Through unique eye- and face-tracking sensor technologies, with a key focus on alertness and attention, Seeing Machines technology enables key data and metrics to understand and improve human performance. This technology is unique. It is a non-wearable, unobtrusive system that can be adapted and integrated into various real-world environments to provide new data to optimise training and operational monitoring. This technology will challenge the ‘current way’ and provide a new perspective, with data that focuses on the human element, their alertness and performance.
Insufficient knowledge of automation behaviour, mode confusion and loss of awareness, poor scanning techniques and over-confidence and trust in automation are all recognised as prevalent in today’s on and offshore helicopter crews. Poor visual scanning signals an emerging split between the pilot and the automated system, which leads to adverse safety outcomes. Inappropriate use of autopilot modes was cited in the fatal ditching of an Airbus AS332 L2 Super Puma near Sumburgh Airport, UK, in 2013. Addressing and rectifying these deficiencies is, however, quite difficult.
Seeing Machines has pioneered the development and commercialisation of proprietary algorithms and hardware that helps machines to interpret the human face and eyes in order to understand their state.
The non-intrusive, fully automatic, camera-based technologies do not require the user to wear any form of hardware or sensors. The technology detects and locates a human face and then tracks in real-time without any form of pre-calibration or prior knowledge of the subject. The system can immediately provide a variety of accurate head- and eye-related data, measures and metrics including gaze tracking, microsleep detection and very accurate measures of pupil diameter. These core signals can then be integrated into mutually developed visualisations, or further interpreted to develop higher-level signals to support the use case of the carrier/operator.
The Seeing Machines data output that can be produced both in real-time or saved for post-run review/debrief is relevant to several key major aviation initiatives, including the following:
- IATA (International Aviation Transport Association) Initiative of Evidence-based Training (EBT) from 2013 – building on over 20 years of flight operations.
- A new evidence-based paradigm for competency-based training and assessment.
- EBT Aim – identify, develop and evaluate the core competencies required by pilots to operate safely, effectively, and efficiently in a commercial air transport environment by managing the most relevant threats and errors, based on evidence collected in operations and training.
- Pilot gaze tracking – a key enabler and contributor to enhanced EBT:
- New training data – specific to where a trainee is looking.
- Provides improved instructional awareness.
- Supports early evidence-based identification, evaluation, development/correction and refinement of pilot competencies related to operation of the specific aircraft type.
Background and history
The venture between Toll Helicopters and Seeing Machines started immediately after the PACDEFF 2016 Human Factors Conference in Brisbane in November 2016. During PACDEFF, Seeing Machines and Boeing jointly briefed the early results from trials conducted with Seeing Machines tech on a B737 simulator at Brisbane Airport. At the same time, Toll Helicopters were at the peak of the training workload as they mobilised Australia’s largest ever aeromedical contract. Over a six-month period, they had to train 80 pilots and front seat crewman in AW139 aeromedical operations at the ACE Training Centre in Sydney, which housed a Level D AW139 Full Flight Simulator. Colin Gunn, then Chief Pilot for Toll, saw immediate correlation and potential benefits of the eye-tracking tech in helicopter training and the collaboration commenced.
Colin Gunn, then Chief Pilot for Toll, saw immediate correlation and potential benefits of the eye-tracking tech in helicopter training
At about the same time, two additional occurrences further supported investment in the tech. Firstly, Gretchen Haskins, CEO of HeliOffshore, a global safety-focused association for the offshore helicopter industry with a mandate to deliver industry-wide safety enhancements through collaboration with and between members, had recently released a list of HeliOffshore’s priorities for 2017. These priorities were perceived as the optimal commitments and investments that the industry could make to enhance aviation safety in the oil and gas industry. Several of the HeliOffshore priorities could be directly supported by the Seeing Machines technology, including:
- Effective design and use of automation, including Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOMs) and automation training videos.
- Enhance situational awareness through better understanding of eye movement.
- Evidence-based training to support effective operational performance.
Secondly, Leonardo Helicopters was preparing to release the first ever FCOM for the AW139 type and was seeking industry input to not only optimise the FCOM itself, but to identify ways in which to optimise training and operations consistent with the FCOM guidance.
Results are in
Several trials/studies have been conducted to date. The benefits of Seeing Machines as an agile SME, combined with ease of availability of Toll’s AW139 Full Flight Simulator, saw the first trial conducted in mid-January 2017. The tech was installed in a rudimentary but non-intrusive manner and the results were immediate.
The initial integration provided headtracking and eyelid behaviour:
- Headtracking provides precise detection and measurement of the frontal area and sides of a subject’s face and head in real-time.
- The fully automatic, camera-based technology of Seeing Machines returns a comprehensive model of the face that includes the coordinates of all facial features, their current state and their rate of change. This includes a very accurate measure of blink rate and eyelid aperture.
Eye gaze tracking:
Eye gaze tracking is the measurement of where a person is looking. By directing a safe, invisible light source at a subject’s eye and then using a special camera to track the glint, it can interpret precisely where or what the subject is looking at.
When combined with a precise understanding of the real-world environment, such as the cockpit of a helicopter and a Line Orientated Flight Training (LOFT) scenario, gaze tracking can be used in real-time (or recorded and played back) to help assess exactly how the subject is processing their visual surrounds.
In the initial trials, students benefited from improved debriefing from flight examiner instructors on use of checklists for all normal phases of flight and handling of emergency procedures both live during the training sortie, and afterwards in the debrief, with recorded material. Conversely, the flight examiners also noticed students (some of whom have 10-15 years flying aeromedical, SAR and/or offshore operations) managing their IF scan pattern or dealing with malfunctions in an alternate but perhaps more effective way than traditionally taught.
When combined with a precise understanding of the real-world environment, such as the cockpit of a helicopter and a Line Orientated Flight Training (LOFT) scenario, gaze tracking can be used in real-time (or recorded and played back) to help assess exactly how the subject is processing their visual surrounds
The results generated from the initial study offered access to naturalistic pilot behaviours that would not normally be visible to an instructor/evaluator. The eye-tracking sensor suite delivers the capability to expand the understanding of native operator behaviour, thus enabling continuous improvement of the training system and methods.
The results of the initial study enabled some tweaks to camera placement, incorporation of an audio feed and also revealed the enhancement achievable through a rear-of-cabin-mounted video feed to see the bigger picture, including arm and hand movements simultaneously to the scan pattern. A further short trial occurred mid-February 2017 – to implement and confirm suitability of these enhancements.
The predominant impression following the second study was the increase in ‘contextual data’ that eye-tracking supplied beyond that which the observer assessment of a pilot and/or crew could give. The evaluators (instructors) were able to add considerable context to the performance of the subjects (or students). The second study reiterated that the delineation of ‘work imagined’ versus work done generated a core question: are the subjects doing something wrong that needs correcting, or are the training strategies simply ignoring the way expert practitioners behave on the line? What is required – do we correct the trainee or the training?
The results of these initial trials have largely remained in-house as the tech integration is being formalised. Toll’s Helicopter team continue to use learnings from the technology integration to understand more about how pilots monitor cockpit instruments and use automation during flight and to complement our focus on training to the FCOM.
A further study was conducted in August 2017, in which a discrete set of emergency procedures were selected, including engine, electrical and avionics malfunctions, to evaluate and optimise aircrew response to these in a variety of settings, including the runway and offshore helidecks, by day and night – unaided. Again, the results were outstanding.
In its most simple form, what has been realised through these initial trials is that, knowing where a pilot is looking is ‘interesting’, but when the scan behaviour is matched to aircraft context, the results are ‘compelling’.
A key focus area for the next phase of investigation will be a more effective application layer to support the instructor and fit into the workflow for both instructor and pilot/crew. This collaboration will also look to more closely identify the key areas of interest in terms of instrument/s, windscreen and chin bubble to ensure precise attention capture and ensure the most relevant information is presented at the most appropriate time.
Toll and Seeing Machines will present their findings at the PACDEFF Human Factors Conference in September 2019 at the Gold Coast in Queensland.


(literally, "National Defense") was the name of the German armed forces from 1921
, when Hitler
changed the name to Wehrmacht
Replacing the Übergangsheer ("Transitional Army"), the Reichswehr came into existence in 1921 in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, which strictly limited the character of the German armed forces, limiting the total number of personnel to a mere 100,000 men. The Reichsweir consisted of two forces - the Reichsheer, an army consisting of two seven infantry divisions and three cavalry divisions, and the Reichsmarine, a navy limited to only 15,000 men and a handful of tiny ships. Conscription of any kind and any air force whatsoever were completely proscribed by the treaty, as were large weaponry of any kind, including tanks, submarines, battleships, and modern artillery.
The Reichswehr was miniscule for a country of 70 million people, and was considered not even adequate to hold one of Germany's three major borders by the doctrines of the time. To insure that the Germans complied with the treaty restrictions, an Inter-Allied Military Control Commission kept careful watch over all aspects of German military activity. Nevertheless, the Reichswehr, under the capable command of Obergeneral Hans von Seekt, did all it could to prepare for a future return to glory. Think tanks and R&D units were concealed within civilian ministries, naval and airforce personnel were secretly trained abroad, and development proceeded on new military doctrines that would ultimately result in the "blitzkrieg" style of fast, coordinated, motorized warfare that swept across Europe in 1939-40.
After Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, the secret expansion of the Reichswehr increased dramatically (by this time, the Allied Control Comission had been voluntarily withdrawn by the British and French as a foolhardy gesture of good faith). Finally in 1935, Hitler felt powerful enough to abandon all pretense, openly declaring national conscription and renaming the Reichswehr as the Wehrmacht ("Defense Power").


Nanotechnology researchers say they have achieved a breakthrough that could fit the contents of 250 DVDs on a coin-sized surface and might also have implications for displays and solar cells.
The scientists, from the University of California at Berkeley and the University of Massachusetts Amherst, discovered a way to make certain kinds of molecules line up in perfect arrays over relatively large areas. The results of their work will appear Friday in the journal Science, according to a UC Berkeley press release. One of the researchers said the technology might be commercialized in less than 10 years, if industry is motivated.
More densely packed molecules could mean more data packed into a given space, higher-definition screens and more efficient photovoltaic cells, according to scientists Thomas Russell and Ting Xu. This could transform the microelectronics and storage industries, they said. Russell is director of the Materials Research Science and Engineering Center at Amherst and a visiting professor at Berkeley, and Xu is a Berkeley assistant professor in Chemistry and Materials Sciences and Engineering.
Russell and Xu discovered a new way to create block copolymers, or chemically dissimilar polymer chains that join together by themselves. Polymer chains can join up in a precise pattern equidistant from each other, but research over the past 10 years has found that the patterns break up as scientists try to make the pattern cover a larger area.
Russell and Xu used commercially available, man-made sapphire crystals to guide the polymer chains into precise patterns. Heating the crystals to between 1,300 and 1,500 degrees Celsius (2,372 to 2,732 degrees Fahrenheit) creates a pattern of sawtooth ridges that they used to guide the assembly of the block copolymers. With this technique, the only limit to the size of an array of block copolymers is the size of the sapphire, Xu said.
Once a sapphire is heated up and the pattern is created, the template could be reused. Both the crystals and the polymer chains could be obtained commercially, Xu said.
“Every ingredient we use here is nothing special,” Xu said.
The scientists said they achieved a storage density of 10Tb (125GB) per square inch, which is 15 times the density of past solutions, with no defects. With this density, the data stored on 250 DVDs could fit on a surface the size of a U.S. quarter, which is 25.26 millimeters in diameter, the researchers said. It might also be possible to achieve a high-definition picture with 3-nanometer pixels, potentially as large as a stadium JumboTron, Xu said. Another possibility is more dense photovoltaic cells that capture the sun's energy more efficiently.


Web Exclusive: On the Level
We live in “the information age” thanks to digital technology and several means of instant data transmission. An article in Civilization magazine, a publication of the Library of Congress, got my attention with its title “The Knowledge Age.” A popular truism says that information is not knowledge, and knowledge is not wisdom. Is it wishful thinking, then, that suggests this age of data collection, manipulation and transmission is becoming an age of knowledge?
Access to information does not assure knowledge for any of us. Knowledge comes from evaluating and prioritizing information, applying what is relevant to a certain issue and discarding the rest. Every high school term paper starts with a visit to the library to search out relevant information on a chosen subject. Information is sorted, ideas and opinions are formed, and findings are presented. If something is learned in the process, knowledge is gained. If the student merely processes information to get a "B," there is no gain of knowledge.
The Civilization article was subtitled “In a Haze of Information, Finding Truth” and implies that truth always proceeds from knowledge, a proposition rejected by fundamentalists of all persuasions. But for the purpose of this discussion, let’s accept the relationship of knowledge to truth. Which brings us to the mat where surveyors wrestle every day. There is perhaps no other occupation in which its practitioners work from raw data to a presentation of (presumed) truth so directly and so constantly.
The geographer deals with factual information as to relative position of people and places. As we have discovered, the geographers’ presentations in map form may influence how people view the world. Map projections that seem to give prominence to certain countries or continents beyond the reality of their size and position is an example of information presentation that influences our perception of truth.
What is the truth about the elevation of a mountain? Depends. Elevation relative to what? Geodesy is finally defining a datum that will standardize our expressions of elevation. Several articles have appeared in recent years in journals and magazines on surveying describing the measurement of mountain tops not compared simply to sea level but to an abstract mathematical model based on the shape of the earth. The truth of elevation depends upon a criteria of our own invention and agreement, whether ellipsoid or geoid.
For the land surveyor, the journey from information to truth is more problematic. A topographic survey presents data about the position of features of a site, but how is that data accepted as truth? Depends. Someone must set a standard of accuracy to be satisfied by the data presentation. A manhole may be located to the nearest foot horizontally while its invert is measured vertically to the nearest one hundredth of a foot. The presentation of this information is accepted as truth but only because the criteria for truth has been established by invention and agreement.
For the cadastral surveyor the criteria for truth is even more elusive and the expression “haze of information” has real meaning. There is the written record to be studied and evidence in the field to be found, measured and evaluated. Precision of measurement must be applied to produce accuracy whose standards have been established and agreed to. Once again, truth is as it is defined by a standard established by invention and agreement—but note that there is relativity in this truth. In fact for the surveyor, all truth is relative, whether relative to an accepted datum or relative to an accepted standard. (For everyone else we leave it to the philosophers and theologians to decide whether there is absolute truth in this life.)
The ultimate step in the cadastral surveyor’s search for truth comes with a judgment of location of title to a particular parcel of land. The surveyor has examined the record, searched for evidence and made exhaustive measurements and may be possessed of full knowledge of the facts relating to the land title. It seems a simple step from there to a discovery of truth, but somewhere between full knowledge and a conclusion, there must be an application of wisdom and discernment. It is this step that distinguishes the professional surveyor from the technician. Knowledge of facts is necessary to finding truth, but the facts can lead different people, equipped with differing levels of wisdom, to reach different conclusions.
The final step to adjudicated “truth” is further complicated by the advocacy role of attorneys arguing on behalf of their respective clients. For the truly professional surveyor, truth is objective. For the advocate, truth is subjectively arrived at in favor of the attorney’s client and the client’s claim.
The surveyor’s presentation of his or her conclusion, whether in the form of a map or pins in the ground, is truth as the surveyor sees it. From everyone else’s point of view, it is merely the surveyor’s opinion; a court may find a different definition of “truth.” We are challenged by the purveyors of subjective truth or, to apply the more modern terminology, virtual truth. What is important for the surveyor is to distinguish between mere facts and knowledge, and between knowledge and objective truth.
When seeking truth it is well to remember that there is objective truth and subjective truth, and that in the realm of law as it relates to land title, conclusive truth is to be defined elsewhere. The Civilization article might better have been titled “A Search for Knowledge and Truth in the Information Age.”


Western Scrub-Jay flies out of a Rocky Mountain Juniper in the Sedona foothills.
The Southwest offers its own varieties of Juniper, some with berries, like the Rocky Mountain Juniper, Junipoerus scopulorum seen above.
And others reproduce not by berries, but rather by brown seed cones, which may take two full years to develop. This Alligator Juniper, Juniperus deppeana is found in the rocky soils less than an hour drive from the city of Tucson, Arizona.
The Alligator Juniper was easy to identify by its unique alligatored or checker-board bark. It was a standout among the evergreens and the roughened layers of bark on this well named tree were mesmerizing. The Alligator's bark was its most telling feature and it quickly became ingrained in my mental search image.
And not unlike our own Junipers, it provides shelter and habitat for many birds- including the Bridled Titmouse. Hope you are enjoying the Arizona adventures, wish I could have brought the sun back with me!


We Make HASTE’s mission is to make people aware of their impacts on the environment and to encourage constructive discussions about how to reduce these impacts quickly enough to achieve sustainability.
More about HASTE
Our objective is to promote sustainability. Sustainability involves meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. Understanding sustainability involves considering the complex interconnections between social, economic and environmental implications of our actions. Therefore, study, research and discourse are necessary to develop this understanding and determine how to best achieve our objective.
We Make HASTE is interested in studying sustainability on many scales. Individual sustainability considers impacts of our daily activities on a personal or family level. Communities, businesses and other organizations look at sustainability on a larger scale. Ultimately, sustainability must be studied on global scale. All of the elements at all scales are interconnected. Billions of individual actions added together would be at a global scale.
Social, economic and environmental considerations that are weighed in the evaluation of an actions’ sustainability are commonly referred to as the “triple bottom line.” But, these measurements can also be considered to be dimensions as we study the scale of implications. As with spatial dimensions, the fourth dimension of time must also be established to understand sustainability.
Current human activities threaten the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Release of long sequestered carbon dioxide into the atmosphere as a result of burning coal, oil and natural gas is causing global temperatures to rise and oceans to be more acidic. Warmer water and melting glaciers are causing sea levels to rise. Rising sea levels threaten to displace coastal populations and contaminate freshwater supplies. Food supplies are threatened by increased risk of drought due to climate change and by increased risk of collapse of commercial fisheries due to climate change, ocean acidification and overfishing. Changes to human activities are, therefore, necessary to achieve sustainability.
Humankind’s window of opportunity to achieve sustainability is limited due to factors that are tending to make it harder to reach a sustainable condition. For example, reduced polar ice cover reduces the amount of sunlight reflected out to space, thereby further increasing global warming. Also, as permafrost thaws, methane gas, which is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, will be released, further exasperating global warming. Furthermore, food shortages and displaced populations can lead to political instability which could hamper efforts to achieve sustainability.
We Make HASTE will:
- Encourage people to think about human impacts on the environment and what can be done to achieve sustainability;
- Facilitate access to information about environmental issues and sustainability for people to explore; and
- Inspire people to act in ways that consider the condition of the planet that we are leaving for future generations.


ROCKET LAUNCH PRODUCES NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS: On Tuesday morning, August 5th, a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket lifted off from Cape Canaveral carrying the AsiaSat 8 telecommunications satellite. About an hour and a half after the 4 AM launch, electric-blue clouds appeared over Orlando FL:
"These clouds appeared just before sunrise," says photographer Mike Bartils.
These are, essentially, man-made noctilucent clouds (NLCs). Water vapor in the exhaust of the rocket crystallized in the high atmosphere, creating an icy cloud that turned blue when it was hit by the rays of the morning sun. Years ago, space shuttle launches produced similar displays.
Natural NLCs form around Earth's poles when water vapor in the mesosphere crystalizes around meteor smoke. Sometimes they spread as far south as Colorado and Utah, but rarely or never Florida. Electric-blue over the Sunshine State requires a rocket launch, and that's what happened today. Browse the realtime photo gallery for more images of the Falcon 9 launch:


Lahiri Mahasaya was born on September 30, 1828, in the village of Ghurni in Bengal, India. At the age of thirty-three, while walking one day in the Himalayan foothills near Ranikhet, he met his guru, Mahavatar Babaji. It was a divine reunion of two who had been together in many lives past; at an awakening touch of blessing, Lahiri Mahasaya became engulfed in a spiritual aura of divine realization that was never to leave him.
Mahavatar Babaji initiated him in the science of Kriya Yoga and instructed him to bestow the sacred technique on all sincere seekers. Lahiri Mahasaya returned to his home in Banaras to fulfill this mission. As the first to teach the lost ancient Kriya science in contemporary times, he is renowned as a seminal figure in the renaissance of yoga that began in modern India in the latter part of the nineteenth century and continues to this day.
Paramahansa Yogananda wrote in Autobiography of a Yogi: “As the fragrance of flowers cannot be suppressed, so Lahiri Mahasaya, quietly living as an ideal householder, could not hide his innate glory. Devotee-bees from
every part of India began to seek the divine nectar of the liberated master….The harmoniously balanced life of the great householder-guru became the inspiration of thousands of men and women.”
As Lahiri Mahasaya exemplified the highest ideals of Yoga, union of the little self with God, he is reverenced as a Yogavatar, or incarnation of Yoga.
Paramahansa Yogananda’s parents were disciples of Lahiri Mahasaya, and when he was but a babe in arms his mother carried him to the home of her guru. Blessing the infant, Lahiri Mahasaya said, “Little mother, thy son will be a yogi. As a spiritual engine, he will carry many souls to God’s kingdom.”
Lahiri Mahasaya established no organization during his lifetime, but made this prediction: “About fifty years after my passing, an account of my life will be written because of a deep interest in Yoga that will arise in the West. The message of Yoga will encircle the globe. It will aid in establishing the brotherhood of man: a unity based on humanity’s direct perception of the one Father.”
Lahiri Mahasaya entered mahasamadhi in Banaras, September 26, 1895. Fifty years later, in America, his prediction was fulfilled when an increasing interest in yoga in the West inspired Paramahansa Yogananda to write Autobiography of a Yogi, which contains a beautiful account of Lahiri Mahasaya’s life.


In a recent posting on The Imaginative Conservative, Bruce Frohnen laments the loss of civility and decency in present-day America. By looking at the roots of foul behavior (in this case, a group of middle school boys bullying an elderly school bus monitor), he finds fault in the “warehouse model” of schooling that he believes has fostered “pack mentalities” and has led children down the road of de-humanization. According to Professor Frohnen, children raised by strangers in large, impersonal institutions cannot develop the civilizing prejudices that allow community to function humanely and peacefully. Under such conditions, order can be re-established only through a larger and more powerful centralized “leviathan administration,” but this only further compounds the problem of estrangement. Professor Frohnen’s brief against modern, progressive mass schooling is the latest in a long line of conservative critiques of our failing educational institutions.
Just a cursory glance at what is being written today on the state of education reveals that the foundations of healthy schooling have largely disappeared. Incivility, alienation, overwhelmed adults, dislocated children, poor levels of achievement, and increasing student debt suggest significant problems in our educational institutions at all levels, problems which demand coherent, strong, and humane reforms. To understand this crisis, I believe it is vital for imaginative conservatives to re-examine the writings of Russell Kirk and Robert Nisbet since these founding fathers of the conservative movement directly witnessed, analyzed, and fought against the implementation of such reforms that have precipitated this crisis. Many social, economic, and political elements have contributed to the deterioration of educational standards, but in this article I will examine one element which both Kirk and Nisbet expounded upon at length, namely, the effect of war on our institutions. I believe that this is highly relevant today as the United States has been actively involved in several wars over the past decade, and, as Nisbet tried to show in many of his works, the effects of war on social and political institutions can be tremendous. It is imperative that those who believe in the norms of human experience, in what Kirk called “the permanent things,” revisit the analyses and prescriptions of Kirk and Nisbet in order to revitalize our schools and find ways to address the degradation of our educational culture.
The prevalence of war over the past one hundred years has had a powerful impact on western civilization. In his classic work on the history of the conservative movement, George Nash argued that it was “attempts to extract meaning from the nightmare of destruction” of World War II that stimulated the birth of conservative thought in postwar America. The level of devastation in the wake of a half-century of warfare left many, like Robert Nisbet and Russell Kirk, pondering the effects and worthiness of modernization and its consequences. Nisbet and Kirk, both of whom served in the military during the war, expressed concerns and reservations about the militarization of American society. In several of his works on the development of modern society, Nisbet struggled with the dynamic roots of social change proffered by militarization, and Kirk, in his memoirs, The Sword of Imagination, wrote that “in his life, as in that of many other young men, the War would be a great gulf fixed between family and community on the nearer rim and the antagonist world on the further: the Grand Canyon of a Time of Troubles.” In the first part of this article, I will address Dr. Kirk’s thoughts on the effects of war on education.
Probably no institution outside the military has been affected by war more than educational institutions. We must remember that in his farewell address in January, 1961, President Eisenhower warned of the strong link between the military and education in the United States. The phrase “military-industrial complex” has entered our national vocabulary and psychology, but Eisenhower made clear in his speech that, largely owing to the forces of centralization of governmental power and finance in the wake of war, the university was also at great risk: “The prospect of domination of the nation’s scholars by federal employment, project allocations and the power of money is ever present and is gravely to be regarded,” the President warned. In his writings, Russell Kirk feared the growing unhealthy relationship between the military and schools, as well.
In 1936, by his own admission, Dr. Kirk entered Michigan State College in East Lansing “having nothing better to do” (SI, 35). He was quite fond of simple living in rural Michigan, and education – or rather, schooling – was not a priority; he found schooling excessively prolonged and imaginatively stultifying. However, his intellectual talent provided him the opportunity to pursue advanced study, and in 1940 he entered graduate school at Duke University to study history and write on John Randolph. This sojourn into the old south opened up a new world to him, a world of communities “that had not surrendered unconditionally to the new order of American life” (SI, 53), the new order of the industrial, organized, urban hustler.
It was also at this time that the young Kirk confronted the prospect of wartime service. Although he would later assert that “all wars fought by the American people…might have been averted” (SI, 54),he attempted to enlist twice, first in the Canadian military, then in the Army Air Corps only to be conscripted into the army and sent to the Great Salt Lake Desert to train at the Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. Kirk found this experience numbing and took solace in his voracious reading habits, studying the ancients Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus, and finding intellectual challenges with contemporary writers, such as Albert Jay Nock and Bernard Iddings Bell. Kirk was growing weary of the life of mass man in large institutions, of conformity, and of the “American lust for aggrandizement” (SI, 59). In an oft-quoted passage from his memoirs, he placed himself squarely against this stream in American thought:
His was no Enlightenment mind, Kirk now became aware: it was a Gothic mind, medieval in its temper and structure. He did not love cold harmony and perfect regularity of organization; what he sought was a complex of variety, mystery, tradition, the venerable, the awful. He despised sophisters and calculators; he was groping for faith, honor, and prescriptive loyalties. He would have given any number of neoclassical pediments for one poor battered gargoyle. The men of the Enlightenment had cold hearts and smug heads; now their successors, as the middle of the twentieth century loomed up, were in the process of imposing upon all the world a dreary conformity, with Efficiency and Progress and Equality for their watchwords – abstractions preferred to all those fascinating and lovable peculiarities of human nature and human society that are the products of prescription and tradition. This desert of salt would be a cheerful place by comparison with the desolation of human hearts, should the remains of Gothic faith and Gothic diversity be crushed out of civilization (SI, 68-69).
Kirk brandished his sword of imagination against the progressive orthodoxies of the time and his years in the army moved him to conclude that army life embodied the powerful, yet injurious forces of modernity, uniformity, and standardization, which he believed a healthy imaginative mind had to confront. Wartime service had made him fully aware that militarization would negatively affect American peacetime institutions and would render the populace indolent, unimaginative, and increasingly dependent on a growing state apparatus. In an article in the South Atlantic Quarterly (1946), he decried the national call for continued conscription, as he believed that conscription would be used not simply for military preparedness, but also as a tool for social reform. “If modern society can provide no better way of existence than crowding young people together like so many ants and keeping them in a state of servitude in return for sustenance, there is little reason for modern society to continue to exist.”
When Kirk returned to Michigan State at the end of the war to teach history, he was very disheartened to find the college suffused with the forces of progressivism that he had witnessed in the army: the students generally were inattentive and unprepared and the culture of the college “unfriendly to the higher learning” (SI, 76). Particularly disappointing, yet indicative of the new educational reforms, was the implementation of the objective, standardized test. Originally developed by the military, mental testing had expanded into educational institutions in order “to depose the existing, undemocratic American elite and replace it with a new one made up of brainy, elaborately trained, public-spirited people drawn from every section and every background.” Kirk found this distasteful: “[S]tandardized multiple-choice questions put to students in great number in a short space of time and calculated to encourage the conditioned response of the indoctrinated mediocre student rather than the calculated judgment of the serious student” is what he saw in the new scientific culture of testing (SI, 77). He was beginning to despise the world that the war had created. He expressed his concerns in the South Atlantic Quarterly just a few months before the end of the war (January 1945):
Before commencing our work of world reformation, it might pay us to consider whether we are going to beat the Nazis and enlighten them, or beat the Nazis and join them. We are fit to weigh this question only if we retain some vestige of the liberal learning so quickly cast aside in one crowded hour of glorious life; and it is to be feared that a smattering of trigonometry and physics and chemistry is not sufficient to make the mind liberal. The physical sciences have their place, a respectable one; but they, primarily, do not win wars; the human spirit does that; and physical sciences certainly cannot suffice for the men who are to make and maintain a peace, who are to establish liberty and justice, who are to set free the body and the mind.
As the American university succumbed more and more to the pressures of the modernizing forces of the postwar world, Kirk packed his bags and set out for the ancient university town of Saint Andrews, Scotland where learned scholars were not coerced into being “salesmen or Rotarians” (SI, 88). In Scotland the scholar Kirk had the freedom to put together his major salvo in defense of the permanent things: his doctoral dissertation on the Anglo-American conservative mind.
What is striking about Kirk’s first major work, published in 1953 as The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana, is its defense of a type of mind, imaginatively, not ideologically, formed. That is to say, it is, like its author, a lively defense of the “Gothic”, the irregular, the non-standardized. Critics of the work have strongly suggested that many of the minds that Kirk reviewed could hardly be called politically “conservative.” But Kirk was not assessing his characters as ideological prototypes; he found it difficult and self-defeating to offer a simple and systematic definition of what a “conservative” was. He settled, therefore, on narrative descriptions of types and from these types he drew out six canons. Given the social transformations that had taken place in the postwar world, the rise of bureaucracy, political centralization, educational standardization, and Kirk’s rebellion against that world, we can see how greatly important the first two canons were for him and his understanding of the conservative mind. The first canon stated that the imaginative conservative maintained a “belief that a divine intent rules society as well as consciences,” the second that this type of mind has an enduring “affection for the proliferating variety and mystery of traditional life, as distinguished from the narrowing uniformity and equalitarianism and utilitarian aims of most radical systems.” In his summation to the first edition of the work he wrote that “conservatism’s most conspicuous difficulty in our time is that it confronts a people who have come to look upon society, vaguely, as a homogeneous mass of identical individuals, with indistinguishable abilities and needs, whose happiness may be secured by direction from above, through legislation or some manner of public instruction. Conservatism must teach humanity once more that the germ of public affections…is ‘to love the little platoon we belong to in society’” (CM, 401). In a later edition (1978), in words that could have been set to paper by Robert Nisbet, Kirk was even more direct in his critique of a society that he saw suffering under the weight of centralization and mass standardization:
Hostile toward every institution which acts as a check upon its power, the nation-state has been engaged, ever since the decline of the medieval order, in stripping away one by one the functions and prerogatives of true community – aristocracy, church, guild, family, and local association. What the state seeks is a tableland upon which a multitude of individuals, solitary though herded together, labor anonymously for the state’s maintenance. Universal military conscription and the “mobile labor force” and the concentration camp are only the more recent developments of this system…All those gifts of variety, contrast, competition, communal pride, and the sympathetic association that characterize man at his manliest are menaced by the ascendancy of the omnicompetent state of modern times, resolved for its own security to level the ramparts of traditional community.
Kirk’s criticism in the postwar world reveals a mind intellectually and imaginatively sensitive to powerful forces pressuring American society toward political centralization and standardization, pressures arising directly from the consequences of years of war. While many others celebrated the wartime transformation of American education and advocated mass comprehensive schools in support of attention to the “global struggle” , Kirk argued against these socially disruptive forces believing that they would further destroy the purpose and dignity of the academy. As Brad Birzer has noted, Kirk foretold the inhumane and essential servility inherent in the vast utilitarian reforms of the 1950s and saw that the triumph of technology and efficiency would mean the degradation of humanity.
Dr. Kirk was so concerned about the degradation of the ethical dimension of the educational curriculum that he wrote several lengthy works on education and for twenty-five years wrote a column on education for National Review. His writings addressed very directly the politicization of the academy, the threats to liberty, and the waning of sound learning. As a critic in the Christian humanist tradition, he firmly believed that our problems and concerns at the deepest level were spiritual and religious. He did not wrap himself in the contingencies and policies of the immediate political circumstance; rather, he wrote of principle and permanence. While others affirmed the immediate political and economic purposes of schooling, Kirk defended the philosopher with the long view against the present mindedness of the sophist:
[T]he philosopher in the Greek sense [is] the lover of wisdom, who is convinced that the human soul has transcendental aims; and the sophist, who teaches success in life…disdains standards. When men are arming, the defense of the Academy always falls to the lot of the philosophers: the sophists, by that time, have joined the enemy or fled away to Sybaris…So it is even now: democracy finds its best defenders in the men who think there is something higher in the universe than pure democracy, and academic freedom its most able champions in men who believe in just authority.
Kirk’s defense found a small audience. During the post-war decades, universities expanded greatly in terms of physical plant and in terms of student populations, curricula were reformed, often to accommodate those ill-prepared for the higher learning, and since then, many traditional departments, such as philosophy and languages have struggled to maintain their honored places in the college program. The pressure for school administrators to sacrifice the academic dogma for budgetary concerns has only increased in recent times. Compounding these difficulties are the calls from the politicians to open the doors of higher education to all students, no matter how ill-prepared. Kirk greeted these reforms of cold calculation, efficiency, and homogenization with disdain, and he insisted that if such forces were to proliferate in our schools, reason and imagination, the life-blood of our civilization, would dry up. Kirk clearly foretold this degeneration of our educational institutions and his numerous writings were grand attempts to forestall and repair the damage to humane learning.
Books mentioned in this essay may be found in The Imaginative Conservative Bookstore.
 George Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 (NY: Basic Books, 1976), p. 36.
 Russell Kirk, The Sword of Imagination: Memoirs of a Half-Century of Literary Conflict (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), p. 46.
 Along with the works by Kirk and Nisbet, see Willis Rudy, Total War and Twentieth Century Higher Learning (Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson UP, 1991); American Education and the War in Europe (Washington, DC: NEA, 1940); and Wartime Handbook for Education (Washington, DC: NEA, 1943). This handbook includes the incredible statement, which underscores the crisis mentality of the time, “A child attending the elementary schools at this time will probably not see service in the armed forces. He will feel the war in a very personal way” (p. 6).
 Russell Kirk, “Conscription ad infinitum,” South Atlantic Quarterly, 45 (July 1946), p. 315. On-line here.
 On the history of the development and implementation of mental testing, see Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy (NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999). The quotation is from p. 7.
 Russell Kirk, “A Conscript on Education,” South Atlantic Quarterly, 44 (January 1945), pp. 87-88.
 Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind from Burke to Santayana (Chicago: Regnery, 1953), pp. 7-8.
 Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind from Burke to Eliot. 6th revised edition (South Bend: Gateway Editions, 1978), p. 423.
 At that time, of course, in the post-war decades, the global struggle involved the protracted conflict with the Soviet Union. For the effects of the Cold War on educational policies and theories, see the many writings of James Bryant Conant, Harvard President, chemist, poison gas specialist, Newsweek‘s 1952 “Educator of the Year.”
 Bradley J. Birzer, “More than ‘Irritable Mental Gestures’: Russell Kirk’s Challenge to Liberalism, 1950-1960,” Humanitas, XXI, Nos. 1 and 2 (2008), pp. 64-86. Found here.
 Russell Kirk, Academic Freedom: An Essay in Definition (Chicago: Regnery, 1955), p. 185.
All comments are moderated and must be civil, concise, and constructive to the conversation. Comments that are critical of an essay may be approved, but comments containing ad hominem criticism of the author will not be published. Also, comments containing web links or block quotations are unlikely to be approved. Keep in mind that essays represent the opinions of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of The Imaginative Conservative or its editor or publisher.
Glenn A. Davis is the Academic Dean at All Saints Episcopal School in Lubbock, Texas, where he teaches Latin and Russian. He holds a Ph.D. in Slavic Languages and Literatures from the University of Wisconsin at Madison. His dissertation topic was Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s historical imagination. He has published in the Slavic and East European Journal, Christianity and Literature, Modern Age, and Humanitas.


Use Booster Seats Safely
As of July 1, 2011 child must remain in an appropriate car seat or booster seat until they are 8 years old unless they are already 4 feet 9 inches tall.
Booster seats are not car seats. They are positioning devices that boost a child up so that adult lap and shoulder belt systems fit properly and provide protection. Children who are not yet both four years of age and weigh at least 40 pounds are not yet ready for a booster set. Children should remain in a booster seat until they are at least 4 feet 9 inches tall.
There are two basic types of booster seats:
- High-back booster seats are required if the back of the vehicle seat does not provide protection behind the child’s head to at least the top of the ear.
- Backless booster seats can be used as long as the vehicle seat provides head protection to the top of the child’s ear.
Booster seats should be:
- used only for children who are both four years of age and weight at least 40 pounds. Use a car seat until then.
- used with children until they are approximately 4 foot 9 inches (57 inches) tall
- used only in backseats for children 12 and younger
- secured with a lap and shoulder belt
- used with the lap belt positioned low on the hips or upper thighs
- used with the shoulder belt positioned across the middle of the shoulder. Some seats come with an adjuster to help position the shoulder strap. See instructions for proper use of this adjuster.
To learn more, attend our child safety seat class or have a child safety seat inspection, a FREE service provided by Safe Kids Greater Augusta.


temperature have occurred over the past 10,000 years (i.e., the period over which we have the best data and during which the planet's albedo-related boundary conditions have probably varied little) (Röthlisberger, 1986; Grove, 1988). Since this evidence is indirect and based on limited geographical coverage, we can only offer speculative estimates of the magnitude of these annual global-mean temperature changes. Most probably, the fluctuations have been within a band 0.5°C wide (Wigley and Kelly, 1990). Dating and data uncertainties do not allow us to compare the recent warming with similar warmings in the past in any useful quantitative way, so we cannot say whether the twentieth-century warming is occurring at an unprecedented rate.
An alternative approach is to try to estimate 50-year time-scale variability using either a statistical or a deterministic model. In both cases, information from the observed, instrumental record of global-mean temperature changes over the past 130 years is used to estimate the spectrum of natural variability over the full range of frequencies.
In the statistical approach, the data are fitted to a standard-time series model of some sort (such as an nth-order autoregressive process or some more complex model), and the fitted model is used to extend the spectrum to lower frequencies (e.g., Bloomfield and Nychka, 1992; Kheshgi and White, 1993).
A deterministic approach has been used by Wigley and Raper (1990, 1991). Here, a simple climate model is employed to extend the spectrum of observed variability: The method used is to force the model stochastically with white-noise forcing, the magnitude of which is chosen to match the observed high-frequency variability (1- to 10-year time-scale). It should be noted that this approach yields information only on passive internal variability, i.e., variability that arises in the absence of ocean circulation changes. Low-frequency variability may also occur, for example, through changes in the ocean's thermohaline circulation, as evidenced by recent coupled ocean/atmosphere general-circulation model (GCM) results (e.g., Washington and Meehl, 1989; Manabe et al., 1991; Cubasch et al., 1992) and by much longer simulations with an ocean GCM (Mikolajewicz and Maier-Reimer, 1990) and with a two-dimensional ocean model (Mysak et al., 1993). It has been speculated that such circulation changes may be coupled to surface temperature changes, leading to feedbacks that would amplify low-frequency climate variability (e.g., Gaffin et al., 1986; Piehler and Bach, 1992; Harvey, 1992). Model simulations of passive internal variability, therefore, may only represent a lower bound to overall internally generated variability.
An example of the output from a simulation of passive internal variability is given in Figure 1. For a simple linear first-order model (e.g., a one-box ocean model) white-noise forcing as input is transformed to red-noise temperature output, with an enhancement of variability at low frequencies. For more complex models (such as that used here), the output spectrum is still basically reddish in character, in that there is a marked enhancement of the power at low frequencies.
The passive internal variability modeling approach gives results very similar to those of the statistical model of a fractionally integrated white-noise process that is preferred by Bloomfield and Nychka (1992) (see Figure 2). The deterministic modeling approach yields additional physical insights. It shows that high-frequency variability (≤ 10 years) is virtually independent of the climate sensitivity (ΔT2×), and mainly reflects the magnitude of the forcing and the heat capacity of the upper mixed layer of the ocean (Wigley and Raper, 1991). For similar reasons, the response to short-lived forcing events, such as those of volcanic eruptions, is also independent of ΔT2×. This is why interannual variability can tell us nothing directly about ΔT2×. At low frequencies (≥ 30 years), however, the temperature-response spectrum of passive internal variability depends critically on ΔT2×.
If we had evidence of large natural climate excursions in the past on the 50-year time scale, there would be two


Permanent residents throughout the state, cardinals nest in woodland margins and residential shrubbery, with first clutches of eggs usually laid before the end of April. The bright red male and the brownish-red female both assist in caring for the young. Two or three broods may be raised each season.
Cardinal song  - WAV
Northern Cardinal  - Detailed information from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology
USGS Cardinal Information  - Identification tips, life history info, distribution maps, taxonomy, sound files, and photos of the birds, nest, and egg.


English as an Additional Language
Students who arrive at ICS with limited English skills are supported by the English as an Additional Language (EAL) programme.
The EAL programme provides a caring, flexible and supportive environment to help students integrate socially and become successful academically.
EAL support is provided to help your child succeed in the mainstream classroom. EAL teachers and assistants help your child develop the language skills, learning strategies and cultural awareness needed to be successful at ICS.
When we came to ICS our daughter couldn’t say anything in English, but because they were in small classes (and with) extra help from the teacher, after half a year she was fully integrated into the school. Jimmy W, ICS Parent
EAL in the Primary School
The Primary School EAL department aims to meet the specific needs of students for whom English is a second or additional language.
In addition to promoting cognitive growth, language is an important factor in maintaining a student's cultural identify and in developing inter-cultural understanding. English is the language of instruction at ICS, and therefore developing skills in English takes particular priority in our language programme. Upon joining ICS, students who are non-native English speakers are assessed by an EAL specialist who both determines their specific needs and designs a programme of support. Understanding that language acquisition is a developmental process that takes place over a number of years, we strive to provide a customized support programme that may include both in-class assistance and small group lessons outside of the regular classroom as needed.
The EAL curriculum focuses on the development of oral communication (both listening and speaking), as well as reading and writing skills in English. Students learn both social and academic language in these lessons, allowing them to interact socially with peers and be successful in their classes.
EAL in the Secondary School
EAL specialist teachers assess new students’ English language skills in order to decide on an appropriate level of support. The support options are as follows:
- classes in English as an Additional Language (EAL) or English for Academic Purposes (EAP)
- sheltered Humanities classes
- sheltered English classes; and
- in-class support in certain subjects such as Science.
EAL students are encouraged to show their knowledge and understanding in mainstream subjects by completing modified activities and assessments while still developing their academic language skills. This may include them carrying out adjusted tasks, or being given extra time or individual support.


What is chicory?
Also known as endive, chicory is a forced crop, grown in complete darkness, which accounts for its blanched white, yellow-tipped leaves. It has a distinctive, cigar-like shape, about 12cm long, and the crisp leaves have a mildly bitter flavour.
How to prepare chicory
If the end is cracked or discoloured, trim it off, then remove any limp outer leaves. Then, depending on how you want to use it, either leave whole, separate the leaves, or slice lengthways into halves or quarters. Once cut, brush with lemon juice to prevent discolouration.
How to cook chicory
As well as being enjoyed raw in salads, chicory can also be cooked on the grill, boiled or steamed.
See our collection of chicory recipes.
How to store chicory
It will last for around a week in a perforated bag in the fridge.
When is chicory in season?
All year round, but the British season is from January to mid March.
Learn how to grow your own chicory from the experts at Gardeners’ World.
Choose the best chicory
Look for firm, crisp leaves and avoid those with green tips, as they’ll be very bitter.
Alternatives to chicory


File:Daniele Hypólito 16072007.jpg Gymnastics is a sport involving the performance of exercises requiring strength, flexibility, balance and control. Internationally, all events are governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG). Each country has its own national governing body (BIW) affiliated to FIG. Competitive artistic gymnastics is the best known of the gymnastic events. It typically involves the women's events of vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise. Men's events are floor exercise, pommel horse, still rings, vault, parallel bars, and the high bar. Gymnastics evolved from exercises used by the ancient Greeks that included skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and from circus performance skills.
Other FIG disciplines include: rhythmic gymnastics, trampolining and tumbling, and aerobic gymnastics. Disciplines not currently recognized by FIG include aesthetic group gymnastics, men's rhythmic gymnastics and TeamGym. Participants can include children as young as 20 months old doing kindergym and children's gymnastics, recreational gymnasts of ages 5 and up, competitive gymnasts at varying levels of skill, and world class athletes.
- 1 Etymology
- 2 History
- 3 International competitive gymnastics
- 3.1 Artistic gymnastics
- 3.2 Rhythmic gymnastics
- 3.3 Trampolining and tumbling
- 3.4 Acrobatic gymnastics
- 3.5 Aerobic gymnastics
- 4 Other disciplines
- 5 Non-competitive gymnastics
- 6 Former apparatus and events
- 7 Popular culture
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 External links
The word gymnastics derives from the common Greek adjective γυμνός (gymnos) meaning "naked", by way of the related verb γυμνάζω (gymnazo), whose meaning is "to train naked", "train in gymnastic exercise", generally "to train, to exercise". The verb had this meaning, because athletes in ancient times exercised and competed without clothing. It came into use in the 1570s, from Latin gymnasticus, from Greek gymnastikos "fond of or skilled in bodily exercise," from gymnazein "to exercise or train" (see gymnasium).
In the beginning of gymnastics, which formally originated from Ancient Greece, gymnastics was originally intended for military training, where it was used by soldiers to get ready for war. The skills and strength in performing gymnastics at the ancient times were thought as great assets to those battling on the warfield.
In 1569, Girolamo Mercuriale from Forlì (Italy) wrote Le Arte Gymnastica, which brought together his study of the attitudes of the ancients toward diet, exercise and hygiene, and the use of natural methods for the cure of disease. Girolamo was an Italian philologist and physician, who received his doctorate in 1555. He was later asked to occupy the Chair of Medicine in 1569. De Arte Gymnastica also explained the principles of physical therapy and is considered the first book on sports medicine.
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Germany, three pioneer physical educators – Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759–1839) and Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) – created exercises for boys and young men on apparatus they had designed that ultimately led to what is considered modern gymnastics. Don Francisco Amorós y Ondeano, was born on February 19, 1770 in Valence and died on August 8, 1848 in Paris. He was a Spanish colonel, and the first person to introduce educative gymnastic in France. Jahn promoted the use of parallel bars, rings and high bar in international competition.
The Federation of International Gymnastics (FIG) was founded in Liege in 1881. By the end of the nineteenth century, men's gymnastics competition was popular enough to be included in the first "modern" Olympic Games in 1896. From then on until the early 1950s, both national and international competitions involved a changing variety of exercises gathered under the rubric, gymnastics, that would seem strange to today's audiences and that included for example, synchronized team floor calisthenics, rope climbing, high jumping, running, and horizontal ladder. During the 1920s, women organized and participated in gymnastics events. The first women's Olympic competition was primitive, only involving synchronized calisthenics and track and field. These games were held in 1928, in Amsterdam.
By 1954, Olympic Games apparatus and events for both men and women had been standardized in modern format, and uniform grading structures (including a point system from 1 to 15) had been agreed upon. At this time, Soviet gymnasts astounded the world with highly disciplined and difficult performances, setting a precedent that continues. The new medium of television has helped publicize and initiate a modern age of gymnastics. Both men's and women's gymnastics now attract considerable international interest, and excellent gymnasts can be found on every continent. Nadia Comăneci received the first perfect score, at the 1976 Summer Olympics held in Montreal, Canada. She was coached in Romania by coach, (Hungarian ethnicity), Béla Károlyi. Comaneci scored four of her perfect tens on the uneven bars, two on the balance beam and one in the floor exercise. Even with Nadia's perfect scores, the Romanians lost the gold medal to the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, Comaneci became an Olympic icon.
In 2006, a new points system for Artistic gymnastics was put into play. With an A Score (or D score) being the difficulty score, which as of 2009 is based on the top 8 high scoring elements in a routine (excluding Vault). The B Score (or E Score), is the score for execution, and is given for how well the skills are performed.
International competitive gymnastics
Artistic Gymnastics is usually divided into Men's and Women's Gymnastics. Men compete on six events: Floor Exercise, Pommel Horse, Still Rings, Vault, Parallel Bars, and High Bar, while women compete on four: Vault, Uneven Bars, Balance Beam, and Floor Exercise. In some countries, women at one time competed on the rings, high bar, and parallel bars (for example, in the 1950s in the USSR).
In 2006, FIG introduced a new points system for Artistic gymnastics in which scores are no longer limited to 10 points. The system is used in the US for elite level competition. Unlike the old code of points, there are two separate scores, an execution score and a difficulty score. In the previous system, the "execution score" was the only score. It was and still is out of 10.00. During the gymnast's performance, the judges deduct this score only. A fall, on or off the event, is a 1.00 deduction, in elite level gymnastics. The introduction of the difficulty score is a significant change. The gymnast's difficulty score is based on what elements they perform and is subject to change if they do not perform or complete all the skills, or they do not connect a skill meant to be connected to another. Connection bonuses are the most common deduction from a difficulty score, as it can be difficult to connect multiple flight elements. It is very hard to connect skills if the first skill is not performed correctly. The new code of points allows the gymnasts to gain higher scores based on the difficulty of the skills they perform as well as their execution. There is no maximum score for difficulty, as it can keep increasing as the difficulty of the skills increase.
Artistic events for women
In the vaulting events, gymnasts sprint down a 25 metres (82 ft) runway, jump onto a spring filled board or perform a roundoff, or handspring entry onto a springboard (run/ take-off segment), land momentarily, inverted on the hands on the vaulting horse, or vaulting table (pre flight segment), then propel themselves forward or backward, off of this platform to a two footed landing (post flight segment). Every gymnast starts at a different point on the vault runway depending on their height and strength. The post flight segment may include one or more multiple saltos or somersaults, and/or twisting movements. A round-off entry vault, called a Yurchenko, is the most common vault in elite level gymnastics. When performing a yurchenko, gymnasts "round-off" so hands are on the runway while the feet land on the springboard (beatboard). From the roundoff position the gymnast travels backwards and executes a backhandspring so that the hands land on the vaulting table. The gymnast then blocks off the vaulting platform into various twisting and/or somersaulting combinations. The post flight segment brings the gymnast to her feet.
In 2001, the traditional vaulting horse was replaced with a new apparatus, sometimes known as a tongue,horse or vaulting table. The new apparatus is more stable, wider, and longer than the older vaulting horse—approximately 1m in length and 1m in width—giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface, and is therefore considered safer than the vaulting horse used in the past. With the addition of this new, safer vaulting table, gymnasts are attempting more difficult and dangerous vaults.
On the uneven bars, the gymnast performs a routine on two horizontal bars set at different heights. These bars are made of fiberglass covered in wood laminate, to prevent them from breaking. In the past, bars were made of wood, but the bars were prone to breaking, providing an incentive to switch to newer technologies. The width and height of the bars may be adjusted. In the past, the uneven parallel bars were closer together. They've been moved increasingly further apart, allowing gymnasts to perform swinging, circling, transitional, and release moves, that may pass over, under, and between the two bars. At the Elite level, movements must pass through the handstand. Gymnasts often mount the Uneven Bars using a springboard, or a small mat. Chalk and grips (a leather strip with holes for fingers to protect hands and improve performance) may be used while doing this event. The chalk helps take the moisture out of gymnast's hands to decrease friction and prevent rips (tears to the skin of the hands), dowel grips help gymnasts grip the bar.
The gymnast performs a choreographed routine of up to 90 seconds in length consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, somersaults, turns and dance elements on a padded beam. The beam is 125 centimetres (4 ft 1 in) from the ground, 500 centimetres (16 ft 5 in) long, and 10 centimetres (3.9 in) wide. The event requires, in particular, balance, flexibility, poise and strength.
In the past, the floor exercise event was executed on the bare floor or mats such as wrestling mats. Today, the floor event occurs on a carpeted 12m × 12m square, usually consisting of hard foam over a layer of plywood, which is supported by springs or foam blocks generally called a "spring" floor. This provides a firm surface that provides extra bounce or spring when compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve greater height and a softer landing after the composed skill. Gymnasts perform a choreographed routine up to 90 seconds in the floor exercise event; Depending on the level, they may choose their own, or, if known as a "compulsory gymnast," default music must be played. In some gymnastic associations such as United States Association of Gymnastic Clubs (USAIGC), gymnasts are allowed to have vocals in their music but at USA Gymnastics competitions a large deduction is taken from the score for having vocals in the music. The routine should consist of tumbling lines, series of jumps, leaps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and turns, or piviots, on one foot. A gymnast can perform up to four tumbling lines that usually includes at least one flight element without hand support. Each level of gymnastics requires the athlete to perform a different number of tumbling passes. In level 7 in the United States, a gymnast is required to do 2–3, and in levels 8–10, at least 3–4 tumbling passes are required.
Artistic events for men
Male gymnasts also perform on a 12meter x 12meter spring floor. A series of tumbling passes are performed to demonstrate flexibility, strength, and balance. Strength skills include circles, scales, and press handstands. Men's floor routines usually have four passes that will total between 60–70 seconds and are performed without music, unlike the women's event. Rules require that male gymnasts touch each corner of the floor at least once during their routine.
A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work. Single leg skills are generally found in the form of scissors, an element often done on the pommels. Double leg work however, is the main staple of this event. The gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion (clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference) and performs such skills on all parts of the apparatus. To make the exercise more challenging, gymnasts will often include variations on a typical circling skill by turning (moores and spindles) or by straddling their legs (Flares). Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse, or landing after a handstand.
The rings are suspended on wire cable from a point 5.75 meters from the floor, and adjusted in height so the gymnast has room to hang freely and swing. He must perform a routine demonstrating balance, strength, power, and dynamic motion while preventing the rings themselves from swinging. At least one static strength move is required, but some gymnasts may include two or three. A routine should have a dismount equal in difficulty to the difficulty of the routine as a whole.
Gymnasts sprint down a runway, which is a maximum of 25 meters in length, before hurdling onto a spring board. The gymnast is allowed to choose where they start on the runway. The body position is maintained while "punching" (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vaulting platform. The gymnast then rotates to a standing position. In advanced gymnastics, multiple twists and somersaults may be added before landing. Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run, the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, the kinesthetic awareness in the air, and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults.
- Parallel Bars
- Men perform on two bars slightly further than a shoulder's width apart and usually 1.75m high while executing a series of swings, balances, and releases that require great strength and coordination.
A 2.8 cm thick steel or fiberglass bar raised 2.5m above the landing area is all the gymnast has to hold onto as he performs giant swings or giants (revolutions around the bar in the handstand position), release skills, twists, and changes of direction. By using all of the momentum from giants and then releasing at the proper point, enough height can be achieved for spectacular dismounts, such as a triple-back salto. Leather grips are usually used to help maintain a grip on the bar.
As with women, male gymnasts are also judged on all of their events including their execution, degree of difficulty, and overall presentation skills.
Scoring (code of points)
A gymnast's score comes from deductions taken from their start value. The start value of a routine is based on the difficulty of the elements the gymnast attempts and whether or not the gymnast meets composition requirements. The composition requirements are different for each apparatus; this score is called the D score. Deductions in execution and artistry are taken from 10.0. This score is called the E score. The final score is calculated by taking deductions from the E score, and adding the result to the D score. Since 2007, the scoring system has changed by adding bonus plus the execution and then adding those two together to get the final score.
In a tumbling pass, dismount or vault, landing is the final phase, following take off and flight  This is a critical skill in terms of execution in competition scores, general performance, and injury occurrence. Without the necessary magnitude of energy dissipation during impact, the risk of sustaining injuries during somersaulting increases. These injuries commonly occur at the lower extremities such as: cartilage lesions, ligament tears, and bone bruises/fractures. To avoid such injuries, and to receive a high performance score, proper technique must be used by the gymnast. "The subsequent ground contact or impact landing phase must be achieved using a safe, aesthetic and well-executed double foot landing."  A successful landing in gymnastics is classified as soft, meaning the knee and hip joints are at greater than 63 degrees of flexion.
A higher flight phase results in a higher vertical ground reaction force. Vertical ground reaction force represents external force which the gymnasts have to overcome with their muscle force and has an impact on the gymnasts linear and angular momentum. Another important variable that affects linear and angular momentum is time the landing takes Gymnasts can alter the shape of the area by increasing the time taken to perform the landing. Gymnasts can achieve this by increasing hip, knee and ankle amplitude. With the increase of height, the amplitude in ankles knees and hips rise the bars.
According to FIG rules, only women compete in rhythmic gymnastics. This is a sport that combines elements of ballet, gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation. The sport involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five apparatus; ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope—on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic. There are also group routines consisting of 5 gymnasts and 5 apparatuses of their choice. Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 30 points; the score for artistry (choreography and music) is averaged with the score for difficulty of the moves and then added to the score for execution.
International competitions are split between Juniors, under sixteen by their year of birth; and Seniors, for women sixteen and over again by their year of birth. Gymnasts in Russia and Europe typically start training at a very young age and those at their peak are typically in their late teens (15–19) or early twenties. The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games, World Championships, European Championships, World Cup and Grand-Prix Series.
Rhythmic gymnastics apparatus
- It is made of either rubber or synthetic material (pliable plastic) provided it possesses the same elasticity as rubber. It is from 18 to 20 cm in diameter and must have a minimum weight of 400g. The ball can be of any colour and should rest in the gymnast's hand, not the wrist. Fundamental elements of a ball routine include throwing, bouncing, and rolling. The gymnast must use both hands and work on the whole floor area while showing continuous flowing movement. The ball is to emphasize the gymnast's flowing lines and body difficulty.
- A hoop is an apparatus in rhythmic gymnastics and may be made of plastic or wood, provided that it retains its shape during the routine. The interior diameter is from 51 to 90 cm, and the hoop must weigh a minimum of 300g. The hoop may be of a natural colour or be partially of fully covered by one or several colours, and it may be covered with adhesive tape either of the same or different colour as the hoop. Fundamental requirements of a hoop routine include rotation around the hand or body and rolling, as well as swings, circles, throws, and passes through and over the hoop. The routines in hoop involves mastery in both apparatus handling and body difficulty like leaps, jumps and pivots.
- It is made of satin or another similar material cloth of any colour and may be multi-coloured as well as have designs on it. The ribbon itself must be at least 35g (1 oz), 4–6 cm (1.6–2.4") in width and for senior category a minimum length of 6m (20') (5m (16.25') for juniors). The ribbon must be in one piece. The end that is attached to the stick is doubled for a maximum length of 1m (3'). This is stitched down both sides. At the top, a very thin reinforcement or rows of machine stitching for a maximum length of 5 cm is authorized. This extremity may end in a strap, or have an eyelet (a small hole, edged with buttonhole stitch or a metal circle), to permit attaching the ribbon. The ribbon is fixed to the stick by means of a supple attachment such as thread, nylon cord, or a series of articulated rings. The attachment has a maximum length of 7 cm (2.8"), not counting the strap or metal ring at the end of the stick where it will be fastened. Compulsory elements for the ribbon include flicks, circles, snakes and spirals, and throws. It requires a high degree of co-ordination to form the spirals and circles as any knots which may accidentally form in the ribbon are penalised. During a ribbon routine, large, smooth and flowing movements are looked for.
- Multi-piece clubs are the most popular clubs. The club is built along an internal rod, providing a base on which a handle made of polyolefin plastic is wrapped, providing an airspace between it and the internal rod. This airspace provides flex, cushioning impact, making the club softer on the hands. Foam ends and knobs further cushion the club. Multi-piece clubs are made in both a thin European style or larger bodied American style and in various lengths, generally ranging from 19 to 21 inches (480 to 530 mm). The handles and bodies are typically wrapped with decorative plastics and tapes. The skills involved are apparatus mastery and body elements, Clubs are thrown from alternate hands; each passes underneath the other clubs and is caught in the opposite hand to the one from which it was thrown. At its simplest, each club rotates once per throw, the handle moving down and away from the throwing hand at first. However, double and triple spins are frequently performed, allowing the club to be thrown higher for more advanced patterns and to allow tricks such as 360s to be performed underneath.
Trampolining and tumbling
Trampolining and tumbling consists of four events, individual and synchronized trampoline, double mini trampoline, and tumbling (also known as power tumbling or rod floor). Since 2000, individual trampoline has been included in the Olympic Games.
Individual routines in trampolining involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve height, followed by a sequence of ten bounces without pause during which the gymnast performs a sequence of aerial skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points. Additional points (with no maximum at the highest levels of competition) can be earned depending on the difficulty of the moves and the length of time taken to complete the ten skills which is an indication of the average height of the jumps. In high level competitions, there are two preliminary routines, one which has only two moves scored for difficulty and one where the athlete is free to perform any routine. This is followed by a final routine which is optional. Some competitions restart the score from zero for the finals, other add the final score to the preliminary results.
Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronization as well as the form and difficulty of the moves.
Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up, two moves are performed per routine. Moves cannot be repeated in the same order on the double-mini during a competition. Skills can be repeated if a skill is competed as a mounter in one routine and a dismount in another. The scores are marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline.
In tumbling, athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling track. Scoring is similar to trampolining. Tumbling was originally contested as one of the events in Men's Artistic Gymnastics at the 1932 Summer Olympics, and in 1955 and 1959 at the Pan American Games. From 1974 to 1998 it was included as an event for both genders at the Acrobatic Gymnastics World Championships. The event has also been contested since 1976 at the Trampoline World Championships. Since the recognition of Trampoline and Acrobatic Gymnastics as FIG disciplines in 1999, official Tumbling competitions are only allowed as an event in Trampoline gymnastics meets.
Acrobatic gymnastics (formerly Sport Acrobatics), often referred to as "Acro" if involved with the sport, acrobatic sports or simply sports acro, is a group gymnastic discipline for both men and women. Acrobats in groups of two, three and four perform routines with the heads, hands and feet of their partners. They may, subject to regulations (e.g. no lyrics), pick their own music.
There are four international age categories: 11-16, 12-18, 13-19, and Senior (15+), which are used in the World Championships and many other events around the world, including European Championships and World Games. All levels require a balance and dynamic routine, 12-18, 13-19, and Seniors are also required to perform a final (combined) routine.
Currently, acrobatic gymnastics is marked out of 30.00 (can be higher at Senior FIG level based on difficulty):
- 10.00 for routine difficulty, (valued from the tables of difficulties)
- 10.00 For technical performance, (how well the skills are executed)
- 10.00 For Artistry, (the overall performance of the routine, namely choreography)
Aerobic gymnastics (formally Sport Aerobics) involves the performance of routines by individuals, pairs, trios or groups up to 6 people, emphasizing strength, flexibility, and aerobic fitness rather than acrobatic or balance skills. Routines are performed for all individuals on a 7x7m floor and also for 12–14 and 15-17 trios and mixed pairs. From 2009, all senior trios and mixed pairs were required to be on the larger floor (10x10m), all groups also perform on this floor. Routines generally last 60–90 seconds depending on age of participant and routine category.
The following disciplines are not currently recognized by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique.
Aesthetic group gymnastics
Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (AGG) was developed from the Finnish "naisvoimistelu". It differs from Rhythmic Gymnastics in that body movement is large and continuous and teams are larger' Athletes do not use apparatus in international AGG competitions compared to Rhythmic Gymnastics where ball, ribbon, hoop and clubs are used on the floor area. The sport requires physical qualities such as flexibility, balance, speed, strength, coordination and sense of rhythm where movements of the body are emphasized through the flow, expression and aesthetic appeal. A good performance is characterized by uniformity and simultaneity. The competition program consists of versatile and varied body movements, such as body waves, swings, balances, pivots, jumps and leaps, dance steps, and lifts. The International Federation of Aesthetic Group Gymnastics (IFAGG) was established in 2003.
Men's rhythmic gymnastics
Men's rhythmic gymnastics is related to both Men's artistic gymnastics and wushu martial arts. It emerged in Japan from stick gymnastics. Stick gymnastics has been taught and performed for many years with the aim of improving physical strength and health. Male athletes are judged on some of the same physical abilities and skills as their female counterparts, such as hand/body-eye co-ordination, but tumbling, strength, power, and martial arts skills are the main focus, as opposed to flexibility and dance in women's rhythmic gymnastics. There are a growing number of participants, competing alone and on a team; it is most popular in Asia, especially in Japan where high school and university teams compete fiercely. As of 2002[update], there were 1000 men's rhythmic gymnasts in Japan.
The technical rules for the Japanese version of men's rhythmic gymnastics came around the 1970s. For individuals, only four types of apparatus are used: the double rings, the stick, the rope, and the clubs. Groups do not use any apparatus. The Japanese version includes tumbling performed on a spring floor. Points are awarded based a 10-point scale that measures the level of difficulty of the tumbling and apparatus handling. On November 27–29, 2003, Japan hosted first edition of the Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championship.
TeamGym is a form of competition created by the European Union of Gymnastics, named originally EuroTeam. The first official competition was held in Finland in 1996. TeamGym events consist of three sections: women, men and mixed teams. Athletes compete in three different disciplines: floor, tumbling and trampette. In common for the performance is effective teamwork, good technique in the elements and spectacular acrobatic skills.
General gymnastics enables people of all ages and abilities to participate in performance groups of 6 to more than 150 athletes. They perform synchronized, choreographed routines. Troupes may consist of both genders and are not separated into age divisions. The largest general gymnastics exhibition is the quadrennial World Gymnaestrada which was first held in 1939. In 1984 Gymnastics for All was officially recognized first as a Sport Program by the FIG (International Gymnastic Federation), and subsequently by national gymnastic federations worldwide with participants that now number 30 million.
Former apparatus and events
Rope (rhythmic gymnastics)
This apparatus may be made of hemp or a synthetic material which retains the qualities of lightness and suppleness. Its length is in proportion to the size of the gymnast. The rope should, when held down by the feet, reach both of the gymnasts' armpits. One or two knots at each end are for keeping hold of the rope while doing the routine. At the ends (to the exclusion of all other parts of the rope) an anti-slip material, either coloured or neutral may cover a maximum of 10 cm (3.94 in). The rope must be coloured, either all or partially and may either be of a uniform diameter or be progressively thicker in the center provided that this thickening is of the same material as the rope. The fundamental requirements of a rope routine include leaps and skipping. Other elements include swings, throws, circles, rotations and figures of eight. In 2011, the FIG decided to nullify the use of rope in rhythmic gymnastic competitions.
Generally, competitors climbed either a 6m (6.1m = 20 ft in USA) or an 8m (7.6m = 25 ft in USA), 38mm (1.5") diameter natural fiber rope for speed, starting from a seated position on the floor and using only the hands and arms. Kicking the legs in a kind of "stride" was normally permitted. Many gymnasts can do this in the straddle or pike position, which eliminates the help generated from the legs though it can be done with legs as well.
Flying rings was an event similar to still rings, but with the performer executing a series of stunts while swinging. It was a gymnastic event sanctioned by both the NCAA and the AAU until the early 1960s.


The Gwinnett Place area has become the commercial heart of Gwinnett County since its initial development in the 1980s and amazing growth during the 1990s. Since that time, it has seen many changes with new businesses coming and going, new infrastructure and many demographic shifts. Given these changes, Gwinnett Place CID’s board wanted to know, just how much is area is contributing to Gwinnett County’s economy.
In the summer of 2017 they commissioned an analysis from our firm to better understand the economic impacts of the area. An economic impact analysis measures the economic activity occurring in an area from a wide variety of perspectives:
- What do businesses contribute to the local economy?
- How many people work in the area, in what types of businesses and what do they earn?
- How many visitors come to an area and what do they spend during their visit?
- How much tax revenue is generated for local governments from the economic activity in the area?
- What is the total economic impact of the area in terms of the direct spending by businesses, residents and visitors and what are the indirect economic effects from additional rounds of spending by employees, residents and visitors and the goods and services purchased by local businesses in the Gwinnett economy?
All these elements together equal the total economic impact of the area.
From our research we learned that the Gwinnett Place CID is a major economic engine for Gwinnett County from a wide range of perspectives. The area represents only 1 percent of the land area of Gwinnett County. Yet, it has over 13.3 million square feet of commercial development, the largest concentration in the County. Of that total, 7.8 million is retail space. In terms of office space, 23 percent of the County’s Class A office space is in Gwinnett Place.
All of this commercial development, results in 24,500 people who are employed in the area, which is 7 percent of all jobs in the County, and contrary to the general belief, those jobs are not all in retail, with only 24 percent in that sector. Jobs in finance, insurance, management, professional and technical fields are well represented—in fact, many of the “premium jobs” in the County are located in Gwinnett Place.
Gwinnett Place has long been known as a retail destination, with more than $1.1 billion in retail sales annually, most of which comes from demand from outside the immediate market area. Restaurants are a major component of the retail sector with more than 170 restaurants offering a world-spanning range of cuisines and dining options.
The area’s 20 hotels attract over 542,000 room nights and $59 million in hospitality revenue annually.
The direct economic impact from Gwinnett Place area is $4.5 billion annually. This stimulates an additional $5.0 billion in economic activity in the Georgia economy for a total economic impact — direct and indirect — of $9.5 billion annually — making Gwinnett Place The Economic Engine of the County.
Another important contribution of Gwinnett Place is the taxes it generates to support Gwinnett County and the Gwinnett County School System. Gwinnett Place generates almost $55 million in property, sales and hotel taxes to Gwinnett County and the School System annually. It costs the County and School System approximately $18.5 million to service the needs of residents, businesses and employees in the area. As a result, Gwinnett Place is generating a substantial annual surplus in local governmental revenues of more than $36 million per year. The County uses these revenues to support service delivery and education costs in other parts of Gwinnett County.
Again, considering that Gwinnett Place is only 1 percent of the land area of Gwinnett County, the amount of economic activity that is generated annually from this area is most impressive. And as redevelopment and economic growth occurs over the coming decade, the economic impact of Gwinnett Place will grow substantially from its impressive economic base.
Hopefully this overview has given you a flavor of the many dimensions of the Gwinnett Place economy if you would like to dig deeper please click here to view full economic impact report. If you would like to learn more about our firm, please visit our website at blagroup.com. If you have any questions about this analysis, please contact Jonathan Gelber at email@example.com. If you’re interested in redevelopment opportunities in Gwinnett Place, contact Joe Allen at firstname.lastname@example.org.
Guest blog post by Ken Bleakly, Jr., AICP, Founder, The Bleakly Advisory Group


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