In a disturbing study, it was revealed that subjects who took calcium supplements appeared to be twice as likely to suffer hearts attacks as those who took no supplements. This has been reported by all the usual media outlets, and this site always leans toward favoring calcium from natural food sources rather than from pills. Still, for a more balanced look at this issue, we need go no farther than the National Health Service in the UK. Their website provides a very balanced picture of the story. For example…
These headlines are based on the findings of a large German study that looked at the association between calcium intake and incidents of heart attack, strokes and deaths from cardiovascular disease over a period of 11 years.
Calcium supplements are often given to elderly people and women who have gone through the menopause, in an effort to keep their bones healthy.
Researchers found no link between the amount of calcium in people’s diet and their risk of stroke or cardiovascular deaths. However, people using calcium supplements as their only form of supplement had more than twice the risk of heart attack compared with people who didn’t take any vitamin supplements.
Note first that they said there is no link between the amount of calcium in ones diet and heart attacks. This is about supplements, not calcium rich foods. Also, this seems confined to comparing those who take calcium and no other supplements with those who take no supplements at all. It could be supplement usage that’s the issue here. More…
The researchers believed that people who take supplements may be generally less healthy than those who don’t (assuming they take supplements for a health reason) so they tried to adjust for other risk factors such as smoking habits and exercise levels. However, it is unlikely they adjusted for all the influencing factors and so we still cannot be certain that calcium supplements increase heart attacks.
Previous research based on stronger study designs has also supported a link between calcium supplements and heart disease. If you are considering taking calcium supplements, you need to base your decision on your own circumstances, balancing the benefits with the potential risks.
Do not be alarmed by the media headlines. If you have been prescribed calcium supplements do not stop taking your medication. Speak to your doctor if you have particular concerns.
Again, good advice. But the waters are muddy. On to the conclusion of the NHS:
This large prospective cohort study following more than 23,000 German adults over 11 years showed that those regularly taking only calcium supplements were at a higher risk of heart attack compared with those not taking supplements.
This study has many strengths, including its large size and its prospective nature over a relatively long period of 11 years.
However, while this study does highlight an association, it doesn’t prove that calcium supplementation causes more heart attacks. There are potentially other factors, some measured in the study and some not, which could influence the link between calcium supplementation and incidence of heart attack.
For example, compared with non-users, the study reported that those taking calcium supplements only were more likely to:
- be older
- be less well-educated
- have smoked for longer
These are all factors that could contribute to poorer heart health. However, the people taking calcium supplements only were also more likely to be:
- physically active
- a healthy weight
These are all factors that promote good heart health. This contradiction highlights that there can be many fundamental differences between people who use calcium supplements and those who don’t. Not all of these differences will have been taken into account in the statistical analyses of the results and so some uncertainty remains as to how strong the association is.
However, there have been several randomised controlled trials of calcium supplements and their effect on heart disease, which have shown similar results to the current study. Taken together, these studies strengthen the link between calcium supplements and heart disease. But supplements are often taken for good reasons and so it is important for health professionals to help to determine whether the potential risks of taking calcium supplements outweigh the benefits for each individual.
If you have been prescribed calcium supplements, don’t be alarmed by the headlines. Don’t stop taking your medication, but speak to your doctor if you have particular concerns.
Or just take the advice of Linda Russel, a nutritionist quoted in USA today:
“Walk into any drugstore and these calcium supplements just jump off the shelves at you. But by taking foods high in calcium four times a day, you should get all that you need.”


What is the function and relationship of the outgroup to the ingroup?
The outgroup serves as a comparison point for the ingroup, and allows the phylogeny of the ingroup to be rooted. The polarity (or direction) of character change cannot be determined unless there is a rooted tree. Therefore, choosing an outgroup is crucial for understanding the evolution and progression of traits.
What is an outgroup and what is its significance in a phylogenetic tree?
Outgroup – An outgroup is used for phylogenetic analyses in order to determine where the root of a tree should be located (and sometimes which character states are ancestral on the tree). An outgroup is a lineage which is not within the clade but closely End. to it.
Is the ingroup an outgroup sister?
The ingroup is a group of taxa being investigated to determine evolutionary relationships. They can be closely End. or sister taxa. An outgroup, on the other hand, is a reference group outside of the group of interest. The outgroup is not closely End. to the ingroup.
What is ingroup and outgroup in psychology?
Ingroups refer to groups to which an individual belongs. Outgroups refer to groups to which an individual does not belong, which can lead to ingroup bias. There are almost unlimited numbers of groups that a person can belong to, depending on how they categorize the social world.
What is outgroup bias in psychology?
Outgroup bias is similar to ingroup bias but it has powerful effects on individuals, societies and everyday life. Ougroup bias simply refers to the tendency to have negative opinions about people who aren’t part of your own group. Any group you are associated with at any given time can be considered a group.
Who gave the concept of ingroup and outgroup?
Henri Tajfel, along with his colleagues, popularized the term during their work on social identity theory. A method known as the minimal group paradigm was used to identify the significance of categorizing ingroups and outgroups.
What are the essential characteristics of group and team?
Differences Between Groups and Teams
|Groups are generally much more informal; roles do not need to be assigned and norms of behavior do not need to develop.||Team members’ individual roles and duties are specified and their ways of working together are defined.|
What is the most important element of an effective team?
1. Communication is an essential part of teamwork. It involves constantly updating everyone and not assuming that everyone knows the same thing. Communication is also about listening.
What is the most important factor in building a successful team?
Successful projects are dependent on the collaboration of all members. Collaboration, commitment, cooperation, and good communication are key elements to success. Collaboration itself involves factors like follow-through and timeliness. Important aspects of conflict management and change management include:
What factors affect team performance?
Leaders can determine whether their team is capable of achieving high team performance. You can do this by looking at and evaluating seven factors that contribute to team success: communication, groupthink and homogeny.
What are the common team problems?
10 common problems project teams face
- Lack of trust. Lack of trust is a major factor in teamwork. It starts with people getting to know each other.
- Conflict and tension.
- Not sharing information.
- Low engagement.
- Lack of transparency.
- No long-term thinking.
- Badly perceived, not delivering.
- Poor change management.
What are 3 issues in your team that need to improve?
Here are six common team challenges. We offer some solutions and suggestions to help you overcome them ;
- Take the pain out of meetings.
- Delegate effectively.
- Handle personality clashes.
- Deal with poor performance.
- Develop strong collaboration.
- Build trust.
What is the most commonly cited problem with teamwork?
Disengagement. Everyone at work faces disengagement. When there is a lack in direction and vision, teams tend to become disengaged. It is common for team members to lose sight of their roles in the larger picture, which can lead to a lack of motivation.


When work stops because of an industrial dispute, often it is not only the workers themselves who are affected. Their families also feel the impact of lost household income. In long strikes in isolated mining towns such as Ōhura and Glen Murray, where the mines were the main employer, the whole community felt the effect of lost wages and hostility between employers and workers.
During a strike, members of the public may miss out on some goods or services. But if the public agrees with the workers in a dispute, they may accept the disruption and offer the workers financial and other forms of support.
Dinner from the black pan
One issue which led to industrial disputes on New Zealand ships was the food provided to the crews. Their evening meal, served at 8 p.m., was traditionally known as the ‘black pan’ meal because in the days of steamships it was cooked over the coals in the ship’s boiler on a stoker’s shovel.
Cook Strait ferry strikes
In the 1970s and early 1980s crews of the Cook Strait ferries went on strike. Especially before the days of cheap air travel, the ferries were vital to the flow of freight and passengers between the North and South islands. Sailings were mainly disrupted by bad weather or mechanical problems, but industrial disputes caused the most resentment from stranded passengers. During several long ferry disputes between 1971 and 1983, the government launched ‘Operation Pluto’. Passengers and cars stranded by the strikes were flown between Wellington and Woodbourne airbase at Blenheim by commercial airline and air force planes.
Strikes in the 2000s
Although industrial disputes were much less common in the early 2000s, they could still sometimes affect large numbers of people.
2006 supermarket workers’ dispute
In August 2006 more than 500 supermarket distribution workers in Auckland, Palmerston North and Christchurch went on strike for a nationwide pay agreement. They were then locked out by their employer. Soon stocks of some items began to disappear from the supermarket shelves. However, the locked-out workers received many donations of cash and gifts of food. They returned to work after four weeks when the employer promised to sign a national pay agreement.
2008 junior doctors’ strike
In June 2008 more than 2,000 house surgeons and registrars at public hospitals around New Zealand went on strike for 48 hours, after their pay negotiations broke down. Thousands of patients in hospitals around the country were affected, and hospitals asked people to avoid using emergency departments unless absolutely necessary. Four months after the strike, employers agreed to an increased pay deal with the union representing junior doctors.


Science has drawn a strong connection between periodontal disease and other serious, chronic health conditions, including diabetes, heart disease, pregnancy complications and respiratory disease.
Symptoms of periodontal disease include chronic inflammation of the gums, infection below the gum line and the presence of disease-causing bacteria in the mouth. Dr. Fowzia Hakym reminds patients in Houston, Tx that fighting periodontal disease through a commitment to oral hygiene not only reduces your chances of contracting gum disease and bone loss, but also of developing other serious illnesses.
Studies show that diabetes makes people more susceptible to periodontal disease, which can raise blood-sugar levels. This makes controlling the amount of glucose in the blood difficult, and increases the risk of serious diabetic complications. Meanwhile, diabetes causes blood vessels to thicken, making it harder for the mouth to get rid of excess sugar. With too much sugar, the mouth becomes a breeding ground for gum disease-causing oral bacteria.
The link between periodontitis and heart disease is theorized to be caused by strains of oral bacteria attaching themselves to coronary arteries when they enter the bloodstream. This in turn leads to the formation of blood clots and the narrowing of coronary arteries, which can contribute to heart attacks. A second theory is that plaque builds up as periodontal disease causes inflammation of the gums, leading to swollen arteries and the exacerbation of pre-existing heart conditions. The American Academy of Periodontology suggests that periodontal bacteria can cause a reaction in patients’ bodies that increases the risk of the development of heart disease.
The natural hormone fluctuations that occur during puberty, pregnancy and menopause have been shown to increase the risk of periodontal disease development in women. Periodontal disease has been shown to elevate pregnant women’s risk of preeclampsia and underweight, premature delivery. Periodontitis increases production of a labor-inducing chemical called prostaglandin. Too much prostaglandin may lead to premature labor, increasing the chances of babies being born underweight. Another natural substance that can be elevated by periodontal disease is C-reactive protein, which is linked to heart disease but can also amplify the inflammatory response of the body when too much is present, increasing the risk of preeclampsia and underweight babies.
Gum disease-causing oral bacteria are believed to produce or worsen illnesses such as emphysema, pneumonia and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). Normal breathing can draw oral bacteria into the lower respiratory system, where the bacteria can colonize and cause bacterial infections. Studies have connected COPD’s symptomatic repeat infections with periodontitis.
In addition to the risks posed by bacteria, gum tissue inflammation can cause severe inflammation in the lining of the lungs, which aggravates pneumonia. People who have inhibited immune systems caused by chronic or persistent respiratory issues are vulnerable to bacterial infections when colonies beneath the gum line go unchallenged by the immune system.


Click the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Subsecretary Images
Lexicographical Neighbors of Subsecretary
Literary usage of Subsecretary
Below you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature:
1. The First National Congress of Merchants: Organized Under the Auspices of by Mexico, Secretaría de Industria y Comercio (1917)
"... Address delivered by Kng. Leon Salinas, Assistant subsecretary of the Department of Industry and Commerce, at the solemn closing of the Congress. ..."
2. Joint Resolution Inviting the Republic of Cuba to Become a State of the by Francis Griffith Newlands (1895)
"... subsec- retary of the treasury, Joaquin Castello, of Santiago de Cuba; subsecretary of the interior, Carlos Dubois, of Baracoa; subsecretary of foreign ..."
3. Educational Reform and Administrative Development: The Cases of Colombia and by E. Mark Hanson (1986)
"The secretary and the subsecretary of education in a given state usually ... In contrast to the secretary of education, the subsecretary has usually ..."
4. Compilation of Reports of Committee ... 1789-1901 by United States, Senate, Congress, Committee on Foreign Relations (1901)
"subsecretary of war: Mario Menocal, 18; Francisco Diaz Silveira, 1; blank, 1. ... subsecretary of the interior, Carlos Dubois; subsecretary of foreign ..."
5. Annual report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service of the by United States Public Health Service (1904)
"V. The subsecretary of public works, Anoi.mo ALEMAN. For the subsecretary of government, H. GONZALES GUII. ..."
6. Annual Report by United States Civil Service Commission (1905)
"... and the railroad service—which are classified as follows: Central administration: subsecretary of state $5000 Four inspectors-general 2, 400-$3, ..."
7. Working North from Patagonia: Being the Narrative of a Journey, Earned on by Harry Alverson Franck (1921)
"To get as far as the subsecretary's subsecretary is often a strenuous day's work. It makes no difference how important your errand may be. ..."
8. The Alsop Claim: The Counter Case of the United States of America for and in by United States (1910)
"The subsecretary, César de la Lastra."—The Office of the Minister of Foreign ... The subsecretary.—César de Lastra.—"Legation of the United States of ..."


Indicators of Bioactivity and Floral Origin of New Zealand Honeys
The existences of indicator compounds in honeys from various floral origins were examined. The extractable organic substances of five New Zealand honeys: beech honeydew honey, kamahi, ohutukawa, rata and tawari were determined by GC-MS of methylated extracts. This survey confirmed the results of a previous investigation and established ranges for marker compounds. Due to difficulties in obtaining sufficient certified unifloral honeys, previous studies on these honey types were exploratory only and not published. Statistical analysis of the extractable organic substances showed that each honey contains a unique fingerprint of compounds. Agglomerative clustering successfully separated all honeys into the correct floral group with the exception of two
samples. Well separated clusters were produced in the score plot of the first and second Linear Discriminants. 4-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid, salicylic acid, indole-3-acetic acid and an unknown compound (identified by characteristic ions in the mass spectra) were identified as being the most important discriminants, all of which were present in a single floral source.


Performance measurement involves routine monitoring and reporting of programs' progress. Other names for routine reporting of progress are "performance monitoring" and "performance management." This is the ongoing monitoring and reporting of program accomplishments, particularly progress toward pre-established goals and a baseline measure. Performance monitoring uses information on measurable outputs (and sometimes short-term outcomes) obtained from routine data collection activities to address the question — "Did you achieve what you said you would achieve?" Routine data collection requires careful definition of the measures and data collection and analysis methods for accuracy and credibility. Explanations of why a target was or was not met, attributing the achievement to program activities, and determining program impact, require use of other types of evaluation.
Performance monitoring and reporting includes — Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) Quarterly Performance Status Reports as applicable, Annual Accountability Report, the Departmental Performance Tracking System (Joule), and OMB's Program Assessment Rating Tool (PART).
Joule is a tool developed by the U.S.Department of Energy to routinely track measurable results against a planned results timeline — quarterly milestones, annual technical targets, etc. — or accomplishment of defined procedural steps or milestones. The time-scale of these metrics might persist over several years, determining whether a mid-term goal has been achieved. The focus is on answering the question — "Did you achieve what you said you would achieve?"
Joule scores provide on-going assessment of programs' status in achieving their stated quarterly milestones and annual performance targets, where green denotes a milestone or target is MET and red indicates milestone/target is UNMET
|2004||2005 (2nd Qtr.)|
|EERE Programs||7 green, 5 yellow, 2 red||12 green, 2 yellow, 1 red|
|Program A||4 green|
|3 green, 1 red||9 green|
|Program B||2 red||2 green|
|Program C||2 green|
|Program D||3 green|
|Program E||4 green, 1 yellow||5 green|
|Program F||11 green, 1 yellow||8 green, 1 red|
|Program G||3 green, 2 red||4 green, 1 red|
|Program H||2 green|
OMB Program Assessment Rating Tool (PART)
In 2003, OMB took the program evaluation process a step further by creating the Program Assessment Rating Tool (PART). As stated in the PART Guidance, "PART is a systematic method of assessing the performance of program activities across the federal government. The PART is a diagnostic tool; the main objective of the PART review is to improve program performance." (The PART worksheet results contribute to OMB's comparative management and performance assessments across the federal government.) The ultimate goal of PART is to help senior decision-makers decide whether a program should be continued, modified to improve performance, or terminated.
PART is divided into four sections: program purpose and design, strategic planning, program management, and program results/accountability. Each of these sections has a series of questions to assess whether a program has sound management practices and is producing results. Program management submits answers to these questions to OMB. General program evaluation studies provide evidence to support a program's PART submission.
There are two questions in the FY2006 PART that have direct relevance to evaluation. Question 2.6 "Are independent evaluations of sufficient scope and quality conducted on a regular basis or as needed to support program implementation and evaluate the effectiveness and relevance to the programs, interest, or need?" Question 4.5 "Do independent evaluations of sufficient scope and quality indicate that the program is effective and achieving results?" Several additional questions are indirectly relevant to evaluation. To the extent that objective and independent peer review and general program evaluation studies are completed, they can help to increase OMB's PART rating for a program, in addition to providing a program with ongoing feedback regarding improvements in program design and implementation.
Further information about PART can be found at the OMB website — Expectmore.com
Downloads of performance measurement reports are available at EERE Evaluation Plans and Reports.


The Modern Distribution of Chironomid Sub-fossils (Insecta: Diptera) in the Sierra Nevada, California: Potential for Paleoclimatic Reconstructions
Journal of Paleolimnology
URL with Digital Object Identifier
Surface lake sediment was recovered from 57 lakes along an elevation gradient in the central, eastern Sierra Nevada of California. The surface sediment was analysed for subfossil chironomid remains in order to assess the modern distribution of chironomids in the region. The lakes sampled for the calibration dataset were between 2.0 and 40.0 m in depth, spanned an altitudinal gradient of 1360 m and a surface water temperature gradient of approximately 14 °C. Redundancy analysis (RDA) identified that five of the measured environmental variables – surface water temperature, elevation, depth, strontium, particulate organic carbon – accounted for a statistically significant amount of the variance in chironomid community composition. Quantitative transfer functions, based on weighted-averaging (WA), partial least squares (PLS) and weighted-averaging partial least squares (WA-PLS), were developed to estimate surface water temperature from the chironomid assemblages. The best model was a WA model with classical deshrinking, which had a relatively high coefficient of determination (r2 = 0.73), low root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP = 1.2 °C) and a low maximum bias (0.90 °C). The results from this study suggest that robust quantitative estimates of past surface water temperature can be derived from the application of these models to fossil chironomid assemblages preserved in late-Quaternary lake sediment in this region.


Description - Music Therapy by Betsey King Brunk
Music therapy is the use of music to address non-musical goals. More and more parents and professionals are finding that music can break down barriers for children with autism in areas such as cognition, communication, and socialization. While music therapists are experienced professionals who create unique interventions, many of the principles of music therapy can be implemented by other therapists, teachers, and parents - even by people who do not consider themselves musical! This book explains how to use the many elements of music to foster communication, and teaches you how to adapt music to meet a child's needs. Visual aids and already-written songs will get you started!
Buy Music Therapy by Betsey King Brunk from Australia's Online Independent Bookstore, Boomerang Books.
(279mm x 216mm x mm)
Future Horizons Incorporated
Publisher: Future Horizons Incorporated
Country of Publication:
Book Reviews - Music Therapy by Betsey King Brunk
Author Biography - Betsey King Brunk
Betsey King, MMT, MT-BC is a board-certified music therapist who began her practice more than twenty years ago. She has an undergraduate degree in violin performance from the University of Cincinnati College Conservatory of Music and a masters degree in Music Therapy from Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas. She spent eight years as the music therapist at Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas, and eight years working with children with special needs in both special education and in private practice. In 2000, she moved into university teaching and has trained music therapy students at Southern Methodist University and the University of Kansas. In 2006, she joined the faculty of Nazareth College in Rochester, New York. Betsey speaks and leads workshops throughout the United States, and is the co-owner and co-author for Prelude Music Therapy Products.


The United States has the second-highest child poverty rate among the world’s richest 35 nations, and the cost in economic and educational outcomes is half a trillion dollars a year, according to a new report by the Educational Testing Service.
The report, called “Poverty and Education, Finding the Way Forward,” says that 22 percent of the nation’s children live in relative poverty, with only Romania having a higher rate in the group of 35 nations. (Next are Latvia, Bulgaria, Spain, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Japan and Portugal, it says; the country with the lowest child poverty rate is Iceland, and the second lowest is Finland.) The report notes, though, that the official U.S. poverty rate is incomplete, and that other data show that 48 percent of the population had incomes in 2011 that are considered inadequate or not livable. (Relative poverty rates refer to people with incomes below 50 percent of the poverty threshold.)
It is estimated that the economic and educational effects amount to some $500 billion a year, the report says. Compared with children whose families had incomes of at least twice the poverty line during their early childhood, poor children:
*completed two fewer years of school
*earned less than half as much money
*worked 451 fewer hours per year
*received $826 per year more in food stamps
*were nearly three times as likely to have poor health
Furthermore, poor males were twice as likely to get arrested and poor females were five times more likely to have a child out of wedlock.
There are big differences in educational outcomes as well, the report said:
Education has been envisioned as the great equalizer, able to mitigate the effects of poverty on children by equipping them with the knowledge and skills they need to lead successful and productive lives. Unfortunately, this promise has been more myth than reality. Despite some periods of progress, the achievement gap between white and black students remains substantial (Barton & Coley, 2010). Yet today, income has surpassed race/ethnicity as the great divider. Income-related achievement gaps have continued to grow as the gap between the richest and poorest American families has surged. As researcher Sean Reardon of Stanford University explained recently in The New York Times: ‘We have moved from a society in the 1950s and 1960s, in which race was more consequential than family income, to one today in which family income appears more determinative of educational success than race’ (Tavernise, 2012, para 4)
Reardon’s recent research found that ‘the gap in standardized test scores between affluent and low-income students had grown by about 40 percent since the 1960s and is now double the testing gap between blacks and whites’ (Tavernise, 2012, para 4). It is also the case that if we look across states or major metropolitan areas, those areas within the United States that have greater income gaps between high- and low-income families also tend to have greater achievement gaps between high- and low-income children.
The report also discusses modern education reform and its effects on the educational outcomes for poor children. It says that reform that fails to address the issue of poverty has so far failed to do much to improve student achievement among poor children:
Education policies and reform efforts have shifted over the past several decades. Emphasis has shifted away from providing more equitable and adequate funding for schools and targeted services for disadvantaged students and toward policies directed at developing and implementing common core standards, improving teacher quality through the design and implementation of quantitative evaluation metrics, widespread use of test-based accountability systems, and providing wider-ranging choice among traditional district schools, charter schools, and through private school vouchers.
Yet, there exists little evidence that these reform strategies can substantially reduce the influence of poverty on educational opportunity, especially when they fail to address concurrently children’s readiness for school and the availability of equitable and adequate funding for high-poverty schools and districts. As explained by Helen Ladd in her 2011 presidential address to the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management:
“Because these policy initiatives do not directly address the educational challenges experienced by disadvantaged students, they have contributed little — and are not likely to contribute much in the future — to raising overall student achievement or to reducing achievement and educational attainment gaps between advantaged and disadvantaged students. Moreover, such policies have the potential to do serious harm. Addressing the educational challenges faced by children from disadvantaged families will require a broader and bolder approach to education policy than the recent efforts to reform schools. (Ladd, 2012, p. 203)”
Some strategies are offered here to better match programs and services to the needs of children and to ameliorate the strong links between child poverty and later outcomes. We focus on seven areas that are generally within the purview of education policymakers:
*Increasing awareness of the incidence of poverty and its consequences
*Equitably and adequately funding our schools. (“There is a need for better coordinator of federal and state education programs targeted at poverty.’)
*Broadening access to high-quality preschool
*Reducing segregation and isolation
*Adopting effective school practices
*Recognizing the importance of a high-quality teacher workforce
*Improving the measurement of poverty
The report was written by Richard J. Coley, executive director of the Center for Research on Human Capital and Education at the Educational Testing Service and Rutgers University Graduate School of Education Professor Bruce Baker. The ETS is a nonprofit organization that develops, administers and scores more than 50 million standardized tests annually in more than 180 countries.


Friction stir weld (FSW) inspections in aerospace manufacturing are challenging for ultrasound technicians not necessarily because they require specialized computations or complex techniques but because scanning with conventional probe setups can be so time consuming.
FSW is used for aluminum lap-joint and butt welds on many of the industry’s biggest aluminum alloy structures, from rocket boosters and fuel tanks on launch vehicles to fuselage panels and wings on airplanes. The process uses a machine to firmly clamp two workpieces together and press a rotating spindle into the joint line. It moves quickly along the seam, creating friction and heat that cause the adjacent metals to become plastic. They flow from the front of the tool to the trailing edge where the grains mix together and recrystallize to produce a strong, highly efficient bond.
Properly calibrated, an FSW machine can quickly produce long runs of welds that use no filler and produce little waste, a big advantage for weight-conscious aerospace manufacturers.
A friction stir weld has three distinct zones: an outer heat affected zone (HAZ) where the metal’s properties are affected but no deformation occurs; an inner thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) where grains are deformed but not mixed; and a stir zone or “nugget” comprised of very fine equiaxed grains.
Because the joining process involves relatively low peak temperatures and the materials are in a solid state throughout, friction stir welds aren’t susceptible to the type of porosity, cracking, distortion, and other discontinuities that can occur after metals are melted and then solidify.
Indeed, most FSW flaws are related to setup issues with the machine and materials. Improper spindle rotation speeds, rates of travel, lack of penetration or forging pressure, and gaps along the seam from a poor fit-up or clamping action can generate excessive or insufficient heat and an improper bond.
FSW flaws fall into two categories: volumetric voids like “wormholes” and cavities, and joint-line flaws like “kissing bonds,” where two butted materials fail to coalesce completely, and “hooking,” an uplift of surface oxides on the advancing side or retreating side of a lap weld.
A probe optimized for FSW is capable of generating ±45°SW scans inside the material as well as 0°LW with a single probe orientation.
The most effective inspection method for FSW flaws is phased array ultrasound done shortly after the weld is complete while the component is readily accessible.
In most cases, phased array UT is more practical to deploy compared to penetrant testing or radiography, which require more time to prepare for an inspection.
A portable phased array UT instrument with dual (2D) matrix array probe assemblies give NDT technicians the ability to build efficient scan plans, conduct lateral scans and create three-dimensional representations of the weld, and detect mis-oriented and transverse flaws.
However, covering the entirety of the weld with phased array UT requires multiple beam angles. Technicians have several different options to accomplish this.
For a butt-joint weld, the recommended technique for transverse flaws involves linear electronic scanning with two different refracted angle orientations: a +45° shear wave and a symmetrical -45° shear wave (+20° and -20° incident wave angles in immersion).
In the case of a lap-joint weld, the same two beam angles (+45°SW and -45°SW) are used in conjunction with a 0° longitudinal wave, which is the ideal angle for detecting joint-line flaws.
Performing the inspection with a standard single 64-element probe requires multiple setups and scanning sequences. A lap-joint inspection would involve separate sequences at +45°SW, 0°LW, -45°SW, with the technician stopping in between scans to realign and recalibrate the probe. A butt joint would require two separate scans at +45°SW and -45°SW.
Interrupting the test to manipulate the probe orientation every time another refracted angle is required is tedious but necessary due to the limited steering capability of a probe that’s not designed for FSW inspections.
Figure 1: On a test piece with artificial flaws, the top image shows a 0°LW scan only of the weld center line. The bottom image shows a merged view of all data groups—0°LW and ±45°SW—and demonstrates more accurate length sizing and reduced noise level.
A time-saving alternative is to have multiple probes and multiple phased array UT instruments set up and ready to go for each sequence. This approach certainly can work but it adds cost to the inspection process.
Another option is to use a 1D linear array probe with 128 elements that can simultaneously generate 0°LW and 45°SW beams for flaws parallel to the weld center line without probe inclination, and 45°SW for detection of transverse flaws when inclined in the secondary plane. Such a probe can obtain full volumetric coverage of the weld zone in a single scanning sequence and allow better detection of skewed flaws and accurate sizing compared to other solutions.
In an effort to demonstrate the efficiency of such a probe, UT engineers generated a side-by-side comparison of scan results obtained by using a 10 MHz, 64-element probe and the optimized probe on an aluminum test plate with notches.
At a frequency of 7.5 MHz, the optimized solution demonstrates more accurate length sizing and a reduced noise level, an improved lateral beam spread, and a greater tolerance to the rough surface conditions of a stir weld. Another consideration is the reduced presence of undesirable artifacts in the signal.
The same specimen was also subjected to a 0°LW scan. In figure 1, the bottom image shows a merged view of all data groups—0°LW and +/-45°SW—and demonstrates more accurate length sizing and reduced noise level.
Because all required refracted angles are generated with a single probe positioned at a normal incidence with respect to the inspected specimen surface, this alone simplifies the probe installation and alignment method since all that’s now required is to install it in the 0° scanner head.
Figure 2: A dedicated FSW inspection technique with inclined probe provides excellent detection capability on transverse flaws.
Once the probe orientation is set, the 10 MHz, 64-element probe with one single UT channel configuration has an acquisition rate of approximatively 60 Hz, meaning an inspection speed of 60 mm per second with a 1 mm displacement increment per second.
For a complete setup, including three channels at +/-45°SW and 0°LW at maximum linear resolution, the optimized system can reach a speed of 30 mm per second. However, the optimized solution has three channels instead of one, which is the equivalent to three passes with the other probe. The linear resolution is greater, meaning more data is acquired. If the resolution is modified to match the 0.5 mm of the 64-element probe, it’s the equivalent to doubling the probe’s speed. Moreover, the optimized system streamlines the inspection time compared to the standard probe because the setup is simpler.
If even faster inspection speeds are required, two optimized probes can be used on two units in parallel to reach up to 50 mm per second at maximum resolution, or three pairs can be used for up to 100 mm per second. As with any multi-instrument or multi-probe solution, the tradeoff is additional cost and complexity.
Aerospace is an industry where productivity and cost control are a constant focus, especially given the pressures on manufacturers today. Total inspection time is critical to an efficient assembly process overall. A reliable phased array UT inspection solution for friction stir welds should incorporate rapid setup, quick calibration, and faster inspection speeds. Q


The First Colored Senator and Representatives, Currier & Ives lithography, 1872
Left to right: Senator Hiram Revels (MS), Representatives Benjamin Turner (AL), Robert DeLarge (SC), Josiah Walls (FL), Jefferson Long (GA), Joseph Rainey (SC), and Robert Elliott (SC).
Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress
The Second American Revolution
“All men are created equal,” proclaimed the Declaration of Independence. Nearly a century later, the Fifteenth Amendment redeemed that promise. The right to vote, it stated, could not be denied “on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”
Educated African-Americans provided leadership for freed slaves. In 1870, Representative Joseph Rainey of South Carolina became the first black member to serve in the House. During Reconstruction, 14 African-Americans held House seats. Eight had been born into slavery, six born free.
When federal troops left the South in 1877, Reconstruction ended. So did the era of opportunity. African-Americans gradually disappeared from the House. As Southern states passed “Jim Crow” laws enforcing segregation in the 1890s, African-Americans were barred from the polls and from political office.


Brain & Behaviour
You'll be introduced to the link between brain and behavior.
You'll use this quiz to prepare for your School Nursing exam SHU NU588.
Physical Therapist Practice I: Cultural Competency
Rise of the Robots
Test your knowledge of fictional robots
About Muslim Patients
Islamic teachings and patients. Select the correct answer.
The Memory Candy Crush Game
Branches of U.S. Government
Test your knowledge about the 3 branches of U.S. Government.
Test your knowledge of the Executive Branch of the U.S. government.
Classroom Rules: What Should You Do?
This game will test classroom rules and behaviour.
Unit 02 Biological Perspective Overview - Rapid Fire
Understanding biological perspectives and foundations in psychology.


English ivy, or Hedera helix, is among the most popular ivies grown in the United States. The plant is used extensively and excels in outdoor landscaping. For indoor enthusiasts, it performs as an attractive focal point in any well-lit room. This European native is a climber by nature, and trailing vines will reach and twine appealingly around anything they can touch.
Place your English ivy in the brightest room in your home. The plant will thrive with either indirect sun exposure or fluorescent lighting. If natural light is available, a spot near a bright window is a perfect location. A few hours of direct morning or late afternoon sun daily are appreciated by this light-loving plant. The temperature should be between 50 and 70 degrees F.
Water English ivy enough to evenly moisten the soil surface. Allow it to dry out slightly before watering again. Lift a stem to see if it feels relatively lightweight. Feel the texture of some of the leaves. If they feel light and a little limp, the plant is about to wilt. This indicates that it needs water. Salts present in ordinary tap water are highly detrimental to these plants, so use a distilled product whenever possible. It’s best if the water is tepid or at room temperature.
Feed a complete 20-20-20 or 20-10-20 houseplant fertilizer once monthly throughout the growing season. Follow the packaging instructions carefully. The best time to fertilize your English ivy is after new growth is present. Don’t over-feed this plant; too much fertilizer can result in a buildup of toxic levels of salt in the soil.
Scatter some gravel or pebbles in the ivy’s drip tray and cover them halfway with water. Set the pot on the pebbles and make sure that it doesn’t come into contact with the water. This will provide crucial humidity for the plant. Mist your English ivy plant once weekly during the growing season to provide additional humidity. Misting also goes a long way toward keeping spider mites at bay.
Move your English ivy to a partially shaded spot outside whenever summer weather permits. It will appreciate exposure to the great outdoors.
Things You Will Need
- Distilled water
- Gravel or pebbles
- Complete 20-20-20 or 20-10-20 houseplant fertilizer
- Trim Ivy As a House Plant
- Take Care of a Creeping Jew Plant
- Care for Aglaonema Plants
- Take Care of an Indoor Elephant Ear Plant
- Care for a Calathea Medallion
- Care for Dracaena Plants
- The Best Way to Grow a Pothos Ivy Plant
- Care for a TI Plant
- Indoor Plants That Need Little Light
- Care of an Alocasia Polly Plant
- Care of Mikado Plants
- Use Plants to Increase Indoor Humidity


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The Democratic National Convention (DNC) is a series of presidential nominating conventions held every four years since 1832 by the United States Democratic Party. They have been administered by the Democratic National Committee since the 1852 national convention. The primary goal of the Democratic National Convention is to nominate and confirm a candidate for president and vice president, adopt a comprehensive party platform and unify the party. Pledged delegates from all fifty U.S. states and from American dependencies and territories such as Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, and superdelegates which are unpledged delegates representing the Democratic establishment, attend the convention and cast their votes to choose the Party's presidential candidate. Like the Republican National Convention, the Democratic National Convention marks the formal end of the primary election period and the start of the general election season.
The party's presidential nominee is chosen in a series of individual state caucuses and primary elections. Superdelegates, delegates whose votes are not bound to the outcome of a state's caucus or primary, may also influence the nomination. To secure the nomination for the Democratic party in 2016, a candidate must secure 2,383 delegates. This number includes both pledged delegates and superdelegates.
Prior to 1936, nomination for president was required, not merely by a majority, but by two-thirds of the total number of delegates. Unless there was a popular incumbent, something that only happened three times between the Civil War and World War II, getting that many votes on the first ballot was implausible. The choice was an often contentious debate that riled the passions of party leaders. Delegates were forced to vote for a nominee repeatedly until someone could capture a minimum number of delegates needed. In 1912, 1920 and most notoriously in 1924, the voting went on for dozens and dozens of ballots.
Backroom deals by party bosses were normal and often resulted in compromise nominees that became known as dark horse candidates. Dark horse candidates were people who never imagined they would run for president until the last moments of the convention. Dark horse candidates were chosen in order to break deadlocks between more popular and powerful prospective nominees that blocked each other from gaining enough delegates to be nominated. One of the most famous dark horse candidates nominated at a Democratic National Convention was James K. Polk, who was chosen to become the candidate for president only after being added to the eighth and ninth delegate ballot.
The rules were changed to a simple majority in 1936. Since then only one multi-ballot convention (1952's) has taken place.
Before about 1970, the party's choice of the vice-presidential nominee was usually not known until the last evening of the convention. This was because the presidential nominee had little to do with the process and in many cases was not known at the start of the convention. In 1944 and 1956, the nominee let the convention choose the running mate without a recommendation, leading to multiballot voting, and other times, successful attempts to sabotage the nominee by scattering delegate votes for someone else besides his choice, as in 1972 and 1980, led to disruptions.
In order to prevent such things from happening in the future, the presumptive nominee has, since 1984, announced his choice before the convention even opened, and (s)he has been ratified by voice vote.
By 1824, the congressional nominating caucus had fallen into disrepute and collapsed as a method of nominating presidential and vice presidential candidates. A national convention idea had been brought up but nothing occurred until the next decade. State conventions and state legislatures emerged as the nomination apparatus until they were supplanted by the national convention method of nominating candidates. President Andrew Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet" privately carried out the plan for the first Democratic National Convention; the public call for the first national convention emanated from Jackson's supporters in New Hampshire in 1831.
The first national convention of the Democratic Party began in Baltimore on May 21, 1832. In that year the 2/3 rule was created, requiring a 2/3 vote to nominate a candidate, in order to show the party's unanimous support of Martin Van Buren for vice president. Although this rule was waived in the 1836 and 1840 conventions, in 1844 it was revived by opponents of former President Van Buren, who had the support of a majority, but not two-thirds, of the delegates, in order to prevent him from receiving the nomination. The rule then remained in place for almost the next hundred years, and often led to Democratic National Conventions which dragged on endlessly, most famously at the 1860 convention, when the convention adjourned in Charleston without making a choice and reconvening in separate groups a short time later, and the 1924 convention, when "Wets" and "Drys" deadlocked between preferred candidates Alfred E. Smith and William G. McAdoo for 103 ballots before finally agreeing on John W. Davis as a compromise candidate. At the 1912 convention, Champ Clark was the first person to receive a majority of the votes who did not go on to achieve a two-thirds vote and the nomination. The 2/3 rule was finally abolished in 1936, when the unanimity in favor of the renomination of President Franklin D. Roosevelt allowed it finally to be put to rest. In the years that followed only one convention (the 1952 Convention) actually went beyond a single ballot, although this may be more attributable to changes in the nominating process itself than to the rules change.
During the time the rule was in force, it virtually assured that no candidate not supported by the South could be nominated. The elimination of the two-thirds rule made it possible for liberal Northern Democrats to gain greater influence in party affairs, leading to the disenfranchisement of Southern Democrats, and defection of many of the latter to the Republican Party, especially during the Civil Rights struggles of the 1960s. Strom Thurmond was one such Democrat who joined the Republican party.
William Jennings Bryan delivered his "Cross of Gold" speech at the 1896 convention. The most historically notable—and tumultuous—convention of recent memory was the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois, which was fraught with highly emotional battles between conventioneers and Vietnam War protesters and a notable outburst by Chicago mayor Richard J. Daley. Other confrontations between various groups, such as the Yippies and members of the Students for a Democratic Society, and the Chicago police in city parks, streets and hotels marred this convention. Following the 1968 convention, in which many reformers had been disappointed in the way that Vice President Hubert Humphrey, despite not having competed in a single primary, easily won the nomination over Senators Eugene McCarthy and George McGovern (who announced after the assassination of another candidate, Senator Robert F. Kennedy), a commission headed by Senator McGovern reformed the Democratic Party's nominating process to increase the power of primaries in choosing delegates in order to increase the democracy of the process. Not entirely coincidentally, McGovern himself won the nomination in 1972. The 1972 convention was significant in that the new rules put into place as a result of the McGovern commission also opened the door for quotas mandating that certain percentages of delegates be women or members of minority groups, and subjects that were previously deemed not fit for political debate, such as abortion and lesbian and gay rights, now occupied the forefront of political discussion. That convention itself was one of the most bizarre in American history, with sessions beginning in the early evening and lasting until sunrise the next morning, and outside political activists gaining influence at the expense of elected officials and core Democratic constituencies such as organized labor (thus resulting in a convention far to the left of the rank-and-file of the Democratic Party).
The nature of Democratic (and Republican) conventions has changed considerably since 1972. Every 4 years, the nominees are essentially selected earlier and earlier in the year, so the conventions now officially ratify the nominees instead of choose them. (Even the close race of 2008, which was not decided until early June, did not change the modern function of the convention). The 1980 convention was the last convention for the Democrats that had even a sliver of doubt[by whom?] about who the nominee would be. (Ted Kennedy forced a failing vote to free delegates from their commitment to vote for Jimmy Carter). The 1976 convention was the last where the vice-presidential nominee was announced during the convention, after the presidential nominee was chosen. (Carter choosing Walter Mondale.) After the "ugly" conventions of 1968 and 1972, the parties realized it was in their interests to show a unified party to the nation during the convention, and to try to eliminate any dissent. And as the conventions became less interesting, and television ratings have generally declined (as they have on average for all television shows), the networks have cut back their coverage significantly, which in turn has forced the parties to manage what is televised even more closely.
The 1984 convention at the Moscone Center in San Francisco remains the last Democratic Convention to be held in a convention center complex; all others since then have been held at sports stadiums or arenas.
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As a country, Egypt begins its history in 3150 BC with the establishment of the first kingdom ruled by Menes. For three thousand years, Egypt flourished and became a great center of culture that even the Greeks themselves admired. This is also the same period of time where Egyptians started building their pyramids. This culminated in their greatest achievement so far, the Great Pyramid
at Giza. All of these man made wonders that made Egypt what it was is largely due to the annual flooding of the Nile River. One of the names of Ancient Egypt was Kemet, meaning "black land". The black land was the river deposits that the Nile left behind every time it receded.
Just like the Greeks, the Egyptians had their own pantheon of gods starting with Isis and Osiris, Ra, Anubis and Hathor. A proof of this fact is present in the many temples, obelisks, tombs and pyramids that dot the Egyptian landscape. It would be probably safe to label Egypt as one big museum of ancient history and artifacts. That's why its no surprise that millions of people travel to Egypt to be able to gaze at the monuments to man's greatness.
Egypt is an African country situated in North Africa
. This country is bordered by countries such as Libya, Sudan, Gaza Strip and Israel. It is 38 th largest country of the world and is regarded as the cultural and political nation of Middle East
. The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean via Red Sea .
Egypt is known to the world for its ancient civilization and legendary monuments such as Giza pyramid complex and Great Sphinx both found in Cairo
. There are countless interesting places and attractions so it is not possible to complete a tour within a week.
The other things you can enjoy in Egypt is scuba diving in Sharm el Sheikh
in the Red sea. Red Sea is densely populated with different fishes such as grouper, singray, parrotfish, angelfish, butterfly fish and turtles.
Don't forget to listen to the Egyptian music which is the fusion of African and Western countries. The traditional instruments are flutes and harps. It is important to play folk music of Egypt in weddings, engagements and festivals.
The currency of Egypt is Egyptian Pound (EGP). Travelers are advised to bring cheques in US dollars or Pounds to avoid additional exchange rates. Credit cards are accepted in many reputed Egypt hotels
and restaurants. You can review Hotels in Egypt
The best time to visit Egypt in the winter season which is from December to February when temperature is about 20 to 25 degree Celsius. The highest temperature in the summer season is about 38 degree Celsius. The summer season is from June to August.
Cairo is the capital of Egypt and it is only city where traveling is easy due to the metro system. You can easily go to the Pyramids of Giza by taking a microbus from al-Haram. In other cities, you can travel by taxis and bus. Following are some important attractions of Egypt that are recommended to visit.
The famous Suez Canal is located next to the Red Coast in Sinai. There are many beach resorts in this area that cater to the tourists from the elite down to the lowly backpacker. Pay to swim with dolphins at Nuweiba. Divers would most likely want to visit the Sharm el_Sheikh which is reputed to be the best dive resort in town.
Aswan is a rather laid back town that borders Egypt and Nubia. Dinner will be a great experience since floating restaurants are all the rage here in Aswan . Further out, there are two islands that tourists may want to visit. The first island is home to an active archeological dig where a huge fortress and several temples are being excavated.
Alexandria was the Egyptian city conquered by Alexander the Great of Greece. During its golden age, Alexandria was said to be the cultural capital of Europe . Its affluence from ancient times extends even up to the now. Unlike Cairo , Alexandria is has a lesser chaotic atmosphere. Bibliotheka Alexandria is the center for scholarly research. The Graeco-Roman Museum displays artifacts dating from 300 BC. Diving and swimming are common pass times in Alexandria . The beaches can get crowded during summer though.
Luxor 's ancient name was Thebes , the once great capital of ancient Egypt . It is now a large town dependent on tourism for most of its income. The town is peppered with souvenir shops, hotels and restaurants. Within the boundaries of Luxor is the Karnak Temple complex which covers approximately 100 acres. The temple complex contains hundreds of statues, pillars, obelisks and sphinxes. The best temple in Karnak is the Precinct of Amun. It served as the primary place of worship.
Egypt has 6 oases that are worth visiting. All of them can be reached by public transportation and have accommodations for those wishing to spend a couple of days in relative isolation. The Kharga oasis is more developed than most. It has a museum and a Berber community within its boundaries. For desert safaris on camels and hot springs , the best oasis to go to would be Dhakla. Siwa is also a Berber community but they are more traditional in manner and language.
Tour Egypt In Comfort and Safety Through Packaged Tour


MFL (Modern foreign Languages)
Why we teach MFL?
A high-quality languages education should foster pupils’ curiosity and deepen their understanding of the world. (National Curriculum)
Learning a foreign language is a liberation from insularity and provides an opening to other cultures.
The study of Modern Foreign Languages prepares pupils to participate in a rapidly changing world in which work and other activities can take place in languages other than English. Pupils use Modern Foreign Languages to communicate information responsibly and creatively. They learn how to use Modern Foreign Languages to enable access to ideas and experiences from a wide range of people, communities and cultures.
In addition, understanding a modern foreign language increases children’s understanding of their own language. The process of learning a foreign language reinforces fluency and understanding of grammar, syntax, sentence structure and verbal precision. Increased capability in the use of Modern Foreign Languages can also promote initiative and independent learning and encourages diversity within society.
Through our teaching of Modern Foreign Languages we aim to:
- Ensure every child has the opportunity throughout Key Stage 2 to study a foreign language and develop their interest in the culture of other nations
- Ensure pupils’ learning is enriched in a broad curriculum to which Modern Foreign Languages contribute
- Ensure pupils have access to high quality teaching and learning opportunities, making use of supportive schemes of work
- Provide language teaching using Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing and Cultural Understanding.
What we teach in MFL?
At St Peter’s, we teach French lessons in Key Stage 2. We also aim to introduce pupils to other Modern Foreign Languages in EYFS, Key Stages 1 and 2 by using greetings for registration and singing songs.
We currently use the ‘Language Angels’ scheme of work to support high-quality languages education. The ‘three pillars of language learning’ – phonics, grammar and vocabulary, are included in all lessons and units of work.
The French units of work build on children’s knowledge and understanding each year. The lessons are also cross curricular, and support some class topics.
Our pupils say:
“We have fun.”
“Learning strange words and how to say them can be hard but we have fun playing games and singing songs.”
“Learning with the music video, watching animations, moving around the room, playing games helps us to remember the vocabulary.”
Want to find out more…
Language Angels Home Learning
Free language learning app


Cardio-metabolic risk can occur at normal BMIs
By Martha Kerr
CHICAGO (Reuters Health) - Patients with a normal body mass index (BMI) can still have a high body fat content, which increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, a Mayo Clinic team announced here during the American College of Cardiology's 57th Annual Scientific Session.
Investigator Dr. Francisco Lopez-Jimenez presented the Rochester, Minnesota group's findings on so-called "normal weight obesity" from a study of 2,127 subjects with a BMI in the normal range. BMI is the ratio of weight to height, which classifies people within a range from underweight to morbidly obese.
The study participants' body composition was measured and a full assessment was made of body size variables and cardiovascular risk factors. Normal weight obesity was defined as a body fat content higher than 20 percent for men and 30 percent for women.
"Normal weight obesity appears to be highly prevalent," Lopez-Jimenez noted, "constituting more than half of the patients with a normal weight as defined by the BMI." Of the total 2,127 subjects in the study, 1,321 had normal weight obesity, while 806 had a normal body fat content.
The investigators also found that 13.6 percent of the normal weight obese individuals met the criteria for metabolic syndrome compared with 5.3 percent of those who had a normal weight without a high body fat content.
The metabolic syndrome is a cluster of risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including high blood sugar, high levels of the "bad" LDL cholesterol and triglyceride levels, low levels of the "good" HDL cholesterol, high blood pressure and excess belly fat.
Specifically, significantly more of the normal weight obese had a high waist circumference, elevated triglyceride levels, elevated fasting blood sugar levels or a diagnosis of diabetes, and other metabolic markers associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
"Instead of tracking weight and BMI only, public health measures to prevent heart disease might benefit more from measuring the belly or by assessing percentage of body fat as more reliable risk factors of heart disease," Lopez-Jimenez concludes.


From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia
Although fine vellus hair is present in the area in childhood, the term pubic hair is generally restricted to the heavier, longer hair that develops with puberty as an effect of rising levels of androgens. Pubic hair is therefore part of the androgenic hair.
Pubic hair in art
In ancient Egyptian art, female pubic hair is straightforwardly indicated in the form of painted black triangles.
In classical European art, it was very rarely depicted, and male pubic hair was often, but not always, omitted. Sometimes it was portrayed in stylized form.
The same was true in much Indian art, and in other Eastern portrayals of the nude.
In Japanese drawings pubic hair is often---such as in hentai---omitted, since for a long time the display of pubic hair was not legal. The interpretation of the law has since changed.
In 16th century southern Europe artists felt able to show male nudity with stylized pubic hair, as in Michelangelo's David and Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man. Nevertheless, Michelangelo’s male nudes on the Sistine chapel ceiling display no pubic hair.
Female bodies remained hairless below the head.
In renaissance northern Europe, pubic hair was more likely to be portrayed than in the South, more usually male, but occasionally female. The first instance of female pubic hair in art is Eve in the Ghent Altarpiece (1432) by the van Eycks, followed by Hans Baldung Grien's Girl and Death (1517) and a little later, in the 1530s, the water nymphs of Lucas Cranach the Elder.
By the 17th century, suggestions of female pubic hair appear in erotic engravings, such as those by Agostino Carracci. By the late 18th century female pubic hair is openly portrayed in Japanese shunga (erotica), especially in the ukiyo-e tradition. Hokusai's picture The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife, depicting a woman having an erotic fantasy, is a well-known example. Despite this Fine art paintings and sculpture created before the 20th century in the Western tradition usually depicted women without pubic hair or a visible vulva.
Denis Diderot writes a little piece of text on pubic hair in art. In the passage "quelques questions que je me suis faites sur la sculpture" (1765), Diderot asks five rhetorical questions on sculpture. The second of these questions is "Pourquoi la sculpture, tant ancienne que moderne, a dépouillé les femmes de ce voile que la pudeur de la nature et l'âge de puberté jettent sur les parties sexuelles, et l'a laissé aux hommes?"
"Why has sculpture, both ancient and modern, depilated women of the veil of modesty which nature and the age of puberty have thrown on the sexual parts, and left it there for men?"
The answer, says Diderot, as translated in the essay "Diderot, Hogarth, and the Aesthetics of Depilation" by Johannes Endres, is that:
- "the charm of this serpentine line, of this long, sweet and light sinuosity that starts off from the extremity of one of the groin-folds and that moves alternately downwards and upwards until it has reached the extremity of the groin-fold; it wishes to tell you that the path of this infinitely agreeable line would have its course cut through an interposed hair-tuft; that this isolated tuft is connected to nothing and serves as a blemish for the woman, while for the man this sort of natural clothing, casting a heavy enough shadow around the nipples, actually becomes lighter on the flanks and sides of the stomach but is still there, although sparsely, moving without interruption to encounter itself more dense, more raised, more full around the natural parts; it wishes to show you that depilated, these natural parts of the man will look like a small intestine, an unpleasantly formed worm."
- le charme de ce serpentement , de cette longue, douce et légère sinuosité qui part de l'extrémité d'une des aines , et qui s'en va s'abaissant et se relevant alternativement , jusqu'à ce qu'elle ait atteint l'extrémité de l'autre aine; il vous dira que le chemin de cette ligne infiniment agréable serait rompu dans son cours par une touffe interposée; que cette touffe isolée ne se lie à rien , et fait tache dans la femme ; au lieu que , dans l'homme , cette espèce de vêtement naturel , d'ombre assez épaisse aux mamelles , va s'éclaircissant , à la vérité , sur les flancs et sur les cotés du ventre ; mais y subsiste , quoique rare, et va , sans s'interrompre , se rechercher elle-même plus serrée , plus élevée , plus fournie autour des parties naturelles. Il vous montrera ces parties naturelles de l'homme, dépouillées, comme un intestin grêle, un ver d'une forme déplaisante.
It has been argued that John Ruskin, the famous author, artist, and art critic, was apparently accustomed only to the hairless nudes portrayed unrealistically in art, never having seen a naked woman before his wedding night. He was allegedly so shocked by his discovery of his wife Effie's pubic hair that he rejected her, and the marriage was later legally annulled. See John Ruskin's marriage to Effie Gray
Francisco Goya's The Nude Maja has been considered as probably the first European painting since the Northern Renaissance to show woman's pubic hair. The painting lost Goya his position as court painter.
Some people experience sexually attraction to or sexual arousal from seeing or touching pubic hair, or from seeing or touching a clean crotch. Some regard this as pubic hair fetishism. A preference for hairless crotch in oneself or in another is known as acomoclitism.
Among the upper class in 19th century Victorian Britain, pubic hair from one's lover was frequently collected as a souvenir. The curls were, for instance, worn like cockades in men's hats as potency talismans, or exchanged among lovers as tokens of affection. The museum of St. Andrews University in Scotland has in its collection a snuff box full of pubic hair of one of King George IV's mistresses, possibly Elizabeth Conyngham, which the notoriously licentious monarch donated to the Fife sex club, The Beggar's Benison.
In Western societies, exposure of a woman's body hair below her neck has traditionally and continues to be widely disapproved of culturally. It may be regarded as immodest and sometimes obscene. Many people consider exposure of pubic hair to be embarrassing. With the reduction in the size of swimsuits, especially since the coming into fashion and growth in popularity of the bikini since the 1940s, the practice of bikini waxing has also come into vogue. However, some people also remove pubic hair that is not exposed, for aesthetic, personal hygiene, cultural, religious, fashion or other reasons.
In more recent times, models and actors who appeared nude on stage, film or photography used to shield their frontal genital area by the angle of their body or leg in relation to the camera, or in some other way; but now it is more common for female adult entertainers who appear nude, such as strippers and pornographic actresses, to remove their pubic hair. The presentation is regarded as more erotic and aesthetic, while others consider the style as unnatural. Some people remove pubic hairs for erotic and sexual reasons or because they or their sex partner enjoy the feel of a clean crotch.
- User:Jahsonic/Notes on pubic hair in Western art
- Diderot, Hogarth, and the Aesthetics of Depilation
- User:Jahsonic/Diderot on pubic hair in sculpture
- Brazilian waxing
- Frontal nudity


Tuareg is a term used to identify numerous diverse groups of people who share a common language and a common history. Tuareg camel caravans played the primary role in trans-Saharan trade until the mid-20th century when European trains and trucks took over. Goods that once were brought north to the edge of the Sahara are now taken to the coast by train and then shipped to Europe and beyond.
Tuareg history begins in northern Africa where their presence was recorded by Herodotus. Many groups have slowly moved southward over the last 2,000 years in response to pressures from the north and the promise of a more prosperous land in the south. Today, many Tuareg live in sedentary communities in the cities bordering the Sahara that once were the great centers of trade for western Africa. Although most Tuareg now practice some degree of Islam, they are not considered Arabic.
Tuareg, Berbers of the Sahara, numbering close to 2 million. They have preserved their ancient alphabet, which is related to that used by ancient Libyans. The Tuareg?s traditionally maintained a feudal system consisting of a small number of noble families, a large majority of vassals, and a lower class of black non-Tuareg serfs, who performed the agricultural tasks.
The upper classes, organized in tribes, convoyed caravans and, until subdued by France, were feared as raiders. The fiercely independent Tuareg resented European hegemony in Africa, and they long resisted conquest. Tuareg men go veiled, while the women are unveiled. Women enjoy respect and freedom, and descent and inheritance are through the female line.
In Tuareg culture, it is the men who wear the veil. The veil is a symbol of having attained adulthood but it also has the practical application of keeping wind blow sand out of the eyes, nose and mouth. Only with close family will a Tuareg man take off his veil; otherwise he wears it all the time (at mealtimes he lifts the veil from his mouth to eat).
The indigo used to dye the veil is pounded into the cloth with stones so as not to waste precious water. This pounding creates a slightly metallic sheen in the cloth. Invariably the dye rubs off onto the skin of the wearer, which is the source of the legends of the Blue Men of the Sahara. The Tuareg do not wash the veils and wear them until they completely fall apart.
Though nominally Muslim, the people still retain many pre-Islamic rites and customs. The traditional way of life for the Tuaregs (e.g., raiding neighboring tribes and exacting taxes from trans-Sahara travelers) is changing. Since the 1970s droughts and famines have forced many Tuaregs from their desert homes into urban areas, and in the 1990s political tensions caused further relocation. Groups of Tuaregs have fought for autonomy from Niger and Mali, but cease-fires were signed in both nations in the mid-1990s.


Who Invented the concept of cycling?
Did you know that cycling was the first ever human driven vehicle known to mankind after the traditional horse carriage? Amazing isn’t it.
In 1817, Karl Von Drais, a German baron, invented a horseless carriage that would help him get around faster. His machine, known as the “swiftwalker,” hit the road in 1817.
The first ever designed Bicycle had two wheels and no pedal. It had a wooden frame and a seat for the rider. The vehicle needed to be propelled by pushing your feet against the ground. This pedal less feet propelled machine came to known as “Draisine” after the inventor “Karl Von Drais”, the first design of the modern day Bicycle. The two-wheeled, pedal-less device was propelled by pushing your feet against the ground. The machine became known as the “Draisine,” and led to the creation of the modern-day bicycle.
What is the history of Cycling?
Did you know that the Bicycle was the first means of transport after the horse carriage?
As they say need is the mother of all inventions. Cycling was developed in the early 18th century.
After the traditional Horse carriage which included taming a horse and having a dedicated horseman, to cut cost and dependency on others the Draisine was developed.
Draisine was a vehicle which had a wooden frame with two wheels at one in front the other at the back. It had a seat for the rider to rest his torso on. This vehicle needed to be propelled by pushing the feet against the ground.
It was much more comfortable than walking and faster too.
The term bicycle was coined in France in the 1860s, and the descriptive title “Penny Farthing“, used to describe an “Ordinary Bicycle“, is a 19th-century term.
Gian Giacomo Caprotti, have you ever heard about him. Apparently he was this naughty little lad who belonged to humble backgrounds. Apparently he used to be a pupil of Leonardo Da Vinci, he was fondly called Salai. Back in the early 1500 AD,Salai claimed to have sketched the Draisine . Leter in 1998 it was proved to be a purposeful fraud by Hans-Erhad Lessing.
However the italians still believe that the bicycle sketch was indeed a genuinely designed by Salai.
Quick facts about Cycling:
Did you know the longest tandem bicycle seated 35 people. It was more than 20 meters long.
⦁ The longest “tandem” bicycle seated 35 people, it was more than 20 meters long
⦁ You can fit about 15 bicycles in the same space that one car occupies
⦁ It is 20 times cheaper to maintain a bicycle than a car
⦁ If the number of cyclists was tripled, the rate of motorist-bicyclist accidents would be cut in half
⦁ The world manufactures about 100 million bikes each year
⦁ Bicycle delivery services have become a significant industry over the last 30 years
⦁ The word “bicycle” was not coined until the 1860s
⦁ The Tour de France was established in 1903.
⦁ China boasts more than a half billion bicycles
⦁ In America, people use their bikes for one out of every hundred trips
⦁ The fastest bicyclist is American rider, John Howard
⦁ There are twice as many bicycles in the world than cars
Best of all you don’t need a drivers license, or money for fuel and even better keeps your health in great shape, and its all for free.
Often in heavy pursuit of honing their craft, cyclists sometimes need an extra push to remember to have fun. Cycling is one of the most fun and exhilarating sports around. It’s important to not lose sight of the things that make cycling great.
Evolution of Cycle
The pneumatic tire and the chain drive, followed by the development of gears, revolutionized bicycling in the later 1800s. In the last fifteen years, there has been a revolution of sorts in the development and use of new materials for building frames. It wasn’t that long ago that frames were made out of cast iron or even wood. Today bicycles are made out of exotic materials such as titanium, aluminum, and carbon fiber. Bicycle frames in the 1990s are lighter and stronger than ever before.
Back in the day it was an Elites pride today its a sportsman’s pride. Its ironical isn’t it, back in the days it was the rich and elite who owned cycles and as of today its the rich own flashy cars and the poor ride cycles.
Cycling is a very sort after sport as of today. One of the most easiest and non time consuming sport.
People today have cut down on their cars to cycle to work to cut the cost of fuel and workout time at the same time.
So in short back in the days when cars were not around people either, walked or cycled to their desired destinations and sometimes even swam across the rives to reach their destinations. Today we do it for recreational purpose.
Amazing isn’t it?
Picture courtesy Ironman Triathlon.
A racing bicycle frame with parts of the frameset indicated.
Age of the Velocipedes
While it might seem simple and obvious now, getting the rider’s feet completely off the ground was a major step (excuse the pun) forward in the development of the bicycle. The rider used pedal-cranks attached to the hub of a wheel to propel himself. There is a dispute as to who invented the machine that became known as the “velocipede,” but there is no question as to its impact.
The velocipedes of the mid 1800s consisted of two wooden tires, a front fork, handlebars for steering, a saddle on wooden frame, and pedals on the axle of the front wheel. The velocipede also received a nickname, the “boneshaker.” With the rider now completely mounted on the bicycle, he felt all of the bumps–the early velocipedes were not equipped for absorbing vibrations. It wasn’t until the development of the pneumatic tire that this problem was effectively addressed. At around the same time the pneumatic tire was developed (1888), lighter materials began to be used for frames, improving the ride dramatically.
Materials for Frames
By the time the modern “safety” bicycle was developed in the late 1800s most frames were made with steel tubing instead of wood or cast iron. While the steel bicycles were quite strong they were also very heavy. It was not uncommon for a bicycle of that era to weigh in at over 80 pounds (36.28 kg.).
A classic “cruiser” safety bike built in 1957. The frame is made of steel and the bike weighs nearly 50 pounds (22.68 kg).
Steel frames are still used today, but the tubing has thinner walls and weighs considerably less. Modern frame makers such as Paolo Salvagione use a variety of materials for highly specialized bikes. Paolo uses steel, aluminum, titanium, and even carbon-fiber. Which material he uses depends on the type of bike, the rider’s preference, and the cost. We asked Paolo to tell us about the unique qualities of each material.
Who is the founder of cycling?
The first bicycles were made from wood, with steel “tires”. The frame shapes were also rather wild and typically curved. Manufacturers moved towards a diamond-shaped body, made from steel tubing as it was much stronger and lighter. The boneshaker 1866.
Even though it’s a relatively recent invention, bicycle is the culminated product of many centuries of innovation.
By Christopher McFadden
Jan 21, 2021
It would be hard to imagine a world without bicycles. They are everywhere, and chances are that most or all of you reading this can or have ridden one at some point in your life.
The history of this apparently simple mode of transport is a long and interesting one but the modern bicycle, as we know it, is actually a fairly new invention.
In this article, we’ll take a quick trip through time and stop off at some of the most important innovations (and hoaxes) throughout its development.
So adjust your seat and get ready to pedal. You are in for one fun ride!
Who invented the bicycle?
As you are about the find out, the answer to this question really depends on your definition of a bicycle. Do you mean a means of transport with just two wheels? Or do you mean what is commonly referred to as a bicycle today with pedals, and chains, and pneumatic tires?
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If the former, the original inventor could be considered Giacomo Caprotti. Caprotti was a student of Leonardo da Vinci and is widely considered the first inventor of an early bicycle. If the latter, then the first “true” bicycle is probably the Rover Safety bicycle.
Invented by Harry John Lawson (and later refined by John Kemp Starley), the Rover had all the main features of modern bicycles. In fact, it was the template for most modern bikes.
What are some of the main milestones in bicycle history?
And so, without further ado, here are some of the major milestones in the history of the development of the bicycle. This list is far from exhaustive and is in no particular order.
- A bicycle is nothing without the wheels
Year: 3500 BC to 1700s
There’s nothing that is more important to a bicycle than the wheel. Or, more precisely, a wheel and an axle. Just when this simple yet powerful combination was invented is hotly debated, but historians generally agree it originated in Mesopotamia sometime around 3500 BC. The oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur, in modern-day Iraq, dates to approximately 3100 BC.
The earliest free-spinning wheels were used as potters wheels. It took another 300 years or so for someone to figure out how to attach them to chariots. The uses for the wheel and axle combination would remain relatively unchanged for millennia until the Industrial Revolution making human-powered wheeled devices more practical.
- The first bike might have been Chinese
Year: 500 BC
Inventor/Developer: Lu Ban
Reconstruction of Lu Ban’s “bicycle”. Source: herschelian
Back in 2010, a Chinese historian produced a recreation of what he believes might have been developed 2500 years ago by a Chinese inventor Lu Ban. This is supposed to have been a large wooden device with complicated gears and pedals to make it move and was, technically speaking, a tricycle.
His findings are yet to be verified and accepted by his peers but this is certainly an interesting device.
- Early bikes also needed good roads
Year: Prehistory to the Roman Empire and beyond
Inventor/Developer: Unknown/John Macadam
Source: FHWA/Wikimedia Commons
Wheeled transportation is nothing without a fairly level and smooth surface to run on. Resistance to motion varies widely depending on the surface on which it travels, with rough surfaces much harder to move along than smooth ones.
The Romans were some of the first peoples to develop a largescale network of “paved” roads. John McAdam would further improve road technology many centuries later – literally paving the way for the viability of bicycle technology shortly after.
- Leonardo da Vinci’s pupil might have invented the bike
Inventor/Developer: Giacomo Caprotti
Source: Wikimedia Commons
For some time now there has been a debate around whether Giacomo Caprotti (a student of Leonardo da Vinci) might have made a sketch of a bicycle-like device back in 1534. The authenticity of this evidence has been called into question by many prominent historians, but others attest to its validity.
- The Celerifere was an early proto-bike
Inventor/Developer: Comte Mede de Sivrac
Source: Legendre/Wikimedia Commons
Although not strictly speaking a bicycle, the Celerifere could be considered an early precursor. It was supposedly developed by Comte Mede de Sivrac in 1790 in France – but its existence may also have been a hoax.
Most bicycle historians tend to err on the side of caution and believe it never actually existed. The general consensus seems to be that it was made up during the 19th Century by a French bicycle historian Louis Baudry de Saunier.
It was said to have lacked any steering, and had no pedals, but did ostensibly resemble the technology that would later become known as the bicycle.
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The Celerifere, according to stories, had four wheels (though some have suggested just two) and a seat and was powered by the rider, using their feet to walk or run to push off, and then glide for a short distance.
- Mt. Tambora lays waste to horses and livestock
In 1815 Mount Tambora erupted in modern-day Indonesia. This turned out to be one of the largest volcanic eruptions in Earth’s history.
This cataclysmic event pumped so much ejecta into the Earth’s atmosphere that global temperatures fell, leading to crop failures, famine, and the starvation of horses and livestock around the northern hemisphere the following year.
At this time there were very few alternatives to animal-power for transportation and so a new, less famine-sensitive transport method was urgently needed – the gauntlet has been thrown down.
- The Laufmaschine (Draisienne) comes to the rescue, sort of
Inventor/Developer: Baron Karl von Drais
Source: Wilhelm Siegrist/Wikipedia Commons
The Laufmaschine (Draisienne in French), aka the “Running Machine” or “Hobby Horse”, was invented by Baron Karl Von Drais – a German inventor. Although it might be unrecognizable today as a bicycle next to modern examples, it did consist of a frame with two wheels.
The “Running Machine” was propelled by the operator, who was effectively walking whilst seated. This allowed for a sort of ‘gliding’ walking or running experience.
The front wheel assembly also had a handlebar that was hinged to allow for a small amount of steering. Several manufacturers in France and England made their own versions during its brief popularity in the summer of 1819.
Owing to the design of the device its utility was restricted to paved areas rather than rough roads.
- The first mechanically propelled bikes might have been Scottish
Inventor/Developer: Kirkpatrick MacMillan/Thomas McCall
Source: Lesseps/Wikimedia Commons
There is some evidence, though weak, that a Scottish Blacksmith, Kirkpatrick MacMillan, might have developed the first mechanically propelled two-wheeled vehicle. Claims made by his nephew were put forward at the time about a rear-wheel-drive system powered by mid-mounted treadles connected by rods to a rear crank (similar to locomotives).
Whether MacMillan’s creation was true or not, the first documented producer of rod-driven two-wheelers, called treadle bicycles, was one Thomas McCall in 1869.
- The Velocipede/Boneshaker is born
Inventor/Developer: Pierre and Ernest Michaux/Michaux Company
Source: Länsmuseet Gävleborg/Flickr
The Velocipede was a two-wheeled bicycle that came with pedals and cranks on its front wheel. It consisted of a combination of a wooden frame with metal tires that made for a very uncomfortable ride over cobbled streets.
It was invented in France sometime in the 1860s and was first manufactured by the Michaux Company between 1867 and 1869. The Velocipede would fall out of favor relatively quickly.
Because of its design, the device quickly earned the nickname of “Boneshaker” – a good description of what it was like to ride.
- The high-wheeler bicycle (“Penny Farthing”) takes things to a new height
Inventor/Developer: Eugène Meyer
Source: Junkyardsparkle/Wikimedia Commons
Inspired by the success of the “Boneshaker”, Eugène Meyer decided to improve on the design. This led to the creation of the high-wheeler bicycle that incorporated one large front wheel and one smaller, wire-spoked rear wheel.
The high wheel allowed the rider to travel farther with a single rotation of the pedals.
This was the first model to be officially known as a bicycle and was very popular between the 1870s and 1880s. Its metal frame and rubber tires provided a more comfortable ride than the boneshaker.
In Britain, it became known as the “Penny Farthing” after its resemblance to the British penny and farthing coins, one much larger than the other, so that the side view resembled a penny leading a farthing.
- The Rover Safety bicycle: the World’s first modern bicycle
Inventor/Developer: Harry John Lawson/John Kemp
Circa 1886 variant of the Rover Safety bicycle. Source: Karen Roe/Flickr
In 1876, Englishman Harry John Lawson invented the revolutionary Safety bicycle. This bike featured a strong metal chain driven by two pedals, along with two equally-sized wheels, and a frame very similar to that of the modern bicycle.
The true bicycle was born.
The smaller wheels meant the bicycle was closer to the ground than the Penny Farthing, making it easier to get on and off, and making stopping easier. Because the rear wheel was powered by the pedals, unlike the front wheel on the Penny Farthing, the rider’s legs were kept safely away from the front wheel. Hence the name, “Safety Bicycle”.
Lawson’s model failed to catch on because of its relatively higher price tag compared to its contemporaries. Later, another Englishman, John Kemp Starley, developed the first commercially-successful version, the Rover.
Early marketing for these bicycles focussed on their relative “safety” when compared to their predecessors – and to great success. The bike also featured direct steering, another safety feature that proved to be very popular.
- Pneumatic tires become a game-changer
Inventor/Developer: John Boyd Dunlop
Source: Geni/Wikimedia Commons
In 1888, Irish inventor, John Boyd Dunlop, came up with the clever idea of filling rubber tires with air to provide a smoother ride than existing solid-rubber tires.
Like many important inventions, Dunlop’s was born from a problem very close to his heart. His son had been prescribed a dose of cycling to help with his heavy cold by a doctor.
Dunlop noticed that his son’s ride was very uncomfortable, and decided to make it a little easier. He fitted his bike with tires made of canvas bonded with liquid rubber – and quickly patented the invention.
His invention soon caught on and was given a boost by the famous cyclist, Willie Hume, who became the first to adopt Dunlop’s tires for racing events. The rest is history.
- The 20th Century saw an explosion in bike designs
Year: 1890s – Today
The 20th Century saw an explosion in bicycle designs, though all were, at their heart, simple variations on the Safety bicycle. Minor additions were made to the bicycle design, from gearing to suspension, and there were also improvements to tire designs, like the addition of different styles of treads.
During the 1970s, the so-called “Bicycle Boom” occurred in America, as the general public became aware of the value of exercise and energy-efficient transportation.
Bicycles also became lighter and stronger, as well as more aerodynamic in design. Notable design innovations included the recumbent bicycle, BMX, and mountain bikes, with the latter being one of the first to free bicycles from the need for smooth paved surfaces.
- The future of bikes
Year: Today onwards
Source: Michael Kwan/Flickr
Over the last few years, there has been a growing trend towards the specialization of bike designs. This has led to the growth in so-called hybrid/city/cross bikes designs that combine elements of road racing and mountain bikes.
Hybrid bicycles and commuter bicycles can range from fast and light racing-type bicycles with flat bars and other minimal concessions to casual use, to wider-tired bikes designed primarily for comfort, load-carrying, and increased versatility over a range of different road surfaces.
Electric bikes have also become more popular of late – a trend that is unlikely to slow down in the future.
And that, as they say, is all folks. Have we missed any other critical events in the history of the bicycle? If so, feel free to mention them in the comments.


Author: Elaine Kirn-Rubin
Suitable for: 3-8, Students, Instructors and Tutors. Secondary Students, Young Adults, Adults, independent learners, and Home School students. For English improvement, ESL, EFL, Literacy, WIOA, Career and College, and Corrections Institutions. New Readers; Beginning through Intermediate Language Learners
What They Are: Beginning Homophone Decks 1-6 contain 54 pairs of matching homophones (words with the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings) that are very common in everyday speech and writing. Examples are ate/eight, be/bee, are/"R", r, hear/here, there's/theirs, one/won, too/two, and the like. These are listed in the accompanying Book, and there are ten reproducible quizzes testing mastery of the items.
Why You Need Them: Although basic learners and very new readers may not have enough vocabulary to be confused by homophones, high-beginning language students and developing readers will soon encounter them. In fact, homophones may be fun to "study" because they're a "curiosity." Paying attention to them early in the learning process will provide a natural introduction to some of the vagaries of English spelling and vocabulary.
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What They Do:
- tells why homophones exist in English, giving charts of the spellings that produce them
- explains how the cards work, suggesting other ways to use them efficiently and effectively.
- gives other ways to teach and/or learn these interesting vocabulary pairs
- offers reproducible Mastery Checks of two kinds, a fill-in and a matching test--with Answer Keys.
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1 PAGE TOC and 6 PAGE Intro and Samples


Many young kids have trouble sitting still and staying focused. But as students get more homework, they need to be able to stick with a task and finish it.
Here are some ways to help your child stay focused:
Get the ya-yas out first
Moving the body motivates the brain. Try having your child walk or bike to school, play outside after school, do chores around the house, or play on a sports team. Make sure your child has had a chance to run, walk, or jump around before sitting down to homework.
Turn off screens and cell phones
Before your kid tackles homework or does anything that takes concentration, turn off the television. Or if others are watching it, make sure your child is far enough away that he can’t be distracted by it. Also, shut down or move him away from the computer, and if your child has a cell phone, make sure that’s off too.
Make a to-do list
Having a lot of chores and homework assignments can be overwhelming for kids. Help your child focus on getting things done by making a list — together — of everything he needs to do for the day or week. Then let him cross off each task as he finishes it.
Try to avoid conversations when your child is working. To cut out distracting talk altogether, you and your child can even come up with a few basic signals. For example, when you point to his work, that means he needs to go back to what he was doing. Or when you raise your hand, that means he should stop what he’s doing and get to work. For some kids, it helps to just lay a hand on their shoulder to bring them back into focus.
During homework time, make sure your child takes a few breaks. After working for 10 or 20 minutes (depending on his age), have him get up and move around, get a drink, and then go back to work. But don’t let him get involved in something else during the break. Just make that time a relaxing few minutes.


1839 French legislative election
Composition of the Chamber of Deputies
The 1839 general election organized the fifth legislature of the July Monarchy. The election was held on 2 March and 6 July.
Only citizens paying taxes were eligible to vote. The left won the election with a majority of 240 seats over the right.
|Opposition||André Dupin (Third Party)
François Arago (Republican)
|Ministerials||Adolphe Thiers (Centre-left)
François Guizot (Centre-right)
Louis-Philippe of France did not have a majority and dissolved the legislature on 16 June 1842.