Drug debacle- Diclofenac was not the last threat for India’s vultures
Sixteen years after India banned the veterinary use of diclofenac to save its vultures, three other drugs revive the old challenge
On March 14, the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), India’s oldest biodiversity conservation group, wrote a letter urging the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) to ban the use of three veterinary drugs known to kill vultures in the country.
The letter warns that the rampant use of the three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) threatens to undo the Centre’s two decades of work to arrest the dwindling vulture population in the wild. Surprisingly, the three drugs—aeclofenac, ketoprofen and nimesulide—were introduced as alternatives to diclofenac, the NSAID that India banned in 2006 for animal use because it caused widespread vulture deaths.
‘Deaths caused by NSAIDS are invisible. Birds die two-three days after ingesting the medicine, making it difficult to establish a clear link,’ says Chris Bowden, co-chair, Vulture Specialist Group at the International Union for Conservation of Nature. He says India has slowed down vulture mortality rate, but not stabilised the population.
Vultures were quite common till the 1980s. Currently, eight species in the country face extinction, says Rinkita Gurav, manager, raptor conservation, World Wide Fund for Nature, India. The country’s vulture population crashed from over 40,000 in 2003 to 18,645 in 2015, as per the last vulture census conducted by intergovernmental body Bird Life International.
Even diclofenac, which is only permitted for human use, is being misused for cattle treatments. ‘Such treatments are usually prescribed by quacks,’ says Vibhu Prakash, deputy director, Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS).
‘You do not need a prescription to get your hands on diclofenac or any other NSAIDS here,’ says Dau Lal Bohra, wildlife researcher and head of department, zoology, Seth Gyaniram Bansidhar Podar College in Rajashtan’s Jhunjhunu district.
In 2005-06, a little over 10 per cent of cattle carcasses had diclofenac residue. This came down to below 2 per cent by 2013, except for Rajasthan where it was still over five per cent, claims India’s second National Vulture Conservation Action Plan (2020-25), released by MoEF&CC. Vulture populations are considered safe if the diclofenac prevalence in carcasses drops to below 1 per cent.
Bohra estimates Bikaner, home to the Jorbeer vulture conservation centre and animal carcass dumping site, has a vulture population of 1,795 (give or take 137). In the absence of a national death registry, Bohra has kept a log of vulture deaths in the district for research. He has counted 184 vulture deaths in the district in 2020, which is roughly 10 per cent of the total vulture population in the district.
‘In the majority of cases, the postmortem report shows the deposition of white precipitate on the kidneys and heart of vultures, indicating death by NSAIDS,’ he says. Almost 30 cattle carcasses are dumped at the Jorbeer reserve daily.
‘Even if one of them has traces of NSAIDS, it will be consumed by 45-50 vultures,’ he says. Radheshyam Bishnoi, a conservationist in Jaisalmer, says the district saw 120 vulture deaths last year. In some years, the number goes up to 300. ‘At least 20 vultures have died this year. Some of them have died due to electrocution, while some others have died due to the consumption of NSAIDS,’ he says.
When Times of Nation visited Rajasthan’s second-largest cattle shelter in Bhadriya village, Jaisalmer, it found that diclofenac and other NSAIDS are part of its treatment process for cattle. ‘They are effective against seasonal flu. We also use them as painkillers. There are 20-30 cows that undergo treatment at a point of time,’ says a compounder at the cowshed, which has over 50,000 heads of rescued cattle. The cowshed dumps almost five carcasses a day.
Pesticide poisoning also threatens vultures across the country. On March 17, 2022, Kamrup district in Assam reported 97 vulture deaths after they consumed two pesticide-smeared carcasses that had been kept by farmers to kill stray dogs.
India’s vulture conservation action plan for 2020-25 recommends a ban on the veterinary use of the three drugs. It adds that the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) must institute a system that removes a drug from veterinary use if it is found to be toxic to vultures.
The country is also a signatory to the Convention on Migratory Species’ Multi-species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures, which recognises NSAIDS as a major threat to vultures in India. Still, little seems to have moved on the ground.
‘The drugs have been deemed to be safe for livestock by the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation. We have reached out to DCGI (which heads the department) to ban them. They have a technical committee to make such decisions, but the process is lengthy,’ says Prakash.
He adds that BNHS has written to the chairpersons of the vulture breeding and conservation centres in Uttar Pradesh and Haryana to garner support to ban the drugs in the states. ‘We have also reached out to the Wildlife Department,’ he says.
Till recently, train collision was a major reason for vulture deaths in Jaisalamer and Bikaner. It was arrested in 2019 by the construction of walls along the railway tracks. ‘Stray cows would often forage near the railway tracks and get hit by trains. Then vultures would come to eat the carcasses and get run over by trains,’ says Bishnoi. In January 2018, Jaisalmer saw 42 vulture deaths because of train collision.
In 2015, Tamil Nadu became the first state to ban the veterinary use of ketoprofen in Nilgiri, Erode and Coimbatore districts. ‘The government wants us to produce more scientific evidence to put a state-wide ban,’ says Subbaiah Bharathidasan, cofounder of non-profit Arulagam.
He says the impact of the ban will be felt in the long-run as vultures are slow breeders who lay only one egg a year, which has a survival rate of about 60 per cent.
Sources- Bird Life International and media reports
In 2020, Goa’s Directorate of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services urged the Food and Drugs Administration Department to consider a ban on ketoprofane and aceclofenac for treatment of animals.
There are also safe drug alternatives available to treat cattle. The vulture action plan recommends meloxicam over diclofenac. Prakash says tolfenamic acid is the other safe option.
The challenge, though, is a lack of awareness. Bohra says he conducted a study in 2014-15 in Bikaner and found 7,500 vials of NSAIDS were being used for cattle treatment every month. ‘The district, like most others in the country, has limited trained veterinarians and a high number of quack doctors who prescribe drug overdoses,’ he says.
He says cowsheds should maintain medical records and note down the time of death of their animals. The treatment should decide whether the body is to be cremated or sent to a dumping ground.
This article was first published in the 1-15 April, 2022 edition of Times of Nation
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I vividly remember the day I first saw a raven in the wild. A raven can’t be compared to a hawk, because it doesn’t have a hooked beak or talons—it is better described as a menacing, regal, eagle-sized crow. Ravens are strange and otherworldly. John James Audubon’s raven portrait, one of many prints on temporary display at the Peabody Museum of Natural History until July, perfectly replicates this bizarre majesty. Audubon wasn’t purely an artist, or purely a scientist: he combined the two disciplines in fascinating ways.
At the centerpiece of the Peabody exhibit are two books on loan from the Beinecke: rare early prints of The Birds of America, Audubon’s masterwork. In fact, Yale’s copy is one of only 110 intact sets that remain. The book, published in four huge volumes (it’s called the “elephant” folio because seemingly no other adjective could conceive of its gigantic size) is a testament to Audubon’s limitless passion, bordering on obsession. The Birds of America contains 1,055 life-sized illustrations of birds—including every species known to exist in America, plus 37 species and subspecies that Audubon discovered himself.
What’s immediately intriguing about the Peabody’s exhibit is the prints’ unshakeable emotional resonance. Although every bird is a scientific specimen, these prints are not pure visual documentation. The birds are dynamic figures; even when they’re standing still they are contorted, opening their wings, craning their necks. The graceful, vibrant creatures are often fighting and swooping in for prey, positioned against sharply bristling greenery and stark, expansive landscapes. Not only is Audubon portraying the birds with a naturalist’s eye for realism, but he also conveys their raw beauty.
Audubon’s adult life was defined by his passion for birds. Born the illegitimate child of a French slave-owner in Haiti, Audubon grew up in France amidst the chaos of the French Revolution. As a young businessman he resettled in America, where he was immediately and inexplicably enchanted with America’s rich variety of birds. Audubon soon devoted himself to naturalism, living a pioneer lifestyle and crossing the country to document new species. The Peabody’s exhibit effectively portrays this long and arduous livelihood. Because Audubon ensured that his paintings depicted perfect anatomical accuracy, it was crucial for him to see each bird (dead) in the flesh. Audubon travelled extensively to observe birds in their natural habitat. But, if he got word of a new species in a far-off territory that he couldn’t feasibly visit, he always found a way to obtain the bird’s carcass. As we learn in the exhibit, the anatomical accuracy in Audubon’s prints is stunning.
According to Richard Kissel, Director of Public Programs (Exhibitions and Education) at the Peabody Museum, the intersection of art and science in Audubon’s work makes it truly fascinating. In fact, Kissel argues, The Birds of America not only shows an intersection of art and science—it exemplifies how the two disciplines are inextricably intertwined. Kissel writes in an email: “Humanity is a part of nature, so I view all art as falling within the realm of natural history; you can’t remove a species or its product from its broader context.” As Kissel explains, central to Audubon’s paintings are “certain elements of dramatic flair, eliciting emotion from viewers as he captured the beauty and (sometimes) brutality of nature.” After viewing the prints at the Peabody, I find this scientific artistry is evident. Audubon was profoundly skilled at portraying the harsh beauty of nature.
Though Audubon’s work is artistic, many view Audubon’s scientific contributions as paramount to his legacy. Michael Anderson, the Museum Preparator for the Peabody, explains Audubon’s lasting significance as attributable to the paintings’ unprecedented realism. Even today, “[one] can still go to an Audubon print and accurately count the primary feathers and find the exact shape, length and contour of any bird’s feathers.” Anderson likens Audubon’s innovations to today’s revolutions in 3-D printing. As one closely examines the perfect attention to detail in these elephant folios, it is difficult to conceive of Audubon’s profound devotion to his project. The Birds of America is no less than the product of an entire life of fieldwork. As I examined Audubon’s life-sized raven print, which meticulously replicates not only every physical detail but the true essence of this strange and majestic bird, I began to understand why Audubon has secured such a prominent place in the American imagination.


Overview of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
Generally, diabetes patients suffering from a complete lack of insulin are known as Type 1 diabetes and another one is when the patient have an insufficient amount of insulin or can’t utilize the insulin properly are known as Type 2 diabetes.
Type 1 diabetes
Type 1 diabetes was formerly known as insulin-dependent diabetes, it is an autoimmune state where the body’s immune system cannot identify the pancreatic cells and though attacks it. As the pancreatic cells produce insulin so this attack lead towards very little or no production of insulin.
Type 2 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes was formerly known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes. In this condition, the body couldn’t utilize the insulin effectively. This Type 2 diabetes is usually common among children with overweight, it happens when the insulin produced by the body couldn’t fulfill the required quantity, and the body cells don’t respond properly to the insulin, this syndrome is often known as the insulin resistance.
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that happens when the immune system of the body attacks the beta cells of the pancreas. As the beta cells of the pancreas produce insulin, so destroying these cells results in slowly reducing the ability of the body to produce sufficient amount of insulin that regulates the blood glucose levels. Though the exact reason behind this disease is unknown but it is being believed that a person born with a certain combination of genes and the environment around made the genes become active is the cause of Type 1 Diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes is a multifactorial disease that inherits from genes but it get active with obesity and other dietary issues, in this condition the body does not produce sufficient amount of insulin, and the cells of the body resist themselves from the effect of insulin, from this glucose build-up in the blood cells and the cells remain starved for energy. Type 2 diabetes is caused by high glucose levels in blood and also because of obesity, lifestyle disorder, and dietary issues. While consumption of more sugar in diet lead towards excess demands of insulin production and eventually that tends towards insulin resistance over time. The receptor cells that become less resistant to insulin couldn’t remove the glucose from the blood and that lead towards high blood glucose and more demand for insulin production.
The major symptoms of Type 1 diabetes start appearing when the blood sugar gets higher. The symptoms of Type 1 diabetes are like unusual thirst, frequent piddling, fatigue, rapidly losing weight, the feeling of numbness in the feet, hunger, and blurred vision. Having higher levels of blood sugar can cause rapid breathing or some breathing problem, nausea, having a fruity breath, and dry skin.
On the other side, the major symptoms of type 2 diabetes just don’t show for many years and keep ravaging the patient’s body without their concern. Some of the early symptoms of Type 2 diabetes are like getting frequent infections, fatigue, frequent piddling, unusual thirst, hunger, and blurred vision; sometimes it may include erectile dysfunction in men, and numbness in the hands and the feet. Some other consequences of higher blood pressure are kidney failure, blindness, cardiovascular issues and neurological diseases.
Both in type 1 and type 2 diabetes some of the symptoms are similar to feeling thirsty, frequently piddling, fatigue, rapidly losing body weight, uncontrollable urge to eat, weakness, and irritability.
Type 1 Diabetes
The Type 1 diabetes, commonly known as juvenile diabetes, usually develops in young people and adults. In this type of diabetes, the body cannot produce insulin or more appropriately sufficient amount of insulin because the immune system of the body that protects us from several infections by getting rid of germs, viruses, bacteria, and some other harmful substances get attacked, and the cells that produce insulin are being destroyed.
The treatments for type 1 diabetes are:
- Taking injections, of insulin.
- Taking oral medicines.
- Adopting a healthy diet.
- Being physically fit and active.
- Controlling blood pressure levels.
- Controlling cholesterol levels.
Type 2 Diabetes
The Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as the adult-onset diabetes, usually it affects people of all age groups and even children’s also. Generally, Type 2 diabetes results from overweight and inactiveness. This type of diabetes begins with insulin resistance; it is a condition that happens when the fat, muscle, and the liver cells cannot utilize the insulin to carry glucose into the cells of the body that is being used to get energy. And so the body requires more insulin to help glucose enter into the cells. In the initial stages, the pancreas keeps on adding the demand by producing more insulin. But over time, the pancreas stops responding to the demand for more insulin, and it makes an increase in the blood sugar level.
The treatments for type 2 diabetes are:
- Regular intake of diabetes medicines
- Adapting healthy diet choices
- Staying physically fit and active
- Controlling blood pressure levels and checking it on a regular basis.
- Controlling and regularly checking up the cholesterol levels.
Bitter gourd, widely known as bitter melon, is quite useful for controlling diabetes because of its blood glucose lowering effects. It helps to increase pancreatic insulin secretion and also prevents insulin resistance. It is beneficial for both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes as well, but in cannot be used instead of a complete insulin treatment.
As powdered cinnamon contains bioactive components in it so it can help to prevent and fight diabetes by lowering the blood sugar levels by stimulating insulin activity. Some studies show that Cinnamon can work effectively in lowering blood sugar levels in cases of Type-2 diabetes.
Fenugreek is a common herb that is being used for ages to control the blood sugar levels. It has some medicinal values and apart from that the hypoglycemic activity helps to improve the glucose tolerance level and lowers blood sugar levels. It also controls the secretion of glucose-dependent insulin. As it is rich in fiber, so it slows down the absorption of carbohydrates and sugars.
Indian gooseberry, a wonder herb it is rich in nutrients, iron, calcium and vitamin C. It also helps to lower the blood sugar levels with its daily use.
Indian BlackBerry or it is also known as Black plum helps to control the blood sugar level as it contains ellagic acid, anthocyanins, and hydrolysable tannins. The seeds of black palm contain alkaloid jumbo line and glycoside jambosine that helps to control the blood sugar levels.
There are three types of Diabetes:
- The Type 1 Diabetes
- The Type 2 Diabetes
- And the Gestational Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes
The Type 1 diabetes happens when the immune system attacks and destroys the beta cells present in the pancreas and eventually results in a very little amount of insulin secretion. For this reason, sugar starts to build up in the blood instead of being used in the form of energy. This kind of Diabetes is very rare only 5- 10% of people have Type 1 Diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes
The Type 2 diabetes happens when the body couldn’t properly utilize the insulin that is released or could not produce enough insulin. It results in, sugar build up in the blood instead of being used in the form of energy. Type 2 diabetes is quite common among people with diabetes; about 90 % of people with diabetes suffer from type 2 diabetes.
The third type of diabetes is known as gestational diabetes this temporary condition happens during pregnancy. Approximately 2 to 4% of ladies get affected by this during their pregnancies resulting from an increased risk of diabetes for both mother and fetus.
Generally, blood tests are done in the initial stages after getting some symptoms to confirm the diagnosis of both Type 1 and 2 diabetes. Testing let the doctor know and treat diabetes before any other complications arise, and can prevent type 2 diabetes from developing.
The following tests are done for diagnosis of type 1 or type 2 diabetes:
- Fasting plasma glucose (FPG)
- Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT).
Another blood test which is rarely done to diagnose diabetes during regular health checkup is the random plasma glucose or the (RPG) test. The doctor diagnoses diabetes when the Random plasma glucose or the (RPG) measures 200 micrograms per deciliter or more than that.
Medications for type 1 diabetes
In type 1 diabetes the body cannot produce insulin of its own. So the patient is treated to replace the insulin that the body cannot produce.
Insulin is mostly used for the treatment for both type 1 and type 1 diabetes it is one of the common types of medication used for diabetes treatment. The dosage is given by injections and is available in many types and forms. The forms of insulin are as follows:
- Short-acting insulin
- Rapid-acting insulins
- Intermediate-acting insulin
- Long-acting insulins
- Combination insulins
Pramlintide is an amylinomimetic drug that is usually injected before meals. It helps to delay the time human stomach takes to empty it. And also prevents glucagon secretion after meals.
Medications for type 2 diabetes
If someone has the type 2 diabetes, and the body could not produce enough insulin, then the patient is treated to substitute the insulin. The forms of medicine that are used to prevent or lower diabetes level are as follows:
- Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
- Dopamine agonist
- DPP-4 inhibitors
- Glucagon-like peptides
- Sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT) 2 inhibitors
People with type 1 and type 2 diabetes often need to take other medications to prevent the issues that are common with diabetes. These medicines include:
- Aspirin for cardiac issues
- Medicines to control high cholesterol
- Medicines to treat high blood pressure
Consult your Health Expert
There are several medicines available in the market for the treatment of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. But one need to consult with a health expert to know which diabetes medicines are best suited in accordance to the symptoms. The doctor will recommend medicines and tests according to the type of diabetes, health issues, and other factors the patient have.
There are no such preventive measures for type 1 diabetes. Some of the possibilities are using the stem cells and pancreas transplant. Whereas for type 2 diabetes preventive measures like losing weight and daily exercising can act as a cure.
So Type 1 diabetes is insulin-dependent diabetes, and the Type 2 diabetes is the noninsulin dependent diabetes. Type 1 diabetes occurs when the beta cells attack the pancreas, and the Type 2 diabetes is genetically inherited. The symptoms of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes is almost same like unusual thirst, frequent piddling, fatigue, rapidly losing weight, the feeling of numbness in the feet, frequent urge to eat, and blurred vision.
The treatment for both types of diabetes is also same the treatment involves taking injections, of insulin, taking oral medicines, adopting a healthy diet, being physically fit and active, controlling blood pressure levels and controlling cholesterol levels. There some home remedies also with its regular intake diabetes can be prevented like fenugreek, bitter gourd, and the Indian gooseberry. One should regularly check their diabetes to control the blood sugar levels along with the intake of medicines suggested by their health expert. For more health tips like this stay connected and stay well!!!


Atherosclerosis is a condition that prevents the supply of oxygen-rich blood to parts of the body due to the accumulation of plaque.
Atherosclerosis is caused by abnormal levels of cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, high blood pressure, smoking, inherited, and unhealthy diet.
In the initial stage, no symptoms appear until serious, depending on which arteries are affected, it can lead to stroke, coronary artery disease, kidney problems and peripheral artery disease.
Atherosclerosis usually occurs in men in the 40s and women in the 50s to 60s.According to data from 2004, the first symptom of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease results in heart attack or sudden cardiac death in about 66 percent of men and 47 percent of women in the United States.
Prevention: Usually by taking a healthy diet, not smoking, exercising, and keeping a normal weight.
Treatment: involves medicines for blood pressure, medicines for lowering cholesterol such as statins, or medications for reducing coagulation, such as aspirin. Also, various procedures such as coronary artery bypass grafting, percutaneous coronary intervention, or carotid endarterectomy can be performed.
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EDTECH CHEAT SHEET
Understanding New Trends in Educational Technology
Trying to keep up with all of the new buzzwords in the booming Educational Technology sector can leave you feeling like a kindergartner in a calculus class.
Don't tell your teach, but we put together a little cheat sheet to keep you informed on what's happening inside and outside of today's most innovative schools.
Think we're missing any major terms or trends? Let us know on Twitter.
Providing every student with a laptop or tablet to make learning more individualized, increase independence and extend academics beyond the classroom.
Also: much cooler than just giving out stickers.
Software that adapts it's content and pacing to the current knowledge level of the user, so it's almost like having a personal tailor for your education.
A student-centered teaching method that uses online resources to facilitate learning without requiring the students and instructors be in the same place at the same time. Yes, students--you can wear your pajamas to class.
A sure recipe for success:
Mix one part students learning at school and one part students engaging with content delivered online. Blend well for best results.
Optional--Adjust when, where and how students use the online content.
Course Management System (CMS)
Class websites can be a big undertaking.
A CMS keeps teachers and students organized with digital resources for class discussion, document management, homework submission and course scheduling.
Programs or tools to present learning materials in creative ways that match every student's individual learning style, from typical lectures to fun games and quizzes.
Though the tools used depends on the student, the learning goals are the same for all.
Once upon a time*,
there were students and instructors who used digital tools to tell exciting stores in educational ways, like showing off research of building course assignments.
*It was 2012.
Put down your highlighters and Post-Its--e-books are completely digital and are usually read on computers or e-readers.
A web-based learning environment that allows instructors and students to interact through the computer without worrying about time or place.
Don't fret: telepathy skills are not yet required, just the Internet.
A classroom equipped with multimedia devices to enhance the learning experience.
Wouldn't it be convenient to do your "homework" at school?
In a flipped classroom, students learn lessons at home with the help of videos or other instructional materials and spend their valuable classroom time doing assignments with help from their instructor.
Using game design and mechanics to drive motivation and increase engagement in learning.
Let the games begin!
When a group of students all receive the same content but work through it at their own pace-anything from slow and steady to fast and furious.
Learning that occurs outside a traditional school, i.e. forget having to lug around that heavy backpack.
Combining education and technology to enhance curriculum. Instructors can alter how they deliver content to students depending on the technology available at their school. Hopefully, but not always, more advanced than Morse code...
An interactive online service organized around a specific topic that gives users that ability to submit and receive information and learning materials.
There's no rule that says learning stops after a certain age.
Lifelong learning continues education informally for personal enrichment, usually after finishing formal education.
Massive Open Online Course (MOOC)
A course in which materials and instructions are delivered over the Internet to users around the world. The course is designed to connect instructors with learners interested in a common topic and works best with a large user-base and open content.
Of course, the first step toward completing the course is learning how to pronounce MOOC...
How do you pronounce MOOC?
Hint: Try to sound like a cow with something caught in its throat.
Open Educational Resources (OER)
Digital Materials available for reuse and repurposing in teaching, researching and learning. These materials are made available through open licenses that allow them to be used through means not permitted under copyright, so the flow of knowledge is boundless.
Students learn almost exclusively online, and do so while logging in from a physical school setting. No lab coats or goggles required, unless you dig that look.
Unfortunately not all about monogrammed notebooks and book bags-- it's learning entirely geared toward the individual student.
The content, pace, structure and goals of instruction vary depending on the student's learning habits.
Synchronous Online Learning
A real-time learning situation in which immediate, two-way communication between instructor and participants is possible.
Instructors can even call on participants, so make sure you're paying attention!
An online space where students and instructors interact.
Not to be confused with a video game, though engagement definitely improves if students think of it as one.
Virtual Learning Environment
An education system online that mimics real-world education by using virtual concepts for exams, assignments, classes and more.
You might even offer a virtual apple for some brownie points.


In 1700 the native peoples, whom the Europeans called Indians, demographically dominated the North American continent north of the Rio Grande. If we are to believe the best estimates, they numbered at least 1.6 million, nearly five times the 330,000 or so Europeans and Africans huddled along the Atlantic coast. A century later, by 1800, these proportions had been radically reversed: the inhabitants of North America with European and African ancestry had multiplied dramatically since 1700 and now numbered 5.5 million, over five times the number of remaining indigenous peoples, nine out of ten of whom now lived west of the Mississippi, with most of the eastern Indians having become the victims of war and especially disease.1
These startling demographic statistics form the basic setting for understanding European–Indian relations in eighteenth-century America. They also form the background for Alan Taylor’s extraordinary book about white–Indian relations on the northern borderland at the end of the eighteenth century.
Taylor, a professor of American history at the University of California at Davis, who is among the most distinguished American historians, has written before about the northern borderlands of America. His first book, Liberty Men and Great Proprietors (1990), dealt with the violent protests of settlers against rich and powerful land speculators in the frontier territory of Maine during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. His next book, William Cooper’s Town, which won the Bancroft Prize and the Pulitzer Prize for history in 1996, was a sensitive study of the great eighteenth-century land speculator who founded Cooperstown in upstate New York and was the father of the novelist James Fenimore Cooper.2
Taylor is obviously fascinated with borderlands, which are nearly as important a subject for historians these days as that of Indians. He has turned his remarkable gifts for historical recreation to studying the complicated ways in which the various Indian nations of the Iroquois, the rapidly growing numbers of white settlers, and the different governments of New York, the United States, and Great Britain all interacted and clashed during the late eighteenth century in the territory of the Six Nations of the Iroquois—the Mohawks, Oneidas, Tuscaroras, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas.
During the past thirty years or so the Indians have become increasingly central to early American historical scholarship, especially to the period of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Not that the Indians have been ignored by most historians, but most of the earlier historical studies were written from the white settlers’ point of view and dealt with what Indian scholars now call the “policies and attitudes” of the whites toward the Indians. The Indians were important, but only for their part in the history of white society; indeed, the native peoples often became simply a means by which the advantages and deficiencies of white civilization could be measured. Some distinguished historians even ignored them altogether. Frederick Jackson Turner, in an essay on the early American West published in the first issue of the American Historical Review in…
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Students of all generations are practically dependent upon the Internet. It enables them to find the information they need, practice the skills they need to develop, and simply have fun with online distractions. Professors, on the other hand, are very cautious when it comes to recommending online tools that could boost the educational process. The older generations of teachers are not very confident in the fact that innovations lead to progress.
The following list of 11 free online educational tools proves this fact: the learning process is more effective when students rely on the right tools!
Textbooks are never enough for curious students, who have questions about each new concept they encounter. Sometimes the coursework material complicates things too much, so everyone needs better explanations. This is the website where students can get clear, simple insights from different subject areas.
This awesome tool reinvents the way different educational topics are being presented. When teachers use it, they can create cool, visually-stunning slides that capture the attention of the entire class. Students can use Prezi when they create presentations as well! The presenter can zoom through the story and visually explain how each idea relates to another.
Before you start thinking about hiring writing services, you should try developing your own storytelling skills. How will Storybird help you complete better projects? It improves your literacy and enables you to explore your imagination.
Language learning is more fun and effective thanks to Duolingo. Plus; it’s free! A student interested in learning a foreign language can access lessons and exercises at this website. The tool is also available as a smartphone app.
Video projects seem cool at first, but it doesn’t take long before students are absolutely frustrated by them. Thanks to Animoto, they can easily create fun video presentations. The tool takes the uploaded text, images, music and video to compose a fluid video in a matter of minutes.
This is the math calculator you’ve always been looking for. Desmos is perfect for all students, regardless whether they are in middle or graduate school. The tool enables you to explore math through plot tables of data, graph functions, equations, transformations, and much more.
This is an interactive timeline tool that enables students to put information on a linear timeline. It’s perfect for memorizing dates and events for history course. The timeline can contain audio clips, images, and text. The users can share their creations online.
This website is an incredible source of reliable information from different subject areas. You can use it to upgrade your knowledge, but it will also provide you with resources for different academic project. If you can’t locate the needed information here, it’s time to think about hiring a proper writing service.
Speaking of essay writing agencies, you cannot rely on a random site from Google results. You need to see what level of quality and convenience real users experienced before hiring a certain service. You’ll find a decent writing service on EssayWolves.com. It’s a reviewing website that provides you with information about the quality, prices, discounts, support, types of services, and every other aspect that will influence your decision.
This is the ultimate online tool that makes learning more accessible than ever. It doesn’t matter what your interest is; you can always find a suitable course at Coursera. The materials are provided by well-known professors and universities, so students can finally receive high-quality education without investing tons of money.
This tool is great for both teachers and students. It enables learners to create quizzes, games, and flashcards that will help them study more efficiently. These study tools can be shared among users, so Quizlet is great for team work. When you are stuck with a textbook for days, all concepts become confusing. You can’t remember the simplest things of the material, but somehow you can memorize complex definitions. Quizlet helps you test your knowledge and remember the most important information!
Thanks to the above-listed online resources, education is easier than ever. All you need is will for knowledge. The tools are out there!


The Guatemalan school year for public and most private schools begins in January and ends in October. This year’s fight against COVID-19 has disrupted the school year for many students in Guatemala. Teachers were preparing to enter the second trimester and grade exams. How many teachers are out of work and unable to interact with their children. Children are now missing necessary instruction to improve critical math and reading skills. This is especially evident in the rural parts of Guatemala. In Chontala, El Quiche, we spoke with Tomas Tol Perez to gain insight into how students are managing their studies during these challenging times. His daughter is among one of those students striving to finish middle school while engaging in distance learning.
COVID19 has demonstrated to many people that accessing the internet continues to be a barrier for those with scarce resources. Kids in rural Guatemala are seeing this more than any sector in the country. Specifically, in Chontala kids in primary school are no longer receiving any kind of instruction. This is due to many factors, some that are simple, other factors are more complex. Lack of access to the internet, the cost of internet access, lack of technology fluent family members are among the factors. However, it also does not help when you have a school system that never implemented technology in its everyday instruction to begin with. So, most primary school populations are completely and indefinitely without any kind of instruction.
In contrast, secondary and older school age youth are receiving some type of instruction. The amount and complexity of that instruction differs according to how available resources are in the corresponding community. In Chontala, the older youth are receiving homework, turning in assignments, and receiving occasional instructional videos from their teachers via the application WhatsApp. These exchanges between teachers and students happen around 2 to 3 times a week. These older students are considered fortunate because their futures are considered less hazy.
In Chontala and other communities, parents, students, and teachers are very worried. Many of these concerns overlap. In Guatemala, some teachers are paid by the local parents and not the government. These teachers usually teach subjects such as English. In Chontala, the English teacher is without a salary because parents can’t afford to pay for a teacher who is not able to teach their children because of COVID-19. Other teachers that are paid by the government are receiving their salaries. Parents, whose children are in primary schools are worried about whether or not their children will pass their current grade. Will there be midterms or final exams? If so, how can you test a child who has not been receiving any type of instruction? Will they be graduated automatically or forced to repeat a grade? If Guatemala finishes our shelter in place period before the school year ends, will parents be able to pay certain teachers? If they are not, who will or will students have a shortage of teachers?
Many of these questions concern an uncertain future and a future that the government is ill equipped to handle. Life in Guatemala for most has always been a balancing act of falling into an abyss or staying afloat to survive. For many, that is even more the case in these times.


The type of chicken feed you give to your hens will depend on size - a normal sized hen will need about 110g to 170g of grain a day & bantams will need about 50 to 85g a day. However if your hen is really free range and is allowed to wander free around your garden supplementing its diet with juicy grubs, insects and vegetation, 100g or less will suffice.
You can also supplement their diet with left over food – they have a hankering for carbs such as rice, pasta, bread and potatoes. They will also eat vegetables, fruit, seeds, hard cheese, meat etc. However avoid salty food, banana skins, uncooked potato peelings, chocolate and fish bones in your chicken feed. Like children they can be faddy eaters though – so try experimenting with different leftovers.
Grain & Corn
Chickens need a good balanced "Layers Mash" or "Layers Pellet" which contains all the grains, vitamins, minerals and proteins a hen needs to maintain good health and performance and can be acquired from any animal feed store or online. Pellets are easy for chickens to eat, however they may get bored if they are in a confined area; whereas mash keeps them happy for hours. As a treat you may like to give your chickens some mixed corn which is best scattered around on the ground. This encourages them to scratch around and take in grit which they need for digestion (see chicken digestion). Only use corn as a treat as they need to eat their mash or pellets to produce the maximum amount of eggs.
Grit & Oyster Shell
Chickens do not have teeth so they must have access to grit which the hen stores in the gizzard and uses to aid digestion (see chicken digestion).
Fresh clean water is essential for your chickens and should ALWAYS be available. It is important to regularly check the water supply, particularly in hot weather to ensure it's not run dry, as well as freezing conditions to ensure the water isn't frozen.


It may not count as a near miss, but there’s an asteroid passing very close to Earth today. How close? 66,000km close. That may sound like a long way away, but to give you some idea of where that distance falls in line with other close proximity objects we know about, our satellites orbit at around 20,000km, and the Moon is around 356,000km away. Therefore the asteroid will be classified in the top 20 of closest passes on record.
The asteroid is called 2012 BX34 and measures roughly 11 meters in diameter. It did cause a few astonomers concern when it was initially discovered. Observers thought BX34 would pass much closer to Earth at around 20,000km, but the predictions were off and we are not going to lose any satellites. A collision with Earth definitely won’t happen so we can all relax.
If you’re trying to visualize how big an 11 meter wide asteroid is, the BBC refer to it as about the same size as a double-decker bus:
Even so, when it passes by at around 11am EST (4pm GMT), you won’t be able to look up and see it with the naked eye. However, if you’re an amateur astronomer with a decent telescope set up, you could catch a glimpse of it speeding past.
Gareth Williams of the Minor Planet Center has some further reassurance for us. A bus-sized asteroid may sound huge, but in the grand scheme of things it is relatively tiny, and even if it did have a course that saw it travel into our atmosphere, it would most likely break up into smaller pieces.


Glen Rose School in Texas was VideoScribe's first Distinguished School. We caught up with them to find out how using VideoScribe has transformed their learning environment. Glen Rose is a town of 2,500 people in the north east of Texas. It's known for its dinosaur exhibitions and outstanding natural beauty. The school has 1,540 students and teachers across four campuses, taking elementary, middle school and high school age students (age 5-18). Glen Rose prides itself on being very tech-savvy, and 10 teachers from the school volunteered to be the pioneers of VideoScribe in the classroom. Those original 10 have gone on to train many other staff throughout the school. VideoScribe is now being used in every corner of the campus. Frankly, we're amazed at what Glen Rose has been up to. We chatted to Patti Flanary, an Instructional Technologist at the school and one of the first to bring VideoScribe into the classroom. Here are just some of the things Glen Rose has been using VideoScribe for.
Using VideoScribe to promote your school
Scribes are so easy to make that younger students are putting them together in class. Older students, like the girls from the Lady Tigers volleyball team, make scribes from scratch. The highlight for us was definitely hearing about the video of the Glen Rose volleyball team projected on the big screen at the school stadium. It's great to see a scribe video up in lights!
Using VideoScribe in the classroom
VideoScribe in action in the 4th grade classroom. Even young children take to scribing in no time. Working together on an interactive whiteboard makes scribing a fun, tactile experience.
Using VideoScribe on your intranet
One of Patti's first scribes explains the ways that Glen Rose is innovating its classrooms by embracing new technology. Teachers upload their videos to the school intranet so that students can access valuable learning resources from home. VideoScribe is perfect for supporting flipped classrooms, giving the students a chance to consolidate their learning by making their own scribes at home.
Using VideoScribe for learning resources
Can you guess the US monuments? Teachers and students have worked together to produce activities like these to support the students' learning. The results from our AB testing last year showed that young people watching scribe videos were up to twice as likely to remember the answers to questions than students watching regular talking head videos. They also had better recall in 4 out of 5 memory tests.
Innovate your classroom
Thank you Patti and everyone at Glen Rose School for embracing VideoScribe and sending us your wonderful videos. More Glen Rose scribes To find out more about VideoScribe and education,visit our website or contact Naomi at firstname.lastname@example.org. If you're a teacher already using VideoScribe, we'd love to hear from you via our Facebook or Twitter.


From: Abdul Muhammad, ISU Department of Political Science
To: Dr. Mack Shelley, Instructor; Policy and Program Evaluation
Subject: Addressing Disproportionality and Disparate Outcomes within Iowa’s Child Welfare System
Date: February 6, 2018
Iowa leads the nation as one of the worst states for the disproportionate representation of African American, Latino, and Native American children in the child welfare system (National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, 2011). Along with the rest of the nation, the Iowa child welfare community has gone from simply acknowledging the problem of racial and ethnic disproportionality and disparity…show more content… It also outlines strategies that can assist child welfare administrators, program managers, community stakeholders, and policymakers with addressing these issues at critical decision points throughout a child’s journey through the child welfare process, or life of the case (e.g., intake, assessment, service provision, court involvement, out-of-home placement, permanency, reunification, and safe case…show more content… Families/children of color: Families or children other than those who are non-Hispanic, White-only (e.g., Black, Hispanic, Native American)
When reviewing data pertaining to race and ethnicity, it is important to take into account the inherent difficulties collecting and analyzing these data. The following are examples of those difficulties:
• Race and ethnicity do not have quantifiable definitions (U.S. Census Bureau, 2013). People may identify their race or ethnicity based on a number of factors (e.g., family and social environment, historical or sociopolitical definitions, personal experience). The definitions for a particular race or ethnicity may change from study to study.
• How people define their own race or ethnicity can change over time. Researchers found that more than 10 million people changed their race or ethnicity selections from the 2000 census to the 2010 census (Cohn,


What Is Sleep Apnea?
Sleep apnea is a condition that occurs when a person experiences pauses in their breathing while asleep. People who have sleep apnea may stop breathing numerous times at night, often for a minute or longer. This can lead to dangerous side effects and long-term health risks if left untreated. Our dentists at Kois Dentistry offer advanced dental care solutions to effectively treat sleep apnea, helping patients manage the condition and prevent the cessation of breathing. To learn more about the condition and how our team customizes snore guards to treat mild to moderate sleep apnea, visit the sections below.
- Sleep Apnea in Children
- Sleep Apnea Symptoms
- Sleep Apnea Causes
- Sleep Apnea Side Effects
- Sleep Apnea Treatment
Sleep Apnea in Children
Snoring occurs in more than 10 percent of children, often due to allergies or an acute respiratory illness. Snoring can also indicate a more serious problem known as sleep-related breathing disorders (SRBD), which can include sleep apnea. According to the American Sleep Apnea Association, 1 to 4 percent of children suffer from sleep apnea. Since an adequate amount of oxygen cannot reach the lungs, this can cause children to snore loudly, experience pauses in breathing, and wake up throughout the night.
As more and more children have been diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) over the past 10 years, research has shown that many do not actually have the condition. A recent study indicates that, instead, many of these children have a sleep-related breathing disorder that is causing similar behavioral problems.
This study, which was published in the journal Pediatrics in 2012, followed over 11,000 children starting when they were six months old and continuing for six years. Those with SRBD were at least 40 percent more prone to developing behavioral issues similar to ADHD by the age of seven, compared to kids without any breathing problems.
This study shows that children with symptoms similar to those of ADHD should be evaluated to determine if poor sleep quality could be a factor in their behavioral problems. Signs that children may suffer from sleep apnea or another breathing disorder include having abnormally high bursts of energy, a poor attention span, and difficulty cooperating—all of which are also experienced in those with ADHD.
What Are the Symptoms of Sleep Apnea?
Sleep apnea can be a particularly difficult problem to diagnose because many sufferers do not realize they have it. In many cases, a family member or partner is the first one to notice the altered breathing habits while their loved one is sleeping. Common signs that an adult has sleep apnea include the following:
- Loud snoring
- Choking or gasping for air at night
- Chronic headaches in the morning
- Persistent fatigue every day
- Restless sleep or insomnia
While adults typically feel tired due to interrupted sleep, children often have behavioral problems due to their poor sleep quality. No matter one’s age, having sleep constantly interrupted by breathing issues will affect their ability to function normally. Symptoms specific to children that may indicate they have sleep apnea or a sleep-related breathing disorder include the following:
- Loud snoring
- Long pauses in breathing while asleep
- Choking during the night
- Frequent tossing and turning
- Teeth grinding
- Waking several times in the night
- Having night panics
- Pattern of bed-wetting
- Drowsiness during the day
- Difficulty paying attention during school or at home
- Other behavioral issues, often similar to those of ADHD
If one or more of these symptoms have occurred, you should talk with your doctor about a possible sleep-related breathing disorder and have your child evaluated.
What Causes Sleep Apnea?
Obstructive sleep apnea is the most common form of the condition. This is often caused by the soft tissues and muscles in the back of the throat relaxing and closing the airway. Children with a sleep-related breathing disorder like sleep apnea experience frequent interruptions in their breathing while they sleep, since soft tissues like the tonsils or tongue can partially block their windpipe. When sleep apnea occurs, these tissues may vibrate as air passes, causing the sound of snoring. Patients may also gasp to catch their breath at night or stop breathing for extended periods of time. This breathing disorder is typically worse at night as people sleep on their back, causing the jaw to shift backwards and their tongue to rest closer to the airway. Excess weight and obesity tend to exacerbate this problem, since fatty tissue in the soft palate can decrease the airway opening.
Are There Any Side Effects to Sleep Apnea?
Since sleep apnea prevents sufferers from getting enough quality sleep at night, there are a number of side effects that can occur due to the continually interrupted sleep. This can include:
- Weight gain
- Memory loss
- Drowsy driving
- Sexual dysfunction
- Gastric reflux
When an individual experiences numerous breathing pauses while sleeping, this decreases the amount of oxygen in the bloodstream needed to reach the organs. This is how sleep apnea can become a life-threatening condition when left untreated.
Over time, the combination of poor quality sleep and inefficient oxygen flow can increase a person’s risk of developing serious health concerns. From hypertension and diabetes to stroke and heart disease, sleep apnea has been linked to a wide range of diseases—and even cardiac arrest in severe cases. Fortunately, it can be easily managed if diagnosed.
How Is Sleep Apnea Treated?
To receive a sleep apnea diagnosis, people must participate in a sleep study with a specialist, which is conducted to evaluate their sleep patterns. If mild to low moderate sleep apnea is detected, individuals can visit Kois Dentistry to obtain a custom-made snore guard to help manage their condition. These sleep appliances are custom-fitted to your unique anatomy to ensure your breathing passages remain open at night. As a result, patients are able to get a significantly better night’s sleep, feeling well-rested in the morning. When young patients are diagnosed with sleep apnea, they can often benefit from a type of child orthodontic treatment, like palatal expanders, depending on their stage of growth. Since they are still growing, the bone structure of their mouth can often be widened to allow for improved airflow.
For more severe sleep apnea cases, CPAP therapy or surgery may be necessary. CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) therapy is a common form of managing sleep apnea. It works by delivering pressurized air via a tubing and mask system to help prevent the collapse of soft tissues in the airway. While effective, CPAP therapy is known as being an uncomfortable method of treatment, causing many individuals to not wear the device as needed. Since this system will only work if properly utilized, some patients may be better candidates for surgery. Treating sleep apnea with surgery typically involves removing excess or unnecessary tissues located near the back of the throat, such as the adenoids or tonsils. When surgery is performed for sleep apnea, the airway is able to remain more open at night, since enlarged tissue no longer blocks the breathing passages.
Although appliances like snore guards and CPAPs are not a replacement for healthy functional anatomy, seeking treatment with these solutions can often alleviate side effects and reduce the risk of severe health problems in the future. For more information about treating sleep apnea with snore guards, CPAP, or surgery, please contact us to schedule an appointment.


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Start studying chapter 30- post wwii europe who led britain throughout most of world war ii and led the resistance to german occupation during.
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Europe after world war ii see more division of europe during the cold war blue = us led theater of world war ii every day from the german invasion of poland. Why wasn't there an insurgency in germany after the end of wanted to ensure that if there was no more nazi did world war ii end in europe. Free copies were given to every newlywed german couple after world war ii after the war, the allies occupied germany get more on world war ii related. World war ii coming just two decades after the last great global conflict, the second world war was the most widespread and deadliest war in history, involving more than 30 countries and.


Zambia is a landlocked country in Southern Africa and can be credited with political stability and strong economic growth in the last decade. However, despite a favorable climate, fertile land and the third largest water resource on the Africa continent, Zambia’s agricultural potential is not yet fully tapped with only 14 percent of suitable agricultural land currently under cultivation. Staple crops, including corn, cassava sorghum and rice and are cultivated mostly by subsistence and small-scale famers, with active government involvement in controlling these agricultural markets. Major agricultural export products includes, sugar, tobacco and cotton. Zambia exported agricultural goods worth US$0.8 billion in 2014.


The bhagavad gita: a guide to navigating the battle of life ravi ravindra, shambhala publications (shambhalacom), 2017 pp 320 $1995 paper. This is a selection from the bhagavad gita, the most important part of the mahabharata krishna, a god, has accompanied arjuna, our hero and a warrior, into battle. 9 benefits of the bhagavad gita arjuna, the mighty warrior in maha bharata is scared to lose his dear ones, friends, and relatives in the battle field.
In the mahabharata, why would the kaurava army wait patiently while krishna rendered the bhagavad gita to arjuna in the battle field. The bhagavad gita excerpts from god talks with arjuna: the bhagavad gita by paramahansa yogananda the battle of life dhritarashtra said: on the holy plain of. The bhagavad gita (/ ˌ b ʌ ɡ ə v ə d ˈ ɡ iː t ɑː, -t ə / sanskrit: भगवद्गीता, bhagavad-gītā in iast, sanskrit pronunciation.
Bhagavad-gita study guide contains literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, to tell him about the battle between his family and the pandavas. The bhagavad-gita opens with blind king dhritarashtra requesting his secretary, sanjaya, to narrate the battle between his sons, the kauravas, and their co. The bhagavad gita is a message addressed to each and every human individual to help him the real kurukshetra is within you the battle of the the world. Philosophy of the bhagavad gita: this new translation focuses on the philosophy underpinning the story of a battle between two sets of cousins of the aryan clan. Sanskrit epic relates the great fratricidal battle between two noble families [hindu lit: bhagavad-gita in benét, 103.
It stands out from the many other versions with its assertion that the bhagavad gita is at heart a universal guide to navigating the battle of life required of each. Bhagavad-gita study guide contains literature essays, quiz questions, the gita is the conversation between krishna and arjuna leading up to the battle. I've heard a couple people say that he won but they didn't show me where it was written and neither one of them was a goswami or an initiated devotee. Whether from an ancient yogi or a modern-day practitioner's perspective, the bhagavad gita speaks to anyone who ever feels as though their mind is a battlefield.
The bhagavad-gita begins with the preparation of battle between the two opposing sides: on the left stands the collected armies of the one hundred sons of. The bhagavad gita is a sanskrit text from the bhishma parva of the great indian epic, mahabharata the content of the text is a conversation between krishna and. The bhagavad gita is written in story form about a battle that took place in 317 bce and is still taking place today in modern times it is about who we really are.
Brothers-in-law, cousins, teachers (bhishma, drona and others) standing arrayed in battle and said to lord krishna bhagavad gita for busy people the. Bhagavadgita: the bhagavadgita, or gita, is an episode of the sanskrit epic poem mahabharata, composed as a dialogue between arjuna and krishna, avatar of vishnu. Om dhritarashtra: tell me, o sanjaya, what the people of my own party and those of pandu, who are assembled at kurukshetra resolved upon war, have been doing.
Lord krishna was the king of dwarka, a city in india, about 5,000 years ago he was the cousin of the pandavs and the kauravs who fought in the battle of mahabharata. The word gita means song and the word bhagavad means the mahabharata confirms that lord krishna spoke the bhagavad-gita to arjuna at the battle of kuruksetra in. How did indian tradition transform the bhagavad gita into a bible for pacifism, when it began life as an epic argument persuading a warrior to engage in a battle.


Krakatoa Volcano Information
Krakatau / Krakatoa Volcano Information
The renowned Krakatau volcano lies in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra. Caldera collapse, perhaps in 416 AD, destroyed the ancestral Krakatau edifice, forming a 7-kilometer-wide caldera. Remnants of this volcano formed Verlaten and Lang Islands; subsequently Rakata, Danan and Perbuwatan volcanoes were formed, coalescing to create the pre-1883 Krakatau Island.
Caldera collapse during the catastrophic 1883 eruption destroyed Danan and Perbuwatan volcanoes, and left only a remnant of Rakata volcano.
The post-collapse cone of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau), constructed within the 1883 caldera at a point between the former cones of Danan and Perbuwatan, has been the site of frequent eruptions since 1927.
The Krakatau edifice grew as one or more stratovolcanoes of dominantly hypersthene-augite andesite composition. The geology of Krakatau has been described by Effendi and others (1985, 1986), who identified five main evolutionary periods. Period 1 was an early growth phase that included accumulation of lavas and pyroclastics. Period 2 was marked by caldera formation, accompanied by pyroclastic flows and partly welded tuffs (ignimbrites). The cones of Rakata, Danan, and Perbuwatan grew during the third period and were largely destroyed during the fourth period, which included the paroxysmal eruption of August 1883. Another growth phase (period 5) began by December 1927, when Anak Krakatau was first noticed in submarine eruption. …
Several years of regional seismicity culminated in the famous caldera-forming eruption of August 1883 (Verbeek, 1886; Judd, 1888). Earthquakes were felt in west Java and eastern Sumatra 5-6 years before the 1883 eruption, and in northern Australia in the 3 years before the eruption. On 1 September 1880, a strong earthquake damaged the First Point lighthouse on the west end of Java (70 kilometers south-southwest of Krakatau). more earthquakes were felt at First Point on 9-10 May 1883 and at Katimbang (40 kilometers north-northeast) during 15-20 May 1883. None of the above-mentioned earthquakes is known to have been of volcanic origin and centered beneath Krakatau; more likely, they reflect a buildup and release of tectonic stress in the sunda Strait area.
A mild ash and steam eruption began from Perbuwatan on 20 May 1883, and similar eruptions continued for 3 months. At times several vents were in eruption simultaneously. On 11 August, vigorous ash-laden gas columns rose from the main crater of Perbuwatan, the former vent of Danan, and from the foot of Danan; in addition, “no fewer than eleven other foci of eruption could be observed on the visible portions of the island, from which smaller steam-columns issued and ejections of ash took place” (Judd, 1888, p.13). At least some of the early ash was basaltic, suggesting that intrusion of basaltic melt into the silicic reservoir may have played a role in initiating these eruptions (Francis and Self, 1983). The small eruptions intensified on 24 August 1883 and culminated in the famous, climactic explosion of 27 August 1883 (Verbeek, 1886; Judd, 1888; Simkin and Fiske, 1983).
Earthquakes and rumbling, not demonstrably from Krakatau, were noted in 1898 (Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium te Batavia, 1899). On 13 August 1913, a strong tectonic earthquake occurred in the Bantam-Krakatau region, damaging the First Point lighthouse. Fishermen where were on the islands of Krakatau reported that part of the caldera wall collapsed. They also reported that at 1000 hours a “column of fire” rose out of the crater, whereupon they heard a cannonlike sound and fled (Visser, 1920). There are no independent reports of eruptions of Krakatau in 1913, and we suspect that only a landslide occurred.
Eruptions from December 1927 to 1981, mostly of basaltic andesite, built the Anak Krakatau (“child of Krakatau”) cone in the center of the 1883 caldera …
The August 1883 eruption of Krakatau is often cited as a classic example of caldera formation by collapse following eruption of large volumes of pumice (Williams, 1941; Williams and McBirney, 1979; Self and Rampino, 1981, 1982; Francis and Self, 1983). However, other workers have suggested alternate mechanisms for formation of the Krakatau Caldera. Yokoyama (1981, 1982) concluded that the caldera formed by explosive destruction and reaming of the preeruption edifice, and Camus and Vincent (1983) and Francis (1985) favored an origin by large-scale collapse of the northern part of Krakatau Island (similar to the volcanic landslide at Mount St. Helens on 18 May 1980). Regrettable, much of the evidence is sumbmarine and inaccessible, but we are impressed by the similarity of Krakatau and other, better-exposed calderas (for example, Crater Lake) that are thought to have formed by simple collapse following voluminous pumice eruptions. The volume of magma erupted in the plinian eruption (9 cubic kilometers) is adequate to explain the caldera without invoking a landslide origin.
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a scale that describes the size of an explosive volcanic eruption. VEI is analogous to the Richter magnitude scale for earthquakes. In the 0 to 8 scale of VEI, each interval represents an increase of a factor of ten. An eruption of VEI 4 is 10 times larger than a 3 and one hundred times larger than a 2. Key characteristics that define VEI include:
Volume of ash produced
Height of eruption cloud above the vent
Duration of eruption
Krakatau, Indonesia, 1883
VEI 6 (Very Large)
Bulk Volume of Erupted Products: 4 cubic miles
Ashfall thicknesses vary greatly within a single VEI category due to differences in eruption and wind conditions. Typically a VEI 6 will produce:
Eruption column height above vent: greater than 80,000 feet
Approximate ash thickness at 10 miles: 10 feet
Approximate ash thickness at 100 miles: 1 foot
Approximate ash thickness at 300 miles: 1 inch
Article above taken from Volcanology USGS Gov
Krakatau tour or krakatoa Volcano tours the journey will start from carita beach crossing sunda strait by speed boat double engine to the volcanic island of Krakatoa-Cracatoa-krakatau which about 45 miles a way and the journey will Takes about 1,5 hours on the way sail to Krakatau volcano possibility to see group of flying fish, Tuna, dolphin come to the surface and jump, for while the view of Sumatra and java island can be see as well, the fishing house nearby Carita beach and fisherman with traditional wooden boat make completely scene of Sunda strait, the Sunda strait is busy shipping land. the first destination is anak krakatau (child of Krakatau), sail around the anak Krakatau to see the kind of larva and the smoke can be seen come out from the VAN and from the sloven of Krakatau the new crater now is on the side toward to the west since November 2007, the boat will stop for view minutes to take time and give chance to get picture of smoking steam crater and the continuing journey to the land of Anak Krakatau volcano, landing at the Krakatau beach mostly clear water with soft and hot black sand, after take rest for a few minute continuing tracking, hiking and climb up to the top of Anak Krakatau, the normal tours to Krakatau climb up only to the first level (the first elevation) at about 180m from sea level, also possible to climb up to the second level (highest elevation) at about 300 m from sea level need authority permit. the journey will takes about 30-40 minutes to climbing first level of anak Krakatau and will takes about 90 minutes climbing Krakatau – Cracatoa Volcano to the highest elevation. the fabulous view from the elevation one of your proudly if you can reach the first elevation its also be our proudly to take you to the elevation of Krakatau volcano. from here we can see the view of outer Island of Krakatau and one of the best place to take a picture of Krakatau and other island around Krakatau (Sertung Island, Rakata Island, and panjang island) Sumatra and Java can be seen when the weather are clear. the hot volcanic sand and smoke steam come out from rock hole “Van” make the completely of your trip to krakatau volcano tours or Krakatoa tour, the next destination we will visit Rakata island (The Mother of krakatau) for skin dive / snorkeling at the Legon Cabe “chili bay” coral reef here we will try to see kind of colorful coral fishes after skin dive we will landing on the beach for lunch, swimming and sun bathing the beach at Rakata island mostly clear glassy and blue water here is last destination the tour completely and sail back to Carita beach end of tour. to make your experiences and adventure tours more impressing about Krakatau we suggest you to visit Anyer light house here you will see the ruin of old light house which destroyed by Tsunami of Krakatau and the new light house was built in 1885 2 year after Krakatau explosion.
The Krakatoa Volcano – Krakatau Volcano Indonesia this group of island consists of three islands and one volcano. These islands and volcano were formerly a single giant ancient Krakatoa – Krakatau volcano. It believed that the ancient volcano erupted at around 600 AD and tore apart in to 3 islands which now surrounded the current active volcano. Due to the volcanic activities, once again the southern part of he remain grew up and formed a new volcano, followed by the growth of other two volcano to its north and joined up together formed a 9 km of length and 3 km of width of fire island.
August 27, 1883 was recorded as the biggest eruption the volcano ever made. Killed more than 36.000 peoples, devastated the surrounding area with it’s 30 -40 m high of tidal wave. The two volcanoes on the north plus half cone of the southern volcano were gone. The baby volcano it self just grew around 30 years the big bang. The smoking cone you now see is a grandchild of Krakatau, Anak Krakatau (the Baby of Krakatau), which first appeared in 1929 and has been growing yearly
Ample time to climb on moon like landscape Actual height of old Krakatoa – Krakatau 813 M. Actual height of anak ( child ) of Krakatau 194 M in 1987. and 300 m in 2006 which in 1927 emerged from the bottom of the sea. Trip depend on the demand and availability 10 hours or 6 hours on day trip. Also possible stay over night Camping at Krakatau Island. Boat available from Carita.1 up to 1,5 hours by speed boat 3 up to 4 hours by Slow wooden boat.
The Krakatoa – Krakatau Volcano Indonesia, The Big bang of KRAKATAU 1883 On Monday morning August 27th 1883 at 10.05. The Sound of Krakatoa – Krakatau explosion in 1883. It’s heard in Srilangka, India, Karachi, Australia ( Perth ), Madagascar Island, and reach 3000 miles a way to the Indian Ocean
Krakatau 1883 – Krakatoa 1883 Tossed 18-20 cubic kilometer Material of earth 30 Km high in to the atmosphere, the heavy material Back to the earth but the soft material and particles gas and ash rise up to the atmosphere and covering the atmosphere caused radiation of the sun back to the space. The hot wave of Volcanic gas and ash was circling and traveling around the globe 7 times for 4 days, Caused Blood Red color , Orange and Fantastic colored sun set, Blue Moon can be seen for 4 – 5 years (1883 – 1888).- Caused Disturbances of radio communication all round the globe for 3 day. The Krakatau Volcano – krakatoa volcano explosion has power more than 100.000 ton Atomic boom.
Kraktau Tsunami 1883
The Giant Tsunami of Krakatoa – Krakatu Volcano about 30 – 40 Meter High and the speed reach about 180-200 km/h. It was destroyer more than 270 villages around Java and Sumatra and more than 36.000 people die by tsunami and most the kids was killed by the Volcanic Gas. The Krakatau – Krakatoa tsunami Lifted the Steamer Boat BEROUW up the Kaoeripan River valley at Lampung bay depositing the ship over 3 miles inland and killing all 28 crew steamer ship, On Sunday August 27th 1883 at 10.05 am the sky was changed suddenly dark and the lighting blasted, rained by black sand, ash and dust. in the distance could be seen the thousands of flame rock flied tossed to the atmosphere from Krakatoa -Krakatau volcano, the local peoples said that was Dooms day “ KIAMAT” .the big stone as big as car was land on Carita beach, and many prisoners was killed by blasted lighting at Tanjung Layar Light house (Ujung kulon) and the light house was destroy as well. it was reported later and The Anyar Light house to navigated Shipping land at Sunda Strait was destroyed too but the light house keeper was secure and report on light house keeper log book.
The Effect of Krakatoa – Krakatau volcano hot wave, dust and ash into the Atmosphere
– Caused Blood red color, orange and fantastic colored sunset, blue moon can be seen for 4-5 years (1883-1885).
– Caused Disturbances of radio communication all around the globe for 3 day.
– The fabulous sunset can be seen in Australia, Paris, England, japan, Brazil and USA.
– Japan, Yoko hama August 29th 1883, “Blood Red with jet like smoke passing across it’s face lasted 2 day
– In sarry has light pink cirras stripes at sunset September 26th 1883.
– Buenos Ayres february 24th 1884, the glow was begin they lasted 1,5 hours the sun and the moon occasionally colored.
– Somerset, Mass U.S (S.S.R) beautiful colored sunset at last of September 1883.
– Rio de janeiro Last of September 1883 very strong glows as never before seen.
– Chelsea, west London, the sky seriously changing at the sunset between September 1883 – 1886.
Reborn of Anak krakatau (Child of Krakatoa Volcano)
Forty years after the main explosion, in the beginning of 1927, volcanic activity was seen in the sea covering the old caldera, between the sites of the two northern most former volcanoes of Krakatau, where the greatest activity had occurred at the time of the cataclysm. A series of eruptions 185 m below the surface of the sea resulted in the emergence of tree new island, one after the other. They were all soon destroyed by surf. A fourth emerged from the sea on August 12th 1930. It remained above water, and was aptly named Anak Krakatau ( Child of Krakatau ). its grew by the accumulation of ash, and suffered a devastating eruption in 1952, and another very destructive one in 1972. It is now 300 m high and 2 km in diameter, and is still active. The northeast coast, north forel and and east fore land are now vegetated; the succession of vegetation is still at an early stage, over 200 species of higher plants Casuarina Equisetifolia (Cemara ) being the dominant trees and 36 kinds species of birds was recorded at 1980.
The three outer islands of the present Krakatau volcano group (Rakata, Sertung and Panjang) are though to be the remnants of one previous huge volcanic island called “Ancient Krakatau” . it was 11.000 m in diameter and 2000 m high, according to records in the Javanes BOOK OF KING it exploded and collapsed, perhaps in prehistoric times but possibly as recently as 416 AD.
Type and Typical of Krakatau (Krakatoa) volcano Sunda Strait Indonsia
Name : Krakatoa Volcano – Krakatau Volcano
Location : Sunda Strait, between Java and Sumatra, Indonesia
Summit elevation : 813 M (2.667 ft), Anak Krakatau 300 M
Volcano type : Caldera
Last eruption of Krakatau : 1530, 1680, 1684, 1883 (Plinian eruption), 1927-30 (reborn of anak Krakatau), 1931-32, 1932-34, 1943, 1944, 1945, 1946, 1946-47, 1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1958-59, 1959-63, 1965, 1969, 1972-73, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1988, 1992-93, 1994-95, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001, Oct 2007 – March 2008, 24th March 2009 till October 2009, Now October 2010… !,
Krakatau typical eruption : Explosive, Contruction of chinder cone island (Anak Krakatau) inside caldera formed by the Krakatau 1883 eruption. frequently strombolian activities.
Krakatoa tour – Krakatau tour the new up date information about Krakatau volcano:
The Krakatoa Volcano – krakatau volcano are active with explosion and tossed the hard material
since 24th March 2009 till to October 2009, Now.. October 2010 Krakatau volcano Active… its would be nice to see the night explosion in the night with Krakatoa-Krakatau Volcano tour stay over night trip.
Krakatau Volcano Island – Krakatoa Volcano Island (Anak Gunung Krakatau) Administration:
In 1976 North Gunung Honje is Part of Ujung Kulon by Decision Letter of Ministrer of Agriculture No.39/kpts Um/1979, covering area of 9,498 ha, by Decision Letter of Ministri of Forestry No.96/kpts/II/1984,the area consisting of: Ujung Kulon Peninsula, Gunung Honje, Peucang and Panaitan Island, Krakarau Volcano Island – Krakatoa Volcano (Anak Gunung Krakatau) and Carita Receration Park.
In 1990 based on Decision Latter of Director General Forest Protection and Nature Conservation o.44/kpts/DJ/1990 on 8 May 1990, Ujung Kulon National Park relasing Krakatau Volcano Island to Management of Nature Conversation II Tanjung Karang, and Carita Recreation Park to Perum Perhutani Unit III West Java.
In 1992 Ujung Kulon National Park and Krakatau Volcano-Krakatoa Volcano Island Nature Reserve declared as World Heritage Site By United Nation Education, Social and Culture Organization (UNESCO) With the decree No.SC/Eco/5867.2.409, on 1992.
|West Java Tour Destinations|
□ Bogor Botanical Garden
□ Kampung Naga
□ Gunung Gede
|□ Pangrangau Natioinal Park
□ Mount Halimun
□ Mount Tangkuban Perahu
|□ Museum Asia Afrika
□ Taman Safari
□ Mount Krakatau
□ Ujung Kulun
□ Badui Village
□ Alun Alun
□ Traditonal Market
West Java Activities and Excurtions
|□ Surfing at Cimaja Pelabuhan Ratu
|□ Becak Riding
□ Village sightseeing
Mt. Bromo East Java


All students of City Vision University must follow our Standards of Academic Integrity, which include avoiding all forms of plagiarism. Plagiarism has serious consequences, up to and including dismissal from the course after the second offense.
Plagiarism includes more than simply copying text from a website, book, encyclopedia or other source and not referencing the place from which you copied it. Plagiarism is not just intentional deception or fraud – there are other ways that you can use sources improperly when writing for college.
Below is a list of some of the most common forms of plagiarism, from What is Plagiarism?
turning in someone else’s work as your own
copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit
copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work, whether you give credit or not
Take note particularly of the last type of plagiarism: you can be considered to have committed plagiarism if you take most of the ideas for your writing from a single source, even if you give credit to the source.
The majority of the words in your assignments, including forum posts, must be your own for you to receive credit for the assignment. If you take most of the words for a forum post from a single web page or other source, that will be considered plagiarism, even if you provide a link to the website or another reference.
Colleges like City Vision University care about plagiarism for several reasons:
Copying work from other people without giving credit is not tolerated in the business environment any more than it is in college. The specifics of how to give credit may be different but the principle is the same. In this way, we hope to prepare you for your future career.
Copying from other sources and pages that you find on Google doesn’t demonstrate that you’ve learned the material in your courses. Having to explain an idea or concept in your own words shows that you actually understand it, and will help you remember it after the course is over.
Giving credit to others for their work when you use it in your college writing is the standard practice that makes academic work possible. You are building on others’ research, thoughts and ideas in what you say and others in turn may build on what you say. This can only continue if people know where the ideas originally come from.
Finally, the more obvious forms of plagiarism (such as copying others’ writing and presenting it as your own) are simply a question of honesty: we are a Christian institution, and we value students’ being honest about what is their own work.
Since plagiarism is such a significant issue, how do you avoid plagiarism? Fortunately, most forms of plagiarism can be avoided by letting people know where you are getting your words and ideas from – this done through citations.
City Vision uses the APA format for citations in Addiction Counseling & Ministry courses. Nonprofit Management & Business courses use citations similar to what might be used for a business plan or grant application. For more on how to do each kind of citations, see our Writing Requirements page.
Note that it is not sufficient to put in citations at the end of your paper, but not use any in-text citations. You have to put in the in-text citations so that people reading your paper know which specific source a quotation comes from.
In Discussion posts, you can use web links instead of citations to reference your sources. Just put the URL (the part in the browser bar that usually starts with “http” or “www”) in parentheses.
See here for a list of tools that can make it easier for you to create citations, like CitationMachine and Zotero.
The following 2 articles will help you know when to cite a source:
Evidence – look specifically at the “How Can I Incorporate Evidence in My Paper?” section
The entire second article is very helpful, but the most important part of it is the following:
In order to decide if the [information] you want to use in your paper constitutes “common knowledge” [and doesn’t need to be cited] you may find it helpful to ask yourself the following questions:
Did I know this information before I took this course?
Did this information/idea come from my own brain?
If you answer “no” to either or both of these questions, then the information is not “common knowledge” to you. In these cases, you need to cite your source(s) and indicate where you first learned this bit of what may be “common knowledge” in the field.
Note that the exact words of an author always need to be cited. However, in many circumstances, you should not use an author’s exact words, but instead should take their ideas and rewrite them into your own words.
This is called a paraphrase if it is roughly the same length as the original, and a summary if you shorten it by just covering the key ideas from what they said. Quotations should mainly be used when you are discussing the words themselves. For more information on this, see When to Quote, Paraphrase or Summarize a Source.


Your 10th Grade Year
During your sophomore year in high school you should continue to follow the recommended core curriculum for Missouri high school students, and take courses such as:
- English composition
- American history
- Foreign language
It is also a good idea to become involved in school- or community-based extracurricular activities that interest you and/or enable you to better explore your career interests. Extracurricular activities can also help you begin to build a resume of experience, which may help you later when you begin to apply to postsecondary schools.
Other things you can do during your sophomore year in high school include:
- Begin looking through college catalogs and research financial aid information.
- Meet with your career/guidance counselor to discuss college options and their requirements.
- Develop a high school curriculum plan that includes college prep courses and any potential Advanced Placement credit opportunities.
- Take the ACT test.
- Take the Preliminary Scholastic Assessment Test/National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test (PSAT/NMSQT). If you have difficulty paying the registration fee, see your career/guidance counselor about a possible fee waiver.
- Visit colleges and talk to students. Summer vacation is a great time to visit college campuses.
- Get a summer job or internship to save money for college.


A flower shop needed to make bouquets of roses. It originally planned to make 128 bouquets per day for 9 days to finish the task. It actually worked 1.5 times as fast as it had intended. How many days did it take the shop to make all of the bouquets?
The total number of bouquets the shop needed to make is constant, so divide the number of days intended by the new rate to figure out how many days it actually took to make the bouquets.
9 ÷ 1.5 = 6 days


Within the over six decades of independence, India has dedicated itself to the duty of creating its science and know-how. Programs – the majors provided in CST are in high demand fields, with human biology being one of many largest majors on campus and fast growth being experience in engineering expertise (electrical, mechanical and environmental). At the [email protected], 27 satellites including eleven that facilitate the communication network to the nation are operational, establishing India’s progress in the house know-how domain.
The dominant position of the U.S. in science is predicated on its openness to the brightest talent of all nationalities, and this high place keeps attracting one of the best skills from world wide, who contribute to U.S. science, expertise and financial success.
As soon as we do mankind just would possibly be capable to like that saying “boldly go where no man has gone earlier than.” It’s to this finish that the Science and Know-how directive give attention to bringing collectively the remainder of the international group and different industrialized nations in creating an International Space Exploratory Federation using all of the accessible aerospace contractors and inspiring more international locations to offer resources so that extra alternatives in growing newer technologies will allow mankind to have the supply to meet our final future.
Equally, within the training sector too, the affect of the developments in science and know-how is very commendable. The college’s Heart for Educational Research in Identify Science is the primary and solely National Intelligence Science and Technology CASIS within the United States.Tags: aerospace, knowhow, science
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If ‘Stationery’ was a round on Family Fortunes, pencils would get maximum points in the audience survey. Forget your boss, pencils sit at the top of the office hierarchy. Without them we are nothing.
Originally pencils weren’t made of wood. The first pencil was a soft metal rod, often lead, used by the Romans to leave a mark on papyrus. Graphite came into being when it was discovered in the Lake District in the 16th century. It was softer, cheaper and didn’t turn you mad if you chewed the end of it. The name ‘graphite’ stems from the Greek word ‘graphein’ meaning 'to write'.
The increased softness required a wrap, which came in the form of a two part wooden barrel. Originally they were left bare, to showcase the quality wood, but as pencils became more mass-produced, the wood was painted over and branded too. Yellow, still commonly used to paint pencils, was used because it represented ‘respect’ in China – where much of the graphite was coming from.
Nowadays we chew/draw through 14 billion pencils a year. That’s a lot of trees. Some people use them as a medium to work with, and here are our favourites, alongside some other useful links.
Nimble fingered New Zealand artist Peter Trevelyan makes incredible sculptures, large and small, using pencil leads of varying thicknesses. Some abide to a strict geometric pattern whereas others flow more freely. All of them are indicative of love and dedication. We can barely get one in a pencil without it snapping.


Destination List > Colonial National Historical Park
Colonial National Historical Park
Photo by Ken Lund
Colonial National Historical Park protects and interprets several sites relating to the Colony of Virginia and the history of the United States, ranging from the site of the first landing of the English settlers who would settle at Jamestown, to the battlefields of Yorktown where the British Army was finally defeated in the American Revolutionary War.
Siege of Yorktown
The siege of Yorktown, also known as the Battle of Yorktown, the surrender at Yorktown, or the German battle (from the presence of Germans in all three armies), began on September 28, 1781, and ended on October 19, 1781 with a decisive victory over the British Army.
The combined forces of the American Continental Army troops led by General George Washington and Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, and French Army troops led by Comte de Rochambeau defeared the British Army troops commanded by British Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis.
The siege proved to be the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War in the North American region, as the surrender by Cornwallis, and the capture of both him and his army, prompted the British government to negotiate an end to the conflict.
In 1780, about 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to help their American allies fight the British troops who controlled New York City.
Following the arrival of dispatches from France that included the possibility of support from the French West Indies fleet of the Comte de Grasse, disagreements arose between Washington and Rochambeau on whether to ask de Grasse for assistance in besieging New York or in military operations against a British army in Virginia. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his superior officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep-water port, which he began to do in Yorktown. Cornwallis' movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette.
The French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. Both armies began moving south toward Virginia, engaging in tactics of deception to lead the British to believe a siege of New York was planned.
French officer Comte de Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and creating a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver pesos collected from the citizens of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege and payroll for the Continental Army.
In the beginning of September, de Grasse defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake. As a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any reinforcement or escape by sea for Cornwallis. He also provided the heavy siege guns required by the allied land forces. By late September, Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army and naval forces completely surrounded Cornwallis.
After initial preparations, the Americans and French armies began the attack. With the British defense weakened, on October 14, 1781, Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses. With these defenses taken, Franco-American bombardment became more intense.
Cornwallis asked for surrender terms on October 17. After two days of negotiation, the surrender ceremony occurred on October 19; Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, negotiations between the United States and Great Britain began, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1783.