order for the cell to be activated?


Answer: a single MHC:antigen molecule

Question: The receptors on a killer T cell must bind to how many MHC: antigen complexes in order to activate the cell?


Answer: cytokines

Question: Activation of a helper T cell causes it to release what chemicals that influence cell activity?


Answer: CD40 ligand

Question: What is a ligand on the cell surface that is upregulated after helper T cell activation?


Answer: helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells

Context: Gamma delta T cells (γδ T cells) possess an alternative T cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as CD1d-restricted Natural Killer T cells, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they rearrange TCR genes to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as pattern recognition receptors. For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in epithelia respond to stressed epithelial cells.

Question: Gamma delta T cells share the characteristics of what other types of T cells?


Answer: alternative T cell receptor (TCR)

Question: Gamma delta T cells have a different version of what receptor?


Answer: γδ T cells

Question: What type of T cells help with both innnate and adaptive immunity?


Answer: receptor diversity

Question: Gamma delta T cells rearrange TCR genes to produce what?


Answer: Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells

Question: What kind of human T cells respond to common molecules produced by microbes?


Answer: B cell

Context: A B cell identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen. This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by proteolysis into peptides. The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules. This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell, which releases lymphokines and activates the B cell. As the activated B cell then begins to divide, its offspring (plasma cells) secrete millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen. These antibodies circulate in blood plasma and lymph, bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by complement activation or for uptake and destruction by phagocytes. Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly, by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells.

Question: What kind of cell identifies pathogens when the antibodies on its surface complex with a specific foreign antigen?


Answer: proteolysis

Question: What is the process by which the antigen/antibody complex is processed in to peptides?


Answer: lymphokines

Question: What does the matching helper T cell release when it binds with the MHC:antigen complex of the B cell?


Answer: long-lived memory cells

Context: When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This is "adaptive" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.

Question: When B cells and T cells begin to replicate, what do some of their offspring cells become?


Answer: adaptive

Question: The function of long-lived memory cells is an example of what kind of immune response?


Answer: passive short-term memory or active long-term memory

Question: Immunological memory can take what two forms?


Answer: specific pathogen

Question: Long-lived memory cells can remember previous encounters with what?


Answer: microbes

Context: Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called IgG, is transported from mother to baby directly across the placenta, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk or colostrum also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies. This is passive immunity because the fetus does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies—it only borrows them. This passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting from a few days up to several months. In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be transferred artificially from one individual to another via antibody-rich serum.

Question: Newborns are vulnerable to infection because they have no previous exposure to what?


Answer: IgG

Question: What antibody is transported from the mother to baby across the placenta?


Answer: Breast milk or colostrum

Question: Antibodies are transferred to the gut of the infant through what means?


Answer: passive immunity

Question: Antibodies transported from the mother to an infant via the placenta is an example of what type of short-lived immunity?


Answer: immunomodulators

Context: Hormones can act as immunomodulators, altering the sensitivity of the immune system. For example, female sex hormones are known immunostimulators of both adaptive and innate immune responses. Some autoimmune diseases such as lupus erythematosus strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with puberty. By contrast, male sex hormones such as testosterone seem to be immunosuppressive. Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably prolactin, growth hormone and vitamin D.

Question: Hormones can alter the sensitivity of the immune system, so they can be referred to as what?


Answer: adaptive and innate immune responses

Question: Female sex hormones are immunostimulators of which immune responses?


Answer: lupus erythematosus

Question: What is an autoimmune disease that affects women preferentially?


Answer: immunosuppressive

Question: What is the effect of testosterone on the male immune system?


Answer: NFIL3

Context: When suffering from sleep deprivation, active immunizations may have a diminished effect and may result in lower antibody production, and a lower immune response, than would be noted in a well-rested individual. Additionally, proteins such as NFIL3, which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both T-cell differentiation and our circadian rhythms, can be affected through the disturbance of natural light and dark cycles through instances of sleep deprivation, shift work, etc. As a result, these disruptions can lead to an increase in chronic conditions such as heart disease, chronic pain, and asthma.

Question: What is a protein that is closely intertwined with circadian rhythms?


Answer: heart disease, chronic pain, and asthma

Question: Disruptions in sleep can lead to increase in what chronic conditions?


Answer: sleep deprivation

Question: What kind of deprivation results in diminished immune response and lower antibody production?


Answer: decline in hormone levels with age

Context: It is conjectured that a progressive decline in hormone levels with age is partially responsible for weakened immune responses in aging individuals. Conversely, some hormones are regulated by the immune system, notably thyroid hormone activity. The age-related decline in immune function is also related to decreasing vitamin D levels in the elderly. As people age, two things happen that negatively affect their vitamin D levels. First, they stay indoors more due to decreased activity levels. This means that they get less sun and therefore produce less cholecalciferol via UVB radiation. Second, as a person ages the skin becomes less adept at producing vitamin D.

Question: What is partially responsible for weakened immune response in older individuals?


Answer: vitamin D

Question: As a person gets older, what does the skin produce less of?


Answer: hormones

Question: The production of what signalling molecules is regulated by the immune system?


Answer: cholecalciferol

Question: Older people get less sun and produce less of what chemical via UVB radiation?


Answer: killer T cells

Context: The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells, sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells. Tumor antigens are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens. This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal. NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a common phenomenon with tumors. Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the complement system.

Question: What type of immune cells help to destroy abnormal cells in tumors?


Answer: MHC class I molecules

Question: Lots of tumor cells have fewer of what type of molecule on their surface?


Answer: viral antigens

Question: Tumor antigens are complexed with MHC class I molecules in the same way as what antigens?


Answer: antibodies

Question: The immune system also produces what molecules in order to allow for tumor destruction by the complement system?


Answer: phagocytic cells

Context: Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant. Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as Pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPs. When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent. RNA silencing mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block virus replication.

Question: Plants lack what kind of immune cells?


Answer: Pathogen-associated molecular patterns

Question: Plant cells respond to the molecules associated with pathogens known as what?


Answer: apoptosis

Question: Cells of the site of an infection in a plant undergo what process to prevent spread of the disease?


Answer: Systemic acquired resistance (SAR)

Question: What is a kind of defense response that makes the entire plant resistant to a particular agent?


Answer: RNA silencing mechanisms

Question: What is a mechanism that can help plants block virus replication?


Answer: autoimmune disorders

Context: Overactive immune responses comprise the other end of immune dysfunction, particularly the autoimmune disorders. Here, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non-self, and attacks part of the body. Under normal circumstances, many T cells and antibodies react with "self" peptides. One of the functions of specialized cells (located in the thymus and bone marrow) is to present young lymphocytes with self antigens produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize self-antigens, preventing autoimmunity.

Question: What kind of disorders are the result of an overactive immune response?


Answer: self and non-self

Question: In autoimmune disorders, the immune system doesn't distinguish between what types of cells?


Answer: thymus and bone marrow

Question: Where are the specialized cells that eliminate cells that recognize self-antigens located?


Answer: "self" peptides

Question: Under normal conditions, T cells and antibodies produce what kind of peptides?


Answer: Immunodeficiencies

Context: Immunodeficiencies occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive. The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the elderly, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to immunosenescence. In developed countries, obesity, alcoholism, and drug use are common causes of poor immune function. However, malnutrition is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in developing countries. Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function, IgA antibody concentrations, and cytokine production. Additionally, the loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection.

Question: What kind of disorders occur when part of the immune system isn't active?


Answer: the young and the elderly

Question: In what two age groups is the strength of the immune system reduced?


Answer: around 50 years of age

Question: At what age do immune responses typically begin to decline?


Answer: obesity, alcoholism, and drug use

Question: What are some causes of reduced immune function in developed countries?


Answer: malnutrition

Question: What is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in developing nations?


Answer: vaccination

Context: Long-term active memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells. Active immunity can also be generated artificially, through vaccination. The principle behind vaccination (also called immunization) is to introduce an antigen from a pathogen in order to stimulate the immune system and develop specific immunity against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism. This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system, as well as its inducibility. With infectious disease remaining one of the leading causes of death in the human population, vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed.

Question: By what process can active immunity be generated in an artificial manner?


Answer: immunization

Question: What is the process of vaccination also known as?


Answer: an antigen from a pathogen

Question: In the process of vaccination, what is introduced in order to develop a specific immunity?


Answer: natural specificity of the immune system

Question: Vaccination exploits what feature of the human immune system in order to be successful?


Answer: enzymes

Context: The success of any pathogen depends on its ability to elude host immune responses. Therefore, pathogens evolved several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading detection or destruction by the immune system. Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes that digest the barrier, for example, by using a type II secretion system. Alternatively, using a type III secretion system, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, providing a direct route for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host. These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses.

Question: Bacteria often secrete what kind of proteins to ingest a physical barrier?


Answer: type III secretion system

Question: What kind of system of infection involves inserting a hollow tube into a host cell?


Answer: shut down host defenses

Question: In a type III secretion system, proteins are transported to the host cell in order to do what?


Answer: elude host immune responses

Question: The success of pathogens is predicated on their ability to do what?


Answer: Frank Burnet

Context: In the mid-1950s, Frank Burnet, inspired by a suggestion made by Niels Jerne, formulated the clonal selection theory (CST) of immunity. On the basis of CST, Burnet developed a theory of how an immune response is triggered according to the self/nonself distinction: "self" constituents (constituents of the body) do not trigger destructive immune responses, while "nonself" entities (pathogens, an allograft) trigger a destructive immune response. The theory was later modified to reflect new discoveries regarding histocompatibility or the complex "two-signal" activation of T cells. The self/nonself theory of immunity and the self/nonself vocabulary have been criticized, but remain very influential.

Question: Who formulated the idea of clonal selection theory of immunity?


Answer: pathogens, an allograft

Question: What are two examples of nonself entities in accordance with Frank Burnet's theory?


Answer: histocompatibility

Question: What is the complex "two-signal" activation of T cells referred to?


Answer: Niels Jerne

Question: What other scientist influence Frank Burnet when he was formulating his theory of immunity?


Answer: Glucocorticoids

Context: Anti-inflammatory drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation. Glucocorticoids are the most powerful of these drugs; however, these drugs can have many undesirable side effects, such as central obesity, hyperglycemia, osteoporosis, and their use must be tightly controlled. Lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as methotrexate or azathioprine. Cytotoxic drugs inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells. However, the killing is indiscriminate and other constantly dividing cells and their organs are affected, which causes toxic side effects. Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporin prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting signal transduction pathways.

Question: What are the most powerful class of anti-inflammatory drugs?


Answer: cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs

Question: Low doses of anti-inflammatories are sometimes used with what classes of drugs?


Answer: methotrexate or azathioprine

Question: What are two examples of cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs?


Answer: cyclosporin

Question: What is an example of an immunosuppressive drug that prevents T cell activity by altering signal transduction pathways?


Answer: cytotoxic natural killer cells and CTLs (cytotoxic T lymphocytes)

Context: In contrast, during wake periods differentiated effector cells, such as cytotoxic natural killer cells and CTLs (cytotoxic T lymphocytes), peak in order to elicit an effective response against any intruding pathogens. As well during awake active times, anti-inflammatory molecules, such as cortisol and catecholamines, peak. There are two theories as to why the pro-inflammatory state is reserved for sleep time. First, inflammation would cause serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times. Second, inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of melatonin. Inflammation causes a great deal of oxidative stress and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time.

Question: What are examples of differentiated effector cells that peak during wake periods?


Answer: cortisol and catecholamines

Question: What are two anti-inflammatory molecules that peak during awake hours?


Answer: melatonin

Question: Inflammation occurs during sleep times because of the presence of what molecule?


Answer: free radical production

Question: Melatonin during sleep can actively counteract the production of what?


Answer: a vitamin D receptor

Context: When a T-cell encounters a foreign pathogen, it extends a vitamin D receptor. This is essentially a signaling device that allows the T-cell to bind to the active form of vitamin D, the steroid hormone calcitriol. T-cells have a symbiotic relationship with vitamin D. Not only does the T-cell extend a vitamin D receptor, in essence asking to bind to the steroid hormone version of vitamin D, calcitriol, but the T-cell expresses the gene CYP27B1, which is the gene responsible for converting the pre-hormone version of vitamin D, calcidiol into the steroid hormone version, calcitriol. Only after binding to calcitriol can T-cells perform their intended function. Other immune system cells that are known to express CYP27B1 and thus activate vitamin D calcidiol, are dendritic cells, keratinocytes and macrophages.

Question: What does a T cell extend when it encounters a foreign pathogen?


Answer: calcitriol

Question: What is the active form of vitamin D known as?


Answer: symbiotic relationship

Question: What is the nature of the relationship between T-cells and vitamin D?


Answer: gene CYP27B1

Question: What gene is responsible for converting calcidiol into calcitriol?


Answer: dendritic cells, keratinocytes and macrophages

Question: Other than T cells, what other immune cells express CYP27B1?


Answer: Pattern recognition receptors

Context: Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens. Antimicrobial peptides called defensins are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. The complement system and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life. Ribonucleases and the RNA interference pathway are conserved across all eukaryotes, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses.

Question: What are the proteins that organisms use to identify molecules associated with pathogens?


Answer: defensins

Question: What are the antimicrobial peptides that are the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity called?


Answer: phagocytic cells

Question: What cell type is also used for immune response in most types of invertebrate life?


Answer: RNA interference pathway

Question: What pathway that plays a role in immune response to viruses is present in all eukaryotes?


Answer: immunoglobulins and T cell receptors

Context: Evolution of the adaptive immune system occurred in an ancestor of the jawed vertebrates. Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g., immunoglobulins and T cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates. However, a distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish. These animals possess a large array of molecules called Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.

Question: What molecules of the adaptive immune system only exist in jawed vertebrates?


Answer: the lamprey and hagfish

Question: What are two examples of primitive jawless vertebrates?


Answer: Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs)

Question: Primitive jawless vertebrates possess an array of receptors referred to as what?


Answer: adaptive immune system

Question: Evolution of what part of the immune system occurred in the evolutionary ancestor of jawed vertebrates?


Answer: lymphocytes

Context: It is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates, as invertebrates do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral response. Many species, however, utilize mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Immune systems appear even in the structurally most simple forms of life, with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism, called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from viral pathogens, called bacteriophages. Prokaryotes also possess acquired immunity, through a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that they have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of RNA interference. Offensive elements of the immune systems are also present in unicellular eukaryotes, but studies of their roles in defense are few.

Question: Invertebrates do not generate what type of cells that are a part of the vertebrate adaptive immune system?


Answer: the restriction modification system

Question: What is the main defense mechanism of bacteria known as?


Answer: bacteriophages

Question: The restriction modification system is used by bacteria for protection from what pathogens?


Answer: CRISPR

Question: What is the system by which prokaryotes retain phage gene fragments that they have previously come in contact with?


Answer: "cellular" and "humoral" theories of immunity

Context: Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude. Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between "cellular" and "humoral" theories of immunity. According to the cellular theory of immunity, represented in particular by Elie Metchnikoff, it was cells – more precisely, phagocytes – that were responsible for immune responses. In contrast, the humoral theory of immunity, held, among others, by Robert Koch and Emil von Behring, stated that the active immune agents were soluble components (molecules) found in the organism’s “humors” rather than its cells.

Question: What were the two main theories of immunity at the end of the 19th century?


Answer: Elie Metchnikoff

Question: Who was the main proponent of the cellular theory of immunity?


Answer: phagocytes

Question: Under Elie Metchnikoff's cellular theory, what cells were responsible for immune response?


Answer: Robert Koch and Emil von Behring

Question: What two scientists were proponents of the humoral theory of immunity?


Answer: soluble components (molecules)

Question: According to the humoral theory of immunity, what were the bodies immune agents?


Answer: cancers

Context: Clearly, some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers. Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells. Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine TGF-β, which suppresses the activity of macrophages and lymphocytes. In addition, immunological tolerance may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.

Question: Tumors that are able to evade the body's immune response can become what?


Answer: MHC class I molecules

Question: What receptors do tumor cells often have reduced concentrations of?


Answer: cytokine TGF-β

Question: What is a chemical secreted by tumors that suppresses the immune response?


Answer: macrophages and lymphocytes

Question: Cytokine TBF-B suppresses the activity of what cell types?


Answer: Hypersensitivity

Context: Hypersensitivity is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues. They are divided into four classes (Type I – IV) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction. Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or anaphylactic reaction, often associated with allergy. Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death. Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by IgE, which triggers degranulation of mast cells and basophils when cross-linked by antigen. Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the patient's own cells, marking them for destruction. This is also called antibody-dependent (or cytotoxic) hypersensitivity, and is mediated by IgG and IgM antibodies. Immune complexes (aggregations of antigens, complement proteins, and IgG and IgM antibodies) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions. Type IV hypersensitivity (also known as cell-mediated or delayed type hypersensitivity) usually takes between two and three days to develop. Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases, but may also involve contact dermatitis (poison ivy). These reactions are mediated by T cells, monocytes, and macrophages.

Question: What is the name for a response of the immune system that damages the body's native tissues?


Answer: four classes (Type I – IV)

Question: How many classes of immune hypersensitivity are there?


Answer: Type I

Question: What type of hypersensitivity is associated with allergies?


Answer: IgE

Question: What is the chemical that mediates Type 1 hypersensitivity?


Answer: Type II hypersensitivity

Question: Antibody-dependent hypersensitivity belongs to what class of hypersensitivity?


Answer: intracellular pathogenesis

Context: An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called intracellular pathogenesis). Here, a pathogen spends most of its life-cycle inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the food poisoning bacterium Salmonella and the eukaryotic parasites that cause malaria (Plasmodium falciparum) and leishmaniasis (Leishmania spp.). Other bacteria, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, live inside a protective capsule that prevents lysis by complement. Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response. Some bacteria form biofilms to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, e.g., the chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cenocepacia infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis. Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include Streptococcus (protein G), Staphylococcus aureus (protein A), and Peptostreptococcus magnus (protein L).

Question: What is the process by which pathogens evade the immune system by hiding inside the host cells called?


Answer: Salmonella

Question: What food bacteria is an example of intracellular pathogenesis?


Answer: Plasmodium falciparum

Question: What is the eukaryotic parasite responsible for malaria known as?


Answer: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Question: What bacteria lives inside a protective capsule that serves to prevent cell lysis?


Answer: protein A

Question: What protein does Staphylococcus aureus produce to make antibodies ineffective?


Answer: antigenic variation

Context: The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential epitopes (amino acids and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. This is called antigenic variation. An example is HIV, which mutates rapidly, so the proteins on its viral envelope that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of vaccines directed at this virus. The parasite Trypanosoma brucei uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response. Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the virion is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such "self-cloaked" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as "non-self" structures.

Question: What is the process by which the adaptive immune system is evaded by the chainging of non-essential epitopes called?


Answer: HIV

Question: What is an example of a virus that uses antigenic variation?


Answer: Trypanosoma brucei

Question: What is an example of a parasite that used the antigenic variation strategy to evade destruction?


Answer: antigens

Question: What compounds can be masked with the molecules of the host cell in order for a virus to evade detection?


Answer: immune surveillance

Context: Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate tumors. This is called immune surveillance. The transformed cells of tumors express antigens that are not found on normal cells. To the immune system, these antigens appear foreign, and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells. The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources; some are derived from oncogenic viruses like human papillomavirus, which causes cervical cancer, while others are the organism's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells. One example is an enzyme called tyrosinase that, when expressed at high levels, transforms certain skin cells (e.g. melanocytes) into tumors called melanomas. A third possible source of tumor antigens are proteins normally important for regulating cell growth and survival, that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called oncogenes.

Question: What is the process by which the immune system identifies tumors called?


Answer: human papillomavirus

Question: What is the virus in humans that causes cervical cancer?


Answer: tyrosinase

Question: What is an example of an enzyme that can transform skin cells into tumors when expressed at high levels?


Answer: melanomas

Question: What are cancerous tumors of the skin known as?


Answer: melanocytes

Question: What are the skin cells that can be transformed into tumors known as?


Answer: >500 Da

Context: Larger drugs (>500 Da) can provoke a neutralizing immune response, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000 Da). In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for Taxol. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that hydrophilic amino acids are overrepresented in epitope regions than hydrophobic amino acids; however, more recent developments rely on machine learning techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a training set. A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells. The emerging field of bioinformatics-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as immunoinformatics. Immunoproteomics is the study of large sets of proteins (proteomics) involved in the immune response.

Question: At what size and larger can drugs elicit a neutralizing immune response?


Answer: hydrophilic amino acids

Question: What kind of amino acids are overrepresented in epitope regions?


Answer: Immunoproteomics

Question: What is the study of proteins involved in immune response known as?


Answer: B cells

Question: There is a public database of epitopes for pathogens known to be recognizable by what cells?


Answer: immunoinformatics

Question: What is the field of studying immunogenicity through bioinformatics known as?


Answer: leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin

Context: In addition to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation, sleep and the intertwined circadian system have been shown to have strong regulatory effects on immunological functions affecting both the innate and the adaptive immunity. First, during the early slow-wave-sleep stage, a sudden drop in blood levels of cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine induce increased blood levels of the hormones leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin. These signals induce a pro-inflammatory state through the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1, interleukin-12, TNF-alpha and IFN-gamma. These cytokines then stimulate immune functions such as immune cells activation, proliferation, and differentiation. It is during this time that undifferentiated, or less differentiated, like naïve and central memory T cells, peak (i.e. during a time of a slowly evolving adaptive immune response). In addition to these effects, the milieu of hormones produced at this time (leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin) support the interactions between APCs and T-cells, a shift of the Th1/Th2 cytokine balance towards one that supports Th1, an increase in overall Th cell proliferation, and naïve T cell migration to lymph nodes. This milieu is also thought to support the formation of long-lasting immune memory through the initiation of Th1 immune responses.

Question: Drop in the blood levels of cortisol and epinephrine results in increase levels of what hormones?


Answer: APCs

Question: Hormones released during sleep support the interaction of T-cells and what species?


Answer: Th1

Question: Sleep hormones shift the cytokine balance to which cytokine?


Answer: Th1 immune responses

Question: Sleep hormone release supports formation of immune memory by initiating what immune response?


Answer: carbohydrates

Context: In humans, this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to carbohydrates on the surfaces of microbes. This recognition signal triggers a rapid killing response. The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs following sequential proteolytic activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases. After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on. This produces a catalytic cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled positive feedback. The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells, increase vascular permeability, and opsonize (coat) the surface of a pathogen, marking it for destruction. This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their plasma membrane.

Question: Complement proteins bind to what kind of molecules on the surface of microbes in order to elicit an immune response?


Answer: disrupting their plasma membrane

Question: How can the deposition of compliment kill invader cells directly?


Answer: signal amplification

Question: The speed of the killing response of the human immune system is a product of what process?


Answer: catalytic cascade

Question: What type of cascade results when complement proteins bind to microbes and activate their protease activity?


Answer: Civil disobedience

Context: One of its earliest massive implementations was brought about by Egyptians against the British occupation in the 1919 Revolution. Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have rebelled against what they deem to be unfair laws. It has been used in many nonviolent resistance movements in India (Gandhi's campaigns for independence from the British Empire), in Czechoslovakia's Velvet Revolution and in East Germany to oust their communist governments, In South Africa in the fight against apartheid, in the American Civil Rights Movement, in the Singing Revolution to bring independence to the Baltic countries from the Soviet Union, recently with the 2003 Rose Revolution in Georgia and the 2004 Orange Revolution in Ukraine, among other various movements worldwide.

Question: What is it called when people in society rebel against laws they think are unfair?


Answer: apartheid

Question: What is an example of major civil disobedience in South Africa?


Answer: Singing Revolution

Question: What was the the movement called that brought Baltic countries independence from the Soviet Union?


Answer: Ukraine

Question: In 2004 the Orange revolution occurred in what country?


Answer: Georgia

Question: Where was the location of the 2003 Rose revolution?


Answer: Egyptians

Question: Which people brought forward one of the earliest examples of Civil Disobedience?


Answer: the British

Question: Who was one of the earliest examples of Civil Disobedience against?


Answer: nonviolent resistance

Question: Why do people chose civil disobedience to protest?


Answer: unfair laws

Question: What does civil disobedience protest against?


Answer: American Civil Rights Movement

Question: What civil rights movement in the US was known for it's disobedience?


Answer: Antigone

Context: One of the oldest depictions of civil disobedience is in Sophocles' play Antigone, in which Antigone, one of the daughters of former King of Thebes, Oedipus, defies Creon, the current King of Thebes, who is trying to stop her from giving her brother Polynices a proper burial. She gives a stirring speech in which she tells him that she must obey her conscience rather than human law. She is not at all afraid of the death he threatens her with (and eventually carries out), but she is afraid of how her conscience will smite her if she does not do this.

Question: Sophocles demonstrated civil disobedience in a play that was called?


Answer: former King of Thebes

Question: Who is Antigone's father in the play?


Answer: Creon

Question: What is the name of the current King of Thebes in the play?


Answer: Oedipus

Question: What character in the play portrays civil disobedience?


Answer: giving her brother Polynices a proper burial

Question: What is Creon trying to stop Antigone from doing in the play?


Answer: Antigone

Question: What play showed an early depiction of civil disobedience?


Answer: Sophocles

Question: Antigone was a play made by whom?


Answer: Creon, the current King of Thebes

Question: In Antigone, who was the target of civil disobedience?


Answer: giving her brother Polynices a proper burial

Question: What was the protest in Antigone about?


Answer: obey her conscience rather than human law

Question: How was the civil disobedience shown in Antigone?


Answer: Percy Shelley

Context: Following the Peterloo massacre of 1819, poet Percy Shelley wrote the political poem The Mask of Anarchy later that year, that begins with the images of what he thought to be the unjust forms of authority of his time—and then imagines the stirrings of a new form of social action. It is perhaps the first modern[vague] statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. A version was taken up by the author Henry David Thoreau in his essay Civil Disobedience, and later by Gandhi in his doctrine of Satyagraha. Gandhi's Satyagraha was partially influenced and inspired by Shelley's nonviolence in protest and political action. In particular, it is known that Gandhi would often quote Shelley's Masque of Anarchy to vast audiences during the campaign for a free India.

Question: After the Peterloo massacre what poet wrote The Massacre of Anarchy?


Answer: nonviolent

Question: His poem is considered the first kind of what type of protest?


Answer: Satyagraha

Question: Inspired by Shelley what was the name of Gandhi's doctrine?


Answer: free India

Question: Gandhi often referenced Shelley's poem in his efforts to do what?


Answer: Henry David Thoreau

Question: What famous author used similarity and likeness of Percy Shelly in his writing?


Answer: Percy Shelley

Question: Who wrote the poem The Mark of Anarchy?


Answer: unjust forms of authority

Question: The Mark of Anarchy was written to protest against what?


Answer: principle of nonviolent protest

Question: What was the principle shown in The Mark of Anarchy?


Answer: doctrine of Satyagraha

Question: What was Ghandi's work called?


Answer: Gandhi

Question: Which famous Indian practiced civil disobedience?


Answer: muggers, arsonists, draft evaders, campaign hecklers, campus militants, anti-war demonstrators, juvenile delinquents and political assassins

Context: It has been argued that the term "civil disobedience" has always suffered from ambiguity and in modern times, become utterly debased. Marshall Cohen notes, "It has been used to describe everything from bringing a test-case in the federal courts to taking aim at a federal official. Indeed, for Vice President Agnew it has become a code-word describing the activities of muggers, arsonists, draft evaders, campaign hecklers, campus militants, anti-war demonstrators, juvenile delinquents and political assassins."

Question: Vice President Agnew describes Civil disobedience in what activities?


Answer: Marshall Cohen

Question: What person argues that civil disobedience is used to describe everything?


Answer: ambiguity

Question: Civil disobedience has been argued in more recent times to have suffered from what?


Answer: utterly debased

Question: More in the present prevalence of civil disobedience has turned and said to be?


Answer: become utterly debased

Question: In modern times, what is said about civil disobedience?


Answer: Marshall Cohen

Question: Who noted the different current uses of civil disobedience?


Answer: code-word describing the activities of muggers, arsonists, draft evaders

Question: How has civil disobedience evolved in current times?


Answer: Vice President Agnew

Question: Who gave a negative connotation to civil disobedience in recent history?


Answer: ambiguity

Question: What issue has been plaguing the civil disobedience movement.


Answer: LeGrande

Context: LeGrande writes that "the formulation of a single all-encompassing definition of the term is extremely difficult, if not impossible. In reviewing the voluminous literature on the subject, the student of civil disobedience rapidly finds himself surrounded by a maze of semantical problems and grammatical niceties. Like Alice in Wonderland, he often finds that specific terminology has no more (or no less) meaning than the individual orator intends it to have." He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience.

Question: Who wrote that it is difficult to produce an all inclusive definition of civil disobedience?


Answer: impossible

Question: Le Grande also wrote that defining the term civil disobedience so difficult it could be described as?


Answer: lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience

Question: Le grand asks for a variance of what three terms?


Answer: semantical

Question: Le grand states that students studying civil disobedience will often run into grammatical niceties and what other problem?


Answer: specific

Question: Le grand concludes that an author's words offer only what they intended for them to imply regarding this type of terminology?


Answer: LeGrande

Question: Who said that writing a good description of civil disobedience is hard?


Answer: voluminous literature

Question: How much literature has been written regarding civil disobedience?


Answer: semantical problems and grammatical niceties

Question: What issue plagues the literature about civil disobedience?


Answer: nonviolent civil disobedience

Question: What type of protest falls under civil disobedience without aggression?


Answer: violent civil disobedience

Question: What type of civil disobedience is accompanied by aggression?


Answer: constitutional impasse

Context: Civil disobedience is usually defined as pertaining to a citizen's relation to the state and its laws, as distinguished from a constitutional impasse in which two public agencies, especially two equally sovereign branches of government, conflict. For instance, if the head of government of a country were to refuse to enforce a decision of that country's highest court, it would not be civil disobedience, since the head of government would be acting in her or his capacity as public official rather than private citizen.

Question: If the head of government refuses to enforce a decision of the highest court what terminology could be used?


Answer: citizen's

Question: Constitutional impasse is different from civil disobedience because does not include what type of person?


Answer: to the state and its laws

Question: How is civil disobedience typically defined in connection of the citizen's?


Answer: the head of government would be acting in her or his capacity as public official

Question: When would a person be considered to be excising a constitutional impasse?


Answer: Civil disobedience

Question: Constitutional impasse is distinct from what key term?


Answer: the state and its laws

Question: What does civil disobedience relate to?


Answer: refuse to enforce a decision

Question: What does not constitute as civil disobedience?


Answer: head of government

Question: What type of person can not be attributed civil disobedience?


Answer: private citizen

Question: Civil Disobedience is mainly performed by what population group?


Answer: sovereign branches of government

Question: What group of people cannot be part of civil disobedience?


Answer: Thoreau

Context: However, this definition is disputed by Thoreau's political philosophy pitching the conscience vs. the collective. The individual is the final judge of right and wrong. More than this, since only individuals act, only individuals can act unjustly. When the government knocks on the door, it is an individual in the form of a postman or tax collector whose hand hits the wood. Before Thoreau’s imprisonment, when a confused taxman had wondered aloud about how to handle his refusal to pay, Thoreau had advised, “Resign.” If a man chose to be an agent of injustice, then Thoreau insisted on confronting him with the fact that he was making a choice. But if government is “the voice of the people,” as it is often called, shouldn’t that voice be heeded? Thoreau admits that government may express the will of the majority but it may also express nothing more than the will of elite politicians. Even a good form of government is “liable to be abused and perverted before the people can act through it.” Moreover, even if a government did express the voice of the people, this fact would not compel the obedience of individuals who disagree with what is being said. The majority may be powerful but it is not necessarily right. What, then, is the proper relationship between the individual and the government?

Question: What author argues pitching the conscience versus the collective?


Answer: imprisonment

Question: What was Thoreau's punishment for not paying his taxes?


Answer: not necessarily right

Question: Thoreau argues that usually majority rules but their views collectively are sometimes?


Answer: Resign

Question: What did Thoreau ask a public figure the taxman to do?


Answer: elite politicians

Question: Thoreau mentions what type of person could corrupt a government system?


Answer: The individual

Question: Who is the final judge of right and wrong?


Answer: individuals

Question: Who is to blame for acting unjustly?


Answer: Thoreau

Question: Who was famous for disobedience against a tax collector?


Answer: Resign

Question: What advise did Thoreau give the tax collector when unable to perform his duty?


Answer: not necessarily right

Question: What did Thoreau claim about the majority?


Answer: governmental entities

Context: Some theories of civil disobedience hold that civil disobedience is only justified against governmental entities. Brownlee argues that disobedience in opposition to the decisions of non-governmental agencies such as trade unions, banks, and private universities can be justified if it reflects "a larger challenge to the legal system that permits those decisions to be taken". The same principle, she argues, applies to breaches of law in protest against international organizations and foreign governments.

Question: Some theories argue that civil disobedience is justified in regard to?


Answer: trade unions, banks, and private universities

Question: Brownlee argues disobedience can be justified toward what institutions?


Answer: legal system

Question: Brownlee justifies civil disobedience toward what branch of the government?


Answer: international organizations and foreign governments

Question: Browlee also applies that civil disobedience is okay regarding?


Answer: Brownlee

Question: Who claims that public companies can also be part of civil disobedience?


Answer: a larger challenge to the legal system

Question: What reason is given that you should also protest public companies?


Answer: only justified against governmental entities

Question: What do some theories claim about civil disobedience?


Answer: universities

Question: What public entity of learning is often target of civil disobedience?


Answer: civil disobedience

Context: It is usually recognized that lawbreaking, if it is not done publicly, at least must be publicly announced in order to constitute civil disobedience. But Stephen Eilmann argues that if it is necessary to disobey rules that conflict with morality, we might ask why disobedience should take the form of public civil disobedience rather than simply covert lawbreaking. If a lawyer wishes to help a client overcome legal obstacles to securing her or his natural rights, he might, for instance, find that assisting in fabricating evidence or committing perjury is more effective than open disobedience. This assumes that common morality does not have a prohibition on deceit in such situations. The Fully Informed Jury Association's publication "A Primer for Prospective Jurors" notes, "Think of the dilemma faced by German citizens when Hitler's secret police demanded to know if they were hiding a Jew in their house." By this definition, civil disobedience could be traced back to the Book of Exodus, where Shiphrah and Puah refused a direct order of Pharaoh but misrepresented how they did it. (Exodus 1: 15-19)

Question: If law breaking is not done in a public manor it is not considered what term?


Answer: covert lawbreaking

Question: Stephen Eilmann asks why show public civil disobedience instead what is a better idea?


Answer: hiding a Jew in their house

Question: Stephen Eilmann demonstrates covert law breaking in Nazi Germany. Citizen's illegally had been doing what?


Answer: (Exodus 1: 15-19)

Question: Stephen Eildmann cites the oldest known example of civil disobedience in what part of the bible?


Answer: Shiphrah and Puah

Question: What two women were defying the pharaoh in the story from the book of Exodus?


Answer: must be publicly announced

Question: What must be done to make non public lawbreaking acknowledged as civil disobedience?


Answer: rules that conflict with morality

Question: What is necessary to disobey?


Answer: fabricating evidence or committing perjury

Question: What is sometimes more effective than civil disobedience at times?


Answer: the dilemma faced by German citizens

Question: What dilemma is a good example of moral civil disobedience?


Answer: Book of Exodus

Question: What book of the Bible discusses civil disobedience?


Answer: non-violence

Context: There have been debates as to whether civil disobedience must necessarily be non-violent. Black's Law Dictionary includes non-violence in its definition of civil disobedience. Christian Bay's encyclopedia article states that civil disobedience requires "carefully chosen and legitimate means," but holds that they do not have to be non-violent. It has been argued that, while both civil disobedience and civil rebellion are justified by appeal to constitutional defects, rebellion is much more destructive; therefore, the defects justifying rebellion must be much more serious than those justifying disobedience, and if one cannot justify civil rebellion, then one cannot justify a civil disobedients' use of force and violence and refusal to submit to arrest. Civil disobedients' refraining from violence is also said to help preserve society's tolerance of civil disobedience.

Question: Cristian Bay's encyclopedia concludes that civil disobedience does not only include what behavior?


Answer: Black's Law

Question: What dictionary contains a non- violent definition?


Answer: civil rebellion

Question: What other terminology is considered much more destructive?


Answer: tolerance

Question: People behaving with civil disobedience that is not-violent is said to make society have more of what?


Answer: violence

Question: Debates about civil disobedience include or exclude what major practice?


Answer: non-violent

Question: What type of civil disobedience is commonly accepted?


Answer: civil rebellion

Question: When violence is used, what is civil disobedience sometimes called?


Answer: destructive

Question: What is one result of civil rebellion?


Answer: help preserve society's tolerance of civil disobedience

Question: Why is it preferred that civil disobedience is non violent?


Answer: Revolutionary civil disobedience

Context: Non-revolutionary civil disobedience is a simple disobedience of laws on the grounds that they are judged "wrong" by an individual conscience, or as part of an effort to render certain laws ineffective, to cause their repeal, or to exert pressure to get one's political wishes on some other issue. Revolutionary civil disobedience is more of an active attempt to overthrow a government (or to change cultural traditions, social customs, religious beliefs, etc...revolution doesn't have to be political, i.e. "cultural revolution", it simply implies sweeping and widespread change to a section of the social fabric). Gandhi's acts have been described as revolutionary civil disobedience. It has been claimed that the Hungarians under Ferenc Deák directed revolutionary civil disobedience against the Austrian government. Thoreau also wrote of civil disobedience accomplishing "peaceable revolution." Howard Zinn, Harvey Wheeler, and others have identified the right espoused in The Declaration of Independence to "alter or abolish" an unjust government to be a principle of civil disobedience.

Question: What is it called when there is an active attempt to overthrow a government or belief system?


Answer: Hungarians

Question: What group of people performed revolutionary civil disobedience toward the Austrian government?


Answer: Ferenc Deák

Question: The Hungarians performed this civil disobedience under the direction of what person?


Answer: Gandhi's

Question: Revolutionary civil disobedience towards culture is highlighted by example of who?


Answer: cultural traditions, social customs, religious beliefs

Question: What other topics can Civil disobedience pertain to?


Answer: disobedience of laws

Question: What is a simple form of civil disobedience?


Answer: judged "wrong" by an individual conscience

Question: Why would a person chose civil disobedience against specific laws?


Answer: render certain laws ineffective

Question: What is the goal of individual civil disobedience?


Answer: Revolutionary civil disobedience

Question: What type of civil disobedience is larger scale?


Answer: Gandhi

Question: What famous Indian's actions were considered civil disobedience?


Answer: during the Roman Empire

Context: The earliest recorded incidents of collective civil disobedience took place during the Roman Empire[citation needed]. Unarmed Jews gathered in the streets to prevent the installation of pagan images in the Temple in Jerusalem.[citation needed][original research?] In modern times, some activists who commit civil disobedience as a group collectively refuse to sign bail until certain demands are met, such as favorable bail conditions, or the release of all the activists. This is a form of jail solidarity.[page needed] There have also been many instances of solitary civil disobedience, such as that committed by Thoreau, but these sometimes go unnoticed. Thoreau, at the time of his arrest, was not yet a well-known author, and his arrest was not covered in any newspapers in the days, weeks and months after it happened. The tax collector who arrested him rose to higher political office, and Thoreau's essay was not published until after the end of the Mexican War.

Question: When did the earliest examples of civil disobedience as a whole occur?


Answer: gathered in the streets

Question: What did the Jewish people do so pagan items wouldn't be in the temple of Jerusalem?


Answer: was not covered in any newspapers

Question: Since Thoreau was not a well known writer what happened when he was arrested?


Answer: rose to higher political office

Question: What position did the tax collector that arrested Thoreau get?


Answer: after the end of the Mexican War

Question: When was Thoreau's essay published?


Answer: during the Roman Empire

Question: When is the oldest recorded incident of civil disobedience?


Answer: prevent the installation of pagan images

Question: What was the goal of this Roman disobedience?


Answer: refuse to sign bail

Question: What is a recent civil disobedience done in a group form?


Answer: jail solidarity

Question: What is the civil disobedience called where people refuse to be released?


Answer: until after the end of the Mexican War

Question: How long did it take for Thoreau's disobedience to be known?


Answer: illegal

Context: Civil disobedients have chosen a variety of different illegal acts. Bedau writes, "There is a whole class of acts, undertaken in the name of civil disobedience, which, even if they were widely practiced, would in themselves constitute hardly more than a nuisance (e.g. trespassing at a nuclear-missile installation)...Such acts are often just a harassment and, at least to the bystander, somewhat inane...The remoteness of the connection between the disobedient act and the objectionable law lays such acts open to the charge of ineffectiveness and absurdity." Bedau also notes, though, that the very harmlessness of such entirely symbolic illegal protests toward public policy goals may serve a propaganda purpose. Some civil disobedients, such as the proprietors of illegal medical cannabis dispensaries and Voice in the Wilderness, which brought medicine to Iraq without the permission of the U.S. Government, directly achieve a desired social goal (such as the provision of medication to the sick) while openly breaking the law. Julia Butterfly Hill lived in Luna, a 180-foot (55 m)-tall, 600-year-old California Redwood tree for 738 days, successfully preventing it from being cut down.

Question: Civil disobedients have chosen many different kinds of what type of behaviors?


Answer: propaganda

Question: Bedau notes that illegal protests towards public policy may serve as what purpose?


Answer: Voice in the Wilderness

Question: What group of civil disobedients brought medicine to Iraq without the permission of the government?


Answer: 738 days

Question: How long did Julia Butterfly Hill live in a tree?


Answer: successfully preventing it from being cut down

Question: What was the outcome of living in the California Redwood tree?


Answer: illegal acts

Question: What type of actions are taken sometimes in civil disobedience?


Answer: trespassing at a nuclear-missile installation

Question: What is an example of illegal disobedience?


Answer: entirely symbolic

Question: Such protests are usually considered to be what type?


Answer: social goal

Question: What type of goals are usually done skirting the law?


Answer: Julia Butterfly Hill

Question: Who lived in a tree to prevent it from being cut down as a form of civil disobedience?


Answer: sending an email to the Lebanon, New Hampshire city councilors

Context: In cases where the criminalized behavior is pure speech, civil disobedience can consist simply of engaging in the forbidden speech. An example would be WBAI's broadcasting the track "Filthy Words" from a George Carlin comedy album, which eventually led to the 1978 Supreme Court case of FCC v. Pacifica Foundation. Threatening government officials is another classic way of expressing defiance toward the government and unwillingness to stand for its policies. For example, Joseph Haas was arrested for allegedly sending an email to the Lebanon, New Hampshire city councilors stating, "Wise up or die."

Question: What was Joseph Haas arrested for?


Answer: "Wise up or die."

Question: What did Joseph Haas say in his email?


Answer: criminalized behavior

Question: Civil disobedience can occur when people speak about a certain topic that is deemed as?


Answer: Supreme Court case of FCC v. Pacifica Foundation

Question: WBAI's broadcasting Some of George Carlin's comedy eventually led to what?


Answer: 1978

Question: What year did the the case go before the supreme court?


Answer: pure speech

Question: What is one criminal behavior that is hard to stop by authorities?


Answer: broadcasting

Question: What is one way to use pure speech to reach as much people as possible to protest?


Answer: Threatening government officials

Question: How can you protest against the government in an individual way?


Answer: sending an email

Question: What is one way of digital civil disobedience that can have far reaching consequences?


Answer: system to function

Context: Some forms of civil disobedience, such as illegal boycotts, refusals to pay taxes, draft dodging, distributed denial-of-service attacks, and sit-ins, make it more difficult for a system to function. In this way, they might be considered coercive. Brownlee notes that "although civil disobedients are constrained in their use of coercion by their conscientious aim to engage in moral dialogue, nevertheless they may find it necessary to employ limited coercion in order to get their issue onto the table." The Plowshares organization temporarily closed GCSB Waihopai by padlocking the gates and using sickles to deflate one of the large domes covering two satellite dishes.

Question: Boycotting, refusing to pay taxes, sit ins, and draft dodging all make what harder?


Answer: by padlocking the gates

Question: Name one way the Plowshares organization temporarily close GCSB Waihopai?