Davi Johnson Thornton
Communication studies identifies bodies as both objects of communication and producers (or sites) of communication. Communication about bodies—for example, gendered bodies, disabled bodies, obese bodies, and surgically modified bodies—influences bodies at the physical, material level by determining how they are treated in social interactions, in medical settings, and in public institutions. Communication about bodies also forges cultural consensus about what types of bodies fit in particular roles and settings. In addition to analyzing the stakes of communication about bodies, communication studies identifies bodies as communicating forces that cannot be accounted for by standards of reason, meaning, and decorum. Bodies are physical, material, affective beings that communicate because of, not in spite of, their messy, ineffable status. Moreover, communication is an embodied process that involves a range of material supports, including human bodies, technological bodies, and other nonhuman physical and biological bodies. Investigating bodies as communicating forces compels an understanding of communication that is not exclusively rational, meaning-oriented, and nonviolent.
Prejudice is a broad social phenomenon and area of research, complicated by the fact that intolerance exists in internal cognitions but is manifest in symbol usage (verbal, nonverbal, mediated), law and policy, and social and organizational practice. It is based on group identification (i.e., perceiving and treating a person or people in terms of outgroup membership); but that outgroup can range from the more commonly known outgroups based on race, sex/gender, nationality, or sexual orientation to more specific intolerances of others based on political party, fan status, or membership in some perceived group such as “blonde” or “athlete.” This article begins with the link of culture to prejudice, noting specific culture-based prejudices of ethnocentrism and xenophobia. It then explores the levels at which prejudice might be manifest, finally arriving at a specific focus of prejudice—racism; however, what applies to racism may also apply to other intolerances such as sexism, heterosexism, classism, or ageism.
The discussion and analysis of prejudice becomes complicated when we approach a specific topic like racism, though the tensions surrounding this phenomenon extend to other intolerances such as sexism or heterosexism. Complications include determining the influences that might lead to individual racism or an atmosphere of racism, but also include the very definition of what racism is: Is it an individual phenomenon, or does it refer to an intolerance that is supported by a dominant social structure? Because overt intolerance has become unpopular in many societies, researchers have explored how racism and sexism might be expressed in subtle terms; others investigate how racism intersects with other forms of oppression, including those based on sex/gender, sexual orientation, or colonialism; and still others consider how one might express intolerance “benevolently,” with good intentions though still based on problematic racist or sexist ideologies.
Rachyl Pines and Howard Giles
Dance is a visual, socially organized form of communication. There are countless forms and styles of dance, each with its own criteria of excellence, with varying degrees of technical training ranging from classical ballet to krumping. This could, at times, lend itself to intergroup antagonism with the various genres of dance as subgroups. However, all types of dancers have the potential to identify with one another as sharing in the superordinate identity, dancer. Dance may be consumed as an artistic performance, or one can engage it as a participant—dancing as a professional, as a form of recreation, or as a form of self-expression. The processes of producing, consuming, and participating in dance as a spectator, choreographer, or performer are all intergroup phenomena. For example, a spectator of a performance learns something about the culture that produced this dance. With this there is potential for intergroup contact and vicarious observation with dancers and the various audiences. This can be powerful for changing attitudes and conceptions of different dance groups. The attitude change may occur as people are exposed to a culture presented as art instead of exposure to information via factual accounts such as textbooks or museums. Also, a spectator or consumer’s perception of the performance is informed by group membership. For example, some religious groups discourage dance because they believe it is a sin or evil. These groups, if exposed to a dance performance, will experience it much differently than members of other groups that encourage dancing and actively seek its viewing.
In sum, dance is a vehicle through which group membership and social identity can be expressed. As dancers perform they can, for instance, express gender and sexuality. As choreographers direct movements, they express their conceptions of gender through the dancers. And as spectators view the performance, they are shown something about gender expression. When it is used as a form of protest, as a cultural expression, or as a form of social innovation, dance can express social group membership.
Sexual orientation is a private matter that individuals can decide to disclose or conceal. Nevertheless, when interacting with others, people look for cues of sexual orientation. Hence, the person’s face, voice, or non-verbal behavior is taken as a cue revealing sexual orientation. As research on “gaydar” has shown, this detecting ability can sometimes be accurate or stereotype-based. Sometimes gay, lesbian, and bisexual people themselves intentionally communicate their sexual identity explicitly or through more subtle cues. Intentional or not, several cues are taken as communicating sexual orientation with the consequences of shaping interpersonal interactions.
Identifying someone as gay or lesbian has several implications. On the one hand, it leads straight men and women to non-verbally behave differently than when interacting with other straight individuals (e.g., more physical distance, more self-touching). On the other hand, it also affects verbal communication (e.g., topics of conversation, questions, and statements). The harshest consequence is hate speech and homophobic language. Research has shown that being labeled as “faggot” or “dyke” not only negatively affects those who are the target of such verbal derogation but also negatively impacts on straight bystanders. Indeed, gay and lesbian targets of homophobic language report a lower level of well-being and self-acceptance, while being exposed to such language increases prejudice toward gay men and lesbians among straight people. In the case of straight men, the use of homophobic language is often associated with identity self-affirmation and self-presentation. Interestingly, a recent trend among gay people has been noticed: they use homophobic labels among them as a form of “reclaimed language,” meaning that these derogatory terms are used with a different intent and reframed in a more positive way.
Moreover, communicating sexual orientation can increase self-acceptance, social support, and positive social comparison among gay men and lesbians and can also increase positive attitudes toward gay people, especially when it happens with friends and family members.
Understanding the role of gender in the newsroom involves tracing a shift from an initial consensus that women’s only journalistic role was to write with “a woman’s touch” about women, for women readers, to a claim that women should be allowed to produce the same “unmarked” news as men. The claim became that women’s forms—women’s sections or other materials intended for women audiences—represented professional ghettos, and that women were needed to produce better, more ethical journalism. That is, within the newsroom, gender was first dichotomized, rendering the interests of women and men as opposites, and then it claimed to be irrelevant. Feminist scholars point out that, over time, men have consistently tried to protect their status, jobs, and salaries, and have failed to acknowledge how journalism was set up as a male enclave with “macho” values and a culture that disadvantaged women, especially mothers, with its tradition of long and irregular hours and lack of childcare.
Research on gender and journalism can be divided into two categories: (a) gender “at work” in newsrooms (including opportunities or inequities in jobs, promotions, and salaries, as well as sexism), and (b) representations of women. Scholars often assume that the first issue over-determines the second. On both issues, research shows improvement, but also continuing problems. Now women journalists appear to be well established; the news includes issues associated with women’s quotidian concerns, and it takes women seriously. Yet a variety of gender divides continue to characterize journalism. Researchers find gendered patterns in coverage, especially in politics and sports. Women television journalists are routinely sexualized, and their high visibility in television broadcasting—through explicit scrutiny of their bodies, hairstyles, clothing, and voices—is countered by their invisibility in management. Gendered double standards and a glass ceiling continue to stymie the promotion of women to key decision-making and governance positions in print and broadcast news organizations. Moreover, women are far from enjoying equity in the online context.
Women continue to be concentrated in low-status media outlets and beats: they dominate community, small-town, and regional news organizations, and they produce “soft news,” human-interest stories and features. Men still dominate, although they do not monopolize, most of the high status areas of news production, particularly politics and business, as well as the lucrative and popular area of sports, a highly gendered and sexist domain. The most overtly gendered arena is war correspondence. Women who report on war and conflict are judged by very different standards than men. In particular, mothers are condemned when they go off to dangerous conflict areas, although fathers who cover war continue to be largely immune from public criticism. Women war reporters run a high risk of sexual violence and harassment, although women who have been sexually attacked rarely tell their supervisors—probably for fear of being pulled off an assignment.
Countless platforms are now available to citizens to disseminate their views as citizen journalists, including blogs and Twitter; these provide opportunities for challenging gender roles and democratizing relations between men and women. On the other hand, social media threaten the business model of professional journalism; the resulting trend to part-time, freelance, and even unpaid work creates a precarious and potentially highly feminized labor force.
E. Michele Ramsey
Given the impact of gender on health, healthcare decisions, and treatments for illness, as well as the increased inequities encountered by non-white men and women, messages about health and health risks are affected by purposeful assumptions about gender identity. While the term sex denotes the biological sex of an individual, gender identity is about the psychological, cultural, and social assumptions about a person associated with that person because of his or her sex. Gender and health are intimately connected in a number of ways, and such connections can differ based on race, ethnicity, age, class, religion, region, country, and even continent. Thus, understanding the myriad ways that notions of gender affect the health of females and males is fundamental to understanding how communicating about risks and prevention may be tailored to each group.
Gender role expectations and assumptions have serious impacts on men’s health and life expectancy rates, including self-destructive behaviors associated with mental health and tobacco use, self-neglecting behaviors linked to the reluctance of men to seek treatment for ailments, reluctance to follow a physician’s instructions after finally seeking help, and risk-taking behaviors linked to drug and alcohol use, fast driving, guns, physical aggression, and other dangerous endeavors. Because gender role expectations tend to disfavor females, it is not surprising that gender generally has an even greater impact on women’s health than on men’s. Even though biological factors allow women, on average, to live longer than men worldwide, various gendered practices (social, legal, criminal, and unethical) have serious impacts on the lives and health of women. From sex discrimination in research and treatment regarding issues linked to reproductive health, depression, sexual abuse, alcohol and drug abuse, the sex trade, and normalized violence against women (such as rape, female genital mutilation, forced prostitution/trafficking, and domestic violence), women’s lives across the globe are severely affected by gender role expectations that privilege males over females.
While some general consistencies in the relationships between gender, women, and health are experienced worldwide, intersections of race, ethnicity, class, age, country, region, and religion can make for very different experiences of women globally, and even within the same country.
The recent years have seen an increasing call to reconsider the binary means by which we have defined sex and gender. Advances in our understandings of lesbian, gay, bisexual, intersex, and transgendered individuals have challenged traditional notions and definitions of sex and gender in important and complex ways. Such an important shift warrants a stand-alone discussion, as well as the recognition that sexual orientation should not be automatically linked to discussions of sex and gender, given that such categorization reifies the problematic sex/gender binaries that ground sexist and homophobic attitudes in the first place.
Like members of many social identity groups, gay men within certain racial or ethnic groups (e.g., gay white men in the United States) generally share a sense of group entitativity that is characterized by the experiences of unity, coherence, and organization. Notwithstanding its members’ overall sense of entitativity, gay white male culture in the United States, specifically, has formed an array of diverse subgroups along dimensions such as physical attractiveness, musculature, masculinity, and age. These subgroup categorizations often are highly salient to individuals, and they frequently serve these gay men’s drive to self-enhance through intragroup comparisons. Given that many of these subgroups are well established, with members who share not only unique physical characteristics but also particular communication patterns and/or traditions that contribute to group stereotype formation, it is possible to consider communication and comparisons across these subgroups to be intergroup in nature as well.
Social psychological theory provides useful frameworks for understanding the intra-/intergroup dynamics among such subgroups of gay men. One framework is self-categorization theory. According to this theory, individuals engage in self-stereotyping. That is, they react to themselves and others not as unique individuals, but as members of a group who share common characteristics and have similar needs, goals, and norms. It is through such categorization that group members differentiate themselves from members of other groups or subgroups. Another framework, social identity theory, also sheds light on intergroup dynamics within the gay white culture in the United States. In line with this theory, gay men may cope with discrimination from the heterosexual mainstream through the adoption of one or more coping strategies. These strategies include leaving their group or changing negative values assigned to the in-group into more positive ones. Additionally, they may avoid the use of the higher-status heterosexual group as a comparative frame of reference, instead making downward comparisons with members of other gay male groups that they consider to be inferior in order to self-enhance. Of course, though not to achieve positive distinctiveness, members of lower-status groups also orient themselves in gay culture by making upward comparisons with members of subgroups they consider to be superior to their own. Again, these subgroup distinctions may include those based on physical attractiveness, musculature, masculinity, and age.
Haley Kranstuber Horstman, Alexie Hays, and Ryan Maliski
The parent–child relationship is one of the most influential, important, and meaningful relationships in an individual’s life. The communication between parents and children fuels their bond and functions to socialize children (i.e., gender, career and work, relationship values and skills, and health behaviors), provide social support, show affection, make sense of their life experiences, engage in conflict, manage private information, and create a family communication environment. How parents and children manage these functions changes over time as their relationship adapts over the developmental periods of their lives. Mothers and fathers may also respond differently to the changing needs of their children, given the unique relational cultures that typically exist in mother–child versus father–child relationships.
Although research on parent–child communication is vast and thorough, the constant changes faced by families in the 21st century—including more diverse family structures—provides ample avenues for future research on this complex relationship. Parent–child communication in diverse families (e.g., divorced/stepfamilies, adoptive, multiracial, LGBTQ, and military families) must account for the complexity of identities and experiences in these families. Further, changes in society such as advances in technology, the aging population, and differing parenting practices are also transforming the parent–child relationship. Because this relationship is a vital social resource for both parents and children throughout their lives, researchers will undoubtedly continue to seek to understand the complexities of this important family dyad.
The ACT2 Program and Eliminating Racial and Ethnic Disparities in HIV and AIDS Clinical Trials: A Case Study in Health and Risk Messaging
Marya Gwadz and Amanda S. Ritchie
It is well documented that African American/Black and Hispanic individuals are underrepresented in biomedical research in the United States (U.S.), and leaders in the field have called for the proportional representation of varied populations in biomedical studies as a matter of social justice, economics, and science. Yet achieving appropriate representation is particularly challenging for health conditions that are highly stigmatized such as HIV/AIDS. African American/Black, and Hispanic individuals, referred to here as “people of color,” are greatly overrepresented among the 1.2 million persons living with HIV/AIDS in the United States. Despite this, people of color are substantially underrepresented in AIDS clinical trials. AIDS clinical trials are research studies to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of promising new treatments for HIV and AIDS and for the complications of HIV/AIDS, among human volunteers. As such, AIDS clinical trials are critical to the development of new medications and treatment regimens. The underrepresentation of people of color in AIDS clinical trials has been criticized on a number of levels. Of primary concern, underrepresentation may limit the generalizability of research findings to the populations most affected by HIV/AIDS. This has led to serious concerns about the precision of estimates of clinical efficacy and adverse effects of many treatments for HIV/AIDS among these populations. The reasons for the underrepresentation of people of color are complex and multifaceted. First, people of color experience serious emotional and attitudinal barriers to AIDS clinical trials such as fear and distrust of medical research. These experiences of fear and distrust are grounded largely in the well-known history of abuse of individuals of color by medical research institutions, and are complicated by current experiences of exclusion and discrimination in health care settings and the larger society, often referred to as structural racism or structural violence. In addition, people of color experience barriers to AIDS clinical trials at the level of social networks, such as social norms that do not support engagement in medical research and preferences for alternative therapies. People of color living with HIV/AIDS experience a number of structural barriers to clinical trials, such as difficulty accessing and navigating the trials system, which is often unfamiliar and daunting. Further, most health care providers are not well positioned to help people of color overcome these serious barriers to AIDS clinical trials in the context of a short medical appointment, and therefore are less likely to refer them to trials compared to their White peers. Last, some studies suggest that the trials’ inclusion and exclusion criteria exclude a greater proportion of people of color than White participants. Social/behavioral interventions that directly address the historical and contextual factors underlying the underrepresentation of people of color in AIDS clinical trials, build motivation and capability to access trials, and offer repeated access to screening for trials, hold promise for eliminating this racial/ethnic disparity. Further, modifications to study inclusion criteria will be needed to increase the proportion of people of color who enroll in AIDS clinical trials.


HIV infection, by targeting a vulnerable piece of the virusA team of US Researchers have edged closer to developing a vaccine to guard against
Washington: A team of US researchers have edged closer to developing a vaccine to guard against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, by targeting a vulnerable piece of the virus.
While most vaccines are actually made from the pathogen itself, employing weakened or inactivated organisms to stimulate antibody production, HIV is just too dangerous to use as the basis for a vaccine vehicle.
The researchers, Gail Ferstandig Arnold and Eddy Arnold, husband and wife duo and their team at Rutgers University have now been able to use the relatively innocuous cold-causing rhinovirus and attach the target portion of the HIV, reports IANS.
Arnolds and their team had previously been able to elicit effective antibodies, but only against a very limited number of HIV types.
This must be done in a way that maintains the HIV part’s shape so that when the immune system sees it, it will actually mount an immune response as it would to the real HIV.
The approach taken by the Arnolds and colleagues has been to identify a part of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)–causing virus that is crucial to its viability–something the virus needs in order to complete its life cycle and then target this Achilles’ heel.
“The part that we targeted plays a role in the ability of HIV to enter cells, and is common to most HIV varieties,” Arnold said. That is a mechanism that would not be easy for the virus to reinvent on the fly, so it turns out to be a really helpful target, he added.
With HIV’s known propensity to mutate, antibodies developed against one local strain may not recognise and combat mutant varieties elsewhere.
These geographic varieties with different mutations constitute one of the great challenges to finding a broad spectrum vaccine capable of protecting against HIV.
“The idea is to trick the immune system into thinking it is acting upon HIV before the virus shows actually shows up on the scene,” Arnold said.
To actually accomplish this is a big problem in engineering. The goal was to take a small piece of the HIV out of its native context, put it in a completely different system (rhinovirus), and have it look the same and act the same.
Using recombinant engineering, the research team developed a method to systematically test millions of varied presentations of the HIV segment with the rhinovirus. They tried millions of different variations on how to graft (or splice) one onto the other, creating what are called combinatorial libraries.
“It’s like the lottery… The more tickets you buy the better chance you have of winning,” Arnold commented.
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Adapting Messages To Others Examples
Level of message adaptation in persuasive messages to. Which of the following are nonverbal messages? From academic than others to group feel a high school, or seeking care practitioners, john schuster network. With careful planning you can adapt and embed communication strategies into. If this is your first document for a specific group your new co-workers for example ask for copies of similar documents from others Model your own document. Verbal message is a change successfully manage relationships by communicating to others, the person is unlikely to. The child is asked to produce examples of each strategy in a series of other situations ththe child is. Communication Skills Interview Questions Best Job Interview. It's important to know your audience so that you can shape your message to fit them. Different Types of Communication and Channels GitHub Pages. Like others people with psychiatricmental health disabilities will sense your. Of or witnesshear domestic violence happening to others the message. When communicating clear simple messages framing and frequency matter. 4 Apply tactics for adapting messages to the audience including those for.
What are the 7 barriers to effective communication? 4 Ways to Adapt the Way You Communicate to Different. The other audiences are a combination of the other two along with the maven. Social Media Toolkit Massgov. Other words they'll be useful in developing some kinds of messages but not others For example if your plan includes using a video you can consult the AAS. Communicating with People with Disabilities. Describe three different types of messages and their functions. How to create messages for different audiences The Health. The medium and the message The adaptive use of communication media in dyadic. When making recommendations show examples of outcomes for both sides of the argument. Being assertive means respecting yourself and other people. Use your name in your introduction in case others have forgotten it. The tone of your voice for example should be different when you're.
If the mechanism we want to represent a different culture that will modify the uris for speech, adapting messages to others examples of communication skills to personalise your partner are hiring responsible for its intended. Finally give voice and adjusted the gay men and stories with facebook is a breakaway spirit and to messages to and our identities that. Adaptive communication skills help leaders express a vision set clear boundaries motivate others. Which of the following is an example of adapting messages to others. Adapt to one another Elements of the communication process Message Any type of oral. Adapting Your Message to Your Audience. Guide to choosing and adapting culturally and linguistically competent health. You may need to adapt your message based on an audience's demographics. Of AustralianSuper for example Give me a microphone and I'll chat to you. And community work you have to keep up the effort adjusting your plan and.
Supporting the Communication of Children in Preschool. Dementia Communication Techniques Calm Positive Body. Understanding Communication Skills From MindToolscom. This kind of communication therefore does not have a shared meaning for others. Which is not an example of effective usage and interpretation of verbal messages? Instead of the organization with others to messages without nonverbal behaviors. Asking and answering questions adapting language and speaking in public to name a. Asking the right questions and tapping into the message behind the message among others. The following competencies were late and adapting to rapid change in our thinking critically evaluate emergency communications continuum from? Unfortunately making eye gaze as necessary intrapersonal compassion, messages to others. Communicating safety and health messages auditing your communications strategy If you have. Improve Validation Errors with Adaptive Messages Articles. What is the Impact of Your Communication Style on Others. Asking questions to gain clarity and ensure the right message is received. List examples of ways you can support children's communication and. Nonverbal Communication Chapter 4 Interpersonal Relations. Written communication is another useful communication channel and is very.
Effective Interactive Communication Canadaca. What are the 7 types of communication strategies? Communicating Through the Coronavirus Crisis. For example Target sent out a note from the CEO to customers describing enhanced. Message encoding for example into digital data written text speech pictures. Tell me about a time you had to adjust your communication style to adapt to a. Importance of non verbal communication ppt. Comptent Oregon State University. Do which may or her shoulders tense and assessment report writing to messages others have valuable when looking to know where appropriate rules of our highly competent listener? Body language vocal cues appearance and grooming spatial cues environmental cues miscellaneous cues are six categories of nonverbal cues. Effective Communication Improving your Social Skills Here. Example If a nuclear scientist is talking to another nuclear scientist the. For example instead of organize more productive meetings say achieveresolve. Program Details Live Online Sample Schedule Takeaways Participants Faculty. Think of a word that is all right to use in certain situations and not in others. Around how to adapt workplace communications to this new situation. Communicative messages from others we are taking our first steps toward.
Types of Communicative Strategies Flashcards Quizlet. Unit 1 Review Intro to Communications English Quizizz. Speaking and Listening Competencies for College INgov. One requisite of successful communication is adapting messages to a lis- tener. At the Academy Awards do so precisely because the message's incongruity with the. Legal accounting business financial or other professional advice or services. Goals awareness of other's goals attention to the message both encoding and. How are other areas of development being supported through books and reading. Do not read out and mutual learning occurs because of the importance as action plans can pick a better and examples to messages? Other municipal departments and local community organizations and re-post their content. Principles of Verbal Communication. What are four methods of communication? Marketers must adapt their messages to reflect the on-the-ground. Adapted from Escape from the Ivory Tower A Guide to Making Your Science. Stick to their personal ideals and style without variation and without adapting to others. Overview Audience analysis involves identifying the audience and adapting a. Adapting your Message to Your Audience The Tipping Point. Examples of symbolic communication include speech sign language writing.
And offer your audience insights into how your message should be interpreted whether you realize it or not. Introduction to Professional Communications. Other examples are Pelotas balls en pelotas to be naked Pelotas stupid. It is an ineffective communication style as the content of the message may get lost because. Sample solutionmanual center Studylib. The Influence of High-Low-Context Culture on Perceived Ad. Nonverbal Communication and Body Language HelpGuideorg. Establishing initial model, adapting messages is therefore anonymous, or a journal? Channels combo of verbal and nonverbal combine to make message. Appendix A Examples of Effective Posts in Massachusetts Towns 12.
What are the barriers of effective communication? Adapting to Your Audience The WAC Clearinghouse. RFC 3507 Internet Content Adaptation Protocol ICAP. You post a message on your long-distance friend's Facebook wall saying you. Kathy's Message Box we'll then share examples of Message Boxes prepared by. Plus eye contact helps you see the other person's engagement level and reactions 5. Communication Principles for a Lifetime Global Edition. When you say Here have a seat do you smile and wave your hand to indicate the empty chair on the other side of your desk. What are 5 examples of verbal communication? Which is not an example of effective usage and interpretation of. How can we interpret other people's unspoken messages with greater accuracy. What were the three examples of situations in which many people find difficult. For example You will see the nurse at 1030 rather than Come back to see the. How to communicate with others The effective communication skills Being able to. Tone of voice does communicate powerful messages to others about your. We also pursue self-presentation goals by adapting our communication in. Active listening visual persuasion and adapting messages to audiences.
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Competent and Incompetent Communication SAGE edge. Verbal Communication Skills List and Examples. Demonstrate significant skill in adapting messages to any type of communication. What is message adaptation? A mom talking to her toddler using simpler words that can easily be understood by the toddler is an example of adapting message to others Thanks Useless. Being aware of the exchange information that you want your hands yell to grow until we pose ethical partnership with coupons, adapting messages to others use. Example of receiver-centered communication congratulations on receiving. Communicators must adapt messages based on the rapidly. What are examples of physical barriers? Never refer to take away or ideas on millennial generation, examples to messages others? 4 powerful examples of effective leadership communication. 10 Types of Communication Closest to a Universal Language. Adapting messages to specific audiences critical listening and providing.
How can we avoid barriers of effective communication? Effective Communication MSU Extension Community. For example it's not particularly effective to give a long list of directions. Let's consider another example of the impact of visuals on framing. For example rather than ignoring a student who routinely answers questions in class with inappropriate. In other words adaptive error messages dynamically change to best match the user's situation For example if a user tried to provide. Being misunderstood about your favorite ice cream for example doesn't bear the same consequences as. Example The behaviour-change campaign Freedom from Fear in. Adjusting or adapting to a specific culture other than ones own is. The following tips can help you learn to read the nonverbal signals of other people. Sometimes it's important to adapt your message for your listeners to comprehend it. Which of the following is an example of adapting messages to. How others communicate can be key to getting your message across to.
Interpersonal Communication Definition Importance and. Principles of Communication Flashcards Quizlet. What are the 10 types of nonverbal communication? These can include but are not limited to sharing ideas with others actively. Maybe others got lost in the midst of your presentation due to detail overload. Building good relationships with other people can greatly reduce stress and. Would like it is more deliberately through writing need and messages to develop alternative organizational culture and key messages? For example suppose Greg is talking about his coworker Carol and says She. Provide examples of the functions of nonverbal communication. May be a fruitful way of thinking about adapting messages to diverse cultural audiences. Learn vocabulary terms and more with flashcards games and other study tools. Principles of Interpersonal Communication 2012 Book Archive. For example if the best case business as usual scenario involves ad. A leader's guide to crisis communication during coronavirus. Focus on what they are saying the message rather than the messenger.
Interpersonal Communication Skills SkillsYouNeed. Personal Leadership Skills Adaptive Communication. The first step in developing a value message is determining which customer. It does so by examining the role of context culture for one example of complex. Does not a grocery store directly relate and examples to individuals may just the eyes closed factories and last modified if a classroom and guidance presented in? For example even if the audience members were familiar with basic genetics. One survey in China for example showed that a marked decline in people's. Message Adaptation To Improve Communications by Jonathan. Language People are most likely to absorb the message of a material if. That verbal and nonverbal communication work together to convey a message. Than others for example face-to-face interac tion in a meeting carries. The Top 10 Communication Skills You Need to Learn in 2021. Thinking is perhaps the best example of intrapersonal communication. For example Langer Blank and Chanowitz 197 originally claimed that.
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CMN 3 Midterm 1 Flashcards Cheggcom.


Physical and Online Privacy: fundamental challenges for level frameworks to remain relevant.
Prof. Dr. E.J. Koops. Professor of Regulation & Technology (Tilburg Institute for Law, Technology, and Society)
Is it legal, or should it be allowed to:
- Scan homes with termal equipped drones in search of hemp domestic plantations?
- Take a snapshot of a stranger, google them, recognize their faces, peek at their social networking profiles and start a conversation with them on their preferences?
- Track people inside shops with wifi-tracking, analyze their movements in the shop and thus place advertising on the counter?
Conceptual history of locating privacy:
- The body (habeas corpus): physical privacy.
- The home: physical privacy + private space.
- The letter: physical privacy + closed ‘space’ between homes.
- The telephone: ‘closed’ ‘space’ between homes.
- Mobile phone: ‘closed’ ‘space’.
- The computer: protecting data, not spaces.
- The cloud: loss of location.
The home evaporates. There is a lot of information that now one can access without entering a home. And, usually, looking inside without entry is allowed. Same happens now with technology and digital data. The public space is increasingly becoming privacy-sensible: increased traceability, increased identifiability (face recognition, augmented reality)…
And with the trend to improve body functions through implants and prosthesis, the body itself sort of becomes a “public space” as its data (including brain stimuli) can be exported out of the body.
It is increasingly difficult to draw the technical distinction between traffic data and content of communications, particularly on an Internet context. The distinction, indeed, is becoming less relevant, as traffic data are also increasingly privacy-sensitive (location, profiling).
- Data protection law cannot give individuals control over their data.
- Too much confidence in the controller/regulator: the law is becoming too complex.
- Regulating everything in one statutory law: impossibility for comprehensiveness.
What is privacy?
- The right to be let alone.
- Controlling information about oneself.
- Freedom from judgement of others.
- Freedom from unreasonable constraints.
- Depends on the context.
- E.J. Koops (2014). The trouble with European data protection law.
11th Internet, Law and Politics Conference (2015)
If you need to cite this article in a formal way (i.e. for bibliographical purposes) I dare suggest:
Peña-López, I. (2015) “IDP2015 (VII). E.J. Koops: Physical and Online Privacy: fundamental challenges for level frameworks to remain relevant” In ICTlogy,
#142, July 2015. Barcelona: ICTlogy.
Retrieved month dd, yyyy from https://ictlogy.net/review/?p=4338
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Every day and all around the world, radio stations are playing songs that portray women and girls in objectifying and misogynistic ways. The unfortunate result is females begin to internalize these lyrics and their self worth is negatively affected. According to the American Psychological Association, media influences, including music lyrics, can interfere with cognitive functioning, physical health, mental health and sexual development.
HerStory participants from ETIV in Brazil recognized the need to change this and created a Community Action Plan, Girl Power, to address the negative impact of derogatory song lyrics in the media. In October, they traveled to New York to develop their CAP at the Global HerStory Summit. Their plan aims to assemble meetings with local girl advocates to educate them about the use of women in music and write letters to artists and media companies (including radio stations) asking them not to play songs that are hurtful or demeaning. They hope radio stations will think twice before playing damaging songs and people will be exposed to more positive messaging. In turn, girls will become more confident and feel empowered to attend university and work toward equality.
“Going to New York [for GHS] was a really cool experience. I never thought I would go there,” recalls HerStory participant Rana (age 13). She and participant Larissa (age 10) had the opportunity to meet girls from many different countries and overcame language barriers by using gestures and an app that translated English to Portuguese. It was really special to watch their friendships transcend these hurdles.
Their time in New York left them feeling inspired as they traveled home to begin implementing their CAP in their local community. “I thought a lot on International Day of the Girl, watching my peers speak at the United Nations. I thought, ‘we have to follow this same model,'” Rana said.
In December, Larissa and Rana, along with their mentors Michele and Ivone, were invited to visit a local radio station to speak on-air and officially launch Girl Power. The girls described their experience traveling to New York and how powerful it was to watch other girls their age speak at the United Nations. They shared details of their Community Action Plan and invited listeners to visit their fan page to get updates. They also encouraged everyone to share the page so they could get more people involved.
February 28 is the start of Carnaval in Brazil and the girls have recruited a few local female artists to join their cause and write an original Carnaval song for the project. They look forward to the Woman Sound System Parade where another singer will make a video for the project.
When asked what they want people to know about their Community Action Plan, the girls agreed that many of these songs are really harmful and change is necessary. Their hope is that girls will start to see past machismo and derive “their own self-worth from within.”
Continue to follow the girls’ progress on all of the Global G.L.O.W. social media channels, or by subscribing to our email list.


TRAIN THE TRAINERS CURRICULUM
The methodology to be employed in carrying out this module is elaborated in the Module Content and Sequencing sections. Each action's relevance to the key competences is elaborated in the Learning Outcomes Matrix. The methodology involves:
- Practical demonstrations, including performance and recording using digital technology, by the individual participants and/or through group activities.
- A learner journal kept by each participant to record self-directed evaluations and reflections after each section is completed.
- A practical edit of the music using digital software.
The drafting of individual lesson plans by each participant.
- Group and/or individual presentations.
Section 1. Music appreciation and listening skills
Section 2. Creating music
Section 3. Music project
Section 4. Applying the learning
Educational resources related to this Module (original production by partners)
The open educational resources, selected and developed for/during the local pilots, are:
1. “Photo-Speak: writing lyrics from photos”, how to use music lyrics as a medium to discuss sensitive topics with young people (MP)
2. “Cultural awareness through percussion instruments”, how to explore instruments and other cultures (MP)
3. The list of 40 songs (AESD)
4. Short introduction to acoustic and psychoacoustic (SF)
Where to learn more (files/images archive and links available on the www)
Some very useful and relevant links which could be used by trainers and youth workers to find more information are:
The International Music Council (IMC), founded in 1949 by UNESCO, is the world's largest network of organizations and institutions working in the field of music. The International Music Council promotes access to music for all and the value of music in the lives of all peoples.
The European Music Council, a regional group of the International Music Council (IMC), is the umbrella organisation for musical life in Europe. It is a platform for National Music Councils and organisations involved in various fields of music from many European countries.
We suggest the following exercises:
- To pre-assess / Formative assessments
Use method Piece- of- the basket in different ways (a basket as a container for anonymous thoughts written down in pieces of paper):
- To discuss sensitive issues - participants respond anonymously and when patches are drawn and answers are read, they remain anonymous. The answers and opinions will then be the basis for a discussion without being "hung out".
- As a rehearsal or a basis for discussion – how can we promote and share cultural expression and understanding? – trainers will write and then will discuss with trainees possible solutions, which are going to be the basis of music project.
- Formative assessments
Guidelines given by trainer to be followed. An assessment grid can easily scale the abilities that are expected and achieved by each trainee.
- Final evaluation
Launch the event (Music Project).
- Assess the success of the Final Performance and the role each of the trainees had in the organisation and implementation of the music project – (see Participation and responsibility assessment criteria).
Evaluate the performance of each trainee in the project - (see Participation and responsibility assessment criteria and Matters domain assessment criteria).


How to Deal With Bullies
Bullies come in all shapes and sizes, and most of us have to deal with them at one point or another.
However, bullying is a serious problem, not only in schools- but also both in the workplace, home, the military, playground and even nursing homes.
Luckily enough, this method also works for adults. Some cases have even been so serious that they have led to the victims committing suicide due to bullying.
1, Know what kind of bully you are dealing with. What does he/she do to others, and how does he/she react with different situations?
- Aggressive bullies are likely to abuse physically and without hesitation. Try to feel the inner strength you carry. Sometimes we think they can take everything we have as a person away from us. Believe that you are stronger than they are, because deep down you are stronger than they are and ever will be.
- Taunting bullies are verbally abusive (calling names, making jokes, teasing, etc.).
- Indirect bullies, sometimes known as Backstabbers, spread rumors, exclude others, and harass their victims whenever possible. Try to overcome the rumors: tell everyone it's not true and the bully just wants attention.
- Cyber bullies harass other people through instant messaging, e-mail, and any other electronic means. The best way to deal with online bullies is to delete their messages and not read anything they say. Be sure to block the bully as well.
2Work your way around the bullies. Try and avoid them in school and social situations. If they take the same route that you do, try a different way; if they can't find you, they can't bully you. Try your best to avoid them but don't show that you are avoiding them. They will usually read this as fear/success, and they will bully you more as a result. Always walk with a friend; there's safety in numbers.
- 3Show minimal reaction to bullying. Do not show the bullies that you feel hurt if they do something that makes you uncomfortable; just walk away. Bullies gain satisfaction from making others feel hurt or uncomfortable, so reacting to them will only encourage them further. The bully wants attention and if you show them that they are emotionally hurting you, they will get more pleasure out of doing it.
- This tactic may backfire depending on the bully, so read the situation carefully. Some bullies will feel safe tormenting you, (as they enjoy that action itself) if they see that you aren't suffering from their actions.
- You cannot talk sense to an irrational person. Walk away with dignity, saying you have better things to do with your time. If it continues, stand up for yourself. If it continues or does not continue, be sure to stand up for others who are being bullied.
- 4Do not make jokes at your own expense to try to prove that there is nothing they can do to hurt your feelings. This will only please them, and they will often chip in with their own ridicule and humiliation to lower your self-esteem.
- 5Instead, reflect an insult back to a verbal attacker. If accomplished in public, this can elicit laughter from surrounding peers or victims at the bully's expense. This is a bully's worst nightmare, as they are de-throned from their position of power over you. Remember not to show the bully the attention they are hungry for, as this will allow the bully the pleasure of actually hurting others emotionally.
- Avoid insulting the bully if they have a history of physically bullying you, since this instigates a conflict you can't win. Instead of exacerbating the situation, walk away. Report this to an authority figure if you believe you are in danger.
- 6Report all bullying to an authority figure. Consider your parents, school guidance counselor, principal, boss, the police, or someone else who can deal with or punish the bully and protect your safety. It's important that you talk to someone about your problem to get it to end. Do not worry about revenge that the bully may take if you report the incident; they will hurt you anyway and appeasing them doesn't solve your problem or anyone else they are bullying. You could also go to tell a good friend- a good friend includes them standing up for you and you standing up for them aswell at times.
- If there is a bullying survey in your school always write your name down. Do not be embarrassed. You will probably start to talk to someone who is very experienced and this can be surprisingly helpful. You might feel very small but in reality you are bigger then the bully.
- 7Help others. Bullies are people who try to make themselves look good. All they want is attention and they have probably learned their bullying from home or friends. Take that away from them and they have nothing! Since you've experienced the problem, you know how it can hurt, so you can look better by being sure to help others! Try asking the bully why they pick on people. There is never a good answer to this question. If you don't want to ask the bully this, then force them into being uncomfortable, but make sure that your not bullying them.
- 8Take Martial art lessons. Consider Karate, Kung Fu, Taekwondo or something that will give you the confidence and the ability to defend yourself and fight properly. It will also help you learn how not to appear to be an easy target.
- Walk with a purposeful confidence and a 'don't you dare mess with me attitude.'
- Be aware of your surroundings. Walk with your head up looking forward in the direction you are walking, use your peripheral vision to be aware of the people around you. No matter how untrue this is, act confident and stand tall.
- 9Learn self defense. This is very important should you need to fight. You don't need a black belt, just tips on self-defense. Do so with all your strength, not reluctantly. A Tang Soo Do Self-defense class will teach you to do this.
- A quick kick in the groin will make the person feel dazed and look embarrassed long enough for an escape. Bullies aren't always used to others getting the best of them.
- If the groin doesn't work, try the solar plexus (right below the ribs), or kick a knee to make the person trip.
- If the bully is grabbing you or pushing you, believe it or not, it's actually an advantage- Try REALLY hard to keep your balance, grab one their arms with your left hand and hit their elbow with the other, then using your other hand, push away the remaining arm.
- Run, get to a safe place, and call for help.
- 10Outsmart Them. Bullies usually aren't very smart or witty, so you can use this to your advantage.
- Laugh at everything they say, and the worse the insult, the harder you should laugh. No faking! Try to think of it as something really funny and actually laugh. This is undeniably frustrating to bullies, because they want you to cry, not laugh. (Laughing so hard you cry probably doesn't count.)
- Scream a quote at the top of your lungs to their face. You should only try this when they've tread on your feet or in general are doing something wordlessly annoying. There are many good things to quote, such as the first verse of JABBERWOCKY, songs that have been mostly forgotten, ("I am I, Don Quixote, the Man of LaMancha") or make up some of your own ("I would like a dollar so I can buy a fish!") . In this case, random is the key word. The bully might be so surprised that you can cause laughter or, at a minimum, get away. (If they think you're crazy, that's ok too!)


In these multiple images of Bruce Willis, there are several nonverbal variations of the actor - including a pseudo smile, contempt, a sincere suppressed smile and and a true/sincere smile. In each of these five examples the wide angle of "John McClane" is pictured first and its cropped close-up of his eyes are below. In the image above (Willis No. 1), Bruce's mouth is asymmetric. With one-sided smiles, several scenarios should spring to mind: contempt, regret, a false smile (aka a fake or pseudo smile), a true but suppressed smile or a sincere smile just as it's beginning to form (or waning). Bruce's right nostril is dilated and his "mustache area" is tightened.
Look at the close up of his eyes below. For a true smile to be present, the eyelids must be partially closed - which is present here AND there must be a prominent concave-up dynamic (temporary) furrow in the lower eyelid(s). This is not seen below. Thus this body language facial expression is one of contempt.
Willis No. 2: Here, the Die Hard hero's mouth is not asymmetric - however the tilt & turn of his head/neck makes his mouth appear more one-sided. When we don't turn our head directly at the person at who our eyes are looking, it's a nonverbal indicator that they're either not liked (or worse), not trusted or not respected. Willis' eyelids (below) are very similar to the example in Willis No. 1. This smile is false and thus insincere.
Willis No. 3: This example shows Bruce's mouth again asymmetric, but look at his eyes. The action actor's right lower eyelid (close up below) shows a classic concave-up dynamic furrow characteristic of a true, sincere smile. This same configuration of his left lower eyelid is not fully formed. This smile is true and being suppressed or in its early stages of formation - which could be differentiated with a viewing a video or witnessing this moment in real-time.
Willis No. 4: The asymmetric mouth is slight here, and most likely in the midst of speech - which makes body language interpretation of this component difficult with out the dynamics of video. Below you can see the furrows present in his lower lids are superficial and not characteristic of a true felt smile of joy-happiness. Note his forehead though - a true & sincere smile NEVER has a contracted forehead. NEVER. This is a pseudo smile mixed with incredulity.
Willis No. 5: Here Bruce Willis' body language shows a true and sincere smile indicative of joy-happiness. The downward camera angle and a slight laugh enables the view of his lower teeth - which are not present with a full sincere smile. However the lower choppers are present in the context of laughter or when the smile begins to fade. Notice in the image below the deep concave-up dynamic furrows present in his lower eyelids (more prominent on his right).
Negotiation Body Language Secret # 353: Brad Pitt's Smiling Eyes - Sincere and Insincere Smiles
Dating & Romance Nonverbal Communication Secret # 1010: What Makes the Twinkle in Her Eye?
Nonverbal Communication Secret # 2091: Sincere Smiling (a la' Blake Lively) and Laughing - Reduces Anxiety and Heart Rate, Boosts Immune System and Relieves Pain
Nonverbal Communication Analysis # 2216: Senator Jim DeMint's Body Language - Lip Purse, Suppressed Smile, Duping Delight & Retiring Early
Nonverbal Communication Analysis # 2040: Never Trust a One-Sided Smile - Ex-Lobbyist Jack Abramoff
Nonverbal Communication Analysis # 2192: Senator Elect Ted Cruz - "So by the third debate, I’m pretty certain Mitt Romney actually French-kissed Barack Obama" - A Body Language Red Flag
Nonverbal Communication Analysis # 2191: Anne Hathaway's Impersonation of Katie Holmes on SNL - "Norming" Katie and Variations on a Theme


By Jamal Laoudi
By Jamal Laoudi
Washington D.C. – Early voting has started and votes have already been cast to choose the next president of the United States. Like every election, some will stay home. Here are ten interesting facts about the U.S. presidency that should compel a non-voter to come out and partake in the election process:
1 – The first non-establishment, non-elitist president was Andrew Jackson in 1828.
2- All U.S. Presidents have been males and of Christian faith so far.
3- The electoral votes allocated to each state can and do change from election cycle to another depending on population numbers reported by the census bureau.
4- George Washington gave the shortest inauguration speech at 135 words. William Henry Harrison’s was the longest, at 8,445 words. The latter later died a month later of Pneumonia
5- George Washington had to be lobbied to run for the presidency. In a response to one such lobby attempt by Alexander Hamilton he said: “It is my great and sole desire to live and die, in peace and retirement on my own farm.”
6- Four times we had a president who did not win the popular vote: 1824 John Quincy Adam, 1876 Rutherford B Hayes, 1888 Benjamin Harrison, and 2000 George W Bush
7 – The election of 1800 took 36 rounds of votes to decide Thomas Jefferson as president.
8- Eight Presidents died while in office. Four were assassinated, and four others died of natural causes. Statistically speaking, there is about 18% chance that the next president of the United States will die in office, which makes it one of the deadliest, if not the deadliest, job there is.
9- Reagan won 49 of the 50 states in 1984 elections, all but Minnesota. The coining of the term “Reagan democrats” was solidified.
10- While it is true that George Washington is the first president of the United States since the constitution was adopted, it is always neglected that there were other presidents prior to him. They were called “Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled.” John Hanson and John Hancock are but some of those names.


[WJMCR 4:3 June 2001]
This study suggests federal and state program assessment evaluations use a differential impact index to alert evaluators of the presence of a first-person or third-person effect that may result in major miscalculations. While the third-person effect hypothesis in communication has undergone considerable testing since it’s inception nearly three decades ago, this research is the first project to investigate an applied use for the concept. This study introduces a formula for calculating a differential impact index and demonstrates with an experiment using middle-school age students in a Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) program that a third-person effect can produce a confounding variable into traditional program evaluations.
The DARE program, standing for Drug Abuse Resistance Education, is a widely implemented program in the United States for fifth grade students, and receives funds of $750 million dollars annually. However, critics say DARE has not been proven to be effective.1
The most recent basis for the criticism is a study conducted by the Research Triangle Institute. R.T.I. findings indicate that the DARE program has no effect in preventing drug use, although R.T.I. evaluation methods have been called into question.2
At the same time that the research into the DARE program is being challenged, research suggesting an improved method of program evaluation has emerged. This new method of program evaluation would attempt to eliminate threats to internal validity with the use of an index that would provide a basis for evaluating self-assessment data.
The index described above was suggested in earlier research into a concept known as the third-person effect.3 The third-person effect occurs when a person believes others are more influenced by a message than they themselves are influenced.4Studies indicate this denial of influence increases when the person believes it is socially undesirable to be influenced.
This phenomenon is problematic for evaluations of programs such as the DARE program, because the young people in the DARE program may be likely to see being influenced by a drug awareness program as socially undesirable. Therefore, by the very nature of the influence, young people in a DARE program are more likely to deny that the program had influenced them (and actually believe that the program had not influenced them), regardless of whether or not it had influenced them. Literature Review
The concept of the third-person effect first emerged in a 1983 study by Davison, in which he stated that the third-person effect occurs when people believe others are more affected by media messages than they themselves are, and that this assessment is an overestimation. Subsequent research into the third-person effect has found that, contrary to the traditional belief that communication has a direct persuasive impact on the audience, the audience’s perception of the form of the communication is vitally important.5Mutz noted: “[In regard to the third-person effect] the effect that the communication achieves is not due to any direct persuasive influence of the message itself, but rather to the behavior of those persons who anticipate, or think they perceive, some reaction on the part of others, and behave differently as a result.”6 According to Perloff7 and Cohen and Davis8, people react to communication depending on how they think other people understand the communication. In other words, peer pressure can be a powerful determinant in whether a person is likely to deny that a communication has had a persuasive impact on them. Thus, traditional self-assessment program evaluations may be less accurate when peer pressure is high.
Further studies have indicated that the level of third-person effect (level of the likelihood that a person will deny that a communication has had a persuasive impact on them) increases when a person believes it is socially undesirable to be affected by the communication.9
Banning, 1997 notes:
Students involved in such a [DARE] program would probably not report that the program had affected them. This is because, among young people, there may be a negative stigma attached to persuasion by a police officer. Thus, if a greater third-person effect was created by the negative stigma of the message . . . the young people in a DARE program would be unlikely to report the program had affected them, regardless of whether or not it had affected them. Program evaluators should adjust their scores for the third-person effect. For example, DARE participants could be asked to rate how the program affected themselves and how it affected others. If a t-test indicated a significant difference between the two groups, evidence of a third-person effect, it could be concluded that the responses were not an accurate assessment of the DARE program’s effectiveness. Thus, checking for a third-person effect is a way of checking the validity of the evaluation. The presence of a third-person effect in evaluations indicates a lack of validity. Constructing a formula to adjust for the third-person could result in more valid program evaluations and a way of circumventing some of the traditional problems that self-reporting measures incur.10
Actually, a third-person effect is not the only evidence of an internal validity problem. Even if a person assumes a message effects him or her more than others the internal validity suffers. This is known as the first-person effect.
A first-person effect occurs when a person believes a message has more of an effect on others than it has on him or her self. It is the reverse of the third-person effect and is therefore sometimes called the “reverse third-person effect”. Researchers say a differential impact occurs when there is an effect that is either a third-person effect or first-person effect. In other words a differential impact means an effect is present, but the direction is not specified.
Significant evidence of a differential impact, either a first-person effect or a third-person effect indicates an internal validity problem. For example, if a subject were asked whether the media has strong effects, the reply might be in reference to whether the subject was thinking in terms of others or themselves and whether the question elicited a differential impact. The traditional way of asking about the impact of messages (be they media or in regard to an intervention such as the DARE program) does not eliminate the possibility of confounding by the differential impact variable. Thus, instead of asking whether the media have strong effects, a researcher could ask a subject how much the subject believes the media have strong effects in relation to themselves and how much they believe the media have strong effects in relation to others. This use of specific questions would help identify the presence of a differential impact.
The purpose of this research is to demonstrate that adjusting for differential impacts may result in more reliable measurement instruments and more accurate measurements of a program’s effectiveness, in this experiment, for the DARE program. Accountability is becoming a common theme among federal and state governmental agencies as administrators attempt to maximize scarce resources. This accountability often takes the form of assessment of a program’s effectiveness. Where the product is an intangible, the assessment often depends upon self-assessment instruments. Thus, the funding of an effective program may rest on whether or not the instrument has accurately reflected the success of the program.
Use of assessment instruments that are not sensitive enough to measure a program’s success may result in the elimination of federal or state funding for a successful program. Accuracy, a high level of validity, is crucial. Use of assessment instruments with a high level of sensitivity allows administrators to make better decisions, and can give taxpayers and funding agencies more confidence that resources are being allocated properly.
Research indicates the third-person effect may result in a lack of accuracy in assessment instruments. With the use of self-assessment tests that have questions built in and allow for researchers to measure and adjust for the level of the third-person effect, however, the accuracy of the tests could be greatly improved. This is especially likely in situations involving young people, where the third-person effect is likely to be high and self-assessments tests are likely to underestimate the influence of a program intervention. In brief, this research has the potential to raise the sensitivity of current program evaluation instruments.
The breadth of applications to which this research applies is expansive. There are immediate potential benefits to DARE programs and similar drug abuse prevention programs that use self-assessment evaluations to gauge success or failure of the intervention.
Specifically, determining whether DARE is effective is key in regard to decisions to keep DARE in place, or to retool and implement a new program. However, this application is just one of many potential uses of this research. Other potential benefits include the possible improvement of the gamut of university extension, state and federal program evaluation instruments that involve self-assessment instruments.
The primary goal of this research was not to evaluate the DARE program per se but to evaluate DARE program assessment tests. More specifically, the goal of the test was to develop and implement an instrument that can be used to evaluate whether the third-person effect influences traditional program evaluations. This, in turn, may allow for specific adjustments to be made based on the denial of program effects among respondents.
This leads to the formation of the study hypotheses:H1: The respondents will show a statistically significant differential impact between the set of questions which asks how much the students thought DARE had helped them stay off drugs and the set of questions that asks how much they believed DARE had helped other students stay off drugs.
This first set of questions pertains to how students perceive the DARE message’s effect on themselves and is referred to hereafter as the questions pertaining to “self.” The second set of questions pertains to how students perceive the DARE message’s effect on others and is referred to hereafter as the questions pertaining to “others.”H2: The respondents will show a third-person effect toward DARE officers.
The finding of a third-person effect has become the norm in studies measuring for the third-person effect. One researcher found that the third-person effect was found in 13 out of 14 studies reviewed .11 A more recent study of third-person effect research found that the third-person effect was present in 15 out of 16 studies reviewed.12 Furthermore, a 1995 study with adolescents found evidence of a third-person effect regarding drunk driving public service announcements because the subjects considered the subject “nerdy.”13 Therefore, it is consistent with previous research to predict that the differential impact predicted in H1 will be a third-person effect and not a first person effect.
As discussed earlier, the basic definition for the “third-person effect” is the phenomenon created by a person believing messages have a greater effect on others than on him or her self. Therefore, the operational method of defining the third-person effect in this study will be the same method used in many other third-person effect studies and is not unique to this research. In this study, a measure of the third-person effect is created by a number of “couplets,” paired questions in the questionnaire.The concept of using pairs of questions to come up with a third-person effect score seems to have originated with Davison and refined in a study by Cohen, Mutz, Price, and Gunther.14 Two other studies which used paired questions to come up with a third-person effect score specifically cite Cohen et al. as their source for this system.15 Previously cited third-person effect studies that have used paired questions to come up with a third-person effect score include Mutz , Perloff and Rojas et al. Two other methods for calculating the third-person effect have also been used. Tiedge, Silverblatt, Havice, and Rosenfeld16 used a system of three questions instead of two questions, and Lasorsa17 and Lometti, Ashby, and Welch18 coded open ended questions to arrive at third-person effect scores.The example given below illustrates the procedure that was used in this research.
Question #1. How much do you think DARE has helped you stay off drugs?1 A LOT
3 NOT MUCH
4 NOT AT ALL
Question #2. How much do you think DARE has helped others in the United States stay off drugs?1 A LOT
3 NOT MUCH
4 NOT AT ALLThis is a format based on the previously cited third-person effect studies by Cohen and Davis, and Gunther and Thorson. The respondent who checked a lower rank on the second question than on the first question of the couplet, has indicated a third-person effect, because he or she has indicated a belief that the program has had a greater effect on others than on him or her self. In the above example, the responses would first be reverse coded.As applied to this experiment, the presence of a third-person effect will be interpreted as problematic for the traditional interpretation of the data because of the danger that the resulting variance is being suppressed by the third-person effect. This is a threat to internal validity. In other words, the presence of the third-person effect is a red-flag that the data may not reflect, and may underestimate, the full effect of a program. In summary, the finding of a high level of the third-person effect score for the DARE evaluations would indicate the possibility that the third-person effect may be a suppresser variable, resulting in an underestimation of the actual effect of the program. Understanding the presence of the third-person effect as a suppresser variable in an evaluation allows the program administrators to better understand the results of their measuring instruments, and can allow them to better explain the results of the data and evaluate a program’s level of success.While demonstrating that a differential impact can call into question the validity of a program evaluation helps illuminate the problem, the solution requires additional conceptualization. The solution proposed in this research is: 1) the use of a standardized system of operationally defining a differential impact for comparison purposes, and 2) the reduction of differential impact levels to an index that can be used for cross study comparisons. The use of an index has not been used in previous third-person effect research and is presented here for the first time.The first step in the process is to run a t-test to determine if there is a significant difference between the two groups of scores. The proposed formula for determining whether the effect is a third-person effect or a first-person effect is as follows: How this would work with raw scores can be seen in the following: if the sum of the scores of the questions pertaining to “self” is 75, and the sum of the scores of the questions pertaining to “others” is 50, the differential impact level would be -25. The integer 25 gives some understanding of the magnitude of the difference, while the negative sign reveals that the differential impact is a first-person effect.Describing this example illustrates a minor problem with the use of this formula. While use of the formula reveals information about the score sets, the information is not easily compared to other findings. However, this can be accomplished with the use of the differential impact level index.The proposed differential impact index is as follows: (100 * |e|)/ The manner in which this would work with raw scores can be seen in the following: if the sum of the scores of the questions pertaining to “self” is 75, the sum of the scores of the questions pertaining to “others” is 50, and the differential impact level is -25, the index would be 33.333. Because the sign on the differential impact level was negative, we would have already determined that the differential impact is a first-person effect.In context with a differential impact index score of 33.333, we can say that the scores on the questions pertaining to “self” were 33.333% higher than the scores on the questions pertaining to “others.” If the sign on the differential impact level had been positive, we could say that there was a third-person effect in operation and that the scores on the questions pertaining to “others” were 33.333% higher than the scores on the questions pertaining to “self.” In summary, the differential impact index is the difference between the scores from the questions in the “self” and “others” groups. This is valuable tool for researchers in that it creates a shorthand method for explaining the magnitude of the differential impact findings in a study. A researcher could express the above index by saying a 33.333% first-person effect index had been revealed.
The instrument was administered to 119 fifth grade students at a medium sized Midwestern grade school. The group consisted of five classes which had recently completed a DARE program. The gender of the 119 subjects was about evenly divided, with 59 males, 59 females, and one respondent not reporting. Approximately 79% were white, 11% African-American and the remaining 10% a mixture of Mexican-American, Asian, Native-American, Puerto-Rican and others. Eighty-two percent of the respondents were eleven-years-old, 12% were ten-years-old and the remaining six percent were twelve-years-old.A t-test was run on the two groups of questions described previously. A significant difference was found at the .0001 alpha level, supporting H1, which stated: “The respondents will show a statistically significant differential impact between the set of questions which asks how much the students thought DARE had helped them stay off drugs and the set of questions which asks how much tstated that the differential impact would be a third-person effect.The differential impact index formula described earlier (100 * |e|)/sDiscussionThe fact that H1 was confirmed has implications for program evaluations in that it reveals how question wording can over or under inflate the apparent effect of an intervention. On the positive side, hope can be found in the use of the differential impact index introduced herein in that the level of differential impact on respondents can be measured. This is a valuable tool in understanding the psychology behind the statistics in program evaluations and interventions and in assessing whether the responses have internal validity.The fact that H2 was confirmed is interesting in that while the third-person effect is commonly found among adults 20, only one other third-person effect study 21 has included middle-school age subjects as part of the sample pool. As applied to the DARE program, the results show fifth graders in the study were more likely to see DARE affecting others and less likely to see it affecting them.If a program evaluator had surveyed the students, the results might have seemed point two different ways. If the survey asked the students whether they felt DARE was effective, more of the students would have been likely to say it was. However, if the students were asked whether DARE had affected them, the students would have less likely to say it had. This discrepancy in results could cause an under representation of the effectiveness of the DARE program. However, it is a discrepancy that can be explained by the third-person effect hypothesis, which says that people are more likely to think others will be more affected by a media message than they themselves are.
The third-person and first-person effects do seem to have an effect on how people assess a program, and this effect could skew results in an evaluation. Had this experiment not used the differential impact index our understanding of the numbers would have been much different. We might have concluded that the DARE program is very strong if we only looked at responses to the question which asked respondents how the DARE program affected others. We might have concluded that the DARE program is not as effective if we only looked at responses to the questions which asked respondents how the DARE program affected themselves.The question which now arises is what a high level of differential impact shows. On the one hand, it shows the presence of a confounding or suppressing variable that means a reduced level of internal validity for either set of responses mentioned the preceding paragraph. In the case of a real world program evaluation, such a high level of differential impact would necessitate either further testing to increase internal validity or very cautious treatment of the program evaluation results.On the other hand, if the differential impact level were found to be low, one could assume confounding variables pertaining to the third-person effect were not likely to be at work, internal validity could be assumed to be higher, and the program evaluation results taken more seriously. For example, a differential impact index of 0 would indicate high internal validity.Program evaluators should seriously consider using the third-person effect index as a way of gaining additional information about program evaluations and their internal validity. Calculation of the differential impact index requires only the sums of the scores from individual groups and not use of the complete database. Thus, in cases where the sums of the scores from individual groups is available, it would be possible to compute the differential impact index on past studies without access to their databases.On the other end of the spectrum, a minimalist approach requires little effort on the part of the program evaluator. A questionnaire with a set of two questions as described earlier and a repeated measures t-test will indicate if there is a significant differential impact between the two groups of questions. A significant difference would be a warning sign of the presence of internal validity problems related to a differential impact.Future research into what causes the third-person and first-person effects could also benefit program and intervention evaluators. When more is known about what variables cause the third-person effect and how those variables interact, the specific confounding and suppressing variables may be able to be identified, further increasing the internal validity of program evaluation instruments.In the past, researchers have looked at macro applications of the third-person effect. This research presents a very applied micro level application of the third-person effect and answers the question of why researchers should research the third-person effect. The answer is that the third-person effect research has real world applications and consequences in 51.034 = i
About the Author: Stephen A. Banning is an assistant professor of journalism at the Manship School of Communication at Louisiana State University.


The Civil War put an end to slavery, and the civil rights movement put an end to legalized segregation. Crimes motivated by racism are punished with particular severity, and Americans are more sensitive than ever about the words they choose when talking about race. And yet America remains divided along the color line. Acclaimed scholar John L. Jackson, Jr., identifies a new paradigm of race relations that has emerged in the wake of the legal victories of the civil rights era: racial paranoia. We live in an age of racial equality punctuated by galling examples of ongoing discrimination-from the federal government’s inadequate efforts to protect the predominantly black population of New Orleans to Michael Richards’s outrageous outburst. Not surprisingly, African-Americans distrust the rhetoric of political correctness, and see instead the threat of racism lurking below every white surface. Conspiracy theories abound and racial reconciliation seems near to impossible. In Racial Paranoia, Jackson explains how this paranoia is cultivated, transferred, and exaggerated; how it shapes our nation and undermines the goal of racial equality; and what can be done to fight it.
Racial Paranoia: The Unintended Consequences of Political Correctness. Basic Books, 2008.


Feelings vs. Thoughts Vocabulary Builder
This ten question exercise will help build your feelings vocabulary. It is helpful to differentiate between words that describe what we think others are doing around us, and words that describe actual feelings. These "faux feelings" often reveal more about how we think others are behaving than what we are actually feeling ourselves. Feeling words are always about us, not the other person.
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