Trees protected by Tree Preservation Orders or covered by Conservation Areas or planning conditions need permission from the Council before you can exercise Common Law rights. Read more about protected trees.
Trees not protected by any restrictions can be pruned in line with Common Law rights - find out more below.
Tree branches from neighbouring property or land
Common Law rights permit property owners to remove branches that cross over onto their property from a neighbouring property or piece of land, without the permission of the tree owner. Branches or roots that ‘trespass’ across legal boundaries can be lawfully removed back to the boundary only (not beyond the boundary).
Property owners or occupiers are not permitted to cross over the boundary to remove branches or access/climb into the tree without the tree owner’s permission. Crossing over the boundary to remove branches or gain access to a tree without the owner’s permission, could be interpreted as trespass. We always recommend that where possible the two parties involved communicate with each other to prevent unnecessary confrontation or misunderstandings before any pruning works.
All branches and arisings (cut wood) that cross over a boundary line are still the property of the tree owner and must be offered back to them. The tree owner is not obliged to accept the branches or arisings from the person who has removed them. If the tree owner does not accept them then they must be disposed of in a responsible way (not throwing them back over the fence).
Tree roots from neighbouring property or land
Roots are also covered under Common Law rights and can be legally removed back to the boundary. However, you should consider this carefully because excessive pruning of branches or roots could lead to the decline, death or destabilisation of a tree. If a neighbour causes a tree to fail through excessive pruning of roots or branches, they may be liable for damages and costs.
Communicating with neighbours
Tree owners should be given the opportunity to prevent or abate (reduce or remove) a nuisance, eg branches touching a roof or damaging a neighbour’s building. This could be done by informing the tree owner of the issue, verbally or in writing.
We recommend that any claims regarding subsidence damage or damage to drainage should be dealt with through the owner’s or occupier’s insurance provider. This helps to produce a clear record of events, and usually involves specialists who carry out thorough investigations before deciding what action to take.
If you are concerned about the safety of a neighbour’s tree, you need to inform the owner of your concerns in writing.
A tree owner has a duty of care under the Owners and Occupiers Act to prevent harm coming to property or people from trees in their ownership and/or management. Tree owners are responsible for having their trees inspected and maintained to an acceptable level of risk to prevent foreseeable harm or damage occurring.
Arboricultural consultants are qualified professionals who can undertake detailed tree safety inspections.
Damage caused by neighbouring trees
Although trees provide many benefits, they can sometimes cause damage to property either directly through the roots and branches, or indirectly through altering soil moisture.
We always encourage reporting the damage to the tree owner first to provide them with the chance to resolve the issue and informing your insurers who will often pursue it on your behalf.
If a tree that is suspected of causing damage is on the roadside, roadside verge, social housing land or a public site, please report as follows:


6287.0 - Labour Force Characteristics of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, Estimates from the Labour Force Survey, 2011 Quality Declaration
Latest ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 26/07/2012
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In 2011, there were an estimated 173,800 Indigenous people aged 15 years and over who were classified as employed. This represented 46% of the Indigenous population aged 15 years and over.
The employment to population ratio for Indigenous males increased 2 points to 52% in 2011, The employment to population ratio for Indigenous females fell to 41%.
In Major Cities, the employment to population ratio for the Indigenous population remained relatively steady at 52% (62,600 people), in Regional areas it was 45% (72,500 people) and it was 42% (38,700 people) in Remote areas.
The employment to population ratio of Indigenous males living in Major cities increased 3 points to 58%, in Regional areas it increased 5 points from 2010 to 50% in 2011 and in Remote areas it decreased 5 points to 46%.
For Indigenous females living in Major cities the employment to population ratio decreased from 49% in 2010 to 45% in 2011, in Regional areas it increased 3 points to 40% and in Remote areas it decreased 2 points to 38%, although this movement was not statistically significant (less than the movement standard error of 5 points).
EMPLOYMENT TO POPULATION RATIO, Indigenous persons aged 15 years and over – 2005 to 2011
For more detailed estimates of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander employment, refer to Tables 1 to 5 (available in Downloads).


If a person asks disturbing questions about an individual's private life including marital status, sexual turn-ons and orientation, probity or physical appearance (https://www.paperdue.com/topic/physical-appearance-essays), it is also a major feature of the sexual harassment behavior. Moreover, if sexually open or nasty material is exhibited in a public place or placed in the work area of an individual, it crystal-clearly portrays the sexually annoying behavior.
The research here would try to recognize any fine lines between bigotry and sexism and highlights the consequences that follows a practicing sexist bigot. Through analyzing various crimes and deviances, we will try to figure the connection between prejudice and discrimination. What is Bigotry and Sexism? Bigotry is intolerance towards those who hold different opinions from oneself. (Google, 2016).It is also stated that the word "bigot" refers to a prejudiced, closed-minded person who is intolerant or hateful toward people of a different group, especially racial or religious.
Most victims find the experience embarrassing. These sentiments were echoed in J Mampru V PUTCO where it held that: “Sexual harassment may take many forms, it may be trivial, it may be verbal but gross, or it may be physical, again varying from trivial or gross. It may be a single act or the act may be repeated. The actions as such disclose a total disregard for the feelings and the integrity of the recipient” ii) Do you want a lover tonight?” Do these words constitute sexual harassment? And if it does, is it
Discrimination is defined as a behavioral manifestation of negative attitude, judgment or unfair treatment towards members of one group ( Williams, Spencer, Jackson, 1999). Discrimination can also be defined as any behavior, judgment or action that creates and encourages relations of oppression or conditions that marginalize or exclude the lives of those who are discriminated (
The American Heritage College Dictionary defined Racism as the belief that race determines the human character and the human ability. To me, racism is done or committed when one believes that one race is superior to other races. It brings division to races because of the issues and conflicts on who is to be the one who is superior and who is the one to be inferior. Racism in the form of discrimination is still grows and prevails in the society today. According to Avila (2014), the separation of people through a social division into some aspects for the purpose of discrimination but are not necessarily related to races is considered as Racial Discrimination.
Besides sexual harassments have extremely antagonistic effects on individual, social and mental existence of the victims. Because of sexual harassment, victim's social life gets to be exasperates. Sexual harassment likewise impactsly affects working capacities of the victims. All in all sexual harassment influences an individual's employment, meddles and aggravates the performance. Thus, hostile and unfriendly environment become an integral factor.
Racism, the act of “…prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race…”, is a major problem today. It gives people fear, doubt, shame, and sometimes guilt. In addition, racism gives people an awful perspective of life and sometimes, if one is looking up to a racist, the racist’s point of view begins to alter the person’s judgement. Racism could also lead to great conflict arising from those who heavily despise that race and maybe even mass killings, which foreshows that racism needs to be stopped and ended completely. The first step we should take towards demolishing racism is to allow children, starting at the age of 7, to learn more about the impact of racism, specifically by having to watch a program that he/she will watch 24/7 all about anti-racism.
Bullying is a problem in our society because of the negative affects it has on others. There are many divergent types of bullying. For example, there is physical bullying, cyber bullying, and verbal bullying. Physical bullying is any bullying that injures or detriment 's possessions. Some examples of physical bullying is stealing, shoving, hitting, fighting, and destroying property.
Gender discrimination happens every time sexes are handled unequally. Discrimination is not only based on gender differences but on how people negotiated differently because of their sex. An online source entitled "The Causes, Effects & Remedies for Gender Discrimination (2018)" tells us that gender discrimination is an illegal act and different laws are provided to lessen discriminatory practices. To continue, gender discrimination is the unequal treatment of an individual because of gender. Gender discrimination strikes men and women.
According to Stone (2013), discrimination is when another person is differentiate from another groups based on their sex, race, disability, marital and parental status. In the anti-discrimination legislation, it is known as making a group in advantaged and the other are in disadvantaged. Employment discrimination happens when employees and job applicants were discriminated because of their weaknesses, their family medical history, women that are pregnant, or the connection with a certain individual. (Doyle 2017). Discrimination has a lot of type such as discrimination by the society, discrimination that are indirect, harassment, and victimisation.


A short look back at a travelogue from the year 1907 by Wilhelm Rickmer-Rickmers
When Ella Maillart visited Central Asia, all activities in the Central Asian Soviet Republics were dominated by the fulfilment of the first five-year plan. During this time, Maillart still writes of the region as Turkestan, which had been called Russian Turkestan before the Bolsheviks‘ conquest. The German explorer Rickmer-Rickmers had described the region as Duab with colonial gestures in 1907 during his lecture to the Royal Asian Society.
The word means ‚two rivers’, and was chosen by me on the analogy of Punjab, or ‘five streams’. Its outline is easily remembered, for the two mighty rivers, the Oxus, or Amu, and the Yaxartes, or Syr, form the greater part. To complete this boundary, we have only to draw a straight line connecting the estuaries in the sea of Aral, and another, along the watershed from the sources of the Oxus to where the Naryn, or Upper Syr Darya, comes out of the Ferghana Mountains.Rickmer-Rickers, Impressions of the Duab (1907)
Rickmer-Rickmers called the region the ‚California of Russia‘ in 1907 because of the enormous agricultural potential of irrigated farming. He found it positive that the land was completely controlled by the strict Russian rule and was increasingly developed by railways, roads and canals. Industrialisation and modern urban development were, in Rickmer-Rickmer’s view, only a matter of time. He was accompanied by his wife, the Austrian mountain climber and photographer Cenzi von Ficker and his translator Makandarov. However, he also foresaw a future in which the rivers Amu Darya and Syr Darya would no longer reach the Aral Sea.
After the commercial boom will come industry and mining. But, above all this, there looms large the work of the country – the result of a century – irrigation. The waters of the Oxus and Yaxartes still flow into Lake Aral. The great task of the future will provide work until the last drops of these rivers have been diverted to agriculture. Realize this: not until Lake Aral is dry, we need to expect an end to the development of the country between the rivers; until then we can expect a steady increase of produce and population. Realize this, and you then know what it means to speak of the future of the ‘Duab’.Rickmer-Rickers, Impressions of the Duab (1907)
The short passages in which Rickmer-Rickmers refers to cotton growing in Russian Turkestan show how closely speaking about space is linked to the practices carried out in it. Rickmer-Rickmers already speaks of an almost hysterical attitude of the English press, business and military towards the economic and military measures of tsarist Russia in Central Asia.
Both Rickmer-Rickmer’s 1907 lecture text and Ella Maillart’s much more detailed reportages, which are far less determined by a colonial view of Central Asia, are particularly interesting if one wants to analyse space as a product of social-communicative actions.
Ella Maillart’s visits to the cotton plantations and cotton villages of the Uzbek Soviet Republic in 1931
The unique approach of the Swiss traveller Ella Maillart is that she takes an almost ethnographic approach. And she has access to women. This means that many of her observations are often in contrast to everything that men from Europe have written about the social worlds of Central Asian cultures. The German reporter Egon Erwin Kisch had already interviewed women in 1929, but mainly female officials. Maillart, on the other hand, also talks to many women from the regular working-class and writes about them in her book.
Artificial staging of cotton in propagandistic anniversary publications of the Soviet era.
She visits the Durmen-Baumann-Kolchose, a cotton village about 15 kilometres from Tashkent. In 1930, this kolkhoz, covering an area of almost 200 hectares, had delivered 219 tonnes of cotton, which meant an allocation of twenty-five tonnes of bread.
Some of the irrigation canals she sees there are said to date back to pre-Christian times – Ella Maillart emphasises that only with the introduction of the Soviet system has there been greater justice, with the same working hours for everyone and equal pay. After all, tsarist Russia had also allowed local feudal lords who subordinated themselves to the Russian system to continue to exploit the inhabitants of the villages arbitrarily. However, Ella Maillart also gives negative opinions about the intensified transformation of the agricultural area under the Soviet system:
Do you know what they were doing here? They have given orders to plant cotton everywhere. Then the plough went over the rice fields. It destroyed all our little irrigation canals that had been built and maintained with so much effort for so long. Then, when it turned out that the grain from Siberia was not so easy to get, they said, ‚Grow a third of rice again. But that is no longer possible; all the old water channels are dead.Ella Maillart, Turkestan Solo (1934)
Maillart reports that in 1913 the Ministry of Agriculture of Tsarist Russia had already estimated the length of the canals at over 40,000 km. In a report, the responsible official had expressed admiration for this enormous cultural achievement of the people of the region. During the period of the first five-year plan, the canals were extended many times over. The sowing of cotton began in mid-April, the harvest in July, and lasted until November when frost forced the last capsules to open.
The transformation of the diverse socio-economic cultural space of Central Asia into an area of cotton monoculture required massive human labour and led to a fundamental transformation of established traditional cultural practices.
The women Ella Maillart talks to work on a piecework basis and pick an average of 24 kg a day. They contribute the largest part of the family income. In the beginning, her husbands had opposed the woman taking off her veil and working for the collective farm in the fields. After all, the money the women earned had probably changed almost everyone’s mind. The state takes care of the children while the women work.
There are the pickers; all of them, young and old, look over to me laughing as they see me photographing them. Their faded skirts are turned up and bursting with the snow-white cotton […]. They pick while walking with short, secure handles. […] At one corner of the field, each has her sack, which she fills little by little. I walk through a row of undeveloped parcels to the place where the babies, […] are looked after during working hours.Ella Maillart, Turkestan Solo (1934)
Propagandistic presentation of child care in the Soviet Uzbekistan of the 1930s
The living conditions in the villages described by Ella Maillart are more than poor during this time. Nevertheless, she likes the small houses. In winter, the rooms, which are built entirely of clay, are kept warm by pouring glowing coal into a rectangle embedded in the ground. Then a table is placed over it and covered with a blanket. In this way, the warmth is maintained while the family sits around the table.
South of the Aral Sea, in Khwarazm, cotton cultivation is also increasing steadily, although the area does not seem to have been safely under Soviet rule at the time that Ella Maillart visits it. Again and again, she reports of attacks by the so-called Basmatchi. This ambiguous description of the group goes back to the Basmatchi, who had initially fought as allies of the Bolsheviks for their cultural self-determination and national independence during the October Revolution of 1917. However, due to the incompatible political goals, an irreconcilable enmity quickly developed between the social-revolutionary Bolsheviks and the Basmatchi. During the civil war from 1919 to 1924, those loyal to the Bolsheviks then called their opponents Basmatchi. In their ranks fought rebels from all kinds of social contexts. They were farmers, descendants of members of the pre-colonial state apparatus or nomads. Until 1920, large parts of Central Asia escaped Soviet rule, although strong Red Army units were operating there. The centres of resistance were the areas around Ferghana, Khiva and Bukhara. Due to the massive Red Army deployment, the Basmatchi armed uprising turned into a gang war by the mid-1920s. The mobile, mostly mounted Basmatchi units were difficult to capture in the steppe and mountains with military and police operations.
Military and economic violence was also used to enforce the cotton economy by linking the right to buy everyday goods and food in the collective shops to participation in the cotton collectives. Ella Maillart’s interlocutor reports:
They have been promised all kinds of benefits. But in practice, they were forced to do so if they wanted to buy anything at all in the cooperatives. These cooperatives have the power of disposal over grain and all other products. The farmers are often told which parts of the land they can plant with barley, maize, rice or fruit trees.Ella Maillart, Turkestan Solo (1934)
To make socialism attractive, the shops of the cooperatives, for example in Turtkul, the then capital of Karakalpakstan, are better equipped with goods than the centres. What is mainly lacking, however, is grain – this is the negative consequence of the massive introduction of cotton growing, as Ella Maillart describes in many passages of her travel report.
The Aral Sea region in the 1930s
At the beginning of her trip through today’s Uzbekistan, the Swiss traveller visited the editorial office of the newspaper ‚Pravda Vostoka‘ in Tashkent, which was also the headquarters of the propagandistic support of the Soviet cotton offensive. Here, on the one hand, she realised how much the fate of all of Turkestan depends on the fulfilment of the five-year plan: Because the supply of grain and thus the supply of bread is tied to the fulfilment of the plan – a threat from Moscow that nobody in the country doubts will be fulfilled. On the other hand, by fulfilling the plan, Moscow is also addressing the entire Western world and its economic system:
I have today‘, said the editor-in-chief, ‚published the translation of an article in the ‚Frankfurter Zeitung‘ which says that the eyes of the whole world are turned to our Central Asia. We are ruining American and Egyptian trade by producing our own cotton. The example of our republics, freed from the imperialist yoke, will incite the Asian colonies now dominated by France and England to revolt…‘Ella Maillart, Turkestan Solo (1934)
To be continued…
Text: Stefan Applis (2020)
Photos: Taken from the propagandistic anniversary volumes on the development of the Central Asian Soviet Republics
Ella Maillart (1934). Turkestan Solo: A Journey Through Central Asia.
Photography of Ella Maillart via http://www.ellamaillart.ch/index_en.php


Preparing Your Dog for a Healthy Autumn
As summer turns into fall, there are several health and environmental changes to be aware of that may affect your pet's health and safety. With some basic info on what to look out for, you and your dog will enjoy this lovely season in perfect health.
-Seasonal Canine Illness: There is generally an increase in Seasonal Canine Illness (SCI) between the months of August and November. This mysterious illness can affect dog of any age, size, or breed. The most common signs of SCI are lethargy, vomiting, and diarrhea all within 72 hours of walking in woodland. This can be a fatal illness, so be alert and aware of your dog's symptoms, and consult your veterinarian if conditions worsen.
-Layering Up for the Colder Weather: A natural response for dogs in colder seasons is to grow thicker hair to keep themselves warm. But in the fall, their bodies may not respond so quickly to the changing air temperatures. Consider investing in rain-proof coats for evening walks in the rain and wind. Also, look for ways to keep your dog active inside the house. Although the cold weather is likely to keep them indoors more, your dog still needs activity to keep them healthy and happy.
-Keep Your Dog Visible as the Sun Sets Earlier: It's easy for you and your dog's long, summer strolls to quickly become short, hurried walks in the darkening fall evenings. Make sure that you keep bright colors on to be recognized by passing cars. Reflective vests and fluorescent colors work best.


De politieke kracht van het darwinisme
(chapter in Irena Tallon, Michael Briga e.a., Evolutie vandaag, VUB Press, Brussels, 2005)
The chapter I contributed to this book from the University of Brussels is on the political power of Darwinism. The point made is not that Darwin, in working out his theory of evolution, was himself politically inspired or motivated. There is little or no convincing proof that he was. Still, Darwin indeed underwent the influence of the political economy of his day as represented by Smith, Malthus and Ricardo. That influence, however, is a matter of heuristics.
What Darwin did, though, is to apply his biological theory in the social and political domain, in a similar way, more or less, as several of his followers did. Notably in his The Descent of Man (1871) Darwin transposed his theory of evolution to humanity’s recent cultural development. On the one hand he argued that ruling out or softening the effects of natural selection in modern society would result in modern man’s degeneration. On the other hand he made it clear that social and political ties and communities were the result of evolution by natural selection.
It is remarkable that Darwinism was used as a new political argument, or a new strategy to prove political legitimacy, by almost every political movement; the more or less fundamentalist Christian politicians were the only notable exception. It obviously was attractive for politicians and political thinkers to appropriate the scientific authority of Darwinism. The political application of Darwinism is not limited to liberalism. It can even be found in anarchism or conservative nationalism. Such application, then, was a rather eclectic affair: everyone picked out the elements that would suit them best. Besides, Darwinism’s political influence was indirect; as far as I know there were no political parties or governments who deliberately called themselves Darwinist. In this sense Darwinism never was an overt political ideology.
Nevertheless, the list of politicians and political thinkers who claimed political inspiration by Darwinism is a long one. The list contains prominent names like Walter Bagehot, Arthur Balfour, August Bebel, Eduard Bernstein, Joseph Chamberlain, Keir Hardie, Karl Kautsky, Peter Kropotkin, James Ramsay MacDonald, David Ritchie, Theodore Roosevelt, Herbert Spencer, Albert Schäffle, Wim Treub, Emile Vandervelde, Graham Wallas and Sidney Webb. In addition there are three influential thinkers, while partly building their arguments on Darwinism, were a strong influence in politics: the Wagnerian Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the sociologist of conflict Ludwig Gumplowicz, and the theorist of Lebensraum Friedrich Ratzel.
Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859) was published at a moment in history when the main political ideologies experienced considerable turmoil. Socialism was strongly rising, while it still had not completed its theoretical foundations. The theories of Marx and Engels were gaining influence. ‘New Liberalism’ was beginning to develop, while traditional liberalism was redefining its view on the role of the state, revising the former strictness of laissez faire. Political anarchism was being defined. The simple but fundamental question ‘revolution or evolution’ was, at the time, highly relevant. In this general atmosphere of ideological turmoil it became popular to claim for the scientific soundness of political ideas by referring to Darwin and Darwinism, or to sociological theories emulating Darwinism. The positivism of Comte and Spencer made it seem very convincing that social science was, and had to be, defined as social physiology, solidly based on biology.


WINTER IS COMING! THE FULL MOON IN NOVEMBER IS CALLED THE BEAVER MOON! Beavers are hard at work preparing for the coming winter. Native Americans set beaver traps at this time before the winter freeze so that they would have winter furs to keep them warm. This November full moon is also called the FROSTY MOON.
– This is one of 12 watercolor illustrations of Full Moons throughout the year.
O moon, why must you inspire my neighbor to chirp all night on a flute! — Koyo
The huge orange Harvest moon rose over the old majestic forest. An owl softly hooted at the top of a tall Cypress tree and then silently spread his wings and glided over the shimmering pampas grass, which swayed slightly in the light breeze. Frogs thrummed out their frog songs in chorus in the quiet night. Continue reading


Q & A: Minds of Their Own
Exploring the emotional and moral lives of animals
Humans have long tried to imagine what other species think and how they may feel, projecting our own perspectives and emotions onto the animal experience. The sight of a hawk spiraling effortlessly on an updraft or horses cantering side by side in a field is enough to inspire wonder about the inner lives of other creatures. And to people who observe their pets’ activities and moods, the existence of cat and dog emotions—in the form of joy, grief, even jealousy—seems beyond question.
What seems blatantly apparent to many animal lovers, however, is challenged by some scientists as nothing more than sentimental anthropomorphism. Portrayal of animals as lesser beings without thought or emotion dates at least as far back as the days of Aristotle, who believed that animals existed solely for the benefit of humans and were incapable of feeling beyond mere sensation and appetite.
But ethologists engaged in the study of animal behavior are drawing from a growing body of evidence to build a case to the contrary. On the forefront of the burgeoning field are renowned scientists Jonathan Balcombe and Marc Bekoff. After years of researching the emotions of animals, Bekoff began exploring the concepts of morality and justice in their societies, basing his work on animals’ adherence to their own sets of rules and the application of punishment in their play. Balcombe studies pleasure in animals—a concept rarely considered within the scientific community—and what it means for our treatment of them.


ES2015 - let and const
Some useful information I have found on the new let and const functionality. I have started using this and converting it with babel to es3 however this loses all the nice features its provided. But at least its future proofing.
You can only declare each let name once.
Temporal Dead zone
You can not call a let before its been created
Let creates a block scoped variable
Let in for loops
When using let in a for loop its not accessible outside the loop and is scoped to the block. The same principle as above.
You can’t reassign to a const variable. Its scoped the same as let lexically inside curly braces.


The peacock pansy butterfly (Junionia almana) sports striking eyespots and purple patterns.
Butterflies are amazing subjects for photography. Photographers love and capture every moment of the little insects because of their colorful, beautiful patterns. Let’s walk into the nature and enjoy the shoot of 30 beautiful butterfly pictures gathered from multiple photography networks.
A neglected eighty-eight butterfly (Diaethria neglecta) in Brazil’s Pantanal displays the design of lines and dots that gave it its unusual common name.
A male blue morpho butterfly’s wings shine iridescently in this mounted specimen.
Colorful gerbera daisies highlight the rich coloration of a spicebush swallowtail butterfly (Papilio troilus).
Millions of monarch butterflies travel to ancestral winter roosts in Mexico’s shrinking mountain fir forests. Surfing winds from southern Canada and the northern U.S., they travel thousands of miles, taking directional cues from the sun.
Australia’s largest butterfly, the birdwing (Ornithoptera priamus) blends into a green leaf. Female birdwings can have a wingspan of nearly 8 inches (20 centimeters).
The petals of a white flower set off the white stripes of this zebra-winged butterfly at a children’s zoo in Lincoln, Nebraska.
Happiness is like a butterfly: the more you chase it, the more it will elude you; but if you turn your attention to other things, it will come and sit softly on your shoulder.
Butterflies, Oh Butterflies… by Fifi


Saffron Books’ forthcoming Cho Dong-il’s History of Korean Literature is a magisterial work, perhaps the most comprehensive narrative on the subject in any language other than Korean, encompassing milestones, events and personalities in one of the most engrossing bodies of world literature, writes Sajid Rizvi, Publisher and Editor-in-Chief of Saffron Books. This monumental book, published in conjunction with the Academy of Korean Studies, Seoul, is part of Saffron Korea Library Series. Visit SaffronBooks.com.
This English translation of the six-volume original serves as a foundation for and stepping stone to further study of Korean literature. In developing this edition, Saffron has introduced numerous features that are not part of the Korean edition, including comprehensive indices. The cover of the book features a painting by the author.
Translated by Charles La Shure, Cho Dong-il’s History of Korean literature offers a comprehensive examination of the history of Korean literature, both written and oral, and inquires into its relationship with world literary history. He places Korean literature within its proper cultural, philosophical, and political contexts, tracing the threads that run through it from ancient times to the 20th century.
Cho Dong-il’s History of Korean Literature traces the development of Korean literature from its beginnings in paleolithic times through the ancient and medieval eras, the important transition from medieval to modern Korea, and the Japanese colonial period, which ended in 1945.
Dr Cho, a pre-eminent scholar of Korean literature, demonstrates how inextricably the threads of history, literature, and philosophy are interwoven, providing the necessary background to understand Korean literature as an unbroken tradition of thousands of years. His theories of literary branches and tendencies, as well as his unique understanding of the relationships between historical eras, provide a deeper and more flexible framework for interpreting Korean literature than traditional genre and periodization systems. Lastly, he goes beyond regional boundaries to examine the place Korean literature occupies in world literature.
This edited translation serves as an introduction to Korean literature, maintaining the important theoretical framework and underlying theories that make Dr Cho’s work the premiere textbook that it is in Korea, but also focusing on the more significant aspects of Korean literary history so as not to overwhelm the reader.
About the Author
Professor Cho Dong-il has been teaching Korean literature for 45 years, primarily in Korea but also in France, Japan and China. He has spoken to academic audiences in sixteen countries around the globe. His contributions to the fields of Korean literature and Korean Studies include over seventy books and over two hundred papers; of his recent books, A Theory of Learning (2012), serves as an approachable introduction to and summary of his vast body of research, while Where Now for Literary History? (2015) offers his thoughts on the future of the discipline. He is currently professor emeritus at Seoul National University and a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Korea.
About the Translator
Charles La Shure holds a doctorate in classical Korean literature with a specialization in oral literature from Seoul National University. In addition to his academic research, he works as a translator of academic and literary texts from Korean into English; recent previous translations include the novel Black Flower, by Kim Young-ha, and the novel Scenes from the Enlightenment, by Kim Namcheon. He is currently a professor in the Department of Korean Language and Literature at Seoul National University.
Preface by Cho Dong-il
This book is an abridged translation of my Hangungmunhaktongsa (A Comprehensive History of Korean Literature). The first edition of that book was published between 1982-1988*, the second edition appeared in 1989, the third edition in 1994, and the fourth edition in 2005. All editions of the book have been published by Jisik Sanup Publications, Seoul. Hangungmunhaktongsa comprises six volumes, including an extensive and separate appendix. It deals comprehensively with all aspects of Korean literature and delves deep into the specifics of research in the field, and thus is not suited for the wider foreign audience. For some time I had felt there was need for a single-volume version of this substantial body of research and had begun work towards that objective early on. My long collaboration with Dr Daniel Bouchez resulted in the 2002 publication of Histoire de la littérature coréenne des origines à 1919 (History of Korean literature from its beginnings to 1919) through the French publishing company Fayard. We were co-authors and co-translators of this book.
I began a similar collaboration with Dr Marshal Pihl in the United States, but the project sadly was abandoned after Dr Pihl’s passing. I resumed my search for a collaborator to continue the project. My efforts, fruitless at first, were finally rewarded and my hopes fulfilled when I met my collaborator for this volume, Charles La Shure, an American academic colleague.
After coming to Korea, Charles La Shure entered the graduate school at Seoul National University and received master’s and doctoral degrees. He is familiar with both the Korean language and Korean literature, and during the long time he spent studying with me, he gained a detailed understanding of my academic theories. He has taken my lectures and also helped in my research. He majored in creative writing as an undergraduate in the United States, and his English writing skills are excellent. He also has experience translating Korean literary works into English, and has achieved outstanding results through these efforts. He is the most qualified individual for the task of creating an English edition of Hangungmunhaktongsa. The Academy of Korean Studies did not hesitate to support us with a grant, allowing us to begin the project.
The French edition and this English edition differ in a number of ways. The French edition is based on the third edition of the original, while the English version is based on the fourth edition. Up until the third edition, I dealt only with Korean literary history, but in the fourth edition I dealt more with the relationship between Korean literature and world literature, so the contents of the translations differ in that regard. In creating the French edition, the original edition was condensed and rewritten, but in creating the English edition, we selected the most important content and translated this more or less in full. The French edition deals only with literature up to 1919, while the English edition extends through the Japanese colonial period, but places more emphasis on later literature than earlier literature. The two editions are complementary to each other, and reading both will provide a more complete picture.
In creating the English edition, we divided up the work load. I handled the general selection of material to be translated, while Dr La Shure took care of the smaller details. After Dr La Shure translated sections of the book, I read and examined these translations, and we worked together to address and correct any problems or issues. Of course, Dr La Shure invested the greater effort in this process.
The primary aim in selecting content was to make the finished translation easily understandable for English-speaking readers. We decided not to include content that was too complex or intricate, making it difficult to translate or requiring too many unfamiliar terms and proper nouns. We dealt in brief with early literature and in more detail with later literature. Both the main text and passages quoted from literary works were translated with readability in mind. The bibliographies included at the end of each section in the original work have been omitted. For these reasons, the English edition has not a few inadequacies. It is our hope that this book will serve rather as a guide to Korean literature for English-speaking readers, and that readers wishing to explore Korean literature further will make an effort to study the Korean language and read the original Korean edition, Hangungmunhaktongsa.
[Thanks to Drs Cho and La Shure for providing this translation]
이 책은 Cho Dong-il이 한국어로 쓴 한국문학통사 (A Comprehensive History of Korea Literature) 의 축약 번역본이다. 한국문학통사는 1982-1988년에 제1판이, 1989년에 제2판이, 1994에 제3판이 나왔다. 전면 수정한 제4판이 2005년에 나왔다. 출판사는 계속 서울의 지식산업사이다.
한국문학통사는 별책 부록을 포함해 모두 6권의 분량이다. 한국문학의 전 영역의 수많은 사항을 거의 빠짐없이 다루고, 연구 상황을 자세하게 소개해 외국인이 이용하기는 어렵다. 한 권으로 축약해 외국어로 소개하는 작업이 필요하다고 여겨 일찍 착수했다. 오랜 노력 끝에 Cho Dong-il과 Daniel Bouchez의 Histoire de la littérature coréenne 가 프랑스 파리 Fayard 출판사에서 2002년에 나왔다. 우리 두 사람이 그 책의 공저자이고 공역자이다. 같은 방식으로 영어판을 만드는 일을 미국인 학자 Marshal Pihl 교수와 함께 하다가 애석하게도 세상을 떠나서 중단하지 않을 수 없게 되었다. Marshal Pihl 의 뒤를 이을 분을 찾다가 뜻을 이루지 못했다.
그러다가 Cho Dong-il 은 다행히 미국인 동학 (academic colleague) Charles La Shure 를 만나 소원을 성취하게 되었다. 이 사람은 한국으로 유학 와서 서울대학교 국어국문과 대학원에 입학해 한국고전문학 전공으로 석사학위를 받고 박사학위 과정에서 공부를 계속하고 있었다. 한국어와 한국문학을 잘 알고, 오랜 기간 동안 함께 공부해 내 학설을 소상하게 이해한다. 강의를 수강하면서 내 연구에 동참하기도 했다. 미국대학에서 문예창작을 전공해 영어 문장력이 뛰어나다. 한국문학 작품을 영어로 번역한 경험이 많고 그 성과가 뛰어나다. 한국문학통사 영어판을 만들 수 있는 가장 적임자이다. 한국학중앙연구원에서 번역비를 지원해주어 주저하지 않고 착수할 수 있었다.
불문판과 영문판은 몇 가지 점이 서로 다르다. 불문판은 제3판을, 영문판은 제4판을 대본으로 했다. 제3판까지에서는 한국문학사를 그 자체로 다루다가 제4판에서는 한국문학과 세계문학의 관계를 더 많이 취급했으므로 옮겨놓은 내용도 달라졌다. 불문판을 만들 때에는 원문을 축약해 재집필했으나, 영문판은 대부분의 중요한 내용을 가려내서 번역했다. 불문판은 1919년까지의 문학만 취급하고, 영문판에서는 그 뒤의 문학을 더욱 중요시해 큰 비중을 두었다. 두 책을 함께 읽으면서 특성을 서로 보완하게 하면 도움이 될 것이다.
우리 두 사람이 영역본을 함께 만들면서 일을 약간 분담했다. 번역할 내용을 가려내는 일은 Cho Dong-il 이 주로 하고 Charles La Shure가 세부적인 사항을 맡았다. Charles La Shure가 일단 번역한 원고를 Cho Dong-il 이 읽어 검토하고 문제점이 발견되면 함께 수정해 완성했다. 그 과정에서 Charles La Shure 가 더 많은 수고를 했음은 물론이다.
영어권 독자들이 이 책을 쉽게 이해할 수 있도록 하자는 것이 축약의 기본방침이다. 내용이 너무 복잡하고 까다로워 영어로 옮기기 어렵거나 고유명사가 너무 많이 들어간 대목은 넣지 않기로 했다. 이른 시기의 문학은 간략하게, 가까운 시기의 문학은 자세하게 다루었다. 인용 작품이든 본문이든 적절하게 의역해 읽기 쉽게 하려고 했다. 세부항목마다 갖추어져 있는 참고논저는 생략했다. 그렇기 때문에 미흡한 점이 적지 않다. 이 책을 안내서로 삼아 한국문학을 공부한 독자가 장차 한국어를 본격적으로 공부해 한국문학통사 원문을 읽기를 간절하게 바란다.


Storytelling in Presentations
Surrounded by tablets, smartphones and AI, it’s hard to imagine we have anything in common with our ancestors from the Stone Age. But surprisingly, it’s only a small evolutionary step from the mammoth hunt to management level. Storytelling is as important today as it was thousands of years ago.
Storytelling in presentations:
Why you should send your audience on a mammoth hunt
Regardless of whether, when, where and why sales have risen or fallen – we are still hunters and gatherers in our DNA. We’re fascinated by stories of an exciting hunt or close escape.
How do we know this? Through stories we hear around the campfire.
Storytelling gives us life lessons. Even though most of us never find ourselves sitting around a campfire or confronted with predators, storytelling is still an important part of our culture. And a good storyteller can put that skill to good use no matter the situation.
How? By bringing the campfire to your next presentation and becoming a storyteller.
Without emotions, facts fall by the wayside:
Movies vs. PowerPoint presentations
We live in a world where communicating and sharing information is more important than ever – and presentations are a popular tool for this. In most presentations though, a lot is said and truly little is remembered. But why?
Think of the last movie that really grabbed you. You were immersed in the action. Your pulse raced when the killer chased the victim or when the hero saved the world. You were invested in the journey! Who cares that it was all pure fiction and had nothing to do with the reality of your life.
And now think of the last presentation you attended. The situation was probably a little different. Though what was told was important and pertained to reality, it was no doubt hard to stay focused.
Why does this happen? Even with the best content, there’s a good chance an audience will tune out. This information often doesn’t even get past the brain’s “bouncer”. The bouncer in this case is the amygdala – the part of our brain essential to our ability to feel certain emotions.
The amygdala wants a good story. Only then can our brains stay focused. So, when you want to effectively communicate facts, you need to link them to emotions. And if you want to present successfully, you need to be a storyteller.
Experiments at Stanford University have shown that stories are remembered up to 22 times more than facts alone.
In short, stories sell.
Storytelling for the primitive brain:
When the rival company becomes a saber-toothed tiger.
Turning the current sales figures into an exciting story is not as difficult as it sounds.
Most stories follow a certain pattern.
This is when the scene is set and we’re introduced to the protagonists – their wishes, their goals, their personalities.
The plot develops. There is a crisis, a problem, a mission, and perhaps one or two nemeses. There is a struggle and sacrifices have to be made.
In the end, victory awaits. Or if all fails, disaster.
This storytelling model can also be applied to less spectacular scenarios. With a little thought and creativity, you can turn your company’s current situation into Act I. Employees, competitors and customers become heroes, opponents and prey. Act II’s mission is to conquer the market leaders. If you succeed, Act II will end with your company’s success and triumph for all employees. So, let’s go on the adventure!
This kind of storytelling structure has a completely different effect than simply presenting the company’s figures with the no-brainer conclusion that things could be better and more effort is needed.
A story provides explanations
People like stories because they provide explanations and context.
Conspiracy theories are a good example of this. They’re extremely popular during uncertain times because they offer explanations for the inexplicable, simple solutions for complex problems and a clearly defined image of the enemy. As crazy as it sounds, a conspiracy theory is simply a good, clear story.
Conspiracy theories don’t have to be large-scale stories, they can also be gossip told around the water cooler.
Storytelling in PowerPoint Presentations:
The presenter leads the way
So how can we apply storytelling to presentations? When only facts are provided, the audience will draw their own conclusions. If the how and why, right and wrong, beginning and end are not given by the presenter, the audience will create them.
As a result, the unavoidable restructuring of a department may be interpreted as just ruthless cost cutting. The new sales strategy may be seen as a direct criticism of the current strategy. So instead of motivating, engaging and empowering your audience, the exact opposite might happen. By leaving too much room for interpretation, you lose control of the narrative. But by creating a story, you set the course and take your audience along for the ride.
A story is only as good as its narrator
Anyone who uses storytelling presentations needs to think about his or her own role in the process. One’s own experience and motivation are what drive the story. It’s what makes the presentation credible and trustworthy. So, don’t just tell a story, tell YOUR story.
- What are you hunting?
- How do you face adversaries?
- Why are you doing this?
- Or in other words: Why should people buy into your story?
Credibility always requires a certain passion. If content is reduced to just a shopping list of content, the effect fizzles out. If you want a story to work for you, you have to commit to storytelling. Not everyone is a born storyteller, but it can be learned.
Learn from the best
There are many exemplary storytellers – Steve Jobs, Barack Obama, Elon Musk – all passionate presenters who use storytelling to inspire their audiences. Even Donald Trump, whose statements are not exactly considered intellectual, successfully sold his followers the story of the wall as a solution to all of America’s problems.
Storytelling with PowerPoint can work in almost any setting, and when skillfully applied, it can inspire and captivate an audience. As the Argentinian author Jorge Bucay so aptly puts it:
We tell stories to children so that they fall asleep – and to adults so they wake up.”


In an earlier post we shared some exciting tools and apps from Google for educators: http://www.designstorm.in/thoughtstorm/googles-treasure-trove-for-educators/ In this part II of the same post we’re back with some more jewels. These Google tools transport us in space and time. They connect us with people from across the world, and give us a first-hand experience in global collaboration. Read on to explore.
VII Google Cultural Institute:
Take a trip through museums from across the world, and become a curator of your own gallery. This is a rich resource that covers art, history, and culture under one space.
You can visit these online museums anytime, as many times as you like. Your students can even create their own galleries, and that is how they may end up knowing more than they would from a physical visit to a museum. However, would these reduce the excitement of visiting a physical museum? Doubt it. In fact, the experience is almost better than a book (apologies book lovers), and lesser than an actual visit.
VIII Google Tour Builder: https://tourbuilder.withgoogle.com/
Your students can become explorers, navigators or army generals making strategic decisions. Get them to tell stories using the Google Tour Builder, and they’ll connect with history, geography or culture, like never before.
Come up with your own creative uses. For example, take up a journalistic assignment of documenting changes in your local area since the new government took over. Or allow employees to explore your organization’s growth story using this tool. The possibilities are endless.
“Teaching history is about teaching stories.” Watch how this teacher uses Google Tour Builder to bring stories to life.
IX Google Historical Voyages and Events:
Much along the lines of the resources listed above, this Google Certified teacher is trying to get schools from across the world to create voyages of the great travellers to explore your culture and history.
X Google Skymap:
“I can find in my undergraduate classes, bright students who do not know that the stars rise and set at night, or even that the Sun is a star.”—Carl Sagan
Enlighten your students with this open source mobile app, which is Google’s “window on the sky”. To have some fun learning, you could organize a star gazing party around this app.
XI Developers University Consortium:
And here is another hidden treasure: Free online courses on Android Mobile App Development, Interactive Web Development, and Programming.
Use technology to facilitate wonders, and share your stories below. We're all eager to learn.


It is no secret that video games are no longer just for the stereotypical socially awkward nerd in Mother’s basement, but are you aware just how entrenched this multi-billion dollar industry is into Canadian culture? Centre for Arts and Technology- Animation School decided to put together an infographic to better illustrate the impact this massive industry has on our fair nation.
Some of the statistics are staggering: from the multi-billion dollar amount infused into Canada’s GDP by the video game industry, to the surprising profile of the typical gamer. Games are not all for the kids anymore either, with many titles carrying adult content warnings, and following storylines that appeal to the adult gamer, it came of little surprise to us to discover that 37% of Canadian gamers are 55+ years of age. Canada has now, solidified its place as a “gaming” country, as 58% of Canadians proudly call themselves gamers.
Centre for Arts and Technology offers two animation programs; 2D Animation & Digital Art and Animation for Game, Film & Visual Effects, and graduates from these programs pursue various careers in the animation and video game industries. This infographic confirms that there will continue to be growth in both of these sectors, great news for our animation grads and alumni.
These stats may be simply interesting to you, but they mean a great deal more to our staff at Centre for Arts and Technology, particularly the animation department. These stats all illustrate the health and vitality of an industry that our animation students will enter into after graduation. We are pleased to see that the through the prosperity of the video game industry, our animation graduates will continue to find successful careers. We look forward to the evolution and continued growth of this industry in Canada and the impact our animation graduates will have.


Finland Population 2015
Finland is one of five Nordic countries located in Northern Europe, where it's bordered by Norway, Sweden, Russia, Estonia and the Gulf of Finland. Finland has an estimated population of 5.46 million in 2015, which ranks 115th in the world.
The most recent confirmed population figures date to the 2010 census, which found an official population of 5.36 million. The population of Finland has since grown to an estimated 5.46 million in 2015. The country has a very low population density of 18 people per square kilometer (46/square mile), which ranks 201st in the world and makes Finland one of the most sparsely populated country of the European Union.
The largest city and capital is Helsinki on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki has a population of 625,000 and a metropolitan population of 1.4 million. The Helsinki metro area is the 4th largest Nordic metropolitan area after Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Oslo.
Finland Population History
Recorded Finland population figures date back to 1750 and have been faithfully updated ever since. They would clearly appear to have been rounded either up or down too and in 1750, it is shown that there were 421,000 people living here.
Ten years later, those numbers had climbed to 490,000 – a rise of just over sixteen per cent and similar increases through the rest of the 1700’s took the population of Finland to 837,000 at the start of the 19th century.
The population of Finland climbed above one million for the first time by 1820 and as the 20th century began, figures within the country had increased to 2,655,900. This pattern of steady increases has continued ever since to the point where the Finland population in 2012 is rapidly approaching 5.5 million.
It is reported that population growth slowed in Finland after World War Two with average family sizes falling from 3.6 in 1950 to 2.7 by 1975. Therefore, while there is still growth here, it is considerably slower than it has been in the past.
Finland is very ethnically homogeneous. Most of the population is ethnic Finnish. The earliest inhabitants of the area were hunter-gatherers, most closely related to the modern-day Sami people of Finland. There are about 4,500 Sami left in Finland who are officially recognized as a minority. The Sami people have been living north of the Arctic Circle for over 7,000 years and account for a 5% minority in the Lapland Province. Finland does not keep official statistics on ethnicity.
Just 3.5% of the population is made up of foreign citizens, which is one of the lowest rates in the European Union. Most foreign citizens are from Estonia, Russia, and Sweden. Children of foreigners born in Finland do not automatically receive Finnish citizenship unless they cannot get citizenship in another nation.
Based on population figures in 2009 of 5,351,427, the CIA World Factbook suggests that 16.6% of the Finland population were aged between 0 and 14 years. In addition, 66.4% were aged between 15 and 64.
As evidence of the slowing down of population growth, Finland also has a high percentage of people aged over 65 – 17% in 2009 and that is considerably higher than the world’s average.
Finland Population Growth
Overall, however, the picture is still one of growth in terms of a decade by decade situation. Therefore, it could be that the population of Finland may come very close to the six million figure by 2020.


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What is mindful/intuitive eating?
In order to understand what mindful eating is, we need first to understand what mindfulness is. Mindfulness simply involves deliberately paying attention, and being fully aware of what is happening both internally (mind, body and heart) and outside yourself (your environment). It is awareness without criticism or judgement.
Mindful eating simply involves paying full attention to the experience of eating, by connecting more deeply with, and enjoying your food, before, during and after your meal.
Mindful eating is a life skill we can all learn, which leads to a more satisfying, healthy and enjoyable relationship with food. Unlike food rules or diets, with mindful eating there is no right or wrong ways to eat, but instead varying degrees of consciousness about what we are eating and why. The goal of mindful eating then, is to base our meals on physical cues, such as our bodies’ hunger signals, instead of emotional ones (comfort eating).
Why is it so important to eat mindfully?
Mindful eating enables us to hear what our body is telling us about hunger and satisfaction. It helps us become aware of ‘who’ out of the mind, body and heart is really hungry, and how and what is best to nourish it.
This is important because the busyness of life today often keeps us in our head, instead of the present which equates to mindless eating. Mindless eating eventually becomes habitual, and can lead to food addiction which is the most prevalent type of addiction today. Addiction is simply the opposite of awareness.
If you want to begin eating more mindfully, then join my 3 keys holistic health and fitness program at www.h360.online


We can’t emphasize this enough: Whenever your kids are on wheels–skating, scooting, cruising, riding, gliding, unicycling, etc–they must always wear a helmet. Every day, countless kids are saved from serious injuries or worse simply because they put on their helmets properly. So whether they’re riding in the driveway or they’re cruising around the block, make sure their heads are protected. Here’s how.
- When riding, scooting, or skating, always make sure your children wear a helmet, even if they are the passengers in a trailer bike or bike seat.
- Make sure your child’s helmet meets the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission’s (CPSC) standards. Look for the CPSC certified label on the box.
- Let children choose their own helmets. They will be more likely to wear them every time they ride. Encourage them to pick brightly-colored helmets, so that drivers can see them.
- Is your child wearing the right size helmet? If the helmet rocks forward, backward or side-to-side, it is not the right size.
- If your child is between 2 sizes, pick the bigger one. Most helmets come with extra pads to help you get a good fit.
- Replace any helmet that is damaged or has been involved in a crash. Impact crushes some of the foam. Although the damage may not be visible, a helmet that has been involved in a crash is less protective.
- You can make sure the helmet is on correctly by following these steps:
- EYES: Have the child look up while wearing the helmet. S/he should be able to see the bottom rim of the helmet. The rim should be one to two finger-widths above the eyebrows.
- EARS: Make sure the straps of the helmet form the letter "V" under your child’s ears when the straps are buckled. The strap should be snug, but comfortable.
- MOUTH: Have your child open his/her mouth wide. The helmet should hug his/her head. If not, you need to tighten the straps and make sure the buckle is flat against the skin.
- Since the straps of a helmet can get caught on things, be sure to teach your children to remove their helmets before using playground equipment, to avoid risk of strangulation. For more information on strangulation risks, go here.
Wearing a bicycle helmet can lower the risk of head injuries by up to 88%.
- Nationwide Children’s Hospital


Maria came up to me after a weekend EPPP workshop, designed to help psychology students pass their licensure exam. Her problem was a familiar one.
"I know exactly what I need to do to complete my studies," Maria shared. "I have all the material, and I have a study routine all planned out. The problem is that when I sit down at my computer to study, I get distracted. My mind wanders and it's incredibly hard to be attentive for more than a short time."
Does Maria's problem sound familiar?
The problem of divided attention plagues students in other disciplines, whether potential counselors studying to pass the National Counselor Examination for Licensure and Certification, or Marriage and Family Therapists trying to pass the National MFT Exam, or office workers struggling to stay attentive to their present-moment tasks.
The faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention, over and over again, is the very root of judgment, character, and will," wrote William James in Psychology: Briefer Course. James went on to point out that no person is master of himself without the capacity to control attention and reign in a wandering mind.Since the time of William James, science and research methods have advanced, enabling clinicians to measure with increasing accuracy the neurological and psychological effects of mind-wandering. All the research is pointing to the fact that James was correct: The capacity to control our attention is at the center of human well-being.
ABC News discussed research conducted on mind-wandering. They suggest that when our attention is scattered away from the present moment, we become victim to unhealthy ruminations and toxic cognitions which rob us of the joy and productivity that comes from attending to the moment.
For a more detailed discussion of the type of mind-wandering research referred to in the ABC News report, we recommend the following Ted Talk from Matt Killingsworth. Killingsworth has collected thousands of pieces of data to show that a wandering mind is correlated with an unhappy mind.
If Killingsworth is correct, the problems of divided attention, mind-wandering, and distracted focus do not simply hinder us from attaining our academic and professional goals; rather, these problems actually hinder us from achieving well-being and happiness.
For some practical recommendations on how to reign in a wandering mind, see Rick Hanson's Huffington Post article '”Is Your Mind Wandering?”
For an informative and accessible survey of the brain mechanisms behind mind-wandering and divided attention, see Jean-Philippe Lachaux talk at TEDx 'Attention, distraction and the war in our brain.'
Finding your mind wandering when it comes to setting up your study plan? Give our educational coordinators a call: 1-800-472-1931


Native American History of Geneva County, Alabama
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Geneva County is located in southeastern Alabama. When created by the Alabama legislature in 1868, a Walter H. Yonge, a native of Switzerland suggested that it be named after Geneva, Switzerland. Its county seat is also named Geneva. It is bordered on the south by Holmes County, FL and on the southwest by Walton County, FL. To the northeast is Dale County, AL and northwest is Coffee County, AL. Houston County, AL is to the east, while Covington County, AL is to the west.
The Choctawhatchee River flows through the center of Geneva County and flows southward into Holmes County, Florida. Much of Geneva County is in its drainage basin. The original Creek name of the Choctawhatchee River was probably, Chakato-hachi (=Chatot River,) but was misinterpreted by English-speaking settlers to be Choctawhatchee. The Choctawhatchee’s main tributaries in Geneva County are Double Bridge Creek, which joins the river just north of the town of Geneva and the Pea River, which joins the river just south of the town of Geneva.
The Gulf Coastal Plain stretching from Mobile, AL to Cedar Key, FL was known as Am-Ixchel by Native Americans, when first explored by the Spaniards in the 1500s. The word was written as Amichel in Castilian and means “Place of the Moon Goddess” in Chontal Maya. This evidence along with many surviving Itza and Chontal Maya place names in Georgia and the Southern Highlands, suggests that the sea-going Chontal Maya merchants were familiar with present day northwestern Alabama.
Evidence of Native American Occupation
There is archaeological evidence that present day Geneva County was in the past a major center of advanced Native American occupation. The location of the town of Geneva was the head of navigation for large sea-going trade canoes that traversed the Gulf Coast. A Native American town site is located one mile below Pate’s Landing on the Choctawhatchee River. It contains two mounds that are still around 10 feet high. Around these mounds is extensive evidence of houses and long term occupation. Downstream about two miles is another mound, which is about 16 feet high. It also is surrounded by evidence of houses. Geneva County has received very little attention from professional archaeologists. It may contain many other Native American settlement sites, that are yet to be discovered.
Although most popular literature describes the aboriginal occupants of Geneva as being Muskogee-Creeks, these Native peoples were immigrants, who entered Alabama along with other branches of the Creeks in the 1700s and early 1800s. Because of population and territorial losses among other Creek branches, the Muskogee-Creeks came to dominate a confederacy of Native provinces in the Lower Southeast in the late 1700s. The actual Muskogee-Creeks were indigenous to the Middle Chattahoochee River Basin, but their language was eventually adopted as the diplomatic language for the Creek Confederacy.
Many ethnic groups probably lived in Alabama’s Gulf Coast Plain from time to time. The primary inhabitants of present day Geneva County, when the Spanish explored the region in the 1600, were the Chatot. The Chatot apparently spoke a dialect of Yama or Mobilian Trade Jargon. The name Choctawhatchee suggests that either Choctaw speaking towns once occupied the county, or else the Chatot were confused by early settlers to be Choctaws.
Geologists believe that Alabama was once part of Africa. However, the ancient rocks that the Alabama Panhandle shares with the northwest coast of Africa are buried over 10,000 feet beneath the surface. Above them are bands of sedimentary rocks created by the accumulation of sea life, sand and soils washed down from the Southern Highlands. No dinosaur fossils have been found in Alabama because the region was under water until about 45 million years ago.
During the Pleistocene Epoch or Ice Age, the coast of the Florida Panhandle was as much as 100 miles south of its present location. Botanical evidence suggests that the climate was much more isothermal than today (less differences between seasons.)
The Holocene Epoch began around 10,000 years ago, as the glaciers in northern North America started to retreat. Around 8,000 years, ago the Gulf of Mexico began rising. By around 1,500 BC the shoreline was only about five feet lower in elevation than today. However, even at a five feet difference, the Florida Panhandle extended about 20 miles farther south than today. By that time, however, most of southeast Alabama’s rivers and springs had formed in similar conditions to today. The shoreline stabilized around 1000 AD, but in recent decades the level of the Gulf of Mexico has begun to rise again.
Native American Cultural Periods
Archaeologists believe that humans have lived in Geneva County for at least 13,000 years, perhaps much longer. During the coldest periods of the Ice Age, the Gulf Coast region would have been one of the few areas of North America that could be comfortably inhabited by homo sapiens. Evidence of the earliest humans may be buried of accumulated soils or under the sea bed as much as 100 miles out from today’s shoreline. Nevertheless, the oldest known human remains found in the Southeast (roughly 10,000 years old) were discovered in the sediment under a cenote (sink hole) in Sarasota County, FL. They included a skull still containing brain matter.
Clovis and Folsom points, associated with Late Ice age big game hunters have been found in southeastern Alabama. During the Ice Age, herds of giant mammals roamed the river bottom lands. The mastodons, saber tooth tigers, giant sloths and other massive mammals died out about 8,000 years ago. The ethnic identity of the Clovis Culture hunters is not known. They were long presumed to be American Indians from Siberia, but recent research by anthropologists has revealed many similarities with the big game hunters of Western Europe. An ice cap on the North Atlantic Ocean may have permitted early humans to move back and forth between continents by paddling, while gaining sustenance from hunting sea mammals and fishing. The big game hunters of both continents may have been a hybrid people with mixed Mongoloid-European physiologies.
Archaic Period (8,000 BC – 1000 BC)
After the climate warmed, animals and plants typical of today soon predominated in this region. Humans adapted to the changes and gradually became more sophisticated. They adopted seasonal migratory patterns that maximized access to food resources. The coastal areas were probably avoided during hurricane season. Archaic hunters probably moved to locations along the Gulf Coast and rivers during the winter, where they could eat fish and shellfish, if game was not plentiful.
Early Woodland Period (2000 BC – 500 BC)
Southeast Alabama was a location of some of the earliest permanent villages in North America. A sedentary lifestyle was made possible by abundant natural food sources such as large game, fish, freshwater mussels and the cultivation of gardens. Archaeologists have labeled the Early Woodland peoples of southeastern Alabama as the Deptford Culture. The Deptford Culture extended over much of northern Florida, Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina.
Deptford Culture villages were relatively small and dispersed. Some were permanent bases while others were seasonal hunting, fishing or gathering camps. There was probably much socialization among these villages because of the need to find spouses that were not closely related. Houses were round and built out of saplings, river cane and thatch.
The Early Woodland Period peoples of the region built numerous mounds, although few are visible today because the sandy soil of the Gulf Coastal Plain erodes quickly. Apparently, most of these mounds were primarily for burials, but may have also supported simple structures that were used for rituals or meetings. They were constructed accretionally. This means that the mounds grew in size over the generations by piling sand, soil and detritus from the village over recent burials.
Deptford Culture style pottery and artifacts were made in some parts of the Lower Southeast as late as 600 AD. This suggests to anthropologists that they were made by an aboriginal ethnic group that was gradually marginalized as Muskogean communities expanded in number and territory.
Middle Woodland Period (500 BC – 600 AD)
Archaeological evidence in the Chattahoochee River Valley suggests that the first Muskogean farmers entered southeastern Alabama and western Georgia around 500 BC, after originally migrating from west-central Mexico via the Lower Mississippi. Alabama was probably already occupied by Southern Siouan ethnic groups such as the Biloxi or people related to the Ciboney of Cuba. Anthropologists currently believe that the Ciboney settled Cuba from the Gulf Coastal Plain and Florida Peninsula.
Around 500 BC, the Santa Rosa Culture began evolving in the Florida Panhandle and extreme southern Alabama. It is named after Santa Rosa Island in Santa Rosa County, FL. Early Santa Rosa Culture villages are characterized by permanent architecture, community spaces and evidence of trade contacts with other parts of eastern North America. In particular, archaeologists have discovered trade items associated with the Midwest, as Santa Rosa villages grew in size and sophistication.
Around 100 BC, the inhabitants of present day Geneva County began showing increasing cultural influence from the Swift Creek Culture, which originated in Georgia. Geneva County was particularly affected by this influence because it was a few days walk from the emerging Kolomoki ceremonial town site. The Santa Rosa-Swift Creek Culture people built permanent towns with horseshoe shaped plazas for playing ball games along the Choctawhatchee River.
Anthropologists outside the Southeast often link the Swift Creek Culture with the Hopewell Culture because of the similarity in chronology. However, the Hopewell Culture in Ohio was clearly obsessed with death and contained very few, if any, permanent villages. The architecture of the two cultural zones was very different. Santa Rosa-Swift Creek earthworks were often earthen pyramids oriented to the solar azimuth. The Santa Rosa-Swift Creek peoples became increasingly dependent on agriculture and therefore generally located their villages and towns in fertile river bottomlands.
Swift Creek Style pottery is considered some of the most beautiful ever made in North America. The Swift Creek People were also known for their finely crafted copper tools, weapons and ornaments. They built both ellipsoid shaped accretional mounds and some large pyramidal mounds for temples. The pyramidal mounds differed little in shape and function from what was being built in Mexico at the time.
Around 250 AD, the Santa Rosa-Swift Creek Culture villages in Geneva County began evolving into the Weeden Island Culture. Weeden Island villages and ceremonial towns continued many Swift Creek traditions, but there were distinct changes in the pottery that seem to reflect Caribbean influences. Weeden Island sculptures created hollow human figures, while this was rarely, if ever, done by Swift Creek ceramicists.
The Swift Creek Culture collapsed in Georgia’s and Alabama’s Coastal Plain around 600 AD. Virtually, all villages below the Fall Line suddenly disappeared, but some Swift Creek villages in the mountains continued to be occupied to as late as 1000 AD. The sudden depopulation near navigable waters suggests attacks by sea craft from the Atlantic Ocean, but to date, no evidence of specific foreign invaders have been discovered by archaeologists.
Late Woodland & Transitional Period
The Weeden Island Culture villages declined in population after 600 AD, started declining around 750 AD, but were not completely abandoned to until around 900 AD. Significant declines in population seem to have coincided with the rise of a very advanced culture near Lake Okeechobee, Florida.
The period when Weeden Island Culture disappeared and the Lake Okeechobee Culture (Belle Glade III) rose, is now known to have been a time of drought in Yucatan. Most of the large Maya cities were abandoned by this time. The Long Calendar dates were no longer inscribed on stelae. This drought may have caused Maya commoners to flee northward into the Southeastern United States, where conditions were less hostile.
Early Hierarchal Period (900 AD – 1150 AD)
All of the cultural traits, including large scale cultivation of corn, beans and squash that were associated with the “Mississippian Culture,” appeared on the Chattahoochee River in Russell County, AL and at the Ocmulgee site at Macon, GA around 900 AD. “Mississippian” style houses and mounds were not constructed at Cahokia until around 1050 AD. Therefore, the generic term “hierarchal” is a more accurate description of the cultural changes that appeared in southeastern Alabama around 900 AD. They obviously were introduced by peoples from the south, not the Mississippi River Basin.
The town and village sites, founded around 900 AD, in or near present day Geneva County, initially had very similar pottery and architecture to that of Ocmulgee. They probably were founded by the same ethnic group. The pottery was similar to the Plain Style Redware produced by Maya commoners that is endemic around the edges of Maya cities. The architecture was almost identical to that built by the illiterate Chontal Maya along the coast of Tabasco State in Mexico. The Chontal Maya only built earthen mounds and were illiterate during the Classic Maya Period that ended around 900 AD.
Archaeologists generically label all of the hierarchal towns in northwestern Alabama as the Fort Walton Culture, after a mound at Fort Walton Beach, FL. However, since there has been so little professional study of the Native towns in Geneva County, it may have contained people belonging to another culture. By this time, most Muskogean provinces in the Southeast cultivated corns, bean and squash on a large scale, built mounds and evidenced hierarchal societies.
Architectural historians have identified four distinct cultural zones where there were extensive contrasts in architecture and town planning. These were the Pensacola-Perdido Bay Area, the Choctawhatchee River Basin, the Chattahoochee-Apalachicola River Basin and the Red Clay Hills-Fort Walton Region. These four zones, interestingly enough, correspond to four separate ethnic groups who were present when the Spanish first explored the region.
Along the Chattahoochee-Flint-Apalachicola River System there were three cultural phases in which architecture and cultural traditions were significantly different. The populations of these three phases, or at least their elites, may have been different ethnic groups. This basin was occupied by the Apalachicola when the Spanish arrived on the scene.
In the Choctawhatchee River Basin, eastward to the west bank Chipola River in Jackson County, FL the mounds are smaller and similar to those found concurrently on the coast of Georgia. Apparently, the lands between the Choctawhatchee and Chipola rivers composed a frontier between two branches of the Muskogeans.
Middle Hierarchal Period (1150 AD – 1300 AD)
At the same time that Arawak village sites first appeared in northeastern Florida, Ocmulgee and many Muskogean mound sites in southeastern Alabama were abandoned. By 1200 AD several town sites on the lower Chattahoochee River were temporarily abandoned, while others began evolving cultural traits more like those of later proto-Creek towns.
Arawak villages may have also been located in Geneva County. In the mid-1700s there were still some Arawak towns in central Alabama. These people were known as the Taosi or Tawasee In 1901, a Taino (Puerto Rican Arawak) stella was found near Atlanta, GA at a hilltop shrine overlooking the Chattahoochee River, Obviously, the Arawaks initially penetrated deep into traditional Muskogean territory, and probably caused the collapse of some provinces.
The ethnic identity of the Native people, occupying the Choctawhatchee River Basin during this era is not clear. The Chatot were possibly an original band of the Pensacola, who developed their own identity over the centuries.
Late Hierarchal Period (1300 AD – 1539)
There was another wave of burned temples and/or town abandonments in the Chattahoochee Basin in the period between 1250 AD and 1300s AD. These seem linked to a war between indigenous Muskogeans and those migrating eastward from the Mississippi Basin. Much of the central Mississippi Basin was abandoned during this era. After 1300 AD, few, if any, pentagonal mounds were initiated. Mounds built thereafter tended to be rounded on the edges to the point that many had oval footprints.
The architectural evidence suggests that during the Late Hierarchal Period ethnic groups were located in the same regions, when encountered by Spanish explorers in the 16th century. These were the Pensacola around Pensacola and Perdido Bays; the Chatot, along the Choctawhatchee River; the Apalachicola along the Lower Chattahoochee and Apalachicola and Flint Rivers; and the Apalachee in the Red Clay Hills region southward to Fort Walton Beach.
Spanish exploration and missions (1539 AD – 1705 AD)
The Kingdom of Spain claimed all of the Chattahoochee and Choctawhatchee River Basins, including Geneva County, from 1513 until 1745. This claim was based on Narvaez Expedition (1538,) the Hernando de Soto Expedition (1539,), the Tristan de Luna Expedition, the Juan Pardo Expedition (1567,) and a surveying expedition authorized by Governor Don Benito Ruiz de Salazar Vallecilla of the Province of La Alabama around 1647. The surveying and gold prospecting expedition followed the Chattahoochee River to its source at Unicoi Gap. The Governor then established a trading post in the vicinity of the Chattahoochee headwaters.
In 1675 the Spanish established four missions among the Chatot. They were probably located in present day Holmes and Jackson Counties, FL although some sources locate them in Apalachee territory, fifty miles to the east. Some Apalachicola villages eventually accepted visits by missionaries, but the ethnic group as whole stayed extremely hostile to the Spanish.
End of Spanish occupation 1705 – 1763
Once the Chatot were officially Spanish allies, they became subject to repeated slave raids by the Cherokee and Creek allies of the English. After two invasions by British troops, combined with Native Allies of Great Britain, wiped out the Apalachee and Timucua mission system, most of the Chatot fled to Mobile. After the French lost Louisiana in 1763, most of those Chatot in Mobile moved to Texas. After that point, they disappear from historical records.
The Hogeloge and Tongora Bands of Yuchi People were originally located in the Upper Tennessee River Valley and Cumberland Plateau. In the late 1600s, Rickohocken Indians from Virginia and Kentucky were pressed southward into northeastern Tennessee by European settlers and Iroquois raids. After the Rickohockens became the core of the Cherokee Alliance in the early 1700s, Cherokee expansion forced the Yuchi’s to either join the alliance or move southward after the Yamasee War (1715-1717.) Many Yuchi moved to the Choctawhatchee River. Repeated conflicts with the Choctaw forced them to move northward to be among Creek Confederacy towns, but they returned to the region in the early 1800s. Most Yuchi eventually ended up in Texas or Mexico, where they disappeared from historical records.
After 1705 the emerging Muskogee Confederacy increasingly controlled the hinterlands of the Alabama Panhandle to the point that the Spanish garrison was isolated in Pensacola. Creek bands hunted and settled there. At the close of the Yamasee War in 1717, many Muskogean towns in eastern Georgia relocated to the Lower Chattahoochee River or what is now southwestern Alabama. By necessity, the isolated Spanish community and their new Muskogean neighbors developed better relations. The Spanish no longer tried to forcibly convert the Muskogeans to Catholicism.
After the American Revolution
The Florida Panhandle, including what is now extreme southern Alabama, reverted to Spanish ownership in the treaty ending the American Revolution. Spain had been an ally of United States. Strangely, France got almost nothing but the “last laugh” for its enormous contribution to the American Patriot’s victory. By this time, northwestern Alabama was solidly under the occupation of the now-powerful Creek Confederacy. During the late 1700s, the Creeks even built a navy to patrol the coast of the Alabama Panhandle. It was based in Creek towns along the Lower Chattahoochee-Apalachicola River.
As the Creek Confederacy lost more and more land in Georgia, many Creek towns moved down into Alabama. The Creek Confederacy towns in and around Geneva County that had entered earlier in the 1700s also were predominantly Apalachicola. They had originally spoke a language that was different from either Muskogee-Creek or Choctaw, but by this time were switching to Muskogee.
The majority of people in southern Alabama today, who call themselves Muskogee-Creeks, can be descended from numerous North American tribes. These include Eastern Creeks who spoke Itsati; Lower Creeks who originally spoke Apalachicola; or Yuchi, who spoke an entirely different language. Also, in the late 1700s and early 1800s hundreds of Carolina Native Americans relocated to northwestern Alabama. Some were Muskogeans, while others were Siouan or Algonquin. These immigrants often had assimilated European culture and had some European heritage. They married other races and became associated with those races; joined the Creek Confederacy; or else became labeled as Seminoles, even though they may not have had Muskogean ancestry.
Spain ruled West Florida (which included Alabama below the 31st Parallel) until 1821. Several Creek towns and many mixed blood Creek families moved in this virtually uninhabited region after 1793, when the Creek Confederacy ceded all of its lands in eastern Georgia. Southeastern Alabama was soon viewed as traditional Creek territory by white Americans, even though their presence was relative recent.
During the second Spanish colonial period, it was quite common for the Creeks, Carolina Indians, Europeans and Africans to be neighbors. There was much intermarriage between ethnic groups. Most of the Natives did not have direct political ties with the Creek Confederacy, but also did not practice semi-traditional lifestyles like the Seminoles. However, they were often labeled Seminoles.
When the War of 1812 broke out, British agents working out of the Spanish town of Pensacola tried to persuade the Native Peoples of Alabama and southern Alabama to become allies of Great Britain against the United States. The Geneva County Indians had no incentive to become belligerents. Their lifestyles differed little from those of white settlers, and most were part European anyway.
Eventually, the combination of British offers for support, along with the persuasive speeches of the Shawnee leader, Tecumseh, influenced a minority of Creek towns to rebel against the national government of the Creek Confederacy. Most of the insurgents were Upper Creeks from the hill country of northern Alabama. Initial battles were between these so-called Red Sticks and the pro-American majority of the Creek Confederacy. However, after the killing of virtually all the white and Indian inhabitants of Fort Mims, Alabama, the war spread to become one between the Red Sticks and the United States. The last phase of this bloody war occurred in the Choctawhatchee Basin.
First Seminole War and later Creek Wars
After the catastrophic defeat of the Red Sticks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, surviving insurgents fled southward. A Red Stick Chief named Geneva led his town to the Choctawhatchee Basin. His town was accused of continued raids on white settlements. General Andrew Jackson also accused the Spanish of intentionally supplying him munitions to continue the Red Stick War. In 1814, Major Uriah Blue led a regiment into the future Geneva County to destroy the main town of Chief Geneva Red Stick Band.
Intermittent raids by paramilitary units among Creeks, Seminoles and whites continued along the Alabama, Georgia-Alabama War after the official end of the Red Stick War in 1814. Like most Itsati (Hitchiti-Creeks) towns, the Miccosukee did not consider themselves to be Muskogee-Creeks.
Itsati towns continued to occupy some areas of southwest Georgia. In 1816 fighting broke out between the Miccosukee’s of southwest Georgia and American troops. The cause of this war was the Treaty of Indian Springs in 1825. Without authority of the Creek National Council, a small group of minor Muskogee in Georgia gave away virtually all of Creek sovereign lands in Georgia, including the sacred site of Ocmulgee Old Fields. Most Itsati towns had been consistent American allies. This further strengthened their position of not being bound by treaties with the Creek Confederacy.
Fort Scott was established on the Lower Chattahoochee River to guard the border with Alabama. When Americans started farming Miccosukee lands east of the Flint River, their leaders ordered them to leave. A Miccosukee town was located 15 miles east of the fort. The refusal of the garrison’s commander to comply resulted in escalating guerilla warfare. The U.S. Army sent 250 men to attack Fowltown, the Miccosukee village. They were beaten off the first day, but succeeded in burning the settlement on the second day. The next week, the Itsati attacked a riverboat bringing supplies to Fort Scott, killing most of the crew and passengers.
An army under Andrew Jackson invaded Spanish West Florida in 1818 and attacked Native American and African settle across the northern tier of the Spanish territory. A considerable portion of the fighting was in what is now Geneva County, AL and Holmes County, FL. Peaceful farmsteads of Creeks, Yuchi and Carolina Indian families were attacked by paramilitary bands from Georgia. This provoked them to join the hostile Creek towns. Much of the fighting in what was to become Geneva County was conducted by small bands in skirmishes.
This first Muskogean-American war is called the First Seminole War. However, the majority of Native American belligerents did not consider themselves “Creeks” or Seminoles. The large American army quickly crushed Native resistance. Survivors fled southward. They became allied with Muskogean towns that had been living in Florida for many decades. At the same time, the United States government labeled all Muskogeans in Spanish West Florida as being “Seminoles” regardless if they were Muskogees or Itsati’s.
There were two more Creek Wars and two more Seminole Wars. The Creek wars were relatively short events and of limited geographical scale. The later Seminole Wars involved fighting over much of the Florida Peninsula, but very little combat, if any, took place in Geneva County.
The ultimate result of the six Muskogean wars was that many peaceful Native Americans were forced out of the Alabama. While there was originally much tolerance and intermarriage between the races within Alabama, the bad feelings of these wars caused the new white majority to abuse and disfranchise Native Americans and Free Blacks. Historians believe that most Native American families, who left Geneva County in the 1820s, 1830s and 1840s, either went to the new Republic of Texas or Louisiana. The mixed-bloods easily mixed in with its multi-ethnic population.
Descendents of Geneva County’s early 19th century Native American settlers remain in the region. The state recognized Machis Lower Creek Tribe, based in New Brockton, AL probably represents a small percentage of the total number of southeastern Alabamans with legitimate Creek Indian heritage.


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The Sutlej River (sometimes spelled as Satluj River) (Punjabi: ਸਤਲੁਜ, Sanskrit: शतद्रु or सुतुद्री → Suṭudri, Urdu: ستلج, and Hindi: सतलुज) is the longest of the five rivers that flow through the region of Punjab in northern Republic of India and Pakistan. It is north of the Vindhya Range, south of the Hindu Kush segment of the Himalayas, and east of the Central Makran range in Pakistan.
The Sutlej is sometimes known as the Red River.
The source of the river is at Lake Rakshastal in Tibet near Mount Kailas, and it flows generally west and southwest through the region of Greater Punjab. The region to its south and east is arid, and is known as the Great Indian Desert or Thar Desert.
The Beas River (Punjabi: ਬਿਆਸ) is the second easternmost of the rivers of the Punjab region. The river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh, India, and flows for some 290 miles (470 km) to the Sutlej River in the west of the Indian Punjab state.
Indus Water Treaty


At the beginning of the 18th century, physicists like
One great example is the pendulum. You’ve already seen how you can use differential equations to find an equation that calculates the position of the pendulum at any time in the future.
We often say that the motion of the pendulum is deterministic: it precisely follows Newton’s laws of gravity, and there is no randomness or probability. Watch the pendulum swinging, and try to predict what it’ll do next!
Now let’s try to make things a bit more interesting by attaching a second pendulum to the first one – this is called a double pendulum.
Once again, watch its motion, and try to predict what it will do next. You can even close your eyes for a few seconds … was your prediction correct?
The double pendulum still follows Newton’s deterministic laws of gravity, but the motion seems to
This becomes every more apparent if we look at multiple pendulums. Let’s add three more pendulums behind the first one, each with a tiny, imperceptible change in their initial angle (less than 0.1°). Press play again and watch what happens!
At the beginning the four pendulums move along the same path – but after a few seconds they
Mathematicians call this behaviour
It is important to realise that chaos is very different from randomness. The double pendulum contains no element of chance or probability. It follows the precise, deterministic laws of gravity, and nevertheless moves completely unpredictably.
Chaos appears in many unexpected places in nature and mathematics. In this course, we will explore some of these examples, and discover how mathematics can help us understand them.
The Butterfly Effect
In 1962, the mathematician
Lorenz had developed an algorithm that took current weather data like temperature, humidity and wind speed as inputs. It then calculated how these values would change a few minutes into the future. By repeating the process over and over again, he was able to predict the weather days, or even weeks into the future.
One day, Lorenz decided to run parts of his simulation a second time, with the same input data. To his surprise, the weather predictions created in both cases were completely different!
At first, Lorenz thought there must be a bug in the code – but he quickly worked out what was actually going on. When running the simulation a second time, he had rounded some of the input values to fewer decimal places (for example 0.506 instead of 0.506127). Even though the difference is tiny, less than 0.1%, it seems to have been enough to cause the simulation to make completely different forecasts.
Lorenz called this the butterfly effect: even the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil might change the weather conditions enough to set off a tornado in Texas, at some point in the future.
Usually, you’d expect a small change to the input parameters to also lead to a small change in the output. For chaotic systems, like the weather or the double pendulum, the opposite is true. Even tiny changes can grow quickly, and lead to huge differences.
This is why weather prediction only works for a few days into the future. After that, slightly inaccurate weather data can lead to completely different forecasts.
There is an important difference between knowing the physical laws of a system, and being able to predict its behaviour. Newton’s laws of gravity tell us exactly how the double pendulum should move. The differential equations of fluid dynamics should, in principle, allow us to calculate the weather at any time in the future.
Unfortunately, for this to work in practice, we would have to measure the initial state of the pendulum with infinite precision, or know the exact position of every particle in the atmosphere – and that is clearly impossible. Over time, tiny measurement errors will completely throw off our predictions. In other words, we can never have a perfect weather forecast!
Of course, a butterfly doesn’t actually cause a tornado – but it might change the conditions of the atmosphere just enough so that a tornado happens now rather than at some other time in the future.
You could think about it as a series of dominoes with increasing size. A small action that topples the first domino later leads to the largest domino falling:
You’ve already seen that the double pendulum and the weather behave chaotically, but there are countless other examples in nature and technology:
Chaotic behaviour has also been found in electronic circuits, evolutionary biology as well as dripping water taps, and scientists around the world are researching many other applications.
But in all these examples, the existence of chaos means that there are fundamental limits to how well we can predict the future. This is often called a prediction horizon, beyond which it is impossible to make any accurate forecasts.
The weather forecast currently has a prediction horizon of approximately one week, and even with much better technology in the future, we might never surpass two weeks of accuracy.
Instead, scientists can use probability to predict averages: for example how often they’d expect certain weather events (like a tornado) to occur in a year. These averages can be very accurate, even if we don’t know when exactly a tornado might happen.
Let’s summarise the key properties of chaos that we have discovered so far:
- A chaotic system follows precise,
laws, often described by one or more differential equations.
- Chaotic systems are highly sensitive to change.
initial differences multiply over time and can lead to differences in the result.
- The behaviour is unpredictable and non-repeating. It might even look random, but only because it depends on imperceptible changes or measurement errors.
Chaos theory tells us that we can never predict the future, or know in advance what outcome our actions might have. This can be worrying if you consider how much in our world depends on mathematical predictions: from modelling the wind flowing around airplanes or skyscrapers, to assessing the impact of climate change.
On the other hand, chaos theory and the butterfly effect were such simple and powerful ideas, that they soon started to appear in books, music lyrics, and even in movies:


ERIC Number: ED264254
Record Type: Non-Journal
Publication Date: 1985-May-3
Reference Count: N/A
Does the Generation Effect Apply to Stimuli as Well as to Responses?
Johnson, Mitzi M. S.; Greenwald, Anthony G.
An earlier study showed that responses are remembered better when subjects produce them from cues, than when subjects read cue-response pairs. The decided memory advantage for generated targets relative to read ones is known as the generation effect. The present research is designed to study the generation effect for cues, following a depth-of-processing interpretation. The task described is to produce a word, opposite in meaning to the cue, given the cue and target with two interior adjacent letters missing. Thirty-two undergraduate students viewed a cue-target pair for five seconds, wrote the target word, and viewed the completed target for three seconds. Control subjects received the cue and the entire target, wrote the target, and reviewed the target for three seconds. All subjects received twelve items and provided data on free recall, cued recall, and recognition. Half were tested for recognition of targets, and half for recognition of cues. Results showed that the generation effect does apply to cues as well as responses, although the effect for cues is weaker, suggesting that depth of processing cannot be the only process contributing to the generation effect. (LMO)
Publication Type: Speeches/Meeting Papers; Reports - Research
Education Level: N/A
Authoring Institution: N/A