A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STRING QUARTET UP TO BEETHOVEN
If we consider the number of instruments that gave the string quartet its name, we might, perhaps, ask ourselves: what might have motivated musicians and composers to select this particular number of instruments for this new addition to the various kinds of chamber music compositions? An interesting radio program on the history of the string quartet that was broadcast in my 'home town' Munich by the Bavarian Radio program Bayern IV, on September 23, 2000, at 3 p.m., the contents of which I became aware of, entertained its listeners with several analogies: the narrator pointed out the symbolic character of the number four in nature, such as in the four elements (air, earth, fire and water), or the four human tempers (of the choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic and sanguine types), to the four directions and many other 'groups of four' in nature, but also to the symbolism of this number in music tradition such as the four human voice ranges of soprano, alto, tenor and bass
These interesting introductory radio program remarks provided some food for thought with respect to this basic question. However, anyone who is really interested in the early beginnings and the development of the string quartet will have more questions than this one! I hope that this brief overview will answer some of these and open the door for us to the topic of the creation histories of all of Beethoven's string quartets. .
Let me openly share with you on how I went about finding those first traces:
With respect to this, I had two initial trains of thought: While Haydn is certainly considered the composer who contributed the most to the actual development of the classical string quartet from the middle of the 18th century on, this compositional category could also not have 'fallen from the sky'. How far back in time would I be able to trace its development?
Therefore, I would be well-advised to armor myself with as much general and Haydn-specific information as possible. I did so by selecting the overview of the string quartet in vol. 18 of Grove's Dictionary of Music in its 1980 edition, but also other general material listed below, and at least two Haydn biographies (also as listed below). While Grove places the early beginnings of the development of the string quartet into the early 18th century, it was in Geiringer's Haydn biography that I found a different presentation. In his biography, Karl Geiringer points out that:
"The author has attempted to prove (10) that the origin of the string quartet is to be found in the four-part instrumental compositions by Austrian and German composers of the early seventeenth century, such as works by Peuerl, Posch, Schein, Hausmann, Franck, and Staden" (Geiringer: 229).
Where those German and Austrian composers and musicians of the early 17th century took their inspiration from can not be gleaned from Geiringer's remarks and would require further investigation. I am also not sure what Grove's reasons for not entertaining this possibility are. Grove could have either mentioned and rejected it on the basis of later findings, let it stand as a possibility that would warrant further investigation or confirmed it. While we can not take this possibility as a certainty on the basis of one writer's discussion of it, we can also consider the cultural and economic situation of central Europe during the late 16th and early 17th centuries and find that due to the former lively economic exchange between Italy and Germany in the Middle Ages that was gradually losing its importance just about at that time, the new ideas and concept in music that were mainly developed in Italy found their way across the Alps to provide many a fruitful stimulation to musical life in Southern Germany (see, for example, Orlando di Lasso's work in Munich). Thus it does not seem entirely unlikely that such stimulation might also have led to this early development of the forerunner of the string quartet. As shall be seen shortly, this development found an abrupt halt around 1620. The outbreak of the 30-Year-War might not have been the least reason for this halt.
Geiringer explains that these compositions had been explicitly written for string instruments, that the thematic material was evenly spread between the four instruments and that it was based on simple thematic material of folk song character. However, around 1620, this new form was changed into a trio sonata due to the degeneration of the tenor voice that had been played by the viola. This trio sonata was then executed by two violins and a figured bass, played by a violoncello and a keyboard instrument that improvised chords to fill the gap between the string instruments and the bass. As Geiringer further points out, this trio sonata could be considered a keyboard instrument quartet.
The String Quartet in the First Half of the 18th Century (up to 1740)
For nearly a century, this trio sonata has held its position as the main form of chamber music compositions, for which all great masters of the Baroque period such as Corelli, Purcell, Handel and Bach had written works. In the beginning of the 18th century, it was slowly moved into the background due to the development of string quartet-like compositional form in Italy, France and Northern Germany.
Between 1715 and 1725, in Italy, Antonio Scarlatti developed his sonate a quattro in which he, according to Grove, achieved a good balance between the four string instruments, and Geiringer describes them as real string quartets in which the keyboard had been replaced by the viola. Galuppi is also reported by Grove as having replaced the Continuo with the violoncello as bass instrument, around 1740.
In addition to Antonio Scarlatti, Grove also mentions G.B. Sammartini, Tartini and others as Italian pioneers, namely in connection with the development of string quartet compositions out of the Italian sinfonia and out of the sonata a chiesa. In Samartini's string quartets, so Grove, the first violin was dominant. These quartets were important for the development of the string quartet due to their elegant, almost classical melodic style and should later exert some influence on the young Mozart.
In France, string quartet-like compositional forms developed further, as well, namely in the sonates en quator (using 3 violins and a basse continue), but also inairs, opera melodies, ouvertures and in the ouverture reduite en quator, were, however, still closely tied to the previous Baroque style.
In North Germany, a similar development took place with the sonate a quattro by Telemann, J. G. Graun und Fasch. However, also these works were still very much tied to the Baroque style.
The Transitional Period of 1740 to 1755
Although the development of string quartet-like compositions in France was mainly driven by the contributions of the Italian emigrants Boccherini and Gambini into the direction of the the actual classical string quartet, the classical string quartet received its main developmental impetus in Southern Germany, Austria and Bohemia, with the quartet symphonies of the Mannheim School (with works by J.W.A. Stamitz, F.X. Richter, Holzbauer, Filz, C. Cannabich and Eichner), and with the Divertimenti of mor popular character (through composers such as Asplmayr, Camerloher, Starzer, Gassmann and Franz Joseph Haydn. In his interesting article on Beethoven's Op. 18, Martin Hufner (nmz, 1977, taken from its Internet version) reports that Haydn's works, in contrast to those of Boccherini in France, saw a breakthrough and that not in the least due to the development of the bourgeois music culture in Central Europe, particularly in Vienna.
The String Quartet during the 2nd Half of the 18th Century
An early example of this newly-developing musical culture in Austro-Hungary might also have been Haydn's stay at Weinzierl at the Danube (not far from Melk) in the years 1755 and 1756, on the invitation of Baron von Fürnberg, thereby having saved him from his drudgery in the service of the singer Porpora. At Weinzierl, the 23-year-old Haydn, whose career was still in its very early stages, found himself in the musical company of Fürnberg's stewart, the village priest and a musician by the name of Albrechtsberger (who, by the Haydn biographer Rosemary Hughes, is considered as possibly having been Beethoven's later teacher Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, and wno, by the authors of the Bayern IV radio program, was described as Anton Albrechtsberger, very likely the brother of Johann Georg Albrechtsberger). In this ad-hoc-string quartet ensemble, the stewart and the village priest played the violins, Haydn the viola and Albrechtsberger the violoncello, and it must have been this ensemble for which Haydn, due to the lack of other available material, wrote his first string quartets Op. 1, nos. 1 - 6.
in the 1760's
in his uniform as court musician
of Prince Esterhazy
With respect to the content of these, but also with respect to his further early string quartets of the years up to 1759, namely op. 2, nos. 1 - 6, Hufner mentions that it mainly consisted of playful, entertaining elements. To this, Geiringer notes that the various movements were arranged very symmetrically and that their content was simple and cheerful, with a predilection for motives from Austrian folk songs. The only exception to this, so Geiringer, was the Adagio of op. 2, no. 4, with its intense and passionate character that was reminiscent of the north-German art of C.P.E. Bach (Geiringer: 232-233).
This remark would accord some credibility to Haydn's later remark that was mentioned in the Bayern IV radio program of September 23, 2000, namely that he did not really consider himself as the "father" of the classical string quartet, but rather that his serious endeavors in this area were based on the influence on him by C.P.E. Bach.
C.P.E. Bach, middle
in conversation with the Hamburg
Pastor Christoph Christian Sturm, right
Although 1756 marks the birth of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts, we have to defer our possible two-tiered observation of the development of the string quartet by Haydn and Mozart for a little while, yet, since Mozart would only come to know the warm sound of the by him so much-loved "butter violin" during the next couple of years in order to, perhaps through its sound but perhaps also due to his father Leopold's great knowledge of this instrument (who also published his "Violinschule" during this time), develop his great sensitivity for string instruments.
Leopold Mozart on the
Title Page of his "Violinschule"
Let us therefore return to the composer who refused to be called the "father of the classical string quartet", Joseph Haydnehren wir hier daher zum Streichquartettvaterschaftsverweigerer Haydn. At the latest since his marriage to his "consolation prize" Anna Maria Keller (her younger sister who he actually loved became a nun) in 1761, the now 28-year-old became acquainted with the serious drudgery of home life, while, contrary to it, his nearly thirty fruitful creative years in the service of Prince Esterhazy provided him with the tranquility he was lacking at home. If we were still in a position to consider the six string quartets that have become known as Haydn's Op. 3 (Hob III, 13 - 18), then we would have to follow the opinion of traditional Haydn research that maintained that they had been written around this time. While these works have been entered by the Haydn pupil Ignaz Pleyel into his edition of Haydn's works in 1802 (here, I ask myself the question as to whether one could earnestly imagine Beethoven in the role of a caretaker of Haydn's works) after Haydn had approved of it, and while they were also entered into the Haydn-Elssler catalogue in 1805, there have always been certain doubts as to their authenticity, mainly due to the fact that there did not exist any early sketches to them and due to the fact that they were only published as late as in 1777 (in Paris). Even Geiringer who did not want to yield to those doubts, yet, refers to an article by L. Sonfai in Haydn Emlekere. Zenetudomanyi Tanul manyok, VIII (Budapest, 1960). As counter-argument he refers to Haydn's approval of these works being added into Pleyel's edition. However, when we, as Beethoven friends, call to our minds two events in the difficult relationship between Haydn and Beethoven, namely the awkward situation in which Beethoven had submitted to Haydn some of his works and which the latter had confidently sent to Bonn only to be advised by the Elector that these works had already been written by Beethoven during his last years in Bonn, we will have to, as generous observers of this course of events, consider that first of all, Beethoven did not provide Haydn with detailed information with respect to them and that Haydn was certainly too busy to enquire further into their precise details, and if we also consider Haydn's less than strict behavior towards Beethoven as his teacher in counterpoint studies, and when we consider Haydn's active creative life at that time we will come to realize that he was simply too busy with his second career as a freelance artist (during the years of 1790 until his illness in 1803,) who had won high acclaim in England during his two journeys there and who did not let this momentum falter in his creating even more important work after that, in order for him to pay attention to things he might have held a marginal interest in such as doubting his memory with respect to his earlier works (as in the case of 'his' Op. 3) or to his well-intentioned, yet also tiring duties as Beethoven's 'strict' teacher and detail-oriented presenter of his pupil's 'latest' works.
Who, it not Haydn, was the composer of those six string quartets from the second movement of the fifth of which you can here hear the famous Andante Cantabile as midi file? With respect to this, I quote Rosemarie Hughes:
"Now it has been convincingly argued that their composer was not Haydn at all but a Benedictine monk from Amorbach in the Odenwald, Father Romanus Hofstetter" (Hughes: 154).
Even the Austrian Tourism Web Site (http://austria- tourism.at/personen/haydn/11hay.html, cited on September 24, 2000) reports with respec to this that:
"Seine Quartette wurden in Österreich schnell verbreitet, schon wenige Jahre nach ihrer Entstehung kursierten ihre Abschriften in österreichischen Klöstern. So nimmt nicht wunder, daß ein Mönch aus Ambrach namens Roman Hofstetter seine nach Haydn'schem Vorbild komponierten Quartette als dessen "Opus 3" veröffentlichen ließ..." (Mention is made here of the fact that Haydn's quartets became very popular and that copies of them circulated in Austrian abbeys and that it should therefore not be surprising that a monk by the name of Roman Hofstetter from Ambrach composed quartets in Haydn's style and submitted them for publication as Haydn's Opus 3.)
With respect to the popularity of Haydn's early string quartets we can read in Hughes that five quartets of his Op. 5, together with a cassation, wer published in Paris as Symphonies ou Quators dialogues, in 1764 and that his six string quartets, Op. 9, were published in 1769.
While, under these circumstances, it is entirely up to you as to whether you consider these above-noted research results more important than the "Haydenesque" work by Hofstetter, we still have the choice of enjoying these quartets from the "galant period" that have at least been influenced by Haydn.
The next series of string quartets that were undoubtedly written by Haydn take us to the end of the 1760's, namely Op. 9, 1 - 6 (Hob III: 19 - 24), which were written from 1769 to 1770 and also published at that time (according to Hughes already in 1769). According to Grove, Haydn later considered these six quartets that now consisted of four movements each as his first real string quartets, with respect to which mention is made of the harmonious texture of all four voices and the now very distinct discourse between theme and motive, which is largely confirmed by Geiringer who points out that the development now played a greater role and that, due to this, the choice of themes was more subtle and open for more development and that more intensity of feeling was expressed. Haydn is also reported as having accorded the violin part more brilliance (Geiringer: 250 - 251). Although, as Grove points out, during this decade, the works of other central European composers, such as those of Richter, Starzer, Holzbauer and F.X. Dusek, showed similar tendencies, they did not reach the range of expression in Haydn's works from 1769/70.
As Grove report, during the early 1770's, the further development of the string quartets was dominated by two major trends, namely by the concerto-like elements in the richly ornamented slow movements, and by the inclusion of fugal elements, such as, for example, in Moon's quartets (that had borrowed this development from the polyphonic second movement of the sonata da chiesa), but also in the works of Kraus, Albrechtsberger (with his six quators en fugue), Michael Haydn, Wagenseil and others, such as, for example, Leopold Gassmann's quartetti (the third movement of which showed fugal element). In Haydn's Op. 17 (Hob III: 25 - 30) from 1771, Geiringer sees again a close musical relationship to C.P.E. Bach in his obvious striving to give his quartets more solidity and concentration, and this striving is even stronger in his following quartet, Op. 20, the so-called Sun Quartet of 1772 (Geiringer: 277 - 27), while Grove points out Haydn's apparently very conscious application of the fugue in this work that are described as having helped him in developing those characteristics of the string quartet that would ultimately become the elements that would make up the string quartet as such, namely the freedom of the bass voice with respect to the melodic development and counterpoint, but also the further development of the idea that the string quartet should not yield to the needs of the galant era (of the rococo).
Mozart in Verona, January 1770,
at the age of 14 years
Oil Painting by Saverio dalla Rosa
Precisely at this juncture begins our at least two-tiered observation of the further development of the string quartet up to Beethoven, since the seventeen-year-old Mozart who spent the greater part of the years 1769 to 1773 with his travels to Italy in the company of his father Leopold.. On the last of these journeys, from October 24, 1772 to March 13, 1773, after he had already tried his hand at his three-movement divertimenti K136 - 138 (which, according to Greither, should really only be considered "string overtures" in the Italian style), in the winter of 1772 to 1773, he wrote his so-called Milan String Quartets K155-160 as well as K80, which he begun in Bozen but on which he mainly worked in Milan. In these works, as Greither points out, Mozart took an important step in the direction of the actual string quartet, in spite of the still prevalent symphonic and orchestral characteristics, namely through the use of two violins, one viola and one violoncello as opposed to violins, cello and bass and through the loosening up of individual movements (Greither, Mozart: 24, 116), and according to Grove, he was supposed to have been influenced by G.B. Sammartini in his writing of K155-160. The immediately following Viennese Quartets that he wrote during his stay in Vienna from July 14 to September 26, 1773 that, according to Greither, were again "ein gutes Stck weiterenwickelt" (Greither: 117, meaning developed further a great deal), were, according to Greither and Grove already written under the influence of Haydn's quartets, Op. 17 and Op. 20, show, however, as Grove points out, also the influence of "Ordonez and much lesser figures" (Grove 18: 270).
Listing of K156 in the Köchel Catalogue
Nine years of intensive opera writing in the service of Prince Esterhazy that were also crowned by the visit of a very satisfied Empress Marie Therese of Austria (the way she used to express it was "Wenn ich eine gute Oper hören will, gehe ich nach Esterhaza"--"When I want to hear a good opera, I visit Esterhaza) lie between Hayd'ns writing of the Sun Quartet Op. 20 and his writing of the next set of string quartets from the year 1781 in which Grand Duke Paul of Russia visited Vienna and in which Haydn met Clementi and formed a friendship with him and in which he then wrote his string quartets Op. 33 Hob. II 37-42, which he, in his own words, wrote "in a new and special way" (Grove: 278) and which he dedicated to the Grand Duke of Russia. Due to this, they became known as the "Russian Quartets". Let us see what Grove has to say to the beginning of the first movement:
"The opening of the development section of the first movement of op. 33 no 2 is a model of lucid thinking in four parts of a kind perhaps only to be realized after the fugal experiment of op. 20" (Grove 18: 279).
The beginning of the "Allegro Moderato", Op. 33, No. 2
The difference between Hofstetter's Haydnesque "Op. 3" and this work will also become apparent to us lay listeners. Geiringer points out that, in these works, the thematic development became the main stylistic element and was carried out with consequent logic. Further, the reports that:
"The synthesis of the homphonic rococo style with the contrapuntal idiom noticeable in the form of these quartets also may be discerned in their contents. Without avoiding the earlier grace and liveliness, they reveal greater depth of feeling. The last traces of galant superficiality have disappeared, and the music brethes quiet serenity and classical nobility" (Geiringer: 309).
Who will be surprised that Mozart who formed a friendship with Haydn in Vienna in 1781, also found himself inspired by these string quartets and, from 1782 to 1785, wrote his first set of string quartets (K387, 421/417b, 428/421b, 458, 464 and 465) that were inspired by his quartets Op. 33, but also a match for them. Rosemarie Hughes' Haydn biography notes for the year 1784, that Haydn and Mozart played chamber music together with Dittersdorf and Wahnal at the residence of Stephen Storace, thus one year before Mozart completed his set of string quartets mentioned above. Wolfgang Hildesheimer has this to say with respect to them in his Mozart biography:
"Mozart probably respected no other contemporary and certainly no figure of the past as much as he did Haydn; and it is remarkable that the human relationship, however close it may have been, had its source in artistic admiration. Thus, Mozart made him what was tantamount to an offering of six of his important quartets..." (Hildesheimer: 296).
Let us take a look at copies of the original documents of the title page of the first edition of these works and of Mozart's dedication in Italian:
Title Page of the String Quartets, published by Artaria in 1785
and dedicated to Joseph Haydn
Dedication by Mozart to Haydn, in Italian
This dedication is quoted here as follows:
"To my dear friend Haydn:
A father, having resolved to send his sons into the great world, finds it advisable to entrust them to the protection and guidance of a highly celebrated man, the more so since this man, by a stroke of luck, is his best friend. - Here, then, celebrated man and my dearest friend, are my six sons. - Truly, they are the fruit of a long and laborious effort, but the hope, strengthened by several of my friends, that this effort would, at least in some small measure, be rewarded, encourages and comforts me that one day, these children may be a source of consolation to me. - You yourself, dearest friend, during your last sojourn in this capital, expressed to me your satisfaction with these works. - This, your approval, encourages me more than anything else, and thus I entrust them to your care, and hope that they are not wholly unworthy of your favour. - Do but receive them kindly, and be their father, guide and friend! From this moment I cede to you all my rights over them: I pray you to be indulgent to their mistakes, which a father's partial eye may have overlooked, and despite this, to cloak them in the mantle of your generosity which they value so highly. From the bottom of my heart I am, dearest friend,
your most sincere friend,
Vienna, 1ast September, 1785" (Anderson: 891 - 892)
In his dedication, Mozart mentions Haydn's last visit to Vienna. It took place in winter, 1785, when Leopold Mozart visited his son Wolfgang. His first letter to his daughter Maria Anna ("Nannerl") of February 16 has the following to report:
"We arrived at the Schulerstrasse No. 846, first floor, at one o'clock on Friday. That your brother has very fine quarters with all the necessary furniture you may gather from the fact that his rent is 460 gulden. On the same evening we drove to his first subscription concert, at which a great many members of the aristocracy were present. Each person pays a souverain d'or or three ducates for these Lenten concerts. Your brother is giving them at the Mehlgrube and only pays half a souverain d'or each time for the hall. The concert was magnificent and the orchestra played spendidly. In addition to the symphonies a female singer of the Italian theatre sang two arias. Then we had a new and very fine concerto by Wolfgang, which the copyist was still copying when we arrived, and the rondo of which your brother did not even have time to play through, as he had to supervise the copying. You can well imagine that I met many acquaintances there who all came up to speak to me. I was also introduced to several other people.
On Saturday evening Herr Joseph Haydn and the two Barons Tinti came to see us and the new quartets were performed, or rather, the three new ones which Wolfgang has added to the other three which we have already. The new ones are somewhat easier, but at the same time excellent compositions. Haydn said to me: 'Before God and as an honest man I tell you that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by name. He has taste and, what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition'.. . .
Your brother, your sister-in-law, Marchand and I kiss you millions of times and I am your faithful father
Mozart" (Anderson: 885 - 887).
Still in the same year, as Hughes reports, Haydn wrote a further string quartet, Op. 42 (Hughes: 222). With respect to it, Geiringer comments as follows:
"The next quartet, Op. 42 (Hob III:43) is a sort of foreign body within the whole set of string quartets. The very terse construction of its four movements induced Pohl and Sandberger to classify this composition as one of Haydn's earlier works. Some details, however, such as the dramatic development of the first and last movements, and the use of contrapuntal devices in the finale prove Op. 42 to be the product of a later period. Additional evidence is provided by the autograph in the West-German Library, Marburg, which bears the date 1785. The work must certainly be considered a composition of Haydn's maturity which--for unknown reasons--was conceived in a particularly unassuming manner" (Geiringer:310).
Here, it is perhaps helpful to take a look at the further development of the string quartet in France during the second half of the 18th century. Two trends emerged there, namely on the one hand, the development of the quator brillant, in which the first violin almost appeared as a solo instrument that was accompanied by the second violin, the viola and the violoncello. Cambini, Dalayrac, Davaux, Fodor, Gossec and Viotti wrote works in this style. On the other hand, in the Paris of the 1770's, the quator concertant emerged and was supplied with many compositions by Cambini and Boccherini. According to Grove, Boccherini completely disregarded the further development of the string quartet by Haydn in this, while Haydn's quartets that were published in Paris during this time were also presented as quator concertant.
With respect to Mozart's further string quartets, Greither reports that he wrote four more of them after the set that was completed in 1785, namely K499 as a single work in August, 1786, and the three string quartets dedicated to King Frederick William II. of Prussia, namely K575 in D in 1785, and K589 and 590 in 1790.
With respect to K499, Hans Renner notes in Reclams Kammermusikführer:
"Die Nähe des "Figaro" ist zu spüren in der federnden Eleganz dieser phantasievollen Spielmsuik. Mozart gelang hier so etwas wie ein Divertimento im Quartettstil" (Renner: 268; Renner expresses here that one can feel the connection of this work with "Figaro" in its playful elegance.and that Mozart was able to produce a divertimento in quartet style with it).
Mozart's journey to Berlin in the year 1789 might have been the outer occasion of the the dedication of his last three string quartets to the cello-loving and playing King Frederick William II. of Prussia and they might also have provided him with an opportunity to feature the cello as solo instrument here and there. Greither notes with respect to them that they "die bei den Haydn gewidmeten Quartetten stark verwendete thematische Arbeit" (meaning that the intensive thematic work prevalent in his quartets dedicated to Haydn) was not as apparent in thse quartets and that "alles fließt freier, improvisierter (oder man merkt ihm die Arbeit weniger an" (meaning that everything flowed more freely and appeared more improvised, or that one did not notice any effort in them, anymore) (Greither: 118 - 119), while Grove notes with respect to them that Mozart was also able to combine elements of the quator brillant and of the quator concertant (Grove: 280).
These last string quartets of Mozart that were dedicated to the cello friend, King Frederick William II. of Prussia, offer an excellent point of departure to our discussion of Haydn's string quartets, Op. 50 that were dedicated to the same monarch, in 1787 and that were published by Artaria in Vienna. However, these works were already written during the period of 1784 to 1787. As Renner points out, these are formally not very different from Haydn's "Russian" quartets Op. 33, that they, however, were using a smoother musical language (Renner: 206). Geiringer points out with respect to them that "the thematic elaboration employed in Op. 33 is continued" (Geiringer: 310;) Geiringer further points out that:
"He was eager to concentrate his compositions not only by using thematic elaboration, but also by letting a whole movement unfold from a single germ" (Geiringer: 311)
Alaso the string quartets Op. 54 and 55 that were published in 1789 show, according to Geiringer, the same tendency (Geiringer: 312). Geiringer assumes that these and the following six string quartets, Op. 64, from 1790 were dedicated to Johann Tost gewidmet and points out that the boldness and variety expressed in them showed Haydn at the very peak of his creativity in this compositional genre.
After his arrival in Vienna in November 1791, Beethoven might also have had an opportunity to observe Haydn's work on his next quartet series, Op. 71 and 74 which Haydn dedicated to Count Appnyi. With respect to these, Renner notes:
"Die je drei Quartette der Werkgruppen 71 und 74 sind dem ungarischen Grafen Apponyi gewidmet. Sie entstanden bis 1793, also zur Zeit von Haydns Londoner Reisen. Die meisen Londoner Sinfonien lagen damals bereits vor. Sie hatten Haydn Triumphe ohnegleichen eingebracht. Das steigerte sein Selbstbewußtsein. Man spürt es an diesen Quartetten. Ein Zug ins Grandseigneurhafte ist ihnen zu eigen. Die Themen haben bisweilen sinfonischen Zuschnitt, das Satzbild wirkt zumeist einfach. Al-fresco-Wirkungen ergeben sich" (Renner: 221; Renner expresses here that these quartets were dedicated to Count Apponyi and that they were completed by 1793, thus at the time of Haydn's travels to England, that most of his London Symphonies had already been written by that time and brought him great success and that this might have increased his self-confidence. This, so Renner, can be heard in these quartets that have somewhat of an air of the 'grandseigneur' style, that some of the themes have symphonic character and that the overall impression is mostly simple, creating al-fresco-effects).
Whether these quartets were written in 1793 or, as Renner points out, completed by 1793, Geiringer notes with respect to them that Haydn wrote them at a time in which he was very interested in orchestral composition and that "they accordingly display a certain symphonic character" (Geiringer: 345). Particularly noteworthy in these works are, as Geiringer points out, the introductions to each first movement, a habit that Haydn also displayed in the writing of his symphonies.
What might be of interest to us here is that these works were completed during Beethoven's first year in Vienna, in which his teacher Haydn found himself in the period between his first and second journey to England, must have been very busy with his preparations for his second journey and, due to this, might not have been an as attentive and an as strict teacher of counterpoint as Beethoven might have hoped for, a fact that we, with all its accompanying details such as Beethoven's secret help from Schenk, are already familiar with from our Biographical Pages. In conclusion, it can also be noted here that, with the beginning of Haydn's 1794 journey to England, his role as Beethoven's teacher ended and that he was, for a stretch of time, also away from Vienna and did not exert a direct influence on Beethoven.
This juncture provides us with an appropriate opportunity to conclude this little pre-history of the development of the string quartet up to Beethoven, so that we can then focus our attention on the history of the creation of Beethoven's first set of own string quartets, Op. 18, 1 - 6.
Chronologisch-thematisches Verzeichnis sämtlicher Tonwerke Wolfgang Amade Mozarts.
Von Dr. Ludwig Ritter von Köchel. Dritte Auflage bearbeitet von Alfred Einstein.
Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1947: Verlag von J.W. Edwards.
Geiringer, Karl, Haydn. A Creative Life in Music. 2nd Ed. London, 1964: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Greither, Aloys, Mozart (Ro-Ro-Ro Monographien). Reinbek bei Hamburg, 1952: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH.
Hildesheimer, Wolfgang, Mozart. Translated from the German by Marion Faber. New York, 1991: The Noonday Press.
Hughes, Rosemary. Haydn. The Master Musicians Series. London, 1974: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd.
Reclams Kammermusikführer von Hans Renner. Vierte Auflage. Stuttgart, 1959 und 1962: Philipp Reclam Jun.
The Letters of Mozart and His Family. Chronologically arranged, translated and edited with an Introduction, Notes and Indexes by Emily Anderson. Volume II. New York, 1966: St. Martin's Press.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanley Sadie. Vol. 18. London, 1980: Macmillan Publishers.
"Zur Geschichte des Streichquartetts". Radio Show of the Bayerische Rundfunk of September 23, September 2000, at 15:00 hours.. (Content provided by Helmut Walther, Nürnberg).


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Many children have difficulty spelling. But did you know that this spelling weakness can affect both the writers they are today as well as the writers they will eventually become?
While spelling correctly is important, it can also be the source of disorganized and poor writing skills: especially in young children.
So what can you do?
Teach your child not to get hung up on spelling. This sounds like counter intuitive advice, right?
But it makes sense: you want your child to have a robust vocabulary and not shy away from using a great word simply because they cannot spell it.
Instead, teach your child to write freely and circle the words she doesn’t know how to spell.
Then, as part of her proofreading, encourage her to look up the circled words and correct them. With this technique, you teach her not only to write freely and uninhibited, but also how to be accountable for finding and making her own corrections.
This technique fosters better writing and doesn’t distract from her train of thought during the first draft. In time, you will have a writer who uses both a vast lexicon of words and has the tools to edit properly.
And you just might be surprised to see your child’s spelling skills improve along the way!


On the western coast of America, a combination of cool fog and salty sea spray keeps the soil moist all year round. In these wet conditions, you’ll find an unassuming plant called the yellow monkeyflower. Drive further inland, and the climate changes considerably. It’s hotter and drier, and every summer brings a harsh drought. But here too, the yellow monkeyflower blooms but its lifespan is shorter and its leaves are less luscious. Despite their different habitats and lifestyles, both groups of monkeyflowers are members of the same species. But that might eventually change.
David Lowry from Duke University discovered the secret of the monkeyflower’s dual identities lies in a flipped chunk of DNA. A large chunk of the plant’s genome, containing around 360 genes, has been flipped upside-down, effectively giving it two genomes for the price of one.
Since their discovery in 1921, scientists have found examples of these genetic inversions all over the place. For example, around 1,500 of them separate the chimp genome from our own. These inversions are created when a part of the genome breaks in two places and the floating chunk is welded back into place in the wrong orientation. The effect is like cutting out the middle of a recipe book and gluing it back upside down – all the same information is there, but some of it is in the wrong order.
Lowry found that one version is found in the inland plant, which is threatened by a yearly drought. With its life in peril every summer, this plant is an annual; it flowers as quickly as possible, produces seeds, and then dies as soon as the drought sets in. The other flipped version is found in the coastal perennial variety, which is never threatened by drought. Taking advantage of the year-round moisture, it can afford to give equal priority to growth and reproduction. It produces luscious leaves, flowers later, and lives for many years.
It seemed like the inversion was acting as a supergene, which allows the plant to survive in two very different habitats. But such claims have been made before and Lowry has provided more evidence for this than ever before. He has actually managed to swap the two versions of the supergene, putting the annual version into a perennial plant and the inverted perennial version into an annual plant, before testing the effects in the field.
Lowry was inspired by another monkeyflower experiment, which converted a hummingbird-pollinated plant into a bee-pollinated one through careful breeding. He wanted to see if he could do the same, transforming a late-flowering perennial into an early-flowering annual. That was not easy. Without any idea about which genes are involved, the only option is to carefully cross-breef plants from the two populations.
“I started breeding soon after I started grad school in 2005, and after ten generations of breeding and countless hours in the lab I finally had the plants I needed in 2009,” he says. “It was not until 2007 that I realized I was actually dealing with a chromosomal inversion. That’s when things got interesting.”
Eventually, it became clear that the inversion plays a large role in the monkeyflower’s double life. Annual plants with the perennial inversion flowered later than they normally would, while perennial plants with the annual genes flowered much earlier.
To see how these changes affected the plants in the wild, Lowry planted his edited individuals, together with their normal parents, in both coastal and inland sites. A year later, it was clear that in both locations, the native parent plants did far better than their cross-bred edited offspring. They were more likely to survive long enough to produce flowers, and they produced more of them.
But it was also clear that the inversions were also adapted to the different habitats. Lowry says, “The inland annual orientation of the inversion outperforms the coastal perennial orientation in inland habitat. The opposite pattern occurs at the coast.” Lowry also found that some inland plants carry the inversion that’s usually found in their coastal kin, but only if they grow in areas with lots of moisture, like riverbanks or high mountains. It’s yet more confirmation that the inverted genes have adapted to different local conditions.
But the inversion does more than that – it also prevents the two types of monkeyflower from mating with one another. For a start, the coastal plants flower much later than their inland cousins, so there are few occasions where pollen from one group can reach the blossoms of the other.
More importantly, as Lowry showed, immigrants from one habitat do very badly in the other. Annual plants do poorly in the coast where their flower-early-die-young lifestyle can’t beat perennial plants that take their time to grow and exploit the plentiful moisture. Meanwhile, the perennial plants are ill-suited to an inland life because their relaxed flowering schedule sees them succumbing to the summer drought before they seed the next generation.
This means that even though both types of yellow monkeyflower are found along the same stretch of the American coast, they are effectively isolated from one another. Neither type does well in the conditions that the other thrives in and, as a result, their genes don’t have a chance to mingle. In time, the two varieties could split into separate species.
This is one of the clearest examples yet that genetic inversions can contribute to the origin of species. Without the inversion, it’s possible that the monkeyflower would eventually have adapted to the two different habitats and split into different species (and indeed, other genetic differences separate the annual and perennial varieties). But inversions can greatly accelerate that process.
During sex, chromosomes from both parents are united in an embryo and shuffled together, in a process called recombination. But to do this, they first need to align with one another and they can’t do that if one of them has a massive flipped segment. That’s exactly what Lowry found in the monkeyflower. When he cross-bred the inland and coastal plants, he found that one specific part of their genome refused to recombine, even though it had no problem doing so when plants from the same area were crossed.
Without the ability to recombine, the inverted genes are free to evolve on their own terms. If these genes allow species to adapt to their local environment, then individuals that carry the inversion will start to dominate a specific habitat, becoming separated from their cousins with the normal version.
Reference: PLoS Biology http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1000500
PS: David Lowry is married to Sheril Kirshenbaum, one of my excellent fellow Discover bloggers. You can read her writing at The Intersection if you don’t already.
More on the origin of species:
- Spots plus spots equals maze: how animals create living patterns
- Holy hybrids Batman! Caribbean fruit bat is a mash-up of three species
- British birdfeeders split blackcaps into two genetically distinct groups
- Discriminating butterflies show how one species could split into two
- Giant insect splits cavefish into distinct populations
- How diversity creates itself – cascades of new species among flies and parasitic wasps


By Barbara Jungwirth
All three books are part of the “New Perspectives on Language and Education” series by Multilingual Matters and address teaching language to multilingual students at the university level (Table 1). Only Crossing Borders, Writing Texts, Being Evaluated: Cultural and Disciplinary Norms in Academic Writing considers languages other than English as foreign languages. It is a collection of studies, as is Linguistic Justice on Campus: Pedagogy and Advocacy for Multilingual Students, while Creating Digital Literacy Spaces for Multilingual Writers is authored by one person. All three books acknowledge inequities, but only the two collections note the power asymmetries inherent in academia in the Global North. Crossing Borders, Writing Texts, Being Evaluated seems most useful to researchers, especially those in linguistics. Linguistic Justice calls for validating students’ multilingual voices and provides recommendations for writing centers on how to do so but does not sufficiently address the competing student goal of passing courses with professors who may be focused on standard academic English. Creating Digital Literacy Spaces for Multilingual Writers discusses incorporating common digital platforms into teaching writing to multilingual students, but frequently repeats the same points. Read Linguistic Justice on Campus if you are looking for practical advice. Otherwise, read Crossing Borders, Writing Texts, Being Evaluated if you are interested in linguistic research.
CROSSING BORDERS, WRITING TEXTS, BEING EVALUATED: CULTURAL AND DISCIPLINARY NORMS IN ACADEMIC WRITING
Crossing Borders is a collection of studies focused on the cultural rather than linguistic issues encountered by people who study at the university level in the Global West. The book idea originated in symposia in New Zealand and the US. Three of its authors teach Norwegian and Finnish, respectively, as foreign languages, one teaches English in China, while the remainder work at institutions in English-speaking countries, such as New Zealand. Authors note that every academic discipline has its own vocabulary and conventions, which even native speakers of the dominant language—e.g., English—must learn. At the university level, pre-enrollment language tests act as gatekeepers for international students, even though test questions may have little relevance to the overt and covert conventions in a given field of study.
Despite blind evaluation of tests, raters’ biases may creep in since a student’s first language can often be guessed based on specific non-standard phrases or grammatical features used. Even when such linguistic “deficiencies” were corrected, essays written in Norwegian by native Vietnamese speakers were rated differently from those written by native Spanish speakers, one study reported. This may be due to the rhetorical conventions common in the immigrants’ home countries compared to the rhetoric expected by the Norwegian raters.
In English-language universities, a specific variety of standard English may be expected. Students from India or Singapore who grew up speaking English have been told that their English is inadequate for studying at a New Zealand university. Such experiences may affect students’ belief in their ability to get a degree in their chosen field. Universities are also power hierarchies that students—native and immigrant alike—need to learn to navigate. However, differing concepts of authorship and textual appropriation, as well as approaches to hierarchies in general, may make such navigation more difficult for some international students.
LINGUISTIC JUSTICE ON CAMPUS: PEDAGOGY AND ADVOCACY FOR MULTILINGUAL STUDENTS
The collection of articles in Linguistic Justice on Campus focuses on English as a Second Language at North American universities. Articles include recommendations for changing academic writing centers’ approaches to supporting students unfamiliar with English for academic purposes. They also note that writing center volunteers may be monolingual English speakers who need training in validating non-standard expressions.
Different types of knowledge—including those of indigenous communities—and their inclusion at Western-style universities are also addressed. Teachers should survey their students’ language use, including switching between languages and registers depending on audience and situation, and combining features from two or more languages to articulate their thoughts in their own voices. Students’ diverse backgrounds can enrich class discussions and provide hitherto unconsidered approaches to assigned materials.
While writing in their own voice may be an important goal, students are also worried about how their professors might evaluate the texts they write. Ideally, speaking multiple languages or bringing a non-mainstream cultural background to class would be considered an asset. Unfortunately, that is not always the case. The book considers this tension between what should be and what is. However, it does not adequately address how to help students whose teachers do not value diversity in practice.
Beyond individual professors, not all institutions are likely to be receptive to implementing the suggestions for changes to writing center practices in some of the articles. However, it never hurts to try and even incremental changes may help multilingual students now and in the future.
CREATING DIGITAL LITERACY SPACES FOR MULTILINGUAL WRITERS
Unlike the other two books, Creating Digital Literacy Spaces for Multilingual Writers is written by a single author. It discusses the incorporation of several digital platforms and tools, such as blogging or massive online open courses (MOOCs), into teaching multilingual writers at the university level. Multimodality—the inclusion of images and sound—as well as “flipped learning” (p. 140), which provides more individualized experiences, are also covered as different forms of literacy. Bloch discusses helping students who may not be fluent in Standard English for Research Purposes to handle writing assignments in an academic environment. He also discusses how to prepare such students for publishing their research. Two of the eight chapters are devoted to publishing, including one on deciding where to submit research and on identifying predatory journals.
Another issue discussed at various points in the book is “textual borrowing” (p. 12). The extent to which text from other sources can be incorporated in a student’s own writing, as well as copyright laws, differ across the world. Similarly, expectations for critical assessment of material from published authors may not be clear to students from countries where such critique would not be welcome. Online sites that detect plagiarism may be helpful in teaching these distinctions. However, as with other digital tools, privacy concerns arise. Furthermore, digital spaces may not always be accessible or affordable, especially for students from the Global South.
Perhaps inevitable given how long the print publishing process takes, the author does not discuss newer digital platforms, such as Instagram. Also, the URLs and tools cited may be outdated long before a new edition of the book is printed. Creating Digital Literacy Spaces for Multilingual Writers raises several interesting issues. However, it would benefit from an editing pass to eliminate—sometimes verbatim—repetitions. Copyediting for standard English grammar and usage would also be helpful.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Barbara Jungwirth writes about medical topics (www.bjungwirth.com) and translates medical and technical documents from German into English (www.reliable-translations.com). She has written for print and online media since her high school days and majored in media studies. You can find her on Twitter at @bjungwirthNY.
Bloch, Joel. (2021). Creating Digital Literacy Spaces for Multilingual Writers. Multilingual Matters. [ISBN 978-1-180041-078-7. 296 pages, including index. US$49.95 (softcover).]
Golden, Anne, Lars Anders Kulbrandstad, and Lawrence Jun Zhang, eds. (2021). Crossing Borders, Writing Texts, Being Evaluated. Multilingual Matters. [ISBN 978-1-78892-8557. 184 pages. US$39.95 (softcover).]
Schreiber, Brooke R., et al., eds. (2021). Linguistic Justice on Campus: Pedagogy and Advocacy for Multilingual Students. Multilingual Matters. [ISBN 978-1-78892-948-6. 248 pages, including index. US$49.95 (softcover).]


Why use 20 mg Otoflour tablets (sodium fluoride)?
- Fluoride is used as a dietary supplement to prevent tooth decay in children where fluoride levels in drinking water are insufficient.
- Fluoride ion stabilizes bone and tooth apatite crystals. Fluoride may inhibit the growth of plaque-causing bacteria. Fluoride deposition on the surface of tooth enamel increases its resistance to acid and spreads tooth decay.
- Fluorides are easily and almost completely absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. This ion is stored in the bones. This drug is excreted by the kidneys.
Features of Otoflour 20 mg tablets
- Otoflour oral tablets
- Prevention of pediatric tooth decay
- Enamel protection for children
- Helps stabilize bone and tooth apatite crystals
- Inhibiting the growth and development of plaque-causing bacteria
How to take the pill Otoflour
According to the doctor’s prescription
Tablet use warnings Otoflour
- This medicine should not be used in areas where drinking water is high in fluoride.
- Tell your doctor or pharmacist if you are pregnant, breast-feeding, diabetic, have kidney or liver problems.
- Tell your doctor or pharmacist if you are taking other medicines at the same time to prevent possible interactions.
- Your doctor is aware of the possible side effects of your medication, so complete the course of medication as prescribed by your doctor and avoid stopping the medication arbitrarily.
- This drug should not be used in patients with joint pain and gastrointestinal ulcers and severe renal insufficiency.
- Side effects of teeth whitening and rarely yellowish brown color on the teeth have been reported.
- Excessive consumption of fluoride ions during the period of tooth development in children may cause dental fluorosis.
- In case of stained teeth, it is necessary to see a doctor or dentist.
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The problem was originally posed in a letter by Steve Selvin to the American Statistician in 1975. A well-known statement of the problem was published in Marilyn vos Savant's "Ask Marilyn" column in Parade magazine in 1990:
- Suppose you're on a game show, and you're given the choice of three doors: Behind one door is a car; behind the others, goats. You pick a door, say No. 1, and the host, who knows what's behind the doors, opens another door, say No. 3, which has a goat. He then says to you, "Do you want to pick door No. 2?" Is it to your advantage to switch your choice?
Vos Savant's response was that the contestant should always switch to the other door. If the car is initially equally likely to be behind each door, a player who picks Door 1 and doesn't switch has a 1 in 3 chance of winning the car while a player who picks Door 1 and does switch has a 2 in 3 chance. Consequently, contestants who switch double their chances of winning the car.
The Monty Hall problem has attracted academic interest because the result is surprising and the problem is interesting to formulate. Furthermore, variations of the Monty Hall problem are made by changing the implied assumptions, and the variations can have drastically different consequences. For example, if Monty only offered the contestant a chance to switch when the contestant had initially chosen the car, then the contestant should never switch. Variations of the Monty Hall problem are given below.
Extended problem description
Certain aspects of the host's behavior are not specified in Marilyn vos Savant's wording of the problem. For example, it is not clear if the host considers the position of the prize in deciding whether to open a particular door or is required to open a door under all circumstances (Mueser and Granberg 1999). Almost all sources make the additional assumptions that the car is initially equally likely to be behind each door, that the host must open a door showing a goat, and that he must make the offer to switch. Many sources add to this the assumption that the host chooses at random which door to open if both hide goats, often but not always meaning by that, at random with equal probabilities. The resulting set of assumptions gives what is called "the standard problem" by many sources (Barbeau 2000:87). According to Krauss and Wang (2003:10), even if these assumptions are not explicitly stated, people generally assume them to be the case. A fully unambiguous, mathematically explicit version of the standard problem is:
- Suppose you're on a game show and you're given the choice of three doors [and will win what is behind the chosen door]. Behind one door is a car; behind the others, goats [unwanted booby prizes]. The car and the goats were placed randomly behind the doors before the show. The rules of the game show are as follows: After you have chosen a door, the door remains closed for the time being. The game show host, Monty Hall, who knows what is behind the doors, now has to open one of the two remaining doors, and the door he opens must have a goat behind it. If both remaining doors have goats behind them, he chooses one [uniformly] at random. After Monty Hall opens a door with a goat, he will ask you to decide whether you want to stay with your first choice or to switch to the last remaining door. Imagine that you chose Door 1 and the host opens Door 3, which has a goat. He then asks you "Do you want to switch to Door Number 2?" Is it to your advantage to change your choice?
- —Krauss and Wang 2003:10
A simple way to demonstrate that a switching strategy really does win two out of three times on the average is to simulate the game with playing cards (Gardner 1959b; vos Savant 1996:8). Three cards from an ordinary deck are used to represent the three doors; one 'special' card such as the Ace of Spades should represent the door with the car, and ordinary cards, such as the two red twos, represent the goat doors.
By the law of large numbers, this experiment is likely to approximate the probability of winning, and running the experiment over enough rounds should not only verify that the player does win by switching two times out of three, but show why. After one card has been dealt to the player, it is already determined whether switching will win the round for the player; and two times out of three the Ace of Spades is in the host's hand.
If this is not convincing, the simulation can be done with the entire deck, dealing one card to the player and keeping the other 51 (Gardner 1959b; Adams 1990). In this variant the Ace of Spades goes to the host 51 times out of 52, and stays with the host no matter how many non-Ace cards are discarded.
Another simulation, suggested by vos Savant, employs the "host" hiding a penny, representing the car, under one of three cups, representing the doors; or hiding a pea under one of three shells.
Vos Savant's solution
The solution presented by vos Savant in Parade shows the three possible arrangements of one car and two goats behind three doors and the result of switching or staying after initially picking Door 1 in each case:


What are some of the things that make us proud to be Canadian? Some might answer ‘free health care’ or ‘hockey’, especially for most Winnipeggers. One study from 2016 revealed that 17.1 million Canadians were “really proud” about our “freedom to live as we see fit”. A main source of Canadians’ rights and freedoms is the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter is entrenched in the Canadian Constitution, which ensures that the government does not unreasonably interfere with these rights. The Charter became a significant part of our country’s laws and shaped our identity as a nation. However, some Canadians do not know or tend to forget that the Charter’s guarantees are not absolute. The Charter contains an exception that allows legislatures to pass laws that may nonetheless violate certain Charter rights. This exception is found in Section 33 of the Charter. How did it come about in the first place? What exactly does it do? Why should we care about it?
In 1982, after tense negotiations between the federal government and the provinces, the Constitution was patriated and the Charter was entrenched in the Constitution Act, 1982. Section 33, commonly known as the notwithstanding clause, was included in the Charter as a compromise on the part of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Some provinces feared that the entrenched Charter would allow the Courts to override laws enacted by the legislatures, which might disrupt of the balance of power between the Courts and the government. In order to provide assurance to those provinces, the clause was suggested at the First Ministers Conference in 1981 as a “safety valve” and included during the final constitutional negotiations. Ultimately, the addition of the clause ended the political deadlock that preceded the Charter’s entrenchment. G.W.J. Mercier, Attorney General of Manitoba at the time of the First Ministers Conference, said that the clause would be used to “identify, define, protect, enhance and extend the rights and freedoms Canadians enjoy”. Some anticipated that the clause would be used to enable legislatures to correct unacceptable judicial interpretations of the Charter.
The section’s purpose is to provide legislatures with the power to override certain protections found in the Charter, including the fundamental freedoms of religion, speech, assembly and association (Section 2), legal rights (Sections 7-14), and equality rights (Section 15), by expressly declaring that the legislature is enacting the legislation notwithstanding the Charter’s provisions. This public declaration presents an opportunity for public discussion and debate. However, the section does not require a legislature to specify which provisions of an Act it believes violate the Charter nor does it require to the legislature to provide a justification for using the override. Section 33 provides that legislation can only be enacted notwithstanding the Charter for a period of five years. After five years, the declaration ceases to function. Once the declaration expires, the particular legislation would be vulnerable to Charter challenges unless the declaration is renewed. This time limit provides a second chance for decision-makers and the public to engage in dialogue about the legislation’s impact after the previous five years. It is therefore important that Canadians know that such an exception exists and when it is used. After all, laws that infringe on our rights and freedoms could drastically affect how we live.
The notwithstanding clause has been invoked by provincial and territorial governments a handful of times since it was introduced. Quebec and Alberta have used it as a means of protest. As recently as 2018 Saskatchewan used it to ensure funding for non-Catholic students to attend catholic schools after that practice had been deemed unconstitutional.
It is alarming that there have been circumstances where the clause was used in a way that it deviated from its intended purpose. In 2018, recently -elected Ontario Premier Doug Ford decided to invoke the clause when a court held that Ford’s legislation to reduce the size of Toronto City Council from 47 to 25 during an election campaign was unconstitutional. The Better Local Government Act was deemed unconstitutional by the Ontario Superior Court of Justice as it “undermines the overall fairness of the election”, which is “antithetical to the core principles of our democracy”. Since the Ford government was a majority government, the clause could be invoked without procedural opposition within the legislature. Ford discussed his use of the clause, saying he planned “to do what it takes to ensure that this law — which has already been passed once — is reintroduced, voted on and passed again on the quickest possible timetable”. Ultimately, Ford withdrew the Act and did not invoke the notwithstanding clause after the Ontario Court of Appeal overturned the original judgment. If the notwithstanding clause was successfully invoked in this case, the Act would then be protected from judicial challenges based on the Charter. This would have prevented persons affected by the re-writing of Toronto’s election law from challenging a law in court that resulted in overpopulation per ward and may ultimately undermine effective democratic representation. Ford also announced that he would not hesitate to use the notwithstanding clause in the future.
An examination of Section 33’s history and past usage allows Canadians to consider its potential future use. The notwithstanding clause has been used in the past and will continue to affect us today. We cannot know when legislatures will use the power of the clause and potentially threaten to limit our rights. Canadians, therefore, must be aware of the existence of Section 33 to ensure that the clause is not misused by our elected politicians. Do you think the notwithstanding clause offers fair limitation to the Charter or does its presence provide the potential for harm?


Universities, governments and telecoms companies are investing stupendous amounts of time and money into the development of 5G, but what is it and how will it benefit us over and above what both 3G and 4G networks are currently able to deliver? How will it change the mobile industry and when can we expect to start using it?
5G is purported to deliver data speeds that are literally thousands of times faster than 4G
What is 5G?
Unsurprisingly, it’s the next generation after 4G
5G is the next generation of mobile technology. A new generation of mobile standards has appeared roughly every 10 years since analogue systems – which later became known as 1G – were introduced in 1981.
2G was the first to use digital radio signals and introduced data services, including SMS text messages; 3G brought us mobile internet access and video calls; 4G, which has been rolled out in the UK since 2012, provides faster and more reliable mobile broadband internet access.
It will use higher frequency spectrum than current networks
5G, like its predecessors, is a wireless technology that will use specific radio wavelengths, or spectrum. Ofcom, the UK telecoms regulator, has become involved early in its development and has asked mobile operators to help lay the foundations for the technology. That’s because in order to achieve the best possible speeds, it will need large swathes of this high-frequency spectrum, some of which is already being used by other applications, including the military.
The frequencies in question are above 6GHz – currently used for satellite broadcasting, weather monitoring and scientific research.
What will I be able to do on 5G?
Download a film in under a minute
Fifth generation networks will feature improved web browsing speeds as well as faster download and upload speeds. O2 told Cable.co.uk that 5G will offer “higher speed data communication” than 4G, allowing users to “download a film in under a minute, add lower latency (the time lag between an action and a response) and reduce buffering and add more capacity”.
According to Ericsson, 5G will help to create more reliable and simpler networks that will open up a world of practical uses such as the remote control of excavating equipment or even remote surgery using a robot.
Vice president Magnus Furustam, head of product area cloud systems, speaking to Cable.co.uk at the Broadband World Forum in Amsterdam, said: “What 5G will bring is even more reliable networks, better latency, you will see networks penetrating into areas they previously haven’t.
“You will see smaller cells [network transmitters or masts], you will see higher bandwidth, you will see more frequencies being used, you will basically see mobile broadband networks reaching further out, both from a coverage perspective as well as from a device perspective.”
5G will give the impression of infinite capacity
Speaking to Cable.co.uk at the International Consumer Electronics Show earlier this month, Ramneek Bali, a technical solutions manager for Ericsson, said 5G “is going to enable the networked society.
“When we say networked society, basically you’ve heard of the internet of things, connected devices, connected cars, even high throughput – 5G is going to enable all that.”
The University of Surrey’s 5G Innovation Centre (5GIC), meanwhile, which is working alongside companies including Huawei, Vodafone and Fujitsu, has set the 5G network a target of ‘always having sufficient rate to give the user the impression of infinite capacity’ by understanding the demands of the user and allocating resources where they are needed.
5G will deliver the low latency and reliability needed for operations to be carried out remotely using robotic arms
How fast will 5G be?
5G will be 3,333 times faster than 4G
5G is expected to deliver data speeds of between 10 and 50Gbps, compared to the average 4G download speed which is currently 15Mbps.
Huawei’s report ‘5G: A Technology Vision’ says a 5G network will be required to deliver data rates of at least 1Gbps to support ultra HD video and virtual reality applications, and 10Gbps data rates for mobile cloud services.
5G will have ‘near-zero’ latency
Latency will be so low – less than one millisecond – that it will be imperceptible to humans and the switching time between different radio access technologies (cellular networks, wi-fi and so on) will take a maximum of 10 milliseconds.
Ericsson has trialled 5G technology with Japanese carrier NTT Docomo, announcing that its “pre-standard” technology had already achieved speeds of 5Gbps. Samsung announced in October 2014 it had achieved speeds of 7.5Gbps, the fastest-ever 5G data transmission rate in a stationary environment. It also achieved a stable connection at 1.2Gbps in a vehicle travelling at over 100km/h.
When will I be able to get 5G?
The first 5G handsets could arrive as early as 2017
Speaking exclusively to Cable.co.uk, Huawei, the world’s largest telecoms equipment maker, said that the first 5G smartphones are set to appear in 2017.
The Chinese telecoms giant said the focus for mobile companies would shift away from 4G over the next two years.
“4G LTE is definitely a big thing for us and we’re working with some of the big adopters for 5G as well,” said Huawei Device USA’s training manager Jack Borg, talking to Cable.co.uk at International CES.
5G on the horizon
“Carriers are taking the current 4G we have and they’re giving it some boost and they’re adding to it and changing it. Liberty Global, Verizon and AT&T have all done that recently in different markets in the US.
“So I think we’re going to see that and ride that for a while but then 5G will definitely be on the horizon. I would say probably in the next year-and-a-half to two years.”
Huawei plans to build a 5G mobile network for the FIFA World Cup in 2018 alongside Russian mobile operator Megafon. The trials will run across the 11 cities that will be hosting matches and will serve fans as well as providing a platform for devices to connect to each other.
SK Telecom has teamed up with Nokia to build a 5G test bed at its R&D centre in Bundang, South Korea. They hope to launch a 5G network in 2018 and commercialise it by 2020.
The first 5G smartphones could arrive as early as 2017
50 billion devices connected to 5G by 2020
Speaking to Cable.co.uk, Ericsson has said that by 2020, 5G networks are going to be serving 50 billion connected devices around the world.
“The technology has to handle a thousand times more volume than what we have today,” Ramneek Bali said.
“We are looking at handling more capacity in 5G because we’re seeing more and more devices will be connected.
“It’s exciting, it’s a platform we are going to provide to everyone to basically connect everything, anywhere. That’s the vision we have for 5G.”
Will 5G come to the UK before other countries?
The general consensus seems to be that the UK is still a few years away from introducing 5G networks to any greater extent than an initially testing/prototypical one.
O2 told Cable.co.uk that “some countries have earlier demands and industrial policies that may lead to earlier adoption of 5G”, even though the UK is playing a leading role in the development of the technology, including at the University of Surrey’s 5GIC.
5G test network
The innovation centre is expected to provide a 5G test network to the university campus by the beginning of 2018, and London mayor Boris Johnson has promised to bring 5G connectivity to the capital by 2020.
Will 5G replace 3G and 4G?
5G promises a seamless network experience undeliverable by current tech
It has taken a number of years for 3G networks to get anywhere near to 100% coverage and the UK’s 4G coverage varies considerably depending on the operator, but is generally limited to the big cities.
Bruce Girdlestone, senior businesses development manager at Virgin Media Business, told Cable.co.uk that 5G is one of a number of technologies that together should be able to provide a “seamless” experience to consumers.
“I think what will happen is small cells, 4G and 5G, and wi-fi will improve and it will become much more seamless to the end user.
Mobile phones will roam seamlessly between wi-fi and cellular services
Customers won’t know what service they are using
“So they will just consume data over the spectrum and they won’t even know whether it’s over wi-fi or cellular services.
“With that and with 4G and then ultimately 5G from like 2020 going forwards you’ll start to see much more seamless service and much more data being consumed which will then need to be ported on our fibre network.
“It’s going to be a very interesting three or four years as we see how these different technologies develop and overlap with each other as people start to roll these networks out.”
The development of 5G is at such an early stage that the standards by which it is measured are yet to be agreed. What we do know is that it will be fast. Very fast. So fast that many will ask why you would ever need such a fast data speed on a mobile network. They could be missing the point slightly.
The continued rollout of 4G should cater for most of our current mobile broadband needs. But as we’ve seen with other advances in technology, having the ability to do more increases our expectations and before we know it, things that once seemed like science fiction become ‘the norm’. As our expectations increase we put more strain on the networks underpinning this technology.
We can’t predict what demands we will be placing on mobile networks in 10 or 20 years’ time but the idea behind 5G is that it will be fast enough and reliable enough to cope with whatever we can throw at it, that it will feel like a network with infinite capacity – that is why the 5GIC has been given millions of pounds of public money to research it and why companies like Ericsson and Huawei are investing huge sums in the technology.
The first 5G networks should start appearing over the next few years and if they really do deliver a user experience that is effectively limitless, we may find ourselves asking if there will be a need for 6G.


Special Report: The 40 days of Lent
History of Lent - What did fasting used to look like?
The Lenten season, preparation for Easter, has been observed from the onset of the Church, although there have been inconsistencies with duration and practices. The Council of Nicea, 325 A.D., established Easter’s fluid date as the Sunday following the first full moon of the vernal equinox. In 461 A.D., Pope St. Leo established the duration as 40 consecutive days before Easter. Pope Gregory the Great, in the sixth century, added the dispensing of ashes the preceding Wednesday (Ash Wednesday), making Lent 46 days. Sundays were considered feast days and not included in the count.
Initially, all forms of meat, fish and animal products were excluded for the entirety of Lent. People were allowed one meal per day, after 3 p.m. In the 1400s, that time was revised to noon. Eventually, a small snack was included to sustain energy. Over time, fish, meat and eventually dairy products were allowed. However, fasting was required all 40 days. It wasn’t until 1966 that fast days were lessened to Ash Wednesday and Good Friday only.
Why do we have penitential seasons?
Jesus gave the example of a penitential retreat, spending prayerful time in the desert preparing for his ministry, reflecting on God’s will, and determining how he’d freely make that happen. Penitential seasons offer us this same opportunity: to withdraw from our routines and evaluate our spiritual progress or regression. We do this through reflection and repentance, which enable us to identify our weaknesses and make reparation to amend our sinful ways. Penitential seasons create time to reflect on our need to make God the focal point of our lives. The result can be spiritually rewarding.
What are the current rules for Lent?
All Catholics, ages 14 and older, are bound by the law of abstinence. Abstinence means refraining from the consumption of meat (land animals) on Ash Wednesday and all Fridays of Lent. Why Friday? To unite ourselves with Jesus’ sacrifice, made for us on Good Friday.
All Catholics, ages 18-59, are to fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday. Fasting is defined as eating one full, meatless meal on prescribed days. Bits of food can be taken at other traditional meal times though their combined total should not equal a full meal.
Penitential practices, like fasting and abstinence, are intended to refocus our thoughts and intentions toward God. Lent’s 40 days include Ash Wednesday to Holy Thursday (the Lenten fast continues until Holy Saturday), not including Sundays. Sundays are optional but encouraged. For health reasons, the infirm, ill, and pregnant or nursing mothers are exempt.
Three other Lenten disciplines are prayer (daily conversation with the Lord), fasting (from behaviors which detract from our relationship with God), and almsgiving (sharing our resources, ensuring the basic needs of human dignity).
Colors powerfully convey unspoken messages and evoke emotions. Scriptural accounts share Jesus was robed in purple to mock his implied royalty as king of the Jews. The pain of his passion and crucifixion became associated with this color. Purple reminds us Lenten days are times of repentance and atonement, of acknowledging how our selfish desires continue to suppress and crucify the goodness of God today.
Why don’t we sing the Gloria or say Alleluia during Lent?
The Gloria is a joyful hymn of praise thanking God and recognizing Jesus as the Lamb of God. The Alleluia is another exclamation of praise. While we literally know Jesus has risen and set us free, during Lent, we focus expectant anticipation of these events to come.
Lent is a time to revisit Old Testament events leading to Christ’s mission and the salvation of humanity. It’s a time of facing the human struggles impeding our own resurrection. Refraining from joyous hymns of exultation maintains Lent’s penitential mood.
Why 40 days?
The number 40 has ecclesial significance: Moses spent 40 days on Mt. Sinai before receiving the 10 Commandments; Jesus spent 40 days in prayer and fasting prior to beginning his ministry. So, too, we spend 40 days preparing to do God’s work.


Significant Figures are the digits of a number which are used for expressing the necessary degree of accuracy that starts from the first non-zero digit.
The number of significant figures in a result indicates the number of digits that can be used with confidence. The idea of a significant figure is simply a matter of applying common sense when dealing with numbers. An important characteristic of any numerical value is the number of digits, or significant figures it contains. A significant figure is defined as any digit in the number ignoring leading zeros and the decimal point.
Examples of Significant Figures
- 821 has 3 significant figures
- 0.0310 has 3 significant figures
|Rounding to Significant Figures Calculator||Correlation Coefficient Significance Calculator||Statistically Significant Sample Size Calculator|


The plastic soup
“There’s a place in heaven for people like you.”
Now, whether you’re a religious person or not, when someone sees you picking up litter on the beach and says this to you, their appreciation is palpable. I smile, thank the gentleman and tell him it’s the least I can do.
Littered beaches is something I am, unfortunately, all too familiar with – cigarette butts standing in the sand like totems, bottles and fast food packaging clustered as modern day middens of temporary human habitation – all too soon they become marine debris, if not disposed of correctly.
Marine litter (debris), as defined by the United Nations Environment Program (2009), is any persistent, manufactured or processed solid material discarded, disposed of or abandoned in the marine and coastal environment. The nature and extent of this litter issue is persistent and growing exponentially, and in 2009 the Australian Government developed the ‘Threat Abatement Plan for the Impacts of Marine Debris on Vertebrate Marine Life’ under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act to assist in tackling it. A review of this document began in 2015.
In 2015 around one-quarter of respondents to the Victorian Litter Action Alliance (VLAA) Stakeholder Survey noted that marine/coastal litter and micro-plastics/nurdles were key emerging issues for their organisations. For the uninitiated, nurdles are pre-production plastic pellets – lost as industrial waste via stormwater systems to oceans and for which a loss prevention program, Operation Clean Sweep, has recently been launched.
The focus on marine debris, and in particular plastic litter, is by no means a ground-breaking finding. Plastics are being developed and produced at a rate never seen before, and are being used (and abused) in products as never before – microbeads being the case in point and, while technically not litter, their contribution to the oceanic plastic soup is one for concern.
“A recent CSIRO study of Australian beaches found that three-quarters of the litter found on them was plastic.
Luckily this particular pollutant has been recognised, and countries and industry are reacting. In just the last few months, we have seen a number of countries ban microbeads, including the US and Canada and, prior to that, Holland.
According to not-for-profit group, Beat the Microbead, 329 brands from 59 different manufacturers have promised to remove plastic microbeads from their products. Locally, retailers Coles, Woolworths and Aldi have also all committed to stop selling products containing microbeads by 2017.
Items that have not yet afforded such action include single-use plastic items, such as straws, takeaway coffee cups and lids, and plastic bags, to name a few. This is the type of waste that I, and many others, pick up off from local beaches every day.
The impact of plastics on marine species has been well-documented – ingestion leading to starvation, entanglement causing drowning and so forth. Research shows that plastics can attract various harmful chemical compounds, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which accumulate on the surface of the material. Research is underway investigating their bioaccumulation and biomagnification through food webs.
Oceans support all life on earth. They provide 50 percent of the oxygen we breathe and play an integral role in regulating our climate. I, for one, am not keen to test what reaction we get from continued pollution of our oceans.
What I am keen to test, however, is a collaborative, evidence-based approach. An approach that harnesses the combined efforts of state and local governments, industry, education and research institutions and community to remove and prevent litter in our environment.
A recent CSIRO study of Australian beaches found that three-quarters of the litter found on them was plastic. The research demonstrates that the majority of litter on Australian beaches comes from human activity – it is not simply being swept in from other countries.
VLAA stakeholders were lucky enough to hear about this research at an event we held in November last year, ‘Let’s Talk About Marine Debris’. The event brought together representatives from the aforementioned groups to discuss the issue of marine debris and allow people to share their success stories, voice their concerns and potential solutions, and, most importantly, connect with other like-minded people.
And connections are the foundation to start something powerful.
Donna Shiel is VLAA Litter Champion – Victorian Litter Action Alliance/Sustainability Victoria


Today we join with a host of other organizations in recognition of World Thrombosis Day to focus on thrombosis, an often overlooked disease.
Thrombosis is a term used to describe the formation of a blood clot in a blood vessel. Thrombosis can lead to atrial fibrillation, stroke, or venous thromboembolism (VTE), affecting millions of Americans each year and incurring billions of dollars in costs. (Note: For stats on thrombosis, see our Silver Book® website.)
There are two things we want to share about World Thrombosis Day.
First, we are joining with more than 300 organizations around the world calling on governments and health systems to institute policies requiring VTE risk assessment for all patients admitted to hospitals. This will help lead to better safety for patients and prevention of VTE.
Second, we want you to know about the dangers of thrombosis and conditions like VTE. We offer a page with resources to help you quickly learn about VTE and how it can affect you and your loved ones.
One of these resources is a short pocket film video. You can watch it below.


MADISON, Wis. (AP) -- With temperatures starting to dip, Wisconsin safety officials remind residents to protect their families from carbon-monoxide risks.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention says carbon monoxide is the leading cause of accidental poisoning deaths in the U.S. Nearly half of those deaths happen during the winter.
Carbon monoxide is an invisible, odorless gas that can be emitted from aging or unvented furnaces or other gas-powered home appliances. Exposure can cause headaches, dizziness or nausea, and can be fatal to people who are sleeping.
The Wisconsin Department of Health Services says state law requires that every house have a carbon-monoxide detector in the basement and on every floor. Health officials remind residents to test their detectors regularly, change the batteries annually and make sure all heating appliances are well-vented.


Sometimes, people do such stupid things that words almost fail me. That’s the case with a Debian ‘improvement’ to OpenSSL that rendered this network security program next to useless in Debian, Ubuntu and other related Linux distributions.
OpenSSL is used to enable SSL (Secure Socket Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) in Linux, Unix, Windows and many other operating systems. It also includes a general purpose cryptography library. OpenSSL is used not only in operating systems, but in numerous vital applications such as security for Apache Web servers, OpenVPN for virtual private networks, and in security appliances from companies like Check Point and Cisco.
Get the picture? OpenSSL isn’t just important, it’s vital, in network security. It’s quite possible that you’re running OpenSSL even if you don’t have a single Linux server within a mile of your company. It’s that widely used.
Now, OpenSSL itself is still fine. What’s anything but fine is any Linux, or Linux-powered device, that’s based on Debian Linux OpenSSL code from September 17th, 2006 until May 13, 2008.
What happened? This is where the idiot part comes in. Some so-called Debian developer decided to ‘fix’ OpenSSL because it was causing the Valgrind code analysis tool and IBM’s Rational Purify runtime debugging tool to produce warnings about uninitialized data in any code that was linked to OpenSSL. This ‘problem’ and its fix have been known for years. That didn’t stop our moronic developer from fixing it on his own by removing the code that enabled OpenSSL to generate truly random numbers..
After this ‘fix,’ OpenSSL on Debian systems could only use one of a range from 1 to 32,768—the number of possible Linux process identification numbers—as the ‘random’ number for its PRNG (Pseudo Random Number Generator). For cryptography purposes, a range of number like that is a bad joke. Anyone who knows anything about cracking can work up a routine to automatically bust it within a few hours.
Why didn’t the OpenSSL team catch this problem? They didn’t spot it because they didn’t see it. You see Debian developers have this cute habit of keeping their changes to themselves rather than passing them upstream to any program’s actual maintainers. Essentially, what Debian ends up doing is forking programs. There’s the Debian version and then there’s the real version.
Usually, it’s a difference that makes no difference. Sometimes, it just shows how pig-headed Debian developers can be. My favorite case of this is when they decided that rather than allow Mozilla to have control of the logo in the Firefox browser, because that wasn’t open enough according to the Debian Social Contract, they forked Firefox into their own version: Iceweasel.
That was just stupid. This is stupid and it’s put untold numbers of users at risk for security attacks.
First, the mistake itself was something that only a programming newbie would have made and I have no idea how this ever got passed by the Debian code maintainers. This is first-year programming assignment. “What is a random number generator and how do you make one?”
Then, insult to injury, because Debian never passed its ‘fix’ on to OpenSSL, the people who would have caught the problem at a glance, this sloppy, insecure mess has now been used on hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of servers, PCs, and appliances.
This isn’t just bad. This is Microsoft security bad.
Now, there’s a fix for Debian 4.0 Etch and its development builds. Ubuntu, which is based on Debian,, also have fixes for it. In Ubuntu, the versions that need patches are Ubuntu 7.04, Feisty; Ubuntu 7.10, Gutsy; the just released Ubuntu 8.04 LTS Hardy, and the developer builds of Ubuntu Intrepid Ibex.
Debian has also opened a site on how to rollover your insecure security keys to the better ones once you’ve installed the corrected software.. For more on how to fix your system, see Fixing Debian OpenSSL on my ComputerWorld blog, Cyber Cynic.


The research, published in Frontiers of Bioscience, showed that animals fed on the Kamut wheat breads had a better response to oxidative stress than modern wheat, according to the researchers.
Commissioned by the wheat supplier Kamut International, the study was conducted by researchers at the Department of Food Sciences and the Department of Biochemistry at the University of Bologna in Italy.
Ancient grains and cereals have enjoyed a revival of interest in recent years, as they fit with the desire for less processed ingredients and attention to the nutritional value of foods.
From these findings, the scientists claim that the reduced risk of chronic diseases related to wholegrain consumption is attributed in part to their high antioxidant content.
“This published study represents the first of many, which we believe will eventually result in a scientific explanation of why people with sensitivities to modern wheat claim they feel better when they eat Kamut Brand wheat." said Bob Quinn, president of Kamut International.
“In this initial paper, however, we focused on a nutritional property which has significant implications for everyone,” he added.
Method and results
Phase one of the antioxidant evaluation on the Kamut brand khorasan wheat evaluated and compared the antioxidant effect of the two different bread types in rats: wholegrain ancient Kamut khorasan bread and wholegrain modern durum wheat bread (WB).
Two different bread-making processes were also compared for the wholegrain ancient Kamut bread: baker's yeast (KB) and sourdough (SKB).
According to the researchers, the concentration of all potential antioxidant compounds was different in the three experimental breads. The scientists said that the total polyphenols and in particular selenium, were significantly higher in the two types of Kamut bread than WB.
Vitamin E and beta-carotene were in lower concentrations in KB compared to WB, but both compounds were increased in the SKB by the sourdough fermentation, the study found.
After feeding these different breads to rats for seven weeks, the rats were submitted to an exogenous oxidative stress. The researchers claim that the rats that were fed the Kamut breads were better able to overcome the induced stress than those fed the modern durum bread and that those fed the SKB fared best of all.
The researchers said that the benefits may be stronger when Kamut bread is obtained by sourdough fermentation.
“The research is ongoing, evaluating in the rat liver the mechanisms related to the higher protective activity of ancient Kamut khorasan wheat,” they said.
Source: Frontiers of Bioscience
Title: “Role of cereal type and processing in whole grain in vivo protection from oxidative stress”
Authors: A. Gianotti, F. Danesi, V. Verardo, DI. Serrazanetti, V. Valli, A. Russo, Y. Riciputi, N. Tossani, M.F. Caboni, M.E. Guerzoni, A.Bordoni.