ATHENS, Greece (AP) — American archaeologists have discovered two monumental royal tombs dating from about 3,500 years ago near a major Mycenaean-era palace in Greece’s southern Peloponnese region, the Greek culture ministry said Tuesday.
A ministry statement said the dome-shaped roofs of both tombs near the Bronze Age palace of Pylos collapsed during antiquity, and the chambers became filled with so much earth and rubble that grave robbers couldn’t get in to plunder them.
Nevertheless, the tombs were disturbed during the period of their use over several generations — unlike another Mycenaean grave found nearby in 2015 that yielded a stunning hoard of gold and silver treasure, jewelry and bronze arms buried with a man presumed to have been an early ruler of Pylos.
Recovered grave goods from the two tombs included a golden seal ring and a golden amulet of an ancient Egyptian goddess, highlighting Bronze Age trade and cultural links. The ministry said the discovery was particularly important as it shed light on the early phases of Greece’s Mycenaean civilization.
The Mycenaean era, between roughly 1650-1100 B.C. provided the material for many of the myths and legends of ancient Greece including that of the Trojan War.
The larger of the two tombs had a diameter of 12 meters (36 feet) at floor level and its stone walls survived to a height of 4.5 meters (15 feet) — less than half its original height. The other was about two-thirds of that size and its walls now stand two meters high. Both belong to the tholos type of tomb, massive domed underground constructions reserved for Mycenaean royalty that could reach roughly 15 meters (45 feet) in height.
They were excavated over the past two years by University of Cincinnati archaeologists, who also discovered the nearby rich burial that is known as the Griffin Warrior grave, after some of the ornaments found in it.
All three graves, together with another tholos tomb found nearby decades ago, were built earlier than the sprawling palace whose ruins lie close by, and which features in Homer’s Odyssey as the seat of the wise King Nestor.


The name of the temple is currently applied to the locution of Malang. Malang Kucecwara virtually suggests that God has destroyed the false and implemented the correct. Location of the temple is supposedly settled close to trendy Malang. "Malang" is Javanese word for "menghalangi" or obstructed. That word comes from ancient history that individuals of Malang fighting its encroacher from Mataram Sultanate courageously.
Thousands of years ago before Malang became the second biggest town in East Java, Malang wont to be the center of presidency of the Kanjuruhan and Singasari kingdom. Within the following era, Malang regency became a crucial place once the government of Mataram Kingdom took hold of the world, creating it the biggest regency in East Java and since then the event of Malang regency has enlarged well.
The history of Malang regency may well be unconcealed through the Dinoyo inscription 760 AD because the primary instrument to support the birth of Malang before a replacement inscription was discovered in 1986, that is to date not however unconcealed. In line with the inscription, it had been ended that the eighth century was the start of the existence of Malang Regency's government owing to the birth of King Gajayana's ruling of his kingdom in Malang.
The city was incorporated into Mataram in 1614 and then transferred to Dutch colonial rule. Malang was reworked below the Dutch; it’s cool climate which ends up from its elevation conjunction with its proximity to the most important port of Surabaya, created as preferred destination for Dutch and alternative Europeans. In 1879, Malang was connected to Java's railroad network, more increasing development and resulting in enlarged manufacture. in conjunction with growth came urbanization.


Researchers at CNetS, IUNI, and the Indiana University Observatory on Social Media have launched upgrades to two tools playing a major role in countering the spread of misinformation online: Hoaxy and Botometer. A third tool Fakey — an educational game designed to make people smarter news consumers — also launches with the upgrades.
Hoaxy is a search engine that shows users how stories from low-credibility sources spread on Twitter. Botometer is an app that assigns a score to Twitter users based on the likelihood that the account is automated. The two tools are now integrated so that one can now easily detect when information is spreading virally, and who is responsible for its spread.
Hoaxy and Botometer currently process hundreds of thousands of daily online queries. The technology has enabled researchers, including a team at IU, to study how information flows online in the presence of bots. Examples are a study on the cover of the March issue of Science that analyzed the spread of false news on Twitter and an analysis from the Pew Research Center in April that found that nearly two-thirds of the links to popular websites on Twitter are shared by automated accounts.
Fakey is a web and mobile news literacy game that mixes news stories with false reports, clickbait headlines, conspiracy theories and “junk science.” Players earn points by “fact-checking” false information and liking or sharing accurate stories. The project, led by IU graduate student Mihai Avram, was created to help people develop responsible social media consumption habits. An Android app is available, and an iOS version will launch shortly.


The section involves some discussion of the way the perspectives of contemporary physics fit with Scripture. Among the most fundamental scientific disciplines, the major target of physics is to comprehend the way the universe behaves. In science lessons all students have to have a comprehensive comprehension of the vocabulary used before further study can occur.
A scientist is someone who works in and has expert knowledge of a certain area of science. It looks like science fiction. It is by far the most basic and fundamental science.
It’s also interesting to contemplate prospective applications in spectroscopy. https://www.grademiners.com/ So we build detectors that may sense even an extremely modest interaction. Some folks utilize space telescopes to search for the additional light from dark matter annihilation.
Sunday Mass is a significant sociocultural element in Roman Catholic life. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Everything occurs on a worldwide scale.
Just pour or fill the container and utilize it as you would usually utilize water in summary, drink it once in some time, keep yourself well-hydrated. If you know your path isn’t right, then you are aware you should get off it. Also known as a barrier island.
Unfortunately most communities aren’t taking the required steps to tackle these difficulties. There are several reasons for this, but likely not what you may think. Human brains are so elaborate and invidual that there’s very little point in attempting to work out how another individual ought to reorganize her or his thinking.
Polarization Polarization is every time a wave oscillates in one specific direction. Intensive properties do not depend on the amount of matter present. Geometry is also significant in these parameters.
Also analyze the chance of multiple solutions given the distances and heights you have selected. Fast-moving objects can cover huge distances in a little timeframe. Light is a sort of electromagnetic wave.
The Physics Terms Game
The wellness effects of one unit of dose to the full body are more harmful than the very same dose to only some of the human body. The depth of cut denotes the width of material in touch with the tool. The absolute most important point to comprehend about cutting edges of any shape is that they’re made for a specific intent.
Their silk is often known as rose silk. On the flip side, a pencil has a little quantity of inertia. All PhysicsQuest materials could possibly be downloaded and reproduced at no charge.
For instance, if you desire to ascertain the acceleration of the block farther down the plane, then you’ll require the component of the force which acts down the plane. buy paper The quantity of kinetic energy depends on the mass and speed of the object. The predominant part of aerodynamic drag is dependent upon the flight conditions and contour of the human body.
What You Need to Know About Physics Terms
History and virtual examples are utilised to provide the discipline context. These definitions have never been approved by Landmark Worldwide. Element with over one natural form.
The Foolproof Physics Terms Strategy
This rate would seem to be due to the mass of the Earth. Yet the overall quantity of energy remains constant. It looks weightless, but should you put it on a balance, you will discover that it has a tiny, but measurable mass.
Generally speaking, schools or districts must shell out the money for the particular purpose. For instance, during an ordinary visit to school, there are lots of changes in speed. The very first is the accessibility to talent.
To help you in reading these guidelines, you might want to seek advice from a quick glossary. Regardless of this, a sound grasp of the ideas presented within this tutorial are unquestionably important for more progress in vector analysis. The next time you’re confronted with a tough vocabulary word, look in its different components.
The bigger The mass of the object, the larger the force will have to be to cause it to accelerate. 1 sievert is equivalent to 100 rem. Even though this might cause a frenzy of activity, it would lead to a zero velocity.
It’s not nuclear physics. A region in space that’s defined by means of a vector function. But if you’re asked about time or horizontal motion you almost certainly will have to use kinematics.
The end result of these multiple storytelling modes is that there is not any 1 truth’ represented. By comparison, a doubtful figure is a digit that may not be correct. Indeed presentism (thinking about past in conditions of contemporary concepts) is a typical danger for historical considerations, but it’s not so in the case if we are tracing the origin of MODERN physics.
You might receive a bit scratched and bruised on the way. The idea was supposed to gauge the faint gravitational attraction between the more compact balls and the bigger ones. The body and mind are resting as a way to continue their experience of the planet.
The New Fuss About Physics Terms
Please be aware that these resource bundles have a great deal of moving parts. Definitions of keywords and terms that you have to know. There you will see the very best interactive periodic tables on the web, together with many different printable versions.
There are a big number of health professions. As a consequence, a number of the exclusions above may not be applicable to you. Personal statement a part of text applicants write to demonstrate the reason why they’re applying and why they’d be an excellent student for a training course provider to accept.
Physics is crucial in the growth of new technologies, like airplanes, televisions, computers and nuclear weapons. You may also click on subdivisions of the period to find out more. As a rule of thumb, any non-zero digit shown is an important figure.


Born in 451 or 452 of princely ancestors at Faughart, near Dundalk, County Louth; d. 1 February, 525, at Kildare. Refusing many good offers of marriage, she became a nun and received the veil from St. Macaille. With seven other virgins she settled for a time at the foot of Croghan Hill, but removed thence to Druin Criadh, in the plains of Magh Life, where under a large oak tree she erected her subsequently famous Convent of Cill-Dara, that is, "the church of the oak" (now Kildare), in the present county of that name.
The most ancient life of St. Brigid is that by St. Broccan Cloen, who is said to have died 17 September, 650. It is metrical, as may be seen from the following specimen:
Ni bu Sanct Brigid suanach
Ni bu huarach im sheire Dé,
Sech ni chiuir ni cossens
Ind nóeb dibad bethath che.
Saint Brigid was not given to sleep
Nor was she intermittent about God's love;
Not merely that she did not buy,
she did not seek for
The wealth of this world below, the holy one.


Alcohol Intake and Alcohol Dependency – What New Research Has Revealed About Their CausesAnna Ciulla
Genes and environment have long been cited in attempts to describe what causes some people to drink more than others— and, why some people develop an alcohol dependency and others do not. Now, two new studies have shed more light on the genetics and “climatology” (environmental causes) of alcoholism. The findings come at a time when the upcoming holidays mean that Americans will have more excuses to drink than ever.
What, then, has new research revealed about alcohol intake, alcohol dependency and the factors that put you at higher risk for both? Read on to find out.
The Link Between Colder Weather, Alcohol Intake and Alcoholic Cirrhosis
First, research recently published in the journal Hepatology and conducted at the University of Pittsburgh Division of Gastroenterology found that where you live can determine not only how much you drink but also whether you are more likely to contract alcoholic liver disease. In the study, the researchers collected data from 193 countries, in addition to 50 states and 3,144 counties in the United States. The data they were after included the following:
- Key climate parameters like average annual sunshine hours and average annual temperature
- Metrics regarding drinking habits and related health issues (alcohol consumption, pattern of drinking, health indicators, and alcohol-attributable fraction of cirrhosis)
What the researchers discovered, in the end, was that a colder climate did indeed contribute both to a higher alcohol intake and to a higher incidence of alcoholic cirrhosis.
In a summary of the findings on its site, the University of Pittsburgh gave two explanations for these results:
- Alcohol acts as a “vasodilator,” meaning that alcohol increases the flow of warm blood to the skin, thereby increasing feelings of warmth. It therefore goes without saying that someone living in a very cold place, like Wisconsin, will be more likely to seek out these warming sensations than someone living in a warm place like Florida.
- Drinking is also associated with depression, which itself is more prevalent in colder, darker environments.
The Genetic Cause of Alcohol Dependence
Alcohol dependence is a condition that reportedly affects one in eight Americans. Now, in the largest study of genetic factors related to alcohol dependence—the study was published November 26 in the journal Nature Neuroscience—an international team of researchers has identified a gene that conclusively raises susceptibility to alcohol dependence. The gene ADH1B regulates how quickly the body metabolizes alcohol, specifically by regulating how the body converts alcohol into a substance known as acetaldehyde. (While other genes were found to affect risk for developing alcohol dependence, their causal strength was nowhere on a par with that presented by ADH1B.)
The scientists made another important discovery, too: they found a whole set of genetic factors associated with alcohol dependence that they were able to link to other psychiatric disorders, including depression, schizophrenia, and ADHD; and they also found that the same genetic factors that predict cigarette and marijuana use predicted higher risk for alcohol dependence.
A news release from the Washington University School of Medicine detailed these findings. There the senior author of the study, Dr. Arpana Agrawal, Ph.D., a professor of psychiatry at Washington University School of Medicine, clarified that ADH1B “by no means” is the only thing affecting risk of alcohol dependence. She pointed to environmental factors which also play a role.
“We also think the genetic susceptibility to alcohol dependence stems from the small, cumulative effects of a very large number of variants across the genome,” Dr. Agrawal said.
Are you worried about your alcohol intake? End your dependence on alcohol, starting today.


After centuries of philosophers, and in more recent times psychologists, coming up their own set of personality factors a symposium in the 1980s settled on what are called the “big five” which are commonly found in most summaries of personality traits. Four of the traits were supposed to be positive: Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion and agreeableness. The last one, neuroticism, was tied to unpleasant emotions and anxiety.
The four positive traits have not remained as the ideal psychological state. For one thing a person high in openness to experiences seeks novelty and variety which are avoided by the conscientious person who prefers planning and dependability. Even agreeableness if overdone can result in spinelessness.
Finally, we have come to accept the fact that less energetic and outgoing behavior of an introvert is not a sign of poor mental health, and removed it from the Diagnostic Standard Manual used by mental health professionals. Telling introverts to blurt out everything that comes to their mind and never retreat to solitude does not work because it does not fit their psychological needs. In the same manner it is exhausting for an extrovert to spend hours silently concentrating on work.
However, neuroticsm still has it’s bad reputation. It is often closely linked with a pessimistic life view that is on the look out for the next unpleasant event. So the tendency has been to encourage the “glass half empty” people to pep themselves up with positive self talk. If optimism and pessimism are really parts of a persons disposition, this kind of advice might not be useful at all.
A study from the University of Waterloo in Canada found that repeating positive affirmations made people who already had low-esteem feel worse about themselves. The group was divided into two, with the control half writing down whatever crossed their mind for 4 minutes. The other half were instructed to do the same thing with the addition of thinking a positive though about themselves each time a bell was rung. After 4 minutes both groups answered a battery of questions about their mood and self-esteem. People with high self esteem exhibited a more positive mood if they were in the group giving themselves affirming themselves every time the bell rang. But those with low self-esteem were in a better mood if they were allowed to write without the intrusion of the self pep talk.
According to Joanne Wood, the Lead researcher and professor of psychology at the University of Waterloo:
It appears that positive self-statements, despite their widespread endorsement, may backfire for the very people who need them the most.
But have we ever considered that the people with low-esteem are leery of the illusion of positive self-feed back? Not only do they not need it, they do not want it. They may function better in an environment in which a less than optimal view of one self is accepted.
Joanne V. Wood, Ph.D, Should we re-think positive thinking? Giving ourselves pep talks may backfire.Published in Regarding Self-Regard. March 20, 2009


The Robinson Treaty made in the Year 1850 with the Ojibewa Indians of Lake Huron, conveying certain lands to the crown of Canada is a stark reminder of a history to regret.It’s very officious, legal and permanent-sounding: “…the sum of two thousand pounds of good and lawful money of Upper Canada…to convey unto Her Majesty, her heirs and successors for ever, all their right, title and interest to, and in the whole of…eastern and northern shores of Lake Huron, northern shores of Lake Superior, together with the islands…” The fact that our history is centered on stories like this – stealing tens of millions of acres of land to bleed it dry – inspired me to write a book some years ago, now being transformed into an illustrated novella: Manitou Island.
“Asawasanay.” Norma poured him a glass of water. “That’s a beautiful name.”
“I was named after one of my forefathers. His name is on the Robinson Treaty, the treaty that signed away all of these lands.”
“I don’t understand,” Gerbi replied. “I mean, isn’t there some kind of custom to what you’re doing here? Don’t you have rituals or anything like that?”
“What would you have me do? Appear on a white stallion? Or perhaps you envisioned a birch-bark canoe.”
“How did you get here?”
“You hitchhiked,” Gerbi repeated dully.


PREPARATIONS have begun for a major new exhibition at the York Castle Museum to commemorate the outbreak of the First World War.
The exhibition, which is entitled 1914: When The World Changed Forever, will use new technology and the museum’s military collection to track the war from June 28 – the 100th anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand – and the outbreak of the war.
The exhibition is part of a £1.7 million project at the museum, with the majority of the funding coming from the Heritage Lottery Fund, and will be hosted in a new exhibition space on the museum’s first floor.
Andrew Morrison, head curator at York Museums Trust, said: “It was the first global war and touched the lives of those far from the front lines of battle as people back home were forced to adapt their lives to help their country or the Empire they were part of.
“By the time it was over, eight million people had died. The war’s legacy created new opportunities as well as threats and the world map changed forever as new countries were born while empires crumbled.
“Through our fantastic collections and significant investment by the Heritage Lottery Fund, we hope this major exhibition will not just be a commemoration of the war, but a more rounded and reflective look at how culture and society’s values were revolutionised.”


Knowledge: Pursuit and Consensus
In his work Japan as Number One: Lessons for America, Ezra Vogel analyzes the secrets to Japanese success, starting first with the “group-directed quest for knowledge.” After WWII, Japan’s unfailing interest in new ideas and new techniques led to the adoption of supremely beneficial strategies from the minds of both Japanese and Western thinkers. While business leaders in the U.S. ignored the ideas of Demming and Drucker, the Japanese used their concepts of quality control and management as the fundamental base to economic recovery.
Vogel ties this industrial knowledge learning in with widespread “popular” learning in hobbies, sports, and study. The Japanese read more printed media than Americans, which he sees as a post-schooling commitment to information gathering and knowledge acquisition. I cannot help but think, however, that the dominance of the written media in Japan is mostly determined by the transportation patterns. In other words, books, magazines, and newspapers are a perfect fit for long train commutes, but not long car rides. No matter, the Japanese do show great interest in learning English and other skills, forming study groups to work out problems, and bringing in foreign experts to teach advanced techniques. The field of sports and athletics is a perfect example: After years of dedication, the Japanese are now internationally competitive in a large range of “foreign” sports.
There is certainly a case to be made that the Japanese are in constant pursuit of knowledge, and this contributed greatly to Japan’s economic recovery on both bureaucratic and individual levels. But now that the world has visibly moved into a “knowledge” or “information economy,” why do Japanese firms have a difficult time producing knowledge-based products like software?
Possibly, an aggregate interest in learning has fallen since the time of Vogel’s book, but more likely, the kind of knowledge acquisition dominant in Japan has little direct link to the new knowledge industries. As authors like Marilyn Ivy have pointed out, the Japanese “consume” intellectual works (like Asada Akira) without particularly understanding or digesting them. With high-schools dedicated solely to test-preparation and the low class attendance of students at elite colleges condoned by professors/administrators, there is essentially no part in the Japanese education process that teaches students “how to learn.” Effort becomes the panacea to all intellectual problems, and while this works perfectly for sports or hobbies, there is no evidence that “effort” alone can solve more complicated queries.
The Japanese pursuit of knowledge seems to be symptomatic of a larger campaign of social-involvement and self-improvement — both extremely beneficial to the daily workings of society. However, there has been a failure to move this habit of information-acquisition into the computer age. The Japanese may have reached that barrier where a new regimen of learning is necessary, but the bureaucracy would need to uproot the entire Japanese system to employ these new techniques and strategies.
Part one here.


Qualifications And Experience
Advanced university degree in law, social sciences, or gender and development or related field;
7 years of increasingly responsible relevant professional experience,
17 May, 2017
About United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
UNFPA is the lead UN agency for delivering a world where every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe and every young person's potential is fulfilled.
UNFPA expands the possibilities for women and young people to lead healthy and productive lives.
Since UNFPA started working in 1969, the number - and rate - of women dying from complications of pregnancy or childbirth has been halved. Families are smaller and healthier. Young people are more connected and empowered than ever before.
Too many left behind
But too many are still left behind. Nearly a billion people remain mired in extreme poverty. Sexual and reproductive health problems are a leading cause of death and disability for women in the developing world. Young people bear the highest risks of HIV infection and unintended pregnancy. More than a hundred million girls face the prospect of child marriage and other harmful practices, such as female genital mutilation.
Much more needs to be done to ensure a world in which all individuals can exercise their basic human rights, including those that relate to the most intimate and fundamental aspects of life.
Ensuring every pregnancy is wanted
Few things have a greater impact on the life of a woman than the number and spacing of her children. That’s why international agreements going back decades affirm that individuals should have the right (and the means) to freely decide when (or if) to start a family and how many children to bear. Yet, in this new century, some 225 million women who want to avoid or delay childbearing still lack access to the quality services and supplies needed to manage their fertility.
Supporting maternal health
We know how to save almost all women who die giving life. The first step is to ensure they can plan their pregnancies and space their births. Skilled birth attendance at delivery, with backup emergency obstetric care and essential supplies in place, is also critical.
Perhaps the most challenging aspect of reducing maternal death and disability is finding ways to reach all women, even those in the poorest, most remote areas, or in times of natural or man-made disasters. This involves bolstering health systems. It is also critical that pregnant women are able to access all the care they need, from prenatal HIV testing to post-natal care for newborns, at the same clinic or health centre. This approach saves money and saves lives.
Helping young people fulfil their potential
Young people from age 10-24 constitute a quarter of the world’s population (2014). Their reproductive choices will shape future demographic trends.
UNFPA advocates for the rights of young people, including the right to accurate information and services related to sexuality and reproductive health. Empowered with knowledge and skills to protect themselves and make informed decisions, they can realize their full potential and contribute to economic and social transformation.
Investing in young people, especially adolescent girls, is one of the smartest investments a country can make. As parents, teachers and leaders of the next generation, they can help break the cycle of poverty, strengthen the social fabric and create a sustainable future.
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When domestic taurine cattle diffused from the Fertile Crescent, local wild aurochsen (Bos primigenius) were still numerous. Moreover, aurochsen and introduced cattle often coexisted for millennia, thus providing potential conditions not only for spontaneous interbreeding, but also for pastoralists to create secondary domestication centers involving local aurochs populations. Recent mitochondrial genomes analyses revealed that not all modern taurine mtDNAs belong to the shallow macro-haplogroup T of Near Eastern origin, as demonstrated by the detection of three branches (P, Q and R) radiating prior to the T node in the bovine phylogeny. These uncommon haplogroups represent excellent tools to evaluate if sporadic interbreeding or even additional events of cattle domestication occurred.
The survey of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control-region variation of 1,747 bovine samples (1,128 new and 619 from previous studies) belonging to 37 European breeds allowed the identification of 16 novel non-T mtDNAs, which after complete genome sequencing were confirmed as members of haplogroups Q and R. These mtDNAs were then integrated in a phylogenetic tree encompassing all available P, Q and R complete mtDNA sequences.
Phylogenetic analyses of 28 mitochondrial genomes belonging to haplogroups P (N = 2), Q (N = 16) and R (N = 10) together with an extensive survey of all previously published mtDNA datasets revealed major similarities between haplogroups Q and T. Therefore, Q most likely represents an additional minor lineage domesticated in the Near East together with the founders of the T subhaplogroups. Whereas, haplogroup R is found, at least for the moment, only in Italy and nowhere else, either in modern or ancient samples, thus supporting an origin from European aurochsen. Haplogroup R could have been acquired through sporadic interbreeding of wild and domestic animals, but our data do not rule out the possibility of a local and secondary event of B. primigenius domestication in Italy.
Citation: Bonfiglio S, Achilli A, Olivieri A, Negrini R, Colli L, Liotta L, et al. (2010) The Enigmatic Origin of Bovine mtDNA Haplogroup R: Sporadic Interbreeding or an Independent Event of Bos primigenius Domestication in Italy? PLoS ONE 5(12): e15760. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0015760
Editor: Toomas Kivisild, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
Received: September 1, 2010; Accepted: November 23, 2010; Published: December 28, 2010
Copyright: © 2010 Bonfiglio et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This research received support from Progetto SELMOL-Selezione Molecolare (Italian Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies) (to LF), Progetti Ricerca Interesse Nazionale 2007 (Italian Ministry of the University) (to AT, LF and PA-M), FIRB-Futuro in Ricerca 2008 (Italian Ministry of the University) (to AA and AO), and Fondazione Alma Mater Ticinensis (to AT and LF). The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
The domestication of wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) ∼10 thousand years ago (kya) was a major development in the Neolithic transition, with significant cultural and socioeconomic implications for the numerous human populations of the Old World that at different times adopted cattle breeding , . However, despite the wide geographical distributions of B. primigenius (Asia, Europe and North Africa), archeozoological and genetic evidence, mainly from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), suggest that modern cattle might represent the legacy of just two independent and geographically distinct domestication events, both of which occurred in southwest Asia. One occurred in the Fertile Crescent and involved aurochsen characterized by mtDNAs belonging to the macro-haplogroup T, whose different sub-branches (T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5) characterize modern taurine breeds (Bos taurus). The other, which occurred most likely in the Indus Valley, led to the humped zebuine breeds (Bos indicus) and involved B. primigenius population(s) with mtDNAs belonging to haplogroups I1 and I2 –.
The T sub-haplogroups are rather geographically structured: T1 is the most common in Africa, T3 is dominant in Europe, while T4 is typical of East Asian breeds. All T mtDNA clusters (except T4) are found in Near Eastern breeds , , . This, together with the divergence time of the entire macro-haplogroup T, only 16.0 ky obtained by using a constant mtDNA sequence evolution rate and an estimated bifurcation between yak and bison versus cattle of 2 million years , agrees with a single B. taurus domestication event in the Fertile Crescent, followed by spread with the migrations of farmers and pastoralists. However, note that much deeper divergence times for all Bos lineages have been extrapolated from the phylogenetic relationships of artiodactyl and cetacean mitogenomes using a fixed bifurcation time of 60 million years between ruminants and whales .
When domesticated herds diffused from the Fertile Crescent into Europe, Africa and the rest of Asia, local B. primigenius populations were numerous and widespread. Moreover, the coexistence of autochthonous wild aurochsen and the newly introduced cattle lasted for thousands of years in many geographical areas, thus providing potential conditions not only for spontaneous interbreeding between wild animals and domestic herds, but also for pastoralists to create secondary centers of domestication involving local aurochs populations. Additional domestication events – in Africa –, East Asia  and possibly southern Europe  – have been proposed, but they are challenged by the age estimates obtained from a large dataset of entire mtDNA sequence data . Indeed, the supposedly involved haplogroups (T1 for Africa, T4 for East Asia and T3 for Europe) are all subsets of T, which is 16.0±3.2 ky old according to Achilli et al. 2008 . The domestication of these closely related sub-haplogroups of T independently from geographically distinct B. primigenius populations, would imply that, despite the great distances, aurochs populations from northern Africa, southern Europe and East Asia shared and maintained an almost complete homogeneity at the level of the entire mitochondrial sequence. This would be an unprecedented scenario for Eurasian mammals – that nevertheless has recently received some support from the identification of mtDNA control-region sequences in pre-Neolithic aurochs remains from Italy that appear to belong to the macro-haplogroup T, mostly T3 .
The debate concerning the origin of domesticated cattle has received new fuel from the finding that not all taurine mtDNAs belong to haplogroups T1–T5. The analysis of entire mitochondrial genomes from modern taurine cattle has indeed detected representatives of three mtDNA branches radiating prior to the T node in the bovine phylogeny. The first is haplogroup Q. Out of the three non-T branches, this is the closest to haplogroup T, with a divergence time of about 48 ky , . The second is haplogroup P, found in an animal from Korea generically classified as “beef cattle” . Its estimated divergence time from haplogroup T is about 71 ky , in agreement with the scenario that P was a marker of European aurochs, especially those from northern and central Europe –. The third is haplogroup R, encompassing so far only four mtDNAs, all from Italian taurine breeds. The separation between R and the other taurine branches represents the earliest known split in the mtDNA phylogeny of B. primigenius .
The identification and the analysis of these few non-T mtDNAs has not only revealed that B. primigenius populations of Western Eurasia harbored extensive variation at the level of mitochondrial genomes, but also that such a diversity was probably geographically well-structured. Thus, haplogroups P, Q and R represent excellent tools to properly evaluate the possibility that independent events of cattle domestication, other than those in southwest Asia, have occurred. Such an assessment requires the identification of an adequate number of non-T mtDNAs and a detailed analysis of their sequence variation.
To this aim, we performed a comprehensive mtDNA survey of more than 1,700 animals belonging to a number of European breeds. We detected ten novel Q and six novel R mtDNAs, which were completely sequenced. Our data support the scenario that haplogroup Q spread from the Middle East together with haplogroups T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, but raise the possibility of an Italian origin for haplogroup R.
Survey of mtDNA Haplogroups in European Taurine Breeds
The mtDNA control region (CTR), approximately from np 15823 to 215, was sequenced in 1,747 animals representing 37 European breeds, of which 25 were Italian and the remaining twelve from other European regions. This dataset comprises 1,128 new subjects and 619 from a previous study . The control-region mutational motifs allowed the classification of virtually all the mtDNAs within known haplogroups as shown in Table 1. The complete list of CTR haplotypes is available in Table S1. Concerning the overall haplogroup frequencies, T3 (mutational motif: BRS) was the most frequent (88.6%), as expected from a survey of European cattle; T1 (motif: 169-16113-16255) and T2 (motif: 169-16057C-16185-16255) had similar low frequencies, 4.2% and 5.0%, respectively. We did not detect any mtDNA belonging to haplogroup T4 (motif: 169-16042-16093-16302), while twelve mtDNAs (0.7%) with the rare haplogroup T5 mutational motif (163-169-16255) were identified. Most of the T5 mtDNAs were found in the Valdostana breed where this haplogroup appears to be common (13.5%). Only two mtDNAs (0.1%) from an Agerolese and a Cabannina did not cluster into any of the T subclades, but as previously reported they belonged to haplogroup T1′2′3 (motif: 169-16255) .
Although mtDNAs belonging to the T branch were by far the most frequent (98.6%), fourteen animals (0.8%) harbored mtDNAs with the control-region motif of the Q haplogroup (169-15953G-16255) and ten (0.6%) were characterized by the haplogroup R motif (8-106-166-221+C-234+T-249-296-300-15818-15900-15951-15953G-16057-16076-16084-16085-16121-16122-16127-16135-16137-16200+A-16231-16248-16250-16264-16301). None of the mtDNAs fell within haplogroup P (motif: 106-166-190-221+C-222-249-300-301-15951-15953G-15994-16049-16051-16058-16074-16085-16122-16231-16255-16264).
Phylogenetic Relationships of the non-T mtDNAs
The 16 newly discovered non-T mtDNAs were sequenced completely and their phylogenetic relationships are described in Figure 1, together with the ten previously reported Q and R sequences, as well as two P sequences , , . Sequencing of the entire molecule confirmed that all non-T mtDNAs were indeed members of haplogroups Q and R. The list of complete MtDNA sequences belonging to haplogroups P, Q and R is shown in Table 2.
The tree is drawn to scale. Phylogeny construction was performed by hand following a parsimony approach, while the evolutionary distances were computed using the Maximum Likelihood (ML) method. The exact values for clades and subclades are available in Table 3 together with averaged distance (rho) of the haplotypes of a clade to the respective root haplotype. Sixteen of the sequences (#1–3, #5, #9–13, #16, #22–26, #28) are new, while the others were previously published: Bos taurus Reference Sequence (BRS) (GenBank accession number V00654)  # 14–15, #17 ; #4, #6–8, #19–21, #27 ; #18 . Taking into account that sequence #18 is from an ancient British aurochs radiocarbon dated to 6,738±68 calibrated years BP, the divergence of the haplogroup P node is underestimated. Additional information regarding each mtDNA sequence, including GenBank accession numbers, is provided in Table 2. An additional branch, named E, placed between P and R has been reported previously ,  but was not included in the tree since it is not a complete mitochrondrial genome sequence.
The Q branch encompasses a total of 16 mtDNAs from five Italian breeds (Cabannina, Chianina, Grey Alpine, Italian Red Pied, and Romagnola). Complete sequence analysis revealed six different sequence types (haplotypes) clustering into the two distinct sub-haplogroups, Q1 (ten subjects; four haplotypes) and Q2 (six subjects; two haplotypes) (Figure 2). In other words, most of the six haplotypes were found in more than one animal. As expected, subjects with an identical sequence were generally from the same breed, but this was not always the case. For instance, the same haplotype was shared by two Grey Alpine (#11–12) and three Cabannina (#13–15) mtDNAs, and another haplotype was found in two Romagnola (#4–5) and one Chianina (#6), thus suggesting gene flow of maternal lineages between these breeds or their ancestors.
This tree, built and rooted as previously described by Achilli et al. 2008  illustrates the relationships between the common haplogroup T represented by BRS and the rare mtDNAs belonging to haplogroups P, Q and R. Shown divergence times are those obtained using ML as reported in Table 3. Mutations are shown on the branches and are numbered according to the BRS; they are transitions unless a base is explicitly indicated; suffixes indicate transversions (to A, G, C, or T) or indels (+, d) and should be read as if the BRS was an artificial root. Recurrent mutations are underlined, and true back mutations with respect to evolutionary direction are prefixed with the superscript β (beta) in addition (which is thus in alternation with prefix @ on the path between the overall root and BRS). Note that the reconstruction of recurrent mutations in the control region is ambiguous in a number of cases. Heteroplasmy is marked with a suffix (h). The numbering of sequences is the same as in Figure 1.
The maximum-likelihood (ML) divergence based on the complete mtDNA sequence for the entire Q haplogroup was 0.00036±0.00008 substitutions per site (Figure 1 and Table 3), and corresponded to a divergence time of 17.7±3.9 ky according to the mutation rate proposed by Achilli et al. 2008 . The ML divergence for Q1 (0.00032±0.00007) was not much lower than that of the entire Q, and corresponded to 15.5±3.5 ky. In contrast, the extent of sequence variation within Q2 was extremely low resulting in a coalescence time of only 0.9±1.1 ky. These divergence ages were overall confirmed when the average distance of the haplotypes from the root of Q, Q1 and Q2 (ρ-statistics) was computed (Table 3).
The complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome from a Mesolithic wild aurochs became recently available , so it was possible to include it in our phylogeny (#18 in Figures 1 and 2) along with the only available modern complete P sequence (#17) . The ancient DNA sequence derives from a humerus bone sample excavated from a cave in Derbyshire (UK), and was classified as Bos primigenius based on radiocarbon dating to 6,738±68 calibrated years BP . The availability of two complete P sequences allowed the evaluation of the internal divergence of P (0.00033±0.00010 substitutions per site), which corresponds to a coalescence time of 16.0±4.7 ky (Figure 2). In addition, it was also possible to better assess the split time of the P branch from the sister branch QT (75.5±10 ky). However, both figures should be corrected to compensate for the fact that the Mesolithic aurochs sample died 6,738 years BP. Using the coding region mutation rate of 3,172 years  the adjusted divergence time for the P node should be moved up to approximately 20 ky. It is likely that the coalescence time of the P node will be soon further reassessed, not only by adding complete mtDNA sequences from additional ancient aurochs remains, but also from additional modern samples, at least four reported, whose mtDNA sequence data clearly indicate an affiliation within P –.
Overall, haplogroup R comprises ten mtDNAs from four breeds (Agerolese, Cinisara, Romagnola and Marchigiana). The addition of six new sequences to those previously reported  allowed the dissection of R into two subhaplogroups, R1 and R2. The first encompasses eight mtDNAs, and contains a sub-branch defined by a coding region mutation at np 15579 separating the subjects previously described (Agerolese #19 and Cinisara #20–21) from the five new identical mtDNAs found in the Romagnola breed (#22–26). In addition, two other coding-region mutations (nps 5146 and 6850) distinguish the Agerolese from the two Cinisara. In contrast, R2 comprises only two mtDNAs with an identical haplotype, one from a Romagnola (#27) and one from a Marchigiana (#28). The overall divergence time of haplogroup R is 42.2±8.4 ky, thus confirming the ancient split between R1 and R2 . In contrast, the radiation time of R1 estimated both with ML (3.0±1.8 ky) and ρ-statistics (2.0±1.3 ky) appears to be rather low.
Our survey of 25 Italian and twelve European taurine breeds confirmed the predominance of T mtDNAs in Europe, as expected. Yet two of the three non-T haplogroups, namely Q and R, made up 1.4% of our sample. Despite their frequencies are similarly low (0.8% and 0.6%, respectively), the distinct features of Q and R appear to indicate that their ancestral homelands and genetic history are different. To properly evaluate this issue, we have taken into account not only the complete mtDNA sequences that we report in this study, but also all the control-region data and the partial coding sequences available in the literature or posted in GenBank.
Extensive Similarities between Haplogroups Q and T
This study provides a rather high number (16) of complete mtDNA sequences belonging to Q1 and Q2. These sequences depart from a central Q node (Figures 1 and 2) by 5.2–5.6 substitutions in the coding region (15,428 bp), corresponding to an estimated divergence time of 16–18 ky (Table 3) when using the evolutionary rate estimate of 2.043±0.099×10−8 base substitutions per nucleotide per year . A comparable coalescence time (15–19 ky) characterizes sub-haplogroup Q1, which harbors three very deep branches departing directly from its nodal haplotype. One of these, showing some internal diversity (two haplotypes), was here termed Q1a (Figure 2).
The average sequence diversity and divergence time of Q are similar to those reported for haplogroup T (5.1±1.00 substitutions; 16.0±3.2 ky) . Moreover, Q and T are the closest taurine branches in the tree (Figure 2) with a divergence time of about 40–50 ky (Table 3). Therefore, among all bovine haplogroups, haplogroups Q and T are those with the highest chance of having been present until recently in the same aurochs population, or at least in the same geographical area.
The finding that both Q and Q1 nodes coalesce prior to 10 kya, the upper limit for the domestication of B. primigenius, suggests that at least two different founder mtDNA haplotypes, one for Q1 and one for Q2 were acquired from wild aurochsen. This constitutes another similarity with the macro-haplogroup T, for which several founder haplotypes – at least one each for T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5 – have been proposed. However, one of our results seems at odds with the supposed similarity between Q and T. Indeed, all sub-haplogroups of T (possibly except T4) are geographically widespread, while we have detected Q mtDNAs only in Italian taurine breeds. One possibility is that Q is rare, for instance like sub-haplogroup T5, thus its geographical distribution needs to be assessed in greater detail.
To address this issue, we searched for the control-region mutational motif of Q (169-15953G-16255) in the whole GenBank dataset of bovine mtDNA sequences from both modern and ancient samples (a total of 4,770 sequences at the time of our analysis). Overall, we detected seven mtDNAs with such a motif, three from ancient bone specimens and four from modern populations. The ancient samples are all from distant Neolithic archaeological sites, one in Germany , one in eastern Thrace ,  and one in France . As for the modern samples, two are from local breeds of southwestern China  one from Turkey (GenBank EF126311), and one from Portugal . Two other mtDNAs from China, for which instead only the cytb gene sequence was determined  were found to harbor the mutational motif 15134-15627, which is typical of Q (Figure 2).
In addition to these nine likely Q sequences, we also identified 70 modern and ancient mtDNAs, from a wide range of breeds and geographical areas, which potentially cluster within haplogroup Q. Their haplogroup affiliation is ambiguous because they are predominantly short control-region sequences that do not encompass np 15953, but the presence of the 16255 mutation places them outside of the common haplogroup T3, and its derivative T4 . Moreover, they do not harbor the diagnostic mutations of haplogroups T1 (16113), T2 (16057C, 16185) or T5 (163), or those of haplogroups P and R. Additional sequencing of these mtDNA is necessary to exclude their affiliation within the rare haplogroup T1′2′3 (only two out of 1,747 in our sample), or even to a still unknown T haplogroup, but it is likely that most of these, if not all, are true members of Q. This implies that the distribution range of haplogroup Q covers at least several European countries, Egypt, Turkey and China, which is another major similarity between haplogroups Q and T. Therefore, a parallel history can be envisioned for the two haplogroups, with Q representing an additional minor lineage that was domesticated in the Near East and later spread with human migrations and trades.
The Enigmatic Geographical Distribution of Haplogroup R
What we found intriguing about haplogroup R is its occurrence only in Italian breeds (Table 1). It is true that our dataset is biased towards Italian breeds and that at a first glance the distribution of R resembles that of haplogroup Q, but this turned out not to be the case when we merged our data with those obtained from an extensive survey of the whole set of bovine mtDNA sequences available in GenBank and the literature. Unlike haplogroup Q that is defined by a simple control-region motif comprising only three mutations, of which one –169 – is unstable, the control-region motif of R harbors 27 distinguishing mutations relative to BRS (Figure 2), thus allowing the easy detection of its members, even by partial control-region sequencing. Thus, within 4,675 B. taurus sequences and 95 B. primigenius sequences (including complete mitochondrial genomes, control regions, cytb or other sequences) deposited in GenBank, none can be attributed to haplogroup R. The uniqueness of haplogroup R is best illustrated in Figure 3 and Table S2 that show its frequency distribution in old World cattle populations. The geographical distribution of haplogroup R shares no commonalities with that of haplogroup T and its sub-haplogroups or with that of haplogroup Q either. To date Italy is the only place where haplogroup R, the most divergent of taurine haplogroups in the phylogeny (Figure 1), has been detected.
The dots indicate the geographical location of the populations included in the survey. Population samples and corresponding frequency values are listed in Table S2. This frequency map was obtained using Surfer version 6.04 (Golden Software, Inc.), with the Kriging procedure, and estimates at each grid node were inferred by considering the entire data set.
Is Haplogroup R Derived from a European Population of Aurochs?
Haplogroup R in Italy is as rare as Q, but a significant difference is that R is not – or at least not yet – found anywhere else in the world. This means that a domestication event in the Middle East, followed by dispersal in Europe, Africa and Eastern Asia along with Neolithic farmers and pastoralists - a probable scenario for the occurrence of Q mtDNAs in modern breeds – is unlikely for haplogroup R. Moreover, the extreme time divergence of the RPQT node (∼143 ky), almost twice that of the PQT node (∼76 ky), is compatible with the possibility that haplogroup R derives from herds of aurochs that were geographically distinct and distant from those of southwest Asia. Thus, an origin of R from European aurochs is a plausible scenario. However, if so, why is haplogroup R found only in Italy and not elsewhere in Europe?
One possible explanation requires taking into account the climatic changes that affected Europe at the end of the Pleistocene. Italy was one of the European refugia during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (centered at about 21 kya), but in contrast to other refugia of southern Europe, the post-glacial expansion of its refugial populations to the North was restricted by the Alps . Thus, if haplogroup R was confined to the Italian refuge area during the LGM, it might have been restricted there also afterward , as probably happened to the Italian-specific mtDNA haplogroups of other mammalian species, e.g. roe deer, boar and red squirrel , , .
Moreover, phylogenetic analyses show that haplogroup R is made up by two lineages, R1 and R2, which diverge from each other (about 42 ky), almost as much as the QT node (Figures 1 and 2). Therefore, at least two wild female aurochs were able to pass their mtDNA across generations to modern Italian cattle. How and when this event occurred?
Two scenarios, not necessarily mutually exclusive, can be envisioned to explain haplogroup R in Italian taurine breeds. The first is that R1 and R2 mtDNAs are due to sporadic interbreeding events (naturally occurring and/or man mediated) between wild aurochs cows and domestic bulls, followed by incorporation of the offspring in the domestic herds by Neolithic or post-Neolithic pastoralists. The second possibility is that, somewhere in Italy, there was a minor and independent event of B. primigenius domestication. Both scenarios are compatible with the coalescence time (2–3 ky) of the R1 sequences (Figure 2). Taking into account that five of the nine R1 sequences (# 22–26 in Fig. 2) are identical at the root of R1, such coalescence time might be underestimated. However, even if we include only one of these identical sequences in the calculations and exclude all the others, the average divergence time of R1 is only pushed back to about 4–5 ky
It is interesting that Virgil in 29 BC  describes a plague affecting domestic cattle in Northern Italy and the use of wild aurochs (“uris”) instead of oxen to pull a ritual carriage during a feast to celebrate Juno. Thus, the taming of wild aurochs in the Virgil's report seems almost common place, certainly much easier than the taming of the impressive beasts described by Caesar in the Black Forest of southern Germany . Maybe aurochs in Italy were smaller and more docile than their northern European counterparts. We have found haplogroup R mtDNAs in breeds that come from Campania (Agerolese) and Sicily (Cinisara), among others. This does not necessarily mean that aurochsen with R mDNAs were domesticated there, yet it is intriguing that some authors point out how aurochsen in Sicily became smaller in size after the disappearance of the land bridge with mainland Italy, which means they likely became much more amenable to taming , .
An additional argument in favor of the possibility of a local domestication event of European aurochs is provided by recent mtDNA data concerning the domestication of other mammalian species, in particular of those where the wild animals are not extinct, the domestic pig and the wild boar . Modern European pig breeds are grouped in a large mtDNA cluster that bears no affinity to wild boar lineages of the Middle East, which means that, if domesticated lineages came to Europe with farmers from the Near East, they left no trace in modern European breeds. Besides, network analysis revealed two core lineages in Europe, with star-like patterns suggestive of a recent population expansion, like for cattle, except that two such pig core haplotypes are found only in Europe. In short, there is good evidence to support the domestication of at least two wild boar mtDNA lineages in Europe.
An interesting implication of the study on pig domestication is that multiple domestication events cannot be ruled out even for those species where the wild progenitors are extinct, such as B. primigenius in Europe. A recent study carried out with 37K SNPs on modern cattle breeds  shows that Bos taurus has a remarkable nuclear genetic diversity and had a large ancestral population until recently, before fragmentation during breed formation. This is in contrast with the low level of mtDNA diversity observed in this species, largely predominated by the T haplogroup. The genetic contribution of different aurochs populations may have really played a role in shaping the existing diversity by events of interbreeding and/or domestication at different times and locations.
Only sequencing of DNA from the remains of ancient aurochs, throughout their original distribution range, will shed light on the issue of additional domestication events. However, scenarios of multiple domestication events scattered across different geographical areas applicable to a number of plant and animal species  may be extended to cattle. We think that our data are not incompatible with the scenario that one such event, marked by haplogroup R, might have happened in Italy in rather recent times.
Materials and Methods
All experimental procedures were reviewed and approved by the Animal Research Ethics Committee of the University of Pavia, Prot. 2/2007 (April 17th, 2007), in accordance with the European Union Directive 86/609.
A set of 1,747 animals was analyzed, encompassing 25 Italian breeds and twelve other European breeds. This figure includes 1,128 new subjects and 619 animals (22 Italian and 4 European breeds) previously reported , extending breed representation to include three novel breeds from Italy (Marchigiana, Reggiana, Pettiazza) and eight from Europe (Blacksided Trondheim, Bulgarian Grey, Eastern Finn Cattle, Grey Steppe, Jersey, Swedish Red Polled, Vestland Red Polled, Telemark). DNAs were purified from either peripheral blood or platelets according to standard methods. All experimental procedures were reviewed and approved by the Animal Research Ethics Committee of the University of Pavia, in accordance with the European Union Directive 86/609.
Sequences analysis of the mtDNA control region
For all animals, a PCR fragment of 1138 bp encompassing the mtDNA control region (np 15718-517) was sequenced using the oligonucleotide 15757for, 5′ CCCCAAAGCTGAAGTTCTAT 3′, as previously described . Reads covered at least 730 bp, from np 15823 to np 215 (Table S1). Sequences were aligned to the Bovine Reference Sequence (BRS) using the Sequencher software (Gene Codes Corporation) and the identified mutational motifs  were used to classify mtDNAs within haplogroups.
Sequencing of entire mitochondrial genomes
The entire sequence of all mtDNAs harboring Q and R control-region mutational motifs was determined as previously reported . In brief, a set of 11 overlapping PCR fragments covering the entire mtDNA genome was produced and sequenced by standard dideoxysequencing with 32 nested oligonucleotides. To derive individual sequences, raw sequence data were grouped into mtDNA genome contigs and compared to the BRS .
MtDNA phylogeny and time estimates
A Mid-rooting point has been used for the tree of Figure 1, while that of Figure 2 was built and rooted by using a Bos grunniens (yak) and a Bison bison (American bison) mitochondrial genome, as previously described . The evolutionary distances were computed using the Maximum Likelihood method together with averaged distance (ρ) of the haplotypes within a clade from the respective root haplotype, accompanied by a heuristic estimate of SE (σ). All positions containing gaps and ambiguous data were eliminated from the dataset. Estimate of the time to the most recent common ancestor for each cluster was calculated using a corrected age estimate of about 3,172 years per substitution in the whole coding region (15,428 bp) .
MtDNA control‐region haplotypes observed in the 1,747 taurine samples included in this study.
We thank Vincenzo Peretti, Luigi Antonio Chierico and Walter Giberti for providing some of the samples.
Conceived and designed the experiments: LF AT SB AA PA-M. Performed the experiments: SB AO AA. Analyzed the data: SB AO AA. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: LF PA-M LC RN LL. Wrote the paper: LF AT.
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- 45. Anderson S, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Eperon IC, Sanger F, et al. (1982) Complete sequence of bovine mitochondrial DNA. Conserved features of the mammalian mitochondrial genome. J Mol Biol 156: 683–717.


Sociology is one of the most popular courses across the nation's campuses. That's
no real surprise. Sociologists have chosen to study a most intriguing and complex
subject--the human being. Sociology aspires to be an unbiased look at what humans
hope, dream and value.
Students in this field study the family, religions, education, economics and government.
They examine deviant behavior; race and ethnic relations; gender and age differences;
socialization; social stratification; and the mentality of crowds.
Sociology can be the foundation for such varied fields as teaching and law, social
work and business. Demography, which is the study of the composition and change
of a population, is another field for the sociologist.
SFCC's sociology classes include an introductory course focusing on institutions,
cultures and society; a class in the sociology of marriage, the family and human
sexual interaction; the sociology of race and ethnic relations; the sociology of
crime and justice, and periodically a class in the sociology of religions.


If Mount Panié (1627 m) is the highest point of New Caledonia, Mount Humboldt (sometimes nicknamed Pic Humboldt) follows it closely, with the height of 1 616 meters. And, unlike its neighbor of the great North, it is possible to reach its summit at the end of a two-day hike.
It was named after Alexander von Humboldt, a naturalist and explorer (1769-1859), considered by many as the father of modern geography. It is visible, further down the chain as you approach the Tontouta airport.
Few people know it but the highest summits of New Calendonia nearly did not experience any snowy episode. Mount Humboldt would measure a few meters more should the snow come regularly to decorate its peak! And those who have had the opportunity to reach its summit during a winter hike can confirm that the night-time temperature when one is approaching the top regularly reaches 0°C!
The legendary moss forest of Mount Humboldt!
To reach its summit, through the western side, it demands preparation and luck! In fact, it is relatively common to see it completely cloudy. It is then impossible to take advantage of the view to simultaneously set ablaze the western and eastern coasts of Grande Terre with eyes.
But trekkers know it very well! The most interesting thing during this ascent is the famous moss forest which is part of the botanical reserve. If you have the opportunity to get there, you will understand the origin of the name! The moss is everywhere: on the ground, on tree trunks of several meters high. A real film set combining magic and mystery!


Posted on 8 August 2014
For the past ten years the Rijkswaterstaat, theMinistry of Infrastructure and the Environment, have been working to strengthen some weak links in the coast. Alongside building the required coastal defence, the coast zone investments also ensure that Katwijk remains a tourist destination and supporting the local economy of seaside towns. With the need to strengthen the Katwijk coast, care is taken to preserve the value of the existing town and, ultimately, how this can also be made stronger.
Relation Between Town and Beach
In an interactive planning process OKRA defined the most important values of Katwijk; namely the relationship between the village and the beach. The chosen dyke-in-dune coastal defences, a stone-lined embankment covered and reinforced by dunes, sufficient low dunes would be built with minimal disruption between town and beach. With this construction the City Katwijk could also realise an underground parking garage behind the dyke.
Natural Dune Landscape
The dyke and garage are completely hidden from view by natural-looking dunes. An extensive network of paths has been built to connect village and beach, offering views of the sea. The highlight of the design is a broad dune transition that serves as a welcome space and event plaza, in total forming a vibrant heart for the coast of Katwijk coast.


Mild Ontario summer helping monarch butterfly populations
If you’ve been thinking it seems like there are more monarch butterflies around this year, you may be right.
Monarchs have been making the most of mild spring and summer conditions this year along their migration route from Mexico. And it appears there may be more monarchs in Ontario in 2017 than in the past four years, says a University of Guelph biologist who has been tracking the butterflies for several years.
“My impression is that monarchs are fairly abundant and widespread across much of southern Canada and the northern U.S. this summer. Certainly there are more monarchs this year than in the last few,” says Tyler Flockhart, a post-doctoral researcher whose recent work includes tracing the birthplaces across North America of monarch populations that overwinter in Mexico.
But while it is a hopeful sign, one good year does not mean monarch butterflies, which are considered a species of special concern in Ontario, are out of danger.
“I am a cautious optimist. I hope this is a sign of good things to come but the overall opinion of experts is that low populations will be the new normal,” he says. “Monarchs are still limited by habitat availability and the majority of evidence suggests it is the habitat on the breeding grounds that matters most. The risk is that the low population will still fluctuate due to weather events, so if we have a really bad year (or multiple really bad years), then the population as a whole is at a significant risk.”
There are things you can do to help.
- Plant native plants, especially milkweed and nectaring plants, in your garden. This will help monarchs as well as other beneficial insects and birds. Find information about different types of milkweed here.
- Report it when you spot monarchs. Scientists like Flockhart rely on data from watchful citizens to help with their research. Check out www.e-butterfly.org where you can log butterfly sightings. Mission Monarch encourages participants to identify and map milkweed locations as well as monarch butterflies, eggs and caterpillars.


Irish wetlands, which provide a home to many plant and animal species, are in danger of destruction because of poor management and inappropriate development, Minister for the Environment John Gormley has said.
He was speaking in Monaghan yesterday at the Wise Use of Wetlands conference, held to coincide with World Wetlands Day.
Ireland's climate and geology made it particularly rich in bogs and other wetland areas, and in addition to providing habitats for wildlife, they are essential to the battle against climate change, Mr Gormley said.
"Wetlands in particular provide us with important environmental services such as flood mitigation, water supply and pollution control. Peatlands also act as carbon sinks, an important service in the battle against increased CO2 emissions."
These resources had been abused in the past, he said. "Many of our most important habitats have been threatened and damaged through poor management and inappropriate development."
Fen sites in Monaghan faced threats from pollution, afforestation, illegal dumping, drainage and invasive species.
The Government was developing a new national biodiversity plan which would tackle these threats, he said.
The Irish Times


THE BIG DUST STORM
On February 8, 1983,
Melbourne was virtually buried under a massive dust cloud.
The 1983 Melbourne dust storm was a meteorological phenomenon that occurred during the afternoon of 8 February 1983, throughout much of Victoria.
Red soil, dust and sand from Central and Southeastern Australia was swept up in high winds and carried southeast through Victoria.
The dust storm was one of the most dramatic consequences of the 1982/83 drought, at the time the worst in Australian history
and is, in hindsight, viewed as a precursor to the Ash Wednesday bushfires which were to occur eight days later.
During the morning of Tuesday February 8 1983, a strong but dry cold front began to cross Victoria, preceded by hot,
gusty northerly winds. The loose topsoil in the Mallee and Wimmera was picked up by the wind and collected into a huge cloud
of dust that heralded the cool change. At Horsham in western Victoria, raised dust was observed by 11:00am. Within an hour,
it had obscured the sky.
Fed by the strong northerly, the temperature in Melbourne rose quickly and by 2:35pm it had reached 43.2 °C (109.8 °F), at that time a record February maximum. Around
the same time, a dramatic red-brown cloud could be seen approaching the city.
The dust storm hit Melbourne just before 3:00pm, accompanied by a rapid drop in temperature and
a fierce wind change that uprooted trees and damaged houses. Within minutes, visibility in the capital had plunged to 100
metres (330 ft). City workers huddled in doorways, covering their mouths from the choking dust, and traffic came to a
The worst of the storm was over by 4:00pm, when the wind speed dropped. The dust cloud was approximately 320 metres (1,050 ft)
high when it struck Melbourne, but in other areas of Victoria it extended thousands of metres into the atmosphere.[
It was estimated that about 50,000 tonnes of topsoil
were stripped from the Mallee (approximately 1,000 tonnes of it being dumped on the city). The combined effect of drought
and dust storm inflicted damage on the land that, according to the then President of the Victorian Farmers and Graziers’
Association, would take up to 10 years and tens of millions of dollars to repair.
The exact weather pattern that had caused the dust storm was repeated one week later, when the Ash Wednesday fires caused
enormous destruction and loss of life.
On the day of the Dust Storm I was working in the CBD, but managed to find my way to Flinders St Station for my train to


Level 1, 2 & 3 Greek with Business Correspondence Training
Greek language is held in high esteem thanks to the rich history and heritage that is linked to Greece, which was the birthplace of western culture and democracy. Modern Greek, which is spoken mainly in Greece and Cyprus, is built on the shoulders of this ancient civilisation with both countries boasting beautiful cultures from their history and art, to literature, philosophy and music. The Greek language also holds an important place in the history of the Western world, with foundational texts in science, astronomy, mathematics, logic, philosophy, and the New Testament of the Christian Bible being written in this language spoken by at least 13.2 million people today across Greece, Cyprus, Italy and Albania.
This package will teach you Greek up to an advanced level. You will learn handy business language to improve your job opportunities or existing company’s prospects in Greek speaking areas. Greece’s historical legacy is cemented by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, that ranks among the most in the World, including Acropolis, Olympia and Mount Athos.
KEY LEARNING POINTS
Greek Level 1
- Identify the alphabet and the sounds in Greek
- Introduce yourself and others
- Talk about colours
- Use numbers 1-20
- Use the days of the week
- Use simply greetings
- Talk about professions
- Talk about countries and where you live
- Tell the time
- Give your phone number and contact details
- Talk about food and drinks
Greek Level 2
- Make basic conversation and greetings
- Tell the time
- Talk about clothes and shopping
- Order at the café
- Talk about the house
- Use phrases for travel and at the beach
- Make simple requests, recommendations and apologies
- Talk about what is happening
- Describe problems
Greek Level 3
- Ask for locations or places using “where?”
- Recognise parts of the body
- Ask politely using “could”
- Learn how to order food and drinks at a restaurant
- Learn how to ask for information in a hotel
- Able to express yourself in the future tense
- Talk about yourself and your company
- Arrange and attend business meetings
- Talk on the phone and leave messages
- Describe your product
- Use phrases to help with negotiations and sales
- Discuss agreements and contracts
- Talk about banking and accounting
- Use key phrases for business and travel
ADVANTAGES OF THIS COURSE
- Mapped to international CEFR levels and ACTFL standards.
- Understand the language of Greek heritage and culture.
- Implement your knowledge as you make your way through the course.
- Examples in sound, so you can practice your pronunciation until it’s perfect.
|1 gigahertz (GHz)|
|Internet Explorer 8 or above
Safari 6 or above


Astronomy Picture of the Day
Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2019 April 8
AZURE Vapor Tracers over Norway
Image Credit & Copyright: Yang Sutie
Explanation: What’s happening in the sky? The atmosphere over northern Norway appeared quite strange for about 30 minutes last Friday when colorful clouds, dots, and plumes suddenly appeared. The colors were actually created by the NASA-funded Auroral Zone Upwelling Rocket Experiment (AZURE) which dispersed gas tracers to probe winds in Earth’s upper atmosphere. AZURE’s tracersoriginated from two short-lived sounding rockets launched from the Andøya Space Center in Norway. The harmless gases, trimethylaluminum and a barium/strontium mixture, were released into theionosphere at altitudes of 115 and 250 km. The vapor trails were observed dispersing from several ground stations. Mapping how AZURE’s vapors dispersed should increase humanity’s understanding of how the solar wind transfers energy to the Earth and powers aurora.


Please note: This information was current at the time of publication. But medical information is always changing, and some information given here may be out of date. For regularly updated information on a variety of health topics, please visit familydoctor.org, the AAFP patient education website.
Information from Your Family Doctor
Depression in Children and Teens
Am Fam Physician. 2007 Jan 1;75(1):83-84.
See related article on childhood and adolescent depression.
What is depression?
Depression is an illness that makes you feel sad or hopeless. If your child has depression, he or she may seem less confident or lose interest in things he or she used to enjoy. Your child may have trouble focusing, or seem grouchy or angry. He or she may not want to go to school. His or her eating habits may change. Some children with depression have aches and pains.
Depression is a serious illness. It is not your child's fault if he or she is depressed.
What causes depression?
Depression may be caused by an imbalance of chemicals in the brain. It can be triggered by stressful events, like losing a parent or loved one, the breakup of a relationship, abuse, or a physical illness. Depression also can run in families.
How is depression treated?
Depression can be treated with counseling or with medicines called antidepressants, or both. Counseling usually is used for mild or moderate depression. Counseling and medicine together are used for more severe depression.
Are antidepressants addictive?
No. They balance chemicals in the brain. They do not cause a “high.” But the body gets used to having the medicine, so your child may have side effects like headache or dizziness if the medicine is stopped too quickly. Your doctor will talk with you about stopping the medicine slowly when your child is ready.
Can antidepressants cause suicide?
There may be a link, but it is not known for sure if taking these medicines can cause someone to try suicide. Remember that depression makes people more likely to try suicide. To be safe, antidepressants have a warning label about the risk of suicidal actions. These actions include talking about suicide and hurting themselves. You should watch your child carefully for suicidal behavior when he or she is taking an antidepressant.
What should I do if my child talks about suicide?
Your child needs to be watched by an adult. Call your child's doctor right away or take your child to the nearest emergency room. The doctor will be able to find out your child's suicide risk.
Where can I get more information?
American Academy of Family Physicians
American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
American Psychiatric Association
Telephone: 1-888-35-PSYCH (1-888-357-7924)
American Psychological Association
Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance
Girls and Boys Town Hotline
Mental Health America
Telephone: 1-800-969-6MHA (1-800-969-6642)
National Alliance on Mental Illness
Telephone: 1-800-950-NAMI (1-800-950-6264)
National Institute of Mental Health
This handout is provided to you by your family doctor and the American Academy of Family Physicians. Other health-related information is available from the AAFP online at http://familydoctor.org.
This information provides a general overview and may not apply to everyone. Talk to your family doctor to find out if this information applies to you and to get more information on this subject.
Copyright © 2007 by the American Academy of Family Physicians.
This content is owned by the AAFP. A person viewing it online may make one printout of the material and may use that printout only for his or her personal, non-commercial reference. This material may not otherwise be downloaded, copied, printed, stored, transmitted or reproduced in any medium, whether now known or later invented, except as authorized in writing by the AAFP. Contact email@example.com for copyright questions and/or permission requests.
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Hutton killing shakes Black Panther Party
Controversial death comes days after King's assassination in Memphis
On April 6, 1968, America was in turmoil.
Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. had been assassinated two days earlier while standing on a second-floor balcony at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. His killer was on the loose and the U.S. Army was in Chicago quieting the riots that had erupted in the wake of King's murder.


Massive Subsidies for Wind & Solar Power Failed to Reduce CO2 Gas Emissionby Rudy P. SysAdmin at howtofindthemoney
The one, nay the only, ‘justification’ for the $billions squandered on subsidised wind and solar power is ‘saving’ the planet from CO2 gas.
Except, that the wind and solar industries have never produced a shred of credible evidence that chaotic and intermittent wind & solar power have actually reduced CO2 gas emissions, anywhere on that planet.
If CO2’s your ‘poison’, wind and solar power are clearly no antidote.
No single country has thrown more money to the wind and the sun than Germany. And yet, in the mother of all ironies, CO2 gas emissions continue to rise.
Leaving aside arguments about whether CO2 is a toxic pollutant or a naturally occurring beneficial trace gas which plants crave, if the primary object of Germany’s ‘transition’ to an all wind and sun powered future was cutting carbon dioxide gas emissions, the result has been a dismal failure – that’s cost Germans more than a €Trillion, so far.
By comparison, nuclear powered France enjoys power prices a fraction of those suffered by its eastern neighbour; and its CO2 emissions are tiny fraction of those being pumped out by notionally wind and solar powered Germany: Germany’s Renewable Energy Fail: German CO2 Emissions 10 Times Higher than Nuclear-Powered France
Even coal-powered Poland has managed to cut it CO2 emissions faster than the ever-virtuous Germany.
In wind and solar obsessed Australia, the results are no more impressive. Having spent tens of billions in subsidies on wind and solar and 20 years carpeting the country and windmills and solar panels, there has been practically no reduction in carbon dioxide gas emissions. Which was, after all, the justification for all the waste and destruction, in the first place.
Australia installs more renewables than anywhere else but national emissions stay the same
Australians are installing renewable energy, per capita, faster than any place on Earth, or at least we were until 2020 when the subsidies and schemes ran out.
Per capita, Australia (all shades of red) is installing renewables
The Quarterly update for the Greenhouse Gas inventory is out and we can see just how much difference all those renewables make, which is almost nothing. Emissions have flatlined.
Australians are paying record prices, risking blackouts, buying batteries and synchronous condensors, building new billion dollar interconnectors, losing companies overseas, and suffering voltage spikes. We’re playing chicken with our smelters, and party games with PeakSmart timers and extra domestic circuits so that electricity companies can manage our pool pumps and our air conditioners.
And this is all we get?
Emissions in Australia have flatlined
After adding so many wind farms and solar panels the electricity sector decreased emissions by only 1.2% on the year before.
Electricity sector emissions decreased 1.8 per cent in the June quarter of 2019 on a ‘seasonally adjusted and weather normalised’ P 8 P basis (Figure 6). This reflected strong increases in hydro and wind generation (42.0 and 14.8 per cent) and decreases in coal and natural gas generation (5.7 and 21.3 per cent) in the National Electricity Market (NEM). Over the year to June 2019, emissions from electricity decreased by 1.2 per cent compared with the year to June 2018.
The electricity sector is Australia’s largest single source of emissions, and some of the gains in the last decade have come from efficiency, not from renewables, and from making electricity so unaffordable that it scares people into not using their air conditioners.
Given all this, you might think the team at Reneweconomy might worry that renewables won’t save the planet and were a dismal and useless way to spend environmental money, but not so. They were pretty happy with a 2 percent fall in electricity emissions from Sept 2018 to Sept 2019.
They were not impressed that as our electricity emissions had fallen, our diesel emissions have gone up the other way. Mostly for truckers, they say.
How much of this is due to electrical generators?
Graph Australian Diesel emissions, decade, 2009 to 2019.
Per capita Australians are using 40% less CO2 than they were 30 years ago, and this is what the Opposition calls, “a policy vacuum”. Perhaps it is a vacuum — of achievement.
Australia has almost the fastest growing population in the West. Fifty percent population growth in 30 years, and we are aiming to cut emissions 27% on top of that?
Over the period from 1989-90 to June 2019, Australia’s population grew strongly from 17.0 million to around 25.4 million …. This reflects growth of 48.8 per cent.
The best way to keep Australian emissions down (apart from nukes) is to cut immigration, but left leaning politicians don’t want to discuss that, and nor apparently do left wing activist websites. Importing new left-leaning voters seems to be more important.
By picking the most expensive and ineffective methods it’s almost like none of the people driving renewables even care about the CO2 emissions.
The 10 largest coal producers and exporters in Indonesia:
Source: Stop These Things
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A team of scientists have identified bones unearthed in 1996, as a new species of Hadrosaur that lived between 80 and 65 million years ago. Publishing their findings in the May edition of the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, they have named their find Jeyawati rugoculus. The name derives from two Zuni Indian words that mean grinding-mouth wrinkle-eye.
According to the researchers, J. rugoculus appears to be basal to the line of hadrosaurs. Scientists believe that the animal walked mostly on all four legs, but that it could rear up on two legs when the need arose.
The bones are now located at the Arizona Museum of Natural History, where specimens of other dinosaurs uncovered in this region are also located.


Culture is the total set of beliefs, values, habits and traditions that are learned and shared with a group of people. The word is often utilised in sociology to describe the prevailing patterns of behavior and belief among members of the society or community, including this kind of factors because language, faith, relatives practices, monetary systems, and belief and value systems.
Seeing Culture: Dos and Don’ts
Cultural differences could be an inevitable part of the human knowledge, and they own a great effect on how we approach relationships. If you’re dating someone from a unique country, it is vital https://anglergearreviews.com/methods-to-win-an-european-womans-heart to comprehend and admiration the way they believe and midst. This can help you to make educated decisions and avoid making flaws in your marriage.
Romances are sophisticated and personal, and they involve a variety of elements, from the way we talk to the way we dress towards the ways all of us behave and think. Due to this kind of, it is crucial to know the culture you happen to be dating before you can begin a relationship and work toward building a long term commitment.
When you’re seeing a person from a further country, you need to understand the way of life that they’re from so you can discover how to communicate efficiently with all of them. This assists you to delight in your marriage and avoid any problems that may come up from differences in culture.
Communication Styles Culture: A Communication-Culture Relationship
Communication can be an essential component of the human communication process, and it is through connection that cultures are created. Additionally, because cultures are made and shaped through ongoing connections in communities, organizations, communities, and specific relationships, the dynamic romantic relationship between communication and culture is normally one of consistent transformation.
Each time a new member of existing group interacts with other paid members, they will take their own unique interaction and thought patterns to the group. These habits will effect how a group convey and just how its customs is described.
These types of patterns of communication will also affect the ways in which current and long term group people understand and interpret information that they receive. As such, the relationship between communication and lifestyle is a sophisticated and intimate one.
The Difference Among Dating A lady From Your Nation and Internet dating a Guy via Another Countries
As you can see, the difference between going out with a girl from your country and dating a guy right from another countries is huge. It can be very confusing at the beginning, but it’s a good idea to understand the different nationalities that exist before you start dating.
Understanding the difference between dating a lady from your customs and dating some guy from one more countries will help you avoid any conceivable problems inside your relationship. It will also allow you to speak more effectively and enjoy your relationship.
When you are trying to find a partner by another nation, it is important to be aware of the culture that they arrive from and to consider the differences that exist between you find russia brides review two. This will help you to determine if the partnership would have been a good meet or not really. This will also help you to prevent any issues that may come up from differences in ethnical values and beliefs.


Named for the La Amarga geographic formation in Argentina, Amargasaurus is known from an almost entirely complete skeleton that showcases its most distinct feature – two rows of large spines along the back of its neck.
Amargasaurus was small for a sauropod, measuring only about 33 feet long. The function of its spines isn’t known, though it may have been used the same way modern day antelopes use their horns (to ward off predators who try to attack by leaping onto their backs).
Amargasaurus is known from a single, nearly complete skeleton discovered in 1984 by Guillermo Rougier. The only significant piece missing from this specimen was most of the skull. However, based on similar related sauropods with known skull material, paleontologists are able to agree with some certainty with regards to the basic look of Amargasaurus’s head.
- Scientific Name: Amargasaurus cazaui
- Characteristics: Amargasaurus was in many ways a typical sauropod dinosaur, with a long neck and a long tail, meeting in a wide midsection supported by four relatively slender legs. For a sauropod, its neck is comparatively small, and this figure replicates its unique rows of spines along its length.
- Non-toxic and BPA free
Size: 16.14 L x 4.53 W x 4.72 H