The flight of Northrop Grumman’s latest “child prodigy”, X-47B unmanned drone, was first recorded in September. You can view the video below.
It was announced on August 9, 2012 that by 2014 X47-B drone will be refueled in flight by Global Hawks which would serve as refueling tankers.
This is a huge accomplishment for two reasons. One, is that will allow the X-47B to remain in flight well beyond 3,000 nautical miles — 10 times the ability of a traditional manned fighter. Second, is that the entire process will be conducted with no pilot at all.
This will also mean that U.S. aircraft carries will be able to stay outside the range of reach of most ballistic missiles and submarines currently in existence.
The trials will be conducted aboard USS George Washington in 2013.
Here are a few details on X-47B drone.
You can learn more about UAS/UAV by attending one of ATI’s courses below.
|Unmanned Aircraft Systems and Applications||On Site||Your Facility|
|Unmanned Aircraft System Fundamentals||Nov 6-8, 2012||Columbia, MD|
|Unmanned Aircraft System Fundamentals||Feb 26-28, 2013||Dayton, OH|


Did you know that researchers estimate 85% of achievement test scores are based on the vocabulary of the standards? Now that right there is a crazy thought, but makes sense!
If students are asked to identify, but don’t know what that means, how will they know how to identify?
If students are asked to infer, but don’t know what that means, how will they know how to infer?
If students are asked to distinguish, but don’t know what that means, how will they know how to distinguish?
That’s why I created the…..Interactive Notebook for Test Prep Vocabulary!!!!
Click the here or the image below to learn more!
Each of the 42 words contains a definition and illustration.
Also, within each interactive notebook page, students are to provide a synonym, antonym, and sentence for the word.
In addition, students are to give examples of how they might see and/or use the word in math and reading.
A teacher resource page with a full-page colored example of each word is provided. The resource page also provides the teacher with a synonym, antonym, and ways the word might be used in math and reading.
Everything you and your students need to become experts with these high frequency Common Core verbs is right here!


Dopamine commonly describes as an emotion-good neurotransmitter as well as endorphins, serotonin, and endorphins. It has some unique primary functions. It has called a reward chemical because it is responsible for the reward system in the brain. In addition, it has named as the motivation molecule because it gives the attention and drives needed to be effective. Moreover, Dopamine plays a role in various brain functions, including sleep, mood, learning, concentration and attention, motor control, nd memory. Dopamine deficiency is a more concerning fact.
What does it mean to have a dopamine deficiency condition?
Unfortunately, we cannot measure the level of dopamine in our brain. What we do know is that specific groups of symptoms are associated with abnormal dopamine activity. Therefore, the stage of ‘dopamine inency’ may indicate several points,
- Very small amounts of dopamine have produced
- Very few dopamine receptors
- Damaged or defective dopamine receptors
- Dopamine can rapidly brake down
- Dopamine don’t properly recycled
What Causes Dopamine Deficiency?
There are many reasons why you may experience dopamine insufficiency, including poor diet and poor health. For example, eating foods high in saturated fat and sugar can suppress dopamine. Similarly, a lack of protein can lead to a deficiency of L-tyrosine, an amino acid that is one of the primary building blocks of dopamine. Or cofactors that convert L-tyrosine into dopamine, such as zinc, iron, B-complex vitamins, and copper, will not enough.
- Other causes of low dopamine, other than poor diet:
- Management Stress
- Alcohol withdrawal syndrome
- Management Obesity
- Healthy nutrition
- Parkinson’s disease
- Restless Leg Syndrome Disorder
- Highly creative
- Drug use
Symptoms of dopamine deficiency depend on the underlying cause. For an example, a person with Parkinson’s disease may experience very different symptoms from those with low dopamine levels due to drug use.
Some of the signs and symptoms associated with dopamine deficiency include:
- Muscle aches, pains or convulsions
- Aches and pains
- Muscle stiffness
- Loss of balance
- Management Constipation
- Difficult to eat and swallow
- Weight loss or weight gain
- gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
- Chronic pneumonia
- Sleepiness or disturbed sleep
- Low energy
- Inability to concentrate
- Moving or talking more slowly than usual
- Feeling tired
- Feels degraded
- Feeling unexplained grief or tears
- The mood changes
- Feeling hopeless
- Have low self-esteem
- Feeling guilty
- Feeling anxious
- Thoughts of suicide or thoughts of self-harm
- Low sex drive
- Lack of insight or self-awareness
Treatment for dopamine
Treatment for dopamine efficiency depends along with the root cause.
If a person has diagnosed with a mental health condition such as depression or schizophrenia, a doctor may prescribe medications for symptoms. Further these drugs may include anti-depressants and mood stabilizers.
Ropinirol and primipoxol can increase dopamine levels and often prescribe to treat Parkinson’s disease. Levodopa usually prescribes when Parkinson’s has diagnosed.
Other treatments for dopamine deficiency include:
- Diet and lifestyle changes
- Physiotherapy for muscle stiffness and movement problems
- Vitamin D, magnesium and omega-3s help increase dopamine levels, but more research needes on whether this is effective.
- Activities that make a person feel happy and relaxed also believe to raise dopamine levels. These may include exercise, therapeutic massage, and meditation.
There is no reliable way to directly measure dopamine levels in a person’s brain.
But, there are several indirect methods to determine dopamine level imbalance in the brain. Physicians can examine dopamine transporters that positively interact with dopamine-using neurons. Further, this involves injecting a radioactive substance that binds to dopamine transporters, which doctors can measure using a camera.
And also a doctor looks at a person’s symptoms, lifestyle factors, and medical history to determine if they have low dopamine levels.
What is serotonin?
Serotonin is another neurotransmitter present in the brain.
However, more than 90% of the body’s total serotonin resides in the endochromaphin cells in the gut. Further, it helps regulate the movement of the digestive system.
In addition to aiding digestion, serotonin involves in regulation:
- The sleep awakening cycle
- Both Mood and emotions
- Both Metabolism and appetite
- Cognition and concentration
- Hormonal activity
- Body temperature
- Blood clots
Differences between dopamine and serotonin
Both dopamine and serotonin relay messages between neurons affect mood and concentration, but they have other unique functions.
For example, dopamine releases signals between neurons that control body movements and coordination.
Moreover, This neurotransmitter plays a role in the brain’s recreation and benefit center and causes many behaviors. Eating certain foods, taking illegal drugs and engaging in activities such as gambling can cause dopamine levels in the brain to rise
High levels of dopamine can cause feelings of excitement, joy, and enhanced motivation and concentration. Therefore, exposure to dopamine-enhancing substances and activities can make some people addicted.
Like dopamine, serotonin can affect people’s moods and emotions. But it also helps regulate digestive functions, such as appetite, metabolism, and bowel movements.


DETERMINING FACTORS FOR SUCCESS USE OF E-LEARNING IN LEARNING PROCESS IN COLLEGE
MetadataShow full item record
This research was conducted to determine the use of e-Learning that was conducted by students in College. The main purpose of this research was to find out the factors that make up e-learning successfully used in teaching learning in College. The variables in this study were e-Learning Quality, Information Quality, Use of e-Learning, User Satisfaction and Success of e-Learning. The respondents in this study were active students who used e-learning in their teaching and learning process. The number of respondents in this study were 206 respondents. The respondents in this study were students who use e-learning in teaching and learning processes in College around Pekalongan residency. The data processing in this study used the SmartPLS 3.0 tool. The results of this study showed that the quality of e-learning affects user’s satisfaction and use of e-learning. Furthermore, the quality of information generated from e-Learning only affected user’s satisfaction but it did not affect the use of e-learning. The successful use of e-learning was effect by user’s satisfaction and use of e-learning.


Directions: Select one of the questions below and write a 4-page paper (only write on one question). The paper must be 4 pages (1100-word count), typed, double-spaced, 12-inch font size and 1-inch margins. Goals: you must incorporate philosophical concepts logically throughout your paper and express the concepts in your own words.
Question 1: Analysis
Use your own words to articulate the concepts and cite the text sparingly as support. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill laid the ground for utilitarianism. In your paper, do the following:
a) Explain the scope of utilitarianism.
b) What arguments do Bentham and Mill provide to support their position? Where do they diverge?
c) Mill admits that there are challenges to utilitarianism. What are the challenges? Does he reconcile them? Thoroughly explain your response.
d) Apply the theory of utilitarianism to the practice of eugenics (you can refer to one case or all of the cases discussed in class).
Question 2: Analysis
Use your own words to articulate the concepts and cite the text sparingly as support. In the Apology, Socrates chose the penalty of death rather than exile for discussing virtue. In the play Antigone, Antigone chose the penalty of death for burying her brother against Creon’s decree. Neither Socrates nor Antigone denied their actions even when facing death. These choices appear counter to human action. Schopenhauer insists to understand the freedom of the will, one must define freedom first and then examine self-consciousness. In your paper, do the following:
a) Articulate Schopenhauer’s thoughts about the different types of freedom. Why are the distinctions relevant to the matter of free will?
b) Why does Schopenhauer think determinism is problematic? (Hint: in your answer indicate the deterministic view of human action).
c) According to Schopenhauer, what is free will?
d) Apply Schopenhauer’s view to the case of Socrates or Antigone.


The truth about carbon dating Sex chat mkd
The strength of the Earth's magnetic field affects the amount of cosmic rays entering the atmosphere.A stronger magnetic field deflects more cosmic rays away from the Earth.Familiar to us as the black substance in charred wood, as diamonds, and the graphite in “lead” pencils, carbon comes in several forms, or isotopes.One rare form has atoms that are 14 times as heavy as hydrogen atoms: carbon-14, or C ratio gets smaller.
This will make old things look older than they really are.
C) dating usually want to know about the radiometric dating methods that are claimed to give millions and billions of years—carbon dating can only give thousands of years.
People wonder how millions of years could be squeezed into the biblical account of history. Christians, by definition, take the statements of Jesus Christ seriously.
That is, they take up less than would be expected and so they test older than they really are.
Furthermore, different types of plants discriminate differently.These techniques, unlike carbon dating, mostly use the relative concentrations of parent and daughter products in radioactive decay chains.For example, potassium-40 decays to argon-40; uranium-238 decays to lead-206 via other elements like radium; uranium-235 decays to lead-207; rubidium-87 decays to strontium-87; etc.However, even with such historical calibration, archaeologists do not regard C produced and therefore dating the system.


Particle Physics 101
Have you ever wondered how often you could split a grain of sand into smaller pieces? Have you asked yourself what the sky is made of? Perhaps you have dreamed of traveling backwards in time?
Physicists are as curious as you are. They look for answers to questions that people have pondered since they first began to wonder about the world and their place within it.
You'll find some of the answers to these questions here. Explore the sections below to take a crash course in the world of particle physics.
Particle physicists try to understand the nature of nature at the smallest scales possible. Today, we know that atoms do not represent the smallest unit of matter. Particles called quarks and leptons seem to be the fundamental building blocks — but perhaps there is something even smaller. Physicists are still far from understanding why a proton has about 2,000 times more mass than an electron. And on top of it all, scientists suspect a whole new class of undiscovered supersymmetric particles to complete the subatomic family.
Learn more about the fundamentals of fundamental physics.
Matter at the smallest scale is made of elementary particles, pieces of matter that cannot be divided into anything smaller. As scientists over the past century have looked deeper and deeper into the atom, they have found the smallest things human beings have ever seen. How do they do it?
By using accelerators to smash particles into each other or into targets at high energies, scientists can create different, more massive and more exotic particles. They observe them in particle detectors that are stories high — large and intricate enough to capture details of these particles of matter as they pass through it. To analyze the oceans of data that come through the detectors, physicists develop and make use of computing capabilities with massive amounts of storage and processing power.
Learn more about how scientists make new discoveries in particle physics.
The current theoretical framework that describes elementary particles and their forces, known as the Standard Model, is based on experiments that started in 1897 with the discovery of the electron. Today, we know that there are six leptons, six quarks, four force carriers and a Higgs boson. Scientists all over the world predicted the existence of these particles and then carried out the experiments that led to their discoveries. Learn all about the who, what, where and when of the discoveries that led to a better understanding of the foundations of our universe.
Learn more about worldwide particle physics discoveries.
To discover what the universe is made of and how it works is the challenge of particle physics. The landmark Quantum Universe report defines the quest of particle physicists to explain the universe in terms of nine key questions. In pursuit of answers to these questions, Fermilab supports researchers, experiments and facilities that promise to revolutionize our understanding of the universe.
Learn more about questions for the universe.
Over the years, people have sent questions to Fermilab on subjects from why the sky is blue to the speed limit of the universe. Read what our scientists have to say.
Learn more about Ask a Scientist.
- Last modified
- email Fermilab


“[The] dragnet collection of millions of Americans’ phone records every day – whether they have any connection to terrorism – goes far beyond what Congress envisioned or intended to authorize....Congress did not enact FISA and the PATRIOT Act to give the government boundless surveillance powers that could sweep in the data of countless innocent Americans. If all of our phone records are relevant to counterterrorism investigations, what else could be?”
Surveillance technology is evolving quickly. New tools are giving government agencies the ability to collect more data than ever before. Without a thorough and current understanding of these technologies, they may inadvertently collect more than they intend. Without appropriate policies and oversight, overcollection can threaten civil liberties.
Some tools, by their very design, collect data indiscriminately. Automated license plate readers, for example, photograph and scan every passing car. This has the potential to create a government record of where hundreds, even thousands, of innocent individuals are at a given point in time, even when law enforcement agencies are investigating a specific target. These devices can be configured to store only data that matches a specific suspect, which can make the system more efficient and cost-effective while helping to protect civil liberties.
In other cases, the surveillance programs themselves are the cause of data overcollection. Perhaps the most famous example of this is the National Security Administration’s bulk telephone records collection program. For years the agency gathered the phone records of millions of innocent Americans without specifying a target of investigation. They built a haystack to find a needle, and created an immense database of information about private personal communications in the process.
More often than not, surveillance programs are launched without considering data overcollection. This has exposed both agencies and the general public to unnecessary risks to security and privacy.
Examples of Use
Location::Boston, MAGovernment web site leaks three years of vehicle location data
A reporter exposed a security breach in a web server that leaked license plate location data going back to 2012 to the public. The city of Boston was using the server, improperly run by a private company, to store data from police automated license plate scanners. The database contained license plate numbers, locations, and car make and model information not just of suspects’ cars but those of innocent people as well. This data could be searched by both the police and the general public. In 2013, the Boston Police Department agreed to discontinue use of this database, but records show that officers have continued to use it on a regular basis through 2015.
Location::Seattle, WASeattle Police Dither on ALPR Policy
The Seattle Police Department has put together a “pilot program” fleet of at least 12 mobile ALPR units, funded in large part by over $132,000 in grants from the Department of Justice. The SPD claims they follow an informal policy of deleting captured plate data on innocent people after 90 days. However, a public records request by the ACLU-WA in 2012 recovered over three years of plate reads retained during a pilot program. (SPD cameras scanned one car 81 times, painting an intricate picture of one driver’s daily life.) A more recent public records request turned up over 1.7 million individual reads, more than triple the number of registered cars in the city. The SPD still has no formal policy on how long data on innocent people may be stored, nor any rules on how this data may be shared. As long as the data remains unregulated, the sensitive location information of Seattle drivers remains at serious risk. All new surveillance technologies – especially those in the experimental stage – should be accompanied by carefully crafted, formal policies to govern their use and protect private information.
When government agencies consider acquiring and using surveillance systems, communities and their elected officials must both weigh the benefits against the costs to civil liberties and carefully craft policies and procedures that help to limit the negative effects that surveillance will have on fundamental rights. For a useful list of considerations, please visit the recommendations page.


|Who knows how much courage this craft of war, the LST 325, carried|
as the soldiers inside it prepared to storm the beaches of Normandy?
We hear a lot about “courage” these days: Athletes playing through nagging injuries: “Courageous.” Daredevils attempting outrageous stunts, hoping their YouTube videos will go viral: “Courageous.” Entertainer or celebrities making declarations outside the social norm: “How courageous!” people respond in unbridled admiration.
Maybe. Or maybe not. When conforming to nonconformity, as long-haired, bell-bottomed, tie-dyed, “far out, man!” hippies did in the 1960’s, how much “courage” does that require? If it’s “in” to do within your peer group, doesn’t it demand more courage not to do that thing?
When I think of legitimate courage, examples that come to mind are Branch Rickey, then owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, and Jackie Robinson, the first African-American to play baseball in the Major Leagues. Their story was dramatized in the film “42,” but real life offered more than enough drama for them.
It was 1947, and Rickey decided to do the unthinkable – breaking the color barrier by bringing up Robinson, a member of the Negro League’s Kansas City Monarchs, to play second base for the Dodgers. Rickey had no doubts about Robinson’s athletic prowess, but could the young man withstand the pressure, prejudice and racial epithets to prove a black player could compete at baseball’s highest level?
And Robinson, of course, had to be willing to endure scorn and hatred as the target of mindless bigotry. He was alone. Crossing the boundary into an all-white sport and proving he belonged was hardly the “in” thing at that time. Together, Rickey and Robinson exemplified what true courage should look like.
|Even at the controls of an anti-aircraft|
gun, sailors must have felt very exposed.
Recently the LST 325 (Landing Ship, Tank) made a stop along the Tennessee River here in Chattanooga, another example of real courage. This stark gray, 330-foot craft was used to transport tanks, vehicles, cargo and military personnel during World War II, as well as the Korean and Vietnam wars. Looking at this battle-scarred vessel, which landed on Omaha Beach in Normandy on D-Day, June 6, 1944, I couldn’t help but imagine the courage possessed by the hundreds of servicemen who left its austere bowels to storm the beaches on that fateful day. Many of them never left those shores alive.
One other example comes to mind: the Israelites poised to enter the Promised Land, leaving memories of slavery in Egypt behind and entering a foreign land to confront formidable foes and an unfamiliar environment. They had no Navy SEALS, Green Berets or Black Ops forces to neutralize and defeat the opposition. There were no Blackhawk helicopters hovering above to watch their backs, or even automatic weapons. All they had was faith and good old-fashioned “chutzpah” to press ahead.
Moses, who had led Israel out of Israel and around the wilderness for 40 years, had died, leaving his successor, Joshua, to complete the journey. Despite many miracles God had performed, the Israelites had cause for feeling apprehensive. Knowing this, God issued just one directive through their new leader. He instructed Joshua, “Be strong and courageous, because you will lead these people to inherit the land I swore to their forefathers to give them” (Joshua 1:6).
To ensure His message was understood, God repeated His command. “Be strong and very courageous. Be careful to obey all the law my servant Moses gave you; do not turn from it to the right or to the left, that you may be successful wherever you go” (Joshua 1:7).
Then for emphasis, God gave the command a third time: “Have I not commanded you? Be strong and courageous. Do not be terrified; do not be discouraged, for the Lord your God will be with you wherever you go” (Joshua 1:9). Joshua passed these commands on to the people of Israel, who vowed to follow him and do as he instructed. Then they in turn exhorted their leader, “Only be strong and courageous” (Joshua 1:18).
These words were spoken and written thousands of years ago, but remain just as relevant today for those that follow Jesus Christ. What daunting challenges, what formidable obstacles do you face today – at work, in your home or in some other area of your life? For what do you also need to be “strong and courageous”?
You might be thinking, “That sounds like a good idea. But easier said than done. How can I be courageous with what I’m facing?”
That’s a question many of us are asking, or will be asking at some point in the future. And in today’s turbulent times, with news bombarding us daily about terrorism, disease epidemics, severe weather and many other threats beyond our control, 21st century living isn’t for the faint of heart. So again we ask, how can we be courageous?
Many times we can’t muster the strength, no matter how hard we try. That’s where faith comes in – the kind modeled decades ago by men like Branch Rickey and Jackie Robinson, and probably many soldiers as they were leaving the LST to do battle with an unseen enemy.


The short answer to that question is no.
The term heartburn originates from the burning sensation which can be felt in the middle of the chest close to the heart. It is pain caused by the damage to the esophagus that the reflux of acid from the stomach causes and it has nothing to do with the heart at all. However, having said that heartburn has nothing to do with the heart, the symptoms of heartburn can be very similar to the signs of heart disease. If you experience heartburn with any of the symptoms listed below you should consult your doctor immediately as it may possibly mean that you’re having a heart attack.
- Pain radiating into your back, neck, jaw, shoulders or arms — especially your left arm
- Sudden pressure, tightening, squeezing or crushing pain in the center of the chest that doesn’t disappear after a few minutes
- Feeling light-headed or dizzy
- Being short of breath or having difficulty breathing
- Becoming clammy or sweaty
- Vomiting with blood
- Bloody or black stools
You should also contact your doctor immediately if your heartburn feels different or more severe than normal and it occurs during or immediately following physical activity or, if you experience any new chest pain or discomfort and you smoke, are overweight or have heart disease diabetes, high cholesterol or previously had a heart attack. Remember that correct diagnosis and prompt medical treatment can save lives. Although the occasional occurrence of heartburn is extremely common and should be of little concern, if you are regularly experiencing heartburn you need to speak with your doctor as this could mean you have an ulcer or other underlying health condition. Heartburn caused by acid reflux usually increases after eating but if your heartburn is worse before eating, it can be a sign that you have an ulcer.


Small flycatcher found in canopy of lowland and foothill forest in northwestern Ecuador and southwestern Colombia. It has olive-green upperparts, pale gray underparts, yellow spectacles, and yellow fringes to the wing feathers. May overlap with the very similar Golden-faced Tyrannulet in the western Andes of Colombia; in that region, ID is best confirmed by voice. Vocalizations include a soft whistle repeated every few seconds and a quick series of rising notes. Perches conspicuously high in the trees, and often holds its tail partly cocked.


Antibiotics are used to treat various infections in children and adults. Depending on the severity and type of bacterial infection, antibiotics can be administered various ways, including orally, rectally, vaginally, intranasally, transdermally, inhalation, and endotracheally.
Intravenous antibiotics are used when oral antibiotics are poorly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, or when bacterial infection puts a serious risk for the patient’s health. An anti-bacterial effect is achieved in intravenous administration of antibiotics more quickly than orally.
Application of antibiotics is considered to be preferred for treatment of urinary tract infections (UTI). Antibiotics can be administered orally in milder UTIs. The list of antibiotics recommended in UTI includes:
- Doxycycline (Monodox, Vibramycin);
- Ciprofloxacin (Cipro);
- Ceftriaxone (Rocephin);
- Azithromycin (Zithromax, Zmax);
- Cephalexin (Keflex);
- Fosfomycin (Monurol);
- Levofloxacin (Levaquin);
- Nitrofurantoin (Macrodantin, Macrobid).
In acutely toxic urinary tract infections, the patients are administered with intravenous antibiotics at hospitalization or if unable to take oral antibiotics. Their application should be initiated only after the urine test results.
It should be noted that certain intravenous antibiotics for UTI treatment contain two active ingredients. For example, for intravenous Septra injection, solution contains antibacterial agents Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole.
Besides intravenous antibiotics are effective in treatment of infectious diseases of the urogenital system, they are recommended for treatment of serious infections caused by Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA).
For example, intravenous administration of Vancomycin antibiotic can cure MRSA-infections of the bone tissues, and injectable antibiotic Linezolid is recommended for treatment of persistent MRSA infections.
Intravenous antibiotics can be indicated for treatment of infectious inflammatory diseases (including Lyme disease), caused by bites of ticks. The most popular intravenous antibiotics, used in Lyme disease, are as follows: Doxycycline, Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone, or Penicillin G potassium.
Some intravenous antibiotics are included in oral antibiotic therapy. For example, patients with streptococcal cellulitis can be administered with oral antibiotic Probenecid and intravenous administration of antibiotic Cefazolin.
Patients requiring for long-term antibiotic therapy can use intravenous antibiotics at home.
Intravenous antibiotics can be used in dozens of different diseases, including: cystic fibrosis, Whitmore’s disease, bronchiectasis, liver abscess, osteomyelitis, pneumonia, sepsis, flesh-eating disease, and endocarditis.
If you are going to buy intravenous antibiotics without prescription, but have never tried injection therapy of bacterial infections at home, ask your pharmacist. You can buy injectable antibiotics online and get free consultation of the pharmacist – anywhere in the world.


This Technical Report addresses the issue of sensible exposure to solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The scientific evidence of beneficial effects of solar exposure has been reviewed, in particular on the incidence and mortality to cancers other than skin cancer. Although the evidence is not unequivocal, the committee has found considerable evidence to deem it plausible that solar exposure may reduce the incidence and mortality of colorectal cancer. The evidence for similar effects on breast and prostate cancer and on melanoma is less, but such effects are considered as plausible, too. Possibly the production of vitamin D plays a role in this respect.
Based on a review of the evidence of both the beneficial and the harmful effects of solar exposures it is concluded that people should not shun the sun, even not at noon. However, levels well below sunburn thresholds are generally sufficient to profit from the beneficial effects of solar exposure. Public health guidance should be developed on the basis of this evidence, but account should also be taken of prevailing solar UV levels that depend on latitude and time of the year and day. Special guidance may be necessary for dark skinned people that live at moderate latitudes and people that cover most of their bodies for cultural or religious reasons. The same holds for people who stay most of the time indoors.
The amount of solar exposure commensurate with good health depends on individual and population characteristics, as indicated above. To facilitate public health guidance it is recommended to extend the concept of the UV index promulgated by the World Health Organization to include the beneficial effects of solar exposure.
The report is split into two parts: The first part (Part I) gives guidance for a sensible exposure regime to profit from beneficial health impacts from moderate solar (UV) exposure, the second part (Part II) is a review of scientific data that underpin the guidance in Part I.
The publication is written in English, with a short summary in French and German. It consists of 88 pages with 4 figures and 20 tables and is readily available at the National Committees of the CIE or via the CIE Webshop.
The following members of TC 6-58 "A Recommendation on Lower Limits for UV Exposure” took part in the preparation of this Technical Report. The committee comes under Division 6 “Photobiology and Photochemistry”.
- Berwick, M. USA
- Brand, A. Netherlands (Secretary)
- Engelsen, O. Norway
- de Gruijl, F.R. Netherlands
- Halliday, G. Australia
- Mason, R.S. Australia
- Meffert, H. Germany
- Moan, J. Norway
- Passchier, W.F. Netherlands (Chair)
- Sayre, R.M. USA
- Strange, R.C. United Kingdom
- Webb, A. United Kingdom


Managing women living with diabetes presents particular challenges during pregnancy, delivery and in the ensuing months and years. Patient education, careful monitoring and co-management with the patient’s physicians is essential.
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of visual impairment in people aged between 20 and 64-years-of-age, and pregnancy is a well-documented independent risk factor for progression.1 Management of diabetic retinopathy has changed dramatically over the last 10–20 years with the advancement of imaging modalities such as widefield photography, optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiogram (OCTA), as well as the use of intravitreal agents such as anti-vascular endothelial growth factors (anti-VEGF) and steroids. However, it continues to be a challenge, especially in the pregnancy cohort, due to a variety of reasons such as potential for rapid progression, treatment effects on foetus and numerous competing medical appointments.
Diabetes affects 9.9% of pregnancies in Australia
Diabetes affects 9.9% of pregnancies in Australia. The vast majority are gestational diabetes (GDM) occurring in 8.9% of pregnancies, with 1% having pre-existing diabetes.2 This represents an approximate doubling of the prevalence over the past decade, where diabetes affected only 5.3% of pregnancies at the beginning of the last decade.3
GDM is a transient form of diabetes that occurs during pregnancy but resolves after giving birth. However, our understanding of the relationship between GDM and DR during pregnancy is incomplete. GDM patients are generally considered to be at minimal risk due to its transient nature. Unfortunately, a proportion of patients who are diagnosed with GDM may have undetected existing diabetes, and this subgroup are at risk of developing DR during pregnancy.
The prevalence of diabetes in pregnancy also varies significantly in different ethnicities. It is estimated that diabetes in pregnancy occurs most frequently in South East Asia, while the rate of pre-existing diabetes in pregnancy is highest in the Middle East and North Africa. It is also known that diabetes in pregnancy is 10 times higher in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders compare to other Australian mothers.4
RISK FACTORS FOR PROGRESSION IN PREGNANCY
Pregnancy is an independent risk factor in the progression of DR and is estimated to progress at twice the rate when compared to non-pregnant women. There are other risk factors that accelerate the progression of diabetic retinopathy during pregnancies, including poor glycaemic control, duration of disease, severity of pre-existing DR and hypertension. These risk factors are similar to those of the general population with diabetes.
… patients with GDM are at higher risk of developing diabetes later on in life and… GDM is associated with increased ophthalmic co-morbidities including DR in the long term
It is evident that poor glycaemic control before conception is a risk factor for DR progression in pregnancy. The relationship between glycaemic control and DR progression during pregnancy is a little more complex, where rapid tightening of glycaemic control during pregnancy has been demonstrated to worsen DR. This is because of the underlying retinal phsyiology – when it becomes accustomed to wasteful glycolysis in the setting of persistent hyperglycaemia, a sudden reduction of glucose will result in reduced blood flow, subsequent hypoxia and worsening of the DR. Therefore, it is optimal to have a gradual tightening of glycaemia control pre-conception to avoid the short-term risks of DR progression during pregnancy from intensive glycaemic tightening.
From a holistic perspective, physicians will always seek to maximise glycaemic control during pregnancy, and any patient having rapid tightening should have retinal examinations on a more regular basis.
Duration of Disease
Multiple studies have shown that the progression of DR in pregnancy is strongly correlated to the duration of diabetes, and so unsurprisingly, type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) has a much higher prevalence of DR in pregnancy than type 2 (T2DM). This was demonstrated in a study regarding T1DM – patients whose DR remained stable in pregnancy had an average duration of disease of 13.5 years, while those whose DR progressed, had an average duration of 19.7 years. Duration also has a profound effect on progression to proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), where 38% of patients with duration greater than 15 years developed PDR during pregnancy, compared to 15% of patients with duration less than 15 years. Consequently, some guidelines recommend women with diabetes plan and complete their pregnancies early in life if possible.
Pre-existing Diabetic Retinopathy
The degree of baseline diabetic retinopathy pre-conception is another risk factor for progression of DR in pregnancy. In the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study (DIEP), 21.1% of patients with mild nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR) progressed during pregnancy and only 6% of these patients went on to develop PDR. Of patients with moderate to severe NPDR, 54.8% demonstrated disease progression and had a 29% risk for developing PDR.5
Other studies have shown rates of progression as high as 78%, with duration of diagnosis of diabetes proving the most significant factor.
Multiple studies have shown that the progression of DR in pregnancy is strongly correlated to the duration of diabetes
There is mixed evidence on hypertension and DR progression in pregnancy. One study found that hypertension, both chronic and pregnancy-induced, carries more than double the risk of DR progression in pregnancy (61% vs. 50% respectively) versus normotension (25%).
New-onset hypertension from after 20 weeks of gestation, with significant proteinuria, is known as pre-eclampsia. This pregnancy specific condition is a significant risk factor for DR progression in pregnancy. One study found 50% of women with pre-eclampsia developed sight threatening disease compared to 8% in those without pre-eclampsia.6
SCREENING AND MONITORING
Prenatal counselling and screening is, perhaps, the most effective method to minimise DR progression in pregnancy because it provides greater opportunities to intervene and address the modifiable risk factors prior to conception, such as gradual tightening of glycaemic control or treating existing DR. Unfortunately, less than a quarter of Australian women (27.8% in T1DM and 12% in T2DM) have had any general diabetic prenatal counselling.
Diabetic retinopathy screening is recommended in all patients with diabetes but is even more vital in those who are planning to become pregnant. Retinal examinations can be performed by dilated fundus slit lamp examination or nonmydriatic widefield fundus photographs. This allows for an accurate assessment of the DR severity that can provide prognosis on the risks of DR progression during pregnancy. Furthermore, treatment such as laser photocoagulation and anti-VEGF injections can be given if clinically indicated pre-conception, again to minimise risks of DR progression in pregnancy. Optimising diabetic control prior to pregnancy is the best option to prevent complications including diabetic retinopathy.
Retinal examination is recommended in the first trimester of pregnancy for those with diabetes. Guidelines also recommend retinal examination in the second and third trimester of pregnancy, depending on the severity of DR as well as the number and severity of risk factors of progression as discussed above. Fortunately, DR tends to regress in the third trimester of pregnancy but progression is at its worst at the end of the second trimester.
While diabetic macular oedema (DMO) and NPDR may improve following delivery, PDR does not regress and should be treated urgently to minimise further sight threatening complications.
It is known that patients with GDM are at higher risk of developing diabetes later on in life and there have also been longitudinal studies to show that GDM is associated with increased ophthalmic comorbidities including DR in the long term.7 It is therefore vital for these patients to follow-up closely with their family doctor to monitor for onset of diabetes, and if found, to follow the screening guidelines of biennial or yearly retinal examination to detect onset of DR. The increased risk of progression of diabetic retinopathy persists for six to 12 months following pregnancy and delivery, and increased optometric/ophthalmic review is recommended in this period.
INVESTIGATIONS AND TREATMENT
Traditionally, fundus fluorescein angiogram (FFA) is the ancillary test of choice for determining the severity, and planning treatment for DR. However, the safety profile of fluorescein is scarcely investigated and has been assigned a pregnancy category of B2 by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) in Australia. Category B2 refers to drugs which have been taken by a limited number of pregnant women, without demonstrating an increase in frequency of malformation or harmful effects on the foetus. Additionally, studies in animals, while inadequate, do not demonstrate an increased incidence of foetal damage. Due to the limited data available on its safety profile, FFA is not usually performed in pregnant women unless it is clearly indicated. Fortunately, the advancement of noninvasive imaging modalities such, as OCT and OCTA, have allowed clinicians to detect diabetic macular oedema (DMO), retinal ischaemia and neovascularisation, minimising the use of FFA in pregnancy.
Laser photocoagulation can be used to treat different forms of DR, namely PDR or DMO. It is a safe and effective treatment modality, especially in those who are pregnant as it does not affect or damage the foetus, and has been shown to reduce significant visual loss from DR.
Pan retinal laser photocoagulation (PRP) is used to treat PDR or severe NPDR. Generally it is recommended to have a lower threshold to treat pregnant women with PDR or severe NPDR for several reasons. These include the increased risks of DR progression during pregnancy, logistical difficulties of attending multiple healthcare appointments during pregnancy, and evidence of progression post-partum.
Focal laser photocoagulation can also be used to treat DMO. However, the American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) suggests that treatment can be deferred during pregnancy due to its relatively short duration, the potential for DMO to regress post-partum, and relatively little difference in the long-term outcomes in prompt versus deferred treatment in DMO. When treatment is necessary for centre involving severe DMO, intravitreal steroids are often preferred.
Intravitreal Injections (Anti-VEGF/Steroids)
Intravitreal injections (IVI) are another effective treatment for DR in general. However, unlike laser photocoagulation, IVI does have systemic absorption and its safety profiles are not well studied for those who are pregnant. For example, although anti-VEGF agents have transformed the way we manage DR, the TGA assigned it a pregnancy Category D due to its mechanism of action. Category D drugs are suspected to have an increased incidence of foetal damage or malformations. It is therefore recommended that patients wait at least three months after administration of anti-VEGF before conceiving. Similarly, women of child bearing age who are receiving anti-VEGF treatment are advised to use contraception to mitigate the risks of teratogenicity.
Although there have been case series demonstrating uneventful pregnancies following administration of antenatal intravitreal anti-VEGF, it is still not recommended to administer these agents unless there are clear benefits that outweigh the potential risks to the foetus, and extensive counselling and consent is required if proceeding with anti-VEGF administration. If administration is deemed necessary, the risk of teratogenicity is thought to be lowest in the third trimester. Sometimes, obstetricians can be consulted to bring forward the delivery to allow safe administration of these agents.
Intravitreal steroid injection (triamcinalone) may be an option in sight threatening severe DMO, but again, treatment can often be deferred until delivery.
Deferring treatment of DMO by 12 months has not been shown to alter the longterm visual outcomes, and it is therefore reasonable to withhold anti-VEGF/steroid treatment for a duration of six to nine months during pregnancy.
A 23-year-old Type 1 diabetic patient was referred at 28 weeks pregnancy for review. She had been diagnosed with diabetes 14 years prior with brittle control in youth. At 29 weeks gestation, her vision was 6/12. Twelve weeks after delivery, her ischemic changes and macular oedema had improved and the patient’s vision had returned to 6/9 (Figure 1).
A 30-year-old woman presented with severe pre-proliferative DR in both eyes with vision threatening macular oedema. She was counselled on treatment options, and returned for treatment later in pregnancy, in the seventh month. She had bilateral intravitreal ranibizumab (Lucentis) (Figure 2).
Management of pregnant women with diabetes requires a team approach. Close cooperation and communication among the patient and her obstetrician, ophthalmologist, and other physicians, as necessary, is essential to develop an individual management plan for optimal outcomes.
Diabetes during pregnancy is becoming more common, due to obesity, increasing gestational age, and the younger age of onset of T2DM in the population.
Ideally, women with diabetes should be examined comprehensively, including a dilated fundus exam prior to conception. Otherwise this exam should occur as soon as possible in the first trimester. Follow up then depends on the severity of retinopathy. For example, if the patient has minimal or no DR she may be able to be examined approximately every three months and within three months postpartum. If the patient has moderate DR, examination every four to six weeks may be required and referral to an ophthalmologist is recommended; if more advanced DR is noted, the patient may require examination every one to two weeks, with intervention as needed. Continued monitoring and management postpartum is also important.
Severe NPDR or PDR should be treated immediately with scatter pan retinal photocoagulation. Treatment recommendations for DME during pregnancy are lacking, postponing treatment and observing closely can be justified as disease may regress postpartum, but some cases may need macular laser.
Further research in the field will focus on the use of non-invasive OCTA imaging to further aid diagnosis and prognostication of sight threatening complications for DR in pregnancy.
Dr Rahul Dubey MBBS (Hons), MMed (Clin Epi), MM (OphthSci), FRANZCO is a cataract, medical and surgical retinal specialist. He is a consultant Vitreoretinal Surgeon at Westmead and the Prince of Wales Hospital in Sydney and privately in Chatswood and the PersonalEyes network. Dr Dubey maintains a commitment to rural and regional ophthalmology in Dubbo and Bourke with the Outback Eye Service, supported by the Fred Hollows Foundation. Dr Dubey has published extensively in peer-reviewed medical literature and is passionate about training the next generation of optometrists and ophthalmologists.
Dr Christopher Go undertook his medical training at University of New South Wales and ophthalmology training in the Sydney Eye Hospital Network. He is currently the senior ophthalmology registrar at Westmead Hospital and is planning to undertake his surgical retina fellowship overseas in Taiwan next year. He is a clinical associate lecture at University of Sydney.
Photos provided courtesy of Professor Paul Mitchell.
- Hartnett ME, Baehr W, Le YZ. Diabetic retinopathy, an overview. Vision research. 2017;139:1-6.
- Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Diabetes in pregnancy 2014–2015. Bulletin no 146 Cat no CDK 7 Canberra: AIHW. 2019.
- Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Diabetes in pregnancy: its impact on Australian women and their babies. Diabetes series no 14 Cat no CVD 52 Canberra: AIHW. 2010.
- Morrison JL, Hodgson LA, Lim LL, Al-Qureshi S. Diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: a review. Clinical & experimental ophthalmology. 2016;44(4):321-34.
- Chew EY, Mills JL, Metzger BE, Remaley NA, Jovanovic- Peterson L, Knopp RH, et al. Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy: The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Diabetes care. 1995;18(5):631-7.
- Lövestam-Adrian M, Agardh CD, Åberg A, Agardh E. Pre-eclampsia is a potent risk factor for deterioration of retinopathy during pregnancy in type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetic Medicine. 1997;14(12):1059-65.
- Auger N, Fraser WD, Paradis G, Healy-Profitós J, Hsieh A, Rhéaume M-A. Preeclampsia and long-term risk of maternal retinal disorders. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2017;129(1):42-9.


Custer’s first post war command ended when his Michigan Cavalry was disbanded after a mutiny, which was partly caused by his heavy-handed discipline. Many volunteer units were pushing for disbandment but Custer had reintroduced the lash as a form of discipline. He mustered out of voluntary service in Feb 1866 and reverted to his army rank of captain but he still liked to be referred to as General Custer. He made some moves to becoming the Commander of the Mexican cavalry and was offered but refused command of the 9th Negro Cavalry and in July 1866 took command as a Lt-Colonel of the newly formed 7th Cavalry, its Colonels being mainly on detached duties.
In early 1867 while on a recon mission Custer’s behaviour led to a courts martial and he was found guilty of absenting himself from his command, and using some troopers as an escort while on unofficial business, abandoning two men reported killed on the march and failing to pursue the Indians responsible, failing recover the bodies, and ordering a party going after deserters to shoot to kill which resulted in 1 death and 3 wounded, and finally unjustifiable cruelty to those wounded. He was sentenced to suspension from rank and pay for a year, but a lack of a replacement meant he was returned to duty early. The incident caused much bad feeling among the regiment’s officers for several years. The regiment saw minor skirmishes against the native Indians for the next few years. Custer didn’t see any action but published exaggerated accounts of the 7th cavalry’s actions. In November 1868 the 7th cavalry fought at the battle of Washita during which over a hundred Indians were killed including some women and children which the Cheyenne nicknamed Custer ‘Squaw killer” for. Custer’s incompetence led to some deaths during the campaign, which also increased ill feeling towards him.
In spring 1873 the Regiment was moved to Dakota under command of Col D.S Stanley at fort Rice. While protecting some railway engineers the regiment skirmished with local Indians and during these Custer was charged with insubordination but his friends persuaded the Col to drop the charges. In 1874 a ‘Scientific’ expedition was sent to the Black Hill country with Custeartizanr leading the escort of ten companies of the 7th, some infantry and scouts and a detachment of Gatling guns. He was charged with recon of a site for a new fort by the size of his force suggests another agenda. Some have accused Custer of spreading stories of a gold find and although the force was too strong the Indians attacked the gaggle of lawless prospectors that followed. In 1875 the government tried to get the Indians to sell the area but by 1876 this had been abandoned and a military campaign was planned. The attacks on the trespassing prospectors were used as an excuse and the campaign was under General A Terry with Custer commanding the whole of the 7th Cavalry 600 men.


The most beneficial exercise to prevent varicose veins is walking.
Although rarely serious, varicose veins can be distressing and feel very uncomfortable.
And as one in three people develop the unsightly blue or purple bulging veins in their legs, it’s worth knowing what causes them and how to treat them.
The problem veins can occur at any age, even adolescence, when valves in the leg or pelvic veins don’t work properly. After reaching the foot, blood needs to travel back up the legs to the heart, and the valves are designed to open and close one way to let the blood flow, and to stop it going backwards. But if the tiny valves are weakened or damaged, blood pools in the veins, causing them to stretch and bulge – sometimes visibly through the skin as a varicose vein.
The veins look blue because they contain deoxygenated blood on its way back to the lungs to be reoxygenated.
Currently, a wide variety of minimally invasive treatment options for varicose veins are available.


Checklist- Instructional (RTF 20KB)
The purpose is to tell the reader how to do or make something.
The information is presented in a logical sequence of events which is broken up into small sequenced steps. These texts are usually written in the present tense.
The most common example of a procedural text is a recipe.
Types of Procedural Texts
There are different procedural texts for different purposes:-
- Texts that explain how something works or how to use instruction/operation manuals, for example, how to use the video, the computer, the tape recorder, the photocopier, the fax.
- Texts that instruct how to do a particular activity, for example, recipes, rules for games, science experiments, road safety rules.
- Texts that deal with human behaviour, for example, how to live happily, how to succeed.
- Goal - clearly stated (often in the heading).
- Materials - listed in order of use.
- Method - the steps are chronological and are numbered or listed.
- Recipes usually have the information presented in at least two basic groups: ingredients and method.
- Games instructions usually include instructions on how to play, rules of the game, method of scoring, and the number of players.
- Scientific experiments usually include the purpose of the experiment, equipment, procedure, observations and conclusion.
- Focuses on generalised people rather than individuals (first you take, rather than first I take).
- The reader is often referred to in a general way, ie. pronouns (you or one).
- Action verbs (imperative verbs), (cut, fold, twist, hold etc).
- Simple present tense (you cut, you fold, you mix).
- Linking words to do with time (first, when, then) are used to connect the text.
- Detailed information on how (carefully, with the scissors); where (from the top); when (after it has set) .
- Detailed factual description (shape, size, colour, amount).
Wing Jan, L. Write Ways: Modelling Writing Forms. (1991). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Procedural Texts page 40.
Derewianka, B. Exploring How Texts Work. (1990). Sydney: Primary Teaching Association.
Instructions page 23.
Knapp, P. & Watkins, M. Context-Text-Grammar (1994) Text Productions.
The genre of instructing page 75.
Ministry of Education. The Learner as a Reader NZ: Learning Media.
Close Reading - Instructions page 125, 126.
Published on: 30 May 2009


Organize and annotate Web sites for use in lessons.
Lighthouses in the United States
Dec 4, 2006
This track is designed to introduce students in the middle grades to the history and trivia regarding lighthouses in the United States. Through experiences encountered throughout this track, students will gain an understanding of the importance lighthouses played and are still playing today. Students will be able to gain statistical knowledge pertaining to seaside beacons and the involvement of the National Coast Guard and National Parks.


The following article gives information about the very uncomfortable condition of asthma.
It is true that modern society and pollution has increased asthma
levels around the world but you can fight back and help your body increase
is defences against asthma. Read on for
Firstly, what are some asthma symptoms?
Asthma is a condition in which the muscles of the bronchi (the air tubes of the lung) contract in spasms, obstructing the flow of air and making breathing very difficult. In fact breathing out is also very difficult and often more difficult than breathing in.
Asthma can often be triggered by a number of factors, including allergens (house pets, dust etc.), pollution, infection, emotional trauma or physical exertion. Some of the symptoms of asthma can be:
- difficulty in breathing,
- an increase in pulse rate,
- wheezing-especially on breathing out,
- a dry cough,
- a sensation of tightness around the chest.
The reason that brochospasms (contracting lung muscles) can be triggered by allergies is that histamine, the chemical most responsible for allergy symptoms, seems to play a role in asthma attacks as well.
Cigarette smoke, industrial chemicals, aspirin and indoor pollution amongst other things can also trigger an attack.
Two types of asthma
Asthma is divided into two categories:
intrinsic (meaning inside or within), for which there is no identifiable cause for the attacks and
extrinsic, which is caused by something (external factors usually inhaled) that triggers an attack.
Duration of an asthma attack
An asthma attack may be brief or last for several days. Typically, an attack begins within minutes after exposure to a triggering agent. Some patients have only occasional or "seasonal" symptoms, while others have daily symptoms.
Asthma is a life threatening condition in a number of cases. Many people have died due to a severe attack.
While certain herbs, home remedies or natural medication may help in relieving the condition, it is imperative to listen to your health practitioner.
If you are on medication, natural alternatives can assist, but should not be taken as a complete substitute. Believe it or not, research has shown that coffee, tea, caffeinated drinks, cocoa and chocolate all contain caffeine as well as other compounds that may help fend off asthma.
Coffee has been shown to be a potent bronchodilator. If caught without your medication, a few cups of coffee could assist in an emergency.
All the products above contain natural anti-asthmatic compounds - theobromine and theophylline.
These chemicals help stop bronchospasms and open constricted bronchial passages. There are of course variables depending on the strength of the brew etc. But on average coffee is the most concentrated form of caffeine, followed by tea, cola drink & cocoa then a chocolate bar. However there are side effects to high consumption of the above, and these should be used only in moderation, and/or in an emergency. Coffee addiction is not advocated.
Minimise exposure to dust and chemical
You should try to reduce levels of dust around your home and workplace. Dust can trigger an asthma attack very quickly.
You should consider getting special anti-asthma bedding. This includes pillows and special bed sheets which "seal" your mattress when sleeping. Dust mites and bed mites and the droppings from these creatures can be very allergic to asthmatics and efforts spent reducing them are usually well spent.


China Pursues Bold Solutions
This summer, the journal PLOS ONE published a chilling analysis of publicly available air-quality data collected by a nationwide network of sensors maintained by the Chinese government. Levels of ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and other airborne contaminants are so high, the scientists found, that they are responsible for 17 percent of all fatalities in China—4,000 deaths every day.
Amid the stark findings, Chinese scholars and government officials alike have expressed their commitment to understanding the effects of climate change on health and planning for future climate-related risks. To speed their efforts, Patrick Kinney, ScD, a professor of Environmental Health Sciences and director of the Mailman School’s Climate and Health Program (CHP), is helping to establish a joint research and teaching program on air pollution, climate change, and human health with Tsinghua University and the Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning.
Working alongside Tiantian Li, PhD, a former postdoctoral researcher with CHP now employed at the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Kinney will also estimate future temperature-related mortality rates in China using global climate models and projected rates of greenhouse gas emissions. Through such efforts, Kinney hopes to encourage integrated climate and air-quality planning, efforts which will allow the Chinese to simultaneously address the immediate effects of their high levels of air pollution and the long-term impact of their emissions—the latter being a matter of concern not only for China, but for the rest of the world as well. “If we care about controlling climate change,” he says, “we care about having China do it well.”None of his projects would be possible, of course, if the Chinese government weren’t increasingly willing to confront major public health issues head-on—something that Kinney notes is rarely reported by the Western press, which tends to focus on the severity of China’s problems while ignoring the search for solutions. Nor, for that matter, would such collaborations be underway if Chinese investigators didn’t possess what Kinney describes as a “thirst for knowledge and collaboration.”
Projects like Kinney’s—in which academics, healthcare professionals, and government officials in the most populous nation on earth join forces with American university professors to explore issues ranging from air pollution and climate change to urban planning and hospital management—have been underway for years. The opportunities to address such internationally relevant challenges have never been greater. Industrialization, urbanization, and the graying of China’s population of 1.4 billion are transforming the country in ways that will be felt for generations. “China is about to have as many older adults as the United States has people,” says Mailman School Dean Linda P. Fried, MD, MPH. “Public health wisdom has never seen more fertile ground.”
For Mailman School scholars, China’s synergy of economic and demographic shifts affords a unique opportunity to apply public health scholarship. In 2014, Fried made two trips to China—laying the groundwork for a broad initiative to strengthen the School’s relationships with Chinese academics and government officials and to furnish scientific evidence in support of such policy issues as building healthier cities, controlling environmental pollution, and transitioning to an aging world—all priorities for the U.S. as well. “China is unique in its recognition of what its leading challenges are,” says Fried, “and its ability to enact bold solutions based on science and evidence.”
On her 12-day trip in March 2014, Fried met with hematologist Chen Zhu, MD, PhD, formerly China’s minister of health and now the vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, and participated in an urban health roundtable. In October, Fried attended the U.S. China Health Summit in Nanjing.
This year, she traveled to Dalian for the World Economic Forum’s Meeting of the New Champions, previewing a project underway by Mailman School faculty and scientists at Nanjing University to analyze the return on investment of air-quality improvements in China. During the same trip, Fried traveled to Beijing for a Columbia Day hosted by Tsinghua University, a leading research institution known as the MIT of China. As part of the festivities, Fried and university administrators signed an agreement committing Tsinghua and the Mailman School to pursue joint initiatives related to environmental health. And next year in Shanghai, the Mailman School will co-host the Columbia-Fudan Global Summit on Population Aging.
Fried cautions that it may be too early to speak of results. But molecular epidemiologists Deliang Tang, MD, DrPH ’96, and Frederica Perera, MPH ’76, DrPH ’82, PhD ’12, both professors of Environmental Health Sciences, have already demonstrated the impact that investigations by American scientists can have in support of policy decisions in China.
Working with colleagues at Chongqing Medical University, Tang and Perera, founding director of the Columbia Center for Children’s Environmental Health, recruited two cohorts of women in the city of Tongliang: One group had become pregnant while a coal-burning power plant was operating in the center of town; the other, after the plant was shuttered. Children born to mothers in the second group showed lower levels of pollutant exposure and higher levels of a key brain protein. Furthermore, the researchers no longer saw the significant adverse effects of pollutant exposure on cognitive development that was observed in the first cohort. The study, published by PLOS ONE in 2013, demonstrated not only the harm to children caused by high levels of air pollution but also the benefits of reducing it.
As reported in December 2014 in the journal Environment International, Tang and Perera subsequently ran another serial cohort study in Taiyuan, the capital of Shanxi province, where the government had enacted a series of policies designed to improve air quality. Together with colleagues at Shanxi Medical University and the Fudan School of Public Health, Tang and Perera demonstrated that falling levels of air pollution over a ten-year period were associated with fewer hospital admissions and premature deaths. The economic impact of reduced death and disability, they found, translated to several billion yuan.
Research in both cities continues. Already, Tang says, Tongliang has become a textbook case for environmental health interventions in China, and Chinese officials now hold up Taiyuan as an example of the gains that can be achieved through sound environmental policies. “The most exciting thing,” he says, “is that you can see them using our data in their debates.”
Chinese officials have sought out data to inform other thorny policy debates, as well. Peter Muennig, MD, MPH ’98, an associate professor of Health Policy and Management, has advised government officials on healthcare reform in Beijing and on urban planning tactics to promote health in Sichuan province. He has also designed an ambitious set of randomized clinical trials to test the effects of housing on health status and child development. Over time, 2.5 million lower-middle-income families in Chongqing will participate in a housing lottery for 1.2 million units, with the winners moving into government-subsidized residential developments with health-promoting features like exercise facilities and green space. Together with colleagues at Chongqing University, Muennig and his team plan to use molecular assays, questionnaires, and other methods to explore how social policy and the built environment influence the well-being of children and their families. This past spring, Muennig, who speaks fluent Mandarin, returned to China, where he’s been building a local client base for the Mailman School’s Global Research and Analytics for Population Health (GRAPH), which aims to use big data and computational modeling techniques to optimize public health investments on a country-by-country basis.
Michael Sparer, PhD, JD, chair of the Department of Health Policy and Management and a founding director of GRAPH, has also turned his eye toward tactics the Chinese might deploy to improve their health systems. In 2014, Sparer and physician David P. Roye—founder of International Healthcare Leadership, a nonprofit that gives Chinese healthcare professionals the tools and training to improve health services back home—organized the China Healthcare Leadership Training Program, which brought 30 senior Chinese healthcare executives to New York for a three-week course on topics that included health policy and management. Sparer, who attended a follow-up symposium in Suzhou this past May, hopes to make the program an annual event. He’s already developing a similar program with Zhejiang University, in Hangzhou, with help from Joan Kaufman, ScD, former director of the Columbia Global Centers East Asia and a senior lecturer in Health Policy and Management.
In another project, Sparer has been investigating how lessons from the American healthcare reform experience might prove useful to the Chinese, and vice versa. In 2009, the Chinese government introduced its own comprehensive reforms. Implementing them has meant confronting many of the same issues that have emerged as part of healthcare reforms in the U.S., such as balancing regulation against the role of markets. The goal of such comparisons, however, is not to suggest that American solutions be implemented in China, says Sparer. Rather, it’s to fashion the right fit with China’s own culture and politics, all while learning from solutions that the Chinese have already developed.
The work of Lawrence Yang, PhD, also features cross-cultural exchange based on mutual respect and shared learning. For more than 15 years, Yang, an associate professor of Epidemiology with training in clinical psychology and anthropology, has been investigating psychosis among Chinese and Chinese-Americans with colleagues in China and the U.S. Currently, along with collaborators at Harvard, he is seeking strategies to reduce stigma among the families of people with psychosis in Shanghai and Beijing using an intervention that he first developed for Chinese immigrants in California and New York. To extend the effort, he’s in talks to develop a national anti-stigma program in China. (Negative associations and stereotypes about mental illness can be barriers to effective treatment and tend to be especially high among Asians and Asian-Americans.)
In another study—with colleagues at Harvard Medical Center and the Shanghai Mental Health Center—Yang is investigating the public health implications of identifying Chinese who are at high risk of psychosis, in hopes that clinicians might be able to prevent the disorder from emerging in the first place. In a third project, he is analyzing a vast data set collected by a Candian psychiatrist that includes information on an unusually large number of untreated schizophrenics among the adult Chinese population. “We don’t know anything about what untreated schizophrenia looks like,” Yang says. “It’s a chance to rewrite our understanding of psychosis.”
As with the many other initiatives underway by Mailman School faculty partnering with Chinese collaborators, Yang’s work involves a wide network of participants and offers bene-fits all around. Perhaps most important, its relevance expands outward in a series of ever-widening circles encompassing scientists, public health systems, and ordinary citizens around the globe.
In an era when one nation’s policies governing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, healthcare, and urban design can have repercussions far from home, research underway in China could have profound implications for the entire global community. “China’s decisions,” says Fried, “affect the rest of the world.”
ALEXANDER GELFAND covers science, health, and other topics from his home in New York City.


There is actually a National Pigeon Day which is celebrated April 11 of every year. As messy and noisy as pigeons can be they have had great significance and impact in history. Firstly, they were used a means of communication.. carrier pigeons saving thousands of lives over the years even in World War’s I and II.
Pigeons have eyes on the side of their heads. One of the reasons they bob their head is to give them depth perception. The Pigeon Control Resources Center says: the pigeon’s eyes function much better with stationary images and therefore as the pigeon takes a step forward the head is temporarily left behind. The next step jerks the head forward again and so on. This allows the bird to correctly orient itself.
And another Eye Didn’t Know That Pigeon Fun Fact, they can see millions of different hues.


What to expect, how to soothe, and other things you need to know about your baby's teething.
Teething is a routine part of child development which can be uncomfortable for both your baby and you. Here are a few pointers to help guide you through the process:
What to expect
Most infants sprout their first tooth at six to eight months, with the the last of the molars appearing between 20 to 30 months. Due to the discomfort and swelling, your infant may experience increased drooling, sleep disturbance, and crankiness. Teething is often blamed for an onslaught of other problems -- coughing, diarrhea, rashes, fever -- but a recent study found those maladies are unrelated much of the time. "Teething symptoms should only happen during the few days surrounding the eruption of each tooth," says New York City pediatrician Paula Ebirt, M.D. So if they don't pass that quickly, your child may be sick with something else.
To help soothe pain, try teething rings. Stiff plastic or silver ones may exacerbate the pain if clamped down on too aggressively. Some soft plastic or liquid-filled rings may be frozen for extra comfort, but avoid the kind with small objects floating inside. Even gnawing on a wet washcloth provides relief. You may also consider a child-specific teething gel, acetaminophen, or ibuprofen.
Once your child's teeth break through the surface, wipe the gums off after feeding with a warm, wet washcloth -- particularly if your child is eating solid food. A swallow of water after a meal also helps prevent dental disease.
If your baby hasn't cut a tooth on the usual timetable, don't be alarmed. Like other milestones such as walking and talking, every child has his own pace. It may be as late as 14 months before a tooth will poke through. A family history of cleft palate or ectodermal dysplasia, a hair and nail growth disorder, may prevent the growth of some or all of the primary teeth. In rare cases, delayed eruption may be the result of rickets, a vitamin D deficiency that has been linked to exclusive breastfeeding. If your child hasn't begun teething by 18 months, see your pediatrician to rule out these possibilities.


Departmental Honors Project Title
Date of Award
College of Liberal Arts
In the late nineteenth century, Minneapolis underwent a dramatic transformation and became known as the flour milling center of the world. Powered by the Falls of St. Anthony on the the Mississippi River, aided by technological advancements, and promoted by the expansion of railroads, dozens of flour mills were built, including those of the Washburn Crosby Company. This company, under the leadership of Governor Cadwallader Washburn of Wisconsin, exemplified many of the developments that had brought the Minneapolis industry to renown. Several historians such as William Edgar, Lucile Kane, Robert Frame, and Charles Kuhlmann have published works on the significance of flour milling in Minneapolis. These publications have established a number of factors behind the flour milling industry’s success in Minneapolis including the effects of hydropower, technological innovations, and progressive ideologies. However, the influence of the leading company in the city, the Washburn Crosby Company, has only marginally been discussed in these works. This then raises an important question: How did Cadwallader Washburn, as the head of the Washburn Crosby Company, impact the growth and success of the Minneapolis flour milling industry? To answer this question, I analyzed the papers of Governor Washburn and other leading figures in the flour industry in addition to the issues of two nineteenth century trade journals, the Northwestern Miller and the American Miller. I conclude that Washburn profoundly influenced the Minneapolis flour milling industry in three primary ways: the implementation of modern milling technology in his company, the organization of railroads in Minneapolis, and the expansion of flour export markets in Europe. This analysis of Washburn’s visionary influence on the industry is important in that both Washburn and his mills played a significant role in the rise and development of early Minneapolis as a city and as an international flour milling center.
Schmidt, Alex, "The Washburn-Crosby Company: Cadwallader Washburn’s Vision for Minneapolis Flour Milling" (2018). Departmental Honors Projects. 69.


Varicose veins are twisted, enlarged veins. Any superficial vein may become varicosed, but the veins most commonly affected are those in your legs. That’s because standing and walking upright increases the pressure in the veins of your lower body.
For many people, varicose veins and spider veins — a common, mild variation of varicose veins — are simply a cosmetic concern. For other people, varicose veins can cause aching pain and discomfort. Sometimes varicose veins lead to more-serious problems.
Treatment may involve self-care measures or procedures by your doctor to close or remove veins.
Read more at Mayo ClinicShare


I recently came into possession of one the Philadelphia School District Parent Teacher Brochures, which breaks down the goals that each Philadelphia School District student should be able to meet by the end of each grade level. Since I'm homeschooling my 5th grade daughter, I was particularly interested in the goals for fifth grade. And I was shocked, shocked, to find myself more baffled than enlightened after reading through these goals.
The language arts goals are all about process, purposes, and genres, with a developmentally inappropriate assignment thrown in in the form of a research project:
•Continue to build a reading, writing and speaking vocabularyNot a word about specific reading skills (vocabulary level, sentence complexity, making deductions and bridging inferences within the context of the text) or writing skills (grammar and punctuation, sentence construction, paragraph construction).
•Read to learn new information
•Read a wide range of stories, books and magazines for enjoyment
•Understand a problem or conflict in stories or books and talk or write about an appropriate solution
•Make connections between stories and texts that they have read and the world around them
•Tell and/ or write a summary that gives the main idea of what they read and the most important details or events
•Complete a research project including a written report
•Write stories with several paragraphs
•Write poems, plays, and reports
As for the math goals, most are vague ("compute" and "find the relationships"), easy (locating numbers on a number line; comparing numbers; sorting shapes), and emphasize verbal explanations over mathematical performance. Four out of the 13 goals are about data and probability. Here the developmentally inappropriate goal (especially given what isn't covered here) involves algebra:
• Compute and find the relationships using whole numbers, fractions, and decimalsNot a word about which computation skills the child should develop, what sorts of numbers, fractions, and decimals the child should be able to do computations on (perhaps only the "friendly" fractions and decimals), and what level of computational fluency the child should have. Not a word about multiplication tables, long division, repeating decimals, ratios and percents, and multi-step word problems.
• Locate positive and negative numbers on a number line (integers)
• Explain to you what prime numbers, factors, multiples and compositie numbers mean
• Compare numbers (equal to, greater than, and less than)
• Collect, organize, display, and analyze data in a variety of ways
• Find mean (average), median (middle number), mode (most frequent) and range (difference between largest and smallest) of data
• Predict or determine all possible combinations and outcomes, such as, "How many outfits can be created with six shirts and eight pants?"
• Calculate the chance of a simple event happening
• Use a variety of methods to solve for unknown quantities in simple one-step algebra equations (solve for x)
• Sort polygons according to their properties and angles, such as triangles, rhombi, and parallelograms
• Define and compare perimeter (distance around) and area (amount covered inside) of shapes
• Understand properties of a circle
• Explain how they solved a math problem in their own words.
Turning to science, only one substantive topic is mentioned (solar energy) and goals pertaining to it remain vague ("build an understanding;" "recognize"). Most the goals pertain to process rather than achievement, many of them involving developmentally inappropriate activities that wrongly assume that children can function as little scientists:
• Develop skills that will emphasize the five senses while doing scienceIt would seem that, "goals" aside, the Philadelphia Schools are avoiding any commitment to help your 5th grader increase his or her vocabulary, reading level, sentence construction skills, or computational fluency with "unfriendly" numbers; or learn any scientific content other than a few vague propositions about solar energy.
• Use prior knowledge when making observations
• Make predictions and hypotheses based on observations
• Design investigations with a control and one or two variables
• Gather, organize and display data independently
• Build an understanding of how solar energy is transferred
• Recognize that the sun is the main source of energy for people and they use it in various ways
• Design and conduct experiments with variables. Students should be able to explain cause and effect
• Study the relationship in an ecosystem that shows the relationship of an organism to its environment
• Conduct hands-on investigations to discover and understand their world
• Record observations in science notebooks


5 Myths About Vaccines
This is the second post in a series about vaccination. In the first post I explained why I believe in global vaccination. In this post I describe several common myths about vaccines that may prevent people from vaccinating their children.
1) Vaccines cause autism. As mentioned in my other post, no link between autism and vaccines has ever been found, despite multiple studies in many countries. The original article that suggested a link between autism and one vaccine was retracted due to dishonesty and falsification of data by the scientist/doctor that reported the study.
2) The flu shot gave me the flu. People tell me all the time that when they got the flu shot it gave them the flu. There is no way the flu shot can give anyone the flu. The flu shot is not a live vaccine – it has parts of flu proteins in it, but it is not infectious. Like any vaccine, the flu shot can give you side effects, such as fever and fatigue, because it is stimulating your immune response, but it is not the flu.
3) Childhood vaccines are dangerous because they contain mercury. Thimerosal is a mercury-containing compound that is used as a preservative in vaccines. It is used in vaccines to prevent contamination and growth of bacteria and fungus in multi-dose vials. Some types of mercury-containing compounds can damage the nervous system. Although no studies show that thimerosal in vaccines causes damage to children, thimerosal has been removed from all childhood vaccines given to children <6 years of age in the US, with the exception of the flu vaccine. Thimerosal is still used in vaccines in other countries where multi-dose vials are critical to successful vaccination programs.
4) It is bad for kids to receive so many vaccines at one time. Parents are often concerned about the vaccine schedule – sometimes they are concerned about children receiving vaccine combinations or they are concerned about the number of vaccines given during the first few years of life. However, neither of these concerns have been upheld. Studies conducted by the Advisory Council on Immunization Practices and the American Academy of Pediatrics have shown that combination vaccines are just as effective as single vaccines, do not increase the number of side effects and do not change the normal childhood immune system.
5) My kids do not need to be vaccinated because the diseases are no longer in our country. I find this kind of thinking particularly dangerous. In the US we are very lucky that most serious childhood illnesses have been reduced to very low levels due to vaccination. However some of these diseases still circulate freely in other parts of the world and can be brought into the US. Further, these diseases can easily become an epidemic in the US if there are large numbers of unvaccinated people. By vaccinating our kids we directly protect them from disease and indirectly protect the people around them by preventing spread of disease.


Helping rebuild Timor-Leste.
When Timor-Leste became the world's newest country in 2002, its future was bleak.
Following decades of conflict between Indonesian forces and local guerrillas, much of the state’s infrastructure had been destroyed. Many of its administrators had fled. Its less than one million people survive on a per capita GNI of around $750, one of the lowest in the world.
Japan, together with the United Nations and other international donors, for several years has been helping Timor-Leste to get back on its feet and bring a degree of stability to the fragile country.
Currently, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is involved in a series of projects to train newly inducted government officials, strengthen the country’s education section and its roads network, to improve coffee and rice output.
A brief look at one of the world’s newest and poorest countries.
Reconstructing a government virtually from scratch after most administrators fled widespread violence.
The country needs at least 50,000 engineers. Japanese experts help to teach the teachers.
A martial arts discipline has some unexpected results. For one woman it has changed her life.
Helping to improve the yields of rice, one of the staple foods in Timor-Leste, and improving the lot of farmers at the same time.
Mechanics, drivers and administrators are in short supply to maintain the country’s road infrastructure.
After a promising export drive to Japan, coffee growers face a disappointing harvest this year.


Our focus is on identifying the learning needs of our students and working together to
create learning goals in each subject.. At the start of Term 1, in our classrooms, teachers are working on setting learning goals with students and classes to ensure steady and achievable improvement throughout the year.At home this would be an ideal time to review, report and talk about setting goals that 'stretch' your daughter's abilities but are also realistic in the pursuit of excellence. It is important that our goals are set in the “Goldilocks" zone: not too simple and not too difficult. Too simple and there is no effort required; too challenging and it is frustrating.
The question we ask in the classroom is - what is the next level for this student and how can we help them to achieve it? In our classrooms teachers will be talking to students about strategies that help them learn and what they identify as their challenges. Learning should provide challenge, it does require effort. These discussions help the teacher choose which combination of strategies will best suit the needs of the students in their classroom to provide the right amount of challenge and support.
Research on learning effectiveness (Hattie, 2017 ) states that two of the most effective impacts on student improvement are: the teacher's estimate of the student's achievement potential; and the self-reported grade prediction from the student. This is a powerful combination so it is vital that we start the year in alignment. If we strengthen this with support from home, we have already begun to achieve our college theme for the year: Seeking Connectedness by working together towards clearly defined and achievable learning goals.
Looking forward, the end of the year should bring a wonderful opportunity to celebrate not only progress, but the effort it takes to make it happen. Proud moments for our students are earned through hard work. We can celebrate the effort and guide through the challenges when we have a shared understanding of what progressing through learning looks like for each student.
Mrs Cara Robinson-Taylor Academic Leader: Learning and Teaching


When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the worry in the West was what would happen to that country’s thousands of nuclear weapons. Would “loose” nukes fall into the hands of terrorists, rogue states, criminals – and plunge the world into a nuclear nightmare? Fortunately, scientists and technical experts in both the U.S. and the former Soviet Union rolled up their sleeves to manage and contain the nuclear problem in the dissolving Communist country.
One of the leaders in this relationship was Stanford engineering professor Siegfried Hecker, who served as a director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory before coming to Stanford as a senior fellow at the Center for International Security and Cooperation. He is a world-renowned expert in plutonium science, global threat reduction and nuclear security.
Hecker cited one 1992 meeting with Russian scientists in Moscow who were clearly concerned about the risks. In his new book, Doomed to Cooperate: How American and Russian scientists joined forces to avert some of the greatest post-Cold War nuclear dangers, Hecker quoted one Russian expert as saying, “We now need to be concerned about terrorism.”
Earning both scientific and political trust was a key, said Hecker. The Russians were proud of their scientific accomplishments and highly competent in the nuclear business – and they sought to show this to the Americans scientists, who became very confident in their Russian counterparts’ technical capabilities as they learned more about their nuclear complex and toured the labs.
But the nuclear experts faced an immense problem. The Soviets had about 39,000 nuclear weapons in their country and in Eastern Europe and about 1.5 million kilograms of plutonium and highly enriched uranium (the fuel for nuclear bombs), Hecker said. Consider that the bomb that the U.S. dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki in 1945 was only six kilograms of plutonium, he added. Meanwhile, the U.S. had about 25,000 nuclear weapons in the early 1990s.
Hecker and the rest of the Americans were deeply concerned about the one million-plus Russians who worked in nuclear facilities. Many faced severe financial pressure in an imploding society and thus constituted a huge potential security risk. “The challenge that Russia faced with its economy collapsing was enormous,” he said in an interview.
The Russian scientists, Hecker said, were motivated to act responsibly because they realized the awful destruction that a single nuclear bomb could wreak. Hecker noted that one Russian scientist told him, “We arrived in the nuclear century all in one boat, and a movement by anyone will affect everyone.” Hecker noted, “Therefore, you know, we were doomed to work together to cooperate.”
All of this depended on the two governments involved easing nuclear tensions while allowing the scientists to collaborate. In short order, the scientists developed mutual respect and trust to address the loose nukes scenario.
The George H.W. Bush administration launched nuclear initiatives to put the Russian government at ease. For example, it took the nuclear weapons off U.S. Navy surface ships and some of its nuclear weapons off alert to allow the Russians to do the same. The U.S. Congress passed the Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction legislation, which helped fund some of the loose nuke containment efforts.
While those were positive measures, Hecker said, it was ultimately the cooperation among scientists, what they called lab-to-lab-cooperation, that allowed the two former superpower enemies to “get past the sensitivity barriers” and make “the world a safer place.”
Since the end of the Cold War, no significant nuclear event has occurred as a result of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and its nuclear complex, Hecker noted.
One lesson from it all, Hecker said, is that government policymakers need to understand that scientists and engineers can work together and make progress toward solving difficult, dangerous problems.
“We don’t want to lose the next generation from understanding what can actually be done by working together,” he said. “So, we want to demonstrate to them, Look, this is what was done when the scientists were interested and enthusiastic and when the government gave us enough room to be able to do that.”
Hecker said this scientific cooperation extended to several thousand scientists and engineers at the Russian sites and at U.S. nuclear labs – primarily the three defense labs: Lawrence Livermore, Los Alamos, and Sandia national laboratories. Many technical exchanges and visits between scientists in Russia and the United States took place.
He recalled visiting some of the nuclear sites in Russian cities shrouded by mystery. “These cities were so secret, they didn’t even appear on Soviet maps.”
When the Soviet Union collapsed, the nature of the nuclear threat changed, Hecker said. The threat before was one of mutual annihilation, but now the threat changed to what would happen if nuclear assets were lost, stolen or somehow evaded the control of the government.
“From an American perspective we referred to these as the ‘four loose nuclear dangers,'” he said.
This included securing the loose nukes in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe; preventing nuclear materials or bomb fuel from getting into the wrong hands; the human element involving the people who worked in the Soviet nuclear complex; and finally, the “loose exports” problem of someone trying to sell nuclear materials or technical components to overseas groups like terrorists or rogue nations.
For Hecker, this is not just an American story. It is about a selfless reconciliation with a longtime enemy for the greater global good, a relationship not corrupted by ideological or nationalistic differences, but one reflective of mutual interests of the highest order.
“The primary reason,” he said, “why we didn’t have a nuclear catastrophe was the Russian nuclear workers and the Russian nuclear officials. Their dedication, their professionalism, their patriotism for their country was so strong that it carried them through these times in the 1990s when they often didn’t get paid for six months at a time … The nuclear complex did its job through the most trying times. And it was a time when the U.S. government took crucial conciliatory measures with the new Russian Federation and gave us scientists the support to help make the world a safer place.”