When the structure of tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) challenges the very concept of cell
Credit: (c) Institut Pasteur
Cells in our bodies have the ability to speak with one another much like humans do. This communication allows organs in our bodies to work synchronously, which in turn, enables us to perform the remarkable range of tasks we meet on a daily basis. One of this mean of communication is ‘tunneling nanotubes’ or TNTs. In an article published in Nature Communications, researchers from the Institut Pasteur leaded by Chiara Zurzolo discovered, thanks to advanced imaging techniques, that the structure of these nanotubes challenged the very concept of cell.
As their name implies, TNTs are tiny tunnels that link two (or more cells) and allow the transport of a wide variety of cargoes between them, including ions, viruses, and entire organelles. Previous research by the same team (Membrane Traf?c and Pathogenesis Unit) at the Institut Pasteur have shown that TNTs are involved in the intercellular spreading of pathogenic amyloid proteins involved in Alzheimer and Parkinson’s disease. This led researchers to propose that they serve as a major avenue for the spreading of neurodegenerative diseases in the brain and therefore represent a novel therapeutic target to stop the progression of these incurable diseases. TNTs also appear to play a major role in cancer resistance to therapy. But as scientists still know very little about TNTs and how they relate or differ from other cellular protrusions such as filopodia, they decided to pursue their research to deal with these tiny tubular connections in depth.
The dogma of cell unit questioned
A better understanding of these tiny tubular connections is therefore required as TNTs might have tremendous implications in human health and disease. Addressing this issue has been very difficult due to the fragile and transitory nature of these structures, which do not survive classical microscopic techniques. In order to overcome these obstacles, researchers combined various state-of-the-art electron microscopy approaches, and imaged TNTs at below-freezing temperatures.
Using this imaging strategy, researchers were able to decipher the structure of TNTs in high detail. Specifically, they show that most TNTs – previously shown to be single connections – are in fact made up of multiple, smaller, individual tunneling nanotubes (iTNTs). Their images also show the existence of thin wires that connect iTNTs, which could serve to increase their mechanical stability. They demonstrate the functionality of iTNTs by showing the transport of organelles using time-lapse imaging. Finally, researchers employed a type of microscopy known as ‘FIB-SEM’ to produce 3D images with sufficient resolution to clearly identify that TNTs are ‘open’ at both ends, and thus create continuity between two cells. “This discovery challenges the dogma of cells as individual units, showing that cells can open up to neighbors and exchange materials without a membrane barrier” explains Chiara Zurzolo, head of the Membrane Traf?c and Pathogenesis Unit at the Institut Pasteur.
A news step in cell-to-cell communication decoding
By applying an imaging work-flow that improves upon, and avoids, previous limitations of tools used to study the anatomy of TNTs, researchers provide the first structural description of TNTs. Importantly, they provide the absolute demonstration that these are novel cellular organelles with a defined structure, very different from known cell protrusions. “The description of the structure allows the understanding of the mechanisms involved in their formation and provides a better comprehension of their function in transferring material directly between (the cytosol of) two connected cells” says Chiara Zurzolo. Furthermore, their strategy, which preserves these delicate structures, will be useful for studying the role TNTs play in other physiological and pathological conditions
This work is an essential step toward understanding cell-to-cell communication via TNTs and lays the groundwork for investigations into their physiological functions and their role in spreading of particles linked to diseases such as viruses, bacteria, and misfolded proteins.
Please watch a video of Chiara Zurzolo’s team (in English) about these research findings: https:/
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|Home Gallery of Optical Illusions Optical Illusion Quiz|
Moving Sub Dots Optical Illusion
Can you see this optical illusion moving and shifting?
Scroll down for the explanation.
Most people will see this optical illusion moving and shifting as they look at it for a short while.
We live in a three dimensional world. Our mind tries to convert a two dimensional object into a 3D one. Here in this optical illusion, we try to make sense of these 2D objects. The shading used is completely incongruous. We lock onto a bit of the illustration that looks appropriately shaded and then find it conflicting with the shading in other nearby areas. We keep jumping around the illustration trying to map out a 3D solution that would make the shading make sense, but it never seems to work.
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Birds are endlessly fascinating! You might have noticed that some birds look like they have serrations on their beaks, so you may wonder if they have teeth.
The short answer is no, birds do not have teeth — but they used to! We look at how birds eat without teeth and how they evolved from having teeth to what we see today.
First of all, while birds don’t have teeth, they do develop a tiny little tooth-like appendage (which is made up of calcium) at the tip of their beaks while inside the egg. They use this tooth to break out of their eggs, and it typically falls off a couple of days after hatching, or in the case of passerines, such as sparrows, the egg tooth is absorbed into their beaks.
According to research, the ancestors of modern birds did have teeth, but they lost their teeth about 116 million years ago and started to develop beaks around the same time. In 2018, scientists revealed the fossil of one of the first bird beaks, which is described as “transitional.” It belongs to the Ichthyornis dispar, and it has a recognizable beak that is lined with teeth.
No one seems to know why birds lost their teeth in place of beaks, but it turned out to work in their favor. Birds without teeth survived the mass extinction of the dinosaurs, and it is believed to be because they were seed eaters. The toothed version of birds went extinct, but some of the birds that had beaks instead of teeth lived on.
One of the most characteristic features of all birds is their beak. Other creatures out there might have something like a beak (like octopuses), but with all the bird species out there, you can find a huge variety of beaks.
Beaks are used for any manner of functions, everything from eating, grooming, and feeding their young to mating and building nests.
Beaks are typically made up of the protein keratin, which is the same material as our fingernails and horses’ hooves.
There are many different kinds of beaks, and the shape is determined by the diet of the bird.
It is thought that birds lost their teeth because they didn’t need them. Most birds eat insects and seeds, and teeth would just get in the way. For birds that do hunt down prey, they have powerful talons and beaks that help them eat.
A bird’s gizzard does all their chewing for them. Gizzards are exceedingly strong muscular organs found in birds’ stomachs. Birds can swallow food whole, and their gizzards grind it up so it can be digested.
Certain species of duck, such as the scaup, will swallow mussels and clams whole, and their gizzards can grind them up, shell and all. Who needs teeth when you have something as efficient as a gizzard?
There are a few birds that technically do have teeth. There’s the double-toothed kite, which is a raptor with two tooth-like attachments on the sides of their upper beaks. There’s also the double-toothed barbet, which also has two tooth-like notches on the sides of its beak.
There are also geese. Like the raptors, they have sharp little protrusions that line their beaks and their tongues. These help the geese grab grass and tear it up before eating it, along with small rodents and insects.
These “teeth” are used to bite into their prey to hold onto it — they’re not for chewing. These are called tomial teeth, which essentially act like shears and help cut through their prey. These are not teeth, though, because they are not covered in enamel and are the same material as the beak, so they are basically an extension of the beak itself.
A bird’s beak is an evolutionary tool that has adapted to the bird’s specific diet and other functions.
These beaks belong to granivorous birds that feed primarily on seeds, such as goldfinches, canaries, and sparrows. The beaks are hard and short and enable these birds to break open seeds.
Hooked beaks tend to go with predatory birds, particularly raptor birds, like hawks and eagles. The hooked beak is adept at tearing flesh, which works well for meat-eating birds.
These beaks belong to birds that feed on the nectar of flowers, such as the hummingbird. The needle-like beak is inserted into the flowers, and they use their long tongues to sip the nectar. The length of the beak depends on the shape of the flowers that they feed from.
Belonging to the macaws and parrots, these beaks are quite strong and are used for eating fruit and seeds. They can also act almost like an extra appendage to help them climb.
These beaks tend to look like little spatulas. They belong to wading birds, such as the spoonbill and certain storks, and are long with a flattened, horizontal end. They are used for scooping up small mammals and mollusks in marshes and ponds without the bird getting its head wet.
These beaks belong to birds that eat primarily insects, such as the robin and the bee-eater. These birds go after insects that are not in motion, or they will use their beaks to find insects under bark, like the woodpecker.
However, for birds that eat insects while in flight (like swallows), the beaks tend to be short, flat, and wide.
Flamingoes use their wide, flat, and angled beaks to filter their food from the water. Swans and ducks are also in this category.
Fishing birds that catch their food by diving into the water have these kinds of beaks, like albatross and seagulls. Many of these beaks sometimes have a serrated edge to stop the fish from slipping.
You’ll also find the pelican in this category, but they have the unique addition of a large pouch under the beak, where they store their fish like mini aquariums.
There are several other unique beaks that don’t necessarily fit under one category, such as those of the toucan or the shoebill. But this all clearly demonstrates how essential beaks are for birds and how much their diet determines what kind of beak they have.
Each species has a unique diet and their beaks help them eat. While birds don’t have teeth, they’ve adapted beautifully to eat without any. Their beaks do so much for them already. Can you imagine building things, grooming yourself, or regulating your body temperature with your teeth?
While we may never fully understand why birds had teeth millions of years ago and then lost them, it looks like that was a good thing. It’s possible that we might not have all these amazing birds today if they had kept those teeth!
Featured Image Credit: Pixabay
Kathryn was a librarian in a previous lifetime and is currently a writer about all things birds. When she was a child, thanks to her love of animals she hoped to work in zoos or with wildlife in some way. She's not strong in the sciences, unfortunately, so she uses her time to research and write about all kinds of birds and animals, and hopes to bring that detailed knowledge to OpticsMag.
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Pins are used in millions of consumer and industrial products. Pins are one type of precision fastener. They come in an unlimited variety of materials, shapes, and sizes and are commonly used to align and hold parts and assemblies together.
Precision pins are machined to hold two components together when a threaded screw or bolt shouldn’t or can’t be used. Most pins are semi-permanent, which means they can be removed and replaced fairly easily.
Pins are a simple part that’s usually cylindrical and without threading. Different types of pins are used in different capacities.
Dowel Pins: Precision dowel pins are short cylinders that keep multiple components in proper alignment. Dowel pins are usually solid metal and can be machined using stainless steel, brass, carbon steel, and nearly every other metal. You’ll find dowel pins used in furniture assemblies, but wooden dowel pins usually aren’t as precise as metal pins. Dowel pins are available in high-precision tapered, slotted, spiraled, stepped, and grooved designs.
Spring Pins: A spring pin, or rolled pin, is a hollow or coiled cylinder of metal—usually rolled steel. Spring pins are slightly larger than the hole they’re used for to provide a snug fit, and a chamfered edge on one or both ends to help facilitate starting the pin into the hole.
Grooved Pins: Grooved pins are solid dowel pins that have grooves running down lengthwise. Grooved pins don’t have less material. Instead, the grooves are swaged, which displaces material and increases the diameter of the pin. The grooves close when the pin is forced into a hole, which gives grooved pins more elasticity than standard dowel pins. Similar to spring pins, there is a pilot or taper on the end to help get the pin started.
Locating Pins: There are dozens of different styles of locating pins that can be used in different situations. Locating pins can be used to locate and align a workpiece on a fixture, or to align two pieces of a fixture.
You can find pins nearly everywhere. Since we’re focusing on pins with more precision dimensions, they’re most commonly used in the automotive, electronic, aerospace, and defense industries. When the right materials are used, precision pins provide a secure bond between two metal parts, and they can withstand a decent amount of pressure.
Precision pins need to be manufactured precisely and with care to fulfill their purposes.
These can be found in industries where high standards and tight tolerances are necessary. Precise machining is required for pins being used in the aerospace and automotive industries.
Other applications where you can find precision pins include electronics, mining tools, plumbing, and power distribution. The power distribution industries are some of the most common users of precision pins. This type of pin is used for shafts, male connector pins, mechanical applications, and more.
Because the pin is in constant contact with other metal parts, the material used for pins needs to be complementary to the surrounding materials. It’s also essential to consider the environmental circumstances of the assembly– if there’s going to be moisture or chemicals present, or constant temperature changes.
Most pins are constructed with harder metals like steel, stainless steel, carbides, or superalloys like Monel or Hastelloy. Some applications may require softer materials. These materials are usually brass, aluminum, or mild steel.
Secondary processes are also used to improve the durability of the pins. It’s very common for pins to be galvanized, plated, heat treated, or anodized to increase the hardness and corrosion resistance of the metal.
There are many different ways to manufacture pins. Since most pins are ordered in large quantities, high volume machining methods like cold heading, spring pin machines, and Swiss screw machines are used.
The most common production process is called cold heading. Cold heading is the best way to manufacture high quantities of precision pins from a variety of metals.
The cold heading process starts with a long wire of metal, and then cuts the wire into smaller pieces called slugs. Then, the cold heading machine presses the slug into the desired shape. Depending on the specifications of the pin, there are one or multiple unique presses.
The cold heading machine uses a series of powerful hammer-like movements and dies to form the desired shape and dimensions. Since pins are a more simple shape than most parts, this process is more efficient than CNC machining. Cold heading allows rapid production of high quantities while maintaining tolerances within 50 microns (0.0002 inches).
For spring pins and rolled pins, a different type of machine is used. A spring pin machine takes a flat strip of metal and rolls the material into the desired pin shape, length, and thickness. This process is also ideal for high quantities and is relatively cheap compared to other machining processes.
Swiss screw machines are used to machine more complex precision pins. These machines specialize in making small, cylindrical shaped parts. The Swiss screw machine has exceptional precision, maintaining tolerances of ±0.005mm (0.0002in). This machining method is also efficient for high-volume orders because it can run automatically for hours without human involvement.
Spex offers a large selection of custom precision pins and rollers for whatever your project needs. We are an ISO 9001:2015 certified company, and our team specializes in precision machining and supply chain efficiency. Our machined components are available in an array of different materials and finishes and are manufactured to meet all the highest quantity needs.
Reach out to our team to get a quote for your next project.
Talk with one of our team members to get a quote for precision metal pins.
Phone: (585) 467-0520
85 Excel Drive
Rochester, NY 14621


CAIRO, Egypt - Egypt's antiquities council says that archaeologists have unearthed a 3,000-year-old red granite head believed to portray the 19th Dynasty pharaoh Ramses II.
The Supreme Council of Antiquities says the discovery was made recently at Tell Basta, about 50 miles northeast of Cairo.
The council's statement Thursday says the 30-inch high head belonged to a colossal statue of Ramses II that once stood in the area. Its nose is broken and the beard that was once attached to the king's chin is missing.
The site at Tell Basta was dedicated to the cat-goddess Bastet and was an important center from the Old Kingdom until the end of the Roman Period. Archeologists are still digging on the location for the rest of the statue.


How Does a Ventless Fireplace Work: Understanding the Magic Behind
Fireplaces have always been a symbol of warmth, comfort, and relaxation. While traditional fireplaces are often associated with chimneys and ventilation systems, ventless fireplaces have become increasingly popular in recent years. But how do these ventless fireplaces work? Let’s delve into the magic behind them.
Ventless fireplaces, also known as vent-free or unvented fireplaces, are designed to burn natural gas, propane, alcohol-based gels, or other fuels without the need for a chimney or ventilation system. Instead of releasing the combustion byproducts outside through a chimney, these fireplaces use engineering techniques to eliminate the need for a traditional venting system.
The primary mechanism behind ventless fireplaces is the use of a catalytic converter or an oxygen depletion sensor (ODS). A catalytic converter is a device that converts harmful combustion byproducts, such as carbon monoxide, into less harmful substances like carbon dioxide and water vapor. On the other hand, an ODS detects the amount of oxygen in the room and automatically shuts off the fireplace if the oxygen levels drop to a dangerous level.
Now that we understand the basic working principle, let’s address some frequently asked questions about ventless fireplaces:
1. Are ventless fireplaces safe?
Ventless fireplaces are safe when used properly and installed according to the manufacturer’s instructions. However, it is essential to have a carbon monoxide detector in the room to ensure safe operation.
2. Do ventless fireplaces produce any odors?
Modern ventless fireplaces are designed to burn fuel cleanly, minimizing any potential odors. However, it is crucial to use high-quality fuel and ensure proper ventilation in the room.
3. Are ventless fireplaces energy-efficient?
Ventless fireplaces are generally more energy-efficient compared to traditional fireplaces because they do not lose heat through a chimney. They can provide almost 99% heat efficiency.
4. Can ventless fireplaces be used as a primary heat source?
While ventless fireplaces can provide a significant amount of heat, they are not designed to be the primary heat source for an entire home. They are better suited as supplementary or zone heating solutions.
5. Is there any maintenance required for ventless fireplaces?
Regular maintenance is necessary for ventless fireplaces. Cleaning the fireplace, checking for any blockages, and ensuring proper ventilation are important to ensure safe and efficient operation.
6. Are there any limitations on where ventless fireplaces can be installed?
Ventless fireplaces can be installed almost anywhere, as they do not require a chimney or ventilation system. However, it is crucial to follow local building codes and regulations regarding the installation of these fireplaces.
7. Can ventless fireplaces produce realistic flames?
Modern ventless fireplaces use advanced technology to create realistic flames. They often feature ceramic logs and burner systems that mimic the appearance of a traditional wood-burning fireplace.
In conclusion, ventless fireplaces offer a convenient and versatile heating solution without the need for a chimney or ventilation system. By utilizing catalytic converters or ODS, these fireplaces ensure safe and efficient operation. However, it is crucial to follow safety guidelines, maintain the fireplace regularly, and use high-quality fuel to enjoy the warmth and beauty of a ventless fireplace.


Utahans are celebrating the 150th anniversary of the completion of the transcontinental railroad. Chinese people in California faced additional, racially targeted taxes in California during these years. Please view our Work of Giants: Chinese Railroad Worker Project page to find out more about our initiative to deepen the narrative and our understanding of the contributions of the Chinese railroad workers. Ninety-five percent of this population was male. Crocker cut off their pay and stopped supplies from reaching them, leaving them alone at the work site for one week. , On arrival in California, most of the migrants from China found work through family or social connections, or through district associations, the huiguan. Almost all of the immigrants from China arriving in California between 1850 and 1900 planned to return to their native country. The young Chinese men who came to California were likely to practice one of the primary Chinese religions: ancestor worship, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Leland â¦ In 1882 the federal government passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which prevented Chinese workers from entering the country. Collectively, Chinese railroad workers had no future. He voiced a colonialist anxiety about dispossession, a racial paranoia centering on fears of invasion and divestment. It stressed respect for elders and people of higher rank. Epidemics of infectious diseases often spread in the close quarters. (October 16, 2020). According to the Chinese Railroad Workers Project, Central Pacific started with a crew of 21 Chinese workers in January 1864. They are also honoring the hundreds and thousands of Chinese workers who actually completed the job. Chinese Railroad Workers Descendants Association. Photograph by Alfred A. Hart, between 1865-1869. The area north of San Francisco Bay was home to over 100,000 Indigenous people in 1846. Therefore, be sure to refer to those guidelines when editing your bibliography or works cited list. Yates had played a leadership role in the 1865 Colored Citizens’ convention. Late in May 1867, as the snow finally began melting between Cisco and the Truckee River, the Central Pacific directors prepared a full push on the summit. Discharge experienced Chinese workers, Crocker worried, and they would move into mining, putting the Central Pacific at a decided disadvantage during the short summer season. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. The participation of Chinese merchants and labor contractors in breaking the strike clarifies their investments in the organization and management of labor on Central Pacific construction.  Recruiting and controlling labor seemed to be resolved. Instead, this social body acts on Chinese people in North America, and beyond. The Chinese lost the wars and were forced to open their ports to Europeans. 19, No. For more information on Chinese history and culture, seeVol.  Mark Hopkins to Collis Huntington, June 28, 1867, Huntington Papers; Du Bois, Black Reconstruction, 569. The Central Pacific directors were inclined to reinvest in a racial division of labor. The eight-week journey from China to California was dangerous, and conditions aboard the ships were unhealthy and cramped. Chinese workers at one point may have constituted close to 90 percent of the Central Pacific workforce. But their work was so impressive that eventually 80% of all the workers were Chinese. Judge Crocker explained to Huntington. Contra Stanford, Kwong presented Chinese people not as alien invaders, but as constituents in the colonial pageant of California. Chugg, Robert. “When any commodity is in demand beyond the natural supply, even Chinese labor, the price will tend to increase.”. In 1867 two thousand Chinese workers in the Sierra Nevadas walked off their jobs, going on strike for better pay and shorter working hours. "The Transcontinental Railroad," Linda Hall Library website. That October, the Committee on Industrial Pursuits at the 1865 California State Convention of Colored Citizens forwarded a resolution to send three representatives to present to Central Pacific directors “the expediency of employing from twenty to forty thousand freedmen on the Great Pacific Railroad” and to petition members of the California state legislature and congressional representatives for aid. Perl, Lila. "Chinese Transcontinental Railroad Workers There was almost no law and order in the camps, and some of the miners began to attack the Chinese. "The Chinese and the Transcontinental Railroad." 4 (2015): 1096. For the second, they could bluster and impress. Most were extremely loyal to their ancestors, villages, and families and were highly disciplined. In China at the time, all males were required to wear their hair in a long braid called a queue, in honor of Chinese tradition. For many Chinese the situation in their homeland was unbearable. Known in San Francisco as the Six Companies, district associations functioned as mutual-aid societies where new and indigent arrivals could find shelter and basic amenities, following organizational models among Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. At some point the two companies and the tracks they were laying would meet. Stanford urged the California government to request land and credit from the U.S. federal government, to support the construction of a transcontinental railroad, to remake California as a site of continental imperialism. Three-fourths of all Chinese immigrants in the United States in 1870 lived in California, with a large number concentrated in San Francisco. The success of their labor would ensure the obsolescence of their lives. Merchants developed business around arrivals to California and departures to China, situated strategically between Chinatown communities and major corporations. Chinese Workers and the Transcontinental Railroad â Boom California. The previous summer, construction managers had difficulty keeping workers at the grueling hard rock tunnel work. Few records remained of the individual men who accomplished this overwhelming task through courage and discipline, and there were no known first-person accounts, such as memoirs or letters, left by the railroad workers. Five weeks after Stanford gave his speech, the U.S. Congress approved “An Act to prohibit the ‘Coolie Trade’ by American Citizens in American Vessels.” The act prohibited U.S. citizens and residents from transporting “the inhabitants, or subjects of China known as ‘coolies,’” defined as individuals “disposed of, or sold, or transferred, for any term of years or for any time whatever, as servants or apprentices, or to be held to service or labor.” U.S. law associated coolie status with indenture, a status marked in time, distinct from slavery. After completion of the railroad, Chinese exclusion formalized racial violence and labor control on a continental scale, evacuating models of relationship governing the movement of people across Indigenous lands and waters. It is our only security for strikes.  E. B. Crocker to Collis Huntington, July 6, 1867, Huntington Papers. © 2019 Encyclopedia.com | All rights reserved. Chinese railroad workers in North America Project. Their presence is regarded as a social danger”: Hobson, Imperialism, 276. American Experience: PBS.  E. B. Crocker to Collis Huntington, February 15, 1867, Huntington Papers. The judge calculated, “Each white man costs us in board and wages $2 1/2 each 8 hours, but Chinamen cost us $1.19 each 8 hours, and they drill nearly as fast.” Chinese railroad labor was a quantity measuring time in relation to price, and the price was lower than that of white labor. The Irish were the first group to be hired in great numbers for work on the transcontinental railroad. Over the same period of time China had experienced major floods and droughts (shortages of rain), and its farms were unable to feed the rapidly growing population. One firm, Sisson, Wallace & Co., eventually “furnished pretty much all of the Chinamen that we worked.” Clark Crocker, brother of Charles and E.D., was the “& Co.” in question. About half of the early Chinese sojourners returned to China. 3; Hobson wrote of Chinese workers, who were “introduced into the Transvaal as mere economic machines, not as colonists to aid the industrial and social development of a new country. Development of the Industrial U.S. Reference Library. Hopkins expressed hope in a Central Pacific “application for 5000 Freedmen from the Freedmen’s Bureau.” It was a lesson in political economy. In his 1851 inaugural speech as the first U.S. civil governor of California, Peter Burnett had called for a “war of extermination” against Indigenous peoples in California. 3 (1979): 228. For thousands of years, under a series of long-term ruling families, the Chinese developed a highly advanced culture in which the arts, philosophy, science, commerce, and the military flourished. The Daily Union printed a more detailed account of the strike action and demands, clarifying the demand for eight hours from those working the tunnels, and ten hours from those on open ground. BOOM California is a publication of the University of California Press. As soon as word of the California gold rush reached China, thousands of young men set off for the United States. The workweek was exhausting, consisting of six twelve-hour days. The Chinese workers on the railroad lived separately from the other laborers. Chinese Transcontinental Railroad Workers But China laborers are coming in slowly so that Charley thinks the force will steadily increase from this time on.” A report from the Sacramento Daily Union a little over a year later, in June 1866, provides a sense of the rapid increase Chinese labor as Central Pacific construction proceeded. The Central Pacific Railroad transformed California from an overseas possession to a continental possession of the United States. The U.S. military government in San Francisco had already begun enforcing compulsory Indigenous labor in 1847. A. W. Loomis, “The Chinese Six Companies,” Overland Monthly 1, no. Chinese workers were finding work in quartz mills, building roads and canals, and many were going to Idaho and Montana, looking for work. They do not accomplish so much in a given time as Irish laborers, but they are willing to work more hours per day, and are content with their lot so long as they are promptly paid. 5; Kornel Chang, Pacific Connections: The Making of the U. S.-Canadian Borderlands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 12; Stacey L. Smith, Freedom’s Frontier: California and the Struggle over Unfree Labor, Emancipation, and Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 23–24; Hurtado, “California’s Indian Labor Force,” 219, 220, 222; Kwee Hui Kian, “Chinese Economic Dominance in Southeast Asia: A Longue Duree Perspective,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 55, no. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: Trafford Publishing, 2004. But they also struck for an end to physical punishment, and for the right to leave employment when they wanted to.  Sacramento Daily Union, July 2, 1867. Some families in the Kuangtung Province, where the capital city and port of Canton was located, began to prepare their sons to travel to other lands to find work.  E. B. Crocker to Collis Huntington, February 17, 1867, Huntington Papers. Library of Congress. These are not the hallmarks of free labor. . Some Chinese miners pooled their funds and bought claims that other miners had abandoned, and they were often able to find gold where others had not. These workers gained the respect of many who worked with them, but strong anti-Asian sentiments in the United States, due mainly to uninformed opinions, kept most of the Chinese on the outskirts of American society. The Sacramento Daily Union printed a telegram attributed to Huntington, dated June 28, stating, “There will be no trouble in getting all the laborers you want. The railroad workers blasted and scraped their way through the Sierra Mountains at great risk to their lives. 4 (Winter 1997): 520–46 at 540; Richard Steven Street, Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769–1913 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), chaps. Chinese labor was an instrument, not a subject, of colonialism. More than forty feet of snow fell as the Central Pacific crew worked. 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Crisp, bright photographs and a simple, personal narrative create a remarkably informative look at the process of silk production in a Thai village.
The book opens with a legend about how a Chinese empress discovered a secret treasure in cocoons she’d gathered from a mulberry tree 5,000 years ago: The amazing fabric that could be woven from the long strands of the cocoons was a closely kept secret in China for hundreds of years. In this account, Sobol is a welcome visitor when he arrives in a Thai village at the start of the school holiday. Although the boys, he is told, are studying with the monks during the holiday, the girls help with the silk production in the village. The author introduces himself to readers as a learner (“Everywhere I look, I see something interesting happening and I hardly know where to point my camera”), and the inclusion of his own reactions gives the narrative immediacy and personality. A satisfying abundance of photographs shows the baskets of mulberry leaves with white, striped silkworms nestled munching inside, the cheese-puff–like cocoons, the boiling pots, the long fibers stretching over spools, the looms and the girls dressed in their silk dresses, all elaborated on and explained in a friendly and accessible way.
A pleasingly engaging look at the subject. (silk facts, glossary) (Nonfiction. 6-10)


Food allergies, especially those that manifest in early childhood, have been on the rise in recent times.
The most common allergies are related to these eight allergens: peanuts, wheat, cow’s milk, other nuts, soy, eggs, shellfish, or fish. These foods can be perfectly normal, harmless elements of one person’s diet, but can cause a severe allergic reaction in another individual.
Allergies are a breakdown of the body’s tolerance mechanisms.
There is a growing body of evidence implicating a disturbed gut microbiome in an individual’s susceptibility to developing food allergies as gut dysbiosis is seen to precede the development of food allergy.
Studies in which the gut microbiome has been studied and profiled have demonstrated that the gut microbiomes of individuals with food allergies differ from those with healthy systems and no allergic reactions to the common allergens listed above.
Food allergies and gut microbial interactions can go way back to infancy
Early studies that tried to measure microbial diversity and composition in subjects with and without food allergies pointed to the presence of differences in gut microbial types populating the gut. However, as it is difficult to culture most of the microbiota, they did not provide a complete picture.
More recently, since the advent of 16S rRNA sequencing techniques, it is being discovered that children with food allergies have distinct gut microbiome compositions compared to those without. In addition, it appears that the composition of the gut microbiome can vary according to the individual food allergy.
A study of 226 infants with milk allergy sought to understand the relationship between the development of the infant gut microbiome and the clinical course of their food allergy. Investigators found that taxa from the Firmicutes phylum, including Clostridia, were greater in number in the gut microbiomes of infants aged 3 to 6 months whose milk allergy later cleared up by 8 years of age.
However, this same pattern was not observed in infants of the same age whose milk allergy continued to persist later in life.
Furthermore, among infants older than 6 months with milk allergies, there was no association between gut microbiome composition and later milk allergy resolution. Based on these observations, it seems likely that during early infancy, age 3-6 months, there is a specific developmental window during which gut microbiota can influence the manifestation of food allergy.
Gut microbiota at later stages, say over 6 months of age, may have little to no effect on the food allergy trajectory.
The role of nutrition in the prevention and management of food allergy
Nutrition plays a major role in the development, maintenance, and efficacy of our immune cells. Zinc, Vitamin D, pre- and probiotics are important for the optimal functioning of the immune system.
Essential fatty acids can enhance the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative barriers, promoting immunologic tolerance, and mitigating the risk of food allergies. In addition, recent findings have shown that increased diversity of food, when introduced in the first year of life, confers a protective effect.
In other words, exposure to a variety of food antigens at that particular stage of life has a major influence on the development of immune tolerance.
Diversity is the key to a food allergy-free existence: a more diverse microbial load delivered through a more diverse diet establishes a more diverse microbiome.


How Childhood Trauma Leads to ‘Emotional Scars’
People who have been a victim of child abuse or being neglected in their youth are more often confronted with depression and anxiety. Moreover, the course of these psychological disorders is more often unfavorable in them.
This is evidence from the Ph.D. research by Jacqueline Hovens. She advocates more awareness and prevention. “Emotional neglect is now too often invisible.”
Jacqueline Hovens, the psychiatrist at the LUMC, distinguished four kinds of youth traumas in her research: sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, and emotional neglect.
The more often violation and abuse occurred together, the stronger the connection with anxiety and depression, especially the combination of these. Adverse life events, such as divorce or death of parents and out-of-home placement, do not increase the possibility of becoming anxious or depressed. “That is only the case if these events go hand in hand with long-term abuse or neglect,” says Hovens.
Childhood Trauma and Emotional Scars
Especially emotional abuse (such as belittling and blackmailing) and emotional neglect (giving no attention and love to the child) were found to increase the risk of anxiety and depression. Hovens, therefore, calls for more attention for these forms of abuse.
“Sexual abuse and physical abuse have decreased enormously in recent decades, but emotional neglect is not. It is believed that more than 10 percent of children are emotionally neglected. The problem is that it is often not visible and patients, but also therapists, find it difficult to discuss. “
More chronic consequences
Hovens advocates making youth traumas negotiable, because it may be necessary for the treatment of anxiety and depression. Traumatic experiences, for example, appear to be predictors for a chronic course of therapy and unfavorable treatment results.
Previous research even shows that people with a trauma history benefit more from psychotherapy than from medication, whereas this does not apply to patients without childhood trauma. “People with childhood trauma often have difficulty in regulating their emotions properly, distrust their environment more and think more negatively about themselves. You should not only treat depression but also do something about it. “
Vulnerable personality profile
The Ph.D. student also looked at psychological mechanisms that could explain the connection between childhood traumas and mental disorders. “People with childhood trauma have a more vulnerable personality profile. For example, they score higher on hopelessness and helplessness, are less extrovert and less inclined to ask for help. They are emotionally more unstable and impulsive, so the chance of negative events in later life is also greater. “
Hovens argues for more attention for this problem, not only for treatment providers of patients with anxiety and depression but also – for prevention – among professionals who work with children, such as teachers, youth care workers, and doctors.
“Parents often neglect or abuse their child out of impotence or because they are traumatized. They need support to promote a positive parent-child relationship. Moreover, the vicious circle must be broken. “
Does your organization or conference need an inspiring and educational keynote from one of the top keynote speakers on childhood trauma? Motivational keynote speaker Derek Clark is a survivor of brutal childhood trauma and has a very high ACE score (Adverse Childhood Experiences). He is the author of seven books and speaks around the world. Google ranks him the the #1 keynote speaker on early childhood trauma. Find out more about him at www.IWillNeverGiveUp.com


Editorial: Help to put our lakes on a low salt diet
Too much salt isn't good for you.
And it's not good for our lakes either.
Remember that this winter season if you plan to put salt on the icy spots on your sidewalk or driveway.
In a news release issued this week, the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) noted that when snow and ice start to accumulate, on Minnesota roads, parking lots and sidewalks, one of the more common reactions is to apply salt, which contains chloride, a water pollutant. When snow and ice melt, most of the salt goes with it, washing into our lakes, streams and rivers. Once in the water, there's no way to remove the chloride and it becomes a permanent pollutant.
The issue of road salt is serious enough for the MPCA to launch an effort in the Twin Cities to make people more aware of the problem and its consequences. Brooke Asleson, MPCA project manager for the Twin Cities Metro Area chloride project, commented, "Salt is a real threat to water quality. It only takes one teaspoon of road salt to permanently pollute five gallons of water. We are trying to spread the word that less is more when it comes to applying road salt because at high concentrations, chloride can harm the fish and plant life in our waters."
Considering all the lakes there are in this area, residents here, too, should take the salt problem seriously.
The MPCA offers the following ways to reduce salt use while maintaining high safety standards:
n Shovel. The more snow and ice you remove manually, the less salt you will have to use and the more effective it can be. Break up ice with an ice scraper and decide whether application of a de-icer or sand is even necessary to maintain traction.
n More salt does not mean more melting. Use less than four pounds of salt per 1,000 square feet (an average parking space is about 150 square feet). One pound of salt is approximately a heaping 12-ounce coffee mug.
n Fifteen degrees is too cold for most salt to work. Instead, use sand for traction.
n Sweep up extra salt. If salt or sand is visible on dry pavement, it is no longer doing any work and will be washed away.
To learn more about what you can to reduce chloride in our waters, or to find out more about using de-icing salt, visit the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency website at www.pca.state.mn.us.
ALEXANDRIA ECHO PRESS


What is a mammal? micro-lesson
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Kids learn by watching short, engaging video lessons.
What is a mammal? Scientists classify or group animals in a variety of ways. One way in which they do this is by looking at the animal’s characteristics. Mammals such as whales, elephants, and cheetahs have many features that make them unique from other animals. For example, mammals are all warm-blooded. This means that they create their own body heat and can stay warm in cold climates, unlike cold-blooded animals such as reptiles. Another key feature of mammals is that they have lungs which enable them to breathe oxygen in the air. Interestingly, all mammals have hair at some stage in their lives. This includes aquatic mammals such as whales which have hair along their jaw and head.
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What does the term 'warm blooded' mean?1) Animals that create their own body heat.2) Animals that only like warm climates.3) Animals that enjoy being warm.4) Animal that sunbathe to keep their blood warm.
Mammals have gills. True or false?1) False.2) True.
What do all mammals have at some stage of their lives?1) Hair or fur2) Fins3) Legs4) Wings
Whales have hair. True or false?1) True.2) False.
What is the scientific word for 'group'?1) Classify2) Sort3) Organise4) Collect
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The cheetah is a mammal that is found in the grasslands of Eastern and Southern…
The African elephant is a mammal that is found in 23 countries across Africa including…


Jaguar (Panthera onca)
|Spanish:||Otorongo, Tigre Americano, Tigre Real, Yaguar, Yaguarete|
|Size||Head-body length: 112 - 241 cm (2)|
Shoulder height: 45 - 75 cm (2)
Male weight: 54 – 158 kg (2)
Female weight: 36 – 85 kg (2)
- The jaguar is the biggest cat in the Americas
- 'Jaguar' comes from the native Indian name ‘yaguara’, meaning ‘a beast that kills its prey with one bound’
- Black or melanistic forms of the jaguar are relatively common, often called ‘black panthers’
- The jaguar is crepuscular, which means it is active at dawn and dusk
- The only big cat to regularly kill by piercing the skull, the jaguar has the most powerful bite of the ‘big cats’ relative to its size
The jaguar is classified as Near Threatened (NT) on the IUCN Red List (1), and listed under Appendix I of CITES (1).
The jaguar (Panthera onca) is the largest cat of the Americas and a formidable predator. Its common name comes from the native Indian name ‘yaguara’, meaning ‘a beast that kills its prey with one bound’ (3) (4), and its power is clearly displayed by its muscular build, deep chest, large head, broad muzzle, and strong jaws (2). This remarkable cat possesses a visually striking coat of large black rosettes, mostly enclosing dark spots, set against golden brown to yellow fur, which pales to white on the cheeks, throat and underside (2) (5). Melanistic forms are also relatively common, often called ‘black panthers’ in the Americas. Jaguars vary considerably in size in different regions, but genetic studies indicate that there are no subspecies (6). Jaguars found in the dense forested areas of the Amazon Basin are generally smaller and darker in colour than those found in more open terrain (3).
Jaguars were once found across the Americas as far north as California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas in the United States (7). In recent years they have been seen and photographed in southern Arizona (6) but otherwise survive only in Central and South America, ranging from Mexico to north Argentina (2). Their population is small and highly fragmented in Mexico. The highest population densities of up to one per 15 square kilometres are found in the lowland rainforests of the Amazon Basin. Although this refuge is of sufficient size to conserve the species for the foreseeable future, jaguar populations are considered to be declining in most other habitats (4).
The jaguar is found in a variety of habitats across its range, from dense rainforest to seasonally flooded swamp areas, scrubland and savannas, but always near water (2). Primarily occupying lowlands of below 1,000 metres, sightings of jaguars have been reported as high as 3,800 metres (1) (2).
Jaguars are solitary animals that occupy shifting territories, males and females only coming together in order to mate (8). Mating occurs throughout the year, but young are reportedly more likely to be born in the wet season when prey is more abundant. The female gives birth to a litter size of one to four cubs after a gestation period of 91 to 111 days (9). Young are dependent on their mother for up to two years, after which time they disperse to find their own territory (10). Jaguars reach sexual maturity at two to three years for females, three to four years for males (10). Life span in the wild is not known, but jaguar specialist Alan Rabinowitz estimated that few jaguars in Belize lived more than 11 years. In captivity jaguars have lived as long as 25 years, and one female reached 32 years (11).
Although the jaguar has been characterised as nocturnal, it is more often crepuscular (being active around dawn and dusk) (9), with peak activity periods dependent on local prey habits (2). Like most cats, jaguars are opportunistic hunters, and more than 85 species have been recorded in their diet (9), ranging in size from domestic cattle down to various species of peccary, reptiles and fish (3). Relative to their size, they have the most powerful bite of the ‘big cats’ and are the only big cat to regularly kill by piercing the skull (2).
Sadly, human activities have generated the principle threat to the survival of the jaguar (5). Commercial hunting for their pelts was responsible for the death of 18,000 jaguars a year in the 1960s and 1970s. Fortunately, this toll has declined dramatically since the mid-1970s as a result of anti-fur campaigns and CITES controls, which progressively shut down international markets. Due to their predation on domestic livestock, the killing of jaguars by cattle-ranchers is also an ongoing problem (9). One of the primary threats today comes from deforestation, which is having a drastic impact on the jaguar’s prey base, as well as fragmenting the cat’s population into more isolated pockets, making them more vulnerable to the predations of man (3).
Although the jaguar is fully protected over much of its range, hunting is allowed for “problem animals” in Brazil, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru, trophy hunting is still permitted in Bolivia and there is no legal protection in Ecuador and Guyana. Where protective legislation exists, it is often ignored and un-enforced and even in ‘controlled reserves’ jaguars are frequently shot (9). If we are to ensure the survival of this magnificent species it is vital that we enforce legislation, obtain the cooperation of local people, and maintain large tracts of contiguous habitat. The Belize government, prompted by the US-based Wildlife Conservation Society, has set aside 150 square kilometres of rain forest in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Preserve as a protected environment for around 200 jaguars (4) (6). Additionally, the Brazilian government is planning to establish a National Centre for Research, Management and Conservation of Predators, to address livestock-predator problems (4). Thus, conservation efforts are being made, but illegal activity urgently needs to be addressed, as it continues to make the future of the jaguar uncertain (5).
For more information on the Jaguar:
IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group:
Save the Jaguar:
BBC Wildlife Finder:
Authenticated (05/01/2006) by Peter Jackson, Chair, IUCN Cat Specialist Group.
- Crepuscular: to be active in the early dawn or twilight.
- Gestation: the state of being pregnant; the period from conception to birth.
- Melanistic: an animal that is dark or black in colour that is not normally so. These animals are usually not pure black, as any markings can still be seen.
IUCN Red List (June, 2009)
The Cat Survival Trust (August, 2005)
Big Cats Online (August, 2005)
International Society for Endangered Cats Canada (ISEC Canada) (August, 2005)
The Lion’s Kingdom (August, 2005)
- Jackson, P. (2006) Pers. comm.
Lioncrusher’s Domain (August, 2005)
Explorer: An online encyclopaedia of life (August, 2005)
IUCN Cat Specialist Group (August, 2005)
- Macdonald, D. (2001) The New Encyclopedia of Mammals. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
- Sunquist, M. and Sunquist, F. (2002) Wild Cats of the World. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, London..


I have a confession to make.
I hate dating…
To start with there are so many different types of date.
Take radiocarbon for example. I’m assuming you know how radiocarbon works (if you don’t there is a good explanation here). A raw radiocarbon date is a measurement of how much radiocarbon is left in an organic object, from which we calculate how long ago the object died. When you cite radiocarbon dates you can cite them as radiocarbon years: uncalibrated BP. But most people prefer to adjust them so that they equate to calendar years: calibrated BP; this is done by calibrating the radiocarbon date (which you will see referred to as a date, a determination, an assessment, an age or an assay), against organic material of known age (read about it here). A calibrated date is rarely a single year; it is more usually expressed as a range of years together with a probability in order to indicate the mathematical likelihood that the date falls within that range.
You have to know here that BP stands for Before Present. Except that it doesn’t – for uncalibrated dates it really stands for Before 1950, because that year has been accepted as a norm against which the decay of radioactive isotopes is measured. At the moment the little matter of 66 years seems but a tiny blip in the assessment of time, though we will have to do something about it as time progresses and measurements become more accurate.
Then of course you can adjust dates to the commonly accepted BC (Before Christ), except that in many countries it is now BCE (Before the Common Era). BC dates can be uncalibrated, or calibrated (usually: bc or cal BC). Uncalibrated bc dates are rarely used nowadays and usually achieved by subtracting 1950 from the uncalibrated BP date.
There are also calendar years (sometimes known as human years). And quite a lot of publications generalise as ‘years ago’. You will sometimes see dates quoted as 8 ka BP, which in general means 8000 BP and is usually calibrated, though the publication may specify that it is not.
Do you begin to see my problem? And I haven’t even begun to talk about the Bayesian analysis of dates (see here).
Add to the murk the fact that while archaeologists prefer quoting dates as cal BC, geoscientists will usually use cal BP. So, an interdisciplinary project can run into problems.
And not just interdisciplinary, multi-authored, projects; I’ve been reading a book that cites date ranges as uncal BP, cal BP, unspecified BP, years ago, 14C years ago, and cal BC; all in few pages of text. There are also a few uncalibrated original dates to play with.
It is a nightmare to make sense of it all. I’m not sure what the answer is, but I’m sure there must be a better way. For now, all we can do is plead for people to use one standard throughout their work, explain clearly what it is at the start, and stick to it!
I’m adding to this a link to the Archaeology Blogging Carnival that runs this month, perhaps there are other potential bloggers out there who like to think about archaeology!


In the West everyone knows the story of the Croat, Marco Polo, who traveled from Italy to the court of Kublai Khan in China in the 13th century. Whilst it has become a fairly common belief that Marco Polo, in fact, didn’t go to China, but instead took his stories of China from merchant sailors, his story does give us an interesting insight into 13th century China through the eyes of a Westerner (or Westerners). However, the fact that there is a reverse Marco Polo story seems to have been missed by most people. At almost exactly the same time a Nestorian Christian called Rabban Bar Sauma was sent from the court of Kublai Khan to Western Europe as an ambassador to the Pope, the King of England, and the King of France.
In 431 AD the Patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius, was cast from his see by the First Council of Ephesus. His crime had been to declare that the Virgin Mary was not “Theotokos” (mother of God) as he was worried that the veneration of the Virgin Mary was getting dangerously close to worship. Many of the bishops took this to mean that he did not believe Jesus was the son of God and so was condemned as a heretic. Nestorius retired to a monastery in Antioch but his followers persisted in spreading the form of Christianity that became known as Nestorian or Assyrian from the fact that they spoke in Aramaic, the language of Jesus, hence Rabban Bar Sauma’s title which is like the Hebrew, Rabbi. By the 7th century the Nestorians had reached China and began setting up a community exemplified by a stele discovered in Chang’an which refers to the “luminous religion of Daqin” (the Chinese name for the Roman Empire).
Rabban Bar Sauma was born in 1220, near Beijing to a weathly family of Uighur Turkic origin (classed as part of the ruling Mongol caste). At around the age of 20 he took the name Bar Sauma (Aramaic for “Son of Fasting”) and became an ascetic monk and a religious teacher. At the age of about 40 (1260) Rabban Bar Sauma and his pupil Rabban Marcos decided to undertake a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. They went by way of Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia before going down to Mosul and finally settled at the court of the head of the Nestorian church, Patriarch Mar Denha I, in Baghdad (which they reached in the 1270s). Unable to make their way to Jerusalem due to the incessant fighting in the region between the Mongols (the Ilkhanate), Egyptians, and the Crusader States, the two pilgrims were forced to remain in Baghdad as guests of the Patriarch. However, in 1281, Patriarch Mar Denha I died and the in the subsequent election Rabban Bar Sauma’s companion, Rabban Marcos, was elected as the new Patriarch, Mar Yaballaha III.
As the regional wars between the Mongols of the Ilkhanate (ruled by Arghun Khan) and the Egyptian Mamluks intensified it was decided by that the Mongols should seek an alliance with Christian Europe against a common enemy. The Mongols thus turned to their Christian subjects to act as emissaries to the European Kings and the Pope. Patriarch Mar Yaballaha III decided that the best candidate was his old teacher and travelling companion, Rabban Bar Sauma. So in 1287 (at the age of 67) Rabban Bar Sauma left Baghdad as the emissary of Arghun Khan. Fitting his station as a state emissary Rabban Bar Sauma left with a large retinue of 30 riding animals and two interpreters from Genoa, Tommas d’Anfossi and a man simply called Ughetto (Rabban Bar Sauma could speak fluent Chinese, Turkish, and Persian but no European languages).
Proceeding through Armenia the retinue traveled to Constantinople and met with the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus where Rabban Bar Sauma marveled at the wonder of the Hagia Sophia. However the Byzantines, having recently been decimated by the Venetians in the 4th Crusade were in no position to offer help and had entered a period of terminal decline. Rabban Bar Sauma’s retinue, therefore, went by boat to Italy to see the Pope, Honorius IV. The retinue went via Sicily where they witnessed the eruption of Mt Etna on June 18th 1287 as well as the naval battle of Sorrento (June 24th) between Charles II of Naples and James II of Aragon (and Sicily). By the time Rabban Bar Sauma arrived in Rome Pope Honorius IV had died. As he had arrived in the midst of a Papal election Rabban Bar Sauma was only able to meet with a few of the Cardinals and make a visit to St Peter’s Basilica. His attempts in Rome foiled, Rabban Bar Sauma spent the winter in Genoa before proceeding on to France to meet King Philip the Fair. King Philip received him with great enthusiasm promising support, giving lavish gifts and sending a nobleman (Gobert de Helleville), two clerics (Robert de Senlis, and Guillaume de Bruyères), and a military adviser (Audin du Bourges) to act as ambassadors to the Ilkhanate. After this enthusiastic reception Bar Sauma continued on to Gascony (then in English hands) where he met with King Edward I (the King in the film Braveheart) in Bordeaux. However, Edward was having his own problems with the Welsh and the Scots and was unable and unwilling to commit troops to an alliance with the Mongols. At this point Rabban Bar Sauma decided to begin the voyage home. On his way back he passed through Rome again where he met the newly elected Pope Nicholas IV who gave him communion on Palm Sunday 1288, and gifted him with a precious papal tiara to give to Mar Yaballaha III.
Rabban Bar Sauma returned to Baghdad and presented the gifts to Arghun Khan and the Patriarch. Arghun Khan answered the promises of the King of France by sending a letter:


in 10th Grade Math.
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in Advanced Algebra.
In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular table of elements, which may be numbers or, more generally, any abstract quantities that can be added and multiplied.
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Matrices are described by the field of matrix theory. Matrices can be added, multiplied, and decomposed in various ways, which also makes them a key concept in the field of linear algebra.
The horizontal lines in a matrix are called rows and the vertical lines are called columns. A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m-by-n matrix (written m × n) and m and n are called its dimensions.
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Scientists from the Fraunhofer Institute for Laser Technology (ILT) and for Production Technology (IPT) have jointly developed new process chains for producing jet engine components that allows for more design freedom as well as more efficient and cost effective production and repair processes. The processes, demonstrated recently at the ILA Berlin Air Show in May, use Selective Laser Manufacturing (SLM) and Laser Material Deposition (LMD) to build components layer by layer, reducing waste and allowing for the construction of more complex geometries.
The SLM technique has enabled Fraunhofer ILT's scientists to produce components that previously could not be manufactured. In the method, laser radiation is scanned across a powder bed and traces out the form of the component, each layer at a time. Wherever the laser radiation impacts the powder, the powder initially melts and then solidifies to form a solid mass. In this way, the component is built-up layer by layer. Until now, parts were subtractively produced, for example by milling. This process results in a greater loss of material, and there are geometric restrictions in the production of certain designs.
The researchers are now working with their colleagues from the Fraunhofer IPT on the integration of the additive manufacturing technique into an entire, continuous process chain. To illustrate what the new process chain can achieve, the team produced a Nozzle Guide Vane (NGV) cluster consisting of six double vanes. Previously, the vanes for turbines could only be produced in sets of two, so were more difficult and took longer to install into the engine.
The team also managed to improve the base of the NGV cluster with internal honeycomb-like structures, which makes the entire component around 30 per cent lighter as a result.
The researchers have also considered the Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) of engine blades. While the technicians previously had to repair these blades manually, the new process is now fully automated. ‘We do not even need half the processing time. And more importantly, the method is reproducible and ensures high-quality repairs,’ said Bergs.
An important step toward automation was the development of the ‘CAx framework’. This software approach allows all the various repair technologies to be operated from a single platform. Firstly, the geometric data of a damaged or worn-out blade is acquired, for instance, by digital imaging. Secondly, a milling machine blends out the defect, and thirdly, laser radiation builds-up the blade again layer by layer via Laser Material Deposition (LMD).
The research is a subproject of the Cluster of Innovation AdaM, short for ‘Adaptive production for Resource Efficiency in Energy and Mobility’: This is where the Fraunhofer Institutes IPT and ILT as well as 21 industrial partners pool their skills. The goal is to technically implement new concepts for turbo machinery – for engines, among other components – so that they can convert energy more efficiently and reduce CO2 emissions.


It’s an odd curiosity of early American history. In a letter to a family member, the coauthor of the Declaration of Independence decides to throw shade at his nation’s new symbol. Why he did this may seem a little perplexing at first. But context is important, especially here. So let’s try to better understand where Benjamin Franklin was coming from in his criticism of the bald eagle.
The Bald Eagle as a U.S. Symbol
The founding father’s 1784 missive was written only about a year and a half after the United States adopted the bald eagle as part of the country’s Great Seal.1 In a bit of historical trivia, Franklin served on the first of three committees dedicated to creating the design.2 Later, he used the seal while acting as a U.S. ambassador in France.3 However, during his post there is also when he penned that infamous letter to his daughter, Mrs. Sarah Bache.
In that piece of overseas correspondence, Franklin declares, “I wish the bald eagle had not been chosen as the representative of our country.”4 Then the Philadelphian sage states three reasons for his objection, two specifically relating to the creature’s “bad moral character” and a third regarding the popularity and pervasiveness of eagles in general. Overall, he asserts (or appears to) that the bald eagle is an unfit symbol for a democratic republic free of monarchic rule and aristocratic ties.
Examining Franklin’s Case
For Exhibit A, he accuses the bald eagle of being a lazy cheat, apt to forcing the osprey, by means of harassment, to relinquish its catch. And, indeed, Franklin is right about the raptor’s behavior. Though bald eagles will hunt their own fish, they frequently bully food away from other birds. This is evident in the Grand Prize-winning photo from this year’s Audubon Photography Awards; that stunning picture captures a bald eagle ambushing great blue herons.
Thievery, however, is the smallest of problems Franklin has with the bald eagle. Moving on to Exhibit B, he seizes upon what he considers its greatest fault, calling the raptor a “rank coward,” prone to fleeing from “a little king bird, not bigger than a sparrow.” What Franklin meant by “king bird” is not clear,5 but there is some truth in his anecdotal statement. When mobbed by smaller feathered creatures, such as crows and sparrows, many raptors do choose to fly off rather than fight. Bald eagles and other avian predators have little to gain in these situations other than aggravation. Nevertheless, despite being rooted in some truth, Franklin’s description is still quite misleading and incomplete.
Bald eagles are generally aggressive birds. As the founding father acknowledges, they confront and hassle ospreys for their fish. Yet he conspicuously fails to mention that bald eagles also will tangle with their own kind. For instance, they are known to engage in bloody territorial battles. In addition, these raptors will assault other large birds. Not long ago, one attacked a Canada goose, the skirmish documented in a series of photographs.
Franklin’s last gripe regards eagles by and large, and could be related to the birds’ popularity as heraldic figures. His Exhibit C dismisses the bald eagle simply because eagles in general are “found in all countries.” Though he does not build on this point, what the founding father may be alluding to is the eagle’s extensive history as an emblem of ancient empires and aristocratic cultures. For Franklin, such imperial associations, though involving other species, possibly make the bald eagle—and even the golden eagle for that matter—an inappropriate symbol for a democratic nation.
Is There a Better Bird?
When dismissing the bald eagle, Ben Franklin looks to another bird, one he considers “much more respectable.” This is the turkey. Despite conceding the fowl “a little vain and silly,” Franklin asserts that it is fearless enough to defend its farmyard from “a grenadier of the British guards.” Sure, a laughable claim for some, but wild turkeys have indeed been known to attack humans, sometimes even going after mailmen and police officers. The domesticated variety aren’t as intimidating, but don’t underestimate them.
The gobbler has had its share of fans, John James Audubon being the most high-profile. He used the male wild turkey’s image, along with the motto “America My Country,” for his personal seal.6 Yet, unlike Franklin, Audubon had positive things to say about the bald eagle. In his Birds of America, he describes the raptor as a “noble bird” of “great strength, daring, and cool courage.”7 Why shouldn’t both the wild turkey and the bald eagle, large and formidable creatures found throughout much of the United States, be deserving of respect?
The bald eagle/turkey debate unfortunately has long taken on a life of its own. Many people want to choose sides; however, I’d highly recommend not doing so without considering the subject and context of Franklin’s letter. First, he never advocates replacing the bald eagle on the U.S. Great Seal with the turkey. Second, his missive was prompted not by an issue he had with the seal, but by a controversial plan of the Society of the Cincinnati, an American Revolutionary War veterans group. Franklin was concerned that this organization would become, in his words, “an order of hereditary knights.” His letter is devoted to this topic, and the tangents he makes (such as the one involving the bald eagle) are all related to his attack on the organization’s proposal.
What specifically provoked Franklin’s ire was the Society of the Cincinnati’s plan “of establishing ranks of nobility” by bequeathing membership and medals to the current members’ descendants. Like the Great Seal, the medals do feature an eagle. Perhaps Franklin would not have even aired his opinions on the bald eagle or the turkey if not for those medals. The reason he appears to bring up the matter at all is to concur with other critics that the group’s design “looks more like a turkey,” something—if you take Franklin’s words at face value—he actually favors. Perhaps, though, he was being facetious.
A Winning Verdict
Since Franklin’s letter heavily mingles wit, charm, and wisdom, it is questionable at times whether he is being wholly serious or, in parts, satirical. Consider, too, that he was living an ocean away from his fellow citizens. Isn’t it possible that he may have attempted to stir some controversy over the Great Seal to maximize attention to his letter? After all, he clearly had a much more important matter in mind than avian emblematic figures.
Ultimately, let’s not make too much out of Franklin’s commentary on the bald eagle and the turkey. Both are beautiful birds in their own ways and worthy of celebration year-round and during the Fourth of July!
- U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs. “The Great Seal of the United States.” Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of State, 2003. p. 1: http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/27807.pdf.
- U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs. p. 2.
- Anderson, SH. The Most Splendid Carpet. Philadelphia, PA: National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1978: https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/inde/anderson/chap5a.htm.
- Rising, G. “Benjamin Franklin Talks Turkey” [article includes Franklin’s letter in its entirety]. Nature Watch University at Buffalo: http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~insrisg/nature/nw98/franklinturkey.html.
- The “king bird” and similar epithets (e.g., “regulus” and “little king”) have been used since antiquity to describe wren species. However, a better candidate in this case is the eastern kingbird. Since Franklin is also using the term as a metaphor for the British king, he could have had some other bird in mind.
- Rhodes, R. John James Audubon: The Making of an American. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004. p. 273.
- Audubon, JJ. “White-headed Eagle,” The Birds of America. National Audubon Society: http://www.audubon.org/birds-of-america/white-headed-eagle.


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What describes most accurately the current structure of the federal judiciary?
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By: John Van deVaarst, NISOA, New Jersey
Many high schools have suggested that the requirements to either caution or disqualify participants for specific misconducts, and the need to follow a specific procedure, is not being followed consistently by all Referees. This article puts forth a few reminders and some suggestions to Interscholastic Referees about correcting this deficit in game performance.
Reminder on the rules.
Before you ever stepped onto a high school soccer field, you should have memorized the specific reasons for administering either a caution or a disqualification. The NFHS Soccer Rules Book provides ten specific reasons for caution, two of these specifically applying to the Coach…
There are also eleven reasons given for disqualification, with two specific reasons allowing replacement of the disqualified participant, while the remaining nine reasons for disqualification not allowing for replacement of the disqualified participant. It’s important to remember the difference between the two forms of disqualification as it concerns replacement of the disqualified player. It is also important to remember that one of these latter nine reasons for disqualification specifically applies to a Team Coach.
Many of the reasons for caution or disqualification leave you no discretion to decide NOT to penalize the player involved. These misconduct rules must be enforced if the infringement occurs. For example, a player who uses vulgar or profane language, even in an incidental manner, MUST be cautioned. Another example is that a player who spits at an opponent, teammate, or game official MUST be disqualified.
In either case, if the act occurs, the designated referee action must be taken; you are allowed no discretion to decide to “overlook” or not apply the corrective action.
It is important to your referee duties that you must follow all NFHS rules and not pick and choose what is to be punished. Any other approach leads to inconsistency in application of the rules, non-uniformity in the interpretation of the rules, and in turn definitely causes game control problems for the Referee concerned, for fellow NISOA officials, and for the game. Understand that incorrect application of these behavior rules directly lessens your control of participant behavior in the game.
About the procedure.
A vital part of correctly administering a CAUTION or DISQUALIFICATION requires that a formal procedure be followed for each. The CAUTION procedure requires the Referee to display a yellow card, indicate the appropriate person, and notify both coaches. A participant may only be cautioned once in any game. The DISQUALIFICATION procedure requires the Referee to display a red card and indicate the appropriate person. The procedure also requires that the individual disqualified must leave the game and not return for the balance of that game. However, the disqualified player IS allowed to be replaced for two specific incidents, namely: acts described as delayed or prolonged, or for a subsequent caution.
The complete recommended procedure to follow includes the following:
Step one, stop the clock.
Step two, isolate the player.
Step three, tell the player the reason for the caution or disqualification.
Step four, display the appropriate card, either the caution (yellow), or the disqualification (red).
(Remember, that when it comes to displaying the card for a disqualification, there may be a variation from displaying ONLY the red card. One alternate card display in step four is when the player is allowed to be replaced The red and yellow cards are displayed simultaneously. Another alternate card display in step four is when a participant is disqualified for a subsequent caution misconduct. In this case, a yellow card is displayed first, followed immediately by the red card.)
Step five, make your own record of the player’s number and the reason for the caution or disqualification.
(Make sure, that regardless of the system of mechanics being used, you have instructed the other Referee(s) in the Referee Team during your pre-game briefing to make the same notes as a backup to your notes. If there is a Reserve Official assigned to your Referee Team, the Reserve must also note the jersey number of the player on the game report.)
Step six in a caution misconduct is to tell the player that in the event of further misconduct he/she may be disqualified from the game. In a disqualification misconduct tell the player that he/she is disqualified and must leave the field and not return.
Step seven, make sure to indicate the player cautioned or disqualified to the Scorer, both Coaches, and the other Referee Team members.
Of course there may be, by State Association adoption, some specific post-game procedures that involve reporting cautions and disqualifications. Also, the NFHS rules specify that at the end of the game the Head Referee must verify the score, and report in writing any disqualifications and unusual incidents to the proper authorities, normally the State Association.
A final item.
One more important point needs to be stressed. The authority given to you as the Referee to caution and disqualify participants are two very powerful ways for the Referee to control participant behavior during a game. These authorities should be used at the correct times, using the correct procedures for the two control methods. At any time during a game the Referee should be prepared to caution or disqualify any participant who violates either misconduct rule. That is both an obligation and duty, and the consistency of application is vital to the Referee Team’s successful performance in that game.


Prep 1 enjoyed an exciting outdoor maths trail just before the half term holiday. This adventure was stimulated by their maths studies based around measuring.
Our boys love being outside and it seems only fitting to use our local environment to enhance their studies and curriculum understanding. The boys used a range of measuring equipment including iPads to identify the length of the various items around the Prep School grounds.
The boys worked with a partner to support one another’s skills and develop co-operation. They quickly appreciated how much easier accurate measuring is achieved when a friend is available to hold the tape or record results.
It was lovely to observe the enthusiasm for this active learning and good to hear from their teachers that the boys were able to take the skills they have learned back to the classroom.


This printable activity for kids, designed for Valentine’s Day, is all heart, or should I say, all hearts.
Students search for patterned hearts on this busy page, then color each one the designated color.
Sure, the kids will have fun, but YOU will know a little secret. The Seek & Find & Color-Me Hearts page also strengthens:
• visual discrimination skills
• visual figure ground skills
• even fine motor and attention skills when you encourage careful coloring.
Tip: I recommend colored pencils or thin markers for this activity so students can practice focusing on the details.
Tip #2: Older students can assign their own intricate color designs to each of the patterned hearts, a great way to practice even more attention to detail.
For more Valentine’s Day printables the kids will enjoy, try these:
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