Limb difference is the partial or complete absence of or malformation of limbs (arms and legs). There are two main types of limb difference: congenital limb difference and acquired limb difference.
Congenital limb difference is also referred to as "limb reduction" or "congenital amputation" or "amelia" and occurs when someone is born missing all or part of their upper and/or lower limbs.
Acquired limb differences is also known as "amputation" and occurs when someone has a limb removed for medical reasons, or accidentally due to trauma.
Definitions from Amputee Coalition Limb Loss Definitions and Limbs 4 Life Australia's Fact Sheets on Limb Difference, Congenital Limb Difference, and Acquired Limb Difference.
Among those living with limb loss, the main causes are vascular disease (54%) – including diabetes and peripheral arterial disease – trauma (45%) and cancer (less than 2%)
Approximately 185,000 amputations occur in the United States each year
African‐Americans are up to four times more likely to have an amputation than white Americans
Limb reduction is when a part of or the entire arm (upper limb) or leg (lower limb) of a fetus fails to form completely during pregnancy. The defect is referred to as a “limb reduction” because a limb is reduced from its normal size or is missing.
CDC estimates that each year about 1,500 babies in the United States are born with upper limb reductions and about 750 are born with lower limb reductions.
In other words, each year about 4 out of every 10,000 babies will have upper limb reductions and about 2 out of every 10,000 babies will have lower limb reductions. Some of these babies will have both upper and lower limb reduction defects.


Use quotes for author, title, or exact phrase
Use + to include a stop word (a, the, for)
Use – to exclude results including the term: Halo –Xbox
Use OR to include either of your search terms: Incidence OR prevalence
Use Advanced Search to find citations for particular articles
Google Scholar has made arrangements with academic publishers, professional societies, online repositories, universities and other web sites to digitize their articles and include them in search results. There are articles from international journals, meeting abstracts and working papers that can be hard to find. Keep in mind that not all articles are peer-reviewed.
The results are relevancy ranked. Google Scholar explains it "aims to rank documents the way researchers do, weighing the full text of each document, where it was published, who it was written by, as well as how often and how recently it has been cited in other scholarly literature."
Some articles have free full text provided. You can set your preferences to link to UAB full text. If you find yourself being asked to pay for an article you find through Google Scholar, please remember you can request it through LHL's interlibrary loan service while you are at UAB (if UAB does not have it).
Here is an example of a Google Scholar search:
Google Scholar searches the full text of the entire article, so it can bring up articles that are hard to find on PubMed. For example, a search term may be so specific it is not included in the title or abstract, and there is no exact subject heading. Google Scholar indexes PubMed abstracts so articles found in Google Scholar can be linked back to PubMed. Then PubMed features like "related citations" and MeSH Subject headings can be used to locate additional articles and expand your results set in PubMed.


Families have migrated to the suburbs for generations in search of safer communities and better education, and high-performing districts like Birmingham Public Schools have seen a steady increase of black students as a result. But those students face a white achievement gap that may be holding them back.
I remember being about 5 years old and having to wake up extra early every morning. My mom and dad would load my brother and me into our green minivan and drive us from our home in northwest Detroit to our grandmother’s house in Southfield, where we’d eat breakfast before she took us to school.
We did this same routine for years before we officially moved into the Birmingham Public Schools district. My parents wanted my brother and me to have a better education, and suburban schools like BPS have long been synonymous with being high-performing.
My story of migration is a familiar one for black Detroiters. In the early ’80s, Southfield was mostly white, but over the years the city has seen its black population skyrocket. It grew to 54 percent by the 2000 census and to 70 percent in 2010. The Southfield Public Schools district has mirrored that change, with a black student now around 94 percent.
“From when I came in in 1982, my elementary school and even middle school looked pretty similar to Berkshire, and the feeder elementary schools here, demographically,” says Jason Clinkscale, who attended public schools in Southfield. He is now principal of Berkshire Middle School in Birmingham, the first black principal to hold that position. “By the time I had left Southfield Public Schools in 1991, there was a definite change demographically to a much higher percentage of African-American students. We started out being the minority, below 50 percent. We were definitely well into the majority, mid 80s, as far as percentage of African-American students in the school district.”
Though not quite as rapid as Southfield in the last decade, BPS is starting to see its own increase. Right now, black students account for almost 12 percent of the district, which has steadily increased from just over 6 percent during the 2002-03 school year, according to Michigan’s Center for Educational Performance and Information. Clinkscale’s school in particular has seen a 10 percent increase in black students over the past 14 years.
Denine Johnson is a BPS parent with two daughters at Groves High School, one of two high schools in the district. She says the district’s reputation is what drew her to enroll her kids here.
“It was the education that I knew they would provide for my children,” Johnson says. “Looking at the graduation rates, the scoring of the children as far as standardized testing is what drew me as a parent.”
BPS’s reputation, diversity and widespread district lines makes it appealing to parents and families of all races. But for black students, numbers show that enrolling in higher performing districts like BPS is only the beginning of a long road to graduation.
Identifying the gap …
Even though black students in Birmingham only account for less than a quarter of the district’s population, they are disproportionately represented in their classes. Black youth make up the majority of those enrolled in classes for students who need “additional assistance.” On the other end, they are underrepresented in the district’s accelerated or Advanced Placement classes.
When it comes to standardized testing, students take the Michigan Student Test of Educational Progress in grades 3-8. Looking at black eighth graders in BPS who took the M-STEP in the 2014-15 school year, 46 percent tested “proficient” in mathematics, 52 percent in English language arts and 29 percent in social studies. Compare that to their white classmates, who tested over 75 percent “proficient” in both math and English language arts, and 55 percent in social studies.
“When we get into the standardized assessment data, such as now the M-STEP, as well as NWEA (Northwest Evaluation Association, a nonprofit that assesses academic progress in students), we see that African-American students are being outperformed by their white classmates,” Clinkscale says. “So this would be typical to what you would see in schools across the country. It’s very similar here in Birmingham.”
The disparity is clear: Students who transfer into the district from lower-performing schools and are unable to keep up, as well as students from lower-income households or whose parents who have limited academic achievement.
“Maybe (transfer students) came in sixth grade, or maybe they came later in elementary school,” Clinkscale says. “Or at the high school, they’ll say, ‘Well these aren’t our students, they just came freshman year into the district.’ My answer is, regardless of when they came, they are our students and we still owe them our best practices, all of our attention and the appropriate resources to remedy the issue.”
BPS has been working to tackle the district’s achievement gap for almost a decade. It’s all the more important to address with the district’s growing black population.
“I believe the achievement gap should be put in historical context,” Clinkscale says. “This problem is definitely not anything new, it’s not anything unique to Birmingham. This is at the county level, this is at the state level, the national level and even internationally. There seems to be these unfortunate representations where people are not having the same access and same opportunity.”
… and closing that gap
The Birmingham Public Schools name comes with a reputation similar to that of its namesake city. Just under five square miles, Birmingham is one of Detroit’s wealthiest – and whitest – suburbs: 92 percent white with a median household income of $107,000, the census notes, and a downtown known for upscale shopping and gourmet dining.
While the district does pull students from the city of Birmingham, BPS’s boundaries extend into more diverse- racially and economically – communities nearby, including West Bloomfield, Bloomfield Township, Troy, Franklin and the northern part of Southfield. And while only about 7 percent of BPS students are categorized as “economically disadvantaged,” Clinkscale says these students also tend to perform lower on standardized tests.
With this in mind, BPS seeks to close the achievement gap by closely involving its families, with some initiatives led by the district and others led by parents.
Take for example the Birmingham African American Family Network, which is one way the district fosters a connection between parents, students, educators and administrators – and discusses the issues black students face in the district.
Johnson’s daughters were raised in the district, but she thinks the BAAFN is ideal for families new to the district. “If they’re coming from a district that’s majority black and coming into BPS, that group is great for them to know what to expect and the resources available to them,” she says.
Not only does the network discuss academic issues during meetings, but it also covers the social repercussions black students face. In a district as diverse as BPS (or, really, any metro Detroit school district with changing demographics), there are bound to be kids from families with different worldviews.
Berkshire parent Nichole Pardo turned to the BAAFN meeting to share an incident her son had with a white student at his school.
“This white student came up to the water fountain and said ‘whites first,’” Pardo says. “The next morning, I emailed the principal and, by the time I hit send, he had already responded. And this was a Saturday at like noon.”
Pardo’s son, who is half Mexican and Cuban, also faced discrimination when a student voiced an opinion about Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump’s “wall” and how the child’s people will be on the other side.
“I told him (the other student is) clearly getting this from home, so don’t be too hard on him. Just like you get the polar opposite about civil rights advocacy, racial equality and human equality, he’s getting the opposite, so you cannot blame him,” Pardo says. “I’m trying to make these teachable moments.”
In addition to the BAAFN, the district also introduced the Birmingham Achievement Gap Committee around the same time, which was founded by a group of educators in the district – including Clinkscale – to establish policy establish policy for improvement.
Through these two efforts, the district formed the Saturday School, a free program that gives extra tutoring help from National Honor Society students at the high school level and education students from Oakland University. Clinkscale says from what he’s seen, the school seems to help students, measured by indicators such as overall grades, standardized test scores and attitudes toward school.
Even with the achievement gap, Birmingham Public Schools is still getting students through and even onto college. The district maintains a graduation rate of over 95 percent, and black students go onto college within six months of graduating at almost a 77 percent rate.
“It’s not just academic help that we do, but we also try to really get at that attitude gap that exists, as well. Making sure that kids find value and relevancy in school,” Clinkscale says. “Those are things that don’t necessarily show up in a quantifiable way, but we certainly can qualify, and that’s helpful in the work that we do – as well as recognizing the impact we’re having in the kids’ lives.”
ALANA WALKER IS ASSOCIATE EDITOR OF BLAC DETROIT.


Great white sharks may munch on a wider array of sea creatures throughout their lives than previously thought, according to a new study published Friday in the journal PLoS ONE.
The great whites are well known to many as the stars of “Shark Week” and as one of the ocean’s most feared predators. Researchers have long believed that a shark’s diet evolves over its lifetime as it grows, moving from small prey like fish to larger animals like seals and, every once in a while, humans.
But in the new study, the researchers found that great whites show a remarkable diversity in their diets. Even sharks that live near each other ate differently throughout the course of their lifetimes, and some sharks never made the transition to large animals at all.
The researchers, from UC Santa Cruz, studied the vertebrae of 15 great whites that were caught off the West Coast of the U.S. between 1957 and 2000. When sharks eat, a record of their diet is stored in their vertebrae in the form of carbon and nitrogen. Over time, the elements amass as bands in their vertebrae, akin to a tree’s rings. Because animals lower on the food chain have different levels of carbon and nitrogen in their tissue than animals higher on the food chain, researchers can tell what the sharks ate over time by looking at bands from different periods in a shark’s life.
The researchers expected to find a gradual change in the levels of carbon and nitrogen over time, signifying increasing consumption of bigger animals as they got older. This would lead to a plateau in the elements’ levels once the transition to large animals was complete.
While they saw that pattern in some sharks, the diets varied a great deal between different sharks. Some sharks appeared to eat small animals, such as fish and squid, for their entire lives. Others seemed to get feisty while still young, eating bigger animals like seals virtually from the get-go.
The researchers also noticed another shift over time: In general, sharks have recently consumed more marine mammals than they used to, a change the researchers attribute to the Marine Mammal Protection Act, which passed in 1972.
You can read the full study here.
Return to the Science Now blog.


Also found in: Thesaurus, Medical, Encyclopedia.
Related to Babinski reflex: plantar reflex
Ba·bin·ski reflex(bə-bĭn′skē) also Ba·bin·ski's reflex (-skēz)
An extension of the great toe, sometimes with fanning of the other toes, in response to stroking of the sole of the foot. It is a normal reflex in infants, but it is usually associated with a disturbance of the pyramidal tract in children and adults. Also called Babinski sign, Babinski's sign.
[After Joseph François Felix Babinski (1857-1932), French neurologist.]
Ba•bin′ski re`flex(bəˈbɪn ski)
a reflex extension of the great toe with flexion of the other toes, evoked by stroking the sole of the foot: normal in infants but otherwise denoting central nervous system damage. Also, Babinski's reflex.
[after J.French.French. Babinski (d. 1932), French neurologist]
Switch to new thesaurus
|Noun||1.||Babinski reflex - extension upward of the toes when the sole of the foot is stroked firmly on the outer side from the heel to the front; normal in infants under the age of two years but a sign of brain or spinal cord injury in older persons|


Master Leasing Plans
Oil and gas development on federal lands affects us all. Yet decision-making about where to drill typically excludes diverse stakeholders, including Latino communities. As a result, our access to these lands for recreation, subsistence, education, and traditional cultural uses are impeded.
HECHO advocates for the Bureau of Land Management to implement “smart from the start” planning, also known as Master Leasing Plans (MLPs), to allow input from multiple stakeholders about how public lands should be used. MLP’s allow for a variety of issues to be considered, including: hunting and angling, farming and ranching, cultural resource protection, conservation, recreation, property ownership, local government, and oil and gas development.
Currently Latino voices are missing from these planning conversations. We should be engaged, given the value of these western lands and waters to our communities and our way of life. “Smart from the start” land management planning directs development to areas of least conflict, and protects important resources, such as air, water, wildlife habitat, tourism and recreation-related economic opportunities.
While we all use oil and gas, we assert that some places are too sacred and fragile to be destroyed by development. These are lands we have enjoyed for centuries and want to protect for future generations.
Current examples of MLPs:
South Park, Colorado
The BLM is working on an MLP for the South Park Basin. Located west of the Denver metro area, South Park contains the headwaters of the South Platte River and multiple reservoirs that provide water to millions of people. The South Park Basin is also known for its prized hunting, fishing and wide open ranchlands.
Dinosaur Trail, CO
Bordering the southern edge of Dinosaur National Monument, Dinosaur Trail is a landscape filled with big game and scenic canyons and valleys, which are popular destinations for hunting and camping. The BLM recently proposed an MLP for Dinosaur Trail, with the goal of avoiding future conflicts between these values and oil and gas development.
The BLM will issue a draft MLP for the Moab area covering about 1 million acres. Moab’s economy has changed dramatically over the years, shifting from a reliance on mining and drilling to a more sustained and reliable tourism and recreation economy. The BLM issued preliminary draft options for the Moab MLP that was widely applauded by both local and national businesses.
Greater Little Mountain, WY
Greater Little Mountain is one of Wyoming’s most popular hunting and fishing destinations, and contains important habitat for a variety of big game and Colorado River cutthroat trout. In response to recent leasing proposals and ongoing interest in developing, a broad coalition of sportsmen and labor groups has called on the BLM to prepare an MLP for Greater Little Mountain, which the BLM has agreed to do as part of a revision to the Rock Springs Field Office’s resource management plan.


Drones, or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), have been in the news a lot because of their use in recent wars. But just because a technology has been used for violent purposes, does that mean that the technology is in itself unethical?
A UAV is simply an aircraft that doesn't need a human pilot on board. Instead a pilot flies the plane via remote control from far away, even on the other side of the world. UAVs are used either to carry something (weapons in military use) or to gather information as eyes in the sky. They tend to be used in cases where some combination of these reasons are true:
- It would be too dangerous for a pilot to be physically present
- Surveillance is needed for longer than any pilot can fly
- It is cheaper to gather information this way.
While initially developed as weapons, more and more uses are being found for UAVs in non-military contexts. Some are controversial, others just plain useful.
The issue for drones boils down to a simple question - do UAVs allow their operators to act unethically in a way that they wouldn't do if they were actually in the aircraft?


Strangles is an upper-respiratory infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus equi. Which of the following statements about strangles is not true?
a. Younger horses, particularly yearlings, are most at risk for developing the disease.
b. A strangles victim can infect other horses only when clinical signs of the disease, including nasal discharge, swollen glands and high temperature, are present.
c. Shared water sources are the most common strangles reservoirs.
d. All horses with strangles develop painfully swollen glands between or just behind the jaw bones.
b. Looks can be deceiving in this highly contagious disease. Even after a horse seems to have recovered completely from strangles, he may continue to shed bacteria in normal-looking nasal secretions for several subsequent weeks. In fact, researchers believe that some horses remain carriers for life, capable of spreading infections to susceptible contacts. Strangles can infect horses of any age, sex and breed, but once exposed, horses usually recover completely and develop lasting immunity. Thus the most at-risk population includes young, immunologically "naive" horses.
The infection is spread through direct horse-to-horse contact or by intermediaries, including flies, human handlers and, most commonly, communal watering troughs. Nasal discharge is variable among infected horses, but victims always run very high fevers and always develop painful abscesses in the lymphoid tissues behind or between the jaw bones, where they may impede swallowing, hence the name "strangles." Once these abscesses burst and drain, the horse usually recovers without incident.
This excerpt originally ran in the article "Germ Midterm" in EQUUS 282, April 2001.


Each node in the Mesh network doesn't just send and receive data for itself, it also routes messages on for others. This might seem retrograde at first, as each node ends up sharing bandwidth with traffic in which it has no interest. There are also many practical difficulties in making a Mesh network efficient and reliable: routing a packet is much harder if the links between it and its destination are liable to change at a second's notice. However, the practical benefits of a Mesh network are potentially huge. Take bandwidth. In a traditional wireless network, there's a fixed bandwidth shared between all stations within range of an access point. The more stations share that space, the less bandwidth per station is available. With Mesh networks there is no need to use the access point: each station can reduce its power until it is in contact only with those stations closest to it. Thus, other stations nearby are then free to reuse the frequencies for connections to their own neighbours and the total bandwidth in the area goes up thanks to spatial and frequency reuse. The more stations you have, the more bandwidth becomes available. This also has positive implications for reliability and efficiency. With a dense Mesh of network nodes, failure of one merely means that packets moving across the network have to take an alternate route -- compare this to the situation with current wireless LANs where an access point goes down. Also, a Mesh network lends itself to load balancing -- each node can choose routes according to which is least congested, thus making best use of the bandwidth and allowing quality of service considerations to be a part of the routing process. There are two main kinds of Mesh networks: ones in which every station is fixed, and ones where the stations are free to move around. It might seem that the first variety is simpler than the second, as once the routing map has been set up the system will be similar to a wired network. The second type would appear to be far more complicated, as stations can appear, disappear and move in and out of range of each other all the time. The fixed model works well for networks distributing data between buildings. However, it breaks down at smaller levels, in the office or home. At the microwave frequencies used, any change in the physical environment -- including people walking around, furniture moving and so on -- can block one radio path or create another through reflections. In effect, everything is moving around the network map all the time, and any routing protocol has to accept and work with that. A simplistic solution won't work. Mesh is a new concept in commercial terms -- the military and others have been researching it for a while -- and standards are thin on the ground. One of the most advanced is 802.16a, which has grown out of the 802.16 fixed wireless broadband standard. 802.16 is designed for multi-megabit links from 10 to 66 GHz in star configurations -- the sort of broadband to the home or office that uses a central fixed distribution point feeding many small fixed transceivers. Mesh was seen as a way to fill in gaps in that model of coverage. 802.16a added that in conjunction with lower powers and lower frequencies than 802.16. Many questions remain about how the 802.16 family of standards and existing wireless networks will co-exist: there are strong rumours that Intel, among others, is developing systems with aspects of both. Intel has already demonstrated Mesh networks running on top of standard 802.11b interface cards. One model has 802.16 connecting islands of 802.11; another has 802.16a subnets connected to a building-wide 802.11. One potentially dynamite combination would be 802.16a and ultrawideband (UWB) radios: UWB is a new carrier-less radio technology whose very short range and very high bandwidth, make it ideal for dense Meshes. This model predicts £10 nodes every five metres or so throughout an office or home, providing multiple 400 megabit/second bandwidth connections. The three main areas needing work are security, manageability and routing. Security and manageability are two aspects of the same problem: a Mesh network relies on having as many nodes as possible co-operating, but you don't want an outside agency stealing all your bandwidth or frequencies. You do want to co-operatively share neighbouring networks: you don't want your packets being vulnerable to outside interference. You want to be able to increase your network's capacity by adding blocks of new nodes securely: you don't want to have to spend all your time configuring or maintaining them. Routing is still being experimented with: here the tradeoff is that routing is most efficient when each node knows all about the network around it, but with a dynamically changing network you end up using all your bandwidth telling everyone about the changes. Various compromises exist, and are being ascertained for robustness, efficiency, configurability, latency and so on. In the future, Mesh networks may extend outdoors. Two new standard efforts -- 802.16e and 802.20 -- are concentrating on mobile broadband wireless networking, in other words the megabit-upward connectivity on the move that will characterise 4G mobile communications. Whatever happens, Mesh is one technology to watch.


Scientists believe a pill could be developed to prevent divers getting the bends.
The bends can be fatal
Combining exercise prior to diving with a pill releasing nitric oxide (NO) would allow longer or deeper dives.
New Scientist magazine reports the Norwegian researchers are confident the drug would reduce the number of harmful bubbles that form in the blood.
However, sub-aqua experts warned the side-effects of any drug would have to be carefully examined.
The research team at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim previously carried out tests on rats, which found intense exercise around 20 hours before a simulated dive in a pressure chamber significantly reduced nitrogen bubble formation.
Nitrogen dissolves in the blood during dives, but comes out of solution if divers return to normal pressure too rapidly and this can cause the bends, or decompression sickness.
It is thought exercise works by eliminating microbubbles, or nuclei, that lead to the formation of larger bubbles in the blood.
Other studies have suggested the microbubbles attach to the walls of blood vessels, and exercise is known to stimulate the release of nitric oxide, dilating the blood vessels and changing their surface properties.
The Norwegian team therefore carried out further research on rats, published in the Journal of Physiology, which combined exercise with nitric oxide-releasing agents given for five days and then 20 hours prior to diving.
This significantly reduced bubble formation and prevented death.
Ulrik Wisloff and fellow researchers concluded: "The findings of a protective effect against the bubble formation and death by appropriately timed exercise and an NO-releasing agent may form the basis of a new approach to preventing serious decompression sickness."
Mike Clack, techinical adviser at the British Sub-Aqua Club, said anything that added to the methods available to deal with decompression sickness was to be welcomed.
But he added: "The diver should ensure that any drug used while diving would have no effect on them while breathing under pressure."
Dr Rachel Broadley, a hyerbaric physician at the Diving Diseases and Research Centre in Plymouth, described the research as "very exciting".
She said: "If you inhibit the synthesis of nitric oxide, it appears to predispose to more bubbles being formed. By opposing that, you can prevent it. But how it would be done is very difficult to say."
She warned that nitric oxide can alter how the cardiovascular system works under diving conditions.
There were also problems associated with the use of exercise because of the precise timing needed.


Globally, sharks and their relatives are among the most threatened marine vertebrates on Earth. Large open-water ('pelagic') sharks are among the most threatened. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, it is estimated that 60% of pelagic sharks are currently threatened with extinction. As many of these species are wide-ranging top predators, their loss may have far-reaching consequences for marine ecosystems.
Sharks have long been recognized as vulnerable species to overfishing, due to their slow growth, late maturity, low fecundity, and long life. Evidence indicates that many populations of shark species, including those that inhabit Atlantic Canadian waters, have drastically declined. This has sparked national and international concern in recent decades. While ‘bycatch’, the unintentional capture of non-target species in commercial fisheries is the most significant threat to sharks in Atlantic Canada, declining trends can be affected by one or several other key factors. These include but are not limited too, impacts from commercial and recreational exploitation, shark ‘finning’ (the removal of only the fins from sharks and discarding the remainder while at sea), and changes to the marine environment, such as habitat loss and climate changes.


An arpeggio has the notes of a chord played in succession rather than together, strictly in continuously ascending or descending order.
A broken chord is when the notes often appear in any order.
This tutorial demonstrates what an arpeggio is and how to play one on the keyboard.
Conjuct / stepwise
Disjunct / leaps
Conjuct or stepwise motion is where a melody moves by steps of either semitones or tones.
Disjunct or leaps is a melodic movement to a note further than a tone away from the previous note .
A repeated melodic idea that repeats at different pitch levels
A series of notes that are either ascending or descending, or both if using two hands on a piano (contrary motion).


Building A (former tin factory)
Building A (former canning factory) was first drawn in the 1902
"Tamsui Railway water pipeline map" and contains eight rectangular
rooms used for Shell's primary oil canning production.
A Queen-Post truss system was installed on the bearing wall and
provides the unique structure of the building. Granite slabs were
used over the column head as supporting stones for the truss system.
The floor is laid with granite slabs six centimeters thick (44cm*60cm),
lending the building an extraordinary style as the only building in the
park with a stone floor.


A permanent exhibition that highlights the historical aspect of science in Egypt during three major periods: ancient Egypt, Hellenistic Alexandria, and the Arab-Muslim World. The Museum pays homage to scientists who have enriched scientific knowledge. The Museum aims to revive the scientific discoveries and great achievements of the ancient scholars and their translators, without whom such writings would not have transcended space and time.
The History of Science Museum is not a traditional museum; it offers a variety of activities targeting school children in particular and the public in general. It also offers traditional tours.


|Note: This page includes the entire LOTO Tutorial. To print full screen pages of the OSHA website, left and right margins need to be set at a maximum of 0.25". On the browser, click File, then Page Setup. Change the settings for left and right margins to 0" (your browser may reset these values to a higher number, which is the minimum setting it will allow; this is acceptable). Select OK. Exit Page Setup and print from the browser print icon or from the File menu.
To print certain sections only, highlight the area you wish to print. Select File, then Print. From the print window, choose Selection, then Print.
Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout)
29 CFR 1910.147
Workers performing service or maintenance on machinery and equipment are exposed to injuries from the unexpected energization, startup of the machinery or equipment, or release of stored energy in the equipment.
The Lockout/Tagout standard requires the adoption and implementation of practices and procedures to shut down equipment, isolate it from its energy source(s), and prevent the release of potentially hazardous energy while maintenance and servicing activities are being performed. It contains minimum performance requirements, and definitive criteria for establishing an effective program for the control of hazardous energy. However, employers have the flexibility to develop lockout/tagout programs that are suitable for their respective facilities.
This tutorial summarizes for you the key components of the standard in a "plain English" format. This tutorial is intended only to guide OSHA staff in understanding aspects of the Lockout/Tagout standard, not to substitute for compliance with the plain terms of the standard. Nothing in this tutorial is intended to diminish or otherwise affect OSHA's authority to enforce the requirements of section 1910.147 of the Act, nor is it intended to create any legally enforceable right or benefit in any person.
Scope and Application
Who does this standard apply to?
- General Industry workers performing servicing and maintenance on machines and equipment and who are exposed to the unexpected energization, startup, or release of hazardous energy.
What activities or operations are covered?
- Any source of mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other energy.
- Constructing, installing, setting up, adjusting, inspecting, modifying, maintaining and/or servicing machines or equipment, including lubrication, cleaning or unjamming of machines or equipment, and making adjustments or tool changes, where employees could be exposed to the unexpected energization or startup of the equipment or release of hazardous energy.
- Servicing and maintenance activities performed during normal production operations if:
- An employee is required to remove or bypass machine guards or other safety devices, or
- An employee is required to place any part of his or her body into a point of operation or into an area on a machine or piece of equipment where work is performed, or into the danger zone associated with the machine's operation.
Who does this standard not apply to?
- General Industry workers performing servicing and maintenance on machines or equipment who are NOT exposed to the unexpected energization or startup of the machines or equipment, or the release of hazardous energy.
What activities and operations are not covered?
- Servicing and maintenance of equipment performed during normal production operations if:
- the safeguarding provisions of Subpart O, and other applicable general industry standards are effective in preventing worker exposure to hazards created by the unexpected energization or startup of machines or equipment, or the release of energy.
- Minor tool changes and adjustments, and other minor servicing activities that take place during normal production operations which are routine, repetitive, and integral to the use of that production equipment, as long as workers are effectively protected by alternative measures which provide effective machine safeguarding protection (See Subpart O).
- Construction, agriculture, and maritime workers
- Installations under the exclusive control of electric utilities for power generation, transmission, and distribution.
- Exposure to electrical hazards from work on, near, or with conductors or equipment in electric utilization installations.
- Oil and gas well drilling and servicing.
- Work on cord and plug connected electrical equipment, if:
- The equipment is unplugged from the energy source and the authorized employee has exclusive control of the plug.
- Hot tap operations that involve transmission and distribution systems for gas, steam, water, or petroleum products on pressurized pipelines, if:
- Continuity of service is essential, shutdown of the system is impractical, documented procedures are followed, and employees are effectively protected by special equipment.
What is the purpose of the standard?
- To prevent the unexpected energization or startup of machines and equipment, or release of stored energy, in order to prevent workplace injuries during service and maintenance operations.
How is this accomplished?
- Employers must establish an energy control program, consisting of energy control procedures, employee training, and periodic inspections to ensure that before service and maintenance is performed, machines and equipment that could unexpectedly startup, become energized, or release stored energy, are isolated from their energy source(s) and rendered safe.
What definitions are useful to understand how the lockout tagout standard will be applied?
- Authorized employee: An employee who locks or tags machines or equipment in order to perform servicing or maintenance.
- Affected employee: An employee who is required to use machines or equipment on which servicing is performed under the Lockout/Tagout standard or who performs other job responsibilities in an area where such servicing is performed.
- Other employees: All employees who are or may be in an area where energy control procedures may be utilized.
- Capable of being locked out: An energy-isolating device is considered capable of being locked out if it:
- Is designed with a hasp or other means of attachment to which a lock can be affixed.
- Has a locking mechanism built into it.
- Can be locked without dismantling, rebuilding, or replacing the energy-isolating device or permanently altering its energy control capability.
- Energized: Machines and equipment are energized when they are connected to an energy source or they contain residual or stored energy.
- Energy-isolating device: A mechanical device that physically prevents the transmission or release or energy, including but not limited to the following: A manually operated electrical circuit breaker; a disconnect switch; a manually operated switch by which the conductors of a circuit can be disconnected from all ungrounded supply conductors and, in addition, no pole can be operated independently; a line valve; a block; and any similar device used to block or isolate energy. Push buttons, selector switches and other control circuit type devices are not energy isolating devices.
- Energy source: Any source of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other energy.
- Lockout: The placement of a lockout device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, ensuring that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the lockout device is removed.
- Lockout device: Any device that uses positive means, such as a lock, blank flanges and bolted slip blinds, to hold an energy-isolating device in a safe position, thereby preventing the energizing of machinery or equipment.
- Normal production operations: Utilization of a machine or equipment to perform its intended production function.
- Servicing and/or maintenance: Workplace activities such as constructing, installing, setting up, adjusting, inspecting, modifying, maintaining and/or servicing machines or equipment, including lubrication, cleaning or unjamming of machines or equipment, and making adjustments or tool changes, where employees could be exposed to the unexpected energization or startup of the equipment or release of hazardous energy.
- Tagout: The placement of a tagout device on an energy-isolating device, in accordance with an established procedure, to indicate that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.
- Tagout device: Any prominent warning device, such as a tag and a means of attachment, that can be securely fastened to an energy-isolating device to indicate that the machine or equipment to which it is attached may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.
Energy Control Program
What are the core components of the energy control program?
- Energy control procedures that detail and document the specific information that an authorized employee must know to accomplish lockout/tagout, namely, the scope, purpose, authorization rules and techniques to be utilized for the control of hazardous energy.
- Periodic inspections of the energy control procedures to ensure that the procedures and the requirements of the standard are being followed.
Employee training and retraining, along with additional training under a tagout system, to ensure that the purpose and function of the energy control programs are understood by the employer.
What is the intent of the energy control program?
- To ensure that before any employee services equipment where the potential exists for unexpected energization or start-up of equipment or the release of stored energy, the machine or equipment is isolated from the energy source and rendered inoperative.
Does the employer have the flexibility to develop his/her own program?
Yes. Employers are expected to develop programs and procedures, training and inspections, that meet the needs of their particular workplace and the particular types of machines and equipment they use and service as long as they meet the requirements of the standard.
Energy Control Procedures - Documentation
What is the employer's obligation in establishing energy control procedures?
- Develop, document and use specific procedures to control potentially hazardous energy when employees are servicing equipment or machinery.
Under what limited situations is documentation of the procedures not required?
- The machine or equipment has no potential for stored or residual energy, or for reaccumulation of stored energy after shut down, which could endanger employees.
- The machine or equipment has a single energy source that can be readily identified and isolated and the isolation and locking out of that energy source will completely deenergize and deactivate the machine or equipment.
- The machine or equipment is isolated from that energy source and locked out during servicing or maintenance.
- A single lockout device will achieve a locked-out condition.
- The lockout device is under the exclusive control of the authorized employee performing the servicing or maintenance.
- The servicing or maintenance does not create hazards for other employees.
- The employer has had no incidents involving the unexpected activation or reenergization of machines or equipment during servicing or maintenance.
Energy Control Procedures - Required Content
What specific elements must be documented in the employer's energy control procedures?
- The procedures must outline the scope, purpose, authorization, rules and techniques that the employer will use to control hazardous energy.
- The procedures must state the means to be used to enforce compliance.
At a minimum, the procedures must include:
- A specific statement of the intended use of the procedure.
- Specific procedural steps for shutting down, isolating, blocking, and securing machines or equipment to control hazardous energy.
- Specific procedural steps for the placement, removal, and transfer of lockout devices or tagout devices, and a description of who has responsibility for them.
- Specific requirements for testing a machine or piece of equipment to determine and verify the effectiveness of lockout devices, tagout devices, and other energy control measures.
What is the intent of the requirement for the employer to conduct periodic inspections?
To ensure that the energy control procedures continue to be implemented properly, that the employees are familiar with their responsibilities, and that any deviations or procedural inadequacies that are observed are corrected.
How often must the inspection take place?
At least annually.
Who performs the periodic inspection?
An authorized employee not involved in the energy control procedure being inspected.
What does the periodic inspection entail?
- The employer must identify any deficiencies or deviations and correct them.
- Where lockout is used, the inspector must review each authorized employee's responsibilities under the procedure with that employee (group meetings are acceptable).
- Where tagout is used, the inspector must review both the authorized and affected employee's responsibilities with those employees for the energy control procedure being inspected, and the additional training responsibilities of 1910.147(c)(7)(ii).
- The employer must certify that the periodic inspections have been performed.
What must the certification identify?
- Identify machine on which the procedure was utilized.
- Date of inspection.
- Identify the employees included in inspection.
- Identify person who performed the inspection.
Employee Training and Communication
Why must employees affected by this standard be trained?
- So that they understand the purpose and function of the energy control program.
- So that employees acquire the knowledge and skills necessary for the safe application, usage and removal of the energy controls.
The standard requires different levels of training for the three categories of employees; what are the differences in the training required for the three categories?
- Authorized employees must receive training on the recognition of applicable hazardous energy sources, the type and magnitude of the energy available in the workplace, and the methods and means necessary for energy isolation and control.
- Affected employees must receive training on the purpose and use of the energy control procedure.
- Other employees (those whose work activities are or may be in an area where energy control procedures may be utilized) must be instructed about the procedure and about the prohibition relating to attempts to restart or reenergize machines or equipment that are locked out or tagged out.
What additional training is required when tagout systems are used?
Employers must train employees in the following limitations of tags:
- Tags are essentially warning devices affixed to energy isolating devices and do not provide the physical restraint on those devices that is provided by a lock.
- When a tag is attached to an energy isolating means, it is not to be removed without authorization and it is never to be bypassed, ignored, or otherwise defeated.
- Tags must be legible and understandable by all employees.
- Tags and their means of attachment must be made of materials which will withstand the environmental conditions encountered in the workplace.
- Tags may evoke a false sense of security and their meaning needs to be understood as part of the overall energy control program.
- Tags must be securely attached to energy isolating devices so that they cannot be inadvertently or accidentally detached during use.
Who must be retrained?
All affected and authorized employees must be retrained under certain conditions listed below.
Is training required annually?
What triggers the retraining requirements?
- A change in job assignments.
- A change in machines, equipment, or processes that present a new hazard.
- A change in the energy control procedures.
- Periodic inspections reveal that there are deviations in the energy control procedure.
- The employer believes that there are deviations from, or inadequacies in, the employee's knowledge or use of the energy control procedures.
What is the object of the retraining?
- To introduce new or revised control methods and procedures as necessary.
- To reestablish employee proficiency.
Does training require certification?
Yes. Employer must certify that training or retraining took place and that the employee is kept up to date.
What information must appear on the certificate?
- Each employee's name.
- The dates of training and /or retraining.
If an energy isolating device is not capable of being locked out, can the employer use a tagout system?
Yes, when the energy isolating devices are not lockable, tagout may be used, provided the employer complies with the provisions of the standard which require additional training and more rigorous periodic inspections.
If an energy isolating device is capable of being locked out, must the employer use a lock out system?
Yes. Unless the employer can show that the tagout system provides full employee protection, as described in paragraph (c)(3) of the standard.
New or Modified Equipment
What is the date after which all new machines and equipment, or all machines and equipment that undergo major repair, renovations or modification, must be equipped with energy-isolating devices capable of accepting a lockout device?
January 2, 1990.
Full Employee Protection
What are the requirements for the use of tagout devices when lockout devices are capable of being used?
- The tags are attached where the lockout devices would be.
- The employer demonstrates that the tagout will provide protection at least as effective as locks and will assure full employee protection.
How does an employer demonstrate that the protection achieved using the tagout program is equivalent to the level of safety obtained by using a lockout program?
The employer must comply with all tagout-related provisions and also use additional safety measures that provide a level of safety equivalent to that obtained by using lockout. This might include removing and isolating a circuit element, blocking a controlling switch, opening an extra disconnecting device, or removing a valve handle to reduce the potential for any inadvertent energization while the tags are attached.
Materials and Hardware
What protective materials and hardware must be provided by the employer for isolating, securing or blocking machines or equipment from energy sources?
- Locks, tags, chains, wedges, key blocks, adapter pins, self-locking fasteners, or other hardware.
What are the requirements for the lockout and tagout devices?
- Must be durable, so that they are capable of withstanding the environment to which they are exposed for the maximum period of time that exposure is expected.
- Must be singularly identified.
- Must be the only devices used for controlling energy.
- Must not be used for other purposes.
- Must be standardized with in the facility in at least one of the following criteria: color, shape, or size. Additionally, tagout devices must be standardized as to print and format.
- Must be identifiable, in that it indicates the identity of the employee applying the devices.
In addition to the above, what other hardware requirements are specific to lockout?
- Must be substantial enough to prevent removal without the use of excessive force or unusual techniques such as with the use of bolt cutters or other metal cutting tools.
In addition to the above, what other hardware requirements are specific to tagout?
- Must be constructed and printed so that exposure to weather conditions or wet and damp locations will not cause the tag to deteriorate or the message on the tag to become illegible.
- Must not deteriorate when used in corrosive environments such as areas where acid and alkali chemicals are handled and stored.
- Must be standardized in print and format.
- Must be substantial to prevent inadvertent or accidental removal.
- Must have an attachment means of a non-reusable type, attachable by hand, self-locking, and non-releasable with a minimum unlocking strength of no less than 50 pounds and having the general design and basic characteristics of being at least equivalent to a one-piece all-environment-tolerant nylon cable tie.
- Must warn against hazardous conditions if the machine or equipment is energized.
- Must include a legend such as: Do Not Start, Do Not Open, Do Not Close, Do Not Energize, Do Not Operate.
Application of Energy Control
To safely apply energy control to machines or equipment (using either lockout or tagout devices), authorized employees must perform certain procedures, in a specific order. What are the sequential procedures?
- Preparation for shutdown: Before an authorized or affected employee turns off a machine or equipment, the authorized employee must have knowledge of the type and magnitude of the energy, the hazards of the energy to be controlled, and the method or means to control the energy.
- Machine or equipment shutdown: The machine or equipment must be turned off or shut down using the procedures established for it to avoid any additional or increased hazards to employees as a result of the machine or equipment stoppage.
- Machine or equipment isolation: All energy-isolating devices that are needed to control the machine's energy source must be located. These devices must then be used to isolate the machine or equipment from its energy source.
- Lockout or tagout device application: Lockout or tagout devices must be affixed to each energy-isolating device by authorized employees. Lockout devices where used, must be affixed in a manner that will hold the energy isolating devices in a "safe" or "off" position. Where tagout devices are used, it must be affixed in a manner that will clearly indicate that the operation or movement of energy isolating devices from the "safe" or "off" position is prohibited. If the tag can not be affixed directly to the energy isolating device, the tag must be located as close as safely possible to the device, in a position that will be immediately obvious to anyone attempting to operate the device
- Stored energy: After the energy-isolating device has been locked out or tagged out, all potentially hazardous stored or residual energy must be relieved, disconnected, restrained, or otherwise rendered safe.
- Verification of isolation: Before any work begins on machines or equipment that have been locked out or tagged out, an authorized employee must verify that the machine or equipment has been properly isolated and deenergized.
Release from Lockout/Tagout
The Lockout/Tagout standard includes requirements for releasing machines or equipment that have been locked out or tagged out prior to restoring energy to the equipment and using it. Before lockout or tagout devices are removed, and energy restored, what procedures must the authorized employee follow?
- Machine/equipment inspection: The work area must be inspected to ensure that nonessential items (e.g., tools, spare parts) have been removed and that all of the machine or equipment components are operationally intact.
- Positioning of employees: The work area must be checked to ensure that all employees have been safely positioned or have cleared the area. In addition, all affected employees must be notified that the lockout or tagout devices have been removed before the equipment is started.
- Lockout or tagout device removal: Each lockout or tagout device must be removed from the energy-isolating device by the employee who applied the device.
What is the unique circumstance that allows an employee other than the one who applied the lockout/tagout device to remove the device?
When the authorized employee who applied the lockout or tagout device is not available to remove it, that device may be removed under the direction of the employer, provided that specific procedures and training for such removal have been developed, documented, and incorporated into the employer's energy control program.
What steps must the employer take if an employee, other than the one who applied the lockout/tagout device, removes the device?
- The employer must verify that the authorized employee who applied the device is not at the facility.
- The employer must make all reasonable efforts to contact the authorized employee to inform him/her that his/her lockout or tagout device has been removed.
- The employer must ensure that the authorized employees knows that the lockout device has been removed before he/she resumes work at the facility.
Testing of Machines
When may lockout or tagout devices be removed temporarily?
In some circumstances, employees need to temporarily restore energy to a machine or piece of equipment during servicing or maintenance to test and /or reposition the machine or piece of equipment. Lockout or tagout devices may be removed temporarily in order to perform these tasks.
What sequence of action must occur in the temporary removal of the lockout/tagout devices?
- The machine or equipment must be cleared of tools and materials.
- Employees must be removed from the machine or equipment area.
- All lockout or tagout devices may then be removed.
- Authorized employees may then proceed to energize and test or position the equipment or machinery.
- Following testing or positioning, all systems must be deenergized and energy control measures reapplied to continue the servicing and /or maintenance.
Outside Personnel (Contractors)
What are the obligations of the outside contractor and the on-site employer?
- Whenever contractors and other outside servicing personnel perform tasks covered by the Lockout/Tagout standard, they must adhere to all the standard's requirements.
- The contractor or outside employer and the on-site employer must inform each other of their respective energy control program responsibilities.
- The on-site employer must ensure that his/her employees understand and comply with the restrictions and prohibitions of the outside employer's energy control program.
Group Lockout/Tagout Requirements
Can servicing or maintenance be performed by a crew, department, or other group under this standard?
Yes. If they have been properly trained and the energy control program is followed.
What procedures must be followed that will offer group employees the same protection that the standard provides to individual employees?
- A group lockout/tagout must afford each employee a level of protection equivalent to that provided by the implementation of a personal lockout or tagout device.
- Primary responsibility for a set number of employees working under the protection of a group lockout or tagout device must be vested in a single authorized employee.
- The single authorized employee must determine the exposure status of individual group members.
- If there will be more than one crew, department, or group involved in the activity, a single authorized employee must be designated to coordinate affected workforces and to ensure continuity of protection.
- Each authorized employee must affix a personal lockout or tagout device to the machine or equipment when work begins and remove it when work is completed.
Shift & Personnel Changes
How is the continuity of lockout or tagout protection maintained during shift or personnel changes?
- Employers must ensure the continuity of employee protection by providing for the orderly transfer of lockout or tagout device protection between off-going and incoming employees. This will help to minimize exposure to hazards from the unexpected energization or start-up of the machine or equipment or the release of stored energy.
(The Appendix to 1910.147 offers non-mandatory guidelines to help employers and employees in complying with the requirements of this section, as well as to provide other helpful information.)


The St. Lawrence Seaway is a deep waterway extending 3,700 km (2,340 miles) from the Atlantic Ocean to the head of the Great Lakes, at the heart of North America. Within the meaning of the legislation which provided for the construction and maintenance of the deep waterway, the St. Lawrence Seaway proper extends from Montreal to Lake Erie.
The Montreal/Lake Ontario section encompasses a series of 7 locks from Montreal (Quebec) to Iroquois (Ontario) enabling ships to navigate between the lower St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario.
The opening of the Seaway, in April of 1959, marked the full realization of a 400 year-old dream. In the early part of the 16thcentury, Jacques Cartier, the French explorer, was turned back by the rushing waters of the Lachine Rapids, just west of what is now Montreal, and thus denied
his dream of finding the Northwest Passage and the route to the East. At various times during the intervening 300 years, canals have been dug and locks built around the natural barriers to navigation in the St. Lawrence River.
This activity was spurred on by the desire to make use of the economical transport route which the waters of the Great Lakes Basin offered for the movement of goods in and out of this area of the continent.


- Linux Training
- Desktop Tutorials
- Server Tutorials
|Basic Slide with Sound|
|Desktop Apps Training - Other Applications|
Creating a Basic Slide with Sound
Getting the hang of It....
Open Impress, create an empty slide show with one slide that has a title and the rest is empty. Create a title called: Test Sound Practice. Insert a graphic image, the example shows the sky.gif image from the default file located at:
The gallery is a collection of gifs and sounds that are installed with OpenOffice by default. Type the file location above to move to that directory to browse for the sky.gif. On a Windows machine the default location for the gallery is C:\ProgramFiles\OpenOffice1.1.x\share\gallery. It is important that users practice these file locations as it will eliminate a great deal of frustration.
Before actually working with sound it is important to understand how Impress works with sounds. One thing that is very important is to realize that Impress associates sound with an object. For example, in the image above no sound options will be available because sound is not associated with an object. However, if the sky.gif is selected and Animation Effects is chosen, sound will be available because the sound will be associated with the selected object. Sound is imported into an Impress presentation with the following 5 steps.
Create a slide with an object so sound may be associated with it. Please understand that text is also considered an object. If text will be used as the object, highlight the text to associate it with sound.
The Animation Effects may be accessed by clicking on the Animation icon or open it from the Menu Bar, Slide Show and Effects. Animation offers the option of having text or images fly into the slide. Once the window opens users will see four choices at the top of the Animation window.
The first icon is for animation effects for images. The second icon is for text effects. Choose the Effects icon and then select which effect to have and be sure to click on the green check mark to create the effect. Close the Animation window and click on F9 to run the slide show. There are some effects that will not work with objects, because they are designed for text, or they may not work with some 3D images. The green check mark will not be available if this is the case.
The Animation window has additional option if users select Favorites they will see a long list of options. Notice that the speed of the animation may be changed which is by default Medium.
Once Animation effects is open, select an object from the slide, in the example the object is the sky.gif. With the object selected, choose an animation effect for the object. If no animation is associated with the object choose No Effect. Once No Effect or a Special Effect has been chosen, click the green checkmark.
The green checkmark is the key to making all changes and options work.
Now with the object still selected choose the music option for effects which is located at the top of the window and has a music note located on it. When this button is selected, several other options will appear. The first option at the top provides no color when the image is making the transition or allows the user to choose a specific color for the sound effect.
With the object still selected, choose a sound to associate with the sound effect. One thing to note, each effect has a sound automatically associated with it so that will need to be changed for each specific presentation. One danger is creating a presentation on a computer without sound and not recognizing that if it is played on a computer that has sound, those sounds will be made and may not fit with the project. The folder at the right will allow the choice of a sound file.
If users have more than one animation on a slide they are able to order them by clicking on the order icon. Once all the animations are visible, change the order with drag and drop to the new location.
It is important to understand which sound format will be used for the presentation as the default file type is Sun/NeXT Audio. That format may not be available in the directories that are to be accessed so that type should be changed to sound. Look at the example below which illustrates the default is Sun/neXT.
The important thing to do here is change the format in File Type that will be used for the presentation. In the example below it has been changed to Sound and WAV files are now viewable, WAV files are a common choice for audio. This process will associate a sound with the animation effect that has been chosen for the object.
To preview it click the preview button and then click the green check mark. Sound should be heard in the process. Continue trying sounds until the correct one is located for the project.
Here is a view of the preview window. This should demonstrate the animation and sound like you want before moving onto the next step.
At this point it is important to save correctly to make sure sound will work during the presentation. Close the preview window, click the first button on the animation bar and then be sure to click the green check mark. If the green check mark is not selected as the last thing that is done before the window is closed, it will not save!
That should do it, the slide preview should demonstrate all of the changes made in the program. The process of creating an entire slide show is just repeating these steps with each slide. So far you have seen how to insert sound into the presentation. Use Audacity to record and edit the voice sounds that will be used with the presentation and then follow the steps listed above.


A study conducted by the University Of Kansas School Of Medicine reveals that Alzheimer’s patients who exercise have larger brains than those who are out of shape.
About the Study
Of the 121 people in the study, all were over 60 years of age, and 57% of them already had Alzheimer’s. The actual study itself involved fitness tests and brain scans. Each patient was evaluated using a treadmill to determine a level of physical fitness. Then each patient’s brain was scanned to determine a level of brain shrinkage.
That is to say, the patients were analyzed at only one point in time for levels of fitness, white brain matter, gray brain matter, and total brain volume. The results clearly show that the patients who were classified as ‘in shape’ had 4 times more total brain volume than those who do not exercise.
Comments From the Author
The author of the study, Jeffrey M. Burns, M.D., University of Kansas School of Medicine in Kansas City, notes, “People with early Alzheimer’s disease may be able to preserve their brain function for a longer period of time by exercising regularly and potentially reducing the amount of brain volume lost.” Dr. Burns also mentions that, “Evidence shows decreasing brain volume is tied to poorer cognitive performance, so preserving more brain volume may translate into better cognitive performance.”
In my opinion, we have to take the results of this study with a grain of salt. I am rarely happy with the way studies are executed, and this study just follows suit.
A better study would have been to monitor 1000 people from the ages of 50-70, for 10 years. Patients should have been separated into 3 groups.
- 1/3 should exercise regularly according to an exercise program provided by the study
- 1/3 should not exercise at all
- 1/3 should not report whether or not they exercise until the end of the study, or in the case that they can not complete the study, they should keep records of their physical activity level from day 1
In this way we can see how physical activity affects the development and progression of Alzheimer’s over a 10 year period. We could alleviate biases with the 1/3 blind study, and the 10 year duration would provide a much more data from which to draw conclusions about the effects of exercise relative to the development and progression of the disease.
From a study like this we could draw such conclusions as, “If you are over 50 and exercise 3 times a week for 45 minutes, you will have 75% less chance of developing Alzheimer’s, and will be affected by the disease 75% less if you do develop it.”
In conclusion, this is great news for people suffering with Alzheimer’s, or for those who are genetically predisposed to developing it. I just think the study could be conducted a little differently to generate more useful and reliable data. From what I understand, Dr. Burns intends to monitor his subjects for the next 2 years, so I will be interested in finding out what he learns between now and then.
How Should An Alzheimer’s Patient Exercise?
The 3 x 5 Program – A Beginners Guide to Weightlifting
This is a great program for younger folks that can handle lifting free weights, or for those that are already in shape or have experience with resistance training.
A Generic Full Body Workout Routine
I definitely recommend 3 days a week, full body training. I don’t know as I would recommend 5 rep sets for people in their 60s or 70s who have never weight trained before, but this type of program could be used while utilizing 75% machines, 25% free weights, and a 3 set / 10 rep scheme.
Basically, for those who are unable to use free weight pressing type of movements, just replace with machines. Elliptical training and bike riding can be utilized, as well as a variety of circuit training equipment. Don’t limit yourself just because you are afraid of squats and deadlifts… anything is better than nothing.


What is civil forfeiture?
Civil forfeiture is the process by which the police can seize your private property if they believe it was used in the commission of a crime. This is usually done when you are arrested for that crime.
What is an example of civil forfeiture?
A driver is pulled over for a traffic violation and the police find large amounts of drugs and cash. The police arrest the driver for drug possession and drug distribution. The police seize the cash under the theory that this cash was used in the commission of the crime of drug distribution.
What happens next?
The defendant will have to report to criminal court to answer the criminal complaints. The prosecutor files a lawsuit in civil court for the property. The defendant then has to appear in both criminal court and civil court. If the defendant fails to file an answer for the civil suit, the property will be forfeited.
Should I hire an attorney if I was arrested and my property was seized?
Yes. If this happened to you, chances are the crime or crimes you are accuses of are serious. An attorney can represent you through both the criminal and the civil proceeding in order to protect your rights.


Commonly known as C. Diff, Clostridium Difficile is a bacterium commonly found in the colon of healthy people. C. Diff can become a problem when the bodies natural defenses are slashed in effectiveness with the introduction of antibiotics that are typically used to treat various illnesses. Especially in older patients or those on in a weakened condition, the introduction of antibiotics may allow the C. Diff can bacteria to rapidly multiple causing serious illness or even death.
A new study confirms that C. Diff is indeed a condition that medical staff need pay attention to and identify it as soon as the condition manifest itself– in order to save patient lives.
After evaluating 254 patients with Clostridium Difficile at Winthrop University Hospital in New York, researched determined that patients who acquired the disease in a nursing home were more substantially more likely (three times more) to die from resulting complications than those who acquired the condition in the ‘general community’.
As the ears and eyes of treating physicians, nurses in medical facilities need to be educated on symptoms associated with C. Diff and how the condition differs from an ordinary ‘stomach ache’ in order to give patients the best chance of a full recovery. Common symptoms of C. Diff may include:
- Severe stomach pain and cramping following use of antibiotics
- Particularly foul smelling bowel movements
- Frequent diarrhea
- Distended stomach
Related Nursing Homes Abuse Blog Entries:


|Fig. 1. A, Comparison of SAM P.42421, the ‘Spooner Egg’, left, attributed to Genyornis newtoni, and an emu egg (Dromaius novaehollandiae) SAM B.9899. B, Comparison of femora of Genyornis newtoni SAM P13864 and a 22 cm long Dromaius novaehollandiae femur (FUR 058). C, The Spooner Egg as partly excavated revealing its intact nature; photograph by Gifford Miller, INSTAAR, Colorado. D, The Spooner Egg in situ as found by NS on 23rd July 2000, photograph by Gifford Miller using a reflex camera, and is the best image taken of the egg prior to excavation. |
Scale bars in A and B = 10 cm. DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.12.011
• Eggshell previously identified as from Genyornis newtoni is reassessed.
• Egg size and microstructure is not conducive with an identity as an dromornithid.
• We suggest that this eggshell is from one of the extinct megapodes in Progura.
• Previous assessments of the timing of Genyornis extinction relate to Progura species.
The iconic Australian Genyornis newtoni (Dromornithidae, Aves) is the sole Pleistocene member of an avian clade now hypothesized to be alternatively in Anseriformes or the sister group of crown Galloanseres. A distinctive type of fossil eggshell commonly found in eroding sand dunes, has been referred to Genyornis newtoni since the 1980s. The 126 by 97 mm Spooner Egg, dated at 54.7 ± 3.1 ka by optical dating of its enclosing sediments, is a complete specimen of this eggshell type that was reconstructed from fragments of a broken egg. We show that the size of the eggs from which this ‘Genyornis’ eggshell derives, either as predicted from measurements of fragments, or as indicated by the Spooner Egg, is unexpectedly small given the size of G. newtoni, which has an estimated mass of 275 kg, or about seven times the mass of the emu that has a similar sized egg. We compared the microstructure of the putative Genyornis eggshell to that of other dromornithids and a range of galloanseriform taxa using several microcharacterisation techniques. The ‘Genyornis’ eggshell displays a mosaic of oological characters that do not unambiguously support referral to any known modern bird. Its shell structure, coupled with chemical compounds in the accessory layer, makes it unlikely to have been laid by a dromornithid, whereas several characters support a megapode origin. A potential candidate for the bird that laid the putative ‘Genyornis’ eggs in the Pleistocene fossil avifaunal record has been ignored: Progura, a genus of extinct giant megapodes, whose species were widespread in Australia. Regression of egg size of megapodes and body mass shows that the Spooner Egg approximates the expected size for eggs laid by species of Progura. We advance the suggestion that the fossil eggshell hitherto referred to Genyornis newtoni, is more likely to have been laid by species of the giant extinct Progura. As megapodes, the species of Progura were obligate ectothermic incubators, which we suggest laid their eggs into a hole dug in sand like the modern megapode Macrocephalon maleo, thus explaining the abundant ‘Genyornis’ eggshell in sand dunes. Referral of this eggshell to Progura means that the fossil record of Genyornis newtoni is limited to bones and the timing of the extinction of this last dromornithid is unknown. In addition, structural similarities of eggshell in megapodes, the putative Genyornis eggshell and dromornithids, raise the possibility that these taxa are phylogenetically more closely related to each other than any is to anseriforms. Specifically, this means that dromornithids might be a sister group to galliforms rather than to or within anseriforms.
Keywords: Eggs; Eggshells; Paleoenvironments; Genyornis newtoni; Dromornithids; Megapodes; Progura; Micro-CT; EBSD; Quaternary; Australia
We have described in detail the structure of putative Genyornis eggshell and raised several obstacles to the hypothesis first advanced by Williams (1981) and accepted thereafter ( Miller et al., 1999 and Miller et al., 2005), that this ootype was laid by the giant dromornithid G. newtoni. Rather, we think it more likely that it was laid by one of the several species of giant megapodes in the genus Progura that were widespread in the Pleistocene in Australia.
Gerald Grellet-Tinner, Nigel A. Spooner and Trevor H. Worthy. 2016. Is the “Genyornis” Egg of A Mihirung or Another Extinct Bird from the Australian Dreamtime? QUATERNARY SCIENCE REVIEWS. 133:147-164 DOI: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.12.011


What Is IIS Server (Internet Information Services) And What Is It Used For?
What Is IIS Server?What is internet information services? The IIS server or Internet information services (formerly Internet Information Server) is a flexible web server. It belongs to Microsoft, which operates on Windows systems. It serves the HTML pages or files which are requested.
The webserver accepts or takes the requests from the remote client computers and sends back the valid and accurate response. It is an essential function of it which permits a web server for sharing and delivering the information. This information is provided across the LAN (Local area networks), including corporate intranets and WAN (Wide area networks) that consists of the internet.
There are numerous forms of web server; it sends information to the users. These forms include static web pages that are coded in HTML via file exchanges. Not only this but image files, text documents are also part of it.
suggest you read our article about what is windows hosting
How IIS Works?
When the person first heard the term what internet information services are, numerous questions strike in it. These questions are like the purpose of IIS, What is IIS used for, and so on. The most common question is: what is an IIS and how it works?
So here is the list of some vital information related to the working criteria of internet information services.
The working criteria of IIS depend upon the numerous standards of protocols and languages. Moreover, HTML is used to create the elements. These elements include text, image placements, buttons, and so on. Hypertext Transfer Protocol is also named HTTP. It is an essential communication protocol that is preferred for exchanging information between web servers and users. (In the case you want to know What is Windows Server 2022? , this article can help you!)
In addition to it, encrypting the communication and adding the security HTTPS—HTTP over Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)—uses the Transport Layer Security or SSL. The files can transfer via the FTP or its secure variant FTPS. The term FTP stands for the File Transfer Protocol. The SMTP supports sending and receiving the email, whereas the Network News Transfer Protocol delivers the articles on Usenet.
suggest you read our article about how to redirect http to https
Features of IIS Web ServerThe IIS server is a central server that uses the widespread. It offers numerous features, but it is also a fruitful tool for several IT administrators. The primary use of IIS is for the hosting of ASP.NET status websites and web applications. Apart from it, here is the list of IIS features, which helps you clear the concept of what is IIS Server?
1- AuthenticationAuthentication is an essential feature of the IIS server (internet information services), which includes several options. These options are Windows auth, ASP.NET, and Basic. For the Windows Active Directory, Windows auth is fruitful. This is because of letting the user sign into the web applications automatically through a domain account.
2- SecurityThis server also has security features such as biding so SFTP and HTTPS can manage the TLS certificates and filter the request. Due to it, the users can easily allow and block the traffic.
3- Remote ManagementThe feature of remote management permits what is an IIS for manning via either the CLI or PowerShell. In addition to it, the user can create the script yourself.
These are some features that make this webserver versatile and highly configurable. You can easily create a stable, effective, and flexible Windows IIS Server if you extend it.
If you aim to learn What is Windows 11 , this post can help you!
IIS Works With The Asp.net Core
The ASP.NET Core framework is categorized as the latest generation of ASP. The term ASP is an Active Server Page, which is a server-side script engine. It begets the interactive web pages. Moreover, the web sends the IIS server request that delivers the request to the ASP.NET Core Application. Further, it starts processing the request and has its response to the IIS server after that again.
If you are interested to know how does a web server work , don’t miss this post!
It sends the request back to the IIS server and to those users who established the request. In addition to it, developers have the opportunity to produce the IIS website with several tools. These tools include WebDAV. It can help create and publish web content. Moreover, they can also prefer the integrated development tools. When it comes to the integrated development tools, then they have the option of Microsoft Visual Studio.
The information mentioned above will clear all your queries about what is internet information services and how it works. Moreover, there are various versions of IIS available. After getting the information about what is IIS Server is, let’s discuss its features.
Here is the list of numerous available versions of IIS.
Available IIS Versions
- First and foremost is IIS 6 or Window Server 2003. It is the oldest version of Internet information services. It added support to IPv6. However, there is not any update related to the previous version.
- The IIS7 is a compatible version of IIS with Windows Vista. Moreover, IIS7 enhanced security and offered support measures for the .NET framework.
- The next version of IIS is IIS 7.5. This IIS version is available on Windows 7, including the added support to TLS 1.1 and 1.2.
- After that, IIS 8 consists of the support for SNL. In addition to that, Windows Web Server 2012 comes with the available support offering, which is available unless 2023.
- The IIS 8.5 is generally for Windows 8.1 and has the extra login capabilities and the utility of activating the dynamic site.
- The IIS 10 does not only have support for Windows PowerShell 5.0 but also for HTTP/2.
How to install IIS?
Now that you know what is iis and how it works, Follow the instructions below to install IIS on a server running Microsoft Windows.
The following are the instructions for installing IIS (Internet Information Service):
1. First, open the control panel.
2. Search for “Applications” from the available options below and select them.
3. Now click on the Turn Windows feature on and off option, possibly under “Programs and Features,” as shown in the image below.
4. Clicking “Turn Windows features on and off” opens a command like the following:
When the request is open, search for “Internet Information Services” among the options given below and check it to expand the other option.
5. Now click on option 3, “World Wide Services”.
Double-click on the first option, “Application Development Features,” under “World Wide Services”.
Check the “CGI” option, and you can also select several other options if needed.
8. Click the Ok button and wait for the changes to take effect.
After completing the changes, it may request a system reboot, so just let it go and complete the installation. You can now use Internet Information Services by typing “IIS” in the Windows search box.
Instructions for installing Internet information services using PowerShell:
Type “PowerShell” in the window search box and click “Windows PowerShell.”
After opening PowerShell, type the following command:
<Install WindowsFeature -name Web Server? IncludeManagementTools>
Now press “Enter”.
How IIS Processes Requests
A typical web server can use two main processing models. It can process requests according to a single-string model or create a new string for each request. The thread system is a model request IIS uses, which accesses a thread pool and takes a unique series for each request.
Requests are usually processed based on a simple request-response. The customer sends a request, and a response is sent. The Internet connection between the client and the webserver is usually made via the HTTP protocol.
IIS uses its processing engine and processing architecture with two layers or modes: kernel mode and user mode.
Kernel mode: When kernel mode is used, the code can execute any command and has full access to the connected equipment. This mode is mainly used when it is a reliable process and is primarily invulnerable. Any failure in the kernel-mode can cause a lot of damage to the system itself. Kernel mode is also where you will find HTTP.SYS.
User mode: User mode is more limited. In this case, the executed code can not access the hardware or reference memory and provides a more secure working environment. If a mistake is made, the consequences are unlikely to be as devastating as if the error had occurred in the kernel state. Code executed in user mode instructs APIs to communicate with equipment and reference memory, which is much more secure than kernel mode. You will find IIS management services, application pools, and virtual directories in user mode.
The purpose of kernel-mode is to use HTTP.SYS to accept incoming client requests to send them to the application pool. This process begins when the customer or end-user enters the website URL. This is the customer requesting access to the page. HTTP.SYS receives this request.
When the application pool receives the request from HTTP, SYS, the ISAPI filter is loaded by the IIS worker process or w3wp.exe. If it is an ASPX page, it also opens the worker process HttpRuntime.ProcessRequest and sometimes aspnet_isapi.dll. HttpRuntime creates a set of HttpApplication objects. These are sent over HTTP, and HTTP modules are continuously excited until the HTTP controller requests the ASP.NET page. When the HTTP route request is complete, the page starts and loads.
Differences between IIS and Apache
IIS is only available for Windows, but Apache can be used on various operating systems such as Mac, Linux, and Windows. And it is a good alternative.
IIS has its troubleshooting desk, but in the case of Apache, almost all of its support is provided by the user community.
Internet information services can also integrate with multiple generations or Microsoft languages, such as the ASPX programming language.
IIS security features are more reliable than the Apache web server, making it a better option than the Apache.
ConclusionIn the end, this information is all about the what is an IIS Server or what is internet information services and its working criteria. The essential features make it flexible and popular. You must have an understanding of ports for working with the IIS server. If you need more help check this article out!
Frequently Asked Questions
What Does the Internet Information Services (IIS) Role Do?It is one of the common questions among users. It is good to know that it makes the server act as a web server.
what language is iis written in?internet information services written in C++ language.
Suggest you read our article about windows server 2019 features


What is a digital signature?
A digital signature is a specific kind of electronic signature (or e-signature) to digitally sign and secure electronically transmitted documents. It is widely recognised as the most secure type of electronic signature, among the many different types out there. All digital signatures operate in a standard and an internationally accepted format, called the public key infrastructure (PKI) protocol. Therefore, it is regarded as the most secure type of electronic signature, and it is legally binding in many countries.
Digital signatures are identical to physical signatures in that they are unique to every person. They support “non-repudiation”, time-sensitive transactions, audit trails and regulation requirements. They identify the identity of the signer, provide a timestamp of when the documents are signed and support an audit trail if needed. They also provide a tamper-evident seal to secure and proof the authenticity of a document, ensuring it has not been altered since the time of signing. This is extremely important for working with documents online securely.
How does a digital signature work?
As mentioned above, digital signature works by using a specific protocol, PKI. It is regarded as the golden standard when it comes to validating and authenticating digital identity through encryption. Under the PKI protocol, a mathematical algorithm that can only be done by a computer generates two long numbers (known as keys), which act as a pair of related keys, a public key and a private key. Both the keys act together to encrypt and decrypt a message, through an encryption mechanism known as the public key cryptography. They work together to generate a digital signature for the document signer, which is equivalent to his/her digital identity.
Here is an example of the whole working process of a digital signature:
- Mary selects a file to digitally sign it to send it to her colleague, James.
- A hash value of the file’s contents is generated by Mary’s computer.
- This hash value is encrypted with Mary’s private key to create a digital signature.
- The file with the digital signature is sent to James.
- James receives the message, and his computer program identifies the file has a digital signature. When he opens the file, his computer will proceed to decrypt the digital signature using Mary’s public key, then calculate the hash of the original message and compare the hash it receives to the decrypted hash received with Mary’s message.
- Any difference in the hash values means there has been a tampering of the file.
The whole working process of a digital signature
What are the benefits of using a digital signature?
A digital signature brings many benefits in the process of document handling, and it works better than traditional signatures. Here are some of the benefits of using a digital signature to sign electronic documents.
- Highly trusted and compliant to proven consent of the signer.
When the signer digital signs an electronic document, he/she needs to supply specific credentials to perform the action. The credentials are unique for each individual. By digital signing a document, it is a strong indication equivalent to the signer giving consent for his/her signature, and it also confirms his/her identity, because no one else has his/her specific credentials. Hence, a digital signature is highly trusted and compliant with laws, which also acts as a written evidence to confirm one’s identity.
2. High security and protection
A digital signature provides an audit trail that is retraceable to validate changes to an electronic document. It is cryptographically bound to the said document and the audit trail acts as a tamper-seal to ensure no alterations are made after a document is digitally signed. An approach like this ensures that when the receiver opens the document, the contents in it are exactly the same as intended by the sender. Any detected differences will alert the receiver about the authenticity of the document, providing protection to the document and the recipients.
3. Convenience in terms of time-saving and cost effectiveness
Digital signature is done fully online without the need to have physical copies of documents. It saves time in managing documents and obtaining physical signatures from multiple parties, especially when there is a large number of documents. Instead of preparing them physically through printing, in-person appointments, scanning, dispatching and running around, send a digital copy to all and save time! It is also cost-effective, which reduces paperwork cost, travelling cost, or even costly mistakes due to human errors while handling them physically.
Use cases for digital signature
Nowadays, many businesses and their online documents make use of digital signatures to increase the efficiency for their business processes, while at the same time ensuring the security of these documents which are used in critical business transactions. Example documents include:
- Contracts and legal documents: Many countries recognise digital signatures as legally binding, hence they are suitable for such documents, which require authenticated signatures and unmodified assurance.
- Sales agreements: Digital signature on these documents protect both buyers and sellers and it provides peace of mind for both parties. Their identities are authenticated, their signatures are legally binding and they know the terms and condition of the agreements are not altered by any third parties.
- Banking and financial documents: The financial department of companies can digital sign their invoices and send to their customers. Customers are protected, knowing the payment requests are from authenticated and the true seller, not a bad actor scamming them to send money to a fraudulent account.
- Healthcare data: Data privacy is of utmost importance in the healthcare industry, especially patient records and research data. Digital signatures protect the sensitive information contained in these data and make sure they are not altered during sharing between qualified parties.
- Government documents: When government agencies handle data, they need to adhere to strict guidelines and regulations. Digital signatures streamline the process by making certain the right people with the right authority can perform government approvals, without being altered illegally.
- Shipping documents: Digital signatures help manufacturers reduce costly shipping errors, due to incorrect cargo documents or tampering. Digitally signing shipping documents are much more accessible and safer compared to physical shipping documents.
Start selling digital signing certificates with WebNIC
A digital signature can only be created with digital signing certificates. Therefore, WebNIC has added a new service to provide document signing certificates service to our valued partners. Our digital signing brands include world-renowned brands, DigiCert, Sectigo and GlobalSign to help our partners deliver the best digital signature service. Digital signature is gradually becoming more mainstream and it will evolve into an important must-have when it comes to dealing with documents online! Get started selling today and be a part of this global trend towards a digital signing age!
WebNIC is an accredited registrar for ICANN, and various countries including Asia, Europe, America, Australasia, and Africa. With offices in Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Beijing, Taipei and Jakarta, we serve 5,000+ active resellers over 70 countries. To join us and become a reseller, live chat with us or email us at [email protected].