transformations in the system of landownership and land tenure.
In a number of West European countries, agrarian reforms were carried out during the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. They were a serious blow to feudal relations; in certain countries—England and France, for instance—feudal vestiges were completely eliminated, and thus the path to capitalist development of agriculture was cleared. But in many countries the revolutions did not completely liquidate these vestiges, and it became necessary to carry out agrarian reforms in the course of capitalist development. In many East and Central European countries the reforms were carried out “from above,” in the interests of the ruling classes—for example, the reforms of 1807–11 in Prussia, the peasant reform of 1861 and the Stolypin agrarian reforms of 1906–16 in Russia, and the reform of 1864 in Rumania.
The necessity for agrarian reforms is dictated by the demands of the economic and political development of the country and by the peasants’ powerful movement for land. The degree of radicalism of the reforms is determined by a combination of social and economic conditions in the given country, the correlation of class forces, and the nature of the regime.
V. I. Lenin emphasized the direct connection between agrarian revolution and the struggle for political power: “Agrarian revolution is an empty phrase, if its victory does not presuppose the conquest of power by the revolutionary people. Without this last condition, it would not be an agrarian revolution but rather a peasant rebellion or a Cadet agrarian reform” (Poln. sobr. soch., 5th ed., vol. 12, p. 366).
Agrarian reforms were carried out in tsarist Russia under the pressure of the peasants’ revolutionary actions. The reforms in Central and Southeast Europe after World War I—in Rumania (1919–21), Czechoslovakia (1919), Yugo-slavia(1919), Hungary (1922–24), after the fall of the Soviet republic, Poland (1920), and Bulgaria (1921)—were halfway measures and brought no fundamental changes to the agrarian systems of these states. Landlord estates were limited somewhat, and the lands alienated for a high redemption fee became concentrated in kulak farms. The bulk of the peasantry could not obtain land because of its high price.
The Stolypin agrarian reform in Russia aided the development of agricultural capitalism. The legislative measures adopted in this period were intended to liquidate communal peasant landownership and to strengthen the kulak sector as a social support for the autocracy, while preserving the gentry’s latifundia. The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia resolved the agrarian question in the fullest and most consistent manner. By the Decree on Land adopted by the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets, Oct. 26 (Nov. 8), 1917, landlord land was liquidated without any redemption, and the land was declared the property of the whole nation. The system of land tenure was established by the decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Feb. 9, 1918, “On the Socialization of the Land.”
The victory of people’s democratic revolutions in a number of countries of Europe and Asia after World War II was the most important prerequisite for the implementation of agrarian transformations in the interest of the toiling peasants. Agrarian reforms were carried out in socialist countries in the period of people’s democratic revolutions and had the character of agrarian revolutions. They responded to the fundamental interests of the toiling peasants and laid a firm economic base for the alliance of the working class and the peasantry. The determining condition for the resolution of the agrarian question in the countries which now form the world socialist system was the establishment of the power of the people, led by the working class.
The overwhelming majority of foreign socialist countries in Eastern Europe had been agrarian or agrarian-industrial with a large peasant population. The question of whom the peasantry would follow essentially determined the fate of the revolutionary movement. In Hungary, Rumania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany, large landed property of the feudal and bourgeois landlord type dominated. Only in Bulgaria were agrarian relations characterized by a predominance of peasant landownership. In Cuba and in Asian countries—Korea and the DRV—there was a high proportion of colonial landed property. In the latter two countries, feudal landlord estates constituted the dominant structure. In the People’s Republic of China, the bulk of land was held by feudal landlords and the upper strata of the peasantry; feudal, commercial, and usurious methods were also widely used to exploit the peasants.
In foreign socialist countries, agrarian reforms were carried out by different methods and over different periods due to the socioeconomic and historical peculiarities of each country. Basic reforms included the abolition of large-scale landlord estates and the transfer of landlord lands to those who worked them. Agrarian reforms led to fundamental changes in the class and socioeconomic structure of the countryside. Landlord property, and thus the economic conditions for the existence of landlords as a class, was liquidated. The proportion of middle-sized peasant farms increased as did the average size of the land allotments of poor peasants and small peasant holdings. At the same time, agrarian reforms did not affect the bulk of kulak farms.
The methods of agrarian reform in China were original because class membership—that is, landlord, kulak, middle peasant, or poor peasant—was determined not only by the size of landholdings but directly in the course of the reforms by the decision of general assemblies of the residents of each village.
In Hungary before World War II, peasant farms of up to 20 holds (1 hold = .57 ha), making up 94.4 percent of all farms, held only 40.5 percent of the arable land. In 1947, after the agrarian reforms decreed in March 1945, 70.7 percent of all the country’s arable land belonged to peasant farms, whose proportion had increased by an insignificant amount to 95.9 percent of the total.
As a result of agrarian reform in Poland—decreed in September 1944 and for reunited lands in September 1946—the middle peasant became the basic figure of the countryside. In 1931 peasant farms with land strips from 5 to 10 ha constituted 18.9 percent of the total number of farms; in 1950 the figure was 26.8 percent.
In Czechoslovakia, as a result of the legislative measures of June 1945, June 1947, and March 1948, the number of farms with land allotments of from 5 to 20 ha increased, and the number of farms with allotments of up to 5. ha decreased.
The implementation of agrarian reform in China, decreed in June 1950, improved the economic situation of approximately 300 million peasants, or 60–70 percent of the rural population of the country. In European countries lands, regardless of the size of the holding, as well as buildings, equipment, livestock, and inanimate inventory, belonging to German subjects, war criminals, enemies of the people, individuals who collaborated with German fascist invaders, and so on, were subjected to confiscation in the first order of business. In Asian socialist countries, the DRV and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, an immediate measure in the implementation of agrarian reform was the confiscation of landed property belonging to French and Japanese colonialists. Another category of landholding subject to alienation—in certain countries, with redemption—were farms which exceeded the land maximum established by the agrarian reform laws. In Bulgaria the maximum was 20 ha for the country as a whole and 30 ha for Southern Dobruja; in Hungary, 57 ha; in East Germany and Poland, 100 ha; in Rumania and Czechoslovakia, 50 ha; in Yugoslavia, 25–35 ha (from 1953, 10 ha); and in Cuba, 67 ha (5 caballerias).
With the exception of the Mongolian People’s Republic, agrarian reforms in socialist countries have not provided for the nationalization of all land. As a rule, an insignificant portion of the cultivated land passes to the state, which organizes farms on it; the major portion of state land comprises woods, mineral deposits, water, and the land on which are located industries, enterprises, cities and settlements, transportation arteries, and so on. Only in Cuba has agrarian reform resulted in the state sector holding approximately 70 percent of the country’s cultivated area.
In most socialist countries, the overwhelming portion of agricultural land becomes part of the supply for apportionment among the peasants; the lands are given over to them as private property, since in these countries the development of private peasant landownership—and hence the attachment of the peasants to the land—proceeded significantly further than in Russia. This has been reflected in the conditions of distribution of land to the peasants. The agrarian laws of these socialist countries have provided for payment for land received. This redemption was insignificant in size; usually it was equal to the value of one or two harvests from the strip of land received. The overwhelming mass of land apportioned to the peasants has been free from payment. Different forms of debt dependency have been written off for the peasants, and they have received the land free of debts and other financial obligations to the previous owners. To all intents and purposes, the distribution of land to the peasants has proceeded without compensation. Agrarian reforms have established a certain minimum land plot which has been the basis for land allotment to peasants. For example, in Bulgaria the average for private working farms was set at 8 ha for Southern Dobruja and 5 ha for the country as a whole; for East Germany, 5 ha and where the land is of poor quality, 10 ha; in Poland, 5 ha and for gardens and truck farms, 2 ha; and in Hungary, 8.5 ha and 1.7 ha for gardens and vineyards.
The implementation of agrarian reform in socialist countries proceeded amid bitter class struggle. Supporting the revolutionary resolution of the agrarian question, the working class urged the peasants to decisively seize and distribute landlord lands. The direct participation, activity, and independence of peasant masses is characteristic of the implementation of revolutionary agrarian reforms in socialist countries. As agrarian revolution unfolded, the working class based itself on the poorest strata of the countryside. As a rule, the middle peasant was an ally of the working class. Kulak farms, with the exception of those which belonged to people who collaborated with foreign invaders, were not subject to expropriation.
As a result of the redistribution of land property in all socialist countries, new peasant farms arose and a certain portion of households increased their land allotment. In Bulgaria, 128,000 landless and land-short peasants received 140,000 ha of land; in Hungary 1.9 million ha of arable land were distributed among 642,300 agricultural workers and landless and land-short peasants; in Poland approximately 7.3 million ha of land passed into the hands of farm laborers and poor peasants; in Czechoslovakia over 1.7 million ha of land were distributed among 400,000 landless peasant families; in Rumania peasants received 1.6 million ha of land, 400,000 new farms were created, and over 500,000 farms increased their land plots; in Yugoslavia 316,400 peasant families received land; in the People’s Republic of China approximately 47 million ha of land were distributed among the poorest strata of the countryside; and in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea over 1 million chô (1 chô = .992 ha) of arable land were given to the farms of 17,000 farm laborers, 443,000 landless peasants, 270,500 land-short peasants, and 4,000 others. The poor peasants’ newly established farms also received agricultural inventory and draft animals confiscated from the landlords along with the land. During and following the period of agrarian reform other measures in defense of the interests of the toiling peasants—for instance, credit and taxation policy, pricing, and so forth—were carried out in socialist countries, and the cooperative movement in the country was encouraged. The transformation of relations of land property on the basis of agrarian reforms, in essence broadly popular, opened the path for the further progressive development of these countries on the path to socialism. The next step in the revolutionary resolution of the agrarian question was the construction of socialist production relations in the countryside based on the creation of state agricultural enterprises and peasant production cooperatives.
In developed capitalist countries After World War II, agrarian reforms were carried out in a number of economically developed capitalist countries and in most countries that had attained national independence. Agrarian reforms are particularly important in developing countries, where they are inseparably tied to the national liberation movement. Agrarian reform is the essential condition in overcoming economic backwardness and ensuring these countries’ political and economic independence.
Agrarian reform was extremely radical in postwar Japan, where the landlord class occupied an important place in the social and political structure of society, including the command positions in the army. To a large extent the radical character of agrarian reform was determined by the military and political defeat of Japanese militarism during World War II. It also resulted from the powerful upsurge of the peasant movement for land and the political maturity and fighting ability of the working class and other progressive forces. The necessity for agrarian reform was dictated by the backwardness of agriculture and the striving of monopoly capital to broaden the internal market. American imperialists occupying the country viewed reform as a means of strengthening the capitalist regime. An agrarian reform law, adopted in 1946, was essentially completed in March 1949. Its basis was the redemption of land from the landlords and its subsequent sale to land-short peasants, granted to them on a 30–year installment plan at 3.2 percent per year. Agrarian reform provided for the complete liquidation of the landlord holdings system. Having liquidated feudal relations in the countryside, the agrarian reform cleared the way for the development of capitalism in agriculture, where the concentration of production and of landed property takes place on a capitalistic basis. Agrarian reform did not save the Japanese peasants from ruin nor from intensified oppression by capitalist monopolies.
Laws on agrarian reform were adopted in Italy in 1950 (the first, the Legge-sila, in May and the second, the Legge-stralcio, in October). In December a law on agrarian reform in Sicily was adopted. To implement these laws, committees were created—in southern Italy, the state monopolistic organization, Cassa del Mezzogiorno. Agrarian reform was based on redemption—the government paid the landlords the value of the land alienated from them and then resold the lands to the peasants, who were to pay for them over a period of 30 years. The reform struck a serious blow against large-scale landed property in latifundia, but it preserved large-scale capitalist land property. During the period 1950–62, a total of 113,000 peasant families received approximately 1.2 million ha of land. The problem of apportioning the land to the Italian peasants was not, however, fully resolved. The agrarian reform was implemented basically in the interests of state monopolistic and large-scale agrarian capital.
After World War II, attempts to limit large-scale land-holdings in favor of the peasantry were undertaken in several West European countries. In West Germany the agrarian reform envisioned by the Potsdam agreements was in effect frustrated. The ruling circles of West Germany carried out agrarian reforms aimed at curtailing the number of small farms with the subsequent transition of their lands to large landed proprietors.
The ruling circles of Greece were also obliged to carry out agrarian reforms. A law on agrarian reform was published in 1952, but it was limited in nature. Holdings of over 50 ha of arable land were subjected to expropriation with redemption.
Agrarian reforms were not carried out in the other countries of Western Europe or in the USA. But the ruling circles of Spain, France, Sweden, Holland, Denmark, and other European capitalist countries have carried out individual measures aimed mainly at the “modernization of the agrarian structure” by concentrating landholdings and creating profitable farms. Since, on the whole, feudal vestiges occupy a small place in the agrarian structures of the countries of Western Europe, the goal of these measures is to accelerate the development of agricultural capitalism at the expense of the small-scale peasant sector.
In developing countries By the time independence was won in these countries, there were three basic forms of agricultural property, whose survival was an obstacle to the development of agricultural capitalism. They were (1) feudal relations, (2) patriarchal tribal relations, and (3) colonial land property, belonging to the state, the planters, and the capitalist farmers. These structures played varying roles in the economies of different countries. Feudal and semifeudal relations were most widespread in Asia and Latin America, while patriarchal tribal relations were characteristic of the countries of tropical Africa. The different correlation of these economic forms in the agrarian structures of different countries has influenced the forms and methods of agrarian reform. But in the final analysis, despite some differences, the reforms pursue the same end: to clear the way for the establishment of a bourgeois order in agriculture.
Under pressure from the peasant movement for land and constant social and political ferment, the ruling circles of a number of Latin American countries—including Mexico, Venezuela, Guatemala, Bolivia, and Colombia—were forced to have recourse to agrarian reforms. All of them are bourgeois landlord in nature; their goal is the alleviation of the onerous consequences of the latifundia system and the amelioration of the sharp social contradictions in the countryside. With the exception of Mexico, where agrarian reform has a long history, the reforms began in the 1950’s and 1960’s.
A law on agrarian reform in Mexico was published in 1915, when a revolutionary situation existed in the country. Under this law, latifundia were liquidated and their lands were distributed among the landless and land-short peasants. Land expropriated from the landlords was transferred to peasant communes (ejidos). Gradually, agrarian reform came to be implemented increasingly in the interests of large landowners. As early as 1921, a decree provided for an increase in the sizes of landholdings. Agrarian reform was implemented slowly by stages. The greatest results were achieved in the period 1935–40, when the number of large farms of a thousand ha or more decreased from 15.5 thousand to 9.7 thousand and their land area decreased from 108.9 million ha to 79.9 million ha. Agrarian reform did not liquidate large-scale landownership; as before, its position was strong. Large landowners, with holdings exceeding 1,000 ha, have concentrated 75 percent of all the land in their hands.
In Bolivia a decree on agrarian reform was published in August 1953; its execution began in 1955. The goal of the reforms was to liquidate both latifundia and the most backward forms of leasing relations—that is, working off the obligation, and so on. By July 1964, 5.6 million ha of land had been distributed with redemption among 158,000 peasant families. A large part of the land—28.5 million ha—and the better quality land was retained by the landlords.
An agrarian reform law was adopted in Colombia in December 1961. It has been implemented in an atmosphere of tyranny and of peasants’ free seizure of land, the so-called violencia. The ruling classes—the latifundists and the national bourgeoisie—have been forced to recognize the rights of the peasants to the lands they have occupied.
An agrarian reform law was adopted in Guatemala in June 1952 amid the upsurge of the national liberation and democratic movements; it was relatively radical in nature. The military intervention of the USA in June 1954 and the subsequent state coup suspended the execution of this agrarian reform and produced a “counterreform”—the agrarian decree of February 1956.
Agrarian reform in Chile and other Latin American countries in the 1950’s and 1960’s confirmed the “colonization” of the land, or the distribution of fallow and unworkable land from the state pool—the so-called nobody’s lands—among landless and land-short peasants. For the most part, these were the worst lands.
A comparatively democratic law on land reform was adopted in Venezuela in March 1960. It provided for the distribution of land to the peasants without compensation, and it banned feudal forms of leasing. Reactionary forces managed to direct reform toward land colonization and not toward liquidation of large landed property in latifundia. Large landowners obtained high compensation payments for the alienation of their poor lands. In the countries of Latin America agrarian reform only limited feudal vestiges slightly; it did not eliminate the high degree of concentration of lands in latifundia.
Agrarian reform has been relatively more radical in the developing countries of Asia and North Africa. With the exception of Turkey and the Philippines, feudal landlord landownership has been significantly limited in these countries. As a result of the redistribution of land, the small-scale system based on peasant property has come to be of major importance in the agrarian structure. Feudal and patriarchal tribal relations no longer are dominant in these countries.
In the Eastern countries where agrarian reform has not essentially been carried out, except for partial measures, precapitalist and transitional relations predominate as before in the agrarian structure; these countries include Libya, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Afghanistan, Nepal, Laos, Cambodia, the “outer provinces” of Indonesia, and the autonomous Burmese states.
In Morocco, Ceylon, and Malaysia, where the systems of land tenure were not changed, a large-scale capitalist agricultural sector, including plantations run by foreign and national capital, has formed, and it plays a guiding role in the agriculture of these countries. The multifaceted agrarian economies of Sudan and Lebanon are similar in nature.
Despite the differences resulting from economic and sociopolitical factors, agrarian reform in all these countries has aimed at the gradual transformation of the feudal agrarian structure into a bourgeois structure. Its essence is the slow transformation of semifeudal landlords and the upper elements of the peasantry into capitalist agricultural entrepreneurs, while the majority of the peasantry is gradually proletarianized. The distinctive aspect of this type of agrarian revolution in the developing countries of Asia and North Africa is that while the landlords are preserved as a class, most former landlord lands are alienated, usually for redemption, and the mass of former feudally dependent lease holders are turned into small property owners. A small-scale structure is formed—the point of departure for the changes proceeding in the countryside of Eastern countries. As a result of the agrarian reforms already carried out, feudal leasing has ceased to be the main form of peasant land tenure in most of these countries, and bourgeois elements in their agriculture have grown stronger.
Agrarian reforms in the United Arab Republic have been democratic in nature. The first law on agrarian reform was adopted in 1952 and the second in 1961, when a decree liquidating foreign landholdings was also promulgated. In March 1964 a new law was adopted, providing for the expropriation of landlord holdings without compensation, the reduction by three-fourths of redemption payments for land distributed to peasants on the basis of the agrarian reform law of 1952, and the release of peasants from interest payments. The agrarian policy of the UAR government aimed at the complete liquidation of feudal land tenure. Much attention was given to peasant cooperation.
Agrarian reform laws were published in India in 1950–51. They were executed in the period 1952–61; during 1952–58 agrarian reforms were carried out in the area of land tenure and leasing, and during 1959–61 measures limited feudal landlord property through the establishment of “maximum sizes” for individual holdings. The most important aspect of agrarian reform in India was the legislation liquidating the zamindar system, which gave special rights to zamindar landlords. As a result of agrarian reform, lands belonging to zamindars and leased out by them passed to the state; redemption was provided. Material damage was thus inflicted only on the upper elements of the zamindars. Agrarian reform with respect to leasing was still more limited in nature. Thus, agrarian reform in India has not resolved the agrarian question either; it has struck a blow only against the large zamindars, while the small and middle zamindars have strengthened their positions. Agrarian reform has strengthened the capitalist sector in agriculture.
Agrarian reform was carried out separately in East and West Pakistan. In East Pakistan it was implemented during 1950–58. The law of 1950 established a maximum for land-holdings: 100 bigas (13.5 ha) of land per family. An enormous indemnity was established for alienated lands. In April 1956 the government was forced to adopt a supplementary decree accelerating the implementation of land reform. In West Pakistan a law on agrarian reform was adopted in January 1959. Redemption was to be provided for the alienated land. Agrarian reform affected only the upper elements of the landlord class, the large absenteeists.
The first law on agrarian reform in the Philippines was promulgated in September 1955. “Surpluses” of land above the established maximum—300 ha for individual holdings and 600 ha for corporations—were redeemed from the landlords. In August 1963 the government published a more radical agrarian reform law which was to be carried out over some 30 to 40 years. The maximum land holding was considerably decreased to 75 ha. Provision was made for the distribution of land to about one million peasants. The redemption of land was to be carried out by stages.
The agrarian reform law in Indonesia was preceded by a series of laws whose purpose was to increase agricultural production in the country and resolve the land problem by resettling families from densely populated areas on the island of Java to thinly settled areas. In September 1960 the “Fundamental Agrarian Law” was adopted. It recognized two forms of land property, state and private. The right of private property was declared to be a fundamental institution of land law. A special enactment in 1960 abolished mortgaging of land; when the seventh mortgage period expired, land was to return to the cultivator without redemption. In January 1961 the dimensions for landholdings were set at 15 ha of irrigated rice fields and 20 ha of unirrigated land. It was projected that land reform would be finished by 1966. After the state coup of Sept. 30, 1965, the execution of agrarian reform was halted.
A law providing for the nationalization of the land and the creation of small peasant property was promulgated in Burma in 1948, but it was purely nominal in nature. The lands of the landlords were subjected to alienation with redemption. A maximum for landholdings was established.
The law of 1953 provided for the curtailment of agrarian reform. The quantity of land subject to alienation was decreased from 10 million to 6.2 million acres (1 acre = .4 ha). In March 1962 a new stage of agrarian transformation began, determined by the country’s entry into a non-capitalist path of development. In March 1963 the “law on the protection of the rights of peasant leaseholders” and the law “on the leasing of land” were issued in the interest of toiling leaseholders. The decree of Apr. 5, 1965, abolishing rental payments for land and striking a serious blow against feudal landed property, was significant. In effect, 2.8 million ha of land passed into the hands of lessees. Much attention was devoted to cooperation in agriculture, mechanization, irrigation, and the democratization of agricultural credit procedure.
The document, “The tasks of the struggle against imperialism during the present stage and unity of action of communist and workers’ parties and all anti-imperialist forces,” adopted by the International Conference of Communist and Workers’ Parties in June 1969, emphasized the great importance of agrarian reform in developing countries. “In the majority of the independent states of Asia and Africa, along with the task of strengthening and defending political independence and sovereignty, to overcome economic backwardness, to establish an independent national economy including native industry, and to improve the people’s standard of living have become the central problems of social development. The resolution of these problems presupposes profound socioeconomic transformations, the implementation of democratic agrarian reforms in the interests of the toiling peasantry and, with its participation, the abolition of obsolete feudal and prefeudal relations, the abolition of the dominance of foreign monopolies, the radical democratization of social and political life and the state apparatus, the revitalization of the national culture and the development of its progressive traditions, and the strengthening of revolutionary parties and the creation of such parties where they do not exist. The pressing problems of social development in these states are now the objects not only of sharp struggle between the peoples of those states and the neocolonialists but also of internal social conflicts. The establishment of friendly relations and of active collaboration with the socialist countries is important for the independent states of Asia and Africa” (International Conference of Communist and Workers’ Parties, 1969, p. 312).
REFERENCESAgrarnye reformy v razvivaiushchikhsia stranakh i stranakh vy-sokorazvitogo kapitalizma. Moscow, 1965.
Osnovnye zakonodatel’nye akty po agrarnym preobrazovaniiamν zarubezhnykh sotsialisticheskikh stranakh, issues 1–5. Moscow, 1957–60.
Petrushov, A. Sotsialisticheskoe stroitel’stvo v sel’skom khoziaistve evropeiskikh stran narodnoi demokratii. Moscow, 1951. (Section on agrarian reforms.)
Nedorezov, A. I. Agrarnye preobrazovaniia v narodno-demokraticheskoi Chekhoslovakii. Moscow, 1954.
Kotov, G. G. Agrarnye otnosheniia i zemel’naia reforma v Germanii. Moscow, 1956.
Sotsialno-ekonomicheskie posledstviia agrarnykh reform i sotsial’naia struktura derevni v razvivaiushchikhsia stranakh Azii i Severnoi Afriki. Moscow, 1966.
Mezhdunarodnoe soveshchanie kommunisticheskikh i rabochikh partii: Dokumenty i materialy, Moskva, 5–17 iiunia 1969 g. Moscow, 1969.
B. P. KUZNETSOV and V. N. STARODUBROVSKAIA


"All teachers must start somewhere, but teaching that first class can be tough. While college instructors are usually trained extensively in their specific disciplines, they are seldom trained in how to deal with the actual classroom. The authors try to remedy that situation with this manual. Although meant primarily for beginning teachers, this work is so packed with useful information that experienced teachers could also benefit from reading it. Included are the basics, such as how to plan courses and implement lessons, as well as little-known tips. . . . Preparing a syllabus, leading classroom discussions, lecturing, avoiding cheatingit's all here!"Library Journal
The Chicago Handbook for Teachers:|
A Practical Guide to the College Classroom
Alan Brinkley, Betty Dessants, Michael Flamm, Cynthia Fleming, Charles Forcey, and Eric Rothschild
This book has a very simple purpose. It is designed to offer practical advice to teachers of college courses-advice on how to navigate many of the most common challenges they are likely to face in and out of the classroom. We expect it to be particularly helpful to beginning teachers; but we believe experienced teachers will find the book useful and rewarding as well.
The project had its origins in a conversation about teaching at a meeting of the Executive Board of the Organization of American Historians several years ago, when two of the authors were members of the board. There was general agreement among the experienced scholars and teachers present that day that most beginning college instructors-graduate students having their first experiences as teaching assistants, new Ph.D.'s starting their first teaching jobs-received little or no training in how to deal with the classroom before they entered it. Primary and secondary school teachers ordinarily receive teacher training in education schools or departments. College and university teachers, by contrast, are usually trained intensively in their disciplines (history, English, economics, physics, and so on), but seldom in the craft of teaching itself. There is a growing, and heartening, movement in some graduate programs to incorporate teacher training into the traditional curriculum. But it remains the case that many, perhaps most, new college teachers design their courses and enter their classrooms for the first time without very much guidance from anyone. This book was written with them in mind. We call it a "handbook" because, while we think many teachers may wish to read it in its entirety, we believe others may wish to consult it periodically for help in dealing with particular questions or problems.
We do not claim here to present a coherent theory of teaching or learning. There are many such theories, and they are the subject of a large and valuable literature produced by scholars of education and others. Our goal, however, is the simpler one of answering common logistical questions and using our own experiences in the classroom to offer ideas and lessons that we think other teachers might find useful. In ten relatively brief chapters, we have tried to present practical suggestions for dealing with some of the basic aspects of college teaching: designing a course, preparing for the first class, leading a discussion, managing classroom dynamics, delivering a lecture, supervising research and writing, giving and grading exams, evaluating your own teaching, dealing with diversity issues, and making use of new electronic resources.
There are, needless to say, many issues related to teaching that this book does not address, and many ideas, techniques, and innovations for the classroom beyond those we have included. Both new and experienced teachers have many other resources from which they can draw as they try to improve their students', and their own, classroom experiences. We suggest some such resources in our brief bibliography, but there are also many others.
One problem that all teachers face to which we cannot offer any simple solutions is the problem of time. People outside the academic world often think of college or university teachers as people who live uniquely leisured lives. Those of us who actually work in academia know otherwise. Many of us enjoy more extended vacations than do people in most other professions, it is true. But during the teaching year, we are often compelled to balance an overwhelming number of commitments and responsibilities within a painfully short period of time: teaching classes, advising, grading, serving on committees, commuting, meeting obligations to families and communities, and so forth. Some teachers have very heavy course loads and can find very little time for each of the many preparations demanded of them. Other teachers have part-time jobs, sometimes several of them, and must scramble to find new work even as they are finishing the old. Many college teachers have to balance their teaching obligations against the pressure to do research and to publish, which are often prerequisites to professional survival.
No one will have time to implement all the suggestions in this book-let alone the many other ideas and suggestions available in other sources. Some people will have little time for any of them. We realize, therefore, that our prescriptions for teaching successfully will, in the world most teachers inhabit, need to be balanced against what is possible in pressured and difficult professional lives.
But teaching is a cumulative art. We learn over time, just as our students do. Things you have no time to try one year may be possible in another. A course that begins shakily may improve after two or three tries, and as you slowly incorporate new methods and techniques into your teaching. You should not be discouraged when the realities of your professional life make it hard to enhance your teaching quickly. Do what you can in the time you have, and over several years-if you keep working at it-your teaching will get better.
All of the authors of this book are historians, and our common experience in a single discipline has undoubtedly shaped the way we think about teaching. Teachers of English or psychology or chemistry or any other discipline would undoubtedly produce a rather different book. But almost everything we present here is, we believe, applicable to teaching in other fields-certainly to other disciplines in the humanities and social sciences, much of it also to the natural sciences and to the professional fields.
Teaching, particularly for the first time, can be a lonely and intimidating experience. We hope that the material we present here will make the experience less daunting and more rewarding-both for instructors and for their students.


Extroverts and introverts why do some people enjoy parties, talking in public and meeting people while others abhor these social situations?
According to the Model of the 5 Factors of Personality, there are fundamental differences between people whose most predominant feature is introversion and those who are more extroverted.
Extroverts and introverts
It was probably Carl Jung in 1923, who first wrote about introversion and extroversion. He suggested that everyone has an extrovert and an introverted dimension, although one is more predominant than the other. This theory is based on the fact that people’s behavior varies depending on the different situations.
In the model of the 5 Personality Factors, the feature of extraversion influences much of the behavior of individuals. Why do people differ in this dimension? There is a very interesting theory proposed by the psychologist Gray in 1970 that deals with the neurological factors that seem to contribute to this dimension of the personality.
Gray found a relationship between neurological factors and extraversion. The main difference between extroverts and introverts is that the former are less susceptible to “fear” in social situations; Do not anticipate as many negative events as frustration, pain or failures.
Because they perceive no danger in social situations, extraverts are usually more impulsive. They are not sensitive to potential situations of humiliation
Neurological differences between introverts and extroverts
Gray suggests that the brain structures mediating the ability to anticipate negative events are the mid septal nucleus, the hippocampus, and the orbitofrontal cortex. The hypothesis is that this area is different in extraverted people.
Also Read : Effects of Marijuana Use on Young People
In one experiment, rats were given a drug that decreased the activation of such areas. After the injection, the emotional responses to frustration and avoidance decreased considerably.
Other studies have shown that people who have injuries to the frontal parts of the brain , obtain worse results in tasks of passive avoidance; It appears that the frontal regions of the brain play an important role in inhibitory processes such as reducing impulsivity .
In addition, lesions in monkeys in the septal area produce extraverted behaviors. Thus it appears that there are three brain regions related to extraverted behavior: mid septal nucleus, hippocampus and orbitofrontal cortex.
Another important finding is from the scientist Funder in 2010; That introverts respond more to stimuli than introverts. This makes sense given the avoidant behavior of the introverts, due to an overstimulation of the nervous system.


The Mokala Interpretation Centre
The Mokala National Park is not just where endangered species roam but also where history comes alive.
The Interpretation centre was officially opened on 9 September 2013. The reason behind this initiative was to capture the history of the place and showcase how the beautiful landscapes evolved over time. This forms part of the Park's Interpretive Programme in support of tourism and multi-disciplinary conservation education. The primary role of the interpretation Center is to engage and educate the community. The centre gives an insight of how people use to see themselves as part of the ecological web. Visitors get to see the rock engravings and ancient artefacts used by the inhabitants of the land. Illustration was one way by which inhabitants could delineate their beliefs.
By visiting the centre visitors will embark on a transitional journey of how the people developed over the years. The artefact displays play a huge role in educating the public about the rich cultural heritage facet of the area and lifestyle of the people. It's also a great place to learn about the biodiversity of the Mokala National Park with animals on exhibition alongside descriptive information about animal and plant species found in the vicinity of the park. Day and overnight visitors can go on a tour, which showcases the amazing landscape that the Park has to offer.
|Weekdays:||09:00 - 16:00|
|Weekends & Public Holidays||10:00 - 16:00|
Have a question? Why not ask on the forums?


Car journeys with children: some helpful tips
Here are some helpful tips that will make your car journeys safer, and a little less stressful.
- Prepare games and activities to keep children occupied in the car (e.g. I-spy, counting lorries, or even some singing along to the radio).
- If you’re on a longer journey, decide where you’re going to stop for a rest/toilet break in advance.
- Make sure children understand that once in the car, you need to concentrate fully on driving.
Seatbelts: the rules and regs
Everyone in the car should wear a seatbelt. There are some laws that are in place to protect children in particular:
- It’s an offence to drive with a passenger under 14 years old who is not wearing a seatbelt or a child restraint (car seat) in the front or the back of the car.
- A child should start to use an adult belt when they reach 135cm or on their 12th birthday.
- All other children must use a car seat/booster designed for their current weight.
Car or booster seats
Before you buy a car or booster seat:
- Measure your child’s height and weight.
- Always look for the United Nations ECE R44.04 mark.
- Try it in your car before you buy it, because not every seat fits every car.
- For more information about buying and fitting a car seat, visit Good Egg Safety.
Today’s kids are tomorrow’s drivers
Road safety is not just about keeping children safe now. The way they see you behave in the car is likely to shape the type of driver they will grow up to be. This is one of the reasons why it’s important to always:
- Drive within the speed limit – making sure your speed is appropriate for the road conditions.
- Wear your seatbelt.
- Keep your cool and set a good example.
- Put your phone away.


Large holdings of at least 500 hectares (a hectare equals about 22 acres) are indispensable to the profitable pursuit of extensive agriculture.
In 1902 it was officially estimated that the public land available for permanent agrarian cultivation, including forest lands, was only 186,967 hectares (416,995 acres), almost wholly in the province of Oriente.
The state of war with Soviet Russia, however, continued until the Peace Treaty of July 12 1920, whereunder the Lithuanian claim to Vilna and Grodno was recognized by the Bolsheviks and Lithuania received three million rubles in gold and 100,000 hectares of forest land for exploitation.
Of the last-named class 30% owned less than 3 hectares, 60% from 10-50 hectares, 3% from 3-to hectares, 5% from 50-100 hectares, while 17% of all the villagers were landless.
In 1920 the territory administered by the Lithuanian Government (5,200,000 hectares out of 8,500,000 hectares) yielded As regards live-stock raising there were in 1920 in the same area: Forests.


Sanitation and clean drinking water are serious issues. And what better way to convey such a serious message than with the help of humorous plays? This is exactly what the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) in Assam has undertaken to spread awareness about their programs and involve the intended beneficiaries.
These plays do not have a written script and adapt to the place where they are staged. They are also enacted with the help of local talent at the particular venue, so as to connect better with the people. Robin Chandra Das, an assistant executive engineer with PHED has conducted several such plays, and talks of its success to Teresa Rehman of Tehelka:
“We have few other staff members who assist me in staging the play. And in any locality, we often go hunting for local talent a few hours before the play is actually staged. We urge the women and children to participate in the play and once it is over, we hold an interactive session on sanitation. The humour in the play manages to strike the right emotional chord,” says Das.
The play also incorporates local dialects and even a few Assamese songs with the sanitation theme keeping the audience hooked. Another scene has a mother walking in with a boy who plays truant. The mother complains, “Earlier he used to skip school complaining of stomachache. But now that I have built a toilet at home with my savings, he cannot play around with the same excuse. Today, I heard something move. I thought that our neighbours had come out to defecate in the open but, instead, I saw my son perched on a tree near the bamboo grove.” She then explains to Jadu’s mother on the benefits of having a toilet at home and how it helps keep flies away.
The plays are a part of Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) – a comprehensive program to introduce proper sanitation facilities in all rural areas with the broader goal of eliminating open defecation practice. In Assam, PHED is responsible for enforcing TSC and ensuring hygienic practices are followed, along with safe drinking water in all schools in rural areas. The government of India has been active in encouraging as well as recognizing their efforts.
The main goal of the GOI is to eradicate the practice of open defecation by 2010. To give fillip to this endeavour, GOI has launched Nirmal Gram Puraskar to recognise the efforts in terms of cash awards for fully covered PRI (Panchayat Raj Instituitions), and those individuals and institutions who have contributed significantly in ensuring total sanitary practices in their area of operation.
In the past two years, Assam has bagged eighteen Nirmal Gram Puraskars. Nareswar Kakati, Secretary, PHED, Assam told TEHELKA, “Our main target is to initiate behavioural change in the people using innovative means, paying special attention to whether they belong to the hilly terrain or the plains” The play is a small step in this direction but the sanitation campaign in Assam still has a long way to go.
The joint efforts of the state and central governments have given a tremendous boost to the sanitation program in Assam, and its results are plain to see. We hope that this serves as a lesson on how co-operation and initiative can help governments and men in power to clean up the country’s act.
Read the complete article here.
Image Courtesy: Ministry of Rural Development


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The Church and the Modern World - Human Rights
The Conference endorses the proposed Convenant on Human Rights, now before the United Nations, and declares it necessary for full religious freedom that:
- every person shall have the right to freedom of religion, conscience, and belief, including the right, either alone or in community with other persons of like mind, to hold and manifest any religious or other belief, to change his belief and to practice any form of religious worship and observance, and he shall not be required to do any act that is contrary to such worship and observance; and that
- every person of full age and sound mind shall be free, either alone or in community with other persons of like mind, to give and receive any form of religious teaching, and in the case of a minor the parent or guardian shall be free to determine what religious teaching he shall receive.
The Conference believes that the above rights should be subject only to such limitations as are internationally recognised as necessary to protect public order, morals, and the rights and freedoms of others. Any such limitations should be clearly defined by law, and there should be appeal concerning them before impartial courts of justice.


What is peripheral vascular disease?
Peripheral vascular disease, or PVD, is a condition in which the arteries that carry blood to the arms or legs become narrowed or clogged, interfering with the normal flow of blood. The most common cause of PVD is atherosclerosis (often called hardening of the arteries). Atherosclerosis is a gradual process in which cholesterol and scar tissue build up, forming a substance called “plaque” that clogs the blood vessels. PVD may also be caused by blood clots.
What are the symptoms of PVD?
- Leg or hip pain during walking
- The pain stops when you rest
- Weakness in the legs
- Burning or aching pain in feet or toes when resting
- Sore on leg or foot that won’t heal
- Cold legs or feet
- Color change in skin of legs or feet
- Loss of hair on legs
The disease, which affects both men and women, often goes undiagnosed and many people mistakenly think the symptoms are a normal part of aging.
The most common symptom of PVD is called intermittent claudication, a painful cramping in the leg or hip, particularly when walking. Intermittent claudication occurs when there is not enough blood flowing to the leg muscles during exercise. The pain typically goes away when the muscles are given a rest.
Other symptoms may include numbness, tingling or weakness in the leg. In severe cases, you may experience a burning or aching pain in the feet or toes while resting, or develop a sore on the leg or foot that does not heal. People with PVD may also experience a cooling or color change in the skin of the legs or feet, or loss of hair on the legs. In extreme cases, untreated PVD can lead to gangrene, a serious condition that may require amputation of a leg or a foot.
If you have PVD, you are also at higher risk for heart disease and stroke.
Who is at risk for PVD and intermittent claudication?
As many as 10 million people in the U.S. may have PVD. It is estimated that 4 million of those suffer leg pain symptoms. Those who are at highest risk are:
- over the age of 50,
- people who do not exercise, or
- people with high blood pressure or high cholesterol.
A family history of heart or vascular disease may also put you at higher risk for PVD.
How is PVD diagnosed?
The most common test for PVD is the ankle-brachial index (ABI), a painless exam in which ultrasound is used to measure the ratio of blood pressure in the feet and arms. Based on the results of your ABI, as well as your symptoms and risk factors
for PVD, the physician can decide if further tests are needed. PVD also can be diagnosed noninvasively with an imaging technique called magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), or with computed tomography (CT) angiography.
How can PVD be treated?
The best treatment for PVD depends on a number of factors, including your overall health and the severity of the disease. In some cases, lifestyle changes are enough to halt the progression of PVDand manage the disease. Your physician may prescribe drugs when lifestyle changes are not enough. Procedures that open clogged blood vessels also are used to treat PVD.
Lifestyle changes. Most treatment plans will include a low fat diet and a program of regular exercise. If you are a smoker, it is absolutely essential that you stop the use of all types of tobacco. If decreased blood flow to the legs is causing injury to the feet and toes, a foot care program to prevent sores or infection may be prescribed. This may include referral to a podiatrist.
Medication. Medications that lower cholesterol or control high blood pressure may be prescribed. Medication also is available that has been shown to significantly increase pain-free walking distance and total walking distance in people with intermittent claudication. Other medications that help prevent blood clots or the build-up of plaque in the arteries are available, as well.
What can be done to treat PVD when lifestyle changes and medications are not enough?
There are a number of ways that physicians can open blood vessels at the site of blockages and restore normal blood flow. In many cases, these procedures can be performed without surgery using modern, interventional radiology techniques. Interventional radiologists are physicians who use tiny tubes called catheters and other miniaturized tools, and X-rays to do these procedures.
Procedures performed by interventional radiologists include:
- angioplasty – a balloon is inflated to open the blood vessel.
- thrombolytic therapy – clot-busting drugs are delivered to the site of blockages caused by blood clots.
- stents – a tiny metal cylinder, or stent, is inserted in the clogged vessel to act like a scaffolding and hold it open.
- stent-grafts – a stent covered with synthetic fabric is inserted into the blood vessels to bypass diseased arteries.
Sometimes, open surgery is required to remove blockages from arteries or to bypass the clogged area. These procedures are performed by vascular surgeons.
How can I find out if I have PVD?
If you suspect that you may have PVD, it is important that you see your personal physician for an evaluation.


Luke 2:10-12: Joy to the World
Christmas time is supposed to be a time of great joy. But many people are sad. You have heard of S.A.D., seasonally affected disorder. This usually describes people who react badly to winter weather because there is less sunshine, but many are affected by the approaching Christmas season as well. There are the usual reasons for feeling sad, maybe it is separation from loved ones, or the loss of a loved one. Maybe it is coming to the end of a rough year where many expectations went unmet and many hardships surprised us. There are added troubles this year as we have another Covid Christmas. The world is more joyless than usual at this time. There has been a 28% rise in Covid related depression, 53 million cases. There has been a 26% rise in Covid related cases of anxiety, 76 million new cases. There has been a 15% rise in eating disorders among young people during Covid. There has been an increase in domestic violence. On and on we could go, we live in difficult times.


Abdominal sounds (Bowel Sounds)
Abdominal sounds are the noises made by the intestines.
Abdominal sounds (bowel sounds) are made by the movement of the intestines as they push food through. Since the intestines are hollow, bowel sounds can echo throughout the abdomen much like the sounds heard from water-pipes.
The majority of the bowel sounds are harmless and simply indicate that the gastrointestinal tract is working. Abdominal sounds are evaluated by listening to the abdomen with a stethoscope (auscultation).
While the majority of bowel sounds are normal, there are some instances where abnormal bowel sounds provide valuable information about the health of the body.
Ileus is a condition in which there is a lack of intestinal activity. Many medical conditions may lead to this but it is important to evaluate it further because gas, secretions, and intestinal contents can accumulate and rupture the bowel wall. The doctor may be unable to hear any bowel sounds when listening to the abdomen.
Reduced (hypoactive) bowel sounds include a reduction in the loudness, tone, or regularity of the bowel sounds. They indicate a slowing of intestinal activity. Hypoactive bowel sounds are normal during sleep, and also occur normally for a short time after the use of certain medications and after abdominal surgery. Decreased or absent bowel sounds often indicate constipation.
Increased (hyperactive) bowel sounds are sometimes heard even without a stethoscope. Hyperactive bowel sounds reflect an increase in intestinal activity. This can sometimes occur with diarrhea and after eating.
Abdominal sounds are always evaluated in conjunction with symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, presence or absence of bowel movements, or gas. If bowel sounds are hypoactive or hyperactive, along with abnormal symptoms, continued evaluation by a health care provider is important.
For example, absent bowel sounds after a period of hyperactive bowel sounds are significant and can indicate that rupture of the intestines, or strangulation of the bowel with subsequent death(necrosis) of the bowel tissue may have occurred.
Common Causes Of Bowel Sounds
Most of the sounds you hear your stomach and intestines make are due to normal digestion and are no need for concern. Many conditions may cause hyperactive or hypoactive bowel sounds. Most are harmless and require no treatment.
The following are a list of more serious conditions that can cause abnormal bowel sounds.
Hyperactive, hypoactive, or absent bowel sounds:
- Mechanical bowel obstruction is caused by hernia, tumor, adhesions, or similar conditions that can physically block the intestines.
- Blocked blood vessels prevent the intestines from getting proper blood floow. For example, blood clots can cause mesenteric artery occlusion.
- Paralytic ileus is a problem with the nerves to the intestines. Reduced nerve activity can result from infection, overdistended bowel, trauma, bowel obstruction, vascular obstruction, and chemical imbalances such as hypokalemia.
Other causes of hypoactive bowel sounds:
- Drugs that reduce intestinal movements such as opiates (including codeine), anticholinergics, and phenothiazines
- General anesthesia
- Spinal anesthesia
- Irradiation of the abdomen (radiation therapy for cancer)
- Surgery in the abdomen (may cause reduced bowel sounds for 1 to 5 days)
Other causes of hyperactive bowel sounds:
- Crohn's disease
- GI bleeding
- Ulcerative colitis
- Food allergy
- Infectious enteritis


Early on in the Society's history it was realised that knowledge about the cultivation of Australian native plants was very limited and there was little published information available. One way to help overcome this deficiency was to set up specialist Study Groups whose aim was to record the successes (and failures) of growing Australian species in various localities. Over the years these Groups have contributed valuable data which is assisting today's growers. But there is still a great deal to learn...
Study Groups undertake the study of some particular aspect of Australian plants (usually a genus or a related group of genera) and there are currently 18 Study Groups Australia wide. The number of Study Groups may increase or decrease depending on the level of interest in a particular genus or group. Some groups are active for just a few years while others exist more or less permanently.
Each Study Group consists of a leader, active members who participate in any studies and (sometimes) a number of passive members who receive Group newsletters but take no active part in the Group's activities. Study Group leaders usually charge a small fee to cover expenses such as newsletter production and postage.
Membership of a Study Group can vary from a few members to over 200. All members of Study Groups must be members of an ANPSA-affiliated Regional Society. Study Group leaders report to the ANPSA Study group Coordinator.
Active members collect information on the plants being studied and forward their observations to the leader who collates and publishes the information, usually in a newsletter or in other Society publications. The type of observations recorded can be any aspect of cultivation, propagation and ecology of the plants under study. All Study Groups are expected to publish at least two newsletters per year.
Not all Study Groups have meetings. The Study Group leader may reside in one Region and members may be spread over a number of Regions. Where there are a number of members in close proximity to each other they may conduct up to four meetings a year amongst themselves. Some large Groups have meetings in more than one Region. These meetings are usually in members homes where there maybe a guest speaker with a digital presentation, a exchange of cutting material, a demonstration on propagation, a garden inspection, discuss items from or for Study Group newsletters or discuss growing conditions and arrange further field or home garden inspections.
Some Study groups have excursions in the form of visits to members gardens, public gardens or field trips to investigate particular plant species in the wild. Occasionally a Study group will be invited to put on a display at a flower show or plant sale.
|Left: Brachychiton discolor. Right: Banksia heliantha (syn. Dryandra quercifolia)
Photos: Brian Walters
Study Groups allow members with specific interests to develop that interest to the fullest extent and to contribute in a practical way to the body of knowledge on the Australian flora.
Photo: Brian Walters
Photo: Brian Walters
For further information on each current Study Group, please use the following links.
The following Study Groups are now closed, or are temporarily in recess, but the Groups' newsletters are available for download. Newsletters of other closed groups will be added if they become available:


As a geoscientist you investigate the earth’s natural processes such as its soils, oceans and atmosphere. Your results are then used to help solve environmental problems and inform government policies to improve the quality of human life.
What the job looks like
starts at $51,521 up to $173,731+
- Working outdoors
- Constantly learning about how the earth works
- Helping to solve environmental problems
- Potential to travel
The not so good
- Spending time away from friends and family on field trips
- Working in all kinds of weather
Geoscientists work to understand the natural process of the Earth, atmosphere and other planets. This research is then used to reconstruct the past and forecast the future in areas such as climate change, sustainability and managing waste.
As a geoscientist you will travel to all kinds of locations as part of a field trip where you will collect information and samples to inform your research. You will need to have a thorough understanding of the Earth which includes all sciences. Geoscientists rely on physics, biology and chemistry to help answer some of the questions that pose real problems for our society.
Math skills are also important to record and interperet data, take accurate measurements and make predicitions about the future based on scientific evidence. You also need to be a good writer and speaker to inform other people about your research findings.
If you like solving problems and can think analytically, then a career as a geoscientist could be for you.
It’s a dream job, I am pursuing a hobby and you can’t get better than that.
Pathways to this career
Subject suggestions for the HSC
Choosing your HSC subjects from this list could really help with your career. Think carefully about what you want to study after school as you might need to choose specific HSC subjects for that course and to count towards your ATAR (Australian Tertiary Admission Rank). An ATAR is your academic rank in relation to other HSC students and helps with University admission.
Some subjects will count towards your ATAR, others will not. Check with your career advisor before making subject selections.
- English (Advanced or higher)
- Mathematics (2 unit or higher)
- Earth and Environmental Science
What can I do after I have finished school?
Studying one of these degrees can help with your career.
- Bachelor of Science
- Bachelor of Environmental Science
- Bachelor of Geology
- Focus on geoscience for school assignments where possible
- See if there are any local organisations with a geoscience focus that you can meet with or ask to take you on a tour
- Lead a healthy lifestyle as fitness is important to be able to work in various environments
- Go to career expos and events like university Open Days for information about what you will study


At a Glance This fun book is a perfect way for young children to learn about letters. Features and benefits for ELC Wipe Clean Alphabet Book This fun book is a perfect way for young children to learn about letters. Children are encouraged to draw over the dotted lines to finish the letters in each brightly-illustrated scene. Each page is wipe-clean so that children can write on them with the special pen over and over again. Warning: Not suitable for children under 36 months because of small parts. Choking Hazard. Ink from pen may not be washable.


MINNEAPOLIS / ST. PAUL--In a discovery that opens the door to understanding--and designing drugs to treat--virulence in infectious yeast, University of Minnesota scientists have found a way to induce the yeast, Candida albicans, to mate. Sexual mating was previously unknown in the yeast, which ranks among the top five causes of infections in immunocompromised or debilitated patients. The process of mating is a necessary basis for genetic experiments that could reveal the genes involved in virulence and allow development of new drugs to counteract those genes. The work will appear in the July 14 issue of Science.
"We've been looking for this phenomenon in all the 20 years we've been working with Candida albicans," said Beatrice Magee, first author of the report and a senior scientist at the unversity. "We've been able to take important findings from other laboratories and synthesize them to make our discovery." Her co-author is P.T. Magee, profressor of genetics, cell biology and development.
Candida albicans causes a variety of infections, including vaginitis and a life-threatening infection common to AIDS patients that prohibits swallowing. If it gets into the bloodstream, it can grow in kidneys or heart valves, especially artificial valves, and cause heart failure, P.T. Magee said.
The scientists induced yeast cells, which normally are diploid--that is, they have two sets of each chromosome--to fuse, forming cells with four sets of each chromosome. But in order for scientists to see patterns of inheritance that allow genes to be mapped, a second step must occur. In that step, called meiosis, each cell would split into two daughter cells that receive two copies of each chromosome in random combinations.
"This step almost certainly exists," said P.T. Magee. "We're working hard to find it, and when we do, it'll be easy to make all kinds of yeast strains that will help us find out what genes are important in virulence." Once the genes and their functions are identified, scientists can work on designing drugs to counteract those functions.
Candida has eight chromosomes, and the ability to mate is governed by a gene on chromosome 5. That gene comes in two forms, "a" and "alpha." Most cells isolated in clinical settings have both forms, one on each copy of chromosome 5. Such "a/alpha" cells cannot mate. Sometimes, however, a cell loses one copy of a chromosome. The University of Minnesota team found that they could screen for cells that had lost one copy of chromosome 5. Such cells carry either the a or the alpha form of the gene, and so can be mated--but only with cells carrying the opposite form.
When scientists get Candida cells to carry mating to completion--that is, through meiosis--it will be possible to sort out genes suspected of playing a role in the yeast's ability to cause illness, P.T. Magee said. For example, it may be that several genes perform similar functions, but whether those functions play a role in causing illness will only be testable when the individual genes are separated, through mating, into different progeny clones. Once those genes are identified and characterized, drugs can be designed to target them.
"Such drugs will save the lives of many debilitated patients and will make procedures like heart transplants much safer than they are today," said P.T. Magee.
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A group of Iroquois people.
The Iroquois Indians, also called the Iroquois Confederacy or the Iroquois League, were actually a group of smaller tribes (also called nations). There were originally five nations: the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca. In the 1700's, the Tuscarora, the sixth nation, joined the Iroquois League. The Iroquois League was founded to keep peace among its members. Each nation functioned on its own and had slightly different cultures and traditions.
The Iroquois grew corn,
beans, and squash.
The Iroquois originally lived in present-day New York, but at one point, they had conquered parts of northeastern United States and eastern Canada. Because they chose to side with the British in American Revolution, about half of the Iroquois were forced to flee to southern Ontario in 1779, where most of their descendants live today.
Iroquois traded with settlers for
guns, such as the rifle shown
in the picture above.
The Iroquois had a matrilineal system, which meant that property was passed down from mother to daughter. Though the Iroquois lived mostly off of crops the women grew, including corn, beans, and squash, the men also hunted animals such as deer, elk, and fish. Though they were a very fierce tribe, the Iroquois traded a lot with their neighbors by the time the first settlers came. The first settlers were the French, who began to set up a fur trade in the area. The Iroquois gave the settlers furs and in return, the French gave them guns and steel and other materials.
Iroquois chiefs, in charge of
the military and negotiation,
could only be men.
The Iroquois government had a complex system of checks and balances that influenced America's own Constitution. The Iroquois also had a council, resembling the United States' Congress, which consisted of a certain number of male representatives from each nation, who were chosen by the women of the nation. Women in the Iroquois nations were in charge of agricultural and property decisions, but the tribe's chiefs, who were in charge of the military and negotiations, had to be male.
Iroquois men had
different hairstyles. Many
preferred a "Mohawk".
The Iroquois built and lived in longhouses, which were made of wood and could end up being around one hundred feet! One clan, usually sixty or so people, lived in each longhouse. Men wore breechcloths and women wore skirts and tunics. Both men and women wore moccasins and heavy robes in the winter. Many Iroquois men would shave their heads completely except for a line down the center. This hairstyle came to be called the "Mohawk".
Usually, the Iroquois filled
their drums with water, giving
it an interesting sound.
The Iroquois used mostly the flute and the drum in their music. Usually, they would fill their drums with water to give their songs a unique touch. The Iroquois were famous for their beadwork and mask-carving, which they considered a sacred art. They also became famous as the inventors of lacrosse. Lacrosse was considered a test of strength and stamina, and the Iroquois used it for various reasons, ranging from mere entertainment to celebrating religious festivals.


Confused about plastic?
If the number in the triangle is a 3, 6, or 7, skip it.
Number 3 plastics are easy to remember by the 3 letters PVC (or vinyl). This plastic often contains lead, cadmium, phthalates, and DEHA – all of which are toxic to humans. PVC makes the rounds, appearing in toys, shower curtains, cling wrap, some plastic squeeze bottles, plumbing, and furniture. Fortunately, we have noses that can help tip us off as PVC has a distinct plastic-y smell.
Number 6 plastics or polystyrene contain styrene, which is toxic to the brain and nervous system, and additives in number 6 plastics act like estrogen, which may be linked with breast cancer. Avoid this plastic in styrofoam, egg cartons, cups, carry out containers, and opaque plastic cutlery.
Polycarbonate plastic (7) contains bisphenol A (BPA), another chemical which mimics estrogen and linked with breast cancer. Hard, shatterproof bottles often contain this. Switch to stainless steel or glass bottles to reduce exposure.


Our Iceberg Is Melting: Changing and Succeeding under Any Conditions
Most of the denizens of the Antarctic penguin colony sneer at Fred, the quiet but observant scout who detects worrying signs that their home, an iceberg, is melting. Fred must cleverly convince and enlist key players, such as Louis, the head penguin; Alice, the number two bird; the intractable NoNo the weather expert; and a passle of school-age penguins if he is to save the colony. Their delightfully told journey illuminates in an unforgettable way how to manage the necessary change that surrounds us all. Simple explanatory material following the fable enhances the lasting value of these lessons.
Our Iceberg Is Melting is at once charming, accessible and profound; a treat for virtually any reader.


The type of information about space that is interesting to children includes the number and nature of the planets, the different objects in the universe and the size and nature of the sun. Children find it fascinating to learn that the sun is actually a star that sits at the centre of the solar system. The sun's diameter is 110 times bigger than the earth's and that the sun alone makes up over 99 percent of the solar system's mass.Continue Reading
More interesting solar system information for kids includes the number of objects that go around the sun, the reason why these objects orbit around the sun and when the solar system was formed. Objects that orbit the sun are the eight planets, asteroids, comets, meteoroids and moons. These objects orbit the sun because of the sun's gravity. Scientists believe that the solar system was formed over 4.6 billion years ago.
There are many moons in the solar system. Planet earth has one moon, Venus and Mars have no moons while the rest of the other planets combined have more than 160 moons. The first person to set foot on the earth's moon was Neil Armstrong. The moon orbits the earth every 28 days. Saturn is the planet with three rings around it. Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune also have rings around them.Learn more about Universe


Build a resilient infrastructure, promote broad-based and sustainable industrialization and support innovation
The Agenda 2030
SDG 9 focuses according to the UN (2015, pp. 21-22) on the establishment of a resilient infrastructure, the advancement of a wide-ranged and sustainable industrialization and the support of innovations. SDG 9 addresses the economic sphere of sustainability with its main pillars while a sustainable transformation of the infrastructure, sustainability-oriented R&D and innovation are strongly considered as enablers for the fulfillment of several other SDGs as well. Due to the increasing influence of the megatrend “circular economy” on European economies and market conditions, SDG 9 is embedded in its larger context (acatech, 2020).
The main research question within Target 9.1 is how the infrastructure can be transformed to enable a sustainable development of enterprises and how the infrastructure itself can be designed and operated more sustainably. The high importance of target 9.1 for Austria is underlined by the strong dependence of society, economy and connected sustainable developments on a sustainable and highly developed infrastructure.
Target 9.5 focuses on a qualitative shift towards sustainability-oriented R&D and innovation in science and industry. This shift should assist the priorization of innovations and technologies that contribute towards solving the challenges posed by sustainability, whereas those that obstruct this development should be abolished or prevented. The described steps create the basis to develop and implement new sustainable products, technologies, processes, business models and organizational structures.
SDG 9 Targets:*
9.1 Develop quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all
9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and, by 2030, significantly raise industry’s share of employment and gross domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries
9.3 Increase the access of small-scale industrial and other enterprises, in particular in developing countries, to financial services, including affordable credit, and their integration into value chains and markets
9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and retrofit industries to make them sustainable, with increased resource-use efficiency and greater adoption of clean and environmentally sound technologies and industrial processes, with all countries taking action in accordance with their respective capabilities
9.5 Enhance scientific research, upgrade the technological capabilities of industrial sectors in all countries, in particular developing countries, including, by 2030, encouraging innovation and substantially increasing the number of research and development workers per 1 million people and public and private research and development spending
9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient infrastructure development in developing countries through enhanced financial, technological and technical support to African countries, least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing States 18
9.b Support domestic technology development, research and innovation in developing countries, including by ensuring a conducive policy environment for, inter alia, industrial diversification and value addition to commodities
9.c Significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020
*The targets in italics will be scientifically examined by the UniNEtZ and options to fulfill this target by 2030 will be developed. The Targets 9.2, 9.3, 9.a, 9.b and 9.c will not be considered, as the UniNEtZ has no expertise in this area.
Situation in Austria
The situation of SDG 9 (Sustainability-oriented transformation of industry, innovation and infrastructure), is as follows in Austria:
With respect to developing quality, reliable, sustainable and resilient infrastructure (target 9.1), total freight transport increased strongly, whereas the portion of railroad transport decreased in recent years. Regarding the reuse, recycling and waste infrastructure, approximately 3,100 waste processing and elimination facilities were operated in Austria in 2018 (BMK, 2020). Infrastructure for a separate collection of waste and reusable materials is already well-established. However, high-tech sorting facilities are missing.
Concerning the enhancement of scientific research and the upgrade of technological capabilities of industrial sectors (target 9.5), the R&D expenses accounted for 12.69 billion euro (2019). The R&D quota (proportion of R&D expenses of the Austrian GDP) is 3.18 %, which lies within the leading group of Europe (BMBWF, BMK, & BMDW, 2020). Strengths within the Austrian R&D environment are the collaboration with various partners or the number of patent applications. Weaknesses exist about the employment levels within research-intensive areas or the creation and advancement of a research-friendly environment (European Commission, 2019).
The challenges for Austria in SDG 9 are the increasing volume of freight transport together with the decreasing importance of rail traffic. Moreover, modernization and digitization of reuse and recycling structures play an essential role in supporting a transformation towards a circular economy.
(based on the options report to be published)
The options elaborated by the SDG groups are to serve as a means of communicating to the federal government which concrete options can be set by Austria in order to implement the 2030 Agenda with its 17 Sustainable Development Goals. The options report will be published on 02.12.2021.
- Option 9.1: Development and advancement of a sustainability-oriented freight transport infrastructure (“from roads to rails”)
- Option 9.2: Establishment and modernization of a sustainability-oriented reuse and recycling infrastructure
- Option 9.3: Advancement of sustainability- and circularity-oriented R&D
- Option 9.4: Circular Economy Innovation & Technology Roadmap
acatech – Deutsche Akademie für Technikwissenschaften (2020). Circular Business Models: Overcoming Barriers, Unleashing Potentials: Report of the Working Group on Circular Business Models, Circular Economy Initiative Deutschland. Executive Summary and Recommendations. acatech – Deutsche Akademie der Technikwissenschaften e.V. (acatech); Circular Economy Initiative Deutschland (CEID); SYSTEMIQ Ltd., Munich, Germany.
Abgerufen von https://en.acatech.de/publication/circular-business-models-overcoming-barriers-unleashing-potentials/
Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft und Forschung (BMBWF), Bundesministerium für Klimaschutz, Umwelt, Energie, Mobilität, Innovation und Technologie (BMK), Bundesministerium für Digitalisierung und Wirtschaftsstandort (BMDW) (Hrsg.) (2020a). Österreichischer Forschungs- und Technologiebericht 2020. Lagebericht gem. § 8 (1) FOG über die aus Bundesmitteln geförderte Forschung, Technologie und Innovation in Österreich. Wien.
Abgerufen von https://www.bmbwf.gv.at/Themen/Forschung/Forschung-in-%C3%96sterreich/Services/FTB.html
Bundesministerium für Klimaschutz, Umwelt, Energie, Mobilität, Innovation und Technologie (BMK) (Hrsg.) (2020). Die Bestandsaufnahme der Abfallwirtschaft in Österreich: Statusbericht 2020. Wien.
Abgerufen von https://www.bmk.gv.at/themen/klima_umwelt/abfall/aws/bundes_awp/bawp.html.
Europäische Kommission (EC). (2019). European Innovation Scoreboard 2019.
Abgerufen von https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/36281
Vereinte Nationen (UN). (2015). Resolution der Generalversammlung, verabschiedet am 25. September 2015 – 70/1. Transformation unserer Welt: die Agenda 2030 für nachhaltige Entwicklung. Deutsche Fassung.
Abgerufen von http://www.un.org/Depts/german/gv-70/band1/ar70001.pdf


On January 23rd 2014, McKissick Museum is showcasing an exhibition that celebrates the history of South Carolina’s rural counties in a casing called Photography of the Rural South. The exhibit is comprised of photographs taken by USC students from a newly established southern studies course provided by the University of South Carolina. This course gives a chance to students with no prior experience in photography to express themselves visually while providing viewers a glimpse of geographic beauty that is often overlooked. Throughout this course students traveled through various parts of South Carolina gathering footage, meeting residents, and capturing history, and in the process turned a mere elective course into a class to remember.
Originated by Kathleen Robbins, a USC photography professor, this course embodies the pure essence and nature of documentary photography. From establishing a composition to changing the ISO and shutter speed to their preference, these students have been able to take their lens and make it an extension of their sight and mind. After walking through the gallery with Edward Puchner, Curator of Exhibitions, I couldn’t help but pay more attention to subtle beauties that surrounded me, to the things I couldn’t catch in the fast-paced life that our society is so deeply submerged in. I don’t want to use the cliché, “a picture is worth a thousand words,” if only because some of them were worth more. Photographs of dilapidated houses on a scattered street tell a story of towns that use to be festive and active. Now, they’re just a solemn reminder of when things were very different.
While making my way around the exhibit, Puchner explained to me the significance and history that some of these photographs possess. The Orangeburg Massacre, a protest in South Carolina history that will never be forgotten, took place at a bowling alley near SC State University and resulted in the death of three with nine injured. Citizens were protesting the absurdity of South Carolina’s segregation laws. Though half a century has passed since then, a student’s photograph taken of the alley’s worn and tattered sign serves as a reminder of where South Carolina was and how far it has come.
Capturing beauty in its simplest form can be difficult due to how fast society is evolving around us. Everything is just a pocket reach away when the “world” can be accessed in one’s phone. Rarely does one walk through a park to take in the atmosphere or stroll through a garden to absorb its aesthetics. However, walking around the McKissick Gallery reminded me of subtler times when one could just be their self because it was the only thing that life demanded.
Wesley Young, Jasper Intern
McKissick Museum will be opening Photography of the Rural South on Thursday, January 23, 2014, with a reception from 5:30 – 7:30 pm. The exhibition runs through May 10, 2014.


Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary
) Rennet. See Reed
2. (imp. & p. p.) of Read.
3. (v. t.) To advise; to counsel.
4. (v. t.) To interpret; to explain; as, to read a riddle.
5. (v. t.) To tell; to declare; to recite.
6. (v. t.) To go over, as characters or words, and utter aloud, or recite to one's self inaudibly; to take in the sense of, as of language, by interpreting the characters with which it is expressed; to peruse; as, to read a discourse; to read the letters of an alphabet; to read figures; to read the notes of music, or to read music; to read a book.
7. (v. t.) Hence, to know fully; to comprehend.
8. (v. t.) To discover or understand by characters, marks, features, etc.; to learn by observation.
9. (v. t.) To make a special study of, as by perusing textbooks; as, to read theology or law.
10. (v. i.) To give advice or counsel.
11. (v. i.) To tell; to declare.
12. (v. i.) To perform the act of reading; to peruse, or to go over and utter aloud, the words of a book or other like document.
13. (v. i.) To study by reading; as, he read for the bar.
14. (v. i.) To learn by reading.
15. (v. i.) To appear in writing or print; to be expressed by, or consist of, certain words or characters; as, the passage reads thus in the early manuscripts.
16. (v. i.) To produce a certain effect when read; as, that sentence reads queerly.
17. (v. t.) Saying; sentence; maxim; hence, word; advice; counsel. See Rede.
18. (v.) Reading.
19. (v.) imp. & p. p. of Read, v. t. & i.
20. (a.) Instructed or knowing by reading; versed in books; learned.
Strong's Hebrew7123. qera -- to call, read out or aloud...
<< 7122, 7123. qera. 7124 >>. to call, read
out or aloud. Transliteration:
qera Phonetic Spelling: (ker-aw') Short Definition: read
. ... /hebrew/7123.htm - 6k
7121. qara -- to call, proclaim, read
... << 7120, 7121. qara. 7122 >>. to call, proclaim, read. Transliteration: qara Phonetic
Spelling: (kaw-raw') Short Definition: call. Word Origin a prim. ...
/hebrew/7121.htm - 7k
3045. yada -- to know
... notice (2), observe (2), perceive (1), perceived (1), possibly know (1), predict
(1), professional mourners (1), provided (1), raped (1), read* (1), realize (1 ...
/hebrew/3045.htm - 8k
5612. sepher -- a missive, document, writing, book
... books (2), certificate (3), deed (6), deeds (3), illiterate* (1), indictment (1),
letter (14), letters (15), literate* (1), literature (2), read* (1), scroll (6 ...
/hebrew/5612.htm - 6k


2002 WORLD BOOK ENCYCLOPEDIA
Hinduism, the major religion of India, is one of the oldest
living religions in the world. The roots of Hinduism date to prehistoric times
in India. About 750 million people practice the religion. Although most Hindus
live in India, Hindu literature and philosophy have influenced people throughout
Through the centuries, Hinduism has been the most important influence on the culture of India. For example, the caste system of India is a basic part of Hinduism. The caste system determines the way of life of most Hindus, including what occupations they enter.
Beliefs of Hinduism. Hinduism developed gradually over thousands of years, and many cultures and religions helped shape it. Many sects (groups) arose within Hinduism, and each developed its own philosophy and form of worship. Like most religions, Hinduism has basic beliefs about divinities, life after death, and personal conduct.
Sacred writings. Hinduism has no single book that is the source of its doctrines. But it has many sacred writings, all of which have contributed to its fundamental beliefs. The most important include the Vedas, the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata with its section called the Bhagavad-Gita, and the Manu Smriti.
The Vedas are the oldest Hindu scriptures and are older than the sacred writings of any other major religion. The teachings of the Vedas existed for centuries before they were finally written down. There are four Vedas--the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each has four parts--the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. The Samhitas contain prayers and hymns and are the oldest part. The Brahmanas deal with ritual and theology and include explanations of the Samhitas. The Aranyakas and the Upanishads are works of mysticism and philosophy written as dialogues.
The Puranas are long verse stories that contain many important Hindu myths about Hindu gods and goddesses and the lives of great Hindu heroes. They also describe the Hindu beliefs about how the world began and how it periodically ends and is reborn.
The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are long epics. The Ramayana tells of Prince Rama and his attempts to rescue Sita, who has been kidnapped by the demon king Ravana. The Mahabharata describes a conflict between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, two families who are cousins. Generally, the Pandavas are considered to be morally and ethically superior to the Kauravas.
The Bhagavad-Gita, a philosophical work, forms part of the Mahabharata. In it, the god Krishna and the Pandava warrior Arjuna discuss the meaning and nature of existence.
The Manu Smriti (Code of Manu) is a basic source of Hindu religious and social law. Part of the Manu Smriti sets forth the basis of the caste system.
Divinities. Early Hindus worshiped gods that represented powers in nature, such as rain and the sun. Gradually, some Hindus came to believe that, though divinities appear in separate forms, these forms are part of one universal spirit called Brahman. These Hindus believe that many divinities make up Brahman. The most important ones are Brahma, the creator of the universe; Vishnu, its preserver; and Shiva, its destroyer.
One of the most important Hindu divinities is Shiva's wife, who has several names. She is best known as Durga, Kali, Parvati, or Uma. As Parvati or Uma, she is the beloved goddess of motherhood. As Durga or Kali, she is the feared goddess of destruction. For many Hindus, these contrasting natures of the goddess represent the way in which time and matter constantly move from birth to death and from creation to destruction. Many Hindus find great religious truth in this symbolism and worship the goddess as their most important divinity.
According to Hindu doctrine, animals as well as human beings have souls. Hindus worship some gods in the form of animals. Cows are sacred, but Hindus also revere monkeys, snakes, and other animals.
The six schools of philosophy. Many schools of Hindu thought have developed through the centuries. Six of these schools have become especially prominent. In their traditional order, they are (1) nyaya, (2) vaisheska, (3) sankhya, (4) yoga, (5) purva-mimamsa, and (6) vedanta.
Nyaya deals with logic. Vaisheska concerns the nature of the world. Sankhya examines the origin and evolution of the universe. Yoga is a set of mental and physical exercises designed to free the soul from reliance on the body so that the soul can unite with Brahman. Purva-mimamsa categorizes Vedic texts and rituals. Vedanta interprets especially the Upanishads, the Bhagavad-Gita, and the Brahma Sutra.
Caste is India's strict system of social classes. The caste system may have existed in some form before Aryan invaders from central Asia attacked India about 1500 B.C. The Aryans or their descendants gradually gained control of most of India. They used the caste system at first to limit contact between themselves and the native Indian people. Later, the caste system became more elaborate and one of the teachings of Hinduism. The Hindu castes are grouped into four main categories, called varnas. In order of rank, these hereditary groups are (1) Brahmans, the priests and scholars; (2) Kshatriyas, the rulers and warriors; (3) Vaisyas, the merchants and professionals; and (4) Sudras, the laborers and servants. The caste system includes thousands of castes, each of which has its own rules of behavior.
For centuries, one large group, the untouchables, has existed outside the four varnas and has ranked below the lowest Sudra caste. The untouchables traditionally have had such occupations as tanning, which Hindu law forbids for a member of any caste in the four varnas. The Indian constitution of 1950 outlawed untouchability and gave the group full citizenship. But discrimination against untouchables has not been eliminated.
Through the years, the caste system has weakened somewhat, but continues to be a strong influence in Indian life. Some social distinctions have been abandoned, especially in the cities. Many educated Hindus of different castes intermix and work with one another. Formerly, they would have dined with and would have married only members of their own caste.
Reincarnation and karma. Hinduism teaches that the soul never dies. When the body dies, the soul is reborn. This continuous process of rebirth is called reincarnation. The soul may be reborn in an animal or in a human being, but Hindu doctrine is not clear on this point.
The law of karma states that every action influences how the soul will be born in the next reincarnation. If a person lives a good life, the soul will be born into a higher state, perhaps into the body of a brahman. If a person leads an evil life, the soul will be born into a lower state, perhaps into the body of a worm. A person's reincarnation continues until he or she achieves spiritual perfection. The soul then enters a new level of existence, called moksha, from which it never returns.
Worship in temples. Hinduism considers temples as
buildings dedicated to divinities. Its followers worship as individuals, not as
congregations. Most Hindu temples have many shrines, each of which is devoted to
a divinity. Each temple also has one principal shrine devoted to a single
important god or goddess.
The shrines portray the divinities in sculptured images. Hindus treat these images as living human beings. Every day, for example, priests wash and dress the images and bring them food. Hindus do not consider this custom idol worship. They believe the divinities are actually present in the images.
Hindu temples hold annual festivals commemorating events in the lives of the divinities. Huge crowds gather for these festivals. They come to worship, to pray for assistance, and to enjoy the pageantry of the event. Millions of Hindus visit temples along the Ganges River, the most sacred river in India.
Worship in the home. Many observances of Hinduism take place in the home. Most homes have a shrine devoted to a divinity chosen by the family. In most homes, the husband or wife conducts the daily family worship. A number of important ceremonies are performed at home, including the one in which boys officially become members of the Hindu community. Other religious ceremonies include marriage ceremonies and rituals that are connected with pregnancy and childbirth.
Worship of saints. Hindus worship both living and dead men as saints. Some saints may be yogis (men who practice yoga), and others may be gurus (spiritual teachers). Hinduism has many local and regional saints, rather than official saints for all its followers. A Hindu village, tribe, or religious order may elevate its own heroes or protectors to sainthood. Many Hindu monks and nuns have joined together in religious orders under the leadership of a saint.
Contributor: Charles S. J. White, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of Philosophy and Religion, The American University.
Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, 1996.
Klostermaier, Klaus K. A Survey of Hinduism. 2nd ed. State Univ. of N. Y. Pr., 1994.
Powell, Barbara. Windows into the Infinite: A Guide to the Hindu Scriptures. Asian Humanities, 1996.
Sharma, Arvind. Hinduism for Our Times. Oxford, 1996.
Sullivan, Bruce M. Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Scarecrow, 1997.
Viswanathan, Ed. Am I a Hindu? The Hinduism Primer. Halo Bks., 1992.
WORD FAITH INDEX
CATHOLIC CHURCH INDEX