Can a hyena kill a lion?
Hyenas’ strength is another advantage. Unlike wild dogs, a hyena can break out of a snare. In groups, hyenas have been known to kill lions.
Do hyenas have a stronger bite than lions?
Hyenas have stronger jaws than lions. Lions will often maul and draw blood while breaking a few limbs or clawing out an eye. Hyenas use their powerful jaws for biting and ripping. Lions use their powerful claws for clawing and grabbing.
How many hyenas can kill a lion?
Can hyenas eat lions?
Spotted hyenas and lions have a similar diet; the two often “cover the same ground, hunt the same prey, and scavenge the same remains of animals,” according to National Geographic. “A lion male is twice the size of a spotted hyena and three to four times as heavy, and one single paw stroke can kill an adult hyena.
What animals are lions afraid of?
Lions (male and female) are afraid of large mammals like giraffes, hippos and elephants, but they are also afraid of their day-to-day prey. Every time a hunt takes place, their prey animals are going to try their best to resist.
Can a gorilla kill a lion?
All know that gorilla won’t kill a lion to eat but can kill to defend himself. Gorilla can stand and punch and jump over anything, over and over and over. They don’t just use their head like buffaloes, they can use their whole mighty body, head, chest and all four limbs. They can climb, jump, break and throw.
Can a pitbull kill a hyena?
If you use a normal large pitbull vs an average hyena the hyena has double the mass which is crazy it be like putting a flyweight vs a heavyweight in boxing. A large pitbull is about the same size a small Namibian African leopard and smaller than most African leopards which a single hyena will drive of it kill.
What dog has the strongest bite power?
While the Rottweiler is actually the most powerful and its pressure bite topped 328 pounds, German Shepherds got second place and measured 238 bite force, and finally, the American pitbull terrier took the third position with a pressure of 235 pounds.
Can Lions bite through bone?
Big cats like lions and tigers can crush bones with their bite. And bears, oh my, can crunch up to 1,162 pounds per square inch (PSI), Science Focus reports. In contrast, even the hungriest human can only muster up a 150-PSI chomp.


Old soldiers never die; they just fade away.
The son of the distinguished army officer Arthur MacArthur, Douglas
MacArthur (1880-1964) was born in Little Rock, Arkansas, was brought up in
various army posts, and was graduated from West Point at the head of his
class in 1903. He served in the Philippines and Japan, and in the first
World War achieved a notable record as Chief of Staff of the famous Rainbow
Division and later as Commander of the 84th Infantry Brigade. After the war
he was Superintendent of West Point (1919-22), Commander in the Philippines
(1922-25), and Chief of Staff (1930-35), during which time he had the
unpleasant task of directing troops against the depression "bonus army" that
marched against Washington. He went again to the Philippines in 1935 to
organize the islands against possible Japanese aggression. He retired from
the army in 1939, but returned to duty in July, 1941, barely in time to head
the defense of the Philippines after the attack on Pearl Harbor. On order
from President Roosevelt, General MacArthur escaped to Australia, there to
take command of the Allied forces in the South Pacific and to begin the long
road back to Manila - and to Tokyo. At the time of the Japanese surrender on
the USS. Missouri General MacArthur broadcast to the world a plea
for peace in a high, sonorous vein.
After the Japanese
surrender he became Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Japan and, on
South Korea's being invaded, Commander of the United Nations forces there.
He was relieved of both commands on April 11, 1951, when it was feared his
strategy would lead to general war with China and the Soviet Union. He
immediately flew back to the United States, made a triumphant trip across
the country, reminiscent of the triumph of a returning Roman general, and
accepted the invitation to speak before both Houses of Congress - an
unheard-of procedure in US history.
After the Japanese surrender he became Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Japan and, on South Korea's being invaded, Commander of the United Nations forces there. He was relieved of both commands on April 11, 1951, when it was feared his strategy would lead to general war with China and the Soviet Union. He immediately flew back to the United States, made a triumphant trip across the country, reminiscent of the triumph of a returning Roman general, and accepted the invitation to speak before both Houses of Congress - an unheard-of procedure in US history.
Mr. President, Mr. Speaker and distinguished members of the Congress:
stand on this rostrum with a sense of deep humility and great pride
humility in the wake of those great architects of our history who have stood
here before me, pride in the reflection that this home of legislative debate
represents human liberty in the purest form yet devised.
Here are centered the hopes and aspirations and faith of the entire human race.
I do not stand here as advocate for any partisan cause, for the issues are fundamental and reach quite beyond the realm of partisan considerations. They must be resolved on the highest plane of national interest if our course is to prove sound and our future protected.
I trust, therefore, that you will do me the justice of receiving that which I have to say as solely expressing the considered viewpoint of a fellow US.
I address you with neither rancor nor bitterness in the fading twilight of life, with but one purpose in mind: to serve my country.
The issues are global, and so interlocked that to consider the problems of one sector oblivious to those of another is to court disaster for the whole. While Asia is commonly referred to as the gateway to Europe, it is no less true that Europe is the gateway to Asia, and the broad influence of the one cannot fail to have its impact upon the other.
There are those who claim our strength is inadequate to protect on both fronts, that we cannot divide our effort. I can think of no greater expression of defeatism.
If a potential enemy can divide his strength on two fronts, it is for us to counter his efforts. The Communist threat is a global one. Its successful advance in one sector threatens the destruction of every other sector. You cannot appease or otherwise surrender to communism in Asia without simultaneously undermining our efforts to halt its advance in Europe.
Beyond pointing out these general truisms, I shall confine my discussion to the general areas of Asia...
While I was not consulted prior to the President's decision to intervene in support of the Republic of Korea, that decision, from a military standpoint, proved a sound one. As I say, it proved a sound one, as we hurled back the invader and decimated his forces. Our victory was complete, and our objectives within reach, when Red China intervened with numerically superior ground forces.
This created a new war and an entirely new situation, a situation not contemplated when our forces were committed against the North Korean invaders; a situation which called for new decisions in the diplomatic sphere to permit the realistic adjustment of military strategy. Such decisions have not been forthcoming.
While no man in his right mind would advocate sending our ground forces into continental China, and such was never given a thought, the new situation did urgently demand a drastic revision of strategic planning if our political aim was to defeat this new enemy as we had defeated the old.
Apart from the military need, as I saw it, to neutralize the sanctuary protection given the enemy north of the Yalu, I felt that military necessity in the conduct of the war made necessary --
(1) The intensification of our economic blockade against China.
(2) The imposition of a naval blockade against the China coast.
(3) Removal of restrictions on air reconnaissance of China's coastal area and of Manchuria.
(4) Removal of restrictions on the forces of the republic of China on Formosa, with logistical support to contribute to their effective operations against the Chinese mainland.
For entertaining these views, all professionally designed to support our
forces committed to Korea and to bring hostilities to an end with the least
possible delay and at a saving of countless US and Allied lives, I
have been severely criticized in lay circles, principally abroad, despite
my understanding that from a military standpoint the above views have been
fully shared in the past by practically every military leader concerned
with the Korean campaign, including our own Joint Chiefs of Staff.
I called for reinforcements, but was informed that reinforcements were not available. I made clear that if not permitted to destroy the enemy built-up bases north of the Yalu, if not permitted to utilize the friendly Chinese force of some six hundred thousand men on Formosa, if not permitted to blockade the China coast to prevent the Chinese Reds from getting succor from without, and if there were to be no hope of major reinforcements, the position of the command from the military standpoint forbade victory.
We could hold in Korea by constant maneuver and at an approximate area where our supply-line advantages were in balance with the supply-line disadvantages of the enemy, but we could hope at best for only an indecisive campaign with its terrible and constant attrition upon our forces if the enemy utilized his full military potential.
I have constantly called for the new political decisions essential to a solution.
Efforts have been made to distort my position. It has been said in effect that I was a warmonger. Nothing could be further from the truth.
I know war as few other men now living know it, and nothing to me is more revolting. I have long advocated its complete abolition, as its very destructiveness on both friend and foe has rendered it useless as a means of settling international disputes.
Indeed, on the second day of September, 1945, just following the surrender of the Japanese nation on the battleship Missouri, I formally cautioned as follows:
"Men since the beginning of time have sought peace. Various methods through the ages have been attempted to devise an international process to prevent or settle disputes between nations. From the very start workable methods were found in so far as individual citizens were concerned, but the mechanics of an instrumentality of larger international scope have never been successful.
"Military alliances, balances of power, leagues of nations, all in turn failed, leaving the only path to be by way of the crucible of war. The utter destructiveness of war now blocks out this alternative. We have had our last chance. If we will not devise some greater and more equitable system, our Armageddon will be at our door. The problem basically is theological and involves a spiritual recrudescence, an improvement of human character that will synchronize with our almost matchless advances in science, art, literature, and all material and cultural developments of the past two thousand years. It must be of the spirit if we are to save the flesh."
But once war is forces upon us, there is no other alternative than to apply
every available means to bring it to a swift end. War's very object is victory,
not prolonged indecision.
In war there is no substitute for victory.
There are some who for varying reasons would appease Red China. They are blind to history's clear lesson, for history teaches with unmistakable emphasis that appeasement but begets new and bloodier war. It points to no single instance where this end has justified that means, where appeasement had led to more than a sham peace.
Like blackmail, it lays the basis for new and successively greater demands until, as in blackmail, violence becomes the only alternative. Why, my soldiers asked of me, surrender military advantages to an enemy in the field? I could not answer.
Some may say to avoid spread of the conflict into an all-out war with China. Others, to avoid Soviet intervention. Neither explanation seems valid, for China is already engaging with the maximum power it can commit, and the Soviet will not necessarily mesh its actions with our moves. Like a cobra, any new enemy will more likely strike whenever it feels that the relativity in military or other potential is in its favor on a worldwide basis.
The tragedy of Korea is further heightened by the fact that its military action is confined to its territorial limits. It condemns that nation, which it is our purpose to save, to suffer the devastating impact of full naval and air bombardment while the enemy's sanctuaries are fully protected from such attack and devastation.
Of the nations of the world, Korea alone, up to now, is the sole one which has risked its all against communism. The magnificence of the courage and fortitude of the Korean people defies description. They have chosen to risk death rather than slavery. Their last words to me were: "Don't scuttle the Pacific."
I have just left your fighting sons in Korea. They have met all tests there, and I can report to you without reservation that they are splendid in every way.
It was my constant effort to preserve them and end this savage conflict honorably and with the least loss of time and a minimum sacrifice of life. Its growing bloodshed has caused me the deepest anguish and anxiety. Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always.
I am closing my fifty-two years of military service. When I joined the army, even before the turn of the century, it was the fulfillment of all my boyish hopes and dreams.
The world has turned over many times since I took the oath on the plain at West Point, and the hopes and dreams have long since vanished, but I still remember the refrain of one of the most popular barracks ballads of that day which proclaimed most proudly that old soldiers never die; they just fade away.
And like the old soldier of that ballad, I now close my military career and just fade away, an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave him the light to see that duty. Good-by.


Ivo Andric (1892–1975), Nobel Prize laureate for literature in 1961, is undoubtedly the most popular of all contemporary Yugoslav writers. Over the span of fifty-two years some 267 of his works have been published in thirty-three languages. Andric’s doctoral dissertation, The Development of Spiritual Life in Bosnia under the Influence of Turkish Rule (1924), never before translated into English, sheds important light on the author’s literary writings and must be taken into account in any current critical analysis of his work.Over his long and distinguished career as a diplomat and man of letters Andric never again so directly or discursively addressed, as a social historian, the impact of Turkish hegemony on the Bosnian people (1463–1878), a theme he returns to again and again in his novels. Although Andric’s fiction was embedded in history, scholars know very little of his actual readings in history and have no other comparable treatment of it from his own pen. This dissertation abounds with topics that Andric incorporated into his early stories and later novels, including a focus on the moral stresses and compromises within Bosnia’s four religious confessions: Catholic, Orthodox, Jew, and Muslim.Z. B. Juricic provides an extensive introduction describing the circumstances under which this work was written and situating it in Andric’s oeuvre. John F. Loud’s original bibliography drawn from this dissertation stands as the only comprehensive inventory of historical sources known to have been closely familiar to the author at this early stage in his development.


Signed upper left, on sign: "Paul Endres Jr."
From the Tales of the American Burden, Y-12 Post Burden (P.B.).
Number 12 in C.W. Boyle's Burden Chronology Guide: "Blaming the death of her husband, Arthur Daedalus, on the people of Boston, Abigail Daedalus was at one time known only for her cruel and merciless ways, an enforcer for the New Whigs. However, C.W. Boyle writes,
'It was on the steps of Fort Wixon, seeing the executions of General Montcalm and Jacob Coffin, that Abigail must have felt a shred of empathy for the rebels, which for Ocampo was a shred too much.'
With Ocampo exiling and all but killing Abigail in battle, she somehow survived for years in the Northern Territories, an odyssey that remains a mystery today even among the foremost Burden historians.
At the time, Bostonians interpreted the return of Abigail Daedalus one of two ways: she would once again punish the people of Boston, or she would save them through regicide."


Answer: Two of the important political causes responsible for the First War of Independence were:
(i) The British policy of annexation of kingdoms under the pretext of inefficient administration of the rulers.
(ii) The Doctrine of Lapse introduced by Lord Dalhousie that imposed unsentimental law of ‘no adoption policy’ for rulers and the lapse of the kingdom into the hands of the British in the absence of a natural heir.
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Biography | Bibliography
“Hine was one of the first and greatest of those who used photography for social reform. As a youth he worked for a while in a furniture factory, then studied at the University of Chicago, New York University, and Columbia University. In 1903, while he was teaching botany and nature studies at the Ethical Cultural School in New York, he received a camera from the head of the school to use as a teaching aid and to record school activities.
Hine’s interest in social welfare and in reform movements led him in 1905 to begin his first documentary series, immigrants on Ellis Island. In 1908 he left teaching to become an investigator and photographer of the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC), and between 1908 and 1916 he traveled extensively photographing child-labor abuses. He would inveigle his way into factories, take notes on conditions, record the children’s names and ages, surreptitiously measure their heights against the buttons on his vest, and then, if he could, photograph them at work. He visited children and families who worked at home and he wrote with impassioned sarcasm of “ ‘opportunities’ for the child and the family to enlist in the service of industry” (quoted in Gutman , p.23).
Hine’s photographs were used to make lantern slides for lectures and to illustrate pamphlets, magazine articles, and exhibitions. Hine himself arranged layouts, wrote reports based on his field interviews, and was in charge of NCLC exhibitions (ca. 1915). His images helped win passage of child-labor laws – they constituted proof that the conditions the NCLC wrote about actually existed and they made the plight of the children real.
Hine strove to photograph positive qualities in life, especially the dignity of labor. From 1930 to 1931 he took hundreds of pictures of the Empire State Building under construction; they were published in Men at Work along with photographs of factory workers and other laborers. He wrote: “Some of them are heroes; all of them persons it is a privilege to know” (quoted in Stott, Documentary, p. 213).
Though early in Hine’s career his photographs were often published, by the 1930s interest in his work had declined. In 1938 he was denied a grant to photograph American craftspeople at work. The Photo League in New York publicized his work but it was not until a number of years after his death that he again received wide recognition. Hine referred to hi photographs as “photointerpretatons.” As Judith Mara Gutman observed: “Hine shaped a new art form…. A kind of photography he called ‘interpretive,’ later schools called documentary…. a flat fiery arrangement of people, light, and form that became a timeless humanist art” (Lewis W. Hine and the American Conscience, p.47).1
1From Lee D. Witkin, and Barbara London, Selected Photographers: A Collector’s Compendium, The Photograph Collector’s Guide, Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1979, 163.
Craig A. Doherty, The Empire State Building / Craig A. Doherty and Katherine M. Doherty ; featuring the photographs of Lewis Hine, Woodbridge, Conn. : Blackbirch Press, ca. 1998.
Verna Posever Curtis, Stanley Mallach, Photography and Reform: Lewis Hine and the National Child Labor Committee, Milwaukee: Milwaukee Art Museum, 1984.
Jonathan L. Doherty, Women at Work: 153 Photographs by Lewis Hine, Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1981.
Russell Freedman, Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labor, Boston: Clarion Books, 1994.
Vicki Goldberg, Lewis W. Hine: Children At Work, Munich: Prestel Verlag, 1999.
Judith Mara Gutman, Lewis W. Hine, 1874-1940: Two Perspectives, New York: Grossman Publishers, 1974.
Ronald J. Hill, Ed., Lewis W. Hine: Child Labor Photographs, Catalogue 8, Washington D.C.: Lunn Gallery/Graphics International Ltd., 1980.
Lewis W. Hine, Freddy Langer, Lewis W. Hine: The Empire State Building, New York: Prestel Publishers, 1998.
Denyse Gerin-Lajoie, Jorge Guerra, Claire Martin, Photo: Lewis W. Hine, 1874-1940, Toronto: Kodak Canada Ltd., 1977.
Daile Kaplan, Lewis Hine in Europe: The Lost Photographs, New York: Abbeville Press Publishers, 1988.
Walter Rosenblum, Naomi Rosenblum, Alan Trachtenberg, Marvin Israel, America & Lewis Hine: Photographs 1904-1940, New York: Aperture, 1977.
Karl Steinorth, Lewis Hine: Passionate Journey, Photographs 1905-1937, Zurich: Edition Stemmle, 1995.


January arrives with the time of the resolutions: to do more sport, to spend more time with the family and the friends. In this article, I propose you to review the basics to define an objective, and reassess the different criteria to set good goals. Indeed the best way to achieve its goals is to have them well defined … The simplest technique is the SMART objective.
An objective must be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Timed. In the SMARTEN-UP model, we can add 4 adjectives to question the validity of the objective and confirm ones capacity and motivation to achieve the objective:
- Enthusiastic: Am I enthusiastic about moving towards this goal, does the road that separates me from it inspires me?
- Natural: is this my goal? Did I choose it for me? Am I under external pressure to reach it?
- Understood: Did I share my goal with a loved one, what does he/she think? Does he/she agree? Will he/she support me? Did he/she understand why I chose it?
- Prepared: Am I ready to receive criticism? Do I have a plan B?
To implement the definition of a SMART goal, I propose to work with this objective:
Treat my emails faster and spend less time there.
This formulation (fairly conventional) of an objective does not give me the means to achieve it because it lacks precision.
The goal must be specific. That is to say, it concerns a subject, a project, a person, a team. In the example, the goal concerns me personally, it is related to my work and concerns specifically one of the tools that I use every day: emails.
One of the lean mottoes is that you can only improve what you measure. Indeed, how can I evaluate if I process my emails faster, without knowing the current response time? And when do I stop, should I reply to my emails within one minute of receiving them? For my example, I could choose to respond in 24 hours and not spend more than two hours a day processing and following-up emails. These figures are to be evaluated according to the volume of e-mail that I process, the other options available to me (telephone, meetings, …) and the urgency of the work I do.
Acceptable or Attractive
If the goal is set for a team or a third party, it must be accepted by the other party. It also applies to me: if I set a goal while stressed, it’s a safe bet that I will not reach it. How to accept a goal? By making it attractive: it is easier to achieve positive objectives than negative ones. It’s all about vocabulary. Which objective do you prefer:
- reduce the time spent processing emails by 15 minutes per day
- earn 15 minutes a day on my emails to walk outside
Setting goals requires getting to know each other well or knowing the person or team well. The goals must be realistic and consistent with my strengths and weaknesses. If my goal is too easy to achieve, I will not be satisfied, if it is too high, I may be discouraged before reaching it. In most cases, the goal is too ambitious. It can be helpful to split the goal into sub-goals with steps. I can see my progress, or the team can measure progress and get goals at each stage. In my example, I could cut my objective in half. As I am overloaded, I will first tackle the time that I spend every day on my emails. When I achieve this goal, I will see how to respond in a shorter time. It’s impossible to do everything right away.
To finalize the SMART goal, you have to set a limit: when do I want to reach my goal: in a month, six months, a year? Otherwise, there is a good chance that the goal will be the same in 2014
My SMART goal-example
I’ll be set aside time for work by limiting time spent on my email to two hours a day by May 15th. Then I will improve the satisfaction of my customers by responding in 24 hours to their messages for October 15th.


Fractals are repeating, geometrical patterns that are found in nature and in human creations throughout history, from indigenous cultures to modern ones. Their regular occurrence in the environment, from animals and plants to atoms and stars, has been confirmed with scientific study.
Pythagoras, Euclid and Plato, among many other, ancient philosophers, have concluded that the patterns are inherent to the design of life itself. It’s as if they are a blueprint for the matrix upon which our reality rests.
The prevalence of fractals in the human design of ancient places of worship has sparked questions about the significance of the patterns; most specifically – why were they used so often to decorate places of community and worship?
What knowledge did the ancients have about fractals that the modern world has lost? Is it possible that these patterns had a purpose beyond simple artistry?
The question of whether the ancients had a specific utilization for the fractals is a logically valid one, for we must wonder that if these patterns truly do form the basis of the design of all things, then are all things accessible through the patterns?
The Harmony of Fractals
Fractals have become deeply ingrained within our subconscious because they occur frequently in nature and in human design. The information they convey resonates with our all-knowing awareness because they speak the universal language of mathematics.
Symmetrical in design, they impart an intuitive representation of harmony, equilibrium and wholeness. Simply gazing at a sacred geometric pattern has the potential to alter your frequencies to invoke balance, healing and change within you. It’s also an effective tool to calm the mind, thus invoking the meditative or trance-like states of awareness that lie beyond waking consciousness.
The Flower of Life: Interdimensional Portal?
The Flower of Life is said to be the most sacred fractal pattern in the universe, encompassing the essential shapes and connections intrinsic to every aspect of our physicality.
It occurs when a repetition of symmetrically balanced, overlapping circles are placed within a six-fold symmetry. This pattern is one most frequently found in ancient temples, in nature, and even in modern churches.
The most common image of the Flower of Life is a simplified, two-dimensional version of the original, since it is in print form.
The complex version of the Flower of Life image is created by the over-laying of the basic fractal with the three-dimensional, Platonic solid figures, creating a more multi-dimensional representation of this geometry. The complex pattern that results from this specific combination is the one most often attributed to use as a meditative tool.
Although the specifics of this pattern are beyond the scope of this article, it is a trending topic amidst today’s metaphysical and spiritual communities, particularly for its use as a meditative tool.
Many have described altered states of awareness after gazing at the image for 10-30 minutes. Some have claimed that images and faces seem to protrude from the picture, while others report an increase in psychic skills, the ability to communicate with the deceased, and visions into parallel dimensions – all from meditating on the image.
Is it possible that the Flower of Life is more than a geometric pattern? Can it really be a portal to dimensions beyond this one? Furthermore, does it possibly hold the key to unlocking the mysteries of our universe?
Try the Flower of Life Meditation
Enlarge the black and white image on your computer screen, or print out an enlarged version and attach it to a wall.
State your intention to yourself that you are only willing to encounter the highest vibrational energy, for the highest good of all, as you do the practice.*
Sit back 1 to 3 feet from the image and face it.
Relax and breathe long and deep.
Allow your eyes to go into soft focus while gazing at image.
Try not to focus at a set point, rather allow your subconscious to take the whole image in at once.
The image may appear fuzzy or go out of focus. This is fine.
Allow images to come through the design, knowing that whatever comes through does so for your highest good.
When you are finished, take some time and record your impressions. Note how you feel, what thought flashed through your mind, or what you saw.
Try the practice regularly to allow the chance for varying results to occur.
*Before you begin, it may be important to note that some have reported frightening images. This is why it is important to declare your intention to yourself, as a way to protect yourself and attract only the highest frequencies available to you. If something does come through that scares you, simply close your eyes and end the practice.


The rise of human civilization was destined to give rise to the housecat. That’s one startling implication of a study published this week in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Eight feline bones found in an ancient Chinese village suggest that the advent of farming—the foundation of human civilization—was bound to attract wildcats, which would ultimately self-domesticate and become the world’s most popular pet.
The new study, which I covered for Science, concerns a 5,000-year-old village known as Quanhucun in central China. The people who lived there were early, but successful, millet farmers—and they had a pest problem. A team of archaeologists unearthed rodent burrows tunneled into grain storage pits and v-shaped ceramic vessels the size of giant flower vases, likely designed to keep stored grain out of the mouths of scavengers. To combat these invaders, the villagers appear to have turned to cats. The feline bones the researchers discovered at the site all contain specific signatures of carbon and nitrogen that suggest the cats ate grain-eating rodents.
In return, the villagers appear to have cared for the cats. A feline jawbone found at the site has significant wear on its teeth, indicating that it may have lived six or more years—quite elderly for the time. And that, in turn, suggests that someone was looking after it. The analysis of a bone belonging to a different cat indicates that the animal ate human food, another clue that these felines had become pets.
This isn’t the earliest example of cat-human cohabitation. That honor belongs to the 9,500-year-old remains of a cat found buried with a human on the Mediterranean island of Cyprus. The remains were discovered in the ruins of Shillourokambos, a very early farming village, and the feline was a descendant of the Near Eastern wildcat—the ancestor of today’s housecat. Based on this and other finds, researchers have long speculated that the following sequence of events led to the domestication of the cat: farming attracted rodents, rodents attracted wildcats, and wildcats became cats when villagers started caring for these pest-killing felines. The Quanhucun study provides the first hard evidence for this theory. I think the work hints at something even more remarkable, however: cats were destined to become our pets.
The idea has to do with the species of feline found at Quanhucun. That’s still an open question, but there are a couple of possibilities. One is that, like the Cyprus cat, the Quanhucun cats were domesticated or semi-domesticated descendants of the Near Eastern wildcat, and that they somehow made their way to China from the Mediterranean and surrounding regions, possibly via ancient trade routes. If so, the story of Quanhucun is less interesting, as the villagers would have played little role in the domestication of the cat. But it’s also possible that the Quanhucun cats were descendants of a different species of small feline, perhaps jungle cats or leopard cats, which are native to the area. If that’s the case, the villagers may have domesticated a new species of cat—though these animals would have eventually died out, as no trace of their unique DNA is present in today’s housecat.
And here’s the kicker: If cats were independently domesticated in both China and the Near East, it’s possible they were domesticated in other parts of the world as well. Any region that had both farming and a local species of wildcat could have given rise to domestic cats. The process was so natural, it was bound to happen. And because farming is the lynchpin of human civilization, human civilization was destined to give rise to the housecat.
Cats, it seems, were fated to be our pets.


The eagle has been a universal symbol of power respected by many cultures throughout the world. The bald eagle was chosen as the emblem of the United States of America because of its great strength, majestic looks, long life and also because it was then believed in the 18th century to exist only in North America. The eagle was used as the name for the first space craft to land on the moon and even the Chinese developed a martial arts style based on the eagle.
The eagle is highly revered by many Native American Indian cultures which have special eagle dances, ceremonies and societies. Both bald eagles and golden eagles along with their feathers are considered sacred.
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It is said that the Creator chose the eagle as the master of the skies. Since eagles fly higher and see better than other birds, they are considered to be closer to the Creator than any other Earth creatures. The eagle is regarded as a messenger to the Creator. It has the honor of carrying the prayers of humans in the world of the Earth to the world of Spirit where the Creator resides. It is believed that if one saw an eagle while praying or participating in a ceremony, prayers would be answered. Wearing or holding an eagle feather would also cause the Creator to take immediate notice.
Some Native American Indian tribes regard the wings of an eagle to be significant in representing the balance between a male and a female with each one dependent upon the strengths or abilities of the other.
In addition to feathers, eagle talons and skulls were also used in ceremonies and religious practices of many Native American Indian tribes. The feathers were so highly respected that if for any reason an eagle feather was dropped, certain tribes like the Cherokee made it a necessity to have it cleaned. The eagle feather was to be guarded until the proper cleansing ceremony was performed.
The Native American Plains Indians used the eagle's wing bones to make whistles they blew during certain dances. The Native American Pueblo Indians of the southwestern United States considered the golden eagle to be the war eagle and kept its molted feathers. Many Native American Indian tribes used eagle feathers on weapons and headdresses to symbolize victories and courage.
Eagle feathers were awarded to Native American Indian braves, warriors and chiefs for acts of valor or bravery. Only those who won eagle feathers because of brave deeds as recognized by tribal councils were given the right to wear them either in a headdress, war bonnet or in their hair.
To lose an eagle feather would be a dishonor in the eyes of the tribe. Some of the older Native American Indian chiefs earned enough honors to wear a double-trailed bonnet that dragged the ground.
Today, under both United States and Canadian laws, permits are required from official government conservation authorities to legally possess eagle feathers. Native American Indian groups with bald and golden eagle feathers must use them for traditional ceremonies or teaching purposes only.
Eagles inhabit the Pacific Northwest Coast region in great numbers and have special significance for the Northwest Native American Indian people who live there. The eagle is a symbol of power, leadership and prestige. It also represents wisdom since it flies high above the world giving it a broad perspective of everything. Its feathers or down represent peace and friendship. The feathers are used in many rituals and worn on masks, headdresses and aprons for dances. Eagle down was sprinkled before guests during welcome dances and other ceremonies. An eagle feather as a present is said to bring good luck to both the recipient and the giver. The eagle is a favorite subject in Northwest Native American Indian art.
Today, Native American artists, particularly those from the Pacific Northwest, make some very stunning carvings of eagles as well as other birds like thunderbirds and ravens. Just imagine having such a beautiful piece of artwork hanging in your home. See Northwest Native American art carvings or Northwest Native American art prints at very affordable online prices available at Free Spirit Gallery.
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Dr. Samuel Gross was a professor of surgery at Philadelphia’s Jefferson Medical College in the 19th C and is seen here with blood on his hand presiding over a surgery on a teenage boy’s thigh. At the time, Dr. Gross had come up with a new surgical procedure to treat bone infections. No one is wearing surgical gloves; germ theory (and the fact that bacteria cause infections) only became standard knowledge in the 1880’s.
The amplitheater of doctors and medical students all take a cold, unfeeling approach to looking at the operation in action, and so they should. It wouldn’t do to have doctors shielding their eyes from the sight of blood like the mother of the teenage boy here does. We identify with her because we aren’t accustomed to the sight of open flesh either.


The house at 46 Gainsborough Street in Sudbury, Suffolk dates back to around 1520. Thomas Gainsborough’s parents, John and Mary Gainsborough, probably moved here in 1722, five years before the artist was born.
Four distinct periods of architecture can be discerned in the building’s layout. The oldest visible element of the structure is an oak doorway leading into the entrance chamber, which may date back to as early as 1490. This doorway was probably the original front door to the house, leading straight into the Entrance Hall from the street. Today, only the Entrance Hall and Aubrey Herbert Room represent this early period of the building’s existence.
Around 1600 a house was built next door. The present Parlour, situated across the corridor from the Entrance Hall, is the only observable part of this structure to have survived, along with a small wall painting that probably dates to the 17th century. The basic framework of the house during this period consisted of oak beams with panels in between, the panels being filled with plaster known as ‘wattle and daub’. A whitewash would have been applied over the panels, with the interior walls then wainscoted with more fashionable oak paneling.
Gainsborough’s parents bought the house in 1722 for the sum of £230, adding a Georgian brick façade onto the exterior in 1723. Following John Gainsborough’s bankruptcy in 1735, the House was purchased by his nephew, John, for £500, who allowed the artist’s family to remain in residence. The building was kept in family ownership until 1792, at which point it was sold at auction and described as ‘a most excellent Brickt Mansion’. At this time, the premises comprised two buildings, an orchard planted with fruit trees, a flower garden and a paved yard.
46 Gainsborough Street remained a private residence until the 1920s, when it was converted into a guesthouse and tearooms. After the Second World War the house served various purposes, including time spent as an antiques shop. By 1956, a campaign had begun to raise funds to purchase the childhood home of Thomas Gainsborough, culminating in the opening of the museum in 1961.
Gainsborough’s House Society , Charity No. 1170048 and Company Limited by Guarantee No. 10413978


Natural slate in architecture was traditionally used as a roofing material due to its low water absorption rate – something that has stood the test of time. These days, slate is becoming more widely recognised for its vast design versatility, ideal for use across an array of traditional and modern roofing and cladding projects. Here, Nigel Tozer, UK sales manager at Cupa Pizarras, looks at the evolution of slate and why it is a desirable choice, both practically and aesthetically, in today’s market.
The advantages of natural slate as a roofing material are sufficiently numerous to influence consistency in choice by architects and specifiers throughout the ages, and for a multitude of building ventures. The dependability and beauty of slate products makes slate the ideal solution for architectural purposes; and importantly, the evolution hasn’t stopped – the possibilities of slate are constantly being discovered.
Europe’s first use of slate as a building material was recorded in the late 1300’s in North Wales, in the construction of castles and churches because of its weather resistance properties; but as slate was so expensive to install, only the very wealthy could afford to use it. In the nineteenth century, Spain’s quarrying processes were adequately developed for slate to be used to roof the average home, as well as other types of developments such as institutional and government buildings where longevity of structure is so highly regarded. This marked the beginning of a period that would result in nearly 90 per cent of all European roofing slate originating from Spain, as is the case today.
Nowadays the use of slate is common across all building types and classes. In all cases a building’s roof is arguably the most important component, with its ability to protect and insulate being crucial to the overall resilience of the structure. The use of natural slate is a sensible means of adhering to these requirements, its high density making it naturally waterproof, which could be deemed the primary practical consideration when choosing a roofing material. Moreover, its non-combustibility helps protect the building from fire as well as resistance to any temperature fluctuations and adverse weather conditions so it is particularly suited to areas vulnerable to wind, rain, snow and sleet. With slate also being non-conducive to fungus and mold growth it reduces the need for expensive repairs making it a low-maintenance option.
The practical considerations of natural slate are important as they prioritise the longevity and upkeep of the roof with the aim of making financial savings in the long term. However, there are further benefits, particularly for use in architectural projects that are designed to provide maximum visual impact.
The use of Cupa Pizarras’ Heavy 3 slate for the roofs of luxury apartments at Portavadie Marina, an exclusive vacation spot north of the Isle of Arran, is a case in point. This slate tile is very well suited to Scotland’s notoriously wet and windy climate because it is thick and strong with a gritty, rough texture and therefore equipped to withstand extreme conditions. In addition to the slate’s ability to tolerate the unpredictability of sea air, Heavy 3’s blue/black hue beautifully complements the stunning natural surroundings, setting the highest standards in both functionality and design.
The strength of slate, and its ability to adapt to any design and form makes it an appealing product for designers to work with; add to that the range of natural slate colour shades – from blue/black to dark grey – slate does lend itself to a diversity of modern and traditional buildings striving to achieve a certain look. Also, despite slate’s dark appearance it has a natural sheen that reflects the light, giving unique personality to any surface.
What’s more, the use of slate in architecture has transcended limitation to roofs – it is also very conducive to cladding.
Cupa Pizarras’ has developed CUPACLAD™ – a full range of natural slate rainscreen cladding systems. Suited to a contemporary building appearance for both new builds and renovation projects, CUPACLAD™ offers a design to suit each need and is compatible with any type of insulating material.
The design potential for slate cladding is significant with the final appearance of the building determined by a number of factors. For instance, the position of the building in relation to water and its exposure to light can bring astonishing results in relation to colour movement throughout the day. There is also the choice of visible or non-visible fixings, variety or consistency of the slate tile shape and size, all of which can be mixed and matched to achieve a tailored look.
It is evident that although always held in high regard due to its plentiful qualities, slate’s true value is still being uncovered. With so much going for it there is vast potential for slate to hold its own, across the architectural spectrum, for years to come.
For more information on Cupa Pizarras, please visit www.cupapizarras.com/uk


As the 2014 election approaches, President Obama is trying to shift the discussion from the Affordable Care Act to inequality of income.
The problem is that much of the debate is focused on the wrong things.
Inequality is inevitable in a free enterprise system because people have different talents, ambitions and work ethics. What should we do about that?
If I choose to work 40 hours a week and you choose to work 20, and I make $50,000 a year and you make $25,000, is it unfair I make more money? Is it unfair you have more leisure time?
Should the government equalize our income by giving you some of my money? Should it equalize our leisure by making you do some of my household chores?
When we look at inequality in a broader sense, what’s more important, inequality of income or the standard of living of the poor?
Doubling everyone’s income would increase the standard of living of the poor but also increase inequality of income. Would you oppose that?
The point is that our primary goal should be to increase the standard of living of the poor. And there is a strong correlation between a higher standard of living for the poor and more economic freedom, meaning lower taxes, protection of property rights, less regulation and wealth redistribution, and fewer trade barriers. For the results of a 30-year study by the Fraser Institute, see: http://tiny.cc/eetk9w and http://www.freetheworld.com/.
That doesn’t mean we shouldn’t oppose the causes of inequality we can do something about, such as government favors to politically-connected businesses and groups. But in that case, we are opposing favoritism, not inequality.
It also doesn’t mean we should ignore the consequences of inequality we can do something about. For example, if the rich have unequal political influence, instead of restricting their political speech through campaign finance laws, why not reduce government meddling in our lives so there are less government policy decisions to influence?
In any event, in most cases, we’re really concerned about inequality of opportunity, not inequality of income. And providing kids with a good education is critical to giving them equality of opportunity and a fair chance in life.
Ironically, those who claim that inequality of income is our biggest problem often are the same people who oppose education reform and instead just want to increase education spending.
We’ve tried that, and it hasn’t worked. Over the 50-year period ending in 2007, per-pupil spending adjusted for inflation more than quadrupled to $12,463 per year with little to show for it.
Maybe it’s time to try something new, such as vouchers parents can use to pay for private schooling for children stuck in failing public schools. This won’t reduce per-pupil spending in public schools because you can educate a student with a voucher for less than it costs to educate the same student in a public school.
Here’s the point. Instead of complaining about inequality of income, why don’t we reduce inequality of opportunity where we can?


For anyone that has seen Star Wars, you know that not much of what the franchise incorporates into the movies has any actual realism. One of the most iconic things to come from Star Wars is lightsabers, but even those aren't really possible because photons do not interact with each other, which is needed for a lightsaber.
Research published recently in Science shows that it is possible for photons to in fact interact with each other. They were even able to get three photons to bind together. Although the new found technology isn't strong enough to defeat the dark side yet, it is a solid step towards creating photon-based quantum computers.
The two lead researchers for the project are MIT physicist Vladen Vuletic and Harvard physicist Mikhail Lukin, who together head up the joint MIT-Harvard Center for Ultracold Atoms. They have spent the last few years trying to get photons to interact with each other, with their first major success in 2013, when they were able to get two photons to bind together.
Many molecules have a limit to the number of times they can bind, so they were curious if this was also the case for Photons, continuing their work. They were able to bind three photons just last week, so it seems to be going fairly well for their research.
Due to Vuletic and Luken's research being highly experimental, it will most likely be a while before any of their work is put to any practical use. They are looking to continue their research and see if they can get photons to interact in more ways, possibly repelling each other. Only time will show how their research goes.


KUNSTKAMMER.. The traditional name for a “Cabinet of Curiosities”, like this exhibition space was “Kunstkammer” – an art room where arts and treasures from all over the world were kept and studied. In the European tradition, wealthy collectors assembled works of contemporary painting and sculptures, ancient art from excavations, specimens from around the natural world, new scientific instruments, and cultural artifacts from exotic places. All the treasures of the world were collected so that the affluent could enjoy and study them. The collectors were royalty or aristocrats, who competed with each other to acquire the most impressive marvels from all over the world. These cabinet played an important role in intellectual history; the process of studying, classifying and recording new plants, animals and artifacts from Asia, Africa and Americas led Europe of a greater knowledge of and appreciation for the diversity of the world.
The Harris Collection recreates the approach, but unifies the collection by focusing on one issue: human mortality. In doing so Richard Harris has created a collection that can be enjoyed and studied on many different levels. The variety of cultures and historical periods found in the room are testament to an ongoing, permanent interest in this theme. Humankind has been coping with death and mortality for its whole history. Different cultures and religion have developed varying attitudes towards death and the afterlife; but they are united in their interest in the topic; it is universally relevant. The arrangement of the works in this room encourages viewers to make connections, and to recognize the shared interest and different assumptions, among object from very different periods and locations.
Check out my Blog: Kunstkammer


This Learning Resource supports Secondary students to engage with the work ASSEMBLY by Angelica Mesiti. Learners are supported to look and think deeply about the artist’s process and inspiration, while reflecting on their own lived experiences through a series of prompts.
About the artist
Angelica Mesiti is one of Australia's most significant contemporary artists, her work has been collected and exhibited throughout Australia and internationally.
Born in Sydney, Mesiti trained in classical and modern dance, establishing a reputation in Australia during the early 2000’s as a performance artist. Mesiti is currently based in Paris, where she lives and works. Over the last decade, Mesiti’s work has moved into video-based art works that consider how communities are formed through shared movement and communication. Mesiti's video works focus on performance as an artistic gesture, as part of everyday life, and as cultural practice and communication.
In a democracy we have the power to decide who represents us, what issues are really important to us and how we can have our individual voices as well as our collective community concerns heard.
About the work of art
ASSEMBLY is a three-channel video installation, produced for the 58th Venice Biennale, exploring the ways that communication – the nature of connection – can be expressed through a variety of forms and might enable and support democracy. This work encourages us to consider the importance of individuals coming together to participate in democracy.
‘In ASSEMBLY, I explore the space where communication moves from verbal and written forms to non-verbal, gestural and musical forms. The latter creates a sort of code upon which meaning, memory and imagination can be overlaid’. Angelica Mesiti
ASSEMBLY features historic and contemporary places, events and objects with strong connections to democratic processes and aspirations including Australia's Old Parliament House and Palazzo Madama, the seat of the Italian Senate in Rome. The work involves over 40 artists, performers and musicians of multiple ancestries to demonstrate the power of people coming together with a shared purpose. ASSEMBLY uses the Michela’ machine, a 19th century stenographic machine modeled on a piano keyboard, which is used in the Italian Senate for official parliamentary reporting to ensure that the action of the parliament is recorded and accessible to the public. The inventor of the ‘Michela’ was originally inspired by musical notation as a universal language – a language that can be read and understood by people across the world.
The artist used this machine to translate a poem by Australian writer David Malouf into a shorthand code. The poem, ‘To be written in another tongue’, 1976, details an imaginary conversation David Malouf has with a Lebanese ancestor.
"It immediately struck a personal chord with me ... there's an imaginary conversation going on with an ancestor with whom the writer no longer has a linguistic link. It's about the impossibility of translation and the distance between one language and another." Angelica Mesiti
The translation became the basis of a musical score by Australian composer Max Lyandvert and a dance performance by the First Nations choreographer Deborah Brown and in collaboration with Mesiti. The score is performed by musicians and dancers who represent the many ancestries that make up contemporary Australia.
“ASSEMBLY seeks to create a new space for those who want to speak differently, hear alternatively, and act together to form a new translation of the democratic process”. Angelica Mesiti
Looking at the still images from Assembly, what do you notice, what can you see, and what can you imagine you can hear?
What is familiar and what are you curious about?
What unifies the performers? What connects the performers in their different groups and what unifies the performers in Mesiti’s work as a whole? How do you identify them as a collective or as collaborators?
Spend a few moments writing or drawing a list of ways the performers are unified.
Come together as a whole class; rearrange your seats and desks or move to the floor to create circular seating. Make sure you are all seated so that you can see each other's faces. If you are doing the activity from home with a small group or a member of your family, come together so that you are seated at an equal level, facing each other.
Prepare to discuss your list as a group.
Before you begin, decide the process of how you are going to democratically discuss your list. For example, are you looking to your teacher to lead the group? Is there another nominated leader who chooses each speaker and in what order they speak? Do you select a number card if you want to share your ideas? Will you go around the room sharing one thing each? Or maybe you will break into small groups and then come back together as a whole? You all need to decide.
- Pick a scribe for the session, or a couple of scribes.
- Discuss your lists as a group, using the lists to respond to the following questions:
- How many ways of sharing and communicating can you identify in ASSEMBLY?
- How are the different performers communicating, what tools are they using, what is their process?
- What happens when individuals collaborate to share through song, music or performance?
- Why might Mesiti have used so many forms to communicate? What does this do to the message? How does this transform our understanding of inclusivity, the individual and the collective?
Moving on from what you have just discussed, bring this conversation back to the democracy of your classroom or your home:
- What are the similarities and differences between individuals in your classroom or home?
- How can you come together as a whole group so that everyone feels safe, represented and heard?
- How can you amplify your voices as a collective?
- How are you contributing to your school community, as individuals and collectively? What are some ways you go about creating change for the greater good of your community?
There a many ways citizens can communicate our rights and freedoms including voting when you turn 18, writing a letter to parliament or holding a peaceful protest. In 2018, young protesters in Paris created a series of gestures to communicate with each other in a nonverbal way. First Nations choreographer Deborah Brown performs some of these gesture in ASSEMBLY.
- Discuss as a class why you think Mesiti invited Deborah Brown to recreate and perform within Australia’s Old Parliament House, the gestures from a protest in Paris?
Communicate with the group how you are feeling today. Describe how you are feeling by naming this feeling with a colour. Be as descriptive and poetic as you can be. For example, 'I feel blue like the sky on a clear sunny day' or, 'I feel light pink like fairy floss'.
Once everyone has had a turn to share, go around the circle again. This time, share how you feel in a nonverbal way. This may be through a gesture, a sound, a movement. Your movement might be as small as wiggling your finger or waving your whole body around with an intentional gesture.
From your lists, collective brainstorming and responses, spend some time writing a class manifesto, or document stating what you think creates a space where everyone is seen and heard. This manifesto or document might list the things that make this space safe for you as an individual and as a group.
What might be the outcomes of making a document like this moving onto the future? Put this manifesto or document in a location that everyone can see. How will your group ensure that everyone is participating in accordance with the values identified in the manifesto.
From this document – translate the written words to create two new collaborative works of art.
Firstly, identify the key words, themes, tone of the manifesto/document.
Intuitively create a series of movements that express and communicate the key themes of your manifesto.
Brainstorm ways in which this process and outcome can take place.
Choreograph and perform this new translation of the manifesto. Around 3-4 minutes is plenty of time.
The collaborative artwork might be a large-scale drawing or painting.
You can start this activity individually with your own piece of paper or as a whole group by laying out a large sheet of paper or connecting several smaller pieces of paper together.
Draw a gesture for each of the key themes and words in your manifesto - don’t think about your drawing too much but use a variety of mark-making techniques.
Brainstorm ways in which this process and outcome can take place. This might start with you sharing what you have created as individuals using a large wall or floor space to arrange and rearrange until it communicates your class's manifesto. If starting as a whole class, how do you negotiate this process?
Think big about the scale of this work.
Visual arts, Civics and Citizenship
Visual arts: AC9AVA6C01 and AC9AVA8C01
Civics and Citizenship: AC9HC7K02 and AC9HC8K01
• Literacy: Speaking and listening: Interacting
• Critical and Creative Thinking: Generating: Consider alternatives
• Critical and Creative Thinking: Analysing: Interpret concepts and problems
• Personal and Social capability: Self-awareness: Community awareness
• Personal and Social capability: Social management: Decision-making


What are the consequences of chronic low back pain?
Chronic low back pain is a worrying subject for humanity; around 570 million people suffer from it every day of their lives. Furthermore, chronic low back pain (CLBP) patients suffer from many complications relating to their pain. The fact is that dealing with pain every single day creates a stressful environment that affects the patient's general well-being. Depending on the severity of the condition, a person may experience the following:
- The constant pain and discomfort can restrict mobility, making it challenging to engage in daily activities. Simple tasks like walking, sitting, or bending may become painful and difficult.
- The limitations caused by chronic back pain can hinder a person's ability to work. This can lead to decreased productivity, missed workdays, and potential career limitations.
Dealing with the challenges of chronic pain on a daily basis can have a significant impact on psychological well-being. Dealing with constant pain makes patients feel frustrated, which can cause emotional distress. This can lead to anxiety and depression.
Sleep disturbances are common among individuals with chronic back pain. A lack of restful sleep can result in fatigue, daytime sleepiness, and reduced energy levels. Thus, further affecting overall well-being and quality of life.
Managing chronic back pain often involves the long-term use of pain medications. Dependence on these medications can develop, and they may have side effects such as constipation, drowsiness, nausea, and the risk of addiction.
How can a chiropractor help with CLBP?
A chiropractor is a healthcare professional who focuses on the health of the spine. Thus, their work is related to the muscles, tendons, and bones that make up the supporting structure of the spine itself. Apart from the structural components, they focus on the nerves that come out of the spine, which may be the cause of chronic pain.
To find the root of the pain, a chiropractor will assess the condition of the patient's body. Then, they may inquire about the pain's history to start treating the cause. Treatment is usually focused on spinal manipulation. This means the chiropractor will use their hands and other instruments to create movement in the spine, called adjustments. By adjusting the spine, the chiropractor tries to correct the cause of the condition. After treating the condition, the professional will give some recommendations about post-adjustment care. These may include stretches, exercise routines, nutritional changes, and medication.
Overall, chiropractic treatment has been scientifically proven to be as effective as other forms of intervention. It is up to the patient to find the best solution for their issue, depending on personal preference. Thus improving their quality of life by controlling crippling chronic symptoms.Share


The symbolism of the four directions and four cycles
The Traditionalists’ (Guenon, Evola, Georgel, etc.) perception of the relationship between the paleo-continents, cardinal directions, and cyclical periods of ancient civilizations boils down to the following : the North was the original orientation whose ancient paleo-continent located at the North pole was Arktogeya, or Hyperborea, with its sacred capital as Thule or Tula (for the Greeks and Aztecs) or Vara in the Zoroastrian Iranian tradition. It is important to note the similarity between the Iranian “Vara” – the northern city, capital of Aryan-Vedj, and the homeland of the Persians’ ancestors – and the Hindu term Varahi (literally “boar”, or “land of the boars”), as well as the Nordic designation of the continent. The Golden Age of mankind, lasting 25,920 years  is associated with this ancient, primordial continent. In the ancient tradition, the New Year came at the point of the winter solstice (or winter eclipse), i.e., the most obvious moment in the transition of the sun and light’s movement from descent to ascent. The priority of the northern orientation and celebrations of the New Year on the day of the winter solstice are signs of the Primordial Tradition itself.
The second cardinal direction was that of the South and the southern paleo-continent conventionally called Gondwana. The period of the southern orientation’s predominance falls on the Silver Age lasting 19,440 years. The New Year that falls on the day of the summer solstice corresponds to this orientation. Thus, the initial periods of our cycle, the Manvantara, were moved by way of the main migrations of the sacred proto-peoples along the vertical axis from North to South, which corresponds to the priority of the vertical over the horizontal (the axis of East-West) as a qualitative space in sacred geometry.
The third sacred center was that of Atlantis, the sacred continent located in the West. Atlantic civilization lasted 12,960 years, although the continent itself sunk exactly at the midpoint of this period in the 6,480th year of the third, or Bronze Age. Atlantic civilization continued to exist even later when it manifested itself among waves of peoples’ migrations from the West to the East. This Atlantic cycle corresponds to New Year celebrations on the day of the autumnal equinox and the sacred orientation of this period was that of the West. Finally, the fourth, final center of our human cycle is the East which corresponds to the center of Tradition in the Iron Age. The Iron Age, or the Kali Yuga of the Hindus, lasts just 6,480 years. According to the Traditionalists, we are living at the end of this period. The New Year of the Iron Age is celebrated on the day of the vernal equinox and, according to Guenon, it is precisely such a location of the center of the Primordial Tradition in the Iron Age that explains why paradise was located in the East in traditional doctrines. Such a localization is not absolute insofar as the original and naturally true paradise is the northern, polar, Hyperborean paradise, but, nevertheless, our cyclical period is characterized by precisely this eastern situation of the supreme traditional center which is preserved as a relevant pole for all of the world’s traditions and holds the secrets of the true North.
It is also important to note, however, that such a Traditionalist scheme describes the cyclical situation only in the most general terms. In fact, traditional forms inherent to these or those sacred-geographical centers continue to exist even after the relocation of the supreme center to other regions. But, as a rule, they exist only in reduced, residual states. In the case of a schism or disruption of the historically preexisting center with the actual center, the spiritual influence of this residual center can turn into something negative and even anti-traditional. This was particularly impressed upon the later perversion of the Atlantic tradition narrated in Greek myths which Guenon associates with the sacred events reflected in the Bible under the sign of the global flood.
Schematically, we can visualize the course of the supreme sacred center’s geographical movement in either this sign: or this sign:
which yields, among other things, the symbolic loop, an attribute of many “gods” such as Greece’s Neptune, Scandinavia’s Odin, or Hinduism’s Varun, Yama, Shiva, Kali, and Vishnu, etc.
In this case the most important point of all for us is highlighting the eastern regions designated in our times, the Iron Age, as being of absolute priority in the sphere of sacred geography, as the East, or Asia, is uniquely associated with the geographical location of paradise.
The role of Siberia
This special role falls to the lands of Siberia in the general map of sacred geography. If the current center of Tradition is located somewhere in the East and the primordial center was located at the North Pole, then it is precisely Siberia that is the space of cohesion and connection between these two sacred regions. Such a particularity assigned to Siberian lands is quite possibly what contributed to the specific mystery that has surrounded everything connected with the history of this part of the mainland. Siberia (especially the northern part) is perhaps the only area in the Eurasian space which does not draw any special attention from “civilization” in the Kali-Yuga, i.e., that time when practically all other lands in one period or another have become the grounds of aggressive competition between different states and peoples, the reasons for conflicts and wars. Despite the fact that, from a purely natural point of view, Siberia’s lands do not have any particular flaws or obstacles preventing their inhabitance, Siberia remains an historically hidden, unknown, and mysterious land to such an extent that it is as if some kind of special force of fate, some kind of unknown archangel, was guarding it.
At the same time, according to the discoveries of modern archaeologists, in the paleolithic period Siberia was no less inhabited than southern or eastern Europe and the remains of some kind of ancient civilization are being all the more often found in every one of Siberia’s corners today. Thus, Siberia is, in fact, not a virgin territory or a kind of tabula rasa, but quite simply and providentially hidden. It withholds the ancient secrets from unworthy eyes.
It was indeed from Southern Siberia and Mongolia that the so-called “barbarians” proliferated and it was these peoples that moved to Europe via the Caspian and Black Sea steppes and substantially changed the appearance of this area in the first centuries of our era. On the contrary to the opinions of profane historians, these “barbarians” were not primitive or mindless savages later “cultivated” by Greco-Roman civilization. They were the carriers of particular sacred forms, albeit compressed and laconic, but by no means rudimentary. The broad “horizontal” development of traditional principles related to secondary modalities, in fact, is what creates culture . Hence, culture is by no means a guarantor of the completeness or perfection of Tradition as such but, on the contrary, in its “horizontal” development even strips Tradition of its metaphysical side in delving into cosmological and applied fields.
Migrating from Siberia and Mongolia, the “barbarians” carried with them only certain aspects of the ancient Siberian sacrality while the Holy of Holies continued to be hidden from and left behind the aggressive peoples. The geopolitical impulse behind the move from East to West [of these “barbarians”] acted as a sort of preemptive prevention of a possible invasion of the life-giving lands of Siberia by the decadent West.
At that time, as the Aryan tradition of India gradually became linked with southern, Dravidian influences and the Chinese Middle Empire closed itself into isolationist self-sufficiency, narrowing the sacred to more or less local borders, Siberia lived an “uncivilized” yet truly spiritual life. Its pulses and arousing of global impulses of freshness and purity drew the Western civilizations of Eurasia into the dynamic of sacred history. Here it should be recalled that the majority of the aristocratic families in Europe, that is, the European genetic elite, have roots in the Gotho-Germanic, and sometimes Hunnic peoples, i.e., the messengers of the secret Siberian impulse.
The Ecumene of the Turks and Shamanism
The most important center of Siberia was the Altai region, those lands adjoined to the middle of all Asia, the heart of Asia. The Turks were the peoples who remained the bearers of the particularly sacred, indigenous Siberian form. It is very important to note that a number of similarities can be drawn between the ancient cults of the Turks and the archaic, pre-Vedic and pre-Zoroastrian forms of the Eurasian Aryans. On the other hand, certain links existed with the earlier forms of the Chinese and Tibetan traditions.
In his research on ancient, purely Hyperborean and proto-Aryan origins, Professor Herman Wirth discovered a very important testimony of the archaic Eskimo peoples relative to the ancient “ethnos” of the white Eskimos, the “people of the sun,” memory of which lives on in the most distantly remote and disconnected Eskimo tribes. These white Eskimos were called the “peoples of Tanar” and their mythological description can only be related chronologically and phenotypically to the Hyperborean “strangers” who moved from the polar regions to the more southern lands. According to Wirth, the “peoples of Tanar” were representatives of Hyperborean groups who came down to Eurasia not from the West (like the tribes of Tuatha Dé Danann, the North-Atlantic proto-Aryans), but from the East. Wirth traces the origins of the Sumerian tradition directly back to these “peoples of Tanar.” In particular, this noted in the very name of the Sumerian gods, “Dingir,” “bog” [Russian for “god” – J.A.] being a phonetic form of “Tanar”. For us, the most important fact is that the word “god” among the archaic Turks sounded phonetically identical to “tengri.” In addition, modern archaeologists are now uncovering a number of ornaments, drawings, and hieroglyphs dating back to the neolithic age with similarities to archaic Sumerian writings and sacred symbols on the territory of northern Eurasia and especially in the resettlement areas of the Turkic peoples.
Today, the link between the Turks and Siberia is dated back to more and more distant epochs, and in some cases it is possible to trace a continuity of certain modern Shamanic traditions (particularly those of the Tungus of the Taiga Amur, or the Evenki-Oroqen) back to the sacred compositions of Neolithic complexes that are today revered and visited by representatives of the most ancient faiths. The majority of such Neolithic and even paleolithic tales are in fact identical to the paradigm of the ancient proto-runic calendar described by Wirth as the primordial paleo-epigraphical cult base of all subsequent mythological-symbolic, post-Hyperborean sacred forms. .
In considering and comparing the known variations of Shamanism among the peoples of Siberia and Mongolia, one can note that, unlike many other versions of Shamanism (African, American, Australian, etc.), the general and dominant element among Siberian Shamans is their purely Hyperborean symbols and doctrines: The image of the white swan, the raven of the demiurge, the World Tree, the three plans of the cosmos, the polar star (understood as a hole in the sky, a point for exiting beyond the manifested cosmos, or as a place of liberation, Moksha), the elk and deer, the sun wheel (tambourine), and the “Celtic cross.” Both Guenon and Wirth refer to these symbols as primordial or “Apollonian” ones.
He who restored the Eurasian Empire
In 1155, the holy tribe of Alan-Gua, the mother of the “khans by calling” and the “Chosen ones of the Eternal Sky” gave birth to a child not from a father, but from the heavenly spirit which descended through the chimney of the yurt (through a hole in the roof of the traditional dwelling of the Mongols). Prince Temujin thus appeared on earth. Thus recounts The Sacred Tale, the holy book of the Mongols. In 1180, this boy became the Khan of the Ulus (the association of Mongol tribes) and in 1206 at the source of the river Onon in northern Mongolia, Temujin, henceforth named Genghis Khan, was declared the Great Khan of all Mongolia. From this point onward begins the greatest saga of a planetary scale for the next millennium: an attempt to create the Great Eurasian Empire which would unite the continent into one sacred body. “Heavenly energy” allowed Genghis Khan to unite enormous territories stretching from China to the Middle East and Eastern Europe under his rule in an extraordinarily small amount of time.
An extremely important reference concerning the Hyperborean character of Genghis Khan’s mission can be found in the Collection of Annals by the Persian traveller Rashid-al-Din. It is well known that the distinctive features of Genghis Khan’s tribe were blue eyes and red hair. Rashid-al-Din writes: “The tribe of the kiyatboryigin descended from the offspring of Yesugei Baghatur [the father of Genghis Khan]. Boryigin means ‘blue-eyed’ and, oddly enough, the descendants of those who to this day trace their lineage back to Yesugei Baghatur, his children, and the Uighur [clan], are mostly blue eyed and red-haired. This is explained by the fact that Alan-Gua, at the time of her [spiritual] pregnancy said: ‘In front of our eyes at night there suddenly appears a radiance in the form of a human with red-hair and blue-eyes who shall go out. Thus, the eight genealogical branch of Yesugei Baghatur is exhibited by this distinguishing symbol which, according to the Mongols, is a sign of the royal authority of Alan-Gua’s children whom she foretold and whose similar appearance is proof of her words and the validity and obviousness of this circumstance.”
The radiance of the Hyperborean Aryan falls to the holy family of the “khans by chosenness” as an investiture of a the highest initiative polar center. This sacred Nordic pulse drives Genghis Khan to awaken Asia to unify, naturally beginning with Mongolia and Siberia insofar as these lands were the sacred-geographical basis of imperial expansion, the “golden embryo” of the New Empire. Although Genghis Khan and his successors’ empire did not last long, it radically transformed the map of the world both geographically and politically and awakened the Turkic-Mongolian peoples to realize their mission – the mission of the descendants of the Hyperborean “people of Tanar” whose polar and crystal archetype manifested itself in history for the last time in history with all of its clarity and purity in the “white, blue-eyed kings,” i.e., the descendants of Alan-Gua who, under strange circumstances, gave birth to the ruling caste of Eurasia.
After his death, Genghis Khan came to be venerated by the Mongols as the “Mongolian avatar” and a manifestation of the Tengri, the heavenly principle. The cult of Genghis Khan, established by his grandson Kublai Khan (the founder of the Yuan dynasty) in particular emphasized the sacred role of Genghis Khan’s two sacred banners called the “black sulde” and “white sulde” respectively, termed in Mongolian the hara-sulde and tsagan-sulde. In Mongolian, sulde means “soul” or “spirit.” These banners were considered to be symbols of the two aspects of the Mongolian avatar” in its super-temporal and superhuman quality. This symbolism of black and white remains the paradigm of the sacred Hyperborean formula.
Just as Frederick II who, according to the Ghibelline tradition, dwells in a secret mountain cave (or the volcano of Mount Etna) and awaits the final hour of the cycle to return and finish his imperial mission, so do the Mongols believe that Genghis Khan’s lays waiting, entombed in the cave of the sacred Mongol mountain Burkhan-Khaludn, the “willow hill” or, literally, “willow of god.” Here it should be recalled that the Taoist tradition called the “City of Willows” the very primordial center of Tradition, the “place of the undead” or the “center of the world.”
The cult of Genghis Khan liturgically refers to him as the “bearer of the white pledge,” i.e., the “pledge of Hyperborean restoration.” Moreover, Genghis Khan’s genus was preserved even after the collapse of his empire and his descendants continue to exist to this day, towards whom a sacred reverence prevails among the Turks and Mongols. Not only have the ancient Shamanist traditions of the Siberian Tanar peoples preserved this, but so have the other sacred forms such as Islam, Lamaism, and Taoism absorbed this tradition. The institutions of Genghis Khan’s descendants and followers largely parallel the institutions of the Alids and Sayyids in the Islamic world (and especially in Shiite Islam). Interestingly enough, among the Turkish Muslims there are princely families who simultaneously descend from both Genghis Khan and Muhammad, a phenomenon which renders them the heirs of two important traditions at once.
Siberia and Russia
After the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the Russian principalities, Gardariki Rus was included in the Great Empire of Genghis Khan. When this empire began to weaken and decay, it was Rus which, by first centralizing its own political organism, gradually spread a unifying influence to those states which made up the ruins of the empire. After a sufficiently harsh conquest of the “Kazan Khanate,” Rus took over the function of Eurasian empire-building from the Tatars and began ever so gently to spread to the East, to Siberia. It is important to emphasize that, in the eyes of the Turkic peoples of Siberia, the Russians were clearly perceived as the “followers” or “resumers” of the mission of Genghis Khan himself, as the figure of the Russian Tsar, the “White Tsar,” coincided with the image of the “White Mongol,” the “Bearer of the Heavenly Pledge.” In addition, before and during the period of Tatar rule, the Russian aristocracy frequently intermarried with the Turkic aristocracy – with the Cumans during the time of Kievan Rus and with the Mongol-Tatars during the time of conquest, and so on. It can naturally be assumed that in this case aristocratic marriages served not only to establish kinship and ethnic relationships between the Russians and Turks, but also implicitly fulfilled the transfer of the sacred-geographical doctrine of the warlike Turks to the Slavic elite which in turn preserved the memory of its Nordic heritage in various mythological forms. Thus, the Russians’ expansion into Siberia was a sanctioned, sacred development possessing foundations stretching deep into the esoteric teachings of Eurasia. The unification of Siberia with Russia was a development which starkly contrasted to “Western colonialism” and its profane, utilitarian, and proselytizing objectives. On the contrary, it was the restoration of the common heritage and pre-existing unity behind which stood the unified will and common goal of the brothers of the “white pledge.” Of course, such unity and agreement existed on an “elitist,” sacred, and supra-ethnic level, whereas in other cases, on purely political grounds, such could give rise to conflicts and misunderstandings.
Even at the beginning of the 20th century, the sacred role of Siberia and the Far East surfaced not only among esoteric cults and the patriotic intuitions of the “Slavophiles,” but also in concrete political projects seeking to focus Russia on the Far East. In connection with this, Dr. Badmaev , a Genghis Khan occultist and doctor from St. Petersburg who practiced Tibetan medicine for Russian aristocrats, should be mentioned. According to certain Lamaist centers in Buryatia and Tibet, Dr. Badmaev developed special geopolitical projects aiming for the political unification of Russia and Mongolia and Russia’s annexation of Xin-Jian for the purpose of confronting the British colonialists. These ideas proposing that Russia actively intervene in Far Eastern geopolitics (especially through the construction of the Transiberian railway) interested Emperor Alexander II himself, and later Nikolai II, so much so that Dr. Badmaev received funds from the state treasury to establish economic ties with China and realize the large-scale Semipalatinsk-Lanzhou railway project. Lanzhou itself, which is the point at which China, Mongolia, and Central Asia are linked, was chosen as the center for Russia’s new geopolitical strategy just as it was precisely at this place from which Genghis Khan began his conquest of China.
It was not without Badmaev’s help that a Lamaist center was opened in St. Petersburg in 1914 and that the close mentor of the 13th Dalai Lama and the official messenger of Lhasa, Hambo Agovan Lobsan Dorchjiev, appeared in the highest political spheres during this critical period for Russia.
Thus the voice of Genghis’ and the Turks’ Siberia once again made itself felt to Russia, urging her to find a geopolitical identification under the sign of “Eurasian restoration” and the “white pledge.”
The Eschatological Mission of the East
In accordance with the shifting trajectory of the supreme center of Tradition, it can be logically said that it is precisely on this line which connects Eastern, subterranean Agartha with the northern pole that the decisive events of the end of the Kali-Yuga, our iron age, should unfold. It is difficult to understand the transformations in the geopolitical space of Russia otherwise than as signs of the times heralding the proximity of this threshold. As always in epochs of global turmoil, the sacred memory of the continent is coming alive in the peoples of these regions in Russia today. People in Russia are all the more often beginning to speak about the “Eurasian factor,” the role of Siberia, and the fate of the Eurasian Empire which, shaking off oblivion in the face of fatal threats posted by the West, is once again faced with a fateful choice. In this situation, it is necessary to offer clear account of the sacred significance of the “white pledge” and all the peoples of Eurasia who, by virtue of their Hyperborean heritage, are the offspring of the great builders of the Eurasian Empire.
 See G. Georgel’s The Fourt Ages of Humanity, The Rhythms in History, J. Evola’s Revolt Against the Modern World, R. Guenon’s Traditional Forms and Cosmic Cycles, and A. Dugin’s The Path of the Absolute, chapter 9.
 See Guenon’s Traditional Forms and Cosmic Cycles and Dugin’s The Path of the Absolute
 In the Traditional meaning of the word, culture is Tradition, and not the profane surrogate of unintelligible and perfverted remnants of traditional knowledge that are called “culture” in the modern world.
 See H. Wirth’s Die Heilige Urschrifft der Menschheit and A. Dugin’s The Hyperborean Theory
 One of Rene Guenon’s main informants on questions of sacred geography, the French diplomat in Poland known by the initials J.C. (who is, as was discovered only recently, Jean Calmel) was in contact with Badmaev in St. Petersburg. This means that Guenone himself drew the elements of his doctrine from a Eurasian, Russian source. The link between Russia and the spirit of Siberia and its secret initiatic center, thus, unexpectedly finds its echoes in even the worlds of Western esotericism.
 H. Wirth, Heilige Urshrift der Menshheit
Translator: Jafe Arnold
Chapter 5 of Mysteries of Eurasia (1996 edition) from the collection Absolute Homeland (Moscow, Arktogeya: 1999)


Damaging East Tenn. quake possible
Bob Hatcher, a distinguished geologist and retired University of Tennessee professor who has lived in Oak Ridge for 33 years, has earthquake insurance. He thinks the building codes in East Tennessee should be revised because geological findings indicate the region is capable of producing an earthquake far more damaging than those recently felt.
On April 4, Maryville residents experienced a series of small, shallow earthquakes, and in March a small earthquake was detected in the Greenback area.
Hatcher’s research over the past 10 years, along with that of four colleagues and graduate students, suggests that East Tennessee has likely had three earthquakes of magnitudes ranging from 6.5 to 7.0 over the past 10,000 years, or one of that intensity range every 3,000 years or so.
“We live in the second most active seismic zone in the eastern United States,” after the New Madrid Seismic Zone in West Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas and Kentucky, Hatcher told the Friends of Oak Ridge National Laboratory (FORNL) recently. He agreed with the assessment of Memphis seismologists. “They called the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone (ETSZ) the Rodney Dangerfield seismic zone,” Hatcher said. “It gets little respect.”
Millions of dollars have been poured into studying the New Madrid Seismic Zone and other earthquake-prone regions of the United States. Hatcher, an ORNL-University of Tennessee Distinguished Scientist and geology professor emeritus at UT, said that he and his colleagues have received only modest support from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Geological Survey’s Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program to study the ETSZ over the past 10 years.
ETSZ extends from Northeast Alabama to north of Knoxville and then into Eastern Kentucky over a huge area. The largest earthquake recorded here in historic times was a 4.8 event in 2003 near Ft. Payne, Ala. The earthquakes here, Hatcher said, occurred at depths of 6 to 15 miles.
The earthquakes and aftershock from Dec. 16, 1811, through Feb. 7, 1812, in the New Madrid Seismic Zone had magnitudes exceeding 7.0, causing gas lights to flicker and Boston’s church bells to ring. A major result of the quake-produced subsidence was the formation of Reelfoot Lake in Northwest Tennessee.
The magnitude 5.8 earthquake that disrupted the Piedmont region of Virginia on Aug. 23, 2011, caused damage to the National Cathedral and Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., Hatcher noted.
The nation’s most devastating earthquake — the one in 1906 in San Francisco as a result of the constantly moving San Andreas Fault — had an estimated magnitude of 7.9. Some 3,000 people died and 80 percent of the city was destroyed. The most destructive earthquakes range from magnitude 7.0 to 9.0.
Earthquakes, which Hatcher defined as “a sudden release of elastic energy along a fault,” such as happens when a rubber band snaps back on your finger, are caused by volcanic action or movements within the earth’s crust. A fault is an extended break in a body of rock in which one side has shifted relative to the other or the rocks on one side are older or different in composition from those on the other side.
In a decade of research, Hatcher and other local geologists located faults, with displacements of 3 to 10 feet occurring perhaps in the past 17,000 years, in Douglas Lake’s 15,000-year-old river sediment and 460-million-old, weathered shale bedrock in the vicinities of Alcoa-Maryville, Dandridge and Vonore.
Based on the faults the geologists have found in East Tennessee, they are convinced the region has had earthquakes with a magnitude of 6.5 to 7.0 in the past 10,000 years.
Hatcher told FORNL that our region, which has many valleys, ridges, steep slopes, limestone and lots of rainfall, has more geologic hazards than many other parts of the eastern United States. Examples include sinkholes, landslides, mud flows and rock slides. Developers who use poor judgment can bring on some of these hazards. Many occur naturally.
Hatcher, who has been honored for giving many classes and leading field trips for students at the Oak Ridge Institute for Continued Learning, frequently points out that the Appalachian mountain chain, as we know it, is younger than the Rocky Mountains of today. Middle-school textbooks have long claimed falsely that the Rockies are younger than the Appalachians.
Some 300 million years ago, the Appalachians were as tall as the Himalayas when they were formed by uplift as a result of the collision of Africa with North America. But through accelerated wind and water erosion, the Appalachians were worn down. The most recent uplift, which has produced mountains now as high as 6,700 feet (as in the Blue Ridge Mountains), occurred less than seven million years ago.


- Art Definition
- Categories Definition
- Religious Definition
- Eight Great Bodhisattvas
- Bodhisattva: Three Definitions
The Sanskrit language term 'bodhisattva' (Tibetan: jang chub sem pa. English: heroic aspirant to enlightenment) is an abstract religious technical term. In art the term has three basic meanings.
There are three very different meanings for the term bodhisattva depending on context. The first  is a descriptive art meaning. The second  is a category of deity within Buddhist art and iconography. The third  is the abstract religious definition of a bodhisattva as a level of achievement along the Buddhist path.
Jeff Watt 7-2003 [updated 12-2019, 8-2020]
(The images below are of unidentified Bodhisattva figures).


Stevie May June 23, 2019 Flowcharts
Flowchart Software is a program used to draw diagrams in a type of a flowchart which is made up of boxes and arrows. The Flowchart Software is also used to design and document simple processes as well as visualizing the process and helping users to better understand a process. You can also use the Flowchart Software to find flaws and bottlenecks in a process.
Which flowchart shape should you use? If you are new to flowcharting, the large number of shapes can be intimidating. You should care because knowing how to flowchart is like having access to a Universal language which makes it possible to communicate all sorts of things with all sorts of people, and that’s pretty cool.
Program flowchart can help programmers to find the bug in the process before carrying out. It works as a blueprint when analyzing the systems and developing programs, which makes coding more efficient. It improves programmers’ efficiency in maintaining the operating program. With the help of program flowchart, communicating the logic of a system to all concerned gets much easier.


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V Throughout the text of this course and while using technical manuals associated with the equipment you will be working on, you will find the below notations at the end of some paragraphs. The notations are used to emphasize that safety hazards exist and care must be taken or observed. , WHICH MAY RESULT IN INJURY OR DEATH IF NOT CAREFULLY OBSERVED OR FOLLOWED. , WHICH MAY RESULT IN DAMAGE TO EQUIPMENT IF NOT CAREFULLY OBSERVED OR FOLLOWED. , which is essential to emphasize. vi INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE COURSE ASSIGNMENTS assignments.
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