I followed the stories about the Russian K-129 (Wiki) for many decades and have had an interest in submarines for much longer. Recently learning about sonobuoys and torpedos has rekindled that interest. This page was made as I started to read Going Deep: John Philip Holland and the invention of the attack submarine (2017) by Lawrence Goldstone as a way to keep track of the patents.
HunleyThe Hunley (Wiki, Hunley.org) is called the first successful (depending on how they defined that word) submarine because it sank the USS Housatonic (Wiki). A paper dated 23 Aug 2017 from Duke University Confederate Submarine Crew Killed By Their Own Weapon shows that soft tissue damage to the lungs and brains of the crew was the problem. Note that the "torpedo" they used was a "spar torpedo" not an "automobile" type and was on a 16 foot spar. Since it contained about 135 pounds of gun powder. The PLOS article is:
Air blast injuries killed the crew of the submarine H.L. Hunley, 2017-08-23.
Note that the plan was to attach the spar torpedo to the USS Housatonic and then back off maybe 150 feet before exploding it, but something went wrong and the torpedo exploded while still on the spar, much too close to the sub for the occupants to survive. A big part of the design of U.S. military munitions is "Safe and Arm" (MIL-STD-1316) to prevent the type of accident that befell the Hunley. A normal S&A function is to insure that the weapon has traveled a safe distance from the launching platform before it's armed. A common approach is a small propeller that needs to make a predetermined number of turns and/or a minimum amount of time needs to elapse after launch.
From prior reading the crush depth for a W.W.II submarine is about the same as it's length, on the order of a few hundred feet. It took a lot of improvement in metallurgy and sub design to get to the deep diving subs of today.
The W.W.II and earlier submarines were not true submarines like we have today, but rather submersibles meaning they were really surface ships that could submerge and maneuver under water for a very short amount of time. They had very limited range under water because of limited battery capacity.
John Holland (Wiki) is the father of today's submarine, and in the patents section below are key problems he solved. In Reference 1 there are many dozen early designs for underwater vehicles, but they all suffer major problems. Patent 815350 (below) shows some sailors so gives a rough idea of the size of the first Holland Sub. The Electric Boat Co. (Wiki) was formed to build Holland Subs.
At what time was the air compressor for charging the Whitehead torpedoes on board the sub and if it was not then how long between charging the torpedoes until the air leaked out cutting the range in half?
Royal Navy - Holland 1 -
John Holland was cheated out of his patents and removed from the Electric Boat Co. To be replaced by the technician Frank Cable who used electrical heating to dry out electrical cables in a sub that sank.
This is a general idea not limited to torpedoes. Here some examples of way overrated capability. This goes farther than the commercial products where marketing hype is understood by most customers. Here, in my opinion it misleads people in the military about the capability of their equipment. Not a good thing.
Norden Bomb Sight (Wiki)
While this sight made a number of improvements and did increase accuracy, it was not at all the case that bombing was a precise operation. The internal gyroscope was based on a DC motor with carbon brushes which deposited carbon dust inside the sealed case causing errors. But the main problem was fundamentally that the corrections made were not at all adequate since there were variables that were not at all controlled. This can be seen in the bomb damage assessment (Wiki) reports for W.W.II where not only did the bomb fall in the area of a pickle barrel it missed a factory that was as big as a city block. Even the modern "smart bombs" (Wiki) are not infallible, but are a lot more accurate than W.W.II iron bombs (Wiki).
At the start of W.W.II the torpedoes were either the ones left over from W.W.I or brand new untested designs. It turns out that the new Mk 14 torpedo has numerous problems making it close to totally ineffective. It took about two years to fix all the bugs. So while it was being promoted as the best torpedo ever in fact it was a POS (Urban distionary). Some torpedoes had a claimed range on the order of 25 miles (Wiki: Type 93) but there's no way it had anywhere near the accuracy to hit any seagoing target at that range. They realized the problem and made a modification installing a kamikaze (Wiki) for terminal guidance in the Kaiten (Wiki). Note that most successful torpedo attacks were where the launch point was no more than a few target lengths away.
The Torpedo Data Computer (Wiki) was an mechanical analog computer that solved the problem presented by a moving firing platform and moving target and took into account the speed and course (need not be a straight line) of the torpedo. Only a couple of second order corrections were made so the accuracy decreased rapidly as the target distance grew. I expect that the range of the longest torpedo sinking was far below the maximum claimed range for that model torpedo.
Battle Ships (Wki)The main target of the Pearl Harbor attack (Wiki) was Battle Ship Row where all eight of them were hit along with some other ships and aircraft on the ground. But, the Battle Ship was already obsolete.
Wooden sailing boats had cannons that fired broadside requiring the attacking ship to maneuver parallel to the target ship to allow firing. The W.W.II 16" guns (Wiki) on a battle ship like the Missouri (Wiki) are mounted in turrets so are more flexible. They have a stated range of up to 24 miles. The same problem as firing a torpedo, i.e. moving firing platform, moving target, was solved by the Fire Control Computer (Wiki), and it turns out the the Ford Instrument Co. made both the TDC and FCC. Practical rangekeepers had to assume that targets were moving in a straight-line path at a constant speed, to keep complexity to acceptable limits. So, a defensive strategy was to "chase salvos", i.e make violent turns and head to the splash point of the last shot coming towards you or just steer a tight circle (not a straight line) course.
My supposition is that a 16" gun never sank an target ship at a range of 24 miles, but only at much reduced ranges, maybe 2.4 miles? The reasoning is the same as for the case of the torpedo. That's to say without some form of terminal guidance the probability of hitting the target is very small. It may be possible to fire many shots and use RADAR tracking of each one to reduce the error of the next shot, sort of like firing a machine gun by not using the sights but by looking at where the rounds land. But that's not precision fire control.
Air to Air Missiles (Wiki)
The early air to air missiles were just rockets with no on board guidance. These were not very effective but had an advantage over slower munitions. For example the F-8 Crusader jet (Wiki) was designed to use 20mm cannon (Wiki) because prior Korean war vintage jets using .50 caliber machine guns were able to fire, dive and get in front of the bullets and shoot themselves. The 20mm cannon has a higher velocity round (3,300 fps at the muzzle or 2,250 MPH).
The early patents are all about control and stability underwater. The major concept missing from earlier attempts. Sort of like the key thing the Wright Brothers (Wiki) brought to airplanes was a control system so it could be steered. Prior aeroplanes were focused exclusivity on flying rather than crashing.Wiki), the highest is HY-130.
The below equation is from Yahoo Answers. Note this is about buckling, not ultimate stress so is independent of the grade of steel.
For External pressure design of a long cylinder to resist buckling, the Stress_critical is given by Scr = 0.27*E*(t/r)^3
This is applicable to materials with a Poisson's ratio (Wiki) = 0.3 for steel,
E = the Modulus of Elasticity (Wiki) of the metal, psi (29E6 for steel)
t = the wall thickness, inches
r = inside radius of the cylinder, inches
To this answer you should apply a safety factor of 4.
Scr = .444 * Water depth in Feet [ 64 lbs/cubic foot for sea water divided by 144 Sq in per square foot = 0.444 PSI per foot of depth)
E = 29E6 for steel (i.e. 1,000 pounds of force on a bolt with a 1 sq in cross section will stretch it 0.029")
t/r = TBD
33 Foot inside diameter = 16.5 foot radius = 198" = r (Los Angles Class Sub Wiki)
The above numbers have no safety factor.
The pressure hull thickness is at least 8" thick, probably thicker.
The very first scale model used a clockwork as a power source. The first sub built for the navy was designed to have a combined gasoline engine and a DC motor, but the U.S. Navy changed that to a steam boiler, like used on surface ships, but that turned out to make the inside so hot that no humans could be involved.
The first working Holland sub could use either the engine or motor to power the propeller. This was true for the S-boats where each of the 4 engines could be connected to either a generator or propellers. The later classes of boats were true diesel-electric (Wiki) and the engines never were connected to the propellers.
The S-boats had a range of about 5,000 miles, much shorter than the "Fleet Boats" made for W.W.II that can cross oceans.
Electro-Dynamic Co. (Wiki) made electric motors for electric Launch Co. (Wiki ELCO) which were later used in submarines. W.W. Griscom (Wiki) died in 1897. In 1899 Isaac Rice (Wiki) took over (cheated) John Holland of his patents, took over his company and renamed it Electric Boat Co. (Wiki). He also controlled ELCO and Electric Storage Battery Co. (Wiki) (later called Exide Co. In 1952 Electric Boat Co. became part of General Dynamics (Wiki).
356834 Electric motor, William W. Griscom, Feb 1, 1887, 310/40R; 310/216.094; 310/60R; 310/64 - more efficient than prior art motors
397424 Connection of electrical circuits, WIlliam W. Griscom, Henry N. Weiner, Electro Dynamic Co., Feb 5, 1889, 307/9.1; 200/51.1; 307/66; 439/291 -
In the very late 1890s the gasoline engine was replaced by a diesel engine (Wiki) made in Germany which was much safer.
542846 Method and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work, Rudolf Diesel, July 16, 1895, 123/27R; 123/1R; 123/25C; 123/25Q; 123/294; 123/58.4; 123/65VB; 60/39.76 -
The very early submarines never dived, i.e. they ran "Awash" so that a man's head could be above the surface. But as soon as they could dive they were essentially running blind. The idea was that the periscope could be used to see what was going on but people on ships would have a difficult time seeing the small periscope.
Toward the end of W.W.II the S-band (10 cm) APS-20 RADAR was replaced with the X-band (3 cm) APS- 31 RADAR (9.375 GHz, 200 mile range) which was much better at seeing periscopes.
Currently there are different functions for things called periscopes on submarines:
1. Search periscope, navigation, observation: has both optical and radio antennas, can be rather large
2. Attack periscope: is minimal in size to minimize detection in a combat situation
3. ESM: Electronic Support Measures antennas for a wide range of frequencies (also may be built on submarine
4. Photonics Mast (Wiki): provides the optical periscope function using high resolution TV cameras. Takes up much less space and provides better images and less time above the water line.
The periscope at left uses an special prism to get the image right side up, but suffers in that the distance between (a) and (b) is fixed.
The lenses comprise a right angle telescope.
The periscope at right makes use of collimated light between (c1) and (c2) so the distance between these two lenses can be changed without any effect on the image. This allows the periscope to telescope.
By Christian Schirm - Own work, after/nach Lexikon der Optik, Spektrum Verlag, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=522876
While there were various periscopes (Wiki) long before their use in submarines, one of the first for a sub was by Simon Lake for his "lake submarine".
Victorian Telescope Makers: The Lives & Letters of Thomas & Howard Grubb by I.G. Glass, 1997 (book on order 15 Aug 2017)
751569 Altiscope or the Like, L.Y. Spear, Electric Boat Co., Feb 9, 1904, 359/402; 114/340 - can move + or - 30 deg from center line of sub (60 deg total).
751569 Altiscope or the Like, L.Y. Spear, Electric Boat Co., Filed: Mar 14, 1903, Pub: Feb 9, 1904, 359/402; 114/340 - can move + or - 30 deg from center line of sub (60 deg total).
832219 Means for preventing condensation in optical tubes, Lawrence Y Spear, Electric Boat Co, Filed: May 26, 1904, Pub: Oct 2, 1906, 114/340; 359/512 - vacuum pump and dry air
832219 Means for preventing condensation in optical tubes, Lawrence Y Spear, Electric Boat Co, Filed: May 26, 1904, Pub: Oct 2, 1906, 114/340; 359/512 - vacuum pump and dry air
941021 Optical instrument, Frederick L G Kollmorgen (Company History), Keuffel & Esser Co, Nov 23, 1909, 359/835 - Telescope that uses Porro prisms (Wiki)
954707 Device for conning submarine boats, Lawrence Y Spear, Electric Boat Co, Priority: May 26, 1904, Pub: Apr 12, 1910, 359/405; 114/340 -
849570 Hydroscope, Giuseppe Pino, Apr 9, 1907, 359/402; 114/66; 359/895 - uses mirrors not lens, to look underwater from above the surface.
1006230 Periscope, Frederick L G Kollmorgen, Keuffel & Esser Co, Oct 17, 1911, 359/401, 89/36.14, 359/402, 114/340 - top of image stays at top even as periscope is rotated. (see: M12 Panoramic Telescope)
1099126 Housing for the conning-towers, periscopes, and ventilating-shafts of submarines, Jun 2, 1914, 114/334, 114/340 - if water can press on periscope tube it gets jammed, so needs protection from moving water
1134388 Optical instrument, Frederick L G Kollmorgen, Keuffel & Esser Co, Apr 6, 1915, 356/21, 356/7, 359/405 - uses "infinity optics" allowing the telescoping of the tube while maintaining the image at any extension.
1203151 Periscope azimuth-indicator, Elmer A Sperry, Sperry Gyroscope Co Ltd, Oct 31, 1916, 356/142, 359/405 -
1222156 Cleaning periscope-glasses, Joseph A Steinmetz, Apr 10, 1917, 359/509, 52/171.1, 114/340 -
1270876 Periscope and optical system therefor, George N Saegmuller, Gustav A H Kellner, Bausch & Lomb, Jul 2, 1918 359/405 - hemisphere coverage
1290744 Periscope, Aladar Hollander, Electric Boat Co, Jan 7, 1919, 114/340, 359/403 - can be used either in coning tower or just below
1290745 Periscope, Aladar Hollander, Electric Boat Co, Jan 7, 1919, 114/340, 359/403 - "
1309639 Periscope, L. G. Kollmorgen, (not assigned), Jul 15, 1919, 359/403 - ability to change objectives for different powers
1361358 Periscope, Bedell Charles H, Electric Boat Co, Dec 7, 1920, 356/143, 359/405 - bearing appears in the field of view.
1514621 Stuffing box, Kollmorgen Frederick L G, Kollmorgen Optical Corp, Nov 11, 1924, 114/340 -
1986731 Combination periscope and stadimeter, Frederick L G Kollmorgen, Jan 1, 1935, 356/7, 356/22, 359/403 - for range finding (see: method of stadia, stadimeter)
2503748 Hydraulic periscope elevating system, Kollmorgen Ernst O, Kollmorgen Optical Corp, Apr 11, 1950, 359/406, 92/111, 91/167.00R, 254/93.00R, 91/531 -
2522280 Periscope mount, Kollmorgen Ernst O, Kollmorgen Optical Corp, Sep 12, 1950, 359/406 - main tube is hinged
2780941 Multiple revolution limit stop device, Kollmorgen Ernst O, Kollmorgen Optical Corp, Feb 12, 1957, 74/10.2, 74/548, 74/553, 338/334 - needed if no slip rings.
2858732 Mechanism for eliminating parallax from telescopic sights and the like, Ernst O Kollmorgen, Henry G Theuer, Kollmorgen Optical Corp, Nov 4, 1958, 359/428, 42/122 - "Telescope, Rifle, 4XD, MC-1", "FSN 1240 647 1106 US" - do not see this as patentable since it was used on surveying equipment for maybe 10 years
2861203 Torquer, Luneau John R, Unruh Christian H H, Inland Motor Corp, Nov 18, 1958, 310/40.00R, 310/235, 310/43, 310/214, 310/154.13 - while developed for Gyroscopes, later used to to help rotate periscopes. (Kollmorgen)
2884831 Instantaneous reader for moving dials, Lionel Rawlings John, Nicholas Ciaffardini Aldo, Kollmorgen Optical Corp, May 5, 1959, 356/154, 250/463.1, 33/348, 353/40 - a flash of light on a phosphor screen is used to capture the position of a rapidly rotating index.
There are two types of Sonar, one is passive listening and the other is active "pinging" where the time for the echo to return gives the range and the directivity of the transducer array gives the direction.
There are two frequency ranges: normal human hearing (20 - 20,000 Hz) and Ultrasonic (Wiki).
Passive SONAR pays a lot of attention to Acoustic Signatures (Wiki).
There seems to be a disconnect between the 37.5 kHz ultrasonic frequency used by Underwater Locator Beacons (Wiki) on Flight Data Recorders (Wiki) and Cockpit Data Recorders (Wiki). So far as I've been able to determine neither sonobuoys nor SONAR equipment can pick up their signal.
1562950 Signaling by ultra-audible sound waves, Reginald A Fessenden, Submarine Signal Co, Filed: Dec 14, 1918, Pub: Nov 24, 1925, 367/93, 116/137.00A, 367/101, 367/107 - Mainly SONAR, probably in response to the RMS_Titanic sinking in 1912, coined the term ultra-audiable - diaphragm is 80X a wavelength hence a beam is formed
Calls:2408395 Object locating system, Jr James B Hays, Western Electric Co, Filed: Apr 26, 1944, Pub: Oct 1, 1946, 367/126, 342/439, 114/21.3, 367/111,
706737 - operated at 50 kHz
918306 - operated at 50 kHz
962018 - operated at 50 kHz
2433332 System for locating obstacles, Benioff Hugo, Submarine Signal Co, Filed: Oct 22, 1941, Pub: Dec 30, 1947, 367/115, 342/139, 346/49, 367/129, 346/150.1 -
367/123 - two channel hydrophone system using time delay in one channel to get bearing.
2423459 Frequency selective apparatus, Warren P Mason, Bell Telephone Lab, Filed: Sep 15, 1942, Pub: Jul 8, 1947 - acoustic prism to separate beams by frequency
2467368 Submarine sound direction determining system, Batchelder Laurence, Submarine Signal Co, Filed: Sep 23, 1943, (6 Year Delay), Pub: Apr 19, 1949, 367/116, 367/124, 318/638, 367/113, 367/120, 367/114, 367/97, 367/95 -
2658186 Prismatic directional and object locating system, Warren P Mason, Bell Telephone, Filed: Mar 12, 1942, Pub: Nov 3, 1953 - multiple beam sonar.
2930025 Dual channel superheterodyne receiver, Amedeo D Zappacosta, Sec of Navy, Filed: Mar 31, 1949, Pub: Mar 22, 1960, 367/125, 342/394, 181/125, 342/432, 367/113 -
2962997 Underwater sonic depth steering system, Cecil K Stedman, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: Apr 3, 1946, (14 Year Delay) Pub: Dec 6, 1960, 114/25, 318/460, 367/96 - FIDO Mk 24 Mine (Wiki)
2978577 Noise reducing systems, Raymond W Ketchledge, Bell Telephone Lab, Filed: Mar 4, 1948, (13 Year Delay), Pub: Apr 4, 1961, 455/253.2, 330/140, 330/144, 367/901, 114/20.1, 324/76.77, 327/552, 455/306, 367/113, 455/344, 324/76.52, 330/149, 367/97 - impulse noise cancelation in hydrophone system
3021807 Homing system for torpedo, Cecil K Stedman, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: May 1, 1946, (16 Year Delay) Pub: Feb 20, 1962, 114/23,
3022760 Echo range limitation equipment, Paul C Gardiner, Lawrence E Jewett, Jr George Lupton Broomell, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: Oct 4, 1950, ( ), Pub: Feb 27, 1962, 114/23, 367/96, 367/93, 367/901 - active sonar torpedo
3089451 Transducer pitch control for echo controlled torpedo, Paul C Gardiner, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: Oct 4, 1950, (13 Year Delay), Pub: May 14, 1963, 114/23, 367/12, 114/25 - active sonar torpedo
367/901, 367/96 - FIDO Mk 24 Mine (Wiki)
3041993 Signal translating system, Donald D Robertson, Bell Telephone Lab, Filed: Dec 27, 1945, ( 17 Year Delay), Pub: Jul 3, 1962, 114/23, 367/900, 367/96 - FIDO Mk 24 Mine (Wiki)
Also see Sonobuoy: Submerged Signal Ejector (SSE) - 3, 4 or 6" diameter launch tube2710458 Underwater acoustic decoy, Reed Donald G, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: Jun 14, 1945, (10 Year Delay) Pub: Jun 14, 1955, 434/6, 114/20.1, 367/1, 434/25 - training sonar operators
2887671 Echo elongator, Burton Frankel, Cupp Frederick B, Clevite Corp, May 19, 1959, 367/1, 434/6 -Training Simulator - Referenced by 15 patents - magnetic wheel
2938483 Acoustic decoy, Russell I Mason, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: Nov 29, 1945 (15 Year Delay) Pub: May 31, 1960, 114/20.1, 369/69, 367/1 - phonograph record
2975396 Artificial sonar target, Richard A Mueller, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: (11 Year Delay) Pub: Mar 14, 1961, 367/1, 434/6, 114/20.1 - false target torpedo shaped, maybe smaller both return echo and running sound.
3180295 Submarine simulator, Christopher Niederer Otto, Apr 27, 1965, 114/20.1, 367/2, 434/6, 367/1 - torpedo which is a submarine decoy
3209314 Sound beacon, Vaughn G Mckenney, William A Myers, Secretary of the Navy, Filed: Aug 9, 1944, (21 Year Delay ) Pub: Sep 28, 1965, 367/1, 367/137, 102/390 -
4183008 Noise making device, Ralph P. Crist, Secretary Of The Navy, Priority: May 12, 1958 ( ) Pub: Jan 8, 1980, 367/142, 116/27 - random noise 10 Hz to 100 kHz output, floating, sub launched, much smaller than torpedo, magnesium-silver chloride water activated battery
4194246 Chemical canister, Ralph P. Crist, Secretary Of The Navy, Filed: May 12, 1958 ( ) Pub: Mar 18, 1980, 367/1, 441/22, 441/12 - gas generator for flotation and power
4202047 Acoustic jammer and torpedo decoy, Vivian L. Chrisler, deceased, William H. Gilbert, George L. Boyer, ecretary Of The Navy, Filed: Feb 27, 1953 (27 Year Delay) Pub: May 6, 1980, 367/1, 181/142, 116/27 - motor driven floating buoy with time delayed start - decoy surface ship for sub or torpedo.
6430108 Pyro-acoustic generator for protecting submarines and surface ships, Marc Pignol, Philippe Mourry, Etienne Lacroix Tous Artifices S.A., Aug 6, 2002, 367/145 - 2 explosions every second for 10 minutes.
Fessenden oscillator (Wiki)
This was an Canadian response to the sinking of the Titanic (Wiki) and amounts to a SONAR system. Note the "Submarine" in Submarine Signal Company has to do with underwater bells, not so much as underwater vehicles. These were used at light houses and buoys according to Submrine Signals (Ref 12).
1167366 Dynamo-electric machinery, Reginald A Fessenden, Submarine Signal Co, Jan 4, 1916, 310/15, 310/169, 123/46.00E, 290/1.00R, 367/175, 204/193, 116/137.00A - generate and receive underwater sound.
Fig 1 is a version that uses an electromagnet, an AC winding and a copper tube acting as a single turn coil.
Fig 2 is another version using a permanent magnet.
Fig 3 is a version where the shorted copper tube is powered by a gas engine.
Fig 4 is a wiring diagram for sending or receiving either a tone or voice.
Note that the patent does not mention the idea of receiving a reflected tone burst, but this was done detecting ice burgs out to two miles.
1207388 Method and apparatus for submarine signaling, Reginald A Fessenden, Submarine Signal Co, Dec 5, 1916, 367/134 -
Plan Position Indicator (PPI)
In the book Pig Boats (Ref 5) they mention that special equipment was fitted to submarines to detect naval mines in the Bay of Japan toward the end of W.W.II. This was developed by the Univ. of California, Division of War Research (Wiki) and was called the QLA. SONAR (Ref 8) pg 263 says: "The QLA echo-ranging equipment is an f-m scanning sonar. It provides a plan-position indication (PPI) of underwater objects within sound range. It can be installed on submarines or surface vessels. In contrast to the searchlight-type sonar, the f-m sonar provides continuous area search coupled with the ability to detect very small objects." The reference has some details of how it works.
In Principles of Underwater Sound (Ref-9) 11.4 Scanning Sonar - FM the QLA principle of operation is covered
In An Ocean in Common (Ref 10) the subs outfitted with the QLA were: Spadefish 20 Oct 1944, Tinosa (SS-283) Nov, Bowfin (SS-287) Dec, Stickleback (SS-415) June. A total of 20 sets were deployed before then end of W.W.II.
Robert M. Page
2629866 Position indicating apparatus (PPI), Page Robert M, not assigned, Filed: Sep 19, 1942, Pub: Feb 24, 1953, 342/144, 342/176 - maybe for use with RADAR or radio?
Robert Morris Page (Wiki; Patents) - Over The Horizon RADAR (Wiki) - Monopulse RADAR (Wiki) 2929056 - IFF (Wiki; patent No.:2541092, 3311912, 3296615)
Harvey C Hayes
Many patents related to SONAR development between world wars.
1632331 Submarine sound receiver, Harvey C Hayes, Jun 14, 1927, 181/198, 367/149, 116/27 -
Adapting inertia microphone for use underwater. Normal audio range.
1742704 Apparatus for receiving and determining the direction of submarine sounds, Harvey C Hayes, Jan 7, 1930 - 367/174 - improved microphone
1729595 Distance-measuring device, Harvey C Hayes, Sep 24, 1929, 367/99 - sonic depth measuring - spinning wheel & Light
2041710 Sound detecting apparatus, Harvey C Hayes, May 26, 1936, 73/570, 381/191, 331/40, 332/137, 331/65, 367/181 - differential capacitance mike
2374637 Supersonic apparatus, Harvey C Hayes, Filed: Sep 10, 1931, Pub: Apr 24, 1945, 367/158, 381/173, 116/137.00A, 29/25.35, 310/340, 340/384.6, 367/166, 116/DIG.180 - piezo-electric hydrophone/ultrasonic projector
2459162 Acoustical sound locating device, Harvey C Hayes, Filed: Nov 16, 1940, Pub: Jan 18, 1949, 181/125, 367/104, 367/151, 367/103 -
motor driven 360 deg scan
2474842 Indicator, Harvey C Hayes, Filed: Dec 31, 1940, Pub: Jul 5, 1949, 368/89, 368/227, 367/107 -
Gertrude (Wiki)Underwater telephone where voice frequencies are converted to ultrasonic and back again. There may be some cryptographic manipulation in a manner similar to what's done for audio or radio cryptographic security.
2400796 Signal apparatus, Donald E Watts, Paul C Gardiner, Gen Electric, Filed: Dec 29, 1939, (7 year delay), Pub: May 21, 1946, 367/87, 367/109, 367/903 - depth finder for use on submarine.
2576157 Wave signaling system, Alexander Tykulsky, Sec. of Army, Nov 27, 1951, 370/281, 370/483 - full duplex radio system, not sonar.
3218607 Underwater telephone, Brock Charles R, Cyr Reginald J, Bendix Corp, Nov 16, 1965, 367/132, 128/201.19, 379/430, 455/575.2, 455/40, D24/110.2, 2/425 -
4039999 Communication system, John Weston, Aug 2, 1977, 367/132, 381/151, 455/205, 455/575.2, 128/201.19, 455/90.1, 128/201.27 - underwater ultrasonic communications system..
4975890 Underwater sound transmitting system, Sylvan Wolf, Charles C. Vogt, Walter O. Allen, Melvin W. Crawford, Robert D. Mattingly, Donald M. Leslie, Secretary Of The Navy, Filed: May 10, 1960 (30 YEAR DELAY), Dec 4, 1990, 367/131, 367/145, 367/137 - launched from plane, ship or submarine. A device that sinks to a predetermined depth then fires charges at predetermined time intervals so that a sub can receive a signal. Makes use of the "sound channel" and has a range of at least 500 miles. Not Gertrude, but is underwater signaling.
Note that submarines typically carry a couple dozen torpedo lengths of weapons (I say that because one torpedo can be replaced by 3 or 4 naval mines) and any of these can be loaded into a tube or removed and something else installed.
The classical submarine weapon is the Torpedo. There are also naval mines that can be launched from the standard 21" torpedo tube.
There is a version of the Harpoon anti-ship missile that can be launched from a torpedo tube called the UGM-84 (Wiki). This came about in the 1970s when Russian surface ships were outfitted with anti-submarine rocket powered weapons so the Harpoon was developed with a range greater than that weapon.
There is a version of the Tomahawk (Wiki) that can be launched from a standard torpedo tube called the UGM-109
6427574 Submarine horizontal launch tactom capsule, Jeffrey C. Callahan, Secretary Of The Navy, Aug 6, 2002, 89/1.81, 89/1.817 - "provides the capability for launching a Tactical Tomahawk cruise missile from a horizontal torpedo tube on a submarine"
4033225 Hydrodynamic configuration to be used on underwater launched, unpropelled bodies, Roy M. Kartzmark, Jr., Secretary Of The Navy, Jul 5, 1977, 89/1.81 - constant upward glide path which is stabilized in roll, pitch, and yaw.
Vertical Launch Tubes(Wiki)
Unlike the torpedo tubes that can be loaded with various on board weapons, once the VLT is loaded and the hatch sealed it stays that way. This means they are much more space efficient than torpedo rooms. These standardized launchers are also used on surface ships and can fire many different missiles (Wiki: Mk 41) including the Tomahawk.4934241 Rocket exhaust deflector, Edward T. Piesik, General Dynamics, Jun 19, 1990, 89/1.817, 89/1.8, 89/1.816 - Hot launch
5363791 Weapons launch system, Clinton W. Stallard, III, Newport News, Nov 15, 1994, 114/318, 114/320, 114/238 - back fill of water adjusted to equal weight of spend missile
BoomersThese submarines only carry nuclear missiles in their own specialized vertical launch tubes. The Polaris (Wiki) and Trident (Wiki) missiles were designed for launch from submarines.3499364 Apparatus for submerged launching of missiles, Ooge Charles L D, Us Navy, Filed: Nov 19, 1959, (11 year delay), Pub: Mar 10, 1970, 89/1.81, 89/1.817 - for Polaris missiles
In Going Deep, Chapter 1 there is the recounting of the W.W. I battle of September 22, 1914 (Wiki) involving the British Battle Cruisers (Wiki) HMS Aboukir (Wiki), HMS Hogue (Wiki) and HMS Cressy (Wiki) and the German U-9 (Wiki) armed with 18" Whitehead design torpedos that use the Brotherhood 3 cylinder radial engine. (NavWeaps)
239046 Screw Propeller, John P. Holland, Mar 22, 1881, 416/90R; 416/90A -
337000 Hydrocarbon-engine, P. Holland, Mar 2, 1886, 123/275; 123/286; 123/292; 123/41R; 123/41.34; 123/41.76; 123/58.2; 123/61V; 123/69V; 74/567 - based on double acting steam engine valving and designed for street cars.
472670 Submergible torpedo-boat, John P. Holland, Apr 12, 1892, 114/333; 114/1; 114/334 - steam powered with tall smoke stack (4) and snorkel (15), conning tower (16), fore and aft torpedo or gun tubes (6).
491051 Submarine gun, John P. Holland, Jan 31, 1893, 89/5; 114/320; 89/1.51; 89/31 - shoots a dart trailing a line which is connected to an explosive. For attacking wooden ships 492960 Steering apparatus for submarine vessels, John P. Holland, Mar 7, 1893, 114/152; 114/163; 114/311; 114/332 - cables over pulleys - similar to early aircraft
522177 Submarine Torpedo Boat, P. Holland, Jun 26, 1894, 114/327; 114/179; 114/210; 114/238; 114/335; 114/340; 405/192; 89/5 -
There are a number of details.
537113 Submergible boat, John P. Holland, Apr 9, 1895, 114/317; 114/238; 405/185 - Fuel pump (e1) and water pump (e2) maintain boat weight. Torpedoes stored in cylinders that are filled with water pushing piston the removed torpedo, maintaining boat weight.
1897 Holland V "Plunger" (Wiki) - 85' long, 12' diameter, two torpedo tubes - experimental sub
1897 Holland VI (USS Holland SS-1) (Wiki) -experimental sub
681222 Submarine vessel, John P Holland, Electric Boat Co, Aug 27, 1901, 114/333 -
HMS Holland 1 1901 (Wiki) - 63' 10" long, 11' 9" beam, Petrol engine + Electric motor, one each 18" torpedo tube & 3 Whitehead (Wiki) torpedoes
Royal Navy Submarine Museum - HMS Holland I -
684698 Storage battery, Robert Mca Lloyd, Electric Boat Co, Oct 15, 1901, 206/524.3; 190/40; 217/131; 429/176 - rugged
693272 Automatic diving mechanism for submarine boats, John P Holland, Feb 11, 1902, 114/332; 114/25; 114/285 - while aimed at subs & torpedoes, this mechanism may have suffered from the same torpedo depth control issues ("The Secret")
683400 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Electric Boat Co, Sep 24, 1901, 114/317; 114/238; 114/319 - Weight compensation for torpedo firing 684429 Visual indicator for submarine boats, John P Holland, Electric Boat Co, Oct 15, 1901, 73/178R; 33/391; 73/299 - inclination & depth
694154 Submarine boat or vessel, John P Holland, Feb 25, 1902, 114/333 - allow for difference in water density between fresh and salt water and pay attention to the relative locations of the centers of buoyancy and gravity.
696971 Firing-valve for subsurface expulsion-tubes, John P Holland, Apr 8, 1902, 114/238 - "submarine torpedo tube"
696972 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Apr 8, 1902, 114/337; 114/185 - venting fuel tank to outside, while taking in air from the inside
681221 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Electric Boat Co, Aug 27, 1901, 114/333; 114/25 - automatic maximum depth mechanism
694153 Means for automatically ballasting submarine boats, John P Holland, Feb 25, 1902, 114/333; 114/25 - fresh v. salt water
694643 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Mar 4, 1902, 114/339 - Exterior compass mounting - at attempt to escape the problem of an all metal boat (I expect it did not work. The Gyrocompass was invented expressly so that metallic boats and submarines could have a compass.
702728 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Electric Boat Co, Jun 17, 1902, 114/333 - setting centers of gravity, buoyancy & volume for surface or submerged running 702729 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Electric Boat Co, Jun 17, 1902, 114/333; 114/338 - buoyancy considerations for running on surface and submerged 706561 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Aug 12, 1902, 114/333 - quick fill and dump ballast tank
708553 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Sep 9, 1902, 114/334; 114/339 - adds deck or promenade for the crew 713198 Torpedo-boat, Francis W Brady, Electric Boat Co, Nov 11, 1902, 114/238 - torpedo tube for sub
738879 Automatic diving mechanism for submarine boats, Francis W Brady, Electric Boat Co, Sep 15, 1903, 114/332; 114/25 - see 693272 above
739735 Compensating device for submarine or submergible boats, Lawrence Y Spear, Electric Boat Co, Sep 22, 1903, 114/238 - torpedo weight 764556 Clinometer, Frank T Cable, Electric Boat Co, Jul 12, 1904, 33/381; D10/69 - two tubes with different radius (different sensitivity)
815350 Submarine boat, John P Holland, Mar 20, 1906, 114/333 - minimize liquid slosh problems by placing tanks near center of buoyancy
832219 Means for preventing condensation in optical tubes, Lawrence Y Spear, Electric Boat Co, Oct 2, 1906, 114/340; 359/512 - for periscopes
There are many more patents by Electric Boat Co. for both submarines and PT boats
Torpedoes, naval mines, hedgehogs
1. Submarine Navigation Past and Present, 1903 - has many drawings of early attempts at submarine design. The word "navigation" means something like a survey, not finding your position.
2. Going Deep: John Philip Holland and the invention of the attack submarine (2017) by Lawrence Goldstone
3. The Submarine in War and Peace, Simon Lake, 1918
4. The Defender: The Story of General Dynamics by Roger Franklin, 1986 - Note that GD started out with Electric Boat and after W.W.II added other companies.
5. Pig Boats, Theodore Roscoe, 1982 - formerly titled United States Submarine Operations in World War II. Written by the U.S. Navy non fiction.
6. The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet, Norman Polmar, 2005
7. Cold War Submarines: The Design and Construction of U.S. and Soviet Submarines, Norman Polmar & K.J. Moore, 2004
8. NAVAL SONAR, NAVPERS 1088, on-line @ Maritime.org-
9. Principles of Underwater Sound, NDRC, declassified 1954 - I'd say it's the bible of sonar.
10. An Ocean in Common: American Naval Officers, Scientists and the Ocean Environment, Gary E. Weir, 2001 -
11. The Submarine: A History by Tom Parris, 2004, 2005
12. Submarine Signals, Submarine Signal Co., 1906 - lists underwater bells at lighthouses and buoys as well as ships fitted with the receiving equipment to get bearings.
13. The Fessenden oscillator: History, electroacoustic model, and performance estimate - abstract
14. Slide Rules and Submarines: American Scientists and Subsurface Warfare in World War II, Montgomery C. Meigs, 1990, 2002, ISBN: 0-89875-905-6
15. A History of U.S. Navy Periscope Detection Radar: Sensor Design and Development, Shannon, Moser, Rite-Solutions, N00178-04-D-4115, 31 Dec 2014.
16. The Submarine: A History, Thomas Parrish, 2004, ISBN: 0-670-03313-8
The Battle Of The Atlantic 2 3 Keeping Secrets BBC Documentary Series) - very well done
Submarine Structure & Systems: "The Submarine: Construction" 1955 US Navy -
PRC68, Alphanumeric Index of Web pages, Contact, Products for Sale
Page Created 5 Aug 2017


Too Steep Of A Climb!
A Stall: The Air Does Not Move Over The Wings At A Proper Angle Of Attack & The Wings Lose Lift
When the wings stall, the airflow over the wings has been disturbed. The airflow across the “airfoils” — primarily across the wings from front to back — are no longer holding the airplane up.
If you are watching a seasoned pilot or a student pilot practice an aerodynamic stall, you will see the airplane noses up and then gently dips down.
When the airplane by pitches down, the pilot, or the automated mechanism of the airplane, is actually attempting to recover from the stall.
Then in order to get the wing flying again, the pilot has to move the control wheel forward — which seems counter-intuitive. Nevertheless, the pilot must get the air braking over the wings again at a proper angle of attack to create lift again.
If you watch an airplane take off, you will see that it raises its nose into the air at a certain point in time and speed. Without getting too technical, that airplane attempts to lift its nose to somewhere around 17 degrees relative to the airflow. An airplane stalls when the angle of attack of the wings exceeds something around 17 degrees.
Have you see pictures of airplanes “buzzing” the ground. They are diving toward the ground, and then they suddenly pull up and out. If at the bottom of that dive you pull up too quickly and change the airflow across the wings, you face the possibility of stalling that airplane.
Such dives are dangerous because a pilot can lose the necessarily aerodynamic lift on the wings when it attempts to pull the nose up and out of that dive. The engine can be running full-bore — the propellers or jets can be wide open — but when the angle of attack of the wings exceeds the critical point — the necessary lift exerted on the wings has been lost and the airplane aerodynamically stalls.
When attempting to pull out of the dive, the airflow is no longer sufficiently moving from the front or leading edge of the wing, across the wing, and then to the wing’s trailing edge.
If you do not have the altitude to recover from the stall — the altitude needed to keep the nose within that 17-degree angle of attack as you pull the nose up — you will very likely crash the airplane.
You cannot pull the nose of your airplane up without changing the flow of air across the wings. If you pull it up too “quickly” as you attempt to come out of your dive, you are stuck with little to no altitude to possibly recover. The wings will no longer exert lift, and that is the definition of a stall!
Forty percent of fatal stall accidents begin when an airplane is below 250 above the ground and the pilot lacks the altitude to successfully recover!
Some Speakers Rhetorically Stall & Even Crash!
Introductions are designed to prevent rhetorical stalls — To prevent taking off too fast into the theme or subject and not giving time for the audience to adjust to where they are going.
Transitions are designed to prevent rhetorical stalls — To prevent sudden movement onto another point and creating confusion as to where we are and what the connection is.
Illustrations / analogies are designed to prevent rhetorical stalls — To prevent too steep of a conceptual-theological climb for the audience and a loss of clarity and understanding of what you are talking about.
Feedback is designed to prevent rhetorical stalls — To prevent a speaker from realizing that the audience is about to crash.
Audience Adaptation is designed to prevent a rhetorical stall — To prevent a speaker from buzzing the audience and then trying to pull up and out of audience excitement or upset he/she just created.
Conclusions are “controlled stalls”** — To let the audience know that we are landing on the Big Idea.
Other Information & Links:
*See the previous article on stalling for further understanding of what the term means. If has nothing to do with whether the engine is running or not. It is not the same meaning as with a car.
** “Controlled stalls” are another whole discussion. A landing also changes the direction of the airflow across the airfoils / wings, and some would say that landing an airplane is a controlled stall at an instant before touch down. “Rhetorically” — some speakers just drop the plane hard onto the runway!
The “angle of attack” is critical and that is why it is always amazing when the aerodynamic industry demonstrates an airplane that has the power to pull up at a dizzying climb off the runway — a “crazy” angle of attack — as seen in this LINK!


It is presumably safe to say that terms such a “MON 810”, Amflora and “Maize 1507” do not mean all that much to the average person. Yet all three are the result of one overriding principle, which is a contentious area of ongoing debate: genetic engineering. MON810 et al are genetically modified maize and potato crops. These crop varieties have either already been grown in European soils or the decision on whether to allow their respective cultivation is set to be made shortly. Many people in Germany are uneasy about the thought of GM food on their table.
The FocusTopic published in June, which put attitudes to nutrition in the spotlight, already revealed that 52% of Germans have a preference for foodstuffs that are clearly labelled as being GM free. But how well acquainted is the population with the concept of GM food really? What do people associate with this technology? The GfK Verein surveyed around 2,000 people, asking about their knowledge on and attitudes toward all things to do with genetic engineering in order to answer these questions. The findings were quite clear: the majority of Germans have come across the term “GM food” in the past. However, not all had a clear picture in mind of what exactly this expression encompasses.
To increase size: simply click on the chart
Genetic engineering techniques, for example in agriculture, cause a stir on a regular basis, at least where the media is concerned. This has led to an increasingly widespread recognition of this term. “GM food” is an expression which 90% of Germans are already familiar with, having heard, read or seen the phrase being used somewhere at least once – 49% of respondents went further, specifying that they were completely sure they had encountered the phrase. In contrast, the expression was unfamiliar to just one in ten respondents. This high degree of recognition remains relatively constant through all population groups, irrespective of age, gender or region, with only minor differences to be identified. The responses from those in the 35 to 64 age category are above average, with more than 50% certain that they were familiar with the term. The younger generation of women (up to 49 years old) tended to be better informed than their male counterparts of the same age category. This trend is reversed later in life: from the age of 50 onward, it is the men who lead the way with regard to awareness and recognition of this term.
Advocates of genetic engineering processes see this as a way of curing hunger and malnutrition, whereas its critics opine that it is simply an unnecessary interference in nature, which can have unforeseen consequences for humans. However, this survey aims to discover what exactly the German population think of when confronted with the issue of GM food? Respondents who intimated that they were au fait with the term are divided on this subject with their answers reflecting a diverse range of attitudes. Several negative associations ranging from “unnatural/artificial”, to “damaging” and “unsafe/risks” were expressed, but were counterbalanced by a similar number of positive and neutral associations. This can be seen in the fact that every fifth respondent was completely neutral in their attitudes toward GM food where the taste or appearance has been changed. Gene manipulation and alterations in DNA were viewed as important issues by one in ten respondents, while others were concerned with processed seeds and animal feed. Overall, 15% of respondents expressed a positive view of GM products and plants, associating benefits such as extended shelf life, resistance and good value.
A look back over the past decade reveals that German citizens have become a little more critical in their attitudes towards GM food. In 2004, 44% of respondents definitively ruled out buying GM food, whereas that figure has now risen to 53%. Nevertheless, it’s clear that not all Germans reject this technology out of hand. Even though just 1% of respondents would have no hesitation in buying GM products, a further 11% could imagine themselves doing the same if certain conditions were to be satisfied. The potential buyers’ primary focus in this regard is on the health benefits and safety of the products. They should be harmful neither to humans nor to the environment, and should be offer as many health benefits as possible over traditional foodstuffs. In addition, improved taste, value for money and a trusted producer are factors which could play a role in the purchase decision.
Another group of consumers were sat firmly on the fence with regard to GM food, explaining that they would like to be better informed on the subject before forming a definitive opinion. One in four admitted that they didn’t know enough to offer an informed opinion on the issue of buying GM produce. There is both an interest in and need for more information on this subject given that there has been no change in the percentage of this group since 2004: it remains at 26%. However, the ratio of GM objectors, potential buyers and those who have yet to form an opinion one way or the other has shifted slightly in comparison with 2004. The percentage of potential buyers has decreased from 17% to 11% today, while those who object to GM food increased proportionately. Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out that the subject in general is still as hotly debated as ever, as shown by the decreasing number of respondents who claim to have no interest in the role of genetic engineering in food (2004: 12%; 2014: 9%).
“Maize 1507”, a type of genetically modified maize plant, could soon receive authorization from the European Commission. This would represent the first approval for genetically modified maize within the EU for more than 10 years. Even if it is granted, individual member states can still opt to enact cultivation bans for the crop. In this respect, it still remains to be seen whether this crop will in fact be grown in European soils. It appears consumers are less sure, as demand for information on “Maize 1507” continues. Public bodies such as the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy and the German Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety have reacted to this, explaining on their websites how GM content in foodstuffs can be identified and what the voluntary “GM free” label, provided by the Association of Food without Genetic Engineering really means. Furthermore, the 'Barcoo' smartphone app provides additional support to supermarket shoppers who wish to discover more about what may be hidden in products. This barcode scanner provides the user with a whole host of product information, including data on genetic engineering.
Data source: GfK Verein (Omnibus survey, June 2014)
If you have any queries please contact Claudia Gaspar, e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org.


This activity is for the trainer to use as a checklist or
guide when initiating the educational process with a client or group of
clients. Simply answer the questions in
terms of the clients involvement with and participation in the learning
process. The more responses there are
that are less than affirmative or positive, the more problematic the process
will be at that point and time.
Conversely, clients for whom all of the responses are affirmative or
positive are well engaged with the learning process.
The activity should also be used at those points where the
learning process seems to be difficult or somewhat problematic. Using the checklist will enable the
consultant to pinpoint areas or issues that may be contributing to the difficulty. If so, use the specific question as a guide
for clarifying and working out problems within the learning process.
For example, if difficulties develop, the problem may relate
to questions one. Take time to be sure
that the client knows what is expected in both general and specific terms. In addition, be sure that there is a clear
understanding of what is expected, with that understanding developed in terms
that are meaningful and can be personalized by the client.
1. Does the client know and understand what is expected in
both general and specific terms?
2. Does the client know how to do what is expected?
3. Is the new learning related to or extended from things
the client already knows, understands, or has previously experienced?
4. Are you emphasizing and reinforcing progress and
de-emphasizing difficulties or what is left to learn or accomplish?
5. Are you modifying and tailoring your approach and
specific goals and content to the unique client?
6. Are you developing and maintaining a positive learning
environment for the client?
7. Does the client understand and appreciate why some things
are wrong, inappropriate, counterproductive, or ineffective in terms of the
clients behavior, actions, attitudes, and so on?
8. Are the steps or learning pieces clear and small enough
to make it easy for the client to succeed?
9. Are you accepting as much or more of the responsibility
for any progress difficulties as you are attributing to the client?
10. Are you understanding and using what actually motivates
the client in terms of that which develops a personal payoff for the client?
11. Are you well organized and prepared for each opportunity
with the client?
12. Are you remaining consistently calm, patient, and
supportive with the client?
13. Do you believe that you understand and are able to work
with the client and that he/she understands and is able to work with you?
14. Do you like the client; and do you feel that he/she
15. Are you managing your relationship with the client in ways
that allow that relationship to be used as a standard of comparison from the
clients point of view?
16. Are you and the client evaluating and trying to
understand why a problem or difficulty has come up in the learning process
before trying to do something about it or making suggestions for its
17. Do you believe that the client can and will make
18. Are you keeping your approach flexible and responsive to
19. Are you consciously using a variety or mix of techniques
20. Are you familiar with and do you understand the specific
skills and content being taught?


Conversations with History welcomes UC Berkeley’s Professor Mary Ann Mason to discuss her career as a university official, historian, and lawyer, as well as the changing role of women in academia and society.
Mason says moving to Berkeley at the end of the 60’s raised her awareness of issues, particularly the women’s rights movement, which was just beginning to gain momentum.
She was teaching history at a small college in Oakland when she joined the women’s consciousness raising movement. They held a gathering of women teaching history at four year colleges and they realized what a small group they were. There were only eight of them, in all of California. As for the UCs at the time, Mason reports that there were only 1.3 women historians for each campus.
Throughout her time in Berkeley, Mason watched the equality of women improve. When she got hired as a professor by UC Berkeley in 1989, about 15 percent of the faculty were women, which she reports is a huge improvement from just 2 percent in 1972.
Hear how these cultural and structural changes came about in “Achieving Equality for Women with Mary Ann Mason.”
Be sure to see what other programs are available in the Conversations with History series!


How Much Does a Cubic Foot of Steel Weigh?
Apr 03, · The weight of a cubic inch of steel is approximately pound. There are several different types of steel. Carbon steel is a steel alloy comprised mainly of iron and carbon. Manganese, . Steel is an alloy - a mixture of various metals - and so its density depends on the proportion of the constituents in the alloy. The weight (not mass) varies between and pounds weight per.
Asked by Wiki User. Steel is an alloy - a mixture of various metals - and so its density depends on the proportion of the constituents in the alloy.
The weight not mass varies between 9. Mild steel weight. The volume of the plate is 0. The weight of unfilled polycarbonate is 0. The weight of mild steel is. A 1"x48"x48" slab of mild steel would be cu in multiplied by. Teflon weighs approximately. Weight per cubic inch is:. The answer is 23, mg. Depending on its density, about 0. Much heavier than lead. The mass per cubic inch varies between 0.
Stainless Steel has density of 0. Steel rod weight per inch Now, a cubic inch is about 5. We have one fifth cubic inch, so multiply that by. Solid Aluminum is lb per cubic foot. Therefore, divided by would be. The density of steel varies, but if we assume it's 7. There are 36 cubic inches in the chunk of steel multiply the dimensions togetherand there are about That means there are about There are about How to make gravity goo answer in English units what does steel weight per cubic inch 1 square foot of 1 inch steel weighs In answer to your question the weight would be Ask Question.
Job Training and Career Qualifications. Weight and Mass. See Answer. Top Answer. Wiki User Answered Related Questions. What is the weight of one cubic inch of mild steel? What is the weight of W50 grade 1 steel? What is Weight of one cubic inch of mild steel? What is the weight of a cubic inch of stainless steel? What is the weight of a steel plate that is 1half inch thick 20 wide inch and 45 inch long if the steel weight. How much does a cubic inch of steel weigh?
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How many unpaired electrons in KMnO4? All Rights Reserved. The material on this site can not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, cached or otherwise used, except with prior written permission of Multiply.
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Aug 04, · The metal weighs pounds per cubic inch. Steel weight formulas are based on theoretical nominal weights and only give approximate values. A 1-inch-square steel bar weighs about pounds per lineal foot. The weight of a round steel bar in pounds per lineal inch is given by times the diameter squared. Jun 03, · Click here on our steel weight calculator and find out. For estimated theoretical weights only (not for engineering purposes). Associated Steel remains open & fully operational. We are committed to ensure the safety of our customers, vendors and employees. Click here for more information. Phone: This Metal Weight Calculator can calculate the weight on round bar, flat bar, hex bar, plate, sheet, pipe, tube and square bar. This metal or steel calculator can help determine the weight on cut sizes or pieces of plate or any other type of cut metal.
How much does steel weigh? Want to know? Use the Metal Weight Calculator below to find out. It is easy to calculate the weight of a specific type of metal. Punch in the type of material you need, click the mouse a few times and out spits the weight of your material.
Have you ever wondered the weight of a metal bar? How much does a round bar weigh? How much does a metal bar weigh? Michlin Metals has you covered. All weights shown using this metal weight calculator are for guidance only. They are calculated using nominal dimensions and scientifically recognized densities. Please note that in practice, the actual metal weight can vary significantly from theoretical weight due to variations in manufacturing tolerances and compositions. Material Select Material.
Grade Select Grade. Shape Select Shape. Quantity Input fields accept whole or decimal values only. Diameter Inches Millimeters Centimeters Feet.
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Using this metal or steel calculator can be beneficial for a number of reasons. Metal Weight Calculators can help determine the weight of any number of types of material.
This Metal Weight Calculator can calculate the weight on round bar, flat bar, hex bar, plate, sheet, pipe, tube and square bar. This metal or steel calculator can help determine the weight on cut sizes or pieces of plate or any other type of cut metal.
Once you have completed your calculations within the metal calculator, and submit them to the RFQ form, additional information can be added to the items such as specifications, tolerances, domestic, dfars or material origin requirements. There are many metal or steel calculators available for use but Michlin is proud to offer a slight variation that only eases the functionality and use to the customer, it allows the metal calculation to be saved and submitted via RFQ.
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Anyone can improve their memory using a proven scientific method the ancient Greeks and Romans developed. The idea is to create a “memory palace.” A group of researchers says training daily using an ancient technique can improve your average storage skills, allowing many to more than double their memory.
While scientists have previously used technology to help improve human memory, it doesn’t always require something so drastic. Instead, using an ancient Greek and Roman technique can help you increase your memory storage skills by investing a little time.
The researchers originally published their findings on improving your memory in the journal Neuron back in 2017. While the paper is older, the results are still astonishing and worth taking a look at, even in 2022. The paper, titled Mnemonic Training Reshapes Brain Networks to Support Superior Memory includes work from Martin Dresler, William R. Shirer, and more.
The basic idea is to create a memory palace by training your brain to remember things better. The researchers found that after using the technique, subjects within their 51-volunteer pool were able to improve their memory drastically.
After just four months, participants could remember 62 of 72 test terms. At the start, many had only been able to remember 26 out of 72.
The memory palace method of improving your memory isn’t new, though. As mentioned above, it actually dates back to the ancient Greeks and Romans. However, it appears to be making a comeback of sorts, and the idea has even been featured in modern media like television shows, movies, and even video games.
If you want to train your brain and improve your memory, you can actually learn to use the memory palace technique yourself. First, you need to imagine walking around a place inside your mind. This place is your memory palace, hence the name. From there, imagine there are different doors, cabinets, or something that each corresponds to different words you need to memorize.
If you practice this method each day, you’ll eventually start to see improvements in your overall memory strength. The method was originally known as the “method of loci,” which translates to the method of places in Latin.
One of the best parts about the memory palace technique is you can imagine just about any type of place. You can use houses, roads, and even small communities to combine multiple memories together into one place. Additionally, scientists say that improving your memory in this manner will see the improvements lasting for a while to come.
Many participants in the study Dresler and others conducted still saw improvements in their memory four months after the study ended. So, if you’re looking to improve your memory, science shows the memory palace is one of the most successful methods for doing so.
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26 Nov impedance mismatch
Object-oriented programming languages enable developers to build systems, services and applications out of objects that have both data and behavior (methods). Relational databases store data in tables bound together through primary and foreign keys. Object-oriented programming is based on time-tested software engineering principles while the “relational” paradigm is based on mathematical principles. Because the underlying paradigms are different the two technologies require an intervening transformation layer to work together seamlessly. “The impedance mismatch becomes apparent when you look at the preferred approach to access: With the object paradigm you traverse objects via their relationships whereas with the relational paradigm you join the data rows of tables. This fundamental difference results in a non-ideal combination of object and relational technologies” (Scott Wambler at Agile Data).


When it comes to keeping freshwater fish as pets, one of the most popular choices for many people is the catfish.
Catfish come in various shapes and sizes, making them an excellent option for anyone looking for an exciting pet fish.
In addition, they are relatively easy to care for and can be kept in various aquarium sizes.
Despite their popularity, however, there are some things to remember if you are considering maintaining catfish as pets.
First and foremost, catfish require a lot of space, especially when they are adults. So if you don’t have a lot of room in your home for an aquarium, catfish may not be the best choice for you.
Another thing to consider is that catfish can be messy eaters and often produce a lot of waste.
Catfish As A Pet
Which of the more than 2,000 species of catfish can be kept in an aquarium? It is advisable to pick a dish that does not grow too large, no more than a few feet (less than a meter) in length.
Catfish belonging to the genus Corydoras are perhaps the most popular pets. Corys are tiny fish. Between 1 and 3 inches (2.5 to 7.6 cm) in length.
They are armor-plated freshwater fish indigenous to the rivers and streams of South America. Catfish in the wild migrate in huge schools or groups.
Therefore, you need to maintain at least four catfish in your aquarium. These fish are docile and unlikely to engage in combat with other fish in a communal aquarium. (Their defensive spines prevent other fish from attacking them)
Although catfish are scavengers, they do not consume fish faeces. They will only consume food leftovers that settle to the tank’s bottom.
Catfish cannot survive on leftovers alone. (Smoothen gravel or sand is an excellent idea since they may hurt themselves on sharp pebbles when digging for food.)
Like all other fish, they need a diet rich in essential elements. Give them food that will sink, like pellets that sink.
They will not swim to the surface to seek food. Catfish are beneficial to a community aquarium since they aid with tank maintenance.
However, the water must be changed often.
Setting Up The Aquarium For A Catfish
When setting up an aquarium for a catfish, there are a few more things to consider beyond tank size and water quality. First, it’s essential to choose a substrate that caters to the species of catfish you’ll be keeping.
Sand and fine gravel are usually the best options as they won’t scratch the catfish’s skin, and allow the fish to sift through the sediment for food. Additionally, catfish are bottom-dwelling creatures, so consider adding flat rocks or individual slate tiles to create areas for them to rest and explore.
When decorating the aquarium, it’s essential to avoid sharp or pointed decorations as they can harm a catfish’s delicate skin. Caves, PVC pipe, and driftwood are ideal hiding places that can be easily cleaned.
Live plants like java ferns, hornwort, and java moss are also excellent additions as they help absorb nitrates, provide oxygen, and create more hiding spots.
Catfish are also very susceptible to stress when their environment changes frequently, so keeping the tank’s conditions as stable as possible is essential. Avoid direct sunlight and temperature fluctuations by using a reliable heater to maintain a consistent temperature.
Overall, choosing appropriate decorations, a suitable substrate, and a stable and consistent environment are essential steps in setting up an ideal aquarium for catfish.
Catfish Varieties That Can Be Kept as Pets
- Cory catfish
- Otocinclus Catfish
- Glass Catfish
- Bristlenose Pleco
- Pictus Catfish
- Striped Raphael Catfish
- Upside Down Catfish
- Bumblebee Catfish
How to Choose a Catfish As A Pet?
Choose carefully while selecting a species of catfish for your aquarium. The following guides the most suitable catfish species for home aquariums. The mature size of a catfish is crucial for ensuring its happiness throughout its lifetime.
When all fish begin at the same size, it might not be easy to imagine their potential growth, and not all pet retailers give this information. Even selecting a docile plecostomus may be difficult, as some species reach a maximum length of 8 inches, while others can reach several feet in length.
And although some catfish, such as Corydoras species, are placid bottom scavengers that may be mixed with other little fish, others, such as the Redtail Catfish, are predators who will devour any fish.
That fits in their jaws! You must research beforehand to ensure that the catfish you want to bring home will fit in your aquarium, depending on its size and the other species you currently have. If you cannot confirm that the species you are seeing is accurate, do not purchase it.
Tips For Keeping Catfish As a Pet?
Catfish are primarily bottom-dwellers. Catfishes use their barbels to look for food buried in the substrate, even though they swim in the mid-water column.
In addition, their barbels are filled with taste receptors, continually searching for delectable morsels. Keeping this in mind, your catfish will need access to the substrate.
Most aquarium configurations are suitable for catfish, except for thickly planted tanks. Catfish may quickly get disoriented and entangled in dense vegetation.
The substrate type for catfish should be somewhat acceptable. Standard aquarium gravel to medium sand is a suitable substrate for most catfish.
Larger rocks may be rugged for smaller catfish, and it has been observed that more enormous catfish consume rocks.
Some species, such as plecos, prefer to chew on softer wood. When adding wood to an aquarium, ensure that it is aquarium-safe. Certain types of wood may leach harmful chemicals into the aquarium water.
Contrary to popular belief, catfish are omnivores, with some leaning more towards herbivory and others towards carnivory.
Remember that there are around 3000 species of catfish. Do not anticipate most catfish to remove algae from your aquarium. In most freshwater systems, algae must be controlled by restricting its nutrition supply.
Like all other fish species, catfish need clean water and a balanced diet for optimal health. Remember that not all catfish like algae, so constantly feed them. Most tropical fish diets are suitable for catfish in mixed-species aquariums.
If you have catfish in your aquarium, you may choose a diet from the vegetarian or carnivore spectrum.
Catfish often forage throughout the day, so anticipate consuming a portion of whatever you give them. Even with catfish repairs, you must continue with your regular upkeep program.
However, certain catfish species are nocturnal feeders, so you may need to feed the aquarium when the lights go off at night.
Health Concerns To Watch Out For
When keeping a catfish as a pet, there are several health concerns to watch out for. In addition to overfeeding and poor water quality, catfish are also prone to skin and fin diseases. These diseases are often caused by poor water quality, overcrowding, or physical injuries. Symptoms of skin and fin diseases include red or irritated skin, split or frayed fins, and clamped fins. You should immediately isolate any infected fish to prevent the spread of disease to other tank mates.
Another common health issue with catfish is constipation. Constipation can cause bloating and difficulty swimming, and it is often caused by overfeeding or improper diet. Some catfish species require a more herbivorous diet, while others may prefer a more carnivorous diet. It’s important to research the specific dietary needs of the catfish species you are keeping to ensure proper nutrition.
Additionally, catfish may be prone to parasitic infections, such as ich, which can cause visible white spots on the fish’s skin. Recognizing and treating these infections quickly can help prevent further damage to your catfish’s health.
In general, monitoring the water quality, observing your catfish’s physical appearance and behavior, and feeding a nutritious and balanced diet are essential steps in keeping your catfish healthy as a pet.
Q: What type of catfish can be kept as a pet?
A: Several species of catfish can be kept as pets, including plecos, pictus catfish, and corydoras catfish.
Q: What size aquarium should I get for my catfish?
A: The size of your catfish will determine the size of the aquarium you need. As a general rule, you should provide your fish with at least 1 gallon of water per inch of fish.
Q: What should I feed my catfish?
A: Catfish are omnivorous, and their diet can consist of a variety of plant and animal-based foods. Pellets, flakes, algae wafers, and live or frozen brine shrimp are excellent options. It’s also important to avoid overfeeding and to feed no more than what the fish can consume in three minutes.
Q: Do catfish require any special care or maintenance?
A: Catfish require a clean and well-maintained aquarium, suitable decoration, and proper nutrition just like any other pet fish. Regular water changes and tank cleaning, monitoring pH levels, and providing suitable hiding spots to the catfish are also necessary.


Monday, July 27, 2009
Definition of VO2 max:
VO2 is a term that describes our body's ability to deliver and utilize oxygen. It is a term that is thrown around amongst athletes and doctors alike. To doctors, VO2 can serve as a predictor of mortality in cystic fibrosis or in patients with heart failure. To an athlete, the maximum VO2 uptake is important as a predictor of performance and a measure of the efficacy and progression of training.
Elements of VO2:
Our VO2 at any given time is dependent on three elements controlled by our body: heart rate, stroke volume per beat, and extraction of oxygen from the blood. Our body has the amazing capacity to increase our VO2 from 3 ml/kg/min at rest to over 80 ml/kg/min in athletes at peak exercise.
Mechanisms of Increase:
Our body used both central (heart) and peripheral (muscle, blood) mechanisms to increase our VO2 on demand. Here is how:
Our heart has the amazing capacity to beat on its own without any outside input from our body...you heard that right. If our heart were left to beat at its own rate with no input, it would typically beat much faster than it does at rest, but our body slows it down. Thus, the first step in increasing heart rate is removal of the input that slows the heart, and the heart rate increases. This is especially important early in exercise and is almost instantaneous.
The second component to increasing heart rate is epinephrine (adrenaline) released by our adrenal gland as our muscles' oxygen demand continues to increase with higher intensity exercise. This typically takes a little bit longer, and is important in the completion of all-out efforts.
Our body also extracts more oxygen from the blood during exercise. At rest we extract 25% of this oxygen content in our blood, but during exercise this can increase to 85%.
This happens because our red blood cells release more oxygen as the temperature increases and as lactic acid builds up. Also, our blood vessels dilate and more blood is delivered to the area of work under the influence of metabolites produced in the muscle.
This is probably the element most influenced by training over time. Our heart becomes more efficient as it becomes trained, and it can pump more blood with each beat. This is also the explanation for the decreased heart rates you see in athletes. If our heart pumps more with each beat, it doesn't have to pump as many times to meet our demands.
This decreased heart rate in a trained athlete continues into the first stages of exercise, and it stays below that of an untrained person at most exercise intensities. Only near maximum effort does the heart rate finally rise to levels that would meet that of an untrained person, and when it does, that athlete's cardiac output is much higher (equal rates with more volume per beat = higher cardiac output).
This is the protein in our red blood cells that actually caries oxygen. It is also highly affected by training and takes time to change. With increased hemoglobin, our blood can carry more oxygen.
Considering that the usual limitation in reaching VO2 max is oxygen delivery, not oxygen utilization by our muscles, one can see the importance of increasing our blood's capacity to deliver, all in addition to our heart's ability to increase delivery.
Associations with VO2 Max:
Here are some markers that correlate well, either positively or negatively, with one's VO2 max:
HDL cholesterol - this is our "good" cholesterol, and it has a positive association with VO2 max. That is, as HDL cholesterol goes up, VO2 max goes up.
LDL cholesterol, Body Mass Index (BMI), Smoking, and long-term Blood Glucose Levels - quite a long list, no doubt, and all of these factors, from "bad" cholesterol to BMI have a negative impact on VO2 max. As they go up, VO2 max goes down.
A beneficial off season activity is to go to your doctor and have all of those markers checked. As the season goes on and you get them checked again, you have a virtual window into how your VO2 max is coming progressing.
Obviously, these markers are players in much more important things than VO2 max, so it is a good idea to get them checked anyway. This way, you can use them to monitor your training to boot.
How to Measure:
Measuring VO2 is a rather difficult process that requires a great deal of sophisticated instrumentation, in addition to time and effort. This is just another reason why utilizing the aforementioned markers may be a more realistic practice.
In a laboratory, the test can be performed while running, cycling, or rowing; the more muscle mass utilized, the better. The athlete breathes through a machine that senses the difference in oxygen between inspired and expired air, and it measures the volume of expired air. This information, plus a little math, and voila, you've got your calculation.
The test is carried out with increasing intensity over 6 to 12 minutes. This time frame is necessary to let the cardiac response reach a maximum (remember that adrenaline takes some time). The athlete stops the test when at maximum exertion, or it is stopped when VO2 levels out with increasing intensity, and you've got your number.
Another predictor that requires no equipment is the Cooper test. In this test you run 12 minutes all out, and you take the distance you ran (in meters) and subtract 505, then divide that number by 45, and you have a predicted value in ml/kg/min. Again, this is a gross estimation and not as personal as even tracking the progress of your markers.
Get those marker numbers now from your doctor and watch them improve throughout the year.


20 Mar Thresholds in Fuzzy Logic
At what point does temperature change from cold to hot? Tell a person (or a computer) that the beach will be closed if the water is too cold, and their interpretation may differ from yours. This statement is subjective, as are many of the values applied to the thermometer at right. But if you tell a person to place the eggs in the water when it begins to boil, the threshold is easy to measure and your intent will be understood easily. Threshold logic is a useful variation of multi-valued logic. It lets us establish points on continuum where decisions are triggered.
If you have read Section 3 or studied biological or artificial neural networks, you will recall that threshold functions are probably the most important biological computing mechanisms active in the brain (and the core functions of neural networks). The importance of threshold logic in both the biological and cybernetic domains is well established. In this section, we will look at psychological aspects of threshold logic and explore how, as a variation of multivalued logic, threshold theory can help us develop a clear and correct formulation of logical rules on which to build a simulation or mechanical mind.
|Understanding Context Cross-Reference|
|Click on these Links to other posts and glossary/bibliography references|
|Prior Post||Next Post|
|At the Edge of Possibility||Common Sense and Thresholds|
|subjective decisions||Duda 1973|
|intent understood||Olofsson 2005|
|Threshold multi-valued logic||Valiant 1994|
MIPUS considers himself to be a sensitive robot. His sensitivity, however, has lead to trouble more than once. One of his duties is to communicate with the home environment control computer to regulate heating and air conditioning. After weeks of responding to conflicting requests from the mister and missus, he just froze the setting at 69°F.
The thresholds, some fuzzy, some firm, may act as decision, or trigger points.
|Boiling||The temperature needed to prepare noodles and rice|
|Really Hot||The range of temperatures suitable for a sauna|
|Hot||The right kind of weather for aquatic sports|
|Warm||The kind of reception you want from a friend|
|Luke Warm||The feeling of water suitable for dry yeast|
|Tepid||The kind of reception you give the tax auditor|
|Cool||The right temperature for a room when it's hot outside|
|Chilly||The feeling you expect when you reach into the frig|
|Cold||The outdoor temperature that says it's time for the jacket|
|Really Cold||A reason to stay indoors and light a fire in the hearth|
|Freezing||The temperature necessary to preserve foods long-term|
Firm Thresholds in Fuzzy Logic
A firm threshold can be used to implement a binary or multi-valued logic function, while fuzzy thresholds support only multi-valued logic. There are methods for implementing both firm and fuzzy (subjective) thresholds. Mathematical functions that yield square curves can be used to implement firm thresholds. The formula states that below the threshold, the trigger is not activated, but above the threshold, the trigger is activated. For example, the freeway entrance-ramp control signal may be set to flash yellow until 4:00 PM, at which time the signal will be set to a pre-established red/green cycle (see program 1 below).
Mathematical functions that yield sigmoidal curves can be used to implement fuzzy thresholds. For example, a different freeway entrance-ramp control signal (see program 2 below) may be set to flash yellow until the volume of freeway traffic reaches 20 vehicles per lane per minute, at which time it will be set to a red/green cycle that permits one vehicle every four seconds. Then, for each increment of four cars per lane per minute, the signal adjusts the red/green cycle down by one or two seconds until the volume is 40 vehicles per lane per minute. The final flow-control factor is one vehicle every 9 to14 seconds. The determination of whether to increment one or two seconds may be determined by the speed of traffic.
Not So Fuzzy Absolutes
If we accept the propositions of threshold logic, we can look at the threshold as a converter that enables us to transform fuzzy principles into absolute theories that can be expressed mathematically. Let’s look at random probability and the possibility threshold. Assume, for the sake of this argument, that such a threshold exists. The threshold may be dynamic in that it moves up or down depending on external constraints. If we look at the threshold, we see that it represents an absolute dividing line with absolutely possible things on one side and absolutely impossible things on the other side.
This condition of absoluteness adds stability to the proposed structure of information in that it will be more difficult to disrupt the hierarchy of cause and effect. If there is a threshold governing all causal interactions at a quantum level, then it would be theoretically possible to develop an artificial or mechanical system that contains a complete set of cause and effect associations.
If, however, random probability is asymptotic, then it would be impossible to reflect all possible interactions in any finite system. In other words, if anything is possible, the set of all cause and effect associations is limitless and impossible to encode. Absolute thresholds do not preclude fuzzy and multi-valued interpretations. We may accurately say that sunrise occurred at 5:17 AM and still acknowledge that dawn stretched out over many minutes.
Whether this discussion of thresholds reflects truth in the physical universe or not, it serves as a valuable model for developing automated processing systems that mimic the brain. Even if our computer system does not capture all possible causes and effects, the fact that we can organize them into causal chains and explicitly associate them enables us to model the knowledge that is stored in finite human brains.
|Click below to look in each Understanding Context section|
|4||Perception and Cognition||5||Fuzzy Logic||6||Language and Dialog||7||Cybernetic Models|
|8||Apps and Processes||9||The End of Code||10||Glossary||11||Bibliography|


An encryption algorithm whose key consists of three DES (Data Encryption Standard) keys, which is also referred to as a key bundle. Note 1: A DES key consists of 64 binary digits ("0"s or "1"s) of which 56 bits are randomly generated and used directly by the algorithm. (The other 8 bits, which are not used by the algorithm, may be used for error detection.) Note 2: Each TDEA encryption/decryption operation (as specified in ANSI X9.52) is a compound operation of DES encryption and decryption operations. Let EK(I) and DK(I) represent the DES encryption and decryption of I using DES key K respectively. The following operations are
TDEA encryption operation: the transformation of a 64-bit block I into a 64-bit block O that is defined as follows:
O = EK3(DK2(EK1(I))).
TDEA decryption operation: the transformation of a 64-bit block I into a 64-bit block O that is defined as follows:
O = DK1(EK2(DK3(I))).
The standard specifies the following keying options for bundle (K1, K2, K3)
Keying Option 1: K1, K2, and K3 are independent keys;
Keying Option 2: K1 and K2 are independent keys and K3 = K1;
Keying Option 3: K1 = K2 = K3.


Interspeech'2005 - Eurospeech
It is known that infants are aware of the category of objects in daily life before explicit vocabulary acquisition starts. It has been suggested that the ability of categorization is likely to play an essential role in its overall cognitive development. In this study, we conducted a series of experiments using stimuli that have various attributes in order to understand the process of such a categorization in an infant's pre-linguistic development. We consider two possible cognitive processes of linguistic categorization. One possible scenario is that certain members of the categories are derived from similarity with the most representative members of a category (prototypical members). Alternatively, the coupling of each category member- ship with relevant labels can be traced to the symbol grounding problem. Our results are consistent with an interpretation that the cortical systems involved in language development is inseparably linked with prototype effects in categorization.
Bibliographic reference. Sudo, Tamami / Mogi, Ken (2005): "Perceptual and linguistic category formation in infants", In INTERSPEECH-2005, 1185-1188.


We are back, with the Avaz Communication Challenge!!
Johnny is a 7-year-old and communicates in 1-2 words.
He returns from school and shows you a fish he made in crafts class. He uses his AAC device to say “BIG FISH”. You expand his utterance with “Yes! This is a big fish”. Now, what is the best way to extend this communication?
Leave a comment, with your answer – Option (A) or (B) or (C).


The five areas of interaction are (please click on each one for more information):
These provide the main focus for developing the connections between the disciplines, so that students will learn to see knowledge as an interrelated, coherent whole.
More particularly, the five areas of interaction:
- are embedded in the subjects and developed naturally through them
- provide both an organization and an extension of learning within and across the subjects, through the exploration of real-life issues
- inspire special activities and interdisciplinary projects
- form part of the framework for student inquiry and take investigative learning further than subject boundaries
- are a vehicle for refining conceptual understanding through different perspectives
- guide reflection and lead from knowledge to thoughtful action.
This and more information available at www.ibo.org/myp


|The Shaggy Steed of Physics: Mathematical Beauty in the Physical World|
|rating||8 of 10 (if you have the required math skills)|
|summary||Beautiful but demanding examination of the two-body problem.|
The force on each body, whether gravitational or electric, is proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. An isolated sun and planet form such a system, and a hydrogen atom, which is just a proton and electron, can be simplistically modeled as such. This may seem a trivial problem: you can sum it up in half a page in a physics book. But that's because all the detail work has been done for you. Furthermore, anything more complex than the two-body problem is chaotic and incapable of exact solution, so it's up to the two-body problem to carry us along. This is a complex problem, so this review is rather lengthy.
Let me warn you right off the bat that this is not a book for the faint of heart. It kicked my ass. The concepts are fast and furious, and the math is dense. Equations festoon the pages, daring you to ignore them. But you may not, they're fundamental to the discussion. Mr. Oliver opines that anyone with basic undergraduate math should be able to handle it. I had calculus, differential equations, and a good dose of physics in college and I still found the book tough going, mostly due to the whirlwind of notation and sheer number of variables introduced. I ended up keeping a cheat sheet of key definitions which ended up being four pages long, and took almost two weeks to process it. It reads like an advanced college physics book, except without extra examples or redundant explanation -- he expects you to be smart or motivated enough to keep up.
As an example: 'Using Hamilton's equations to eliminate p' and q', the total rate of change may be compactly expressed as df/dt = df/dt + [f,H] where [f,g] is the Poisson bracket of any two functions of the motion: [f,g] = (df/dqi*dg/dpi - dg/dqi * df/dpi)' I've reformatted this slightly for text limitations; he of course doesn't use * for multiplication, and you should read all 'i's as subscript i. This is fairly simple math in the context of the book.
So now that I've scared you off, what's the payoff? Well, unlike my college physics books which just lead me from factoid to factoid there are moments where the hard work pays off in big "oooh" moments. Your book might give you Kepler's second law: a planet sweeps out equal areas of its ellipse in equal times. But why? We'll just call it 'conservation of angular momentum'; that should hold you plebes. But in Shaggy Steed you'll find the equations like this that you might have thought were fundamental falling out of the woodwork, built up from the real fundamentals.
We start out by defining coordinate spaces and deciding that we're interested in Newtonian/Galilean rather than Einsteinian physics for the moment, since our subjects travel slowly enough and relativity makes things nastier. We start with a particle that has two vectors -- position and velocity. Turn this into two ensembles of rigid body particles exerting force upon each other. From this we build up the laws of motion, arriving at the total energy H of the system, and the 'gene of motion,' the Lagrangian: the difference between the kinetic and potential energy. 'Gene of motion' is a pretty bold claim, so we are shown how every mechanical quantity of the system may be derived from the Lagrangian. From there it's on to the 'action' principle, which is basically the integral of the Lagrangian over time - the key being that of any path the particles may take, they act in a way to minimize the action. Every other law of motion (including Newton's) follows from this, though to explain why it's the case we need general relativity. This was my first 'oooh' moment.
Chapter 3 really sets the pace for the rest of the book. If you're thrown off here, you're not going to make it out alive. To summarize: "Motion consists of the trajectory flow of particles in phase space. Each isolating invariant introduces a degeneracy into the motion in which the full phase space available to the trajectories degenerates into a submanifold. Increasing numbers of isolating invariants correspond to increasing degeneracies of the motion which restrict the trajectories to increasingly restricted submanifolds of phase space." This is more or less the programme of the entire book. Dig out as much complexity as required, then simplify to solvability.
Oliver introduces each new concept, so if you're following along carefully, you can follow along. This is all done half in equations, so we're diving so deep into math that you (okay, I) may be several pages in and forget where you were coming from and where you were going. Then suddenly you're out the back end and he nails it all with a beautiful concrete application or insight. For Chapter 3 it's Hooke motion, which you can think of as approximating two weights connected by a spring. Now if you've ever taken differential equations, or dynamics, you're probably uncomfortably familiar with this system. Now here it is all laid out for you, everything explained, and boy those resultant equations look mighty familiar. So that's where that all comes from, and why they use those particular symbols. The linear central force and the inverse-square forces of our two-body problem turn out to be closely related as well.
To be crushingly brief, Chapter 4 finally gets down to the (relatively) practical matter of classical planetary (Keplerian) mechanics, and why four dimensional spheres are special. Chapter 5 dives into quantum mechanics, and the hydrogen atom loosely simulated as a two body problem, since it has only the nucleus and one electron. And let's derive the fundamentals of quantum physics and the periodic table while we're here. Though I've neglected to mention it till now, Oliver doesn't neglect the human side of all this. He doesn't linger on it, but he does provide context. It's amusing to see how many of these inexorable equations were originally derived by geniuses like P. Dirac, only to be disowned because the implications were too outlandish.
In Chapter 6, it's time to step out of Newtonian/Galilean space and into Einsteinian space. We've made a lot of assumptions, such as the infinitely fast propagation of forces. This is no longer the case; time is no longer separate from space. In fact, we learn how to rotate space into time through imaginary rotation angles (known as 'boosts'). e=mc^2 falls out. But our shaggy steed eventually breaks down on the precession of Mercury. In the land of general relativity, even a simple two-body problem is really a many-body problem - forces are no longer instantaneous, they require force particles. The steed is of no more use.
But wait! Chapter 7, The Manifold Universe, takes on many-body motion like Don Quixote tilting bravely at a windmill, and tries to pull some order from the chaos. KAM theory is introduced and our many-body problem turns out to be not absolutely chaotic, but a mixture of regular and chaotic motion. You may have noticed that our many-body solar system doesn't just fly apart. We can model it more or less as a set of two-body problems with minor perturbations (minor being the key). And of course we can model fluids even though the internal motion is chaotic. Order emerges. Our shaggy steed is revived, transformed.
The back of the book contains the Notes, which are compact digressions into the hard (yes ...) math. I have to admit some of them completely lost me. But they're not required, just extra reading for those of you who eat this stuff up.
This all leaves me with a bit of a quandary. It's a beautiful book if you're a graduate-level student of math or physics, smarter than me (your best bet), or willing to put a lot of effort into it. Otherwise I can't recommend it -- the book is gibberish if you can't follow the math. I can't help but think that it would make a fantastic course in the hands of a skilled practical math teacher like Dr. Gary Sherman at RHIT; I certainly could have used his help with this. So, it's to teachers like him that I'd really suggest this book, for eventual dissemination to their students. Or if you dig physics and have the math skills, you might want to try riding "The Shaggy Steed of Physics" alone. If it throws you, there's no shame.
You can purchase The Shaggy Steed of Physics: Mathematical Beauty in the Physical World from bn.com. Slashdot welcomes readers' book reviews -- to see your own review here, read the book review guidelines, then visit the submission page.


THIS IS A 90 MINUTE WEBINAR
NACCHO & CityMatCH co-produce E-MCH webinars."75th Anniversary of Title V" Series features long standing issues.
Vital statistics are perhaps the most widely used national, state, and local data for identifying & addressing public health issues. The existence of a national system of the registration of vital events depends on a cooperative relationship between the states & federal government. The impetus for the use of vital records as the basis of a public health data system came from the realization that records of births & deaths, particularly records of deaths by cause of death, could provide information needed for the control of epidemics and prevention of mortality through sanitary reform. Join us for an interactive learning event to gain better understanding of the current state of our national system, and challenges to collecting & sharing of these data.
Bruce B. Cohen, PhD
Director, Division of Research and Epidemiology
Bureau for Health Information, Statistics, Research, & Evaluation
Massachusetts Department of Public Health
Joyce A. Martin, MPH Epidemiologist & Julia Kowaleski, Statistician,
Division of Vital Statistics, National Center for Health Statistics


Can Talking Mats help young people set targets?
Involving young people in making decisions that affect their education can be both challenging and time consuming. Margo Mackay has just completed a research project, funded by NHS Forth Valley, which examined whether using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health – Children and Youth Version (ICF-CY) can be usefully combined with Talking Mats to provide a practical framework for decision making and target setting. It tested whether:
- combining Talking Mats and the ICF-CY framework was acceptable to secondary pupils with complex needs, and
- using the information obtained from them is helpful in setting targets for their Individual Education Plans
The project found that Talking Mats, when combined with ICF-CY, is a powerful tool with the potential to greatly enhance the nature of partnerships between pupils, parents and professionals.


* (asterisk) is a wildcard.
It can be placed in front of or at the end of a word, but never in the middle.
- Searching for a first name Ol*
will return all first names beginning with Ol-, such as Ole, Ola, Olea and Oline.
- Searching for a surname *ersen
will return all surnames ending in -ersen, such as Pedersen, Pettersen and Torgersen.
- Searching for a first name *risto*
will return all first names with -risto- in them, such as Kristoffer, Kristopher, Christoffer, Christopher.
Please note that a search needs to include at least two letters besides any special signs. Searching for a first name A*
(Beginning with an A) is not allowed, as such searches would be too heavy.
- Searching for one letter alone, however, will return abbreviated names. Searching simply for first name A
will return names such as A. Hansen.