Jacopo Tintoretto’s The Crucifixion of Christ
These are the appointed feasts of the Lord, the holy convocations, which you shall proclaim at the time appointed for them. In the first month, on the fourteenth day of the month at twilight, is the Lord’s Passover.
And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the Feast of Unleavened Bread to the Lord; for seven days you shall eat unleavened bread. On the first day you shall have a holy convocation; you shall not do any ordinary work. But you shall present a food offering to the Lord for seven days. On the seventh day is a holy convocation; you shall not do any ordinary work.
And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, ‘Speak to the people of Israel and say to them, When you come into the land that I give you and reap its harvest, you shall bring the sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest to the priest, and he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord, so that you may be accepted. On the day after the Sabbath the priest shall wave it.’ ~ Leviticus 23:1-11, ESV; the underlining is this blogger’s emphasis
Despite the fact that America’s Good Friday (2012) falls on April 6th and Passover falls on April 7th, the first day of the Jewish first month (Abib/Nisan) traditionally has been the first day of the Jewish religious or festival year. This day, biblically speaking, is Abib/Nisan 14th, and this day is better known as the Passover Feast, which usually isn’t celebrated on a Sabbath. However, to be absolutely accurate, Passover could fall on any day of the week!
Furthermore, the Passover Feast, like all ancient Jewish festivals, always begins the evening before the date that it appears on American calendars. For example, as previously mentioned, American calendars note that Passover starts on April 7, 2012, so that would mean that, if this Passover were in keeping with the biblical Passover Feast, then it would begin on the evening of April 6, 2012, because a Jewish day traditionally has been from sunset to sunset (twilight to twilight). Then too, if this Passover were like the ancient Passover Feast, then it also would begin with the customary Jewish family dinner (the Passover Seder meal of lamb and unleavened bread, etc.).
Biblically and historically, the Passover Feast is both the meal and the ceremony (the commemoration of the biblical Israelites’ exodus or the time when they were freed from their slavery in Egypt). This Passover Feast immediately precedes the first annual Sabbath of seven annual Sabbaths (High Sabbaths) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which is celebrated on Abib/Nisan 15th. Then too, because the Passover Feast commemorates the Israelites’ exodus, this is the reason why no leavened bread is eaten during the week of Unleavened Bread.
Note: Feast of Unleavened Bread’s annual Sabbath is the first of seven annual Sabbaths or High Sabbaths, which are:
1. The first day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread
2. The last day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread
3. The day of Pentecost (Shavuot) which coincides with the beginning of The Feast of Weeks
4. The Day of Trumpets (Yom Teruah)
5. The Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)
6. The first day of the Feast of Tabernacles (Succoth or Sukkot)
7. The Last Great Day (8th day, also on Succoth or Sukkot)
Furthermore, biblically speaking, Jewish individuals, especially all Jewish men in their early 20s, and older, are commanded to keep the Passover from generation to generation, which means forever (cf. Exodus 12:14 ). This God-appointed time (Passover) is why Christ Jesus is in the God-appointed place (Jerusalem), during His Passion Week. The author of The Gospel According to Saint Luke writes:
Then came the day of Unleavened Bread, on which the Passover lamb had to be sacrificed. So Jesus sent Peter and John, saying, ‘Go and prepare the Passover for us, that we may eat it.’~ Luke 22:7-8, ESV
What needs to be noted here is that Passover includes the Passover Feast and the week of Unleavened Bread’s Feasts of Unleavened Bread and Firstfruits (cf. Exodus 12:14, 16-18; Exodus 13:6-8; Leviticus 23:1-11; Deuteronomy 16:3-8; and Numbers 28:16-18). Moreover, depending on which day of the week Passover actually falls on in the month of Abib/Nisan, the God-appointed mo’edim (times of the Passover Feast, Feast of Unleavened Bread, and Feast of Firstfruits) could spread over a 7-9 day period.
During this 7-9 day period is the week of Unleavened Bread, which actually begins on Abib/Nisan 15th. Abib/Nisan 15th also is known as the Feast of Unleavened Bread. Once again, Abib/Nisan 15th also is the first annual Sabbath. For this reason, the first day of the week of Unleavened Bread is celebrated by having a sacred Sabbath assembly (a Holy Convocation). Likewise, the seventh day of the week of Unleavened Bread also is celebrated with a sacred Sabbath assembly (a Holy Convocation)—the second yearly Sabbath.
Lastly, the final festival that occurs in the first month of the Jewish religious or festival year (Abib/Nisan) is the Feast of Firstfruits. This feast is celebrated, per Leviticus 23:9-11, after the weekly Sabbath that comes after the first annual Sabbath or Feast of Unleavened Bread. However, God is not saying that the Feast of Firstfruits always takes place on Abib/Nisan 16th. For sure, regardless of which days of the month of Abib/Nisan the Passover and Unleavened Bread Feasts fall on, the Feast of Firstfruits always was meant to fall on the day after the weekly Sabbath (Saturday rest day). In other words, the Feast of Firstfruits always was meant to fall on the first day of the week or Sunday!
For the record, a sacred annual Sabbath or High Sabbath, like all Sabbath days, is from sunset to sunset. However, unlike the weekly Sabbath days, the sacred yearly Sabbath is a memorial of God’s appointed time (mo’ed). In fact, the sacred yearly Sabbaths also are memorials of the great events scheduled on God’s Sacred Calendar, such as the prophetic dates fixed for the past fulfilled signs, as well as the prophetic dates fixed for the fulfillment of future signs.
Then too, on every Sabbath, no matter if it is a yearly (High) or weekly (regular) Sabbath, there would not be any work, and work for the Jewish people would be sowing, plowing, reaping, binding sheaves, kneading, baking, cooking, slaughtering, and so forth (cf. Exodus 20:8-10). However, even though all Sabbaths are days of rest and spiritual enrichment, the sacred yearly or High Sabbath differs from the sacred weekly or regular Sabbath in that the sacred weekly or regular Sabbath always begins on Friday evenings around 6 p.m. and ends on Saturday evenings around 6 p.m. (from sunset to sunset). Additionally, the sacred weekly Sabbath is a memorial of God’s creation of the world.
The point here is that Jesus the Christ did not die on Good Friday, because “the day of Preparation” mentioned in Mark 15:42, John 19:14 and 31 is the day before the yearly or High Sabbath. Now, traditionally, “the day of Preparation” for the Passover, which in the Hebrew language is called Erev Pesach (literally, Passover eve), begins on the evening of the Passover Feast, meaning it begins during the night hours of the Passover Feast. On Erev Pesach, Jewish people, in obedience to the biblical command and in order to prevent the accidental eating of leavened bread, would remove all leaven and leavened products from their homes (cf. Exodus 12:15).
This removal of leaven definitely had to be completed before the week of Unleavened Bread started, so by the evening of the Feast of Passover (Erev Pesach or Abib/Nisan 13th), the Jewish people had to have performed the Bedikat Chametz ritual, making sure to dispose of any remaining chametz (leaven). Only after this ritual had been completed could a Jewish home be considered chametz-free and ready for the Passover Feast and the week of Unleavened Bread.
It is important to note here that a Jewish hour occurring between sunset and sunrise is called a Jewish Night Hour. A Jewish hour occurring between sunrise and sunset is called a Jewish Day Hour. Then again, as already mentioned, a Jewish day is from sunset to sunset (it begins at sunset on the night before the day listed on a Jewish calendar), which means a Jewish 24-hour day both ends AND begins at sunset, as well as means a Jewish holiday spans two days on the western or Gregorian calendar. For example, if Abib/Nisan 14th were listed as beginning at sunset on Thursday, then it actually would be observed after sundown on Abib/Nisan 13th (Wednesday) and during the daytime hours of Abib/Nisan 14th (Thursday).
Having said all that, it is time to look closer at Jesus the Christ’s Passion Week. During His Passion Week, “the day of Preparation” was the Passover Feast (Abib/Nisan 14th), which started during the Jewish night hours on Wednesday of the western or Gregorian calendar, and ended during Jewish day hours on Thursday of the western or Gregorian calendar. More important, it is at the 9th hour (3 p.m.) of “the day of Preparation”/Passover Feast (Abib/Nisan 14th) that Jesus died (cf. 1 Corinthians 5:7).
The point here is that Christ Jesus had to have stayed in the grave for at least 72 hours or three 12-hour nights and three 12-hour days (cf. Matthew 12:40). For this statement to be true, the Lord had to have been buried some time before the end of the Passover Feast’s day hours, which means He had to have been in the grave for at least 1 or two day hours, or more, before the end of Abib/Nisan 14th day hours (sunrise to sunset), and He had to have remained in the grave from the 12 night hours of Abib/Nisan 15th through the 12 day hours of Abib/Nisan 15th (the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which was/is a yearly Sabbath or High Sabbath); plus from the 12 night hours of Abib/Nisan 16th through the 12 day hours of Abib/Nisan 16th; plus from the 12 night hours of Abib/Nisan 17th through at least 10-11 day hours of Abib/Nisan 17th, which was a weekly Sabbath. These 3 days and three nights in the grave (72 hours) mean that it had to have been some time after sunrise on Abib/Nisan 18th (the first day of the week, Sunday, or the Firstfruits Feast; see Matthew 28:1 and/or Luke 24:1) yet way before sunset, that the Lord is resurrected. Remember, a whole Jewish day is from sunset to sunset!
Concerning the Passover Feast (Abib/Nisan 14th) also being “the day of Preparation”), which is the day before the yearly or High Sabbath, the Scriptures prove this truth. Also, as mentioned earlier, the term Passover stands for both the Passover Feast day and the week of Unleavened Bread, as indicated in Mark 15:42 and John 19:14. Additionally, apostle John writes:
Since it was the day of Preparation, and so that the bodies would not remain on the cross on the Sabbath (for that Sabbath was a high day), the Jews asked Pilate that their legs might be broken and that they might be taken away. So the soldiers came and broke the legs of the first, and of the other who had been crucified with him. But when they came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did not break his legs. But one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and at once there came out blood and water. He who saw it has borne witness— his testimony is true, and he knows that he is telling the truth— that you also may believe. For these things took place that the Scripture might be fulfilled: ‘Not one of his bones will be broken.’ And again another Scripture says, ‘They will look on him whom they have pierced.’ ~ John 19:31-37, ESV
It is because the Lord died on the Passover Feast that Christ Jesus is now every born again and saved believer’s symbolic PASSOVER. He, indeed, fulfilled God’s prophetic event that pertains to the Lord becoming the sacrificial lamb Who would take away the sins of the world (cf. Isaiah 53:7; John 1:29, 36; Acts 8:32; 1 Corinthians 5:7; 1 Peter 1:19), and He did so on God’s appointed time (mo’ed) of the Passover Feast, which is Abib/Nisan 14th.
Furthermore, Jesus the Christ did not arise on Easter Sunday. He arose from the dead as soon as 3 FULL 12-hour nights (3 FULL periods of darkness), and 3 FULL 12-hour days (3 full periods of daylight) were completed.
Once again, a Jewish day ALWAYS begins at sunset or evening, and a Jewish 24-hour day runs from sunset to sunset. Therefore, during the week of Christ Jesus’ Passion, the Lord arose some time after the 72-hours ended, which back then was on Abib/Nisan 17th. In other words, around sunrise, while it was still dark and, therefore, long before the daylight hours of the first day of the week (Sunday, or the day of Firstfruits, Abib/Nisan 18th), which during the Passion Week followed the weekly or regular Sabbath), Christ Jesus arose from the grave. The Scriptures support this truth, for apostle John writes about the Lord’s resurrection, saying:
Now on the first day of the week Mary Magdalene came to the tomb early, while it was still dark, and saw that the stone had been taken away from the tomb. So she ran and went to Simon Peter and the other disciple, the one whom Jesus loved, and said to them, ‘They have taken the Lord out of the tomb, and we do not know where they have laid him.’ So Peter went out with the other disciple, and they were going toward the tomb. ~ John 20:1-3, ESV
Now, for some believers, this truth will not matter, because they will continue to commemorate a Good Friday crucifixion and an Easter Sunday resurrection. However, for other believers, this truth will cause them to want to get it right. Thus, they will want to commemorate their Lord’s death on the correct day, which is the Passover Feast (Abib/Nisan 14th), and they will want to commemorate their Lord’s resurrection on the correct day, which is the Feast of Firstfruits (whatever day in Abib/Nisan that might be, since God never established Abib/Nisan 16th as a FIXED date for His Firstfruits Feast)!


Good & Affordable options for the Lung Cancer Treatment
Lung cancer is the most fatal cancers occurring to a living being among the other types. It needs high end technical and surgical expertise to provide this treatment at any hospitals or diagnostic centers. The price of this treatment is a limiting factor and not many can afford the astronomical figures of this treatment. However countries like India, Mexico, Turkey, Jordan & South Korea provide this treatment at their hospitals at an affordable cost.
Lung cancer is an uncontrolled tumor within the lung tissues. The two main kinds of lung cancers that develop are – the small cell lung carcinoma and the non-small cell lung carcinoma. Distinguishing between these two cancer types is vital to the resolution of the form of management. Small cell lung carcinoma responds well to chemotherapy and radiation therapy, while, non-small cell lung carcinoma is better treated surgically. The etiological factors accountable for the development of lung cancer are – contact with tobacco smoke (active in addition to passive), genetic predisposition, polluting of the environment, asbestosis, and a contact with radon gas.
Causes of Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is one of the deadliest and also having a highest incidence of known cancers. If this originated in the lung tissue it’s called primary cancer. When it started elsewhere in the body and then reached the lungs, due to the metastasis, it is called secondary lung cancer.
Several risks have been identified to date. People smoking cigarettes or even just subjected to the tobacco smoke, asbestos or polluting of the environment have the higher chances of developing this cancer. There’s also a genetic predisposition to lung cancer and patients having someone in the family with this particular cancer may develop the same condition.
Patients struggling with lung cancer have higher than normal mortality. Despite the best of treatments, only 14% of diagnosed lung cancer patients survive a lot more than 5 years. Highest incidence of lung cancer death continues to be recorded in North America and Europe.
Diagnosing and Treating Lung Cancer
Chest X ray and CT scans are the most typical diagnostic tools for the lung cancer. Sometimes, to determine the proper diagnose, doctors should biopsy the lungs.
The treatment might contain surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Treatment methods are decided on the basis of type the cancer, the amount of its spread (stage) and the all-around health of the patient.
If the tumor is big, doctors might prescribe courses of chemotherapy and radiation, to contract the tumor before surgery. Surgical treatments can be done as open or minimal invasive laparoscopic surgery and they include the elimination of one lung (pneumectomy), removal of the lobe (lobectomy) or the elimination of a part of the lung lobe (Wedge resection).
Every other surgery you will find operative and post-operative risks. The patients could bleed, develop contamination, form thrombus or experience collapse of the lungs or harm to the healthy tissue.
Treatment available abroad
Lung cancer surgery and therapy are extremely expensive in the USA and many lung cancer patients choose to visit other countries over the world to obtain the treatment. Mexico may have lung cancer medical professionals, as well as India, and many Americans struggling with this type of cancer travel to those countries to become treated.
Medical tourism can also be very developed in Turkey. Their hospitals are thought to be highly equipped and their medical staff to become exceptionally educated to treat lung cancer patients.


Food Preferences in Lambs After Exposure to Flavors in Solid Foods
Applied Animal Behaviour Science
The aim of this study was to determine whether experience with onion- or garlic-flavored food early in life affected subsequent intake of foods with those flavors. From 30 to 110 days of age, lambs were exposed to either an onion- or a garlic-flavored ration of ground alfalfa and rolled barley. Lambs were tested using both two-choice and single-choice tests. The two-choice tests were between: (1) onion- and garlic-flavored rations; (2) onion-flavored and unflavored rations; (3) garlic-flavored and unflavored rations. In the single-choice tests, acceptance of food was tested with each flavor at the concentration (2%) received during exposure and with 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% of each flavor. When offered a choice between onion- and garlic-flavored food, lambs exposed to garlic ate more (P < 0.05) garlic-flavored food, while lambs exposed to onion ate more (P < 0.05) onion-flavored food. When offered a choice between flavored and unflavored foods, lambs ate more unflavored than flavored foods; however, lambs exposed to onion ate relatively more (P < 0.05) onion-flavored food than did lambs exposed to garlic in these tests. Exposure to garlic did not increase (P > 0.05) intake of garlic-flavored food when offered with unflavored food. In the single-choice tests, early experience with flavors did not (P > 0.05) increase intake of flavors at the 2% concentration. Lambs exposed to onion, however, ingested more (P < 0.05) onion-flavored food at higher concentrations than did lambs exposed to garlic. Lambs exposed to garlic did not (P > 0.05) ingest more food with higher concentrations of garlic than did lambs exposed to onion. Despite differences between groups of lambs shortly after exposure to flavors (1988), there were no differences in intake of flavored foods 9 months later (1989).
Nolte, D. and Provenza, F. (1992). Food preferences in lambs after exposure to flavors in solid foods. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 32(4): 337-347.


A drone hovers above the rainforests of southern Guyana. Its previous takeoffs have been clumsy. In fact, it’s taken a few crash landings for the pilot to take control. But the homemade drone – built by members of a forest tribe using YouTube tutorials – eventually takes flight, relaying live video to the ground crew, on the look out for illegal loggers and miners who are encroaching on the tribe’s territory.
With a population of about 9,000 members, the Wapichan community is one of Guyana’s nine indigenous groups. Guyana itself is a small South American nation of 735,000. Still, the country boasts the world’s second highest percentage of rainforest cover. Though the Wapichan tribe was well aware of the illegal logging and mining operations exploiting their traditional lands for profit, the Guyana government has been slow to act, according to a Quartz report. To compel the nation into action, the forest tribe had to find an innovative way to capture officials attention by documenting the illegal loggers and miners in action.
In 2003, the Wapichan mobilized a group of citizens to map their native lands. The citizen brigade used GPS to map isolated villages and smartphones to record the folk traditions of tribal elders. But ventures through dense rainforest proved demanding.
Turning to even newer technologies to travel above the treetops, the Wapichan used YouTube tutorials to build a drone with bowstrings as tie downs and lollipop stick as a drill. The tribe received support from California-based organization Digital Democracy to create their GoPro-euipped, fixed-wing design, which maintains a range of 50 kilometers (31 miles). Drone-driven conservation specialist Lian Pin Koh advised the tribe. The craft enabled the Wapichan to locate and map illegal loggers to the south and a gold mine to the southeast that seems to be polluting waters the tribe depends on.
Despite international acclaim, including the Equator Prize awarded by the United Nations Development Programme, community leader Nicholas Fredricks and his team of DIY engineers have yet to receive a definitive response from the Guyanese government. They have however received word that the government may open another mining operation near a sacred Mapichan site called Blue Mountain. Nonetheless, the community says it will not give up, as tribe leaders continue to chase officials for meetings. “We are the guardians of the forest,” Fredericks told Quartz. “We will not stand for [its] destruction in the name of development.”


I’m starting into a book published by Texas A&M University Press called Black Cowboys of Texas (2000). It’s a lengthy anthology, with profiles of many African American cowmen and a fine selection of photographs. The work of 27 different authors, it’s edited by Sara Massey, who until retirement was curriculum specialist at the Institute of Texan Cultures, University of Texas at San Antonio.
Drawing on WPA materials, interviews, and documented sources, the book tells of the African Americans who worked cattle on the plains and prairies of Texas. Contributions are grouped chronologically: “The Early Cowboys,” “Cowboys of the Cattle Drives,” and “Twentieth Century Cowboys.”
Just reading the Preface and the Introduction to Part I, you get enough information about Black history in Texas to undo many notions from all-white Hollywood westerns and genre fiction.
Some myth-busting. As long ago as the Spanish colonization of Texas in the 18th century, there were black and mixed-race people living there. A census in 1792 recorded almost 3,000 residents of the colonial settlements. Fifteen percent of them were of African descent or mixed race.
After Independence from Spain in the early 19th century, there was an influx of newcomers from the Southern States. These were slave owners, and by 1836, when Texas became an independent republic, slaves numbered about 5,000. These mostly worked the white-owned plantations and farms, while a few herded cattle, mostly on foot, in the prairies along the Gulf Coast and the frontier.
By 1850, when Texas had joined the Union, slaves numbered 58,000. Ten years later, on the eve of the Civil War, this number had grown to 182,000 and amounted to 30% of the entire population. From colonial days there had been blacks who were free-men in Texas, yet by this time records show that there were maybe only 355 of them, and the number was dwindling. Meanwhile, a few thousand slaves are believed to have fled to Mexico, Kansas, and Indian lands.
Emancipation came with the defeat of the South, but conditions for blacks did not significantly improve. They could not vote, testify in court against whites, or share public accommodations. And conditions for their labor remained much the same. Violence against blacks often took the form of lynchings, and the KKK emerged as a vigilante presence.
Side note. This period in history is represented with some attempt at accuracy in the Poitier / Belafonte film Buck and the Preacher (1972). Here are the opening sequences of that production:
Following the Civil War, blacks could attend school for the first time, and literacy increased to about 25% in 1880. Yet, like restaurants, hotels, and theaters, schools were segregated, and they were poorly funded.
Black cowboys. The cattle boom that began in the late 1860s provided employment for many black men who had worked cattle and broke horses for their former owners. During the nearly two decades of the great cattle drives, there was an astronomical demand for seasonal labor. Estimates for employment of blacks run as high as 25% of the cattle industry’s work force. Another 12% were Mexican. That means that as few as two out of every three cowboys on the trail were Anglos.
These estimates hold up under challenge – and they have been challenged. There are various ways of counting heads, and an exhaustive analysis of the records supports the larger figures.
The implications for writers of western fiction are many. Larry McMurtry’s portrayal of Deets in Lonesome Dove is a beginning. But his is only one of countless thousands of stories about blacks in the West. Like Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man, there’s rich potential for an Invisible Cowboy. I’d love to read it.
In the meantime, we have books like this one, Black Cowboys of Texas, and I plan to report more of it here as I go along. For Walker Martin and everybody else who has wanted me to post a review of the gargantuan Trail Drivers of Texas, I’ll be tackling that 1044-page volume, too. So stay tuned.
Deep Springs cattle drive, Deep Springs College, California, 2005, wikimedia.org
Coming up: J. Marvin Hunter, The Trail Drivers of Texas (1925)


Scientists have captured a dramatic and violent image of the collision between two young stars that tore apart their stellar nursery.
Located in the constellation of
Orion, the explosive event happened some 500 years ago sending giant
streamers of dust and gas across interstellar space.
Researchers say the clash produced as much energy as our Sun would over 10 million years. MORE


Are Vaccines Safe for My Child?
Not only are vaccines safe for children, they protect against potentially life-threatening diseases.
Each time your child gets a vaccine (shot) your doctor will give you a Vaccine Information Statement (VIS). A VIS explains why the vaccine is important, who should and should not get the vaccine and what risks are involved with getting the vaccine. In addition, the VIS lists side effects that can happen to your child when he gets the vaccine. Reactions or side effects are mostly minor—such as a sore arm, rash or mild fever—and can be treated with acetaminophen or ibuprofen. The choice not to vaccinate your child can be far more dangerous than the potential side effects. Always talk to your child’s doctor if you have questions before or after his shots.
What can happen if my child is not vaccinated?
When people are not vaccinated, disease outbreaks can occur. Many people can get sick. Diseases prevented in the U.S. because of vaccines (polio, measles, whooping cough) are still common in other countries. Because a lot of people travel to and from the U.S., outbreaks of some of these diseases still occur in the U.S. Even in Georgia, diseases such as whooping cough, measles and hepatitis B are seen each year. If your child is not vaccinated, he can be exposed to serious diseases.
How serious are vaccine-preventable diseases?
These diseases are very serious. They can spread easily among households, schools and public places. Not only can your child get sick, but so can other members of your family. Because of the positive impact of vaccines, most people have not seen what these diseases can do to children and families. When these diseases strike, they can be severe. For example, measles in children can cause blindness, deafness, swelling of the brain and potentially death.
It seems like a lot of shots at once. Should I spread out my child’s vaccines?
In order to protect your child from diseases as early as possible, follow the recommended immunization schedule. Combined shots mean fewer doctor visits, fewer needle sticks and less trauma for your child. When you schedule your child’s vaccinations one visit at a time, you put your child at risk of getting shots late. The chance that you will miss or forget an appointment increases when you are scheduled for multiple doctor appointments rather than a single appointment. Some vaccines are given as a series of shots. For example, polio shots are recommended for your baby at 2 months, 4 months and 6 months of age. Make sure your child receives all of the shots in the series to ensure his protection. When there is more than one shot in a series, it is because research has shown more than one shot is needed to fully protect your child against that disease over a long period of time.
Can multiple vaccines overwhelm my child’s immune system?
No. Vaccines strengthen your child’s immune system. Studies show children who get the recommended shots during the first three months of life have fewer infections than children who do not get their shots.
The human body can handle everyday germs as well as the tiny pieces of the vaccine called antigens. The immune system responds when an antigen enters the body. This means a vaccine (shot) boosts the immune system’s response to a disease, which then protects the body from that disease. When your infant puts his hands in his mouth, he is exposed to more germs than the antigens that are found in vaccines. In fact, there are fewer antigens in all of today’s vaccines combined than in a single smallpox vaccine from 1900.
Should I be concerned about thimerosal in vaccines and its rumored link to autism?
Recent studies have shown there is no link between the two. Thimerosal was taken out of vaccines starting in 2001. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), all vaccines for children age 6 and younger, except some flu vaccines, contain no thimerosal or only trace amounts. Many healthcare providers have a flu vaccine that contains no thimerosal preservative. While the use of thimerosal in vaccines has dropped, the rates for autism continue to go up. Visit http://www.immunize.org/catg.d/p4028.pdf for information about thimerosal and vaccines.
Is it true that the vaccine for measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) can cause autism?
Because signs of autism may appear around the same time children get their MMR shots, some parents worry the vaccine causes autism. However, studies have found no relationship between the vaccine and autism. Visit www.immunize.org/autism/ for more details about vaccines and autism.


Rules for Proper Food Combining
Dr. Herbert M. Shelton
Reprinted from Dr. Shelton's
are sound physiological reasons for eating foods in compatible combinations. In
other words, some foods, if mixed in the digestive system, will cause distress!
of food combining are dictated by digestive chemistry. Different foods are digested
foods require an alkaline digestive medium which is supplied initially in the
mouth by the enzyme ptyalin;
foods require an acid medium for digestion- hydrochloric acid.
any student of chemistry will assure you, acids and bases (alkalis) neutralize
each other. If you eat a starch with a protein, digestion is impaired or completely
undigested food mass can cause various kinds of digestive disorders. Undigested
food becomes soil for bacteria which ferment and decompose it. Its by products
are poisonous, one of which, alcohol, is a narcotic that destroys or inhibits
plays havoc with nerves of the digestive tract, suspending their vital action
such that constipation may well be a result! As set forth in Dr. Herbert Shelton's
FOOD COMBINING MADE EASY these are the salient rules for proper food combining.
Nine Basic Rules of Proper Food Combining:
Eat acids and starches at separate meals. Acids neutralize the alkaline medium
required for starch digestion and the result is fermentation and indigestion.
Eat protein foods and carbohydrate foods at separate meals. Protein foods require
an acid medium for digestion.
Eat but one kind of protein food at a meal.
Eat proteins and acid foods at separate meals. The acids of acid foods inhibit
the secretion of the digestive acids required for protein digestion. Undigested
protein putrefies in bacterial decomposition and produces some potent poisons.
Eat fats and proteins at separate meals. Some foods, especially nuts, are over
50% fat and require hours for digestion.
Eat sugars (fruits) and proteins at separate meals.
Eat sugars (fruits) and starchy foods at separate meals. Fruits undergo no digestion
in the stomach and are held up if eaten with foods that require digestion in the
Eat melons alone. They combine with almost no other food.
Desert the desserts. Eaten on top of meals they lie heavy on the stomach, requiring
no digestion there, and ferment. Bacteria turn them into alcohols and vinegars
and acetic acids.
Foods to Eat
Carob, Date, Fig, Prune, Raisins, Dried fruit, Persimmon, Mango, Papaya, Sapote
Apple, Apricot, Blackberry, Cherimoya, Cherry, Elderberry, Gooseberry,
Grape, Huckleberry, Nectarine, Peach, Pear, Plum, Quince, Raspberry, Sapodilla
Currant, Grapefruit, Guava, Kumquat, Lemon, Lime, Orange, Loganberry,
Pineapple, Pomegranate, Strawberry, Tamarind, Tangerine, Tomato
melon, Cantaloupe, Casaba, Christmas melon, Persian melon, Crenshaw melon, Watermelon,
Honeydew melon, Muskmelon, Nutmeg melon
Cashew nuts, Hazel nuts, Hickory nuts, Lentils, Peanuts, Gooseberry, Avocados,
Pecans, Pine nuts, Pistachio nuts, Soy beans, Walnuts, Sunflower seeds, Coconuts
Bean (lima)*, Beets, Chestnut, Carrots, Corn, Hubbard squash, Jerusalem artichoke,
Peanuts*, Peas, Potatoes, Pumpkin, Yam
Peanuts, lentils, beans, and all cereals are considered as protein and starch
Bamboo shoots, Broccoli, Brussel sprouts, Romaine, Cabbage,
Cauliflower, Celery, Chard, Cucumber, Eggplant, Endive, Kale, Kohlrabi, Lettuce:
Boston, Bibb, Leaf, Romaine, etc., Okra, Parsnip, Pepper (sweet), Rutabaga, Sorrel,
Sprouts: Mung bean, alfalfa, wheat, barley, etc., Squash (ex. starchy), Turnip.
from Chet: Try food combining if you're suffering from digestive problems.
This natural technique has helped tens of thousands of health seekers over the
Throughout this website, statements are made pertaining to the properties
and/or functions of food and/or nutritional products. These statements
have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration and
these materials and products are not intended to diagnose, treat,
cure or prevent any disease.


tnxOriginally Posted by ACAngnqbtrChick production is a form of art and a science in its own right. It is not just a matter of letting our hen sit on their eggs or using any incubator we can grab of in order to have a good hatch.
A lot of factors affect the production of uniform, quality and vigorous chicks. Proper management practices starting from: Breeding, Good Health and Nutrition, Line Selection, Handling and Storage of Eggs Before Incubation and Proper Incubation and Hathcery Management.
1. Breeding - preparing the broodfowls for the breeding season
2. Good Health and Nutrition - giving our broodcock and broodhen proper layer feed ration and necessary multivitamins and minerals for egg production. Breeders are fed energy giving diets and nutrients to optimize egg production. Maternal Nutrients are transfered to the chick embryo thru the yolk of an egg.
3. Selection - Choosing the right broodcock and brodhen to be mated as desired upon
4. Handling and Storage of Eggs Before Incubation - selection and care of eggs before incubation or setting in the incubator.
Breeding, Good Health and Nutrition, Line selection and, Proper Handling and Storage of Eggs are the first four important factors in order to PRODUCE VIABLE EGGS necessary to attain and maintain high fertility levels of eggs for quality chick production. At this stage, the genetic traits of the egg is already set ( or determined) upon fertilization. Next is for eggs to be handled and stored properly in order to maintain fertility until ready to be set for incubation.
Considering a viable egg is produced, it is now very important to have:
5. Proper Incubation and Hatchery Management - Incubation is a heat related (or temperature dependent) process that determines the quality and vitality of day-old chicks. Proper management requires a knowledgeable OPERATOR to ensure a good hatch. The hatchability of incubated fertile egg depends upon the method of incubation: natural/hen or by artificial/incubator, by which the biological needs of fertile developing embryo is being supplied with. The biological needs of developing embryo of fertile eggs are as follows in the order of their importance:
(1) temperature, (2) relative humidity, (3) correct ventilation and, (4) turning of eggs.
For an incubator to attain high levels of hatchability, it must have the right design and technology to meet those four important incubation factors.
Choosing which method of incubation to use depends on the breeder's plan on egg and chick production program including the availability of facilities on hand. Some breeders use native hens: natural incubation as surrogate mothers since most broodhens are not sitting type. Artificial Incubation is a method that uses a machine called INCUBATORS that simulates what the hen does to its hatching eggs. It is practical and economical to use in large scale egg production. It is efficient in producing large number of chicks in batches and facilitates uniformity in management operations like vaccination, feeding and medication programs.
Hatching vigorous and quality day-old chicks is important in gamefowl production. In our relatively small sector, with its many traditional and backward pactices, there is room for innovative ideas and appropriate technology aimed at significantly improving the quality of hatch on the premise that the vitality of day-old chick will determine the ultimate technical and maximum fighting performance of cocks as it grows up.


Teachers learn how to teach about money
Fifty-five teachers representing 22 school districts took part in a daylong program designed to help them teach about money management.
The Education Foundation of the Independent Bankers Association of Texas hosted its Teach the Teacher program Tuesday at the Region 15 Education Service Center in San Angelo.
The program was created to build financially literate communities across Texas, to meet a need for financial education in schools and to teach a teacher how to feel confident with financial management, said Mary Lange, foundation president.
The program is offered once a year, and this marks the third year IBAT has hosted the program in San Angelo, she said.
'This region is just tiptop,' she said. 'You can tell they put teachers first.'
In 2011, the foundation launched the program to address the Texas Legislature's unfunded mandate to provide financial education as a part of public high school curriculum. It has been held in 18 markets to date. By the end of this year, Teach the Teacher will have been held in all 20 Texas Education Agency regions, according to IBAT.
Participating teachers — who covered several areas in elementary, middle and high school economics, math, social studies and business — were shown how to teach about topics such as credit, debit, savings, budgeting, taxes, credit scores, identity theft and investment vehicles, among others.
To get a sense of how the teachers felt about finances, the program kicked off by having the them answer a series of questions to reflect their attitude about money.
Speaker Jerry Lozier, Duncanville High School instructor, engaged the teachers by reading aloud the answers to some of the questions.
'If I have extra money some troll usually finds it and spends it,' one teacher wrote when asked to fill in the blank to 'If I have extra money, I ...'
Most wrote they saved the money, while others said they would give it to their children in college and others said they would spend it.
Part of the program introduced online financial literacy games and a Texas Workforce Commission website, texasrealitycheck.com, for teachers to take back to their classrooms and share with students to help them gauge their own attitudes about money management.
Gail Scott, a high school math and science teacher at Paint Rock ISD, said the program gave her resources she can use to help spark an interest with her students and start a conversation with them about money. It was Scott's second year to attend the program.
Introducing students to finances in junior high school hopefully will help them become familiar with the topic and stay interested once they reach high school, she said. She stressed the importance of students being able to understand and apply how to budget once they're out of high school.
For more information about the Teach the Teacher program, visit ibat.org.


NOTES FOR TRANSITION PRESENTATION
You may be wondering what transition means; what we are transitioning away from on the one hand, and what we are transitioning towards on the other. It’s important to understand that the catalyst for this movement of change is Climate Change and Peak Oil.
This graph shows the range of predictions from the IPCC of how the polar ice will melt over time due to climate change, (the top dotted-line = slowest melt rate prediction, the bottom dotted line = fastest melt rate prediction). The point to note here is that the actual melt rate from satelite images (as shown by the black line) is much more severe thatn anyone’s worst case senario. The problem is one that requires urgent and critical action.
Peak oil is the point in time when oil extraction reaches a world-wide peak and we will be unable to increase production to meet the rising demand. Peak oil means that oil will be increasingly inferior in quality, costly to produce and difficult to extract. What we need to keep in mind about peak oil is that it’s not when it happens that’s important, but how it happens - whether or not we are prepared for its inevitable impact on our lives and systems.
So how will we adjust to a future with less oil?
How will we go about preparing for such a future?
It’s important to understand that when we try and look for solutions to these huge challenges, we must remember to consider them not separately, but together. For example, coal to liquids and oil sands have been suggested as ways of combatting Peak Oil, but these proposals don’t take into consideration the carbon emissions that would result. Similarly, solutions to climate change might include the development of renewable energies like wind farms and solar, but enormous amounts of oil are required to produce them, oil that might not be so readily available in the future.
So both these issues MUST be...


“I’m not interested in politics.” The problem with this statement is that ‘politics’ is interested in you. It’s also interested in your children. The political climate is everywhere in our modern world, particularly since the advent of social media. And … your child and social media? They’re closer than you’ll ever know. Your child most assuredly is reading or hearing about all things political nearly every day, whether in school, around their friends, or on their myriad technological devices. For this reason, you should talk with your children about the political information they’re getting. Shari Duddy and her colleagues among the top teachers in New Jersey have some ideas on how to talk with your kids about politics.
Adapt the discussion
Child psychologists recommend that parents speak with their children about politics, but that they do it in such a way as to temper it to their age group. Naturally, not all children can process discussion the same. They need you to choose words they’ll relate to and understand. For instance, very young children may understand the job of President of the United States if he or she is referred to in terms of being a parent to a country. As they grow, you can better explain the position in terms of freedom and leadership rather than parenting because they’ll better understand such concepts. Children’s understanding of the people climate and the different jobs of leaders in government will blossom as they get older, and their school environment will help them to learn things in more abstract terms. But don’t push an agenda with your child. Allow them to grow into curiosity about such things.
Allow your kids to form their own opinions
It’s natural for you to want to get your children to see your side when it comes to your political opinions. However, it’s more important that you help your child learn to think critically and form their own opinions. You likely have a bias about the things that are occurring in the political world, and sharing those beliefs with your children is part of being a parent. A bigger part, however, is teaching your child to be his or her own person. Stay open minded when you talk about politics with your child. Try to remember your own political beliefs at their age. Above all, keep the lines of communication open with your children open about all things political. And learn to love the fact that your children are interested and engaged enough to want to talk with you about the political events and stories of the day.
Help your children find positive stories
We all know that politics can be a dirty business. And with all the 24-hour news channels on TV these days, you can hardly get away from negative political stories. Just remember that there is good news too, and it’s important that you show those positive political stories to your children. Look for positive stories and news channels that are age-appropriate that will be tailored to your child’s language and emotional as well as academic development. Another helpful way to broach more positive stories about politics is to start with your child’s own student body elections. Ask if they’re having elections in their school this year, and see if you can guide your child to become more interested in the electoral process through such classroom elections, as these will help to teach them about the process. Be sure to teach them about the importance of winning and losing with grace, as well as respect for the opposing side.
People once believed that children and politics don’t mix. Perhaps that concept was correct in the past, but today’s technologies bring political events and stories right to your child’s fingertips. That’s why you, as a parent, should speak with your kids about it. What they’re hearing and reading likely needs a buffer from people they trust who speak their language—people who can temper the discussion to their age group as well as their emotional level. As a parent, you can help guide them through the political landscape while still affording them the opportunity to think critically and make up their own minds. Utilize a few of these tips from elementary school teachers in New Jersey in order to broach the subject of politics with your children.


Matt McGrath, writing at BBC News:
From the bees that pollinate our crops, to the forests that hold back flood waters, the report reveals how humans are ravaging the very ecosystems that support their societies.
Three years in the making, this global assessment of nature draws on 15,000 reference materials, and has been compiled by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). It runs to 1,800 pages.
The brief, 40-page “summary for policymakers”, published today at a meeting in Paris, is perhaps the most powerful indictment of how humans have treated their only home.
It says that while the Earth has always suffered from the actions of humans through history, over the past 50 years, these scratches have become deep scars.
The Washington Post:
The image was produced by the Event Horizon Telescope, a network of 10 radio telescopes spread across the planet and functioning as if it were a single receiver, one tuned to high-frequency radio waves. It represents a technical triumph for the scientists involved, and inaugurates a new era in the study of black holes, galaxy formation, and the laws of physics under extreme conditions.
The M87 black hole appears as a dark shadow within a doughnut-like ring of hot, glowing material.
I thought this video about the black hole was fantastic.
Robinson Meyer, writing at The Atlantic:
Meteorologists have never gotten a shiny magazine cover or a brooding Aaron Sorkin film, and the weather-research hub of Norman, Oklahoma, is rarely mentioned in the same breath as Palo Alto. But over the past few decades, scientists have gotten significantly—even staggeringly—better at predicting the weather.
How much better? “A modern five-day forecast is as accurate as a one-day forecast was in 1980,” says a new paper, published last week in the journal Science. “Useful forecasts now reach nine to 10 days into the future.”
Ryan Smith, writing at World of Indie:
Fifty years ago, 5 unmanned lunar orbiters circled the moon, taking extremely high resolution photos of the surface. They were trying to find the perfect landing site for the Apollo missions. They would be good enough to blow up to 40 x 54ft images that the astronauts would walk across looking for the great spot. After their use, the images were locked away from the public until after the bulk of the moon landings, as at the time they would have revealed the superior technology of the USA’s spy satellite cameras, which the orbiters cameras were designed from. The main worry was the USSR gaining valuable information about landing sites that the US wanted to use.
Neil deGrasse Tyson was recently on CNN to talk about the “UFO video” that was released by Tom DeLonge’s To the Stars Academy of Arts & Science research team.
There’s a sentence I never thought I’d write.
Tim Urban, writing for Wait But Why:
Everyone feels something when they’re in a really good starry place on a really good starry night and they look up and see this:
Some people stick with the traditional, feeling struck by the epic beauty or blown away by the insane scale of the universe. Personally, I go for the old “existential meltdown followed by acting weird for the next half hour.” But everyone feels something.
Physicist Enrico Fermi felt something too—”Where is everybody?”
This is one of my favorite post on the internet, but I had never linked it here. Now I have. Highly recommended reading.
The New York Times:
Tropical Storm Harvey strengthened into a hurricane over the Gulf of Mexico last week and made landfall northeast of Corpus Christi, Tex., around 9:45 p.m. on Friday. It was a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 miles per hour. It then moved offshore before making landfall again on the shore of Copano Bay, this time as a Category 3 hurricane.
It brought devastating amounts of rain to an area that includes some of Texas’ most populous cities. It stretched along the state’s Gulf Coast from Corpus Christi to Houston, and inland to Austin and San Antonio. Parts of Louisiana were also expecting heavy rain.
A variety of resources and links to places you can donate to help can be found below.
Jason Kottke has put together a buyer’s guide for tools to safely enjoy the upcoming solar eclipse:
On August 21, 2017 across the entire United States, the Moon will move in front of the Sun, partially blocking it from our view. For those on the path of totality, the Moon will entirely block out the Sun for more than 2 minutes. I’ve been looking forward to seeing a total solar eclipse since I was a little kid, so I’ve been doing a lot of research on what to buy to enjoy the eclipse safely. Here’s what I’ve come up with.
I’ve oriented this guide toward the enthusiastic beginner, someone who’s excited about experiencing the wonder of the eclipse with their friends & family but isn’t interested in expensive specialty gear or photography (like me!). And, again, since you will be able to see this eclipse from everywhere in North America to some degree, this guide applies to anyone in the US/Canada/Mexico.
The Washington Post:
The Environmental Protection Agency announced Friday evening that its website would be “undergoing changes” to better represent the new direction the agency is taking, triggering the removal of several agency websites containing detailed climate data and scientific information. […]
The staffer described the process of reviewing the site as “a work in progress, but we can’t have information which contradicts the actions we have taken in the last two months,” adding that Pruitt’s aides had “found a number of instances of that so far” while surveying the site.
Yet the website overhaul appears to include not only policy-related changes but also scrutiny of a scientific Web page that has existed for nearly two decades, and that explained what climate change is and how it worked.
Yeah, if you hide the science that’ll stop it from being true.
NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope has revealed the first known system of seven Earth-size planets around a single star. Three of these planets are firmly located in the habitable zone, the area around the parent star where a rocky planet is most likely to have liquid water.
The discovery sets a new record for greatest number of habitable-zone planets found around a single star outside our solar system. All of these seven planets could have liquid water – key to life as we know it – under the right atmospheric conditions, but the chances are highest with the three in the habitable zone.
If we discover life on other planets while Trump is in office, humanity will have definitely jumped the shark.
New York Times:
At the University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Watson was tested on 1,000 cancer diagnoses made by human experts. In 99 percent of them, Watson recommended the same treatment as the oncologists.
In 30 percent of the cases, Watson also found a treatment option the human doctors missed. Some treatments were based on research papers that the doctors had not read — more than 160,000 cancer research papers are published a year. Other treatment options might have surfaced in a new clinical trial the oncologists had not yet seen announced on the web.
I had a “holy shit” moment reading this.
Photographer Benedict Redgrove has posted some gorgeous photos of NASA’s rockets and robots.
Remember for the past 15 or so years whenever someone would bring up climate change and some jackass would talk about how it wasn’t real, or that it was no big deal? They were wrong.
Now, those warnings are no longer theoretical: The inundation of the coast has begun. The sea has crept up to the point that a high tide and a brisk wind are all it takes to send water pouring into streets and homes.
Federal scientists have documented a sharp jump in this nuisance flooding — often called “sunny-day flooding” — along both the East Coast and the Gulf Coast in recent years. The sea is now so near the brim in many places that they believe the problem is likely to worsen quickly. Shifts in the Pacific Ocean mean that the West Coast, partly spared over the past two decades, may be hit hard, too.
These tidal floods are often just a foot or two deep, but they can stop traffic, swamp basements, damage cars, kill lawns and forests, and poison wells with salt. Moreover, the high seas interfere with the drainage of storm water.
Nicola Twilley, writing for The New Yorker, with the behind the scenes look at the scientists that discovered gravitational waves exist:
The fact that gravitational waves were detected so early prompted confusion and disbelief. “I had told everyone that we wouldn’t see anything until 2017 or 2018,” Reitze said. Janna Levin, a professor of astrophysics at Barnard College and Columbia University, who is not a member of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, was equally surprised. “When the rumors started, I was like, Come on!” she said. “They only just got it locked!” The signal, moreover, was almost too perfect. “Most of us thought that, when we ever saw such a thing, it would be something that you would need many, many computers and calculations to drag out of the noise,” Weiss said. Many of his colleagues assumed that the signal was some kind of test.


A tree native to China, the Gingko is considered a living fossil that has existed for 300 million years.
Can measure between 25 and 50 meters tall, this tree also called “tree of a thousand crowns,” “silver apricot” or “Ginkgo biloba”, which grows on soil – clay.
Belonging to the Ginkgoaceae family, it is generally found in the parks of large cities (because very resistant to pollution) but also, it can also be found in large commercial ginkgo plantations in South Carolina ( USA ), in China, in the West of France, Korea, and Japan.
However, in addition to the ornamental character of its leaves, the tree with 40 crowns has unsuspected medicinal properties. What are they? How does it act on the human organism? How to use it wisely?
Ginkgo biloba, for the record
According to the writings, the Gingko existed for some 40 million years even before the appearance of the dinosaurs. Indeed, history says that the Silver Apricot tree is the only living being that during World War II resisted the effects of the Hiroshima Bomb.
One might think that this is the reason why the Buddhist monks made it an object of worship by planting it near their temples in order to keep the fire away.
Ginkgo biloba: virtues and health benefits
A living being that can be described as immortal, this resistant, superior, and unique plant have therapeutic virtues discovered since antiquity in traditional Chinese medicine.
As medicinal properties, Ginkgo biloba contains:
- – flavonoids (important antioxidants in our diet),
- – bilobalides
- – terpenoids for their aromatic qualities,
- – ginkgolides
- – lactones (flavor of processed or natural food products).
A powerful antioxidant, the effects of Gingko on the body are multiple.
If for some researchers, this plant improves arterial function, its leaves are known to be used as a natural remedy for:
- reduce inflammation
- facilitate blood circulation
- protect nerve cells
- reduce pain in peripheral vascular diseases.
As part of treatment, Ginkgo biloba is recommended for :
- sexual dysfunctions
- altitude sickness
- manifestations of anxiety as well as Raynaud’s disease
- relieve premenstrual syndrome
- visual disturbances (glaucoma, retinopathy )
- dementia, schizophrenia…
Added to this are the abilities of the thousand crown tree to prevent the risk of Alzheimer’s disease, cardiovascular disease and even to regenerate cognitive functions in healthy elderly people.
Uses, dosages, instructions for use of Ginkgo biloba
The parts used in Ginkgo biloba to promote blood circulation and mental health are the seeds and leaves.
– In infusion: mix 30 g of ginkgo leaves and 30 g of green tea leaves. Measure 1 teaspoon then pour 25 cl of boiling water over it
After 7 minutes, filter then add a little honey or lemon juice before drinking 1 to 2 cups a day.
– As a standardized extract. Taking 120 mg to 480 mg two or three times a day is sufficient.


Our electricity increasingly comes from renewable energies, and yet it’s becoming more and more expensive. We insulate buildings, drive more fuel-efficient cars, and use energy-efficient devices – and yet there is an enormous increase in CO2 emissions. How can we explain such contradictions? Likewise, water-related issues are high up on the agenda. Germany has an abundance of water resources, and yet the water industry is faced with immense problems as declining demand leads to rising costs. How can we master these challenges?
Business administration plus engineering and law
In the undergraduate programme in energy and water management at Ruhr West, you will learn how to give structured answers to such complex questions. Building on a comprehensive education in business administration, professors from the Institute of Civil Engineering and the Institute of Energy Systems and Energy Management teach separate modules to provide students with the required technical expertise. In addition, professionals from the field come in on a regular basis to talk about the legal framework. Above all, the programme is designed to give students a core skill for their careers: the ability to quickly familiarise themselves with new topics and to identify what is most important about them.
You can find more detailed information here (in German)


Radius and ulna
The radius and ulna are long bones that make up the forearm, extending from the elbow to the wrist. In the anatomical position, the radius is found in the lateral forearm, while the ulna is found in the medial forearm.
The radius is shorter than the ulna and has a small proximal end that articulates with the humerus, and a broad distal end that articulates with the carpal bones at the wrist. Compared to the radius, the dimensions of the ulna are reversed because it has a large proximal end which articulates with the humerus and a small distal end.
The design of the radius and ulna as well as the joints between them enable pronation and supination of the forearm and hand. Both bones participate in joints and provide surfaces for the attachment of several upper limb muscles which control the various movements of the upper limb. Thus, they are essential for the proper mobility of the upper extremity.
This article will discuss the anatomy and function of the radius and ulna.
Proximal end: Head, neck, radial tuberosity
Shaft (body): Anterior, posterior and interosseous borders; anterior, posterior and lateral surfaces
Distal end: Ulnar notch, radial styloid process, dorsal tubercle
Proximal end: Olecranon, trochlear notch, coronoid process, radial notch, ulnar tuberosity and sublime tubercle
Shaft (body): Anterior, posterior and interosseous borders; anterior, posterior and lateral surfaces
Distal end: Head, ulnar styloid process
Humeroulnar: Trochlear notch of ulna + trochlea of humerus
Humeroradial: Head of radius + capitulum of humerus
Proximal radioulnar: Head of radius + radial notch of ulna
Middle radioulnar: Shaft of radius + shaft of ulna (interosseous membrane)
Distal radioulnar: Ulnar notch of radius + head of ulna
Radiocarpal: Distal end of radius + scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum bones
|Blood supply||Radial, ulnar, anterior and posterior interosseous arteries|
|Functions||Structural support, muscle attachment, formation of joints that enable movement|
- Blood supply
- Fractures of radius and ulna
The radius is the lateral bone of the forearm. It is a long bone that has three main parts: a proximal end, shaft and a distal end.
The proximal end has a head which articulates with both the distal humerus and the proximal ulna, while the distal end articulates with the head of the ulna and carpal bones at the wrist. The shaft (body) is firmly connected to that of the ulna by dense connective tissue called the interosseous membrane.
Test yourself on radius and ulna anatomy with our quiz:
The proximal end of the radius bears the head, neck and radial tuberosity. The disc-shaped head of the radius bears a concave superior surface which articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and forms part of the compound elbow joint. Additionally, the peripheral aspect of the radial head, called the articular circumference of the head of the radius, is placed within the radial notch of the ulna and enwrapped with the annular ligament, forming the proximal radioulnar joint.
The narrow portion of the radius distal to the head forms the neck. Just below the neck is the oval-shaped, medially oriented radial (bicipital) tuberosity onto which the biceps brachii muscle inserts.
The shaft of the radius is a long section of bone that continues distally from the neck and radial tuberosity. It is narrow proximally but enlarges towards the wrist, where it broadens to form the distal end of radius. The radial shaft has a slight lateral curvature and is triangular in cross-section for most of its length. It has three borders: an anterior, posterior and interosseous border.
The anterior border lies on the medial aspect of the bone. It starts just distal to the radial tuberosity and crosses diagonally to the lateral aspect of the shaft. The posterior border lies on the posterior aspect of the radius and is most visible in the midsection of the shaft. The sharp interosseous border faces the ulna medially. This border is connected to the interosseous border of the ulna via the fibrous interosseous membrane, forming the middle radioulnar joint.
The radial shaft also bears three surfaces: an anterior, posterior and lateral surface. Its anterior surface lies between the anterior and interosseous borders, while its posterior surface lies between the interosseous and posterior borders. The lateral surface is slightly convex and lies between the anterior and posterior borders.
The shaft of the radius expands to form a wide rectangular distal end which extends beyond the distal end of the ulna and is four sided in cross-section.
The anterior surface of the distal radius is smooth, concave and is angled anteriorly. The medial surface bears the ulnar notch, a concavity which receives the head of the ulna to form the distal radioulnar joint. The lateral surface of the distal radius, on the other hand, is rough and projects inferiorly as the radial styloid process. The inferior surface (carpal articular surface) bears two facets which articulate with the scaphoid and lunate bones of the carpus. Lastly, the distal radius has a prominent bony projection on its posterior surface called the dorsal tubercle (Lister’s tubercle), which sits between the grooves that transmit the tendons of forearm muscles.
The ulna is the medial bone of the forearm and the longer of the two parallel forearm bones. Like the radius, the ulna also has three main parts: a proximal end, shaft and a distal end. The proximal end articulates with the distal humerus and the head of the radius. The distal end, on the other hand, has a head which articulates with the distal radius. The interosseous membrane joins the shaft (body) of the ulna to the shaft of the radius.
The proximal ulna is a large hook-shaped structure which articulates with the distal humerus and the head of the radius. It bears the olecranon, trochlear notch, coronoid process, radial notch, sublime tubercle and ulnar tuberosity.
The olecranon is a prominent, proximal projection from the posterior aspect of the proximal ulna and serves as the point of insertion for the triceps brachii muscle. Its topmost portion bends anteriorly like a beak, which fits into the olecranon fossa of the distal humerus during extension, preventing hyperextension of the elbow joint. The anterior surface of the olecranon is concave and forms the c-shaped trochlear notch. This notch is covered with articular cartilage and articulates with the trochlea of the distal humerus in a manner similar to the jaws of a wrench, creating a hinge that permits flexion and extension movements at the elbow.
The lower lip of the trochlear notch projects anteriorly as the coronoid process, which is accommodated by the coronoid fossa on the anterior aspect of the distal humerus during flexion. The medial border of the coronoid process bears a small tubercle called the sublime tubercle on its proximal part, which is the site of attachment of the anterior band of the ulnar collateral ligament. Just distal to the coronoid process, the proximal ulna bears the ulnar tuberosity onto which the brachialis muscle inserts.
On the lateral aspect of the proximal ulna and just distal to the trochlear notch lies the shallow, rounded depression called the radial notch. The radial notch articulates with the circumference of the radial head and forms the proximal radioulnar joint.
To learn more about the anatomy of radius and ulna explore our articles, quizzes, video tutorials and labeled diagrams.
The shaft of the ulna is broader around the proximal portion and tapers distally toward the head of the ulna. Like the radius, the ulnar shaft is also triangular in cross-section for most of its length and has three borders (anterior, posterior and interosseous).
The anterior border is rounded and smooth. It begins just medial to the tuberosity of the ulna and descends along the anteromedial shaft. Distally, the anterior border crosses to the posterior aspect of the shaft, terminating close to the base of the styloid process. The posterior border runs from the posterior aspect of the olecranon to the styloid process, and can be palpated subcutaneously along the entire length of the forearm. Similar to the radial shaft, the medially projecting interosseous border of the ulna is sharp and serves as a surface of attachment for the fibrous interosseous membrane, which connects the ulna to the radius.
The ulnar shaft bears three surfaces: an anterior, posterior and medial. The anterior surface lies between the interosseous and anterior borders and is largely smooth, apart from some roughening at its distal end that marks the attachment of the pronator quadratus muscle. The region of the ulnar shaft between the posterior and interosseous borders forms the posterior surface. This surface bears linear markings which depict the different areas of muscle attachment. The medial surface of the ulnar shaft is located between the anterior and posterior borders and is smooth and convex transversely.
The distal ulna consists of a small rounded head and an ulnar styloid process. The lateral convex articular surface of the head of the ulna articulates with the ulnar notch of the distal radius to form the distal radioulnar joint. The inferior surface of the head of the ulna articulates with an articular disc called the triangular fibrocartilage (TFC), which separates the head from the carpal bones. Consequently, the head of the ulna does not directly contribute to the formation of the wrist joint. The short, round ulnar styloid process projects distally from the posteromedial aspect of the distal ulna and is palpable at the dorsomedial aspect of the wrist.
Looking for a way to learn faster and have fun at the same time? Check out our radius and ulna quizzes and labeled diagram activities.
Both the radius and ulna receive arterial supply from branches of the radial, ulnar, and anterior and posterior interosseous arteries via several metaphyseal nutrient foramina.
Fractures of radius and ulna
Fractures are the most common pathological condition that directly affects the radius or the ulna. Depending on the mechanism of injury, fractures may involve both bones or may be isolated. Due to the fact that the shafts of both bones are strongly connected by the fibrous interosseous membrane, a fracture of one bone often results in the dislocation of the nearest joint. Examples of these fractures include:
- Monteggia fracture refers to a fracture of the upper portion of the ulna along with the dislocation of the radial head (proximal radioulnar joint).
- Galeazzi’s fracture refers to a fracture of the distal third of the radial shaft along with the dislocation of the distal radioulnar joint.
Radius and ulna: want to learn more about it?
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View Full Version : One of my chooks has yellow bits in her beak
25th July 2011, 03:11 PM
I noticed one of my girls sort of holding back when I fed them yesterday, she seemed a bit disinterested in hoeing in like the rest.
Today she did the same thing. I had a look at her and she has yellow bits inside one side of her beak. It looks like two or three small flat grains of rice that are stuck there. On the outside is what looks like a yellow 'stain' on the skin from the edge of the same side of her beak, down towards her feathers.
I have no idea and have sat staring at the Google Home page wondering what to actually google.... I don't think I have a strong grasp of the whole 'key word' idea.... well anyway, why mess about clicking on sites that look like a possible answer and finding something totally different.... like 'chicken with saffron rice'. Ask the experts!
25th July 2011, 03:47 PM
My first suggestion is Fowl Pox!
Sometimes a bit difficult to find good pictures but here are a couple of links.
If you read the info. you will find tere are two forms of Fowl Pox, wet and dry! The dry form tends to produce scabby spots over te comb, the wet version forms spots/plaques also known as diphtheritic nodules in the mouth. The symptoms do not have to be as severe as some of the phtos. It is a reasonably common disease, especially north of say Hamilton, where insects, like mosquitos tend to be the vectors. The first link has a particularly good picture of the nodules in the mouth!
It is caused by a virus, no cure except perhaps extra nutritious food and some vitamin mix to help her over it. It is slow spreading and will also take a long time to recover.
25th July 2011, 04:24 PM
Buggar, yep, the little yellow things look like the ones in the birds mouth, like flat flakes of rice rather than a rash/scabby mess.
So, what's high in vitamins for a chicken.... they get chicken pellets and grit and whatever they get from around the chook run, they can also get out into the back yard/lawn, hedge, trees etc but in this dire weather they aren't straying far from their house.
Is it contageous? For birds and humans and anything else?
25th July 2011, 04:28 PM
Yes it is contagious to other chickens, but not humans-have you checked the others-they might have the dry version-just little black scabs on their combs.
There is Ornithon Vitamins for birds but Simkin has/had a supply of Poultry Vitamins which might help-send her a PM and see if she still has some which she could post.
This time of year a bit of extra protein wouldn't go amiss-perhaps some meat/milk or fatty scraps. Dog roll is useful too.
25th July 2011, 10:43 PM
Ok, I need to get some ornithon anyway. I got a different type of vitamin the last time, it's in a sort of clear yellow paste and is supposed to be mixed with their feed (in this case, cockatiel seed for Freya) but what a palavar! It's greasy and I'd rather add ornithon to her water.
I'll stick some in the chooks water too. Slugger my crossed beak old darling (8 years old now) could do with some dog roll too I figure. She's not that hot at catching bugs, tenacious but it has to be a big worm before she wins any worm eating contest.
I had a look at the others, there may be one other, their feathers seem a bit sort of messy around their 'ears' like they've got something sticky on them but they're not sticky, just messed up.
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It all comes down to the pace of innovation in 8 cores.
Predictions of when algae biofuels will become an everyday option at scale are, famously, all over the map — ranging from “the next few years” to “never”. In a recent survey of its members, the Algae Biomass Organization found that more than 95 percent of producers believe it that algae-based fuels may be able to compete with fossil fuels as soon as 2020.
Yet, algae skeptics abound.
“Right now the fundamentals are the problem. It doesn’t matter how well we engineer our production machine, the engine under the hood just isn’t that good,” said Peter Pfromm, professor of chemical engineering and member of a Kansas State interdisciplinary team that analyzed oil produced by algae as a source of biodiesel.
Using that “most optimistic assumption,” Pfromm and team determined it would take 11 square miles of open ponds making 14,000 tons of algae a day to replace 50 million gallons of petroleum diesel per year — about 0.1 percent of the U.S. annual diesel consumption — with an eco-friendly algae alternative. “A facility close to 11 square miles in size is a steep investment,” Pfromm noted, adding, “biologically these open ponds are also problematic because they are prone to invasions by algae-eating organisms or microorganisms that can be spread by the wind.”
In critiquing the critic’s view, Barry Cohen, the executive director of the National Algae Association, says Kansas State professor Peter Pfromm is “not looking at real-world conditions”. “Pfromm’s assumption that the algae would be grown in open ponds is an old, out-dated technology, and most algae growers are using vertical photo bioreactors and fermenters,” Cohen said.
So, who’s right?
Looking at farm investment
Here at the Digest, we are not entirely sure that adding 11 square miles (7,040) acres to the US aggregate farm acreage represents a daunting challenge for US farmers, should passive-design, open-pond systems ultimately become the dominant deployment system at scale. Passive-design systems are pretty darn passive — according to Sapphire Energy, that company expects its ponds to ultimately feature no pond lining, or electricity-powered systems such as paddlewheels.
True, it’s a carefully sculpted system and is far from something as simple as a backyard garden — but so are modern US farms, which are based on highly precision-designed seeding (and in many cases, irrigation) systems. Last year, US farmers added 4.5 million acres of corn planting, compared to 2011 — an investment of at an average (non-land) cost of $516 per acre (based on estimates by the University of Illinois, here.
Net investment for that one crop, in one year? $2.32 billion. One crop, one year – we don’t see access to land or capital as a significant issue for winning technologies once they are proven at scale.
8 cores of innovation activity
In terms of whether algae will be a significant contributor to fuels production before 2020, generally it comes down to the expected pace of innovation. And there’s a lot of activity going on.
Pessimists generally believe that progress will be slow in at least one critical area. Not only slow enough to push algae’s at-scale future into the 2020s and beyond, but slow enough to make it uneconomic to invest in at the corporate level compared to other opportunities, thereby starving the sector of capital and market-access for commercial deployment.
Here in Digestville, we see 8 cores of innovative activity on a host of related frontiers including:
- Company incubation
- Strain selection
- Optimizing the organism
- Crop protection
- Growth systems
- Harvesting and dewatering
- Fuel processing
Let’s look individually at those 8 areas.
If companies fail to innovate, they die. But if they fail to rapidly develop cash-flowing solutions, they cannot attract capital, and they die that way too.
A host of companies are working on making innovation pay through internal process development. One of the most intriguing innovations we have seen in some time in company formation and incubation is based on the simpler idea of forming companies later in the innovation cycle — directing existing public resources. Now, cooperative research projects are an old idea - companies have long worked with institutions to develop technologies. But the idea of creating commercializstion ecosystems — that optimize the use of public R&D funds and organize them according to a roadmap of innovation that will lead to company formation — well, that’s a newer idea.
In recent weeks, Kapyon Ventures led two Series A capital raises: Algenetix, a company developing biofuels and other products from microbes, raised $2 million while ZeaKal, a developer of technologies to increase yields from soybeans and rice, has raised $3.8 million.
Kapyon’s theory? “New ventures will be less capital intensive and innovation will be driven more by inventiveness rather than infrastructure.”
Here, we excerpt from a white paper detailing Kapyon’s incubation model.
Algae strain selection
One of the bigger trends in the algae business has been development based on marine algae, or those that can tolerate brackish as well as salt water. Why? Freshwater is at a premium, and many algae systems, as designed, need a lot of it.
Last month, researchers at Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), in collaboration with the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), have discovered dinoflagellate microalgae could be a good feedstock for biofuel production. The four-year study shows that biodiesel production from the marine microalgae from the Mediterranean could be cost competitive even in uncontrolled environments.
In Australia, two key projects focused on algae biofuels and drop-in fuels from wood biomass and residues took major steps forwards with an Australian Government investment $4.5 million for Muradel.
The secret to Muradel’s technology? The exploitation of a tiny non-invasive, naturally occurring and highly productive marine microalgae that can be readily concentrated and turned into oil.
Optimizing the organism
In looking at opportunities to improve a given algal strain performance. One area? How algae communities distribute light amongst themselves.
Frankly, little algae critters are light hogs — able to capture almost 100% of the light coming their way via these microscopic photon-capturing antennae they have. But they waste up to 75 percent of that light because, as it turns out, they don’t have the ability to process all that light into energy, and most of it is dissipated as heat or florescence. Not every algae organism makes the co-operative choice that benefits the community.
Consequently, researchers think that one path to success is not making it possible for algae to harvest more light, but less. Much of this is explored in the excellent “Optimization of photosynthetic light energy utilization by microalgae,” by Zoee Perrine, Sangeeta Negi and Dick Sayre, By reducing light harvesting capabilities, they found “a two-fold increase in photosynthetic rate at high light intensities and a 30% increase in growth rate at saturating light intensities.”
Scarecrows in the corn fields, pesticides, herbicides, adding traits for resistance to drought or disease. Crop protection systems abound — but not much has been developed for algae. One area that has been intriguing in research is the idea of treating microalgae with different compounds. A group of researchers found that common antioxidants such as epigallocatechin gallate, found in green tea, and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), a common food preservative – have beneficial impact on overall algae growth and oil production.
Another important activity in crop protection is protecting a pond from systemic collapse. Because of the way algae is grown and produced in most algal ponds, they are prone to attack by fungi, rotifers, viruses or other predators. To address the problem, last month a team at Sandia National Laboratories and the Arizona Center for Algae Technology and Innovation is debuting a suite of complementary technologies to help the emerging algae industry detect and quickly recover from algal pond crashes.
Perhaps the ares where there is the most innovation – turbulent competition between radically different ideas, is in growth systems. It has gone far beyond a competition between open-pond and closed photobioreactor systems. In fact, three of the most innovative systems, attracting lots of capital at the moment, are hybrids between the two.
One is the greenhouse idea. That’s essentially the Heliae approach. A greenhouse is a system that works a little like a closed pond system — where you get some of the protection and optimization of a closed system but many of the cost benefits of an open system. Late last month, Heliae announced the launch of its new Volaris microalgae production platform, for producing high purity microalgae at competitive prices.
One other key idea? The concept of solving the problem of algae harvest and extraction by not dumping algae into water, but dipping them, and using the process heat and steam from a nearby ethanol plant to source low-cost energy (as well as CO2) to affordably power the system.
That’s the idea, in a nutshell, behind BioProcess Algae, which was (two weeks ago) selected to receive a grant of up to $6.4 million from the DOE, as part of an innovative pilot-scale biorefinery project related to production of hydrocarbon fuels meeting military specification. The project will use renewable carbon dioxide, lignocellulosic sugars and waste heat, co-located with the Green Plains Renewable Energy, Inc. ethanol plant in Shenandoah.
Once you have made optimized algae, you generally either have to get the water out of the algae or the algae out of the water. First step is to do some concentrating to get the algae to, say, a 20 percent concentration, up from the 0.1 percent mix it might naturally achieve on its own.
In this area, there’s been a lot of work adapting DAF systems from the water treatment industry. Sapphire Energy has been hard at work on such a system. Early last month, the San Diego Center for Algal Biotechnology is using the Algae Harvesting Technology Optimized (AHTO) dissolved air flotation system (DAF) from World Water Works at its testing facility in the Imperial Valley. It says the system harvests up to 9,000 gallons of algae-laden water can be processed per minute, at a 95 percent capture rate, yielding up to 20 percent algae concentrations.
Wet algae processing
Once you have that 20 percent algae concentration, can you directly process to fuel, from there, without further water extraction?
Two months ago, Sapphire Energy revealed that it is now producing crude oil daily from algae biomass cultivated and harvested at its Green Crude Farm. Oil extraction is conducted through a patented method for converting wet algae to crude oil, which enables algae to be processed without the need for a timely and costly drying step. With this process, which is the result of more than four years of research, development and field trials, the entire algae cell is now used in oil production, greatly improving yield. Furthermore, the process is scalable, and has proven to be effective with a wide range of algae strains.
Parity-price, on-street fuels
OK, you’ve made fuel. How is that going to get to market – what are the innovations and the innovators there? The biggest news in years on that front has occurred over the past six months. In a pilot program, SoladieselBD B20 was retailed at a parity price with conventional diesel fuel at Propel Fuel stations in the Bay Area. Propel Fuels and Solazyme announced that sales grew by 35 percent at Propel stations, offering SoladieselBD in a B20 blend during a 30-day retail pilot program.
A follow-on consumer preference study with Propel’s customers found 92 percent of participants noted that they would be more likely to purchase algae-derived fuel for its environmental benefits; 70 percent indicated that they would purchase the fuel more frequently if it were derived from algae; and nearly 40 percent of customers indicated they would pay a premium for algae-derived fuel.
The Bottom Line
It’s frankly too turbulent at the moment — too much innovation on too many fronts — to make stable projections about when algae fuels will become an affordable reality. However, one thing is clear — counting algae out, even before 2020, is a no-no for researchers. It requires scientists to make too many high-risk guesses about the pace of innovation.
Important to remember that algae fuels are based on a system of systems, not a single technology or even a suite of technologies. Our progress in distributing messages from mail service to wireless email — by which the Digest itself is distributed today — involves a convergence of technologies such as wireless protocols, bandwidth building, reliability assurance, cable deployment, tower building, routers and networking, transmission control protocols, and encryption — not to mention the development of an entire suite of devices, stores, business models, marketing tactics and a wave of customer adoption.
All that, too, looked completely daunting just a dozen years ago.
Category: Top Stories


Vector forces become apparent whenever there is an internal angle greater than 0° between two or more rigging components or anchorage points.
For ease of explanation, a vector force is typically trying to pull horizontally as well as vertically. This has a multiplying effect on the loads that are felt at the anchor points and likewise the tension exerted within the rigging equipment, be it ropes, slings, strops or chains.
Force is an influence that has both magnitude and direction, it is usually given in the dynamic unit of Newtons (N). For ease of explanation we have used kilograms on this page.
To start with the basics, if we imagine a load of 100kg suspended equally from two slings then each sling would equally share half of the loads weight.
In the situation illustrated to the right, the weight of the load = 100kg. The load is supported by two slings of equal configuration with no internal angle, so 100kg / 2 = 50kg. This means that each sling and anchor point is being subject to 50kg or 50% of the loads weight.
The Ideal Angle
As the internal angle between the rigging slings increases then additional forces (vector forces) begin to be applied to each sling / anchor point.
When rigging ropes the ‘ideal angle’ is approximately 45°, at the ideal angle there would be 54% of the loads weight being distributed to each anchor device. Although this is over half of the original weight of the load we have still gained an advantage by sharing it between the two anchor points.
The 'OK' Angle
An internal angle of 90° between ropes and rigging components is sometimes referred to as the ‘OK’ angle. At this angle 71% of the loads weight will be distributed to each anchor component, so in this example that will be 71kg.
It is often easier to roughly estimate a 90° or right-angle when undertaking rigging tasks. By staying at or below this angle ensures that we don’t load our anchor components with excessive forces.
The Critical Angle
A basic way to understand the effect of vector forces is to imagine that if a full circle equates to 360° and this was split into three equal parts we would end up with three angles of 120°, as show in the illustration on the right. An internal angle of 120° is also defined as the ‘critical angle’.
Because everything is in equilibrium at the critical angle of 120°, whatever the load weighs is what we have being exerted to each anchor point and each item of rigging equipment. So in this example it is 100kg or 100% of the loads weight.
Vector forces can be calculated using mathematical formula. So far on this page we have used kilograms to represent the loads in the illustrations. As a kilogram is a measurement of mass, this should be converted to weight (Newtons) to calculate the resultant force correctly.
Providing that the rigging components are sharing the weight of the load equally, such as in a ‘Y’ hang then the following equation can be used:
F is the resultant force exerted to each anchorage.
w is the weight of the load.
α is the internal angle between the two slings.
Force is an influence that has both magnitude and direction, it is usually given in the dynamic unit of Newtons (N). For simplicity we have used kilograms for the examples on this page.
Vector Force Chart
This chart displays the resultant force applied to each anchor point / rigging component when the load is equally shared in a Y-hang rigging configuration. The ratio is also given in percentages as this is often an easier way to calculate forces relevant to the specific weight of the load.
Notice that when the critical angle of 120° is exceeded, then these forces increase dramatically. If an angle of 175° could be achieved (although this would be extremely difficult) then with a 100kg load there would nearly be 1150kg being felt by each anchor component. Something worth keeping in mind when working with Tensioned Lines, Cross Hauls and Tyrolean’s!
Using the Percentage Factor
|Angle||% factor||Angle||% factor||Angle||% factor|
Vector Force Graph
The graph below displays the relationship between the internal angle and the percentage ratio. At 180° this line would continue to rise vertically, meaning that from a mathematical point of view the force exerted on each anchor point would be infinite.
What would happen if we could actually achieve an internal angle of 180°? Although this would be physically impossible as the rope or slings would even deflect under their own weight, a perfect internal angle of 180° would produce an infinite amount of force exerted to the rigging components and anchor points.
The reason for this is that in trying to calculate the forces using the equation would result in a number being divided by 0. It is impossible to divide a number by zero, try this on a calculator and an E or error message will be displayed.
Where else are Vector Forces found?
These additional vector forces will also occur wherever internal angles between rigging equipment and loads are apparent. In addition to rigging Y-hangs, this will also include;
- Cross Hauling & Rope to Rope Transfers
- Tensioned Lines & Ariel Tramways
- Tyrolean’s & Zip Wires / Lines
- Included angles in knot and slinging configurations