It is a strange architect who uses lithographic stones to pave the ground of a home. If it is even an ardent Daumier collector and art dealer, one wonders even more. Yet this is exactly what happened in the 1940s. The collector was the father of J. Frapier who had owned a certain number of stones which were hidden during the German occupation until 1945 in his house in Royan, France. They were later used for construction work at his villa and thus disappeared…
This story (told by Roger Passeron in his 1968 Blois exhibition catalogue on page 11) and the fact that we had found only very few remaining lithographic stones by Daumier enticed us to look into this fascinating medium and working tool. After all, of the approx. 4000 lithographs done by Daumier there ought to be plenty of stones around. We started looking.
Over a period of 8 years we were able to locate only about twenty stones of which the largest collection, 14 stones attributed to Daumier, were originally at the Musée Cantini in Marseille and were now supposed to be at the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Marseille. Two of them were shown in a Daumier exhibition in 1947 together with an old lithographic press. To our knowledge, only two stones are presently in private collections, while the remaining four are spread in museums such as Boston, Bibliothèque Nationale, Hammer Collection etc.
On December 20, 2007 we were informed by the curator of the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Marseille that indeed the 14 stones mentioned by Cherpin were not part of the Museum’s collection, nor did they belong to the Musée Cantini in Marseille. He believes that these stones were in 1947 most likely part of a private collection and they may have been lent on exhibition during the period described by Cherpin. We are presently trying to collect more information about the whereabouts of these 14 stones.
An article in the 1948 edition of ‘Art et Livres de Provence’, Marseille, p.155/156 describes with some consternation that several of the 14 stones of the Cantini Museum showed remarkable differences in text or printer’s address to the final print published in the Charivari. It seemed difficult to ascertain the reason for these differences and so far the Museum has not found a satisfactory answer to this question.
Let us review for a moment the practice of Daumier’s printing process.
1) Daumier drew directly on the stone. The stone was then hand-delivered to the editor/printer.
2) The printer added a text (which was composed by a journalist). A few prints on “papier mince” were done, one of which was sent for approval to the censor’s office.
3) After approval by the censor, one or two prints were done separately on “papier Chine” for special collectors (with or without text), who cherished the highest printing quality available.
4) In case the editor considered to later use the stone for an album or for single prints, an unknown but relatively small number of prints was done on wove paper (sur blanc) and put aside.
5) Finally the stone was used to print those lithographs which were to appear in the Charivari newspaper.
6) Once the printing process was finished, the drawing on the lithographic stone was erased by hand so the stone could be used again for a new lithograph. In the course of this process, the stones lost their thickness over time from initially some 10 cm to about 3 cm until they became too thin and risked to break. They were finally discarded. This explains why hardly any of the original stones carrying the original image produced by Daumier are left at the present time.
We suspect however that between points 4 and 5 there may have been a step which possibly has been overlooked so far. It has to do with the number of prints executed from the stone:
a) We know from the information contained in www.daumier.org that the Charivari during its heyday averaged a daily output of more than 2000 papers.
–> It would indeed seem strange to assume that the same lithographic stone was used for printing on papier mince, papier chine, sur blanc as well as for newsprint.
b) The editor, Mr. Aubert, would only know AFTER the appearance of a print in his newspaper whether the lithograph was successful with the public. Popular lithographs were reprinted on a better quality paper (wove paper) sur blanc on single sheets and/or sold in albums to collectors at a high price.
–> After having used the stone for 2000 or more newsprints, the lithographic stone must have shown signs of wear and loss of printing quality. It would therefore hardly seem plausible that the printer would have used the same used-up stone for a high quality print on wove paper to be sold in an expensive album.
We therefore must assume – and this was confirmed by several printing specialists we recently contacted – that the ‘original stone’ was marked on the side with a colour code for later identification and set aside in a depot right from the beginning as a reserve for an eventual use at a later date.
Since the early 19th century printers had developed ways to produce copies from an original lithographic stone. The system, described in detail by. F. Brunner in his “Handbook of Graphic Reproduction Processes” was called transfer stone or autographic stone. A sheet of rubber, special transfer-paper or even animal skin was prepared in such a way that a copy could be made from the ‘original stone’ and transferred onto a second ‘autographic stone’.
The pressure of a daily newspaper production process must have been the reason for a certain negligence in the details. Differences in size of the print which appeared on the two stones as well as a certain loss in print quality seemed to be almost unavoidable. This is clearly visible when comparing the stone with a sur blanc print and a Charivari print of the same lithograph. It occurred that sometimes parts of the address on the newspaper print (located underneath the image) looked faded or slightly “squashed”, a typical result of the use of a transfer stone.
Going back to the observations of the Musée Cantini mentioned above, the answer now seems evident: The editor/printer Aubert may have lent (against a fee) the original stone to another printer who wanted to use the image to produce a separate album on wove paper. Naturally he would have replaced Aubert’s address with his own; he may also have changed parts of the caption to fit his purpose.
The above explanations show how important it is to carefully evaluate various criteria of a lithographic stone offered on the art market. Is it the original or an “autographic stone”? Or could it even be a recent copy that has been used to do a modern reprint? In our opinion an old autographic stone should still be considered a collectors item, although it is not an original (like the mother-stone).
The age of a print on a lithographic stone should be examined. Nowadays an experienced lithographer can easily transfer an old Daumier print as an (almost) identical image onto an old lithographic stone (German: Umdruckverfahren). Some of the quality will possibly get lost and some details may appear “squashed”. For demonstration purposes such an experiment was done by Dr. J. Albrecht in his publication for the 1996 Daumier Exhibition in Schaffhausen, Switzerland. (p. 28/29) where he did a (clearly marked) reprint of DR 763 from a transfer stone.
Obviously, the price difference between originals (mother stones) and copy stones (autographic stones) is remarkable. An original Daumier lithographic stone must be considered being as rare as a drawing by Daumier, since that is exactly what it represents. Depending on the importance or beauty of the subject it can easily reach a six figure price level. The last sale of one of these stones we were able to trace back was sold for 40’000 Swiss Francs in the 1960’s at an auction (equivalent at that time’s exchange rate to about 10’000 US $). An autographic stone however is just a reprint on a stone from the same period, which has been transferred by use of a carrier such as a transfer paper. As shown above, such a stone should no longer be considered an original. Lately a number of stones were sold for about 160 $ a piece by an auction house in the Netherlands. The price level seems to suggest that they may have been autographic stones.
Original lithographic stones by Daumier are as close as one can possibly get to see, touch and understand Daumier’s lithographic oeuvre. It will be in the collector’s interest however to ascertain that a stone which is offered meets the criteria described above. Besides establishing the age of the stone (which can be a rather harmful process) one should carefully examine the printing result and pay attention to eventual differences in size, depth and appearance between the drawing on the stone and the finished print versions on newspaper and sur blanc. Often the newspaper version will show loss of details still found on the sur blanc version. If the sur blanc print is identical with the stone image, chances are good that this is the “mother stone” (which was reserved especially for sur blanc prints). If it were an autographic stone, one would most likely be able to see the losses in detail which had occurred during the transfer.
Other aspects of importance are the grain of the stone, the origin and quality of the printing colour used, the provenance (going as far back as possible in the history of the stone) to name just a few.
As so often in Daumier’s oeuvre one can assume that fakes would be done from attractive themes such as lawyers, doctors, genre-scenes, which would sell easily. This holds true for lithographs but also for stones. Therefore one should be careful if such stones are being offered; they might have been produced recently with the intention of making modern reprints of popular themes. Political scenes or more general, unattractive topics however would hardly entice a forger to spend time and effort, since such stones would be rather difficult to sell.
Thus most of the stones found in museums can with very few exceptions be considered thematically ‘coincidental’, as they should be.
In case of doubt, the opinion of an expert might shed some light. An experienced printer who is still familiar with working on an old lithographic printing press may be of great help. We have been very fortunate to have found several who proved to be extremely knowledgeable in this matter. These printers look at the stones with the eye of an artisan/craftsman rather than an art historian and they have a practical way of tackling the problem. Another expert could be an art historian or a curator who could explain the possible historic traps.
In any case, the old recommendation is valid here too: Buyer beware!
Maybe Mr. Frapier knew exactly what he was doing when using his lithographic stones for flooring…?
DR 3247 – Illustration of a lithographic “motherstone” (Private Collection)
Lithograph by Bourdet, Charivari August 6, 1835 showing lithographic stones. Photo with kind permission by Pierre E., Bordeaux, collector.


Oftentimes, when developing and delivering instructional videos for an online course, we wonder how many students are actually watching and, perhaps more importantly, understanding the information. Carmichael, Reed and Karpicke (2018) note that video aids in the learning process and can likewise influence students to remain engaged with course content. Still, there are times when we question the level of engagement from one student to the next after they have failed to follow the instructions or demonstrate a fundamental misunderstanding of course content. In addition to viewing analytics, such as those available in Kaltura Mediaspace, there is a simple method instructors can employ.
Enter the Easter egg.
“Easter eggs’ are commonly used in movies to depict clever meanings, reference a joke or sometimes hint at other associated films. Viewers must focus on the film in order to find these hidden meanings and references. While an Easter egg drop to a hidden reference may prove impractical for instruction, inserting an Easter egg that encourages a student to watch a video from start to finish can be an effective way to win students’ attention.
Developing an Easter egg to either encourage or reinforce student engagement is a relatively easy process. One form of an Easter egg may be to plant an extra-credit opportunity in a video. For instance, while developing a video overview of the class each week, I will take a brief pause at some point during the overview and ask a question regarding some aspect of the material being covered. My intent is to keep it brief, ask the question and to ask the students to respond to me at some point during the week with an answer. Those who find the extra-credit Easter egg and email me with their response earn a couple of points on their grade.
In weekly videos for his Massive Online Research Experience (BIOL F193) course, Abel Bult-Ito uses a Snoopy doll as a subtle kind of Easter egg. Each week, he places the doll in a different spot in the background of his webcam video. Students who notice have remarked that it added a motivating factor, if small, to each video viewing. While there is no extra credit attached to finding the doll, it adds a layer of potential engagement and Bult-Ito found it motivating in his own quest to produce 108 short videos for his course.
Easter eggs can be both playful and motivating but should not be treated as a catchall solution for student engagement with video content. If the video does not use best practices for instructional videos, it will be difficult to obtain the level of engagement needed to ensure that students absorb the content. Before instructors attempt the Easter egg approach, they should review their videos for quality. If many students are not watching the videos, survey the class for feedback before attempting engagement tactics.
There is some labor involved in warning students of the Easter egg (thus encouraging them to watch) and balancing extra-credit opportunities with the total number of points for the course. The benefit of planting an Easter egg however may be a higher rate of student engagement as a result of a more determined examination of the video narratives. Ideally, this should translate into a reduced number of student questions from those who did not previously watch the videos while simultaneously reinforcing the desire of other students to pay more attention.
This tip is the first in a series of teaching tips written by the 2019-20 participants from UAF eCampus’s Expanding Pedagogies, Innovative Courses (EPIC) program. EPIC supports UAF instructors working together to build and deliver innovative online courses. More information about EPIC and other faculty development opportunities with eCampus.
Carmichael, M., Reid, A. K., & Karpicke, J. D. (2018). Assessing the impact of educational video on student engagement, critical thinking and learning: The current state of play. white paper, Sage Publishing, available at: https://au.sagepub.com/en-gb/oce/press/what-impact-does-video-have-on-student-engagement (accessed 6 June 2018).
Cameron Carlson, Ph.D., PMP, is the program director for the Homeland Security and Emergency Management undergraduate and graduate degrees within the School of Management. He is also a member of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Science of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) focus group.


Translating their designs for the lithographic stone or wooden block helped modern printmakers to achieve ‘flat’ compositions of lines, planes, patterns and colours.
For inspiration, these artists looked primarily to Japanese wood block prints, admiring their bold outlines, elongated silhouettes, large expanses of colour and unconventional viewpoints.
Symbolist printmakers learned from these examples that it was not necessary to represent the world as a naturalistic illusion.
By carefully arranging their prints into decorative compositions, they sought — like their Symbolist counterparts in music and poetry — not only to stimulate their viewers’ senses, but also to touch their souls.
Artists introduced decoration into everyday life by producing autonomous fine-art prints and commercial graphic work, primarily for their own, closed cultural worlds of theatre, music and literature.
On the other hand, their posters and magazine illustrations were intended for everyone.
Brightly coloured advertisements adorned the grey streets of Paris, where these ‘frescoes for the crowd’ could indeed be admired by all.
Patricia Eckert Boyer, ‘L’Estampe originale and the Revival of Decorative Art and Craft in Late Nineteenth-Century France,’ in L'Estampe originale. Artistic Printmaking in France 1893-1895, Zwolle 1991, p. 26-49
Gloria Groom, Nicholas Watkins, Beyond the easel: Decorative Painting by Bonnard, Vuillard, Denis and Roussel 1890–1930, New Haven 2001
Katherine M. Kuenzli, The Nabis and Intimate Modernism: Painting and the Decorative at the Fin-de-Siècle, Ashgate 2010


Description & Technical information
This is the illuminated dedication copy made for Louis II, the 5th Duke of Orléans-Longueville, when in 1524 he inherited the duchy (created in 1505) from his brother, Claude, who died in battle. Written by a hitherto unknown author from the famous Baudreuil family (and his only known work), the text, existing in four other copies, remains unedited, and the present manuscript is the only one that is illustrated. The text confirms the Duke’s rights to the duchy and other lands, and the prefatory allegorical miniature by the Master of the Paris Entries commemorates the transfer of the fiefdom of Châtelaillon amongst the lands of the Orléans-Longueville and refers to its alleged mythological origins, which are glorified.
Date: 1525 (likely after 1524)
Period: 1400-1600, 16th Century
Origin: France, Paris
Categories: Illuminated Manuscripts & Medieval Works of Art
Discover the gallery
Medieval Works of Art including Illuminated Manuscripts, Miniatures, Books of Hours and Rings
More Works From This Gallery
SCHEMBART ("hiding beard") CARNIVAL BOOK
Gold Ring Franciscus South Miles
Gold Ring with Openwork Hoop
Panel with Banderoles
Posy Ring "God Above Increase Our Love"


What Is The Stolen Generation?
What is the Stolen Generation?
Stolen Generation or Stolen Generations is the name given to those children of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent who were taken away from their families and communities by Federal and State government officials, missionaries, and welfare bodies.
These children were put into institutions or were fostered or adopted into non-Aboriginal families. They were raised away from their traditional culture and were denied any link or connection with their traditional influences and values.
The children had to adopt the white way of life and had to adopt the values of Anglo society.
To achieve this the children were isolated from their families and were educated in the European way.
This period in Australia’s history is now regarded as a dark and blemished chapter.
Children at risk
The children were found to be at risk from different kinds of abuse and many were never to see their parents, siblings or relatives again.
Under various Federal and State legislation government officials had the power to take charge of Indigenous children whom they
thought needed care, custody and education. At least this was their justification.
The laws that permitted this led to generations of children being removed from their families right up until the 1970s.
In 1997 a national enquiry into the story of the Stolen Generations was conducted. This resulted in the historic report called Bringing Them Home.
The Bringing Them Home report concluded that between one in three and one in ten Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities in the period from approximately 1910 until 1970.
Why did they take the children?
Under the Protection policy in the 1800s Aboriginal people started moving to missions that were being established. In the missions they were introduced to European beliefs and values.
They had to adopt the Christian religion and they also became a source of cheap labour.
When it seemed that Aboriginal people were dying out the British decided “to protect” the surviving people.
Many Aboriginal people died as a result of violent conflict between Aboriginal people and the European invaders of their lands.
The first one hundred years from 1788 was marked by constant warfare. The heirs of the generations and generations of Aboriginal people who had occupied the continent for 60 000 years fought and died in defence of their lands.
There were killings and massacres throughout Australia. Once the warfare began it was constant, the last recorded massacre being in 1928.
Loaded guns hung in every room of every station homestead in Queensland and the Northern Territory until the twentieth century.
Initially the Indigenous Australians underestimated the power of the European firearms. Slowly and bloodily they learned by experience that the musket was more powerful than any weapon that they had ever devised.
In the 1840s in Victoria a group of Aboriginal warriors attacked a party of armed and mounted men. The mounted force wiped them out.
In defence of their lands Aboriginal people turned to economic and guerrilla warfare and started destroying the property of the invaders. They destroyed sheep and cattle.
In retaliation the invaders poisoned waterholes.
European diseases took hold among Indigenous people. Many were forced to live on government rations and suffered malnutrition and terrible illnesses.
Because colonial governments (Australia did not have aFederal government until 1901) thought Aboriginal people were on their way to becoming extinct they introduced protectionist legislation.
This protectionist legislation was designed to control and segregate Aboriginal people from mainstream white society – deciding where and how they should live.
Various denominations of missionaries set up mission stations in different parts of the continent. The plan was to protect Aboriginal people and train them in Christian ideals. Around ten missions were set up in New South Wales alone.
1869 saw the establishment of the Victorian Board for the Protection of Aborigines. Children could be removed to a reformatory or industrial school or removed from station families to be housed in dormitories.
The other colonies followed suit with New South Wales (1883), Queensland (1897), Western Australia (1905) and South Australia (1911).
Laws designed to protect Aboriginal people meant government authorities, like a Chief Protector or Protection Board, were given extensive powers to control Aboriginal people.
In some States and the Northern Territory these authorities became the legal guardians of Aboriginal people. Parents lost all rights to their children.
These laws caused a further breakdown of traditional Aboriginal culture.
In 1883 when the Aborigines Protection Board in New South Wales had been set up to “care” for Aboriginal Australians, it had the power to remove children from their parents and families. It was also illegal for people of mixed descent to live on Aboriginal reserves.
In the early twentieth century under the assimilation policy white Australians thought the Aboriginal race would eventually die out. A systematic plan had been put into place to wipe out the Aboriginal race forever.
Within a few generations it was figured that Aboriginal genes would be ‘bred out’ when Aboriginal people had children with white people.
If the Aboriginal race was eventually eliminated the so called “Aboriginal problem” would be removed.
Taking on the values of white Australia
While the population of Aborigines of full descent declined, the population of mixed descent increased.
Governments decided that people of mixed descent should be brought into the Australian work force so they didn’t have to depend on government rations and forced to take on the values of white Australia.
The laws permitted governments to remove children of mixed descent from their families and place them with white families for whom they would work.
Children could be removed from a very early age. They were made to live in dormitories until the age of 14. Then they were sent off to work on missions, in settlements, or with white families.
The policy of assimilation meant that in 1937 children of mixed descent had to be educated in the European system. If they were educated into adopting white values they would take their place in white society.
By 1941 state government institutions and missions were given extra funding to remove even more children from their families. The reason was that they were “neglected” children. As the institutions became overcrowded more and more children were placed into white families.
Even the identities of these children were denied. The children were given new names and all effort went into ensuring that these children never saw their parents again.
If the children did have some contact their letters were censored. Often children were told that their parents had died or that their mothers did not want them any more.
Mothers were told similar lies about their own children. Often children were lost from their families forever.
Authorities wanted all traces of Indigenous cultural heritage removed so that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children would eventually become assimilated into white society.
A Wiradjuri story
Iris Clayton a Wiradjuri lady from Leeton, NSW was a member of the Stolen Generations. Wiradjuri lands took in much of south, central and western New South Wales.
Her family lived at Wattle Hill and the houses there were made of old kerosene tins found at the tip. The tins were flattened out and nailed to wooden posts to form walls of the house.
Iris was the eldest of 9 children. Officials from the Aboriginal Protection Board started coming around when Iris was 11 years old. Their father had left home. The officials advised her mother that Iris and her siblings would be better off living in a home.
In the mid 1950s officials came to take the children away.
The children were taken to the train not even having enough time to say goodbyes to friends and relatives.
The children were taken to Cootamundra Girls’ Home. The girls were primarily trained to be housemaids. They had to clean the Home from top to bottom before breakfast. Then they had to go to school. After school it was back to work attending to domestic duties.
They were not allowed to speak their traditional language. Punishment was severe if you did.
Many of the girls at the Home didn’t know who their parents were or where they had come from as they had been taken away as babies.
For the majority of Aboriginal children, being taken away from their families and communities was not in their best interest. According to The Little Red Yellow Black book “The institutions and church missions where most children were placed suppressed their knowledge about their own families, language and culture. In some places discipline was enforced with heartless and brutal punishments.”1
The Coalition Government (1996-2007) under Prime Minister John Howard did not respond formally to the Bringing Them Home Report until December 1997 which was seven months after it was released.
While Prime Minister Howard expressed his personal sorrow for the victims of past injustices he was opposed to his government saying “Sorry”.
There were three reasons for Howard taking this stand.
The first was that he was of the opinion that past government laws and policies were made in the best interests of Indigenous children. Secondly, Howard saw no reason why people of today should accept responsibility for decisions made in the past.
He didn’t feel that his government should apologise for the actions of past governments.
And finally, Howard thought there would be a rush of compensation claims should his government say sorry.
On Wednesday, 13 February 2008 the then Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd made his opening address to the newly elected Australian Parliament. In this landmark address Rudd apologised to all Indigenous Australians and to the Stolen Generations in particular for past laws and policies that had caused so much grief, suffering and loss.
Rudd’s Apology said “We apologise for the laws and policies of successive Parliaments and governments that have inflicted profound grief, suffering and loss on these our fellow Australians…For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry.”2
Rudd’s Apology occurred ten years after the Bringing Them Home Report which was released on 26 May 1997.
On the 26 May each year now there is an Australia wide observance of National Sorry Day. This day provides the opportunity for people to come together and share the process towards healing. This is healing for the Stolen Generations their families and communities.
It’s a day of remembrance for those members of the Stolen Generations and their families and their communities who were taken away from their families by force.
In 1998 on 26 May the first National Sorry Day was held. This was a year after the publication of the Bringing Them Home Report when all those Indigenous children who had been removed from their families and communities was acknowledged and publicised. Not only that but it was acknowledged that those responsible for this dark and blemished chapter of Australian history were the Australian governments, their officials, and the missionaries.
Barlow, Alex & Hill, Marji The Macmillan Encyclopaedia of Australia’s Aboriginal Peoples. South Yarra, Vic, Macmillan, 2000.
Clayton, Iris & Barlow, Alex Wiradjuri Of The Rivers and Plains. Port Melbourne, Vic, Heinemann, 1997.
Hill, Marji First People Then And Now: Introducing Indigenous Australians. Gold Coast, Qld, Prison Tree Press, 2017.
Hill, Marji Saying Sorry To The Stolen Generations: The Apology. Melbourne, Pearson, 2009.
Hill, Marji & Grassby, Al Six Australian Battlefields: The Black Resistance To Invasion And The Whie Struggle Against Colonial Oppression. North Ryde, NSW, Angus & Robertson, 1988.
1 Pascoe, Bruce The Little Red Yellow Black Book: An Introduction To Indigenous Australia. 3rd ed. Canberra, Aboriginal Studies Press, 2012.
Author: First People Then And Now: Introducing Indigenous Australians. Gold Coast, The Prison Tree Press, 2017.


THE ENGLISH GARDEN
AND THE BOTANIC GARDENS
The Stowe House
Stowe, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom; 1677-1779; architects: John Vanbrugh, James Gibbs. More info on Wikipedia: The Stowe House.
Plan from N. Vergnaud architect: " L'Art de créer les Jardins", Paris, France, 1825. Source: ETH-Bibliothek Zürich, website: e-rara.ch.
The Wilton House
near Salisbury in Wiltshire, United Kingdom; 1630 and later; architects: Inigo Jones, James Wyatt. More info on Wikipedia: The Wilton House.
London, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; 1637 and later; architect: Decimus Burton and others. More info on Wikipedia: Hyde Park.
Philip Henry Delamotte (1821–1889), photographer, Smithsonian Libraries: "The Crystal Palace (by Sir Joseph Paxton architect, 1803-1865) in Hyde Park for Grand International Exhibition of 1851". Source: Wikimedia Commons.
Jardin des plantes
in Paris, France; 1635 and later. More info on Wikipedia: Le Jardin des plantes de Paris.
Image taken from the book: "Jardin des Plantes. Les serres" by Gaëtan Cathelineau, year 1821. Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, website: gallica.bnf.fr.
At Jardin des Plantes, Paris. Photograph by Michele Leonardi.
Royal Botanic Gardens
Kew, Great London, United Kingdom; 1759 and later; architects: Sir William Chambers, Decimus Burton (the Palm House) and others. More info on Wikipedia: The Kew Gardens.
"Exploring The Kew Gardens". Photographs by Michele Leonardi.
William Marlow (1740/41–1813): "View of the Lake and the Island from the Lawn at Kew", 1763. Source: THE MET - The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, U.S.A.
Image taken from the book: "L'art des jardins: parcs, jardins, promenades" of Alfred-Auguste Ernouf, year 1886. Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, website: gallica.bnf.fr.
Giardini Reali di Monza
in Monza, near Milano, Italy; 1783; architect: Giuseppe Piermarini. More info on Wikipedia: Giardini della Villa Reale di Monza.
near Dessau, Germany; 1790 and later; architect: Friedrich Wilhelm von Erdmannsdorff. More info on Wikipedia: Das Dessau-Wörlitzer Gartenreich.
The English Garden
of Reggia di Caserta
in Caserta, Italy; 1798 and later; architects: Carlo Vanvitelli and others . More info on Wikipedia: The English Garden of Reggia di Caserta.
in Bad Muskau, Görlitz, Saxony, Germany; and Łęknica, Żary County, Lubusz Voivodeship, Poland; year 1815; architects: Eduard Petzold and others. More info on Wikipedia: Muskauer Park.
in London, United Kingdom; c. 1833; architects: John Nash, Decimus Burton, and others. More info on Wikipedia: Regent's Park.
in Laxenburg, Austria; 1835; architects: Johann Ferdinand Hetzendorf von Hohenberg and others (the gardens). More info on Wikipedia: Franzensburg.
Reggia di Capodimonte
in Neaples, Italy; c. 1850; architect: Federico Dehnhardt (risistemazione a giardini all'inglese). More info on Wikipedia: The English Gardens of Reggia di Capodimonte.
Sintra Pena Palace
in Sintra, Portugal; 1854; architect: Wilhelm Ludwig von Eschwege. More info on Wikipedia: Parque e Palácio da Pena.
New York, United States of America; 1857; architects: Frederick Law Olmsted e Calvert Vaux. More info on Wikipedia: Central Park.
Winslow Homer (1836–1910): "Skating on the Ladies' Skating Pond in Central Park, New York ", from Harper's Weekly, Vol. IV, Harper's Weekly Publisher, January 28, 1860. Source: THE MET - The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, U.S.A. Website: www.metmuseum.org .
in Paris; year 1867; architect: Jean-Charles Alphand. More info on Wikipedia: Parc de Buttes-Chaumont.
"Il pleut aux Buttes-Chaumont". Photograph by Michele Leonardi.
"Parc des Buttes-Chaumont", 18XX. Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, website: gallica.bnf.fr.
Agence de presse Meurisse, Agence photographique: "Vue de Paris : les Buttes Chaumont, le Belvédère", 1926. Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France, website: gallica.bnf.fr.
"L'amour au parc des Buttes-Chaumont". Photographs by Michele Leonardi.
in Waddesdon, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom; 1874-1889; architect: Hippolyte Destailleur. More info on Wikipedia: The Waddesdon Manor.
in Milan, Italy; 1893; architect: Emilio Alemagna. More info on Wikipedia: Parco Sempione.
in Berlin, Germany; 1894; architects: Karl Friedrich Schinkel and others. More info on Wikipedia: Viktoriapark.
From the book: "Choix des plus célèbres maisons de plaisance de Rome et de ses environs" by Charles Percier, Paris, France, 1824. Source: ETH-Bibliothek Zürich, website: e-rara.ch.
- Alfred-Auguste Ernouf: "L'art des jardins: parcs, jardins, promenades", Rothschild Éditeur, Paris, France, 1886.
Text in French.
- Monique Mosser and Georges Teyssot: "The Architecture of Western Gardens: A Design History from the Renaissance to the Present Day", 544 pages, The MIT Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, U.S.A., 1991.
The Architecture of Western Gardens presents an international tour of garden design from the Renaissance to the present. As object and as literature, it is a sumptuous and unprecedented resource. The more than seventy essays by scholars from Europe and America all commissioned for this book - and over 650 illustrations raise the standard of garden literature to a new level. The result is an invaluable compendium that will serve as a fundamental starting point for exploring the many expressions of the place where nature and culture, project and diversion, work and pleasure meet. Organized chronologically, the essays and illustrations make up a mosaic of the garden in the Western world. The humanist garden in Renaissance Italy, the concepts of the "Sublime" and the "Picturesque," mazes, grottoes, and other curiosities, city parks, American land art, and even Disneyland are among the topics treated. Discussions of characteristic aspects of history and theory are followed by analyses of individual gardens as paradigms of their type: the Hortus Palatinus in Heidelberg, the Parc Monceau in Paris, the Park Güell in Barcelona, Stowe in England, and many more. The illustrations are a model of how iconography can function as text. They include ground plans meticulously redrawn from original archival material to provide precise information on the scale and nature of many of the projects, as well as a wealth of drawings, reconstructions, paintings, and photographs.


Over the next six days, there will be three very somber anniversaries in the space community. That six-day stretch began today, as on this date in 1967, three Apollo 1 astronauts died in a flash fire during a launch pad test. Tomorrow will mark the anniversary of the Space Shuttle Challenger’s explosion during launch in 1986, a tragedy that claimed the lives of all seven astronauts on board. And then of course this Sunday, February 1, will be the twelfth anniversary of the loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia and the seven astronauts of her crew, all of whom perished when the vehicle disintegrated during reentry.
For more about these tragedies and the heroes we lost as a result of them, you can read our World Space Week blog post from October 8, 2012.
These tragic accidents, like the one that claimed the life of a Virgin Galactic test pilot last year, serve as a reminder that leaving this planet is never easy, and that traveling and working in space will never truly be “safe.” But each of these men and women who made the ultimate sacrifice in the name of space exploration believed that going out to the black was something worth risking their very lives for, and ultimately they did it for us, for our children and for those future generations for whom travel into Low Earth Orbit will be no more extraordinary than an airline flight from New York to Berlin is today.
And for those of us who will never know what it’s like to break atmo, the least we can do to show our gratitude is honor their memories. May they rest in peace.
Ad astra per aspera…


Caught a virus and starting to experience severe headaches? If you start to have severe viral infection headaches, then you should check them out. It will be a good idea to ensure that your symptoms do not point to a case of meningitis. There are serious consequences from having meningitis.
So what is meningitis all about? This is an infection in the membrane that surrounds your brain. Brain and spinal cord infections can be very dangerous because they cause inflammation, which places pressure on your nerves.
This will cause you to have a viral infection headache.
Inflammation can also cause the following symptoms:
* Severe headache
* Feeling confused
Severe inflammation can cause these symptoms:
* Brain damage
A bacterial infection or virus causes meningitis. The body can usually fight and beat an infection. However, when the infection travels into the blood stream, it can then go into your brain and spinal cord fluid. It can then affect your nerves and move into the brain causing inflammation and swelling.
This can damage or kill nerve cells and cause bleeding in the brain. It can also cause you to have a viral infection headache.
Brain swelling is very dangerous because the brain is a soft organ in a hard box (the skull). If the brain swells, there is nowhere for it to go, except against the walls of the skull. This is what causes the most damage.
There are several causes of meningitis.
* Bacterial infection
* Viral infection
* Fungal infection
* A reaction to medications
* A reaction to medical treatments
* Some forms of cancer
* A trauma to the head or back
Bacterial meningitis is the worst type because it can kill you. It often begins as an upper respiratory tract infection. From there it travels through your blood vessels to your brain. Then it can block up your blood vessels inside your brain triggering a stroke and brain damage.
Viral meningitis is the most common form.
Usually viruses that enter your body through your mouth before going to your brain and multiplying cause it. You can find these viruses in the mucus, saliva and feces.
Other viruses that may cause meningitis include:
* Chicken pox
* Genital herpes
Anyone can catch meningitis. This is especially true if your immune system is weak.
Meningitis often begins like the flu does. You may get a rash.
The major symptoms include:
* Running a sudden fever
* A severe headache
* Stiff neck
* Dislike of light
Bacterial meningitis must be treated quickly. Severe bacterial meningitis will require intravenous antibiotics. On the other hand, antibiotics cannot be used to treat viral meningitis because they do not kill viruses.
Whether you are having bacterial or viral meningitis, what would be best for yourself is to get plenty of rest and give your body a break. In the meantime, drink plenty of water to flush out the toxins and go easy on your diet.
Do follow the recommendations by your doctor during this period. Your viral infection headache and other symptoms will start to subside as your body recovers.
Article Source: ArticlesAlley.com


The tragic consequences of the Great War left an indelible mark in the European psyche and inevitably changed the course of the development of intellectual movements emerged in the years leading up to World War I. One of the consequences we find during the 1920s is the dismissal of previously appealing theories of industrialisation of art, in favor instead of a more conceptual approach labeled Rationalism.
Part of the argument that gave rise to Rationalism was the uncontrolled proliferation of decorative elements in architectural design as the conceptual postulates launched towards the final third of the XIX century reached their full potential. On the other hand, the aggressive rhetoric put forward by avant-garde theorists who spoke of a purge of civilisation and the beauty of war was defeated by the full weight of its own argument, as a whole generation emerged from a senseless conflict with serious issues of orientation.
As the Bauhaus, main engine and general headquarters of European rationalism, moved from the small town of Weimar to the even smaller town of Dessau, in Spain emerged the first group or school of progressive creators with rationalist tendencies (the GATCPAC in Barcelona in 1928, later expanded to the GATEPAC in 1930).
Much like everything else in the course of the XX century in Spain, the natural development of Spanish Rationalism was truncated, cut short and essentially halted by the horrors of the Civil War of 1936-39. But in the years leading up to the break of war, two names distinguished themselves among the new generation of Spanish architects:
One of them was Josep Lluís Sert, leading member of the original GATCPAC, who put in practice the theoretical postulates discussed previously in his earliest creations, such as the residential building of Calle Muntaner in Barcelona, which boasts clean straight lines devoid of any ornament whatsoever superfluous to the actual purpose of the building. Following the Civil War, Sert would emigrate to the United States and further develop his style in different directions.
Another leading figure in the GATEPAC was Fernando García Mercadal, perhaps the very first promoter of Rationalism in Spain. Unlike many of the members of the group, García Mercadal had the opportunity and the vision to carry out in full a project that expressed the practicalities of the theory put forward by the movement. Such project was the now famous 'El rincón de Goya', an urban development in the city of Zaragoza.
Wedged right between the banks of the river Huerva and the edge of the Parque José Antonio Labordeta, 'El rincón de Goya' is located in a privileged spot to allow the sharpness of its lines, straight, austere and eminently utilitarian, to blend with the environment. For this very reason, García Mercadal is not only considered the first exponent of Rationalism in Spain, but also the most accomplished.
Apart from 'El rincón de Goya', Fernando García Mercadal was also active in the capital, and, as a matter of fact, you are sure to have walked along his creation in Madrid, as his layout of the Sabatini Gardens, which replaced the structure of the stables before the Royal Palace, is to this day a highly popular tourist destination.
The GATEPAC had three venues in Spain, one in Barcelona, one in Madrid and the third one, the northern branch, in San Sebastian. The most important representative of this third brach was José Manuel Aizpurúa, whose Nautical Club in that same city remains today an iconic symbol of Republican architecture. Built in the shape of a boat, the Nautical Club incorporates a versatile design that is simultaneously ornamental in its evocation of a boat and effective in the fulfilment of its purpose.
Like many of the members of the GATEPAC, Aizpurúa met his untimely death during the early days of the Civil War putting an end to his promising career. Most of those who survived emigrated away from the fascist government, and even those who stayed were forced to move away from rationalism during the first period of Franco's time, as the architecture endorsed by the officialdom became monumental, symbolic and eminently idiosyncratic.


TopicCreative flowcharts free.
PostedSun, Aug 04th 2019 08:53 AM
Flow Chart Definition. A flowchart is a graphic representation of how a process works, showing, at a minimum, the sequence of steps. A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation that illustrates the sequence of operations to be performed to get the solution to a problem. It can be seen from the definition that a flow always accompanies with business or transaction. Not all of the flows, however, are appropriate to be expressed by flowcharts, unless these flows are based on some fixed routines and stable links. Here is an example of the algorithm flowchart.
Another completely free option for your consideration is Wireflow. It is the perfect tool for web developers and app designers. Wireflow is a beautiful flowchart tool for designing user flows and wireframes. A pretty and intuitive interface offers a variety of different chart designs, that you can drag-and-drop onto a fresh canvas. There are many connectors to choose from, and everything’s manageable through drag-and-drop.


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Roll crusher (roller crusher) is suitable for the fine crushing of the materials with feeding size less than 110mm, and finished particle size 3-30mm.
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EPA Proposes Universal Waste Designation for Aerosol Cans
March 13, 2018 •
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is proposing to add hazardous waste aerosol cans to the universal waste program under the federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations. In a pre-publication notice signed March 5 by EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt, the agency said, “this proposed change, once finalized, would benefit the wide variety of establishments generating and managing hazardous waste aerosol cans, including the retail sector, by providing a clear, protective system for managing discarded aerosol cans.”
EPA will accept comments for the 60-day period following the official publication notice in the Federal Register.
The streamlined universal waste regulations are expected to ease regulatory burdens on retail stores and others that discard hazardous waste aerosol cans; promote the collection and recycling of these cans; and encourage the development of municipal and commercial programs to reduce the quantity of these wastes going to municipal solid waste landfills or combustors.
Under the proposed reclassification, aerosol cans, pressurized or spent — including spray paint cans — would be treated and handled as universal waste. In 1995, EPA promulgated the universal waste rule to establish a streamlined hazardous waste management system for widely generated hazardous wastes to encourage environmentally sound collection and proper management of the wastes within the system. Hazardous waste batteries, certain hazardous waste pesticides, mercury-containing equipment, and hazardous waste lamps are already included on the federal list of universal wastes. The universal waste regulations in 40 CFR part 273 are a set of alternative hazardous waste management standards that operate in lieu of regulation under 40 CFR parts 260 through 272 for specified hazardous wastes.
Notably, four states, California, Colorado, Utah and New Mexico, already have universal waste aerosol can programs in place; and two more states, Ohio and Minnesota, have proposed to add aerosol cans to their universal waste regulations. The universal waste programs in all these states include streamlined management standards like 40 CFR part 273 for small and large quantity handlers of universal waste, and a one-year accumulation time limit for the aerosol cans. In addition, the four state universal waste programs, as well as Ohio’s proposed regulations, set standards for puncturing and draining of aerosol cans by universal waste handlers.
More information on EPA’s Universal Waste Program may be found here.


Though Bartram mentions a variety of delightful vistas as he travels the lower sections of the Southeast, the landscape depicted in this image perhaps best represents what he would have witnessed day after day on horseback. It is anything but representative of the landscape of the lower South of today.
Characterized by slash and longleaf pines, some older than 400 years, and a continuous, spectacularly diverse ground plane, the Big Woods of Greenwood Plantation, is as much a vision of paradise as a refuge for many rare and endangered species. The airiness under the canopy of stately trees and the long views of the verdant greensward offer today’s viewer an experience of passing through the timeless, but virtually forgotten, longleaf landscape that once covered 90 million acres of the Coastal Plain. Thanks to good fortune and excellent stewardship, especially for the last 50 years by forester Leon Neel, the 1,000 privately-owned acres called the Big Woods have made the rare transition from a fire-dependent prehistoric landscape to a fire-managed preserve, without suffering clear-cutting or prolonged fire suppression along the way. Burned nearly annually, it retains the ecological integrity and aesthetic richness seen in Bartram’s time -- unimaginable in the fire-suppressed forests of the Southeast today. It also harbors the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker. *
* This is an excerpt from Philip's essay appearing in: Bartram’s Living Legacy: Travels and the Nature of the South


The lion brings a bull down in a naos-shaped niche, with a wreath, pomegranate, writing utensils and a writing board below – these are the attributes of a strong, educated, and successful man. Similar stelae were produced in the valley of the river Hermos (today’s Gediz) on the boundary of Mysia and Phrygia. The Greek inscription relates that the stele was erected by the wife and children of the deceased in the year 190 of the local era. This corresponds to 159/160 AD, because in this region the battle of Actium (31 BC) was used as a starting date from which to calculate time.
Marble analyses conducted by Danielle Decrouez (Geneva, Museum of Natural History) and Karl Ramseyer (University of Bern, Institute of Geological Sciences) have shown that the stele was made of Turkish marble. Click here for the detailed results.


We’re working with two very enjoyable ideas this term, drawing and food. Maybe we’ll finish up drawing with food or making edible drawings-who knows?
This week I brought along some fish fresh from the fish counter and was really impressed how the children’s curiosity took over very quickly. We worked on careful observation using blind contour drawing with handwriting pens. We then repeated the exercise allowing ourselves to glance at the paper.
Next we thought about how our drawings could be more interesting. We made cards with different marks on then looked at where we could use these mark making techniques on our fish drawings.
Finally we looked at what would happen if we used a wash over the handwriting pens. Everybody spent the rest of the session experimenting with line, wash and colour resulting in some beautiful and delicate drawings.


Tourism is travel for organization or enjoyment the process and principle of amusing, appealing and accommodating and attracting guests, to express the feeling in our tradition and neighborhood with him or her. It calls for the works and pursuits developed to create a far better respect and being familiar with of another traditions, viewpoint, or area of skills. It also consists of behavior to enhance and maintain tourism as a way of strengthening leisure and societal activity. Today, tourist is growing significantly as a company sector that uses many individuals. Lots of tourist products and services are available by businesses and motels.
The main power right behind holidays advancement is international holidays, which attributes the greatest add up to the global holidays field. International vacation normally takes the sort of inbound and outbound tourist, including equally national vacation in addition to outbound holidays guided on the way to an additional place. Outbound tourism comprises all sorts of holidays which enables targeted traffic to make their places for any short term holiday getaway or visit with an occasional or long-term period. In contrast, inbound vacation means tourism guided in the direction of yet another country’s sides, including goes to manufactured by site visitors who plan to continue to be much longer and investigate the landscape and traditions of the country. Inbound travel and leisure contributes a whole lot to the worldwide gross household item (GDP), simply because it improves the country’s use speed, which often, boosts the economic system.
The promotion of national holidays is required to its profitable development. Many tourist destinations are frequently remarkably desired by international travellers. Therefore, tourists often would prefer to check out these spots through other attainable spots. Promoting the vacation market is frequently considered as one of the most effective resources for supporting a country’s economy. Therefore, government entities motivates travel by offering financial as well as other assistance to holidays-connected businesses.
For travellers to have a relaxing getaway, they have to think about at the very least three potential spots when preparing for a journey. These areas outdoors their regular surroundings for vacation entice lots of site visitors. A very good model will be the coastal locations, which offer lots of tourist attractions both for residents and international visitors. Visitors can select in which to stay seashore major resorts, keep-cations, or maybe hire a villa via the seaside. There are many of routines to carry out in the vacation spots hence, tourists can get pleasure from their down time during their stay in these places.
Apart from that, beachfronts are also amongst the top rated holiday locations outside the house their typical surroundings for tourist organizations. These areas supply a lot of leisure actions like surfing, water skiing, scuba diving, or maybe soothing from the pool. There are many of activities during these tourist spots, thus, making them widely used places for guests. This only shows that far more tourists will revisit to your coastlines in order to acquire more fun into their subsequent family vacation.
Among the best solutions to increase national travel is actually by featuring discount rates and packages to visitors. One example to do this is offering family vacation packages for young couples and loved ones. You can actually essentially get reductions together with other rights after you prepare your journey with the holidays business. Several of the perks include goal scheduling, early on use of bundles, totally free conveniences and services, concern managing of visas, reductions on gifts and foods, cost-free vehicle rentals, together with other similar advantages.
Another good way to increase travel and leisure is concentrating on your marketing campaign on the locals. By taking the effort to increase your marketing strategy to them, those who survive around the holiday spots you might be targeting will value it. By way of example, you may create pamphlets along with other pamphlets you could provide on the local residents. These leaflets should give them the information they need about travel and leisure locally. This but not only makes them sense critical it also offers them a way to end up ordinary prospects of your own inbound holidays company.
Lastly, one other good way of promoting tourism is actually by generating promotional products and mementos which can be offered to your friends and family. These materials will let them bear in mind your adventures. Examples because of these products are important chains, t-t shirts, totes, calendars, umbrellas and pens holiday books, as well as other these types of merchandise. Inside the tourist feature enterprises and things to do field, buyer maintenance is important so that you need to ensure that your shoppers will come back to your web site. These things will make sure that they may never forget their visits there.
Even more guidelines from advisable publishers:


Why is it important to identify and help disorganized students? Who are disorganized students and what do they do differently than organized students? We all know adults who function adequately despite their disorganized homes or chaos at work (although many do not). If you asked them, they would probably tell you that they’ve always been that way, even as children. What they might be hesitant to share is that struggling with organization affected them mentally, emotionally, socially, and maybe even physically even when they were students.
It is important to understand that disorganized students are no different than any other students in the sense that they need love, understanding, support, encouragement, and confidence. As a parent, your goal is to help set your student up for success. That means understanding the specific strategies that will help the disorganized student to function in a more organized and less stressful way in all environments. It may also mean that he or she will need to develop coping strategies for the areas that present greater difficulty.
Previously I recommended that you begin to keep a notebook describing the behaviors that you observed in your student that demonstrate his or her difficulty with getting or staying organized. Now add information to this notebook (remember it is for the parents’ eyes, only) about the student’s predominant learning style. Notice if he or she tend to learn and remember information that is presented visually more so than auditorally. Or is the student what we call a kinesthetic learner? Some students learn and remember things better when they are hands-on and can do something with things.
Image courtesy of: hyenareality/freedigitalphotos.net


Religion in the Civil War: The Northern Perspective|
|James Howell Moorhead
Princeton Theological Seminary
©National Humanities Center
After Confederate forces opened fire on Fort Sumter in April 1861, the vast majority of Northern religious bodieswith the exception of the historic "peace" churches which on principle adhered to pacifismardently supported the war for the Union. Of these groups, Protestants still enjoyed a significant numerical and cultural dominance in the 1860s. Catholics and Jews provided notable (and heretofore insufficiently researched) support for the war; but Protestants, given their numbers and position in American life, contributed religious or theological justifications of the war that had wider social and political impact. To examine Protestant attitudes in the 1860s is thus to learn much about the popular mood and motivations of Northerners as their "boys" marched off to war. We will look at three of these attitudes of Northern Protestants:
"The Triumph," 1862
Allegory predicting the triumph of the Union over the Confederacy
Freedom, holding the American flag, is flanked by Christianity and Justice, and surrounded by historical figures including Washington, Jefferson, and Franklin. Humanitas reaches down to the manacled slave being restrained by the alligator King Cotton, sovereign of the dark underworld of the Confederacy.
Library of Congress
explanation of allegory
- the special place of America
in world history
- a Northern victory as a prelude to the millennium, and
- the issue of slavery.
First, the churches emphasized that the Union had to be preserved because of the special place that America occupied in world history. With its republican institutions, democratic ideals, and Christian values, the United States supposedly stood in the vanguard of civilization's forward march. The success of the Confederate rebellion would imperil that progress. If the South succeeded in dismembering the Union, republican government would be deemed by people everywhere to be a failure. It would no longer appear to be the wave of the future, and the advance of liberty around the globe would be slowed or even halted.
Thus in fighting to maintain the federal union, Northerners were struggling on behalf of more than a single nationthey were contending for the future of humanity itself.
|Thus in fighting to maintain the federal union, Northerners were struggling on behalf of more than a single nationthey were contending for the future of humanity itself.|| |
Next, Christian ministers often portrayed the war for the Union in millennial terms. Drawing on the imagery of the twentieth chapter of Revelation and on other portions of the Bible describing events near the close of history, they suggested that a Northern victory might prepare the way for the Kingdom of God on earth. (This did not mean that they expected Jesus to return visibly or literally in the near future. Most Northern ministers were postmillennialistsa technical
term designating those who believed that the Second Coming of Jesus would occur after the millennium or the thousand years of earthly bliss foretold in the twentieth chapter of Revelation. In this scheme, no visible return of Jesus could be in the offing since that event, at the earliest, had to be at least a thousand years away.) Yet even if most did not expect an early literal return of Jesus, they did anticipate that current events would lead shortly to a time when God's reign would be more thoroughly established on earth. Thus one Baptist minister, preaching in Philadelphia in 1863, claimed that the defeat of the rebellion would bring a time that the Founding Fathers of the republic "pictured and dreamed about, and prayed for. It will come with blessings, and be greeted with Hallelujahs, it will be the Millennium of political glory, the Sabbath of Liberty, the Jubilee of humanity."
| ||Christian ministers . . . suggested that a Northern victory might prepare the way for the Kingdom of God on earth.|
|"If America is lost, the world is lost."|
"The War and the Millennium"
A Thanksgiving Day sermon, 1863
[Note: This is a different Thanksgiving sermon from that quoted in this essay.]
Such rhetoric served to underscore the immense responsibility resting upon the current generation. "If it falters," wrote a leading nondenominational religious paper, "all is lost . . . We shall stand in history as the most beneficent or maleficent of human generations, and as the most faithful or the most false in the eye of God."
|"Am I Not a Man and a Brother?"|
"Our Countrymen in Chains!"
by John Greenleaf Whittier 1837
Seal of the Abolition Society of England, this image was widely circulated in antislavery publications in America.
Library of Congress
full text of broadside
Finally, the issue of slavery. The sense that God was decisively at work in the crisis of the Union also profoundly altered the way in which church leaders dealt with the problem of slavery. At the war's outset, Northern churches were far from unanimous in their attitude toward human bondage. A few denounced the practice as a sin and called for immediate emancipation or abolition. At the other extreme, some argued that the Bible treated slavery as a morally legitimate institution. For example, parts of the Old Testament law recognized and regulated slavery. Jesus lived in a world where slavery existed, and he apparently uttered not a single word of censure against it. The letters of the apostle Paul contained explicit commands that slaves be obedient to their masters. Therefore, ran this argument, contemporary Christians had no business condemning as sinful a social arrangement that the Bible itself sanctioned. Most church leaders appear to have fallen somewhere between these extremes. They considered slavery less than ideal and believed that it would eventually be eradicated by slow and peaceful means, but they also abhorred the abolitionists' attack on slaveholders as sinners and their demand for immediate emancipation. Suspicious alike of proslavery and abolitionist positions, they were prepared to await God's providential resolution of the issue.
|. . . the conviction grew that God would continue to chastise the North and would not allow it to win the war until it took steps to end slavery.|| |
The war convinced increasing numbers of Northerners that Providence was seeking to resolve the matter more swiftlyand violentlythan they had expected. At the start of the war, the avowed aim of Northern policy was to save the Union, not to free the slaves; but mixed results on the battlefield prompted a reassessment of goals. Despite notable victories in the western theater of the war, the story in Virginia was very different. There the Union Army of the Potomac stumbled through a succession of defeats. Believing that the hand of God was in every event, Protestant ministers sought a theological explanation for military failure. They drew on a tradition traceable to
Puritan preachingthe jeremiadto explain the reverses. The jeremiad was a sermon form (named after the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah) that threatened people with judgment unless they renounced their sins; or alternately the jeremiad took some current disaster, interpreted it as a punishment sent by God, and then asked for what sin the penalty had been imposed. The defeat of Union armies seemed to be punishment of this sort, and the conviction grew that God would continue to chastise the North and would not allow it to win the war until it took steps to end slavery. Conversion to this point of view did not take place at an even rate. Some churches were demanding emancipation as early as the fall of 1861 while others were months or even years behind; but whether early or late, religious groups concluded that the war had signaled God's intention that slavery die and that it die now.
|"The defeat of Union armies|
seemed to be punishment . . ."
Preparing the dead for burial
after the Battle of Fredericksburg, 1862
In short, the churches contributed to the radicalizing of the Northern war effort. Believing that God was using the conflict to establish the kingdom of God on earth and that there had to be a reason for the military reverses the Federal armies were experiencing, churches made what had started as a war for the preservation of the Union into a war of liberation.
|In short, the churches contributed to the radicalizing of the Northern war effort.|
|"Without the evolution of the churches' opinions, . . . |
it is unlikely that the president could have proceeded as he did."
Abraham Lincoln, c. 1861-1865
In this respect, their transformation of opinion paralleled a similar change in the war aims of the Lincoln administration. In 1861 the president declared that his sole purpose was to preserve the Union.
By the fall of 1862, he announced his intention to free, on the first day of 1863, slaves in those areas still in rebellion against the government. In 1864 Lincoln stood for reelection on a platform calling for a constitutional amendment everywhere within the United States. Without the evolution of the churches' opinions that served as both support and goad to Lincoln's own transformation, it is unlikely that the president could have proceeded as he did.
On at least three occasions, President Lincoln proclaimed public fast days when he urged Americans to go to their houses of worship, to confess their sins humbly to the Almighty, and to ask God's blessing. These and other less formally designated times of confession provided opportunities for ministers to express the conviction that the war was a baptism of blood.
|"through the terrible baptism of blood and fire"|
Our National Discipline
A Thanksgiving Sermon, 1863
text of excerpts
[Note: This is a different Thanksgiving sermon from that quoted in this essay.]
The pouring out of blood was cleansing the nation of its sin and preparing it for moral rebirth. That moral rebirth required more than the abolition of slavery; it required citizens to surrender their selfishness and individualism and to subject themselves more unquestioningly to duly constituted authority. A true and worthy American nationality could be born only to the extent that citizens were prepared to sacrifice themselves for it. In perhaps the most notable expression of this belief, the Reverend Horace Bushnell, a leading Congregationalist minister and theologian in Hartford, Connecticut, preached the Sunday after the Union army had been routed at Bull Run in the summer of 1861: "There must be reverses and losses, and times of deep concern. There must be tears in the houses, as well as blood in the fields; the fathers and mothers, the wives and the dear children coming into the woe, to fight in hard bewailings." In short, from a religious perspective, loss and pain were good. If the North won too easy or cheap a victory, its sins would not
|"There must be reverses and losses,|
and times of deep concern."
Rev. Horace Bushnell, 1861
Ruins of Henry House
First Battle of Bull Run, 1861
be purged and its citizens' loyalty would not be established. At the start of the war, a few people were supposed to have boasted that all the blood spilled in the contest could be contained in a single thimble or wiped up by a single handkerchief. The clergy told their people that far more blood not only would be shed, it needed to be shed if the war were to attain its God-appointed purpose.
| ||The clergy told their people that far more blood not only would be shed, it needed to be shed if the war were to attain its God-appointed purpose.|
|"Our Heaven Born Banner"
The rifle and bayonet of the
Union Zouave sentry serve as
the staff of the American flag.
|"Fate of the Rebel Flag"|
The flames of the sinking
warship depict the dying
|Patriotic lithographs based on paintings by William Bauly, 1861|
Library of Congress
explanation of prints
The blood baptism received a final ritual enactment on April 14, 1865 (Good Friday) when Abraham Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth only five days after Lee's surrender to Grant. Northern ministers were not unmindful of the symbolism. Like the death of Jesus, said the clergy, Lincoln's blooda token of all the blood shed over four yearspurchased new life for the nation. As one group of ministers suggested: "He [Lincoln] has been appointed . . . to be laid as the costliest sacrifice of all upon the altar of the Republic and to cement with his blood the free institutions of this land."
Thus these religious themes had a major impact on the North during the Civil War.
- Belief that America was preparing the way for the kingdom of God on earth helped to inspire the loyalty of both the Union soldiers and those on the home front.
- The conviction that blood needed to be shed in order forthe nation to be reborn undoubtedly stiffened the resolve of bluecoats and civilians alike to endure unprecedented
Allegory depicting the rebuilding of the
Union, with the figure of Christ saying
"Do to others as you would have others
do to you."
Library of Congress
explanation of allegory
- Without the churches' growing conviction that the hand of Providence was indicating the need to end slavery, it is unlikely that the government would eventually have embraced full emancipation as a war aim. In a similar fashion, the Protestant churches appear to have helped sustain, at least for a few brief years after the war, the energy that was devoted to achieving a Reconstruction based on the ideals of the so-called Radical Republicans. This was a Reconstruction in which the vote would supposedly be available (in the language of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution) without regard to "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
Guiding Student Discussion
It is frequently easy to interest students in the Civil War. The level of popular interest is attested by the fact that dozens of new titles on the Civil War appear every year as trade books as well as academic monographs, that magazines dealing solely with the Civil War enjoy a wide readership, and that hundreds if not thousands of re-enactors continue to fight battles such as Gettysburg, Fredericksburg, and Shiloh every year. In his book Confederates in the Attic (1998), Tony Horwitz discusses this phenomenon and even tells the story of a re-enactor who specializes in mimicking the appearance of a dead soldier whose body has become bloated by the first stages of putrefaction! One segue into discussion might be to ask students to reflect on the reasons for such behaviorthat is, to ponder the reasons not only for the bizarre behavior of the "bloater" but for the widespread continued interest in the Civil War. The energy, time, and money invested in the Civil War far exceeds that given to other historical topics.
There is, of course, a danger in opening discussion in this fashion. The military story of the warwhether told as heroic romance, as tale of horror, or as a bit of bothquickly usurps attention. Perhaps the tendency to fix attention on the details of battle can be turned into a classroom ally. Most students will have seen at least one movie depicting a Civil War battle. For example, they may well have watched Ted Turner's movie Gettysburg based on Michael Shaara's novel The Killer Angels. The teacher might remind those who have seen Gettysburg of its depiction of Colonel Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain's 20th Maine regiment holding Little Round Top against charge after charge while their comrades dropped around them. What is it that prompted the men to stand fast in face of a sheet of flying lead and then to charge with fixed bayonets when they were out of ammunition and near exhaustion? (Of course, the same point can be made even more graphically from the Southern side by recalling the nearly suicidal character of Pickett's charge.) Ask students to reflect on the reasons that men would be willing to endure such risks.
|"What is it that prompted the men|
to stand fast in face of a sheet
of flying lead . . . ?"
Wounded soldier in deserted camp
They may point to the soldiers' unwillingness to let down comrades, to appear as cowards to their fellows, or to disgrace their families. After the discussion runs a bit, the teacher might then introduce some of the religious ideas that the men would have received from their churches, their families, or their chaplains. Students should be asked to ponder these as possible motivations for standing fast in time of danger.
Another way of introducing students to the religious dimension of the Yankee cause might be to direct them to the writings of people with whom they may already have passing familiarity. From its famous opening line"Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord"to its closing stanza, Julia Ward Howe's "Battle Hymn of the Republic" is filled with religious images suggesting the millennial imagery so prevalent among Northerners during the war [lyrics and audio at www.contemplator.com/folk2/battle.html]. Many of Abraham Lincoln's speeches evoke religious themes]. The Gettysburg Address deals with the notion of "a new birth of freedom" through the shedding of blood [full text at
lcweb.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd]. His Second Inaugural Address, considered by many to be one of the greatest state papers of American history, likewise evokes ideas of God working out his purpose amidst the carnage of the war [full text at
showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/inaug2.htm]. A close reading of these relatively short documents provides the teacher with a way of illustrating the prevalence of religious themes during the war.
If we shall suppose that American slavery is one of those offenses which, in the providence of God, must needs come, but which, having continued through His appointed time, He now wills to remove, and that He gives to both North and South this terrible war as the woe due to those by whom the offense came, shall we discern therein any departure from those divine attributes which the believers in a living God always ascribe to Him?|
Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln, March 4, 1865 (excerpt)
full text at http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/inaug2.htm
Religion in the Civil War has not been so much debated among historians as it has been ignored. Of the thousands of titles dealing with the Civil War, surprisingly few address the significant role that religion played in framing the issues of the conflict. Fortunately, this neglect has begun to recede. Randall Miller, Harry S. Stout and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds., Religion and the American Civil War (1998) provides an excellent collection of essays illuminating many facets of the subject.
James Howell Moorhead holds a Ph.D. in Religious Studies from Yale University and is currently Professor of American Church History at Princeton Theological Seminary. He is the author of American Apocalypse: Yankee Protestants and the Civil War, 1860-1869 (1978). He has also written World without End: Mainstream American Protestant Visions of the Last Things, 1880-1925 (1999). He is senior editor of The Journal of Presbyterian History.
Address comments or questions to Professor Moorhead through TeacherServe "Comments and Questions."
TeacherServe Home Page
National Humanities Center Home Page
Revised: October 2000


ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIA ART & CULTURE
CENTRE - ALICE SPRINGS
100% Aboriginal owned & operated
DIDGERIDOO PLAYING METHODS
In Eastern Arnhem Land an overblown tone is sounded which may be one
of several intervals ranging from a seventh to an eleventh above the
fundamental, though a tenth seems to be more usual. Alternating with
the fundamental, the overtone is used both structurally, in relation
to the song item as a whole, and according to the experience and expertise
of individual players.
Based on the presence, or absence, of the overtone, didjeridu song
accompaniments have been divided into the following two classes: A-type,
in which the fundamental supplies a continuous drone, either accented
by slight pitch infections or 'coloured' by the superimposition of
a vocalised sound which the overtone is described above.
the map showing the present (1960-70) distribution of the didjeridu
(the same symbol (black dot) has been used for both types. A-type
accompaniments are more widely distributed. They are to be found among
groups on Goulbourn and Croker Islands, on the Arnhem Land mainland
west of the Liverpool river, in west coastal regions north and south
of Darwin, south into Kimberley districts, and along a route which
extends from Oenpelli in the north-west, south-east through Bamyili
into a region south of the Gulf and across the Queensland border B-type
accompaniments have been found in association with songs belonging
to groups east of the Liverpool river extending to the east coast
of the Arnhem Land Reserve and including Groote Eylandt.
DIDGERIDOO PLAYING METHODS
It should be noted here that song types distinguished by A-type and
B-type didjeridu accompaniments are performed by members of groups
speaking 'pre-fixing' and 'Yuulngu' languages respectively.
Heath (maintains that, within the overall Australian linguistic picture,
'the prefixing languages of Arnhem Land and the Yuulngu languages
are as remote from each other genetically as any two subgroups in
the continent'; and that 'the two have come into contact due to migrations,
after having evolved quite separately in different parts of the continent'.
The linguistic picture highlights the present music scenario.
Despite continuing cross-fertilisation of stylistic features in the
song performances of the Yuulngu of the one hand, and adjacent groups
which include the Nunggubuyu (farther south) and Enindilyakwa speakers
(Groote Eylandt) on the other, there are disparate elements in the
music of pre-fixing and Yuulngu groups some of which may have been
even more clearly apparent during an earlier period.
The Didgeridoo is not normally played as a solo instrument. It contains
to a well integrated musical ensemble in which the chief participant,
usually the song owner, sings as he beats together two hand sticks.
In such ensembles there may be two or more stick-beating singers but
never more than one didjeridu player. In eastern parts of Arnhem Land
map) area 'N') the B-type player may also beat a stick against
the tube of the instrument to synchronise with the singer's stick
beats; alternatively he may flick the tube with his finger.
When seated, B-type player usually rests the distal end of the instrument
on the ground or inside a box or bucket for resonance. Traditionally
the resonator was bailer shell. A seated A-type player holds the distal
end above the ground, either moving it slightly from side to side,
or resting it on his upturned foot. This requires a two-handed grip.
The right arm of the player may rest on his right knee which is bent,
giving mid-way support either by a right-handed grip or allowing the
tube to the tube to rest on his right wrist. With his other hand he
grips the tube at the narrow end nearest his mouth.


Plectranthus leaves will turn brown if the plant it getting too much water, too much direct sunlight, if it is lacking nutrients or is attacked by pests. My plectranthus developed brown leaves after being attacked by caterpillars and getting too much water.
This article explores what I did to save my plectranthus and my 4 easy tips to grow a healthy plant.
Top causes of brown leaves on plectranthus
Here are the top 5 causes of brown leaves on plectranthus and what you can do to solve each problem.
1. Too much water
The top cause of brown leaves on plectranthus is too much water. Plectranthus are drought hardy plants and when they are grown in areas with high rainfall or if you give them too much water they can turn brown.
The roots are sensitive to too much water and this excess water can damage the roots, stems and leaves. Brown and black spots are common symptoms of too much water.
The easy solution to this problem is to reduce your watering schedule to once every 2-3 weeks in spring and fall and once every 4 weeks during a wet winter. While watering each week in summer might be necessary you should always check the soil first to see if it is moist.
You only need to water the plant if the soil is dry 2 inches down. Water the plant deeply and let it dry out between watering.
2. Too much sun
Plectranthus can develop brown spots on its leaves if it is getting too much sun. These plants love part to full shade and too much hot direct sun can cause the leaves to burn. You will may notice patches of brown on the leaves after a hot day.
To keep your plectranthus protected move any potted plants into a position that gets afternoon shade. You could also move the plant next to other shrubs or fruit trees like lemon or lime to provide shade.
3. Not enough nutrients
A lack of nutrients can cause brown leaf spots on your plectranthus. A lack of nitrogen can be a problem that causes leaf damage but there are a range of nutrients that might be lacking from your soil.
The easy way to solve this problem is to give the plant a fertilizer that contains a broad range of nutrients. I like to use a general fertilizer on all of my plants like pelleted chicken manure or an organic slow release granule. I can fertilize all of my plants using this in spring and fall and it will help to solve the leaf problems.
4. Poor draining soil
Planting plectranthus in soil that lacks nutrients or does not drain well can cause brown leaf spots. Clay soil will hold too much water for plectranthus and can cause root rot and brown leaves.
The easy way to solve this problem is to mix through a large amount of organic material through the soil before planting. Choose an aged manure like cow or chicken and mix it through the soil with compost. This will help to feed the plant and let the excess water drain out well.
5. Pest attack
Caterpillars or aphids can attack plectranthus leaves causing holes and brown marks on the leaves. Caterpillars will bite into the leaf and eat holes through the leaves. You may even find that snails or slugs take a liking to your plectranthus and you can see nibbles on the edges of the leaves.
If the damage is minimal you can just flick the caterpillars off your plant into warm, soapy water. Sap sucking insects such as aphids and thrips can be treated with neem oil or washed off with a quick blast of water.
How to keep plectranthus leaves healthy
Here are my top tips to keep plectranthus leaves healthy.
1. Slow down your watering
If you suspect that overwatering is the problem reduce the amount you are adding to your plant. I was using my plectranthus as the first place to point my hose when I turned it on to water my garden. Watering the plant every 2 days was too much and it developed black and brown leaves.
I now water my plectranthus every 2-3 weeks in spring and I will increase this to every week in Summer. We are getting a lot of rain and it really doesn’t need any extra from me.
2. Move the plant into shade
For potted plectranthus or those newly planted it might be a good idea to move it into shade. Move the pot where it gets afternoon shade or is surrounded by other shrubs. If the plectranthus is growing in the ground you can surround it with taller plants like clivia to create some shade.
3. Give it all-purpose organic fertilizer in spring
Giving your plectranthus fertilizer in spring and fall will help to keep it happy. A handful of all purpose fertilizer or pelleted chicken manure will help to feed it with the nutrients it needs for the whole year.
4. Mulch the plant with bark
It is important to mulch your plectranthus with bark to help to absorb extra water. I like a 2 inch layer of bark mulch as it will absorb the excess rain and slowly release it out to the plant. Mulch will help to avoid any soil washing away and feed the soil bacteria and worms improving the soil over time.
Plectranthus leaves turning brown | Summary
Plectranthus leaves can turn brown if the plant gets too much water, too much sun or is attacked by sap sucking or chewing pests. Make sure it is planted in good quality potting soil or in improved soil with compost mixed through. Only water your plectranthus when it needs it and it will be happy.
Plectranthus are hardy plants with lots of bright, purple flowers appearing as early as spring. They will flower all the way through summer and into fall if they are well cared for.
I am an accredited practicing dietitian, experienced gardener and a dedicated cook. I love writing and sharing my experience so you can learn from my successes and mistakes.