...Ratification, Bill of Rights and Other Amendments
The 1787 Constitution lacked a Bill of Rights. Few except Madison himself were opposed to adding one, but many other delegates would have failed election without promising it. Negotiations at the Convention had proved so excitingly innovative that time ran out before the Convention had to adjourn with only a promise of a Bill of Rights, first thing. Almost immediately, political America was thrown into a year of state ratification conventions. Massachusetts initiated the concept of ratifying the Constitution, attached with eight or nine amendment proposals for the Bill of Rights. When the First Congress finally convened, it faced almost two hundred proposed amendments, and Madison made sure he was chairman of a committee to deal with them. Practically alone he pared them down to a succinct twelve which survived as the first order of business of the new Congress. Almost unnoticed, he made a deal with Oliver Ellsworth the leader of the Senate, to pass the Bill of Rights in exchange for passing the Senate's Judiciary Act in the House of Representatives. Out of this combined beginning, the power and scope of the Judiciary Branch was born. But while that is a subject for later chapters, Madison never achieved a more skillful moment in his political life, than this pivotal one.
Improving Our Political System
Republics and their Flaws
Causes of the American Revolution
Britain and its colonies had outgrown Eighteenth Century techniques of governance. Unfortunately, both England and America lacked the sophistication to make drastic changes smoothly.
Shaping the Constitution in Philadelphia
After Independence, the weakness of the Federal government dismayed a band of ardent patriots, so under Washington's leadership a stronger Constitution was written. Almost immediately, comrades discovered they had wanted the same thing for different reasons, so during the formative period they struggled to reshape future directions . Moving the Capitol from Philadelphia to the Potomac proved curiously central to all this.
Whereas, since the close of the last war, the British Parliament, claiming a power of right to bind the people of America, by statute, all cases whatsoever, hath in some acts expressly imposed taxes on them and in others, under various pretenses, but in fact for the purpose raising a revenue, hath imposed rates and duties payable in these colonies established a board of commissioners, with unconstitutional powers, and extended the jurisdiction of courts of admiralty, not only for collecting the said duties, but for the trial of causes merely arising within the body of a county.
And whereas, in consequence of other statutes, judges, who before held only estates at will in their offices, have been made dependent on the Crown alone for their salaries, and standing armies kept in time of peace:
And whereas, it has lately been resolved in Parliament, that by force of a statute, made in the thirty-fifth year of the reign of Henry the Eighth, colonists may be transported to England, and tried there upon accusations for treasons, and misprisions, or concealments of treasons committed in the colonies, and by a late statute, such trials have been directed in cases therein mentioned.
And whereas, in the last session of Parliament, three statutes were made; one, entitled "An act to discontinue, in such manner and for such time as are therein mentioned, the landing and discharging, lading, or shipping of goods, wares and merchandise, at the town, and within the harbor of Boston, in the province of Massachusetts Bay, in North America"; and another, entitled "An act for the better regulating the government of the province of the Massachusetts Bay in New England"; and another, entitled "An act for the impartial administration of justice, in the cases of persons questioned for any act done by them in the execution of the law, or for the suppression of riots and tumults in the province of the Massachusetts Bay, in New England." And another statute was then made, "for making more effectual provision for the government of the province of Quebec, etc." All which statutes are impolitic, unjust and cruel, as well as unconstitutional, and most dangerous and destructive of American rights.
And whereas, assemblies have been frequently dissolved, contrary to the rights of the people, when they attempted to deliberate on grievances; and their dutiful, humble, loyal, and reasonable petitions to the Crown for redress, have been repeatedly treated with contempt by His Majesty's ministers of state:
The good people of the several colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New Castle, Kent and Sussex on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, justly alarmed at these arbitrary proceedings of Parliament and administration, have severally elected, constituted, and appointed deputies to meet and sit in general congress, in the city of Philadelphia, in order to obtain such establishment, as that their religion, laws, and liberties may not be subverted.
Whereupon the deputies so appointed being now assembled, in a full and free representation of these colonies, taking into their most serious consideration, the best means of attaining the ends aforesaid, do, in the first place, as Englishmen, their ancestors in like cases have usually done, for asserting and vindicating their rights and liberties, declare, That the inhabitants of the English colonies in North America, by the immutable laws of nature, the principles of the English Constitution, and the several charters or compacts, have the following rights:
Resolved, N. C. D. [Nemine contradicente, no person disagreeing]1. That they are entitled to life, liberty, and property, and they have never ceded to any sovereign power whatever, a right to dispose of either without their consent
Resolved, N. C. D. 2. That our ancestors, who first settled these colonies, were at the time of their emigration from the mother country, entitled to all the rights, liberties, and immunities of free and natural-born subjects, within the realm of England.
Resolved, N. C. D. 3. That by such emigration they by no means forfeited, surrendered, or lost any of those rights, but that they were, and their descendants now are, entitled to the exercise and enjoyment of all such of them, as their local and other circumstances enable them, to exercise and enjoy.
Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: and as the English colonists are not represented, and from their local and other circumstances, can not properly be represented in the British Parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal polity, subject only to the negative of their sovereign, in such manner as has been heretofore used and accustomed. But, from the necessity of the case, and a regard to the mutual interest of both countries, we cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British Parliament, as are bona fide, restrained to the regulation of our external commerce, for the purpose of securing the commercial advantages of the whole empire to the mother country, and the commercial benefits of its respective members; excluding every idea of taxation, internal or eternal, for raising a revenue on the subjects in America, without their consent.
Resolved, N. C. D. 5. That the respective colonies are entitled to the common law of England, and more especially to the great and inestimable privilege of being tried by their peers of the vicinage, according to the course of that law.
Resolved, N. C. D. 6. That they are entitled to the benefit of such of the English statutes as existed at the time of their colonization; and which they have, by experience, respectively found to be applicable to their several local and other circumstances.
Resolved, N. C. D. 7. That these, His Majesty's colonies, are likewise entitled to all the immunities and privileges granted and confirmed to them by royal charters, or secured by their several codes of provincial laws.
Resolved, N. C. D. 8. That they have a right peaceably to assemble, consider of their grievances, and petition the King; and that all prosecutions, prohibitory proclamations, and commitment for the same, are illegal.
Resolved, N. C. D. 9. That the keeping a standing army in these colonies, in times of peace, without the consent of the legislature of that colony, in which such army is kept, is against law.
Resolved, N. C. D. 10. It is indispensably necessary to good government, and rendered essential by the English constitution, that the constituent branches of the legislature be independent of each other; that, therefore, the exercise of legislative power in several colonies, by a council appointed, during pleasure by the Crown, is unconstitutional, dangerous, and destructive to the freedom of American legislation.
All and each of which the aforesaid deputies, in behalf of themselves and their constituents, do claim, demand, and insist on, as their indubitable rights and liberties; which cannot be legally taken from them, altered or abridged by any power whatever, without their own consent, by their representatives in their several provincial legislatures.
[Author: John Sulllivan, Delegate and later Governor, New Hampshire]
|A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Containing a Brief Commentary on Every Clause, Explaining the True Nature, Reasons, and ... Designed for the Use of School Libraries and General Readers; Joseph Story: ISBN-13: 978-1886363717||Amazon|


Harvard students get near-perfect SAT scores. These are smart, smart kids. So they shouldn't have trouble with a simple logic question, right?
Try the following puzzle:
A bat and ball cost $1.10.
The bat costs one dollar more than the ball.
How much does the ball cost?
Scroll down for the answer ...
theseanster93 via www.flickr.com Creative Commons
You probably answered 10¢. That's what most Harvard students answered. But the real answer is 5¢.
Behavioral economist Daniel Kahneman explains why most people get this wrong:
A number came to your mind. The number, of course, is 10: 10¢. The distinctive mark of this easy puzzle is that it evokes an answer that is intuitive, appealing, and wrong. Do the math, and you will see. If the ball costs 10 ¢, then the total cost will be $1.20 (10¢ for the ball and $1.10 for the bat), not $1.10. The correct answer is 5¢. It is safe to assume that the intuitive answer also came to the mind of those who ended up with the correct number—they somehow managed to resist the intuition.
Many thousands of university students have answered the bat-and-ball puzzle, and the results are shocking. More than 50% of students at Harvard, MIT, and Princeton gave the intuitive—incorrect—answer. At less selective universities, the rate of demonstrable failure to check was in excess of 80%. The bat-and-ball problem is our first encounter with an observation that will be a recurrent theme of this book: many people are overconfident, prone to place too much faith in their intuitions. They apparently find cognitive effort at least mildly unpleasant and avoid it as much as possible.
This excerpt comes from Kahneman's 2011 book, "Thinking, Fast And Slow," which posits that we have an intuitive mental system and a logical mental system, and we often use the wrong one at the wrong time.
DON'T MISS: 61 Behavioral Biases That Screw Up How You Think


K.CC.B.5 Count to answer "how many?" questions about as many as 20 things arranged in a line, a rectangular array, or a circle, or as many as 10 things in a scattered configuration; given a number from 1-20, count out that many objects.
K.CC.C.6 Identify whether the number of objects in one group is greater than, less than, or equal to the number of objects in another group, e.g., by using matching and counting strategies. (Include groups with up to 10 objects.)
K.NBT.A Number & Operations in Base Ten: Work with numbers 11–19 to gain foundations for place value.
K.NBT.A.1 Compose and decompose numbers from 11 to 19 into ten ones and some further ones, e.g., by using objects or drawings, and record each composition or decomposition by a drawing or equation (such as 18 = 10+8); understand that these numbers are composed of ten ones and one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or nine ones.
K.OA.A Operations & Algebraic Thinking: Model and describe addition as putting together and adding to, and subtraction as taking apart and taking from, using objects or drawings.
K.OA.A.1 Represent addition and subtraction with objects, fingers, mental images, drawings (drawings need not show details, but should show the mathematics in the problem), sounds (e.g., claps), acting out situations, verbal explanations, expressions, or equations.
K.OA.A.3 Decompose numbers less than or equal to 10 into pairs in more than one way, e.g., by using objects or drawings, and record each decomposition by a drawing or equation (e.g., 5 = 2 + 3 and 5 = 4 + 1).
K.G.B Geometry: Analyze, compare, create, and compose shapes.
K.G.B.4 Analyze and compare two- and three-dimensional shapes, in different sizes and orientations, using informal language to describe their similarities, differences, parts (e.g., number of sides and vertices/"corners") and other attributes (e.g., having sides of equal length).


The Most Holy Name of Mary
On September 12 the Church celebrates the feast of The Most Holy Name of Mary, a memorial which is unknown to many because it is optional on the liturgical calendar. We have a number of well-known feasts of Mary, such as the Immaculate Conception, the Holy Mother of God, Mother of the Church, and her Assumption into Heaven; we celebrate her under many titles such as Our Lady of Lourdes and Our Lady of Fatima, (and many others). Simply put, after Jesus no one dominates the liturgical calendar the way Mary does. Her presence is everywhere, it seems, and so celebrating a feast which emphasizes the holiness of her name is appropriate. While this feast and most of the others are not holy days of obligation, I do think we should be aware of these celebrations and titles for Mary because they tell us something about her. This particular feast, The Most Holy Name of Mary, reminds us that names are indeed doorways to our identity insofar as names are intimate and connote deep meaning. Therefore through this feast we are honoring Mary, but also getting to know her better.
The name Mary (Miriam) was rather common in Israel, so of itself the name had no real importance although it was the name of Moses’ sister, as recorded in the Old Testament. We don’t know for sure, but we can guess that her parents chose this name for her because of their faithfulness to God and the rich spiritual history of Israel. We also know there were other women named Mary in the gospels, such as Mary Magdalene, Mary the sister of Martha and Lazarus, and Mary the wife of Clopus. Therefore, we might wonder how the name of this particular Mary is any different from the other women called by the same name. The answer lies in her identity, not just in the word ‘Mary;’ it is the woman who possessed the name that renders it sacred. Mary was, in fact, a most remarkable woman, one who was considered so pure that at the Annunciation the angel who greeted her did not utter her name as a sign of his reverence toward her,* and yet in her humility, she paid homage to him!
Names are rooted in one’s personality and identity. Knowing a person’s name changes everything in the way we interact with them; our interaction becomes more personal and draws them closer to us. Names are also intimate. Think of Moses on the mountain when God passed by and pronounced His own name. “The Lord came down in a cloud and stood with [Moses] there and proclaimed the name ‘LORD.’ So the LORD passed before him and proclaimed: ‘The LORD, the LORD, a God gracious and merciful, slow to anger and abounding in love and fidelity, continuing His love for a thousand generations, and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin...!’” (Exodus 34:5-8) The word LORD is written in all caps to designate that God’s utterance of His own name was so holy that Moses would not even pronounce it, leave alone attempt to write it: to make any attempt to repeat it would take away from the awe of hearing His name. But it is in the description of God’s characteristics which follows that Moses attempted to reveal something of the identity of who this good and gracious God really is.
In the same way that Moses knew the sacredness of the name of God, when the angel Gabriel greeted Mary he revealed his attitude toward her. He said: “Hail, favored one!” In not saying her name, he imparts to us that he recognized how special she was for God to have chosen her to be the mother of His Son. Gabriel knew he was addressing the one conceived without sin, yet who was completely free in her response. After her humble, but courageous ‘Let it be done’ the angel left her; Luke tells us that she pondered the meaning of everything that had happened. (Luke 1:26-38) Strangely, the angel is not named in the birth narrative found in Matthew’s Gospel when the focus on Jesus’ birth was more on Joseph than Mary. Instead he was referred to as the “angel of the Lord,” though it is safe to say it was indeed Gabriel. (Matthew 1:18-25)
In light of the angel not addressing her by name, it is of interest that in the gospels, Jesus, who no doubt called her ‘Mother’ while He lived with her, publicly addressed Mary twice, and neither time did He refer to her as Mother or even as Mary: instead He called her Woman! He did this at the Wedding in Cana and as He was dying on the cross. But both times it was meant as a term of the greatest reverence and respect. He was acknowledging that Mary’s courage and humility, her purity and her willingness to suffer for His sake and for our salvation, places her above all other women. It is clear Jesus dearly loved her and that He wanted her to know what she meant to Him as her Son and as her God.
Given all this, there is no reason for us to be hesitant to address Mary by name, however. Holy as she is, in saying her name we are acknowledging her identity as the humble and ever pure mother of our Lord and we are accepting her invitation to intimacy with her. Although the knowledge that she was never touched by the stain of sin may make it feel like she is somewhat inaccessible, the opposite is true: she desires that we become so close to her that we do say her name, and that we say it whenever we need her intercession. It must give her joy when we say: “Hail Mary, full of grace,” not because she has a ‘big ego’ and loves to be honored, but because in saying this greeting we are acknowledging all that God has accomplished through her. Thus we are actually glorifying God for giving us such great gifts by allowing her to be put at our service: in her humility and love, she wants to serve us through her intercession. And in that same humility, Mary would want us to remember that while we do revere her greatly and consider her name holy, we do not worship her. (We venerate her; worship is reserved for God alone.)
Throughout the years, Mary has given us great insight into her identity in addition to what the gospels reveal about her. She has appeared many times since her Assumption into Heaven and she has been given numerous titles based on these appearances. She has declared that she is the Immaculate Conception and she has repeatedly called herself our mother; she has openly cried, smiled, warned, and prayed, but always, she comes in service and with love. She serves God, but she is always respectful of the ones to whom she appears. For example, she speaks and dresses according to the customs of the ones to whom she appears, asking them to share messages with her children. Thus, we learn that it is important to address everyone we meet with similar respect and even with reverence. Perhaps remembering that Mary’s name is holy will help us bear in mind that every person’s name should be spoken with reverence and kindness because to that name is attached the identity of the person who bears it, and thus we are addressing their dignity as a brother or sister. In addressing another, we should always remember that they are a child of God, beautiful to behold and precious in His sight. Each one is a loved sinner, as are we. In these times in which a lack of respect and even abuse of one another seems rampant, we need to call upon Mary more than ever to intercede for us that we might treat others the way Jesus taught, with love, mercy, and respect. With her as our model and with the names of Mary and Jesus on our lips and in our hearts, perhaps we can also be bearers of respect, kindness, mercy, and love, standing against the hatreds and vitriolic words which seem to flow freely today. Perhaps we are being invited into deeper discipleship by praying for the reparation of sin, by being an example of Christian love, and by being true children of our Mother.
Revering Mary’s name as holy, therefore, is to recognize everything about her identity and her role in bringing salvation from God through her Son. ‘Mary’ is more than a word; her name brings to mind an entire understanding of who she is and what she continues to offer us. Calling on Mary by name reminds us to imitate her so that we become a healing presence, living what we pray. Therefore, let us have faith in God, and cling to our mother Mary, saying her name repeatedly as a prayer. She can offer us her mother’s heart, the pathway to being a disciple of Jesus and a way to coming to know, love, and serve her God and ours with deeper love and commitment. Hail Mary! Holy is your name!
May we greet Mary every day with the words: “Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with you!” May we take Mary as our role model, our confidant, and our intimate friend, so that she can respond: “I am with you and the Lord is with you, too!” May we remember that there is the power of humility, mercy, forgiveness, compassion, and love in her name: Mary! May we always give Mary her greatest joy, which is to lead us to her Son Jesus! And may we learn to respect and love others in the same way Mary teaches, that we may bring healing and peace into the world! Let us meet in the Hearts of Jesus and Mary! Peace!
© Michele L. Catanese
* From the September issue of Magnificat, page 156, this is a quote from St. Lawrence of Brindisi. (1559-1619)
If you are interested in Marian apparitions, there are many sites out there. I am only adding the one about the first apparition in Zaragoza, Spain. I have been to the shrine of Our Lady of the Pillar; the Church is quite beautiful.
Note: The next post will be on Tuesday, September 25.
1. This is an icon by Fr. William Hart McNichols called Maesta. Although the word 'maesta' translates to 'majesty,' I chose this icon because it spoke to me of holiness and simplicity. It is simply Mary; no words, nothing but her image. You can find it at http://frbillmcnichols-sacredimages.com/featured/maesta-224-william-hart-mcnichols.html. (A reminder that I have his permission to post his icons and images on my site.)
2. This is a photo I took at the Church of the Annunciation in Nazareth in Galilee, Israel. I thought it was appropriate to show the spot where the angel greeted Mary with the words, "Hail, favored one!"
3. This image is by Fr. William Hart McNichols, called The Hebrew Name of Yahweh-adam Kadmon. I thought it was fitting here because it is the Hebrew letters of God's response to Moses at the burning bush: "I AM WHO AM." Presumably this is not what God called Himself when He spoke His name to Moses in the passage I mentioned (Ex 34) but it is who God says He is: He is one who has always existed. http://frbillmcnichols-sacredimages.com/featured/hebrew-name-of-yahweh-adam-kadmon-183-william-hart-mcnichols.html.
4. This is my favorite work of Fra Angelico, The Annunciation.
5. I took this photo in Ireland, near Adair. I chose to use it here as a scene of beauty, but which symbolically speaks of accessibility. The canoes make the beauty of the lake accessible from another vantage point.
6. This is a depiction of St. Juan Diego seeing the Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Guadalupe on Tepeyac Hill, Mexico in 1531. I chose to use it here because it is a good example of Mary appearing in the garb of the person to whom she has appeared. She was dressed as a peasant and spoke the same dialect as Juan Diego.
7. This is one of my photos, taken near Steamboat Springs, Colorado. I chose to use it here as an example of the beauty of God's gifts to us, particularly the beauty of the holiness found in Mary.
NOTE: In compliance with GDPR rules, I wish to make it clear that I do not gather any information on any of my readers at any time.
elise m campana
9/10/2018 06:15:13 pm
Michele, Thank you for this lovely essay on the beautiful name of
Comments are closed.
Heart Speaks to Heart


According to the National Crime Prevention Bureau, as many as four million women in this country suffer from some kind of violence from their husbands or boyfriends each year. Very few will tell anyone - a friend, relative, neighbor, or the Police.
Victims of domestic violence come from all walks of life, cultures, income groups, ages, and religions. They share the feeling of helplessness, isolation, guilt, fear, and shame.
Are you abused ?
Does the person you love:
- "Keep Track" of all your time ?
- Constantly accuse you of being unfaithful ?
- Discourage relationships with family & friends ?
- Prevent you from working or attending school ?
- Criticize you for little things ?
- Anger easily when drinking or using drugs ?
- Control finances & force you to account in detail for your spending ?
- Humiliate you in front of others ?
- Destroy personal property or sentimental items ?
- Hit, punch, slap, kick, or bite you or the children ?
- Threaten to hurt you or the children ?
- Force you to have sex against your will ?
If you find yourself saying yes to any of these - it's time to get help !
Do Not Ignore the Problem !
Talk to someone. Part of the abuser's power comes from secrecy. Victims are often ashamed to let anyone know about intimate family problems. Go to a friend, neighbor, or call a DOMESTIC VIOLENCE HOTLINE, or your POLICE DEPT. Plan ahead and know what you will do if your are attacked again. If you decide to leave, choose a place to go; set aside some money. Put important papers- marriage license, birth certificate, checkbook - in a place where you can get them quickly. Learn to think independently. Try to plan for the future, and set goals for yourself.
What to do if you are hurt
There are no easy answers, but there are things that you can do to protect yourself.
- Call the POLICE. Assault, especially by a family member, is a crime. The Police often have information about shelters, and other agencies that help victims of Domestic Violence.
- Leave or have someone come & stay with you. Go to a battered women's shelter. Call a crisis hotline in your community or health center to locate a shelter. If you believe that you or your children are in danger, LEAVE IMMEDIATELY.
- Get medical attention from your doctor or a hospital emergency room. Ask the staff to photograph your injuries, and keep detailed records if you decide to take legal action. Contact your PROBATE COURT for information about a RESTRAINING ORDER that does not involve criminal charges.
Have you hurt someone in your family ?
- Accept the fact that your violent behavior will destroy your family. You break the law when you physically hurt someone.
- Take responsibility for your actions and get help.
- When you feel tension building, GET AWAY. Work off the angry energy through walk, a project, or sport.
- Call a DOMESTIC VIOLENCE HOTLINE or health center and ask about counseling and support groups for people who batter.
The high costs of domestic violence
- Men & women who follow their parent's example, and use violence to solve conflicts, are teaching the same destructive behavior to their children.
- Jobs can be lost or careers stalled because of injuries, arrests, or harassment.


Manners and Customs of the Jews by Henry Benton
CHAPTER 21 -- BOOKS, AND SUBSTANCES WRITTEN UPON.
We are plainly told that the commandments were "the writing of God, graven upon the tables." These tables were flat, thin pieces of stone. Also the names of the children of Israel, worn upon the high priest's shoulders, were to be engraved on different sorts of precious stone, with the work of an engraver, like the engravings of a signet. And for the high priest's mitre it was directed, "Thou shalt make a plate of pure gold, and engrave upon it like the engravings of a signet, Holiness unto the Lord."
The letters were engraved or cut into these hard substances that they might last, and not be rubbed out like common writing. When Job wished that his words should be preserved, he says, "Oh, that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever," Job 19:24. This method of writing is still used for inscriptions on buildings, etc., but it was much more used formerly. Among the ruins of ancient cities in Persia, Egypt, Greece, etc., many very long inscriptions are found, engraved upon the walls of buildings, and upon rocks. In a part of Arabia, near mount Sinai, there are large mountains or rocks covered with writing, though the meaning of the words cannot be made out.
Among the ruins of Babylon, bricks are found with inscriptions upon them. The letters or marks are something like the heads of arrows or nails, but no one has yet been able to make out their meaning. It is supposed they may have been part of the tower of Babel; whether this is correct or not, they must be very ancient. The writing has been engraved or impressed into these bricks. Major Denham, who lately traveled in Africa, also found long inscriptions cut into the rocks in several places.
This engraving of writing, or cutting the letters upon hard substances, was very generally practiced in cases of importance, as being much more lasting than other methods. When Dr. Buchanan was in India, the Jews in Malabar showed him a brass plate, on which was engraved the grant of some privileges from an ancient king, about the year AD 490. He also found similar tablets in the possession of the Syrian Christians in the south of India. Some of these, and copies of others, are now in the public library at Cambridge. And some persons have supposed that Samuel engraved the word Ebenezer upon the stone he set up when God had smitten the Philistines, I Samuel 7:12. This method of writing was practiced in later times, upon wood and other substances.
To the law of God being engraven the apostle refers, when describing the work of the Holy Spirit upon the heart of the believer; he speaks of it as written, not with ink, (which might be rubbed out,) but as engraved or cut into the substance, and not upon tables of stone, but upon the heart of the believer, II Corinthians 3:3, see also Jeremiah 31:33, Ezekiel 11:19. O That this may be the case with our hearts. My dear readers, may the Lord write his law in your hearts, and be your God, making you his children, forgiving your iniquity, and blotting out the writing that is against you. For dreadful is the state of those in whom sin is graven upon the table of their hearts, Jeremiah 17:1. O let us earnestly pray, that this may not be our case; but that God will put his truths into our minds, enabling us to do his will in all things.
And if the law of the Lord be thus engraved on our hearts, we must beware lest we should be satisfied to let it be obscured or covered with the evil which by nature cleaves to our hearts, even as a writing engraved upon a stone may be covered over with dirt or rubbish. Remember, God says, "My son, give me thy heart," Proverbs 23:26. He will not be satisfied with a divided heart, and he also commanded, "Keep thy heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues of life," Proverbs 4:23. But it is the Lord himself who engraves the graving thereof, Zechariah 3:9, and upon him that overcometh will be written the name of the Lord; see Revelation 3:12, and that writing shall not perish or decay. Reader, watch over your heart; pray that the Holy Spirit may sanctify or make it holy.
We may inquire farther respecting the substances used for writing upon. Job, chapter 19:24, expresses his desire, that his words should be written upon lead as well as upon a rock. Montfaucon says, that in the year 1699, he purchase at Rome an ancient book, entirely of lead, about four inches long and three inches wide; it had six leaves, and two covers, and was written over with ancient Egyptian figures, and writing which he could not understand.
Brass was used for matters of importance. In the first book of Maccabees we read of treaties between the Romans and the Jews, written on tables of brass, chapter 8:22 and 14:18, and although the books of Maccabees are not the word of God, yet they may be referred to for information as to history and customs, as they were certainly written a very long time ago. It was the custom of the Romans to preserve their laws and records upon tablets of brass; and it is related that a fire in the capitol at Rome, in Vespasian's reign, destroyed three thousand of these tablets. The ancient tablets of brass, discovered by Dr. Buchanan in India, have been already noticed; they are six in number, and, upon the plate said to be the oldest, the writing is very like that upon the bricks found at Babylon.
Wood was very frequently used. Sometimes the tablets of wood were engraved, the letters being cut into them. Or a thin coat of wax was spread over the wood, and the words were scratched upon the wax, with a sharp pointed metal bodkin, or a stick. And sometimes the words were written with ink upon the tablets. The writing upon sticks, mentioned in Ezekiel 37:16 appears to have been engraved or cut into them. In our own country, in former times, words were engraved upon sticks, which were put into a wooden frame; some of these still exist. Almanacs also were cut upon sticks; these may be found among the inhabitants of Sweden.
The ancient letters sent by persons one to another were in general written upon tablets of wood. The different pieces were tied together with a thread or string, and a seal put upon the knot, so that no one could read what was written till the seal was broken.
Among the natives of Africa and the east it is very common to have writing boards, like schoolboys' slates, upon which persons write with ink, and rub it out when done with. When Mr. Park was at Koolkooro, in Africa, his landlord brought him a writing board, asking him to write upon it. Mr. Park did so; the African then washed the writing from the board and drank the water, for the poor ignorant man thought it would be of use to protect him from harm! Such tablets of wood are commonly used in schools in those countries. The prophets sometimes wrote upon tables of wood; see Isaiah 30:8, Habakkuk 2:2 and the writing table which Zacharias made signs for, when desired to name his son, Luke 1:63, was a wooden tablet; perhaps it was covered with wax. Such tablets are mentioned by Greek and Roman writers, and were used in England till after the year 1300.
Leaves were formerly used, and still are so, for writing upon; many ancient authors mention them. In India, and particularly in Ceylon, they make use of the leaves of some trees which are very broad and thick; these are cut into slips, and smoothed, and they write upon them with sharp pointed bodkins. To make a book, several leaves are strung together. These leaves are called Ollas, and the missionaries have frequently used them for writing tracts upon. But this way of preparing tracts is very expensive, and the leaves are liable to break, so that they now use paper, and print the tracts. For this purpose, large quantities of paper are sent out every year, by the Religious Tract Society. The missionaries are very glad to receive this paper, but they wish to have a great deal more, as the grown people and children are very eager for the books they print.
The bark of trees has been used in all countries to write upon., The word book, in Latin, (liber) is the name by which the inner bark of trees is called in that language. In Sumatra bark is still much used for books; and the North American Indians have made great use of it for their picture writing.
Linen was used in former times, particularly by the Egyptians; many of their linen books, and writings upon linen, remain to this day. They are frequently found with the mummies, or dead bodies of persons who died a long time ago, which have preserved or embalmed in the same manner as the bodies of Jacob and Joseph. See Genesis 1, 2, 26.
Skins of animals were also used, and that long before people had found out how to make them into parchment. These leather and linen books were in the form of long rolls. It is probably that the book of the law, written by Moses, and given by him to the priests, Deuteronomy 31:24ff was of linen or leather; and that the book of the law, found by Hilkiah, II Chronicles 34:14, was of this sort. It may have been the same book that was written by Moses. When Dr. Buchanan was in India, he found a very old copy of the law, written on a roll of leather about fifteen feet long. Many such rolls exist; some of them more than a hundred feet in length. Perhaps you will wonder how they could read in such a book or rolls, which was the general form of books in ancient times. I will try to describe it. The rolls were several feet long, but not very wide, generally about twelve or fourteen inches; the writing upon them was in pages, beginning at one end of the roll and so proceeding to the other. The ends of the rolls were often fastened upon sticks; the roll was opened at the beginning just enough to allow of a page or two being read. The ancient manuscripts were all written in capital letters, and without divisions of the words, so that the roll when first opened looked something like this:
INTHEBEGI WORDWASG EMADEBYHI INHIMWASLI
NNINGWAST ODTHESAME MANDWITHO FEANDTHELI
HEWORDAN WASINTHEB UTHIMWASN FEWASTHELI
DTHEWORD EGINNINGW OTANYTHIN GHTOFMENA
WASWITHG ITHGODALL GMADETHA NDTHELIGHT
ODANDTHE THINGSWER TWASMADE SHINETHIND
Of course there were more lines in a page, and more letters in a line than in this representation; see also the representation on an ancient manuscript, page xxx. How it would puzzle my readers if their books were printed in this manner. It shows how improvements are introduced by degrees.
The part read was then rolled up, and more opened, so that the whole book could be read without the difficulty which there must have been if the lines had gone all along, from one end to the other, so as to require the whole roll to be opened at once. Sometimes both sides of the roll were written upon, Ezekiel 2:10.
The rolls, or books rolled up, are often mentioned or alluded to in the Bible, Ezra 6:2, Isaiah 8:1, 34:4, Ezekiel 2:9, Revelation 6:14. The scribes, or persons employed in writing, were considered to be persons of some importance. From Ezekiel 9:3,5,11, it appears they wore their inkbottles, or inkhorns, at their girdles. The prophecy of Jeremiah, sent to Jehoiakim, was written by Baruch, with ink, in the roll of a book; and it is plain that this book was of some soft substance, as the king was able to cut it to pieces with a penknife, before he cast it into the fire, Jeremiah 36:23.
That is an awful instance of the way in which many despise the word of God, and refuse to listen to its precepts and threatenings; often rejecting the promises of mercy, and the declarations of the love of God toward us, which are contained therein. It is indeed painful to think that some have even acted like Jehoiakim, and destroyed the word of God. The Romish priests often do so when they find Bibles or Testaments in the hands of people in Ireland; but it is very pleasant to find that there is an increasing desire to read the word of truth. There have been many instances of children refusing to give up their books, and rescuing them from the grasp of the priests. One very pleasing anecdote I must mention. A priest succeeded in tearing a Testament from the hand of a child; but the little Bible scholar had endeavored to hide the word of God in his heart, and exclaimed, "You may take away my Testament, sir; but you cannot take away the chapters I have learned by heart." In the days when popery prevailed in England, many persons learned the Psalms, and as many chapters as they could, for they knew that they would not be allowed to possess the word of God, when the papists had power to take it away. One of these excellent men had learned all the epistles.
My dear reader, if you have been taught to prize the word of God, and the truths it contains, pray earnestly, and implore the Most High that the bloody, persecuting religion of the church of Rome may never prevail in our land, as in former times, and as it now does in some countries. Read the accounts of the poor Lollards, and the martyrs in the days of queen Mary; and be thankful that you live in the present times. There were no Sunday schools in those days, no instruction for the young in the truths of the gospel, none of the beautiful hymns children now have to learn, no prayers which people in general could understand, but only prayers in Latin, and bowing down to images; and if, parents attempted to teach their children any thing better they were punished. In the year 1519, six men and a woman were burned alive at Coventry, for teaching their children the Lord's Prayer and ten commandments in English! Be thankful, children, for your privileges, and be diligent in improving them.
Parchment is made of the skins of goats, sheep, or calves prepared with care. It was known to the Jews, and being a later invention, and more valuable than skins of leather, was used for writings of the greatest importance; thus the apostle Paul, when writing to Timothy, desires him to bring the books he had left at Troas, but especially the parchments, II Timothy 4:13. The value and scarcity of parchment was so great before the invention of paper, that the writing was frequently effaced from rolls or books already written, and other works written instead. Some of the most ancient manuscripts of the Bible now know, had been written over in this manner, but the first writing can still be made out, thought not without difficulty. Another substance much used for writing upon, was a kind of paper, made from the thin skin or film which covered a sort of bulrush that grows in Egypt, and is called papyrus or biblos. It is found in abundance on the banks of the Nile and other streams, Isaiah 19:7. Among these reeds, or bulrushes, Moses was placed when his parents dared not keep him any longer. The daughter of the king found him there as is related in Exodus 2:3. These bulrushes are also mentioned in Isaiah 18:2. This paper was much used by the Romans and other nations. The manuscripts or books found in Herculaneum, the city which was buried under the ashes and lava from mount Vesuvius, in the year 79, and which remained unknown till about a hundred years ago, are all written on this sort of paper. They are rolls or long slips of different lengths, and about twelve inches wide; but the heart of the lava, and the length of time they remained untouched, it is very difficult to unroll or open them.
Different sorts of paper have been made of bark of trees, cotton, silk, straw, and many other substances, but these as well as our paper, made of linen rags, were unknown to the ancient Jews. The paper mentioned in II John 12 was made of papyrus.
The ancients wrote upon many of these substances with ink. The first mention of this is in the writing of the prophecy of Jeremiah, by Baruch, which we read was written "with ink in a book," or roll, Jeremiah 36:18. The prophet Ezekiel speaks of a writer's inkhorn; and the apostle John mentions writing with ink and pen, III John 13. Also the apostle Paul, II Corinthians 3:3. The pens were not of quills like ours, but of reeds, which are still used by eastern nations. Persons could write quicker with them than with the iron pens, or bodkins, which engraved or scratched the writing, this is alluded to in Psalm 45:1.
There were pens in some inkhorns found in Herculaneum, but they were merely pointed sticks like skewers.
And now I have said all that occurs to me respecting books and writing. Printing was not discovered till about the year 1450; before that time books were but few in number, and cost much money. Yet, even in those times, Solomon could say, "Of making books there is no end," Ecclesiastes 12:12. How much more is this the case in our days, and how many vain, trifling, silly, and even wicked or profane books there are! My readers, beware of bad books. We read, I Corinthians 15:33, that "evil communications corrupt good manners;" and, as the writer of the book of Ecclesiastes has well observed, a man cannot touch pitch without being defiled. Be assured that you cannot read bad books without injury. Flee the temptation, and if a bad book comes into your possession, as soon as you are aware of its contents, commit it to the flames. Remember what is said of the heavenly Jerusalem, "There shall in no wise enter into it any thing that defileth, neither whatsoever worketh abomination or maketh a lie, but they which are written in the Lamb's Book of Life."


Information on Modimolle, Limpopo Province, South Africa
Conference Venues South Africa brings you information on Modimolle situated in the Limpopo Province of South Africa including information on Facilities and Recreation, Climate, Founding, History Suburbs, Town Planning and Geography
In the 1860s, a Voortrekker group of Dutch religious zealots known as the Jerusalem Trekkers set off for the Holy Land. After discovering a river flowing northwards, they consulted the maps at the back of their Bibles and decided that it was the Nylrivier. They settled the town and called it Nylstroom in 1866. After discovering what they believed to be a ruined pyramid, they were convinced that they had found the Nile. It was in fact, a natural hillock, known to the locals as Modimolle. A Dutch Reformed Church was built in 1889 and is the oldest church in subsahara Africa north of Pretoria. It was also used as a hospital during the Second Boer War.
The first railway line reached Nylstroom in 1898, connecting the town to Pretoria. During the Second Boer War, the British operated a concentration camp in Nylstroom, where Boer women and children where interned as part of the British Scorched Earth policy. This subsequently led to the loss of 544 lives at the Nylstroom concentration camp. Strijdom Huis was the principal residence of the 6th Prime Minister of South Africa, JG Strijdom and is situated in Nylstroom
Towns and Suburbs of the Limpopo province of South Africa
Bela-Bela , Ba-Phalaborwa , Hoedspruit , Immerpan, Leeupoort , Lephalele , Louis Trichardt , Mabula Gate, Magoebaskloof , Mokopane , Modimolle , Mookgopong, Musina , Naboomspruit , Nylstroom , Polokwane , Rooiberg , Sibasa , Thabazimbi , Thohayandou , Timbavati , Tshipise , Tzaneen , Vaalwater , Vivo , Waterberg


Segregation Lines Starkly Divide Metropolitan Milwaukee
Milwaukee is one of the most segregated metro areasin America, according to the latest census figures. 90 percent of African-American households in the region live in Milwaukee. The numbers also point to huge economic disparities smothering African-Americans who live in the central city. WUWM's Marti Mikkelson opens our seriesProject Milwaukee: Segregation Mattersby examining how the dividing lines became so entrenched.
Nate Holton has been working to make life better in Milwaukee’s central city. These days, he’s helping organize the county’s new Office on African American Affairs. Holton grew up in the Sherman Park neighborhood; its boundaries roughly extend from 30th to 60th Streets.
He takes me on a drive through the area. We start at 57th and Townsend, where Holton spent his childhood and teenage years in the 1990s. Rows of modest, well-kept brick homes.
“It was a pretty integrated neighborhood and that was one of the things we liked about it. Our neighbor to our north was an elderly white woman who had been there for a long time, our neighbor to our south was an African-American couple,” Holton says.
As we head east on Burleigh, the people we see are nearly all African-American, and the properties appear to deteriorate.
“The types of homes are similar, but they just don’t look as good. Whoever owns them hasn’t been able to keep them up like folks on 57th and Townsend have,” Holton says.
The neighborhoods may seem to blend one into another, but there are manmade and natural dividing lines, according to Marc Levine. He heads UWM’s Center for Economic Developmentand has been studying segregation in Milwaukee. He shows me maps on his computer that he says outline racial separation in Milwaukee.
“The river is sort of the eastern boundary, you’ve got highways that are built, the construction of I-43 had a profound impact on the African-American community when it was built, 41 on the west side,” Levine says.
Levine says those boundaries have helped solidify segregation in the community. He traces the origins of the situation back to the 1950s and 60s, when many African-Americans migrated to Milwaukee from the South for factory jobs – which were plentiful.
“Milwaukee was a relatively booming industrial economy with jobs that were accessible to modestly skilled workers, particularly males who could work in manufacturing and Milwaukee was one of the leading manufacturing cities in the country,” Levine says.
But, Levine says in the 1980s, a recession hit and factories started closing. The downturn devastated the city’s north side where many manufacturers were located and African-American workers lived.
“The 1980s were the brutal decade in Milwaukee. There’s just no question about it. All the data from my study on economic inequality and racial inequality in Milwaukee shows that that’s where the bottom really dropped out and that’s where the rate of black male non-employment increased, not just unemployment but falling out of the labor force and all sorts of consequences flowed from that,” he says.
Consequences such as the drug trade, violence and mass incarceration. Community activist Nate Holton says that’s when his father moved the family.
“We left that intersection because of crime. There was a murder in our alley and they marked up the chalk partially on our garage door and I think that was the final straw for my parents,” he says.
Holton says his family was lucky because his father was a Milwaukee firefighter and had the money to move the family to a safer neighborhood. Deniece Fields stayed longer, watching many businesses come and go throughout the '80s and '90s. She particularly laments the loss of the Capitol Court mall.
“It had every store that you needed from a grocery store called Kohl’s and then Kohl’s turned into a Save-a-Center. It had retail stores, it had a Target, the music store, all of the stores that we needed in the community were there, and then slowly but surely it started to die out,” she says.
When Fields had the means, she moved to New Berlin, where she’s now a school principal.
“I like the offerings out there, the types of homes and the level of peace especially as a single black woman going in and out of my home at all times of the day or night, I wanted to be somewhere safe. Not that there isn’t violence in New Berlin, that’s not what I’m saying but when you have a choice or an option to live in a place that has a lot more options, that’s what I choose. If I had children, I would rather raise them where I live now,” Fields says.
Yet Fields still belongs to a church in Milwaukee’s central city, and she comes back every Sunday for services because of her friendships here.
Lester Carter has never left. He’s standing behind the counter of the pharmacy he’s owned for 50 years: the Carter Drug Store on 24th and Burleigh.
Carter says, when he first moved here, the neighborhood had a large German population, and his was one of a dozen stores. But he says they moved out and not much has moved in, to serve the many poor African-American people who remain.
“Mostly grocery stores or empty buildings, or like on 8th and North that’s a vacant lot now and Dettman over here on Hopkins, that’s a church now and they’re all gone, all of them,” he says.
Yet, Carter says he’s noticed recently, a few things changing for the better. “You have to give people credit, this church group, pastors, they’re sponsoring a lot of these new homes that they’re putting up, so there’s a definite effort to improve the area,” he says.
While there are bright spots, UW-Milwaukee’s Marc Levine says a large number of African-Americans in the central city continues to live in poverty.
“For example, the percentage of African-Americans living in concentrated poverty neighborhoods is now about 31 percent. That’s better than 46 percent as it was in 1990 but it still means about one-third of African-Americans live in concentrated poverty neighborhoods. That’s the second highest rate of any metro area in the country,” he says.
For more on this topic, explore our Project Milwaukee: Segregation Matters series.
Have a question you'd like answered about segregation in Milwaukee? Submit your query below.


- 1 Introduction
- 2 MAC Spoofing Warning
- 3 Other Location Tracking Risks
- 4 MAC Spoofing on Different Networks
- 5 Changing MAC Addresses
- 6 References
- 7 License
All network cards, both wired and wireless, have a unique identifier called a MAC address.  MAC addresses are stored in hardware and are used to assign an address to computers on the local network.
The MAC address is normally not traceable because it is not passively sent to computers beyond the local router.  However, other computers on the local network can potentially log it, which would then provide proof the user's computer connected to that specific network. If users intend to use an untrusted, public network then MAC spoofing should be considered.
MAC Spoofing Warning
Apart from the difficulty in creating an appropriate MAC address for spoofing purposes, there are also technical hurdles to overcome in the form of preventing automatic network connections.
It is futile to prepare a spoofed MAC address if the computer instantly connects to the public network after booting, disclosing the user's real MAC address in the process:
- Physical Isolation: Whonix-Gateway ™ automatically connects to Tor after start.
- USB Wi-FI Device: Automatic connections might also occur, depending on the configuration.
- VM users: The host operating system most likely automatically connects via updates, perhaps time sync, and other avenues.
Burner Wi-Fi USB Sticks
One immediate workaround for the Wi-Fi card profiling threat is to buy new "burner" Wi-Fi USB sticks from different manufacturers. Take care to disable the computer's native Wi-Fi functionality in the BIOS settings if pursuing this option -- the computer's characteristics will have likely been logged if it was ever used from an untrusted hotspot. Burner devices should only be enabled for connectivity at the intended public destination. If this advice is ignored and burner devices are used for network connections at locations tied to or regularly visited by the user, this can lead to deanonymization. A different burner stick should be used for each new location to avoid geographical profiling / tracking.
Random MAC Addresses
The problem with using a random MAC address is that the chosen vendor ID may be non-existent. Even if it exists, it is possible to end up with a vendor ID which has either never been used or not for decades. When spoofing MAC addresses, it is critical to use a popular vendor ID. The initial, second part of the MAC address can safely be random or unique.
Research on this issue is still ongoing. At present, Whonix ™ cannot provide detailed instructions on how to create appropriate MAC addresses fulfilling the criteria above.
Other Location Tracking Risks
Authentication Fingerprinting Techniques
An authentication technique can fingerprint devices by observing inter-packet timings on a LAN's wire-segment; one side effect is that user devices can be tracked. The timing effects are the result of how various components in a machine create packets.  Fortunately, this technique cannot be used to identify devices across the Internet.
This technique can be defeated by inducing random delays in a machine's packet stream. Since there is no problem with impersonating other devices on the LAN, it does not matter that such an authentication system will view these machines as "unknown".  Note also that spectrum analyzers have been used to fingerprint the unique electromagnetic (EM) characteristics of a Wi-Fi card. The disposable USB Wi-Fi workaround described further above would mitigate this attack.
Tor Entry Guard Fingerprinting
Dealing with the MAC address problem is only one piece of the larger location tracking puzzle. Users must also contend with changing the usual Tor entry guards used for connections across different locations, in order to prevent guard fingerprinting. To mitigate this threat, follow one of the recommended configurations:
- Clone Whonix-Gateway ™ (sys-whonix) with New Entry Guards.
- Regenerate the Tor State File after Saving the Current Tor State.
- Configure Tor to use Alternating Bridges.
- If moving to a new location permanently, create Fresh Tor Entry Guards by Regenerating the Tor State File.
To fully thwart this threat, entry guard changes are necessary for every Tor instance on the user's machine host (apt-transport-tor) and guest.
MAC Spoofing on Different Networks
If the user's home network has a cable modem internet connection, the ISP either provides the cable modem device as part of the service or requires pre-registration of the MAC address of the self-provided cable modem in order to setup the service.
If a user manages to hack or change the MAC address of the modem, the service would immediately cease functioning because the IP address assignment is apportioned for, and bound to, that specific MAC address. As a result, when connecting from behind a cable modem/NAT router, MAC address spoofing of the computer's ethernet adapter may be pointless. If a user is traced, the trackable endpoint will be the MAC address of the cable modem device.
The MAC address should not be changed in this scenario, otherwise it may bring undesired administrator attention to the service/user and/or simply prevent access to the Internet.
Using Personal Computers in a Public Network
In this scenario, the MAC address must be changed and a new set of Tor entry guards should also be configured.  Attempts should be made to disguise the use of Tor from the administrator of the public network. Depending on the user's configuration, this may involve using an obfsproxy bridge or the tunneling of traffic through SSH or a VPN prior to connecting to the Tor network.
Depending on the user's threat model, changing the MAC address and using Tor might rule out revisiting that public network again in the future. If the same public network will be reused, then it is necessary to decide whether to use the same MAC address (and set of Tor entry guards) or to generate a new one.
If MAC address logging by the administrator is suspected, it is unwise to change the MAC address and arouse suspicion. If it is assessed the network is sufficiently public and observation is unlikely, then it might be safe to use a new MAC address -- with a popular vendor ID and random/unique second part (identifier) -- each time the network is used.
For further discussion on this rather complex topic, see Dev/MAC.
Changing MAC Addresses
If you are interested in MAC address spoofing in Non-Qubes-Whonix ™, please press on Expand on the right.
Qubes users can manually change MAC addresses in the NetVM by following either the Network Manager or macchanger guides. MAC Address Randomization capability for Wi-Fi [archive] has been implemented, but it is not applied by default.
Refer to the following Qubes documentation and related support items for further information and advice:
- Qubes documentation: Anonymizing your MAC Address [archive]
- Qubes-Users forum: Instructions for Installing Macchanger Needed [archive]
- Explore local network privacy solutions beyond MAC address randomization [archive]
The following steps spoof the MAC address in Windows 10 via Device Manager:
Windows Key + X.
- Expand the list of network adapters.
- Right-click the appropriate adapter.
- Navigate to
- Enter any 12 digit hexadecimal value.
Reboot the computer for the changes to take effect. To check the changes are functional, in a terminal run.
The physical address of the adapter should show a new MAC address.
See footnote.
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address [archive]
- Unless the computer is infected with malware [archive] designed to disclose this identifier.
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_spoofing [archive]
- Why MAC Address Randomization is not Enough: An Analysis of Wi-Fi Network Discovery Mechanisms [archive]
- Also note that if MAC address changing is always enabled, it might cause connectivity problems on some networks.
- A Passive Technique for Fingerprinting Wireless Devices with Wired-side Observations [archive]
- The primary weakness of this technique is that it relies on fine-grained packet timing; timing that is lost as a result of buffering in switches and routers. Therefore, this technique and similar methods are not suited for identification across the Internet. Rather, it is perfectly suited for the significant challenge of local network access control and other local network activities like counterfeit detection.
- Figure 7(a) shows attackers that can vary their packet sizes, change their data rate, and tunnel their packets through another protocol. Figure 7(b) presents attackers that can introduce constant or random delays to the packet stream and load the CPU with intensive applications to overshadow normal behavior. Figure 7(c) shows an attacker that can modify or change its operating system. GTID (the passive fingerprinting method) detects these attacks and classifies all of these devices that generated attack traffic from previously seen devices as unknown.
- There have also been physical layer approaches to fingerprinting wireless devices. Radio frequency (RF) emitter fingerprinting uses the distinct EM characteristics that arise from differences in circuit topology and manufacturing tolerances. This approach has a history of use in cellular systems and has more recently been applied to Wi-Fi and Bluetooth emitters. The EM properties fingerprint the unique transmitter of a signal and these differ from emitter to emitter. This technique requires expensive signal analyzer hardware to be within RF range of the target.
- This process involves removal of the /var/lib/tor/state file.
- https://www.online-tech-tips.com/computer-tips/how-to-change-mac-address/ [archive]
- https://superuser.com/questions/1190550/physical-and-wireless-interfaces-in-macos [archive]
- https://windowsreport.com/mac-address-changer-windows-10/ [archive]
Whonix ™ MAC Address wiki page Copyright (C) Amnesia <amnesia at boum dot org>
Whonix ™ MAC Address wiki page Copyright (C) 2012 - 2020 ENCRYPTED SUPPORT LP <firstname.lastname@example.org>
This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details see the wiki source code.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions; see the wiki source code for details.
This is a wiki. Want to improve this page? Help is welcome and volunteer contributions are happily considered! Read, understand and agree to Conditions for Contributions to Whonix ™, then Edit! Edits are held for moderation. Policy of Whonix Website and Whonix Chat applies.
Copyright (C) 2012 - 2020 ENCRYPTED SUPPORT LP. Whonix ™ is a trademark. Whonix ™ is a licensee [archive] of the Open Invention Network [archive]. Unless otherwise noted, the content of this page is copyrighted and licensed under the same Freedom Software license as Whonix ™ itself. (Why?)


I need to update this site more frequently! I have a new paper out with my collaborators Andrea Orellana Abreu, Joule Bergerson and Heather MacLean in Environmental Science and Technology entitled “Statistically Enhanced Model of In Situ Oil Sands Extraction Operations: An Evaluation of Variability in Greenhouse Gas Emissions”. Joule and I worked on the Bakken LCA back in 2016. Both she and Heather are wonderful collaborators and I’ve been truly blessed to have the opportunity to work with them both.
The paper itself addresses the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with oil sands production (although not the refining of the crude oil or the combustion of fuels or chemicals manufactured from the oil). Specifically, it addresses in situ oil sands extraction, i.e. the extraction technologies that are used to extract the crude oil via oil wells. Extraction of oil sands technologies via mining is not addressed in this paper.
If you’d like to learn more about oil sands, I recommend the following site. The Wiki (as of March 1st, 2018 when I wrote this) is pretty good too. The sands constitute one of the world’s largest petroleum reserves, but the oil (or bitumen, as it’s called) is very thick, which makes its extraction different than many other crude oils. Technologies used to extract oil sands are also used to extract “heavy” oil in California and Venezuela.
Although unrelated to my paper, this Lego build is the type of excavator used to mine the oil sands near Fort McMurray, Alberta. Absolutely amazing work!


T-93: Monitoring the Lakes
At just before the closest point during this flyby, the visible and infrared mapping spectrometer (VIMS) instrument will acquire images of Ligeia Mare and Punga Mare, the second and third largest known bodies of liquid on Titan respectively. Monitoring the Titan lakes is important for looking at how they evolve over time and seasons. Are they evaporating and getting smaller, or staying the same, or getting larger?
Earlier in this flyby, observations of specular reflection will be possible if liquid bodies are present in the area near Ara Fluctus (57.3 N, 131.2 W) and (58.4 N, 151.7 W). After closest approach, ISS will acquire high-resolution images of Ontario Lacus on the terminator as the Sun sets for southern winter.


De Soto National Wildlife Refuge
DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge is located in the migratory bird corridor of the Missouri River floodplain and provides essential habitat for resident, migratory and endangered species. High quality floodplain forest, grassland, wetland, sandbar and riverine habitats support diverse and productive populations of migratory waterfowl, shorebirds and neotropical birds, as well as rare, threatened and endangered species including the pallid sturgeon, piping plover and least tern.
Listen to or download audio files below.
Learn about the fascinating geology found in the De Soto National Wildlife area from IAS member De Anna Tibben. Listen to or download the file below.
The ecology and conservation found at De Soto National Wildlife Refuge is discussed by IAS member William R. Clark. Listen to or download the file below.
Listen to or download both narrations as one mp3 file below.
Visit the Desoto National Wildlife Refuge webpage by clicking here.
The Iowa Academy of Science's National Wildlife Refuge Audio Series was funded with a grant from the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation.


Robotics Engineering Assignment Help
Robotics is the department of electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, electronic engineering and computer science that deals with the design, building, process, and use of robots, in addition to computer systems for information processing, sensory feedback, and their management.
These technologies resemble people in appearance, conduct,
and cognition, or deal with automated machines that could take the position of people in dangerous surroundings or making procedures. A lot of the current robots are inspired by nature bringing to the subject of bio-inspired robotics.
Today, robotics is a fast growing area as technical improvements continue; studying, designing, and constructing new robots functions which have various practical goals, whether domestically, commercially, or militarily. Many robots do tasks which are dangerous to individuals for example defusing bombs, mines and investigating shipwrecks.
Robotics engineers are engineering technologists who use principles from production, mechanical and electrical engineering to design and evaluation robots, automated systems and new programs. People should work as a robotics engineer, their responsibilities might include supervising engineers and other technicians, debugging applications, calibrating and servicing robots, incorporating robots with other mechanical devices and reviewing designs and computations.
This profession demands that people should have knowledge about math, computer programming and computer-aided design and drafting and skillful with hand tools. People will generally work as part of a team due to the collaborative nature of the area.
Robotics Engineer is a specialized kind of Engineer. It is also referred to as Automation, Robotics and Engineer, and Automation Robotics Engineer.
Robotics engineer is a behind the scenes designer who is in charge of creating robots and robotic systems which can do obligations that individuals are unable or prefer not to finish. Through their creations, a robotics engineer helps to make jobs simpler, safer, and much more efficient, especially in the production sector.
A robotics engineer will spend most of their time in designing the strategies needed to construct robots. In addition, they design the procedures essential for the robot to run right. A few of these professionals are in charge of designing the machines which actually assemble the robots. The design stage was finished only when they move toward assembling the unit.
This kind of engineer accounts for creating a number of different kinds of robots which are used to finish various distinct tasks. Prior to a robot being built, the engineer discovered and will have studied the way it will achieve its aim as well as what the robot will be used for. For all these professionals, the building procedure will take an excellent deal of time. Robots are hard and highly specialized to create as well as the job could be quite catchy. That is why it is common for a robotics engineer to work on some of tasks throughout the whole career. Professionals in this area want to be rather patient.
Typical day to day responsibilities comprise:
— Designing software systems to control their robotic systems such asthose robots taken for production
— Designing automated robotic systems which are accustomed to improve the creation and precision degrees within a particular sector
— Analyzing and assessing robotic systems and the created models. This is usually a never ending task, since technology is always changing and improving.
— Reviewing and approving design computations and cost estimates
— Teaching strategies routes to robots
— Performing research into functioning, the design and performance of systems or robotic mechanism parts
It is an increasing engineering area. Robotics engineering is a breeding ground for innovation and imagination from people who have a background in software engineering or mechanical electronics. Robots are extensively used on production lines; hands-on technical occupations can certainly be seen in the robotics engineering area, however in addition, there are a lot of chances to take more creative functions in experimental grounds.
Robotics engineers come from various engineering foundations such as mechanical, electric, and software engineering, though some schools do offer applications in robotics engineering especially.
Robotics could be the most interdisciplinary of engineering efforts. Electrical engineers design the control electronics, power amplifiers, signal conditioning, etc. of the robot. Electromechanical engineers may work on the sensors of the robot. Computer engineers will design the computing hardware of the robot. Robot kinematics is an amazing use of mathematics. An undergraduate school degree in some of these areas is a great method to begin as a robotic engineer.
Software engineering may be the Achilles heel of robotics. The mechanical, electrical and computer engineers have constructed amazing machines; however they are incredibly hard to place into creation. It is because they cannot easy to educate. Anexpert technician has to program the every movement of robot to the tiniest minutia. Robotics engineers are being hired by businesses.
Mechatronics engineers design embedded systems used in automation and computer integrated production, autonomous robotic vehicles, control systems for shaking and rate, microsurgical system and much more by using their interdisciplinary engineering knowledge.
Mechatronics engineers are team leaders in production and the design of smart devices. A number of the well-known smart devices are cell phones, climate controls and assorted navigation and control systems used in automobiles, planes and boats.
Application of Mechatronics is the robot with its electric and mechanical parts, detectors and computer software operating together. Robotics covers cutting edge engineering knowledge in various industrial sectors such as biomedical, shield and production.


The psychology of the scare: Why people are drawn to horror films
Posted October 31, 2016
Amid a crowded summer at the box office this year, the movie “Lights Out” (PG-13) was one of several horror films to break out, as it used the marketing slogan, “You were right to be afraid of the dark,” essentially daring audiences to see if they could handle it. Audiences responded by turning out in droves as the movie earned a reported $148 million worldwide on a $4.9 million production budget, according to boxofficemojo.com
The scare tactic worked. The movie, which is about a demon who only shows up when a person turns off the lights, was well-received by audiences and critics alike, scoring a 77 percent and a "certified fresh" rating on the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes as well as a “B” CinemaScore from opening-day audiences.
“Lights Out” wasn’t the only horror film to perform well this summer. “The Conjuring 2” (R), “The Shallows” (PG-13) and “Don’t Breathe” (R) also performed similarly. This past weekend, the Halloween-themed horror film “Ouija: Origin of Evil” (PG-13) continued this successful trend by opening to $14.1 million, surpassing its production budget of $9 million in just one weekend, according to boxofficemojo.com.
Reaction to horror
Why is it that people are drawn to these horror films that are clearly designed to scare them?
Glenn Sparks, a professor at Purdue University whose main research emphasis is the emotional reaction people have to media messages, has spent a lot of time researching the reaction that both children and adults have to frightening media. In an interview with the Deseret News, he emphasized that not everyone enjoys this type of media.
Horror films, according to Sparks, provide people with a physiological arousal, which includes an increase in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, respiration rates and muscle tension. This reaction creates a phenomenon where the emotion that is felt immediately after the film is over is intensified, causing lingering effects that can be either positive or negative, he said.
“Research shows that these films can be serious business in terms of the emotional reaction people have," Sparks said. "We have what we call the lingering emotional reaction. These fear reactions can be so disturbing in some cases that they really linger on for a while and continue to upset people long after the film is over. The more realistic the film is and the more the scenes and the characters in the film seem to resemble a person’s own reality, the more intense those reactions can be.”
A little bit of anxiety is healthy, according to Mikle South, an associate professor of psychology and neuroscience at Brigham Young University who researches how anxiety develops. If a person sees a rattlesnake on their path or if a bear is chasing them, the anxiety that develops can help save that person's life, South said. However, too much anxiety can be unhealthy as it begins to eat away at the brain and memory, causing people to forget things, lose things or make poor decisions.
“Anxiety comes about, it seems, when either we’re too much afraid of something — so we turn little things into big things, activating our fight-flight system unnecessarily — and/or when we’re afraid of things for too long, so that we don’t calm down after the danger is past, so that leaves us worrying too much,” South said.
Fear and safety
Film director Alfred Hitchcock said, “Fear, you see, is a feeling that people like to feel when they are certain of being in safety,” pointed out Dennis Perry, an English professor at BYU who wrote a book comparing the works of Hitchcock and Edgar Allan Poe titled “Hitchcock and Poe: The Legacy of Delight and Terror.”
While fear is not an inherently enjoyable emotion, Perry said the difference is like being in a runaway train verses riding a roller coaster, noting there is a combination of fear and delight with the latter.
“If you are on a real runaway train, it wouldn’t be fun at all because you’d be afraid of dying," Perry said. "But a roller coaster is fun because you know you are not going to die, but it gives you the illusion of being on a runaway train and in that process.”
Sparks said that there are some people who have sensation-seeking personalities who will enjoy activities such as skydiving or riding roller coasters that will also be attracted to horror films for similar reasons. It’s not the fear that people are enjoying, but rather the adrenaline rush that comes with these activities, he said.
Those who frequently expose themselves to horror films also experience an emotional desensitization, according to Sparks, that causes the negative emotions to diminish in their intensity, thus causing the positive emotions felt during the film to linger on instead of the negative emotions.
Perry pointed to a scene in Hitchcock’s “Psycho” (1960, R) where the main character, Lila Crane, is searching Norman Bates’ house for evidence after the disappearance of her sister. Lila makes the decision to go down to the basement. This gives the audience a rush of adrenaline because, while Lila is oblivious to what is about to happen, the audience watched Norman in a previous scene walk down to the basement and knows danger is coming.
In “Lights Out,” audiences experience an adrenaline rush each time the demon comes closer to the protagonist when the protagonist keeps turning the lights on and off.
Good vs. evil
Religious themes are present in many horror films even if they are sometimes presented in unconventional or despairing ways, said Dean Duncan, a film professor at BYU who has taught a media genres class that goes over the history of the horror genre.
“I think a lot of people, probably everyone, is concerned about mortality and death and the evil that seems to reside within us or that we see around us,” Duncan said. “Horror is interested in religious questions and takes them very seriously, which isn’t always the case in the culture these days. I don’t know if we always like the conclusion. It may be despairing and certainly unconventional, but there’s a religious component.”
The horror movie “The Conjuring” (2013, R) has strong religious themes. While much of the movie is about paranormal investigators Ed and Lorraine Warren investigating a haunting, the overall theme of the movie is of choosing God over the devil.
Before the credits roll, a quote from Ed Warren is shown: “Diabolical forces are formidable. These forces are eternal, and they exist today. The fairy tale is true. The devil exists. God exists. And for us, as people, our very destiny hinges upon which one we elect to follow.”
Duncan pointed to Mary Shelley’s novel “Frankenstein,” which has been adapted numerous times to film, as a horror story with religious themes. Duncan said that Shelley, despite not being conventionally religious herself, discusses themes such as origin and destination in “Frankenstein,” which reflect on certain tragedies Shelley went through in her personal life.
Reflecting societal issues
Horror films can provide a way to deal with society’s fears, said John Hess, a filmmaker and co-founder of filmmakerIQ.com, a website that offers a series of free online film lessons, including one about the psychology of horror movies.
“Horror often speaks to basic societal issues that we deal with,” Hess told the Deseret News.
The major zombie push recently could be a reaction to a society that was disconnected with itself, Hess suggested.
Many horror films deal with societal issues or other themes on top of simply just being scary movies, including “The Babadook” (2014, not rated), which deals with depression and the loss of a loved one; “Mama” (2013, PG-13), which deals with issues relating to motherhood, and “Nosferatu” (1922, not rated), which is a German horror film about a culture that has no men left.
Sparks said that research has been done that shows that if there’s been a series of murders in a community, people are drawn to films that deal with the theme of criminals being overcome by law enforcement.
“Seeing law enforcement overcome a violent threat might actually be comforting to people and give them the sense that their fears can be handled if they actually had to confront that themselves,” Sparks said.


One of the main sources of small engine noise is the hot gases that are forced out of the cylinder during each exhaust stroke. A muffler does a good job of reducing exhaust noise. But after a season or two, exhaust gases leave a layer of soot in the muffler that creates additional resistance to gases exiting the cylinder. When hard soot accumulates, when the exhaust emits excessive noise or when cracks or holes appear, don't try to repair the muffler. Once a muffler shows signs of deterioration, replace it. This section covers the procedures for removing, inspecting and replacing your muffler. It's an inexpensive and simple job if you take the proper precautions. Always wait for the engine to cool completely before handling the muffler. The muffler's surface can remain very hot and can easily cause a burn, even after the engine is stopped. A rusty muffler can cut you, especially if it crumbles during replacement. If any sharp edges are exposed, use slip-joint pliers to remove the muffler.
How Your Muffler Works
The force of exhaust gases as they rush through the small opening in the exhaust valve produces shock waves. It's the muffler's job to reduce noise by routing the exhaust through a series of perforated baffles and plates that break up the sound waves. The inside of the muffler also functions as a spark arrestor, preventing exhaust sparks from exiting and igniting dry grass, leaves or debris.
We quickly notice when a muffler is not doing its job. Even small cracks or holes in the muffler can result in a dramatic increase in engine noise.
Inspecting The Muffler
NOTE: MUFFLER'S SURFACE CAN REMAIN VERY HOT AND CAN EASILY CAUSE A BURN, EVEN AFTER THE ENGINE HAS STOPPED. ALWAYS WAIT FOR THE ENGINE TO COOL COMPLETELY BEFORE HANDLING MUFFLER.
- Locate the muffler, which is usually near the cylinder head.
- To determine if your muffler needs to be replaced, remove the muffler (cold) and shake it; there should be little or no noise heard, and limited amount of rust/debris coming from the inside. If a significant amount of noise and/or debris results from shaking, the muffler has probably deteriorated inside.
- Check the outside of the muffler for signs of rust, dents, holes or cracks, any of which can restrict the exhaust and reduce the effectiveness of the muffler.
Removing The Muffler
The muffler body may be attached directly to the engine with mounting bolts or screwed into the engine body. On some mufflers, an extended pipe threads into the engine.
If the muffler is attached with mounting bolts and has locking tabs around the bolts, bend the tabs back far enough to fit a wrench over the bolt heads. Remove the bolts (image A) and detach the muffler.
If the muffler screws directly into the engine, apply some penetrating oil to the threads (image B) and let the oil work for several minutes. Tip the engine very slightly, if necessary to allow the oil to reach the threads. NOTE: Don't tip the engine sharply. This can cause oil to drain into the carburetor and air cleaner.
Some mufflers are fastened with a threaded lock ring. Loosen it by tapping it counterclockwise with a hammer and pin punch. Then, grasp the muffler with slip-joint pliers and unscrew counterclockwise (image C).
To check for soot, tap the muffler body with a mallet or on a hard surface (image D). If the muffler is damaged or large quantities of soot cannot be dislodged, replace the muffler with original manufacturer's parts. If the muffler is in good condition, reattach it.
Don't over-tighten the new muffler. If a lock ring is used, install it using a hammer and pin punch. NOTE: The smooth side of the lock ring must be against the cylinder in aluminum-block engines. The tooth side must be against the cylinder in cast-iron engines.
- Brush the entire area to clear away dirt and debris. If left on the muffler, dried grass clippings and other debris can catch fire on the hot surface of the muffler.
Removing A Rusty Muffler
A very rusty muffler may collapse or crumble as you twist it with a wrench. There's no harm done as long as you take care not to damage the muffler mounting threads in the engine block or other muffler fittings on the engine. If your muffler screws into the engine, cut the muffler body off with metal snips. Then, grasp the stem, using slip-joint pliers, and unscrew (image E). If the muffler breaks off, leaving a connecting pipe attached to the engine, grasp the pipe with slip-joint pliers and unscrew (image F).
If you wish to perform this replacement yourself, a good source for engine specifications and technical servicing information would be a Briggs & Stratton Repair Manual. The correct Repair Manual for your model engine is often listed in your engine's Illustrated Parts List. The "Service and Storage" section of your Operator's Manual will also inform you of which repair manual your engine requires.
Your best source of information regarding any engine concern would be a Briggs & Stratton Authorized Dealer. Your Briggs & Stratton Authorized Dealer has all the information relating to Briggs & Stratton warranty information, replacement engines, short blocks, parts, pricing, service/repair, specifications, etc.
NOTE: Please read and abide by any applicable Safety Information (PDF) before performing any engine work. This information is not meant to take the place of work performed by a Briggs & Stratton Authorized Dealer. Terms and Conditions apply to all of our information provided on this website. Always be sure to read and understand your engine Operator's Manual.


AND THE EXPLORATION OF COSMOS
Nikola Tesla is discoverer of radio and remote control, so important
for computer guided spaceships from
mission control centers. Nikola Tesla is the father of
radio astronomy, in his laboratory
in Colorado Springs, Colorado, in 1899 he recorded cosmic radio
waves. The cosmic radio waves were
emitted from hydroxyl molecules of
interstellar gas clouds and the envelopes of Red Giant Stars.
They are very important for the exploration of cosmos. The
BBC film Masters of the Ionosphere features Nikola Tesla as the
first scientist who utilized the ionosphere for the scientific
purposes. The ionosphere is the ionic-charged part of the
atmosphere, important for the transmission of radio waves.
Nikola Tesla signaled Mars by radio, he spent fifty years of his
life to establish communications among of the planets by means of
This is a collection of many of the best images from
NASA's planetary exploration program.
The collection has been extracted from the interactive program
"Welcome to the Planets" which was distributed on the Planetary Data
System Educational CD-ROM Version 1.5 in December 1995.
On July 4,
1997 the NASA Explorer robot Sojourner landed on Mars and became the
first radio-guided vehicle to roam the surface of the Red Planet.
Remotely controlled exploration of
the cosmos began 100 years ago when Nikola Tesla
demonstrated the invention of the robot in New York City. In
1898 he filed and was granted a patent which described radio remote
control for use in guided vehicles. Space exploration
developed from this first building block. Tesla publicly
demonstrated his first working model of a robot guided by radio
waves. This device was unveiled to many astonished viewers at
the Electrical Exposition held at Madison Square Garden in May 1898.
This was front page news in America at that time. It was the
first time that the radio waves were used to guide a movement of a
robot-eleven years before Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize for
the discovery of radio in 1909. This historic moment at
Madison Square Garden in New York City in 1898 showed what marvels
could be achieved by using radio waves. It was the beginning
of robots and robotics, radio guided missiles and remote control.
The radio communications and the
computer guided spaceships from mission control centers are based on
Tesla’s principal of radio remote control for use in guided
Nikola Tesla built a laboratory in
Colorado Springs, Colorado, in 1899, to experiment with high
frequency electricity and other phenomena. In that
laboratory he received and recorded on his sensitive instruments,
cosmic radio waves. He announced that he received
extraterrestrial radio signals. The scientific community in
1899 did not believe him, because knowledge of cosmic radio signals
did not exist at that time.
But for decades now, observatory
laboratories all over the world, have been registering cosmic
radio waves emitted from hydroxyl
molecules of interstellar gas clouds and the envelopes of Red Giant
Those faint radio waves with high
penetrating potential have frequencies between 1610.6 - 1613.8 Mega
Hertz. They are emitted from every cosmic material with
temperatures above absolute zero (minus 459.67 degrees Fahrenheit).
Tesla’s historic announcement of the
existence of extraterrestrial radio signals in 1899 was met by the
scientific community at that time with resistance and disbelief. But
it was not the first time in history.
The great 17th- century
astronomer and physicist Galileo was sentenced to life in prison by
the inquisition court in Rome in 1633. He was punished for
supporting the Copernican Theory that the earth rotates around the
sun. This is now a known fact, but at the time of Galileo,
according to Holy Scripture, the earth was the center of the
Universe and the sun rotated around the earth. The great
scientific truth is sometimes going through rough road in order to
reach the goal.
The BBC film Masters of the
Ionosphere features Nikola Tesla as the first scientist in the world who wanted to
utilize the ionosphere for the benefit of humanity. The
ionosphere is the ionic-charged part of the atmosphere, important
for the transmission of radio waves. It is the earth’s shield
from solar radiation. Today, most global radio communications
depends on the ionosphere. The existence of the ionosphere is
known since the 19th Century. It was once called
the Kennely-Heaviside layer after two scientists exploring its
existence. This thin air of the high stratosphere and beyond,
where atoms and molecules are ripped apart and electrified by
incoming cosmic and solar radiation is now known as the ionosphere.
The ionosphere is the electric atmosphere and a good conductor of
radio waves, surrounded by a layer of some poorly conducting
material such as air.
Nikola Tesla also wanted to utilize
the ionosphere to transmit electrical energy without wires over long
distances. For that purpose, he built Wardenclyffe Tower in
Shoreham, Long Island (1901-1905), meant to be the first
broadcasting system in the world and a center of the wireless
transmission of electrical energy. Much of today’s technology in
telecommunications evolved from Tesla’s original ideas.
Nikola Tesla had a vision of radio
communications with planets of the solar system. His
Wardenclyffe magnifying transmitter had sufficient energy, voltage
and frequency of oscillations to reach that goal.
Tesla’s vision was the exploration of cosmos.
Tesla was a man ahead of his time.
New York, July 10, 1998
-Dr. Ljubo Vujovic
Secretary General, New York
Tesla Memorial Society