|The International Space Station on 19 February 2010 as seen from the departing Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-130.|
|Launch pad:||KSC LC-39,
Baikonur LC-1/5 & LC-81/23
|Mass:||344,378 kg (759,224 lb) or
759,222 lb (344,377 kg)
|Length:||73 m (240 ft)
from PMA-2 to Zvezda
|Width:||108.5 m (356 ft)
along truss, arrays extended
|Height:||c. 20 m (c. 66 ft)
nadir–zenith, arrays forward–aft
|Living volume:||c. 373 m3
(c. 13,200 cu ft)
101.3 kPa (29.91 inHg) (1 atm)
|Perigee:||336 km altitude (181 nmi)|
|Apogee:||346 km altitude (189 nmi)|
|Orbit inclination:||51.6419 degrees|
|Average speed:||7,706.6 m/s
(27,743.8 km/h, 17,239.2 mph)
|Orbital period:||c. 91 minutes|
|Days in orbit:||4137
(19 March 2010)
(19 March 2010)
|Number of orbits:||c. 65291
(19 March 2010)
|Orbital decay:||2 km/month|
|Statistics as of 27 November 2009
(unless noted otherwise)
|Station elements as of 12 February 2010
The International Space Station (ISS) is an internationally developed research facility that is being assembled in low Earth orbit. On-orbit construction of the station began in 1998 and is scheduled for completion by 2011. The station is expected to remain in operation until at least 2015, and likely 2020. With a greater mass than that of any previous space station, the ISS can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye, and, as of 2010, is the largest artificial satellite orbiting the Earth. The ISS serves as a research laboratory that has a microgravity environment in which crews conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy and meteorology. The station has a unique environment for the testing of the spacecraft systems that will be required for missions to the Moon and Mars. The ISS is operated by Expedition crews, and has been continuously staffed since 2 November 2000, meaning the ISS programme has maintained an uninterrupted human presence in space for the past 9 years and 139 days, which is approaching the current record, set aboard Mir, of 9 years and 257 days. As of 18 March 2009 , the crew of Expedition 23 is aboard.
The ISS is a synthesis of several space station projects that includes the American Freedom, the Soviet/Russian Mir-2, the European Columbus and the Japanese Kibō. Budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national programme. The ISS project began in 1994 with the Shuttle-Mir programme, and the first module of the station, Zarya, was launched in 1998 by Russia. Assembly continues, as pressurised modules, external trusses and other components are launched by American space shuttles, Russian Proton rockets and Russian Soyuz rockets. As of November 2009, the station consisted of 11 pressurised modules and an extensive integrated truss structure (ITS). Power is provided by 16 solar arrays mounted on the external truss, in addition to four smaller arrays on the Russian modules. The station is maintained at an orbit between 278 km (173 mi) and 460 km (286 mi) altitude, and travels at an average speed of 27,724 km/h (17,227 mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.
Operated as a joint project between the five participant space agencies, the station's sections are controlled by mission control centres on the ground operated by the American National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), and the European Space Agency (ESA). The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements that allow the Russian Federation to retain full ownership of its own modules, with the remainder of the station allocated between the other international partners. The cost of the station has been estimated by ESA as €100 billion over 30 years, and, although estimates range from 35 billion dollars to 160 billion dollars, the ISS is believed to be the most expensive object ever constructed. The financing, research capabilities and technical design of the ISS programme have been criticised because of the high cost. The station is serviced by Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft, space shuttles, the Automated Transfer Vehicle and the H-II Transfer Vehicle, and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 15 different nations.
The International Space Station (ISS) is an internationally developed satellite currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. Primarily a research laboratory, the ISS offers an advantage over spacecraft such as NASA's Space Shuttle because it is a long-term platform in the space environment, where extended studies are conducted. The presence of a permanent crew affords the ability to monitor, replenish, repair, and replace experiments and components of the spacecraft itself. Scientists on Earth have swift access to the crew's data and can modify experiments or launch new ones, benefits generally unavailable on specialised unmanned spacecraft.
Crews, who fly expeditions of several months' duration, conduct scientific experiments each day (approximately 160 man-hours a week). As of the conclusion of Expedition 15, 138 major science investigations had been conducted on the ISS. Scientific findings, in fields from basic science to exploration research, are published every month.
The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of Low Earth Orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in the maintenance, repair, and replacement of systems on-orbit, which will be essential in operating spacecraft further from Earth. Mission risks are reduced, and the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft are advanced.
Part of the crew's mission is educational outreach and international cooperation. The crew of the ISS provide opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, and allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, NASA investigator experiments, and ISS engineering activities. The ISS programme itself, with the international cooperation that it represents, allows 14 nations to live and work together in space, providing lessons for future multi-national missions.
The ISS provides a platform to conduct experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present on the station. The primary fields of research include human research, space medicine, life sciences, physical sciences, astronomy and meteorology. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the American segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector.
Research on the ISS improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects currently under study include muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. The data will be used to determine whether space colonisation and lengthy human spaceflight are feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise (such as the six-month journey time required to fly to Mars). Large scale medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS via the National Space and Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts (including former ISS Commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician onboard the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult.
Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of this data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues, and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space.
The investigation of the physics of fluids in microgravity will allow researchers to model the behaviour of fluids better. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. In addition, an examination of reactions that are slowed by low gravity and temperatures will give scientists a deeper understanding of superconductivity.
The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground. Other areas of interest include the effect of the low gravity environment on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve our knowledge about energy production, and lead to economic and environmental benefits. Future plans are for the researchers aboard the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapour, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe.
Funded by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), APEX-Cambium will help determine the role gravity plays in trees forming different kinds of wood.
Radiation monitoring experiment is called EVARM and it was conducted in 2002 and 2003
The International Space Station represents a union of several national space station projects that originated during the Cold War. In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations, while the Soviets were planning to construct Mir-2 in the 1990s as a replacement for Mir. Because of budget and design constraints, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests.
With the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Space Race, Freedom was nearly cancelled by the United States House of Representatives. The post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia led to the cancellation of Mir-2, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been constructed. Similar budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station projects, which prompted the American government to negotiate with European states, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative project.
In June 1992 American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration. The resulting Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short, joint space programme, with one American astronaut deployed to the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts deployed to a Space Shuttle.
In September 1993, American Vice-President Al Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station. They also agreed, in preparation for this new project, that the United States would be heavily involved in the Mir programme as part of an agreement that later included Space Shuttle orbiters docking with Mir.
According to the plan, the ISS programme would combine the proposed space stations of all participant agencies: NASA's Freedom, the RSA's Mir-2 (with DOS-8 later becoming Zvezda), ESA's Columbus, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory. When the first module, Zarya, was launched in 1998, the station was expected to be completed by 2003. Delays have led to a revised estimated completion date of 2011.
The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998. Astronauts install each element using spacewalks. By 27 November 2009, they had completed 136, totalling 849 hours of extra-vehicular activity (EVA), all devoted to assembly and maintenance of the station. Twenty-eight of these spacewalks originated from the airlocks of docked Space Shuttles; the remaining 108 were launched from the station.
The first segment of the ISS, Zarya, was launched on 20 November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket, followed two weeks later by Unity—the first of three node modules—which was launched aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-88. This bare two-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one-and-a-half years. In July 2000 the Russian module Zvezda was added, allowing a maximum crew of three to occupy the ISS continuously. The first resident crew, Expedition 1, arrived in November 2000 on Soyuz TM-31, midway between the flights of STS-92 and STS-97. These two Space Shuttle flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the embryonic station with communications, guidance, electrical grounding (on Z1), and power via solar arrays located on the P6 truss.
Over the next two years the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure.
The expansion schedule was interrupted by the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia on STS-107 in 2003, with the resulting hiatus in the Space Shuttle programme halting station assembly until the launch of Discovery on STS-114 in 2005.
The official resumption of assembly was marked by the arrival of Atlantis, flying STS-115, which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more pressurised modules could be accommodated, and the Harmony node and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were followed shortly after by the first two components of Kibō, the Japanese Experiment Module. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of Kibō was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, and the third node, Tranquillity, in February 2010 during STS-130 by the Space Shuttle Endeavour, alongside the Cupola.
As of February 2010, the station consisted of thirteen pressurised modules and the complete Integrated Truss Structure. Still to be launched is the Pressurised Multipurpose Module Leonardo, the European Robotic Arm, two Russian modules and a number of external components, including the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS-02). Assembly is expected to be completed by 2011, by which point the station will have a mass in excess of 400 metric tons (440 short tons).
When completed, the ISS will consist of sixteen pressurised modules with a combined volume of around 1,000 cubic metres (35,000 cu ft). These modules include laboratories, docking compartments, airlocks, nodes and living quarters. Thirteen of these components are already in orbit, with the remaining three awaiting launch. Each module was or will be launched either by the Space Shuttle, Proton rocket or Soyuz rocket.
|Module||Assembly mission||Launch date||Launch system||Nation||Isolated View|
|1A/R||20 November 1998||Proton-K||Russia (Builder)
|The first component of the ISS to be launched, Zarya provided electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance during initial assembly. The module now serves as a storage compartment, both inside the pressurised section and in the externally mounted fuel tanks.|
|2A||4 December 1998||Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-88||USA|||
|The first node module, connecting the American section of the station to the Russian section (via PMA-1), and providing berthing locations for the Z1 truss, Quest airlock, Destiny laboratory and Tranquillity node.|
|1R||12 July 2000||Proton-K||Russia|||
|The station's service module, which provides the main living quarters for resident crews, environmental systems and attitude & orbit control. The module also provides docking locations for Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft and the Automated Transfer Vehicle, and its addition rendered the ISS permanently habitable for the first time.|
|5A||7 February 2001||Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-98||USA|||
|The primary research facility for US payloads aboard the ISS, Destiny is intended for general experiments. The module houses 24 International Standard Payload Racks, some of which are used for environmental systems and crew daily living equipment, and features a 51-centimetre (20 in) optically perfect window, the largest such window ever produced for use in space. Destiny also serves as the mounting point for most of the station's Integrated Truss Structure.|
|7A||12 July 2001||Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-104||USA|||
|The primary airlock for the ISS, Quest hosts spacewalks with both US EMU and Russian Orlan spacesuits. Quest consists of two segments; the equipment lock, that stores spacesuits and equipment, and the crew lock, from which astronauts can exit into space.|
|4R||14 September 2001||Soyuz-U, Progress M-SO1||Russia|||
|Pirs provides the ISS with additional docking ports for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and allows egress and ingress for spacewalks by cosmonauts using Russian Orlan spacesuits, in addition to providing storage space for these spacesuits.|
|10A||23 October 2007||Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-120||Europe (Builder)
|The second of the station's node modules, Harmony is the utility hub of the ISS. The module contains four racks that provide electrical power, bus electronic data, and acts as a central connecting point for several other components via its six Common Berthing Mechanisms (CBMs). The European Columbus and Japanese Kibō laboratories are permanently berthed to the module, and American Space Shuttle Orbiters dock with the ISS via PMA-2, attached to Harmony's forward port. In addition, the module serves as a berthing port for the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules during shuttle logistics flights.|
|1E||7 February 2008||Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-122||Europe|||
|The primary research facility for European payloads aboard the ISS, Columbus provides a generic laboratory as well as facilities specifically designed for biology, biomedical research and fluid physics. Several mounting locations are affixed to the exterior of the module, which provide power and data to external experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF), Solar Monitoring Observatory, Materials International Space Station Experiment, and Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. A number of expansions are planned for the module to study quantum physics and cosmology.|
|Kibō Experiment Logistics Module
(lit. 'hope' and 'wish' JEM–ELM)
|1J/A||11 March 2008||Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-123||Japan|||
|Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the ELM provides storage and transportation facilities to the laboratory with a pressurised section to serve internal payloads.|
|Kibō Pressurised Module
|1J||31 May 2008||Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-124||Japan|||
|Part of the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module laboratory, the PM is the core module of Kibō to which the ELM and Exposed Facility are berthed. The laboratory is the largest single ISS module and contains a total of 23 racks, including 10 experiment racks. The module is used to carry out research in space medicine, biology, Earth observations, materials production, biotechnology, and communications research. The PM also serves as the mounting location for an external platform, the Exposed Facility (EF), that allows payloads to be directly exposed to the harsh space environment. The EF is serviced by the module's own robotic arm, the JEM–RMS, which is mounted on the PM.|
(Mini-Research Module 2)
|5R||10 November 2009||Soyuz-U, Progress M-MRM2||Russia|||
|One of the Russian ISS components, MRM2 will be used for docking of Soyuz and Progress ships, as an airlock for spacewalks and as an interface for scientific experiments.|
|20A||8 February 2010||Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130||Europe (Builder)
|The third and last of the station's US nodes, Tranquillity contains an advanced life support system to recycle waste water for crew use and generate oxygen for the crew to breathe. The node also provides four berthing locations for more attached pressurised modules or crew transportation vehicles, in addition to the permanent berthing location for the station's Cupola.|
|Cupola||20A||8 February 2010||Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-130||Europe (Builder)
|The Cupola is an observatory module that provides ISS crew members with a direct view of robotic operations and docked spacecraft, as well as an observation point for watching the Earth. The module comes equipped with robotic workstations for operating the SSRMS and shutters to protect its windows from damage caused by micrometeorites.|
|Module||Assembly mission||Launch date||Launch system||Nation||Isolated View|
(Mini-Research Module 1)
|ULF4||NET 14 May 2010||Space Shuttle Atlantis, STS-132||Russia|||
|MRM1 will be used for docking and cargo storage aboard the station.|
(Pressurised Multipurpose Module)
|ULF5||NET 16 September 2010||Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-133||Europe (Builder)
|The Leonardo PMM will house spare parts and supplies, allowing longer times between resupply missions and freeing space in other modules, particularly Columbus. The PMM was created by converting the Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module into a module that could be permanently attached to the station. The arrival of the module will mark the completion of the US Orbital Segment.|
(Multipurpose Laboratory Module)
|3R||c. December 2011||Proton-M||Russia|||
|The MLM will be Russia's primary research module as part of the ISS and will be used for general microgravity experiments, docking, and cargo logistics. The module provides a crew work and rest area, and will be equipped with a backup attitude control system that can be used to control the station's attitude. Based on the current assembly schedule, the arrival of Nauka will complete construction of the Russian Orbital Segment and it will be the last major component added to the station.|
Several modules planned for the station have been cancelled over the course of the ISS programme, whether for budgetary reasons, because the modules becoming unnecessary, or following a redesign of the station after the 2003 Columbia disaster. The cancelled modules include:
In addition to the pressurised modules, the ISS features a large number of external components. The largest component is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted. The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 m (356 ft) long.
The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment, is scheduled to be launched on STS-134 in 2010, and will be mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS will measure cosmic rays and look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter.
The ITS serves as a base for the main remote manipulator system called the Mobile Servicing System (MSS). This consists of the Mobile Base System (MBS), the Canadarm2, and the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator. The MBS rolls along rails built into some of the ITS segments to allow the arm to reach all parts of the US segment of the station. The MSS is due to have its reach increased by an Orbiter Boom Sensor System, due to be installed by STS-133.
Two other remote manipulator systems are present in the station's final configuration. The European Robotic Arm, which will service the Russian Orbital Segment, will be launched alongside the Multipurpose Laboratory Module; the JEM RMS, which services the JEM Exposed Facility, was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the JEM Pressurised Module. In addition to these robotic arms, there are two Russian Strela cargo cranes used for moving spacewalking cosmonauts and parts around the exterior of the Russian Orbital Segment.
The station in its complete form will have several smaller external components, such as the three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs), launched on STS-102, STS-114 and STS-118, which are used for storage of spare parts. Four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) will allow experiments to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space, and will provide the necessary electricity and computing to process experimental data locally. ELCs 1 and 2 were delivered on STS-129 in November 2009, and ELCs 3 and 4 are scheduled for delivery on STS-134 in July 2010 and STS-133 in September 2010. There are also two exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules, the JEM Exposed Facility, which serves as an external 'porch' for the Japanese Experiment Module complex, and a facility on the European Columbus laboratory, which provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space.
The source of electrical power for the ISS is the sun. Sunlight is converted into electricity by solar arrays. The Russian segment of the station uses 28 volts DC (partly provided by four solar arrays mounted directly to Zarya and Zvezda), as does the space shuttle, but in the remainder of the station, electricity provided by the US solar arrays is distributed at a voltage ranging from 130 to 180 volts DC. These arrays are arranged as four pairs of wings, and each pair is capable of generating nearly 32.8 kW of DC power.
Power is stabilised and distributed at 160 volts DC, and then is converted to the user-required 124 volts DC. The high-voltage distribution allows the use of small-diameter electrical cables and consequently reduces weight. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters. The power sharing feature has become essential since the cancellation of the Russian Science Power Platform because the Russian Orbital Segment now depends on the US-built solar arrays for power.
Since the station is often not in direct sunlight, it relies on rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries to provide continuous power for the 35 minutes of every 90 minute orbit during which it is eclipsed by the Earth. During the sunlit part of the orbit, the batteries are recharged. The batteries have a working life of 6.5 years, and they are expected to be replaced multiple times during the anticipated 20-year life of the station.
The US solar arrays normally track the sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about 375 m2 (450 yd2) in area and 58 metres (63 yd) long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the sun in each orbit by rotating the alpha gimbal, while the beta gimbal adjusts for the angle of the sun from the orbital plane. Another tracking option, the Night Glider mode, which aligns the solar arrays edgewise to the direction of travel when the panels are in the Earth's shadow, is used to reduce the effects of the drag produced by the tenuous upper atmosphere, through which the station flies.
The ISS is maintained in a near circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 278 km (173 mi) and a maximum of 460 km (286 mi). It travels at an average speed of 27,724 kilometres (17,227 mi) per hour, and completes 15.7 orbits per day. The normal maximum altitude is 425 km (264 mi) to allow Soyuz rendezvous missions. As the ISS constantly loses altitude because of a slight atmospheric drag, it needs to be boosted to a higher altitude several times each year. This boost can be performed by either the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, a docked space shuttle, a Progress resupply vessel, or by ESA's ATV. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed.
In December 2008 NASA signed an agreement with the Ad Astra Rocket Company which may result in the testing on the ISS of a VASIMR plasma propulsion engine. This technology could allow station-keeping to be done more economically than at present.
The station's navigational position is established using the US Global Positioning System and Russian GLONASS system, with the attitude (orientation) of the station monitored by a set of sun, star and horizon sensors on Zvezda. Attitude is maintained by either of two mechanisms; normally, a system using several control moment gyroscopes (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, with Destiny forward of Unity, the P truss on the port side, and Pirs on the Earth-facing (nadir) side. When the CMG system becomes 'saturated'—when a CMG exceeds its operational range or cannot track a series of rapid movements—it can lose its ability to control station attitude. In this event, the Russian attitude control system is designed to take over automatically, using thrusters to maintain station attitude and allowing the CMG system to desaturate. This has only occurred once, during Expedition 10. When a space shuttle is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude, a procedure that was used during STS-117 as the S3/S4 truss was installed.
Radio communications provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and Mission Control Centres. Radio links are also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crewmembers, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes.
The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground via the Lira antenna mounted to Zvezda. The Lira antenna also has the capability to use the Luch data relay satellite system. This system, used for communications with Mir, fell into disrepair during the 1990s, and as a result is no longer in use. However, two new Luch satellites—Luch-5A and Luch-5B—are planned for launch in 2011 to restore the operational capability of the system. The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links mounted in the Z1 truss structure: the S band (used for audio) and Ku band (used for audio, video and data) systems. These transmissions are routed via the US Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, which allows for almost continuous real-time communications with NASA's Mission Control Centre (MCC-H) in Houston. Data channels for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and Japanese Kibō modules are routed via the S band and Ku band systems, although the European Data Relay Satellite System and similar Japanese system will eventually complement the TDRSS in this role. Communications between modules are carried on an internal digital wireless network.
UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs. UHF is employed by other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station, such as Soyuz, Progress, HTV, ATV and the Space Shuttle (except the shuttle also makes use of the S band and Ku band systems via TDRSS), to receive commands from Mission Control and ISS crewmembers. Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV uses a laser attached to the spacecraft and equipment attached to Zvezda, known as the Proximity Communications Equipment, to accurately dock to the station.
At the station's orbital altitude, the gravity from the Earth is 88% of that at sea level. The state of weightlessness is caused by the constant free fall of the ISS, which, because of the equivalence principle, is indiscernible from a state of zero gravity. The environment on the station is, however, often described as microgravity, as the weightlessness is imperfect. This is caused by four separate effects:
The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) provides or controls atmospheric pressure, fire detection and suppression, oxygen levels, waste management and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects, processes, and stores waste and water produced and used by the crew—a process that recycles fluid from the sink, shower, toilet, and condensation from the air. The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station. The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters. Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters.
The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to the Earth's. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than the alternative, a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.
Because of the size of the ISS (about that of an American football field) and the large reflective area offered by its solar panels, ground based observation of the station is possible with the naked eye if the observer is in the right location at the right time. In many cases, the station is one of the brightest naked-eye objects in the sky, although it is visible only for periods ranging from two to five minutes.
To view the station, the following conditions need to be fulfilled, assuming the weather is clear: The station must be above the observer's horizon, and it must pass within about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) of the observation site (the closer the better). It must be dark enough at the observer's location for stars to be visible, and the station must be in sunlight rather than in the Earth's shadow. It is common for the third condition to begin or end during what would otherwise be a good viewing opportunity. In the evening, as the station moves further from the dusk, going from west to east it will appear to suddenly fade and disappear. In the reverse situation, it may suddenly appear in the sky as it approaches the dawn.
The station has now become bright enough to be seen during the day under certain conditions.
The ISS is a joint project of several space agencies: the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the European Space Agency (ESA).
As a multinational project, the legal and financial aspects are complex. Issues of concern include the ownership of modules, station utilisation by participant nations, and responsibilities for station resupply. Obligations and rights are established by the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA). This international treaty was signed on 28 January 1998 by the primary nations involved in the Space Station project; the United States of America, Russian Federation, Japan, Canada and ten member states of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland). A second layer of agreements was then achieved, called Memoranda of Understanding (MOU), between NASA and ESA, CSA, RKA and JAXA. These agreements are then further split, such as for the contractual obligations between nations, and trading of partners' rights and obligations. Use of the Russian Orbital Segment is also negotiated at this level.
In addition to these main intergovernmental agreements, Brazil joins as a bilateral partner of the United States by a contract with NASA to supply hardware. In return, NASA will provide Brazil with access to its ISS facilities on-orbit, as well as a flight opportunity for one Brazilian astronaut during the course of the ISS programme. Italy has a similar contract with NASA to provide comparable services, although Italy also takes part in the programme directly via its membership in ESA. China has reportedly expressed interest in the project, especially if it would be able to work with the RKA. However, as of 2009 China is not involved because of US objections.
The Russian part of the station is operated and controlled by the Russian Federation's space agency and provides Russia with the right to nearly one-half of the crew time for the ISS. The allocation of remaining crew time (three to four crew members of the total permanent crew of six) and hardware within the other sections of the station has been assigned as follows:
The cost estimates for the ISS range from 35 billion to 160 billion dollars. ESA, the one agency which actually presents potential overall costs, estimates €100 billion for the entire station over 30 years. A precise cost estimate for the ISS is unclear, as it is difficult to determine which costs should be attributed to the ISS programme, or how the Russian contribution should be measured.
Critics of the ISS contend that the time and money spent on the ISS could be better spent on other projects—whether they be robotic spacecraft missions, space exploration, investigations of problems on Earth, or just tax savings. Some critics, such as Robert L. Park, argue that little scientific research was convincingly planned for the ISS, and that the primary feature of a space-based laboratory, its microgravity environment, can be studied less expensively with a "vomit comet".
The research capabilities of the ISS have been criticised, particularly following the cancellation of the ambitious Centrifuge Accommodations Module, which, alongside other equipment cancellations, means research done on the ISS is generally limited to experiments which do not require any specialised apparatus. For example, in the first half of 2007, ISS research dealt primarily with human biological responses to living and working in space, covering topics like kidney stones, circadian rhythm, and the effects of cosmic rays on the nervous system. Other criticisms hinge on the technical design of the ISS, including the high inclination of the station's orbit, which leads to a higher cost for US-based launches to the station.
In response to some of these comments, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of benefits. NASA has estimated that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of human space exploration has been many times the initial public investment, although this estimate is based on the Apollo programme and was made in the 1970s. A review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spin-offs is actually very low, except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.
NASA currently plans to deorbit the ISS in the first quarter of 2016. However, the plan to end the ISS programme in 2015, as determined in 2004 by then-President George W. Bush, has been rejected by the current Obama administration. With the new budget announced on 1 February 2010, the administration aims to extend the lifetime through 2020. Current NASA administrator Charles Bolden has stated the lifetime of the ISS will be extended beyond 2016, the year that international funding for the station is planned to end. The Augustine Commission, which reviewed NASA's human space flight program, recommended in its final report of 23 October 2009 the extension of the ISS programme to at least 2020. In particular, Leroy Chiao, a former space station commander and space shuttle astronaut who sat on the advisory panel, stated in a CNN interview: “You've got all of these different countries working together on this common project in space. And if we go ahead and stop [...] it's going to break up that framework. The different countries around the world will lose confidence in the US as a leader in space exploration." NASA officials received confirmation from the Obama administration on the future direction of the ISS in particular and the human spaceflight programme in general on 1 February 2010, with a budget proposing an extension to the ISS programme until at least 2020, with talks between ISS partners suggesting that the station could conceivably remain operational until 2028.
NASA has the responsibility to deorbit the ISS. Although Zvezda has a propulsion system used for station-keeping, it is not powerful enough for a controlled deorbit. Options for controlled deorbit of the ISS include the use of a modified European Automated Transfer Vehicle or a specially constructed deorbit vehicle.
According to a 2009 report, RKK Energia is considering methods to remove from the station some modules of the Russian Orbital Segment when the end of mission is reached and use them as a basis for a new station, known as the Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS include the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM), currently scheduled to be launched at the end of 2011, with other Russian modules which are currently planned to be attached to the MLM until 2015, although still currently unfunded. Neither the MLM nor any additional modules attached to it would have reached the end of their useful lives in 2016 or 2020. The report presents a statement from an unnamed Russian engineer who believes that, based on the experience from Mir, a thirty-year life should be possible, except for micrometeorite damage, because the Russian modules have been built with on-orbit refurbishment in mind.
The time zone used on board the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC, also called GMT). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets a day. During visiting space shuttle missions, the ISS crew will mostly follow the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the shuttle mission. Because the sleeping periods between the UTC time zone and the MET usually differ, the ISS crew often has to adjust its sleeping pattern before the space shuttle arrives and after it leaves to shift from one time zone to the other in a practice known as sleep shifting.
A typical day for the crew begins with a wake-up at 06:00, followed by post-sleep activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew then eats breakfast and takes part in a daily planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at around 08:10. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Following a one-hour lunch break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew carries out its pre-sleep activities beginning at 19:30, including dinner and a crew conference. The scheduled sleep period begins at 21:30. In general, the crew works 10 hours per day on a weekday, and 5 hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time their own for relaxation, games or work catch-up.
The station provides crew quarters for each member of permanent Expedition crews, with two 'sleep stations' in the Russian Orbital Segment and four more, due to be installed in Tranquillity, currently spread around the US Orbital Segment. The American quarters are private, approximately person-sized soundproof booths. A crewmember can sleep in them in a tethered sleeping bag, listen to music, use a laptop, and store personal effects in a large drawer or in nets attached to the module's walls. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop. Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall—it is possible to sleep floating freely through the station, but this is generally avoided because of the possibility of bumping into sensitive equipment. It is important that crew accommodations are well ventilated. Otherwise, astronauts can wake up oxygen deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide has formed around their heads.
The ISS does not feature a shower, although it was planned as part of the now cancelled Habitation Module. Instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Crews are also provided with rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.
There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in Zvezda and Destiny. These Waste and Hygiene Compartments use a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Astronauts first fasten themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal. A lever operates a powerful fan and a suction hole slides open: the air stream carries the waste away. Solid waste is collected in individual bags which are stored in an aluminium container. Full containers are transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal. Liquid waste is evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct “urine funnel adapters” attached to the tube so both men and women can use the same toilet. Waste is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled back into drinking water.
Most of the food eaten by station crews is frozen, refrigerated or canned. Menus are prepared by the astronauts, with the help of a dietitian, before the astronauts' flight to the station. As the sense of taste is reduced in orbit because of fluid shifting to the head, spicy food is a favourite of many crews. Each crewmember has individual food packages and cooks them using the onboard galley, which features two food warmers, a refrigerator, and a water dispenser that provides both heated and unheated water. Drinks are provided in dehydrated powder form, and are mixed with water before consumption. Drinks and soups are sipped from plastic bags with straws, while solid food is eaten with a knife and fork, which are attached to a tray with magnets to prevent them floating away. Any food which does float away, including crumbs, must be collected to prevent it clogging up the station's air filters and other equipment.
The most significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness are muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopenia. Other significant effects include fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, excess flatulence, and puffiness of the face. These effects begin to reverse quickly upon return to the Earth.
To prevent some of these adverse physiological effects, the station is equipped with two treadmills (including the COLBERT) and a stationary bicycle; each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment. Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill. Researchers believe that exercise is a good countermeasure for the bone and muscle density loss that occurs when humans live for a long time without gravity.
Each permanent station crew is given a sequential expedition number. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year, and they commence following the official handover of the station from one Expedition commander to another. Expeditions 1 through 6 consisted of three person crews, but the Columbia accident led to a reduction to two crew members for Expeditions 7 to 12. Expedition 13 saw the restoration of the station crew to three, and the station has been permanently staffed as such since. While only three crew members are permanently on the station, several expeditions, such as Expedition 16, have consisted of up to six astronauts or cosmonauts, who are flown to and from the station on separate flights.
On 27 May 2009, Expedition 20 began. Expedition 20 was the first ISS crew of six. Before the expansion of the living volume and capabilities from STS-115 the station could only host a crew of three. Expedition 20's crew was lifted to the station in two separate Soyuz-TMA flights launched at two different times (each Soyuz-TMA can hold only three people): Soyuz TMA-14 on 26 March 2009 and Soyuz TMA-15 on 27 May 2009. However, the station would not be permanently occupied by six crew members all year. For example, when the Expedition 20 crew (Roman Romanenko, Frank De Winne and Bob Thirsk) returned to Earth in November 2009, for a period of about two weeks only two crew members (Jeff Williams and Max Surayev) were aboard. This increased to five in early December, when another Soyuz, carrying Oleg Kotov, Timothy Creamer and Soichi Noguchi arrived. It will then decrease to three when Williams and Surayev depart in March 2010, returning to six in April 2010 with the launch of the next three-person Soyuz.
The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of 24 November 2009 , it had had 266 visitors (185 different people). Mir had 137 visitors (104 people).
Spacecraft from four different space agencies visit the ISS, serving a variety of purposes. The Automated Transfer Vehicle from the European Space Agency, the Russian Roskosmos Progress spacecraft and the H-II Transfer Vehicle from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency have provided resupply services to the station. In addition, Russia supplies a Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, which is replaced every six months. Finally, the US services the ISS through its Space Shuttle programme, providing resupply missions, assembly and logistics flights, and crew rotation. As of 27 November 2009 , there have been 20 Soyuz, 35 Progress, 1 ATV, 1 HTV and 31 Space Shuttle flights to the station. Expeditions require, on average, 2,722 kg of supplies, and as of 27 November 2009 , crews had consumed a total of around 19,000 meals. Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station on average two and three times respectively each year, with the ATV and HTV planned to visit annually from 2010 onwards.
As of 18 March 2010, there are three spacecraft docked with the ISS:
The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at control centres across the globe, including:
At the low altitudes at which the ISS orbits there is a variety of space debris, consisting of everything from entire spent rocket stages and defunct satellites, to explosion fragments, paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites, small needles, and many other objects. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, pose a threat to the station as they have the ability to puncture the pressurised modules and cause damage to other parts of the station. Micrometeoroids also pose a risk to spacewalking astronauts, as such objects could puncture their spacesuits, causing them to depressurise.
Space debris objects are tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified of any objects with sufficient size to cause damage on impact. This allows for a Debris Avoidance Manoeuvre (DAM) to be conducted, which uses thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment to alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. DAMs are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Eight DAMs had been performed prior to March 2009, the first seven between October 1999 and May 2003. Usually the orbit is raised by one or two kilometres by means of an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s. Unusually there was a lowering of 1.7 km  on 27 August 2008, the first such lowering for 8 years.  There were two DAMs in 2009 : 22 March and 17 July. If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their Soyuz spacecraft, so that they would be able to evacuate in the event it was damaged by the debris. This partial station evacuation has occurred twice, on 6 April 2003 and 13 March 2009.
Without the protection of the Earth's atmosphere, astronauts are exposed to higher levels of radiation from a steady flux of cosmic rays. The station's crews are exposed to about 1 millisievert of radiation each day, which is about the same as someone would get from natural sources on Earth in a year. This results in a higher risk of astronauts' developing cancer. High levels of radiation can cause damage to the chromosomes of lymphocytes. These cells are central to the immune system and so any damage to them could contribute to the lowered immunity experienced by astronauts. Over time lowered immunity results in the spread of infection between crew members, especially in such confined areas. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and protective drugs may lower the risks to an acceptable level, but data is scarce and longer-term exposure will result in greater risks.
Despite efforts to improve radiation shielding on the ISS compared to previous stations such as Mir, radiation levels within the station have not been vastly reduced, and it is thought that further technological advancement will be required to make long-duration human spaceflight further into the Solar System a possibility.
The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station being built in space. The station is a joint project among several entities: the United States, Russia, Europe, Japan, and Canada. Other nations such as Brazil, Italy, and China also work with the ISS through cooperation with other countries.
Building the ISS began in 1998, when a Russian and American module were connected with each other.
In the early 1980s, NASA planned Space Station Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. It never left the drawing board and, with the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War, it was cancelled. The end of the Space race prompted the U.S. administration officials to start negotiations with international partners Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s in order to build a truly international space station. This project was first announced in 1993 and was called Space Station Alpha. It was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies: NASA's Space Station Freedom, Russia's Mir-2 (the successor to the Mir Space Station, the core of which is now Zvezda) and ESA's Columbus that was planned to be a stand-alone spacelab.
The first section, the Zarya Functional Cargo Block, was put in orbit in November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket. Two further pieces (the Unity Module and Zvezda service module) were added before the first crew, Expedition 1, was sent. Expedition 1 docked to the ISS on November 2, 2000, and consisted of U.S. astronaut William Shepherd and two Russian cosmonauts, Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev. The new section of the ISS has been named after the astronaut who started it all Maximum Ride. This was announced at 5:13pm Tuesday 5th May, 2009.
The scientists living in the space station have to get used to all kinds of changes from life on Earth. It takes them only 90 minutes to orbit (go around) the earth, so the sun looks as if it's rising and setting every 45 minutes. This can be pretty confusing, especially when you are trying to decide when you should go to bed! The astronauts try to keep a 24-hour-schedule anyway.
When it really is bedtime, they have to sleep in sleeping bags that are stuck to the wall. They have tothemselves inside so they will not float away in the middle of a nice dream.
In space there is no gravity (this is called zero gravity). To help prepare astronauts experience zero gravity, NASA trainers put the astronauts in the water. Because water makes you float, this is a little like experiencing no gravity. However, in water you can push against the water and move around. In zero gravity, there's nothing to push against, so you just float in the air. Another way of training is going in a plane and making the plane fall to earth very quickly. This lets people experience zero gravity for a very short time. This training can make people quite sick at first.
Since in zero gravity, the astronauts do not use their legs very much, they need to get lots of exercise to keep them from becoming too weak (without gravity, astronauts can get big upper bodies and skinny legs. This is called chicken-leg syndrome). Lots of exercise is needed to keep the astronauts healthy every day.
Eating in space style is pretty hard, too! Water and other liquids do not flow down in space, so if you spilled some milk in a space station, the milk would float around everywhere! Liquids ruin electric equipment, so astronauts have to be very careful in space. They drink by sucking water out of a bag, or from a tube stuck to the wall. They can not put their food on plates because it would just float right off, so they put it in pouches and eat from the pouches. The food is usually dried, because crumbs are very messy things that can ruin the equipment.
Sometimes fresh fruits and vegetables are sent up to the astronauts, but it is very expensive and hard to send it, so they have to prepare a lot of food before they go.
Using the Bathroom in Space
Actually, in space, the bathroom should probably be called the restroom instead, because you really can not take baths there. Instead, astronauts use squirt guns to take a shower! One person squirts himself with a gun while other people stand outside with a water vacuum to get rid of all the water that floats out of the shower. This is quite hard, so astronauts usually just take a "sponge bath" with a wet cloth.
Toilets can be another problem. Toilets are supposed to use gravity to work. When you flush the toilet, gravity makes the water go down. Since there is no gravity in space, the toilet must be attached to the astronauts and gently away all their waste.
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This handy compact dictionary is the second edition of the first comprehensive dictionary of Jersey's own language to be produced for English-speakers. It is primarily intended to be useful, rather than over-scholarly, and to help as many people as possible use Jèrriais in the future as well as understand the wealth of literature written in the past.
This dictionary has not been recently created – it has been built on the long tradition of lexicography that has gone before. The bulk of the current dictionary is a revised version of the English-Jersey Language Vocabulary (Carré, 1972, in collaboration with Frank Le Maistre and Philip de Veulle). This in turn was based on the extensive research by Frank Le Maistre which culminated in the monumental Dictionnaire Jersiais-Français (Le Maistre, 1966), which included consultation of the Glossaire du Patois Jersiais, based on manuscript glossaries dating from the 19th century, and the work of Philippe Langlois, Augustus Le Gros and Thomas Gaudin and published in 1924; and the Glossary of Jersey French ( Spence, 1960). Other works consulted during our research were A Brief History of Jèrriais (Spence, 1993), Les Preunmié Mille Mots (Soc. Jers., 2000), Jersey Norman French (Jones, 2001), and Jèrriais: Jersey\'s Native Tongue (Jones, 2003).
In order to supplement the basic material imported from the English-Jersey Language Vocabulary and make it as useful as possible for Jèrriais-speakers and others in the 21st century, many of the English definitions have been revised and modernised and variant spellings have been listed separately for ease of use, and the following additional materials have been incorporated:
- Items and definitions from the Dictionnaire Jersiais-Français that do not appear in the English-Jersey Language Vocabulary.
- Words attested in literary texts, other written texts such as newspapers, and oral and broadcast sources that do not appear in either the Dictionnaire Jersiais-Français or English-Jersey Language Vocabulary.
- Neologisms, new words developed after research and scrutiny and used in modern situations.
- Place names, personal names, chemical, ornithological, botanical and ichthyological vocabulary.
- Additional grammatical forms of verbs, nouns, adverbs conjugated regularly from lexis referenced in existing lexicographical sources.


عنوان مقاله [English]
Study on the citizen satisfaction regarding public services and municipality activities has widely developed. Because the results of such studies are very important in order to identify services for budgeting and planning managers.
The use of citizen satisfaction studies to assess the performance of public services has increased significantly in recent years. Studies on citizenship satisfaction are rooted in recent decades later, from 2005 to 2010, many studies were conducted on citizen satisfaction with the increasing development of urbanization. These studies are still ongoing around the world due to the growing population of urban areas and the annual development of cities. Citizens' satisfaction with public services has been a constant concern in public sector innovation innovation in urban management organizations such as municipalities. It has also been clearly proven that there is a significant direct relationship between people's satisfaction with municipal services and their trust in the government. The semantic burden of public service quality varies with satisfaction. Service quality has an objective, measurable and cognitive meaning, while satisfaction is a mental element based on emotions and passivity. The quality of services is measured by the shape, size and manner of access. Citizens' satisfaction with the city environment and the services provided by the municipality, it is an important factor in motivating people to participate in urban development and improve the quality of their housing. The purpose of this study is to assess the level of citizen satisfaction with municipal services with emphasis on the urban environment.
In this regard, first, the indicators and factors for measuring citizen satisfaction were identified using focus group interviews. This research is applied and developmental in terms of purpose and descriptive-correlational in terms of research method and is quantitative in nature. The theoretical framework was developed using the library method and literature review. Data collection tools were a centralized group interview and a researcher-made semi-structured questionnaire. For this purpose, in order to identify the important factors in measuring citizen satisfaction with the services of Kordkoy Municipality, a focus group interview was conducted with a group of local people as well as experienced experts. 24 factors were finally identified and finalized as factors of citizen satisfaction in 4 indicators. Then, a researcher-made questionnaire was designed with closed and semi-closed items In the first part, the individual characteristics of the respondents such as age, gender, education and occupation were examined, and in the second part, the satisfaction criteria of individuals with very few to very many options were examined. Then, by Yaman method, a number of samples of the population of Kordkoy family were identified. After approval, the questionnaire was completed using Cronbach's alpha test with 30 pre-test questionnaires among citizens. Finally, data analysis was performed in SPSS software.
This study showed that among the 24 factors identified in the indicators of aesthetics, urban infrastructure, and environment and educational-cultural, citizens were less satisfied with 21 factors. Also, a significant difference was observed between the group mean of satisfied and unsatisfied citizens (p <0.05). Citizens' personal characteristics had a significant effect on their satisfaction with municipal activities and public services and education and age showed a significant effect (p <0.05). The results of a descriptive test showed the attitude of the citizens of Kordkoy city towards different municipal services The highest satisfaction was found in the factors of "firefighting speed and relief assistance, warnings and provision of safety services" and "cleaning and garbage collection in the city" with a group average of 3.483 and 3.406, respectively. And the lowest level of satisfaction regarding "the situation of eradication of vermin and dealing with stray dogs" and "sanitary services in the city and high-traffic areas" were with group averages of 2.032 and 2.271, respectively. Also, comparing the average of two groups with satisfaction and dissatisfaction with municipal services, the results of the binomial test showed. There was a significant difference between the two groups regarding 21 factors in all these disputes, citizens were dissatisfied with the services (P <0.05). People with less than a diploma have the highest level of satisfaction and people with a master's degree or higher have the lowest level of satisfaction with municipal services. There was also a significant difference between classes in terms of satisfaction (p <0.05). As the results of this study show, Citizens of Kordkoy in Golestan province were lowly satisfied with the current situation in the city. The results of the study showed Of the 24 factors studied, only about two factors, the number of citizens were more satisfied than citizens without satisfaction In these cases, too, the percentage of people was very small Citizens were satisfied with 52% of dissatisfied citizens with the factor of "cleaning and garbage collection in the city" (which also had the highest average satisfaction ratings). Numerous studies have shown citizens' dissatisfaction with public services and urban activities. Urban management strategies should be reviewed and determined based on the status of each different and purposeful city. In general, it was found that the individual characteristics of citizens affect their satisfaction with various factors. Urban management strategies should be reviewed and determined based on the status of each different and purposeful city. In general, it was found that the individual characteristics of citizens affect their satisfaction with various factors. The results of his study showed that personal characteristics had an effective role on citizen satisfaction. It was further found that the variables of education and age have a significant role in the level of citizens' satisfaction and a significant negative correlation was observed between citizen satisfaction and education level. Some studies in the world and in Iran have shown similar results to this study. The level of participation, awareness and learning about municipal activities and successes in the field of urban development, it can increase urban satisfaction.
In general it should be stated In order to be aware of the desirability and quality of its activities and performance results in complex and dynamic urban environments, urban management needs to establish appropriate performance appraisal systems to achieve competitive advantage. Because the lack of such a system means not communicating with the internal and external environment of the urban system In that internal part, it can include public services and municipal activities and citizens' satisfaction And ultimately leads to the death of public trust and the dynamism of society One of the main outcomes is migration and lack of belonging to the place of residence. In order to apply the results of this study in order to improve urban management and planning in Kordkoy city, first, citizens who are dissatisfied with municipal services can be identified according to age and educational classes of this study. And then for the target group, determined appropriate strategies to improve the situation of municipal services in the field of higher priority factors.


A black panther is a melanistic jaguar. The black jaguar was considered a separate species by indigenous peoples. In jaguars the melanism allele is dominant. Consequently black panthers can produce black or spotted cubs, but a pair of spotted jaguars will only produce spotted cubs.
Geometry of this black panther 3D model is optimized. The topology is optimized for animation. Rendered in Vray.Vray and standart versions.
You can find other items of this collection
by using the following keyword — 3dr189
Hope you enjoy using our models. We are open for questions and suggestions.


Physical properties of seawater
Sound in the Sea
Example 3E: Sound in the Sea
DPO 3.7 discusses sound in the sea. You can use JOA's parameter calculator to calculate sound speed, and then plot the results with an eye to visualizing how sound speed varies with temperature, salinity, and pressure. Here we will use profile data at one station, the A16S_2005_sta085_bottle.joa data file.
Files that may be needed or created in this example:
Exercise 3E-01: Seawater Properties - Sound Speed
- File → Open → A16S_2005_sta085_bottle.joa
- Calculations → Parameters...
Select potential temperature (Theta), density referred to sea surface pressure (Sigma 0), and Sound velocity:
- Click OK
The three parameters now appear in the JOA Data window:
- Next, set up a multiple-parameter JOA Property-Property Plot using the technique described in the earlier examples for
this DPO chapter:
- Plots → Property-Property
- Now use the dialog box resizing symbol on the lower right of the dialog box to “pull down” (extend down) the dialog box (click on the symbol and move the mouse pointer down the screen). You will see the scrolling X- and Y-axis parameter lists expand until all the parameters are visible.
- Now, via right-clicks or ctrl/command-clicks, you will find you can select more than one X-axis parameter. Do this for salinity (SALT), potential temperature (THTA), sigma-0 (SIG0), and sound velocity (SVEL), with pressure (PRES) for the Y-axis.
- Also select Color symbols by “Connect line color” and Connect observations, and select circular dot symbols, size 7 (to make your symbols easier to see on the resulting plot).
The Basic page of the Property-Property Plot dialog box should then look like this:
- Property-Property Plot → Advanced
As with the previous DPO JOA Example, you can now customize the “Minimum” and “Maximum” values, “Increment” and “# of Minor Ticks” (and, if you wish, the “Connect line color”, “Symbol” and symbol “Size”) for each of the X-axis parameters (reached individually by scrolling through the list of X-axis parameters) and the “Minimum” and “Maximum” values, “Increment”, and “# of Minor Ticks” for the Y-axis parameter, which in this case is pressure (PRES).
Set these up as shown in the table:
- Set up the Advanced panel of the Property-Property Plot dialog box with these values:
AXIS Minimum Maximum Increment # of minor ticks SALT 34 37.5 0.5 4 THTA 0 28 2 3 SIG0 24 28 0.5 4 SVEL 1450 1600 50 4 PRES 0 6500 500 4
- Now when you click on the Plot button, you will see this plot:
Later in the DPO JOA Examples, when you learn how to plot vertical section data, we strongly urge you to make a vertical section of sound speed, for example with the WOA05_A16.joa data file, which covers the length of the Atlantic Ocean from Antarctic waters to Iceland. You will find such a section makes it easy to visualize the “SOFAR channel” sound speed minimum discussed in the text.


Forensic Science Ages: 8 – 16
Division: Experimental Science
MiniAges: 8 – 16 years (II – O’Levels)
Skill Level: Basic & Advanced
Ratio Guarantee: 8 students per instructor
Prerequisite: Age only
This course surveys key topics in forensic science, including the application of the scientific process to forensic analysis, procedures and principles of crime scene investigation, physical and trace evidence, from the perspective of the forensic scientist. Through amazing hands-on lab experiences, and analysis of fictional crime scenarios, students learn about forensic tools, technical resources, forming and testing hypotheses, proper data collection, and responsible conclusions.
What Will Students Take Home?
Each student will go home with their photos of the learning session
Top Skills Gained
Conceptual Skills Development
- Understanding the practical implementation of forensic sciences
- Practical Skills – finger print analysis, pattern recognition, chromatography & Cryptography.
- Detective work, deductive reasoning and critical thinking in solving a case.
- Awareness of careers associated with forensic science.
- Analytical Skills
- Observation Skills
STEM & 21st Century Skills Development
- Logical Skills
- Critical Thinking
Discover what sets our teaching style apart.
8:1 Staff Ratio Guarantee
We guarantee small class sizes, with a maximum of 8 students per instructor. At Robotics Labs, our teaching philosophy is premised on personalization—your path, at your pace. Passionate, adult-only instructors guide you through tailored curriculum with one-on-one teaching. The immersive environment is ideal for fostering creativity and allowing you to reach your potential.
Our entire staff is comprised of adults ages 18 and over. We believe you learn best from adults who have mastered their technology skills. Some of our instructors are tech industry professionals. Others are graduate and undergraduate students majoring in the fields of Engineering, Computer Science, Computer Engineering, App Design, and other related fields. We’re extremely selective when it comes to our summer staff.
Friday Open House for Families
On the last day of camp, instructors present each student with a personalized Robotics Labs certificate and recap students’ key accomplishments. Afterwards, students show their families what they spent the week learning!
Students can expect a common-sense mix of instruction, breaks, social time and other creative, age-appropriate activities.


Other Open Access
On October 9th, 2018, the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released a special report that forecasts global temperature to increase by 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels between 2030 and 2052, at the rate of +0.2 °C per decade. Such increase will result in significant additional environmental damage that can be mitigated only by heavily cutting on CO 2 emissions. In addition, the development and spreading of new technologies and good policies form key components of the adaptations necessary to face the challenges posed by such dramatic change. Challenges come with opportunities, and as recommended by IPCC guidelines, societal changes need to promote social justice and equity to build a fair, peaceful and cooperative world.
The Marie Curie Alumni Association hereby expresses its support to the conclusions of the IPCC report, and provides the following comments and recommendations (see document).


‘Brain Drain’ is a process where a worker of any given skill migrates from a developing country to a developed country and receives a higher wage with the same skill set. This phenomenon is an important implication of a theory of economic development called “O-Ring Theory by Michael Kremer”. Kremer’s O-Ring Theory (1993) explains the existence of poverty trap and the reason behind this low-income equilibrium trap that a country is caught in. This model is named after the “Challenger” spaceship disaster in 1986, in which the failure of one small, inexpensive ring-shaped part caused the space shuttle to explode (Todaro, 2015). It proposes that tasks of production must be executed proficiently together in order for any of them to be of high value, which means people with similar skill levels have to work together for development. This means, brain drain hinders development.
The main cause of brain drain is sustainable poverty. Developing countries lose educated, talented and high-skilled labor force. There are some push factors and pull factors behind this. Low-paying jobs, poor working conditions, political instability, lack of freedom, employment discrimination, underdevelopment of the home economy are the push factors while better quality of life, high-paying jobs, social security, modernized education, prestige in the foreign country are the pull factors.
Since the home country is still a developing one and the foreign country is developed, the home country loses its human capital due to brain drain. This affects the economy by limiting economic growth, loss of entrepreneurship and tax revenue, shortage of important workers, loss of education expenditure and services etc. Though brain drain may imply an increase in remittance earning, the above disadvantages hinder the economic development of the home country.
‘Brain gain’ is a new concept compared to its opposite, discussed above. A large number of educated migrants in developed countries are moving back to their home country. A negative side of this process can be explained with the help of the False-Paradigm Model that says, developing countries have failed to develop because their development strategies (usually given to them by western economists) have been based on an incorrect model of development (Todaro, 2015). Due to brain gain, university intellectuals, and high-level government economists get their training from institutions in developed countries. They learn about models that are inapplicable to their home country, which is a developing one. The models need proper modification to be applicable in developing countries. Although brain gain is considered advantageous for emerging economies, the model mismatch can result in issues in the long run. For example, Moghbazar flyover of Dhaka city was mistakenly designed for left-hand driving, when, in Bangladesh, roads are made for right-hand driving (Dhaka Tribune, 2017). But still, attracting qualified and trained people working or learning abroad back to their home country is more important for our development.
Brain drain and brain gain are closely related to skills, training and migration. We can explain ‘Brain Drain’ as gathering the skillset from the home country and working in a foreign country and ‘Brain Gain’ as gathering of skills in the foreign country and returning to the home country for work.
Therefore, there must be a skill mismatch in the job sector in the home country. We lack proper jobs for high-skilled labor (cause of Brain Drain) and we do not have a proper education system to provide certain high-level skills (initial cause of Brain Gain). Only reforms in the system of education and employment can solve this mismatched puzzle.
We can conclude that both Brain Drain and Brain Gain have some positive and negative effects on an emerging economy. But the loss due to brain drain is more hazardous for a country like Bangladesh while brain gain is equally important for development despite having some negative consequences.
1. Dhaka Tribune, 2017. PM Hasina inaugurates Mouchak-Moghbazar flyover. 26 October.
2. Francis, J., n.d. What is Brain Drain in Economics? - Definition, Causes, Effects & Examples. [Online]
Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-brain-drain-in-economics-definition-causes-effects-examples.html
[Accessed August 2019].
3. Gitau, S. G., n.d. Brain Gain and the potential shifts in Higher Education. [Online]
Available at: https://www.qs.com/brain-gain-and-the-potential-shifts-in-higher-education/
[Accessed August 2019].
Todaro, M. P., 2015. Economic Development. 12 ed. New York: Pearson Education Inc..
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Throughout the 19th century surgery was an important form of treatment of diseases caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB). In fact, modern thoracic surgery was developed mainly with the escalating increase of indications for the surgical treatment of pulmonary TB between World Wars I and II. Up until 1930 the therapeutic approach to pulmonary TB consisted basically of isolated bed rest in a healthy climate. Patients spent years in sanatoriums waiting for cure.
Surgical procedures were then conceived and performed by physicians, often themselves former TB patients, who tried to break away from the frustrating passivity of bed rest (1). The main purpose of these procedures was collapsing regions of the lungs that contained cavitary lesions with the hope of reducing the availability of oxygen to the aerobic mycobacteria. Examples of collapse therapy included thoracoplasty, plombage, pneumothorax, pneumoperitoneum, and phrenic nerve crush (2). Surgical resection of the diseased area of the lung was also attempted in the era prior to antibiotic chemotherapy. However, this form of surgical treatment was received with skepticism and most thoracic surgeons still favored collapse therapy as the primary form of treatment for pulmonary TB.
With the advent of streptomycin in 1944 and later the use of isoniazid, chemotherapy became the gold standard in the treatment of TB, with cure being achieved in most patients. Soon surgery became superfluous as a primary form of therapy and basically used in the treatment of sequelae of the disease and complications of previous procedures (3). Interest in surgical treatment for TB has resurged due to the development of strains of M. tuberculosis that are resistant to many or all of the first-line agents.
Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB)
MDRTB refers to Mycobacterium TB strains with in vitro resistance to the two most effective anti-TB drugs, isoniazid and rifampin. In fact the World Health Organization has defined many forms of drug resistance to address this problem (4).
Despite the singularities of each classification, drug resistance has become a major challenge in TB control, with high relapse and treatment failure rates that lead to development of further resistance. There’s little randomized control trials on the medical treatment of MDRTB (5) and the limited number of second line drugs available makes treatment more costly and associated with more adverse events.
Since individualized treatment regimens appear to have higher treatment success than standardised regimens, chemotherapy for MDRTB requires assessment of the history of treatment as well as meticulous laboratory studies to characterize susceptibility of the specific strain (6). Even with the best therapeutic options available MDRTB is still regarded as having a poor prognosis and most studies show treatment success estimates at around 40% to 60% (7,8).
Surgical resection of diseased areas of the lungs has therefore been tried as an adjuvant therapy in MDRTB. The rationale behind this form of treatment is to remove segments of the lungs containing high concentrations of drug resistant bacilli as reducing the population of mycobacteria will enhance the sterilizing properties of post-surgical chemotherapy and increase the likelihood of treatment success (9).
Most data available today supports the role of surgery in the management of MDRTB (10) although there has been an important selection bias since patients that are fit for surgery usually show more localized disease, with better response to medical treatment and have an overall better clinical status than patients that are not surgical candidates. Even with surgical patients appearing to have superior outcomes there is still no definitive evidence on the topic and surgery should be considered in selected cases by a multidisciplinary panel of specialists.
Indications for surgical treatment
Indications for surgical resection in the treatment of MDRTB were first described by Iseman et al in 1990 (11) and are still used except for minor adaptations due to development of further resistance. Surgery is indicated for patients with such extensive drug resistance that treatment failure or relapse is highly likely, in those with localised disease amenable to resection, and those who have sufficient drug activity to reduce remaining mycobacterial burden enough to allow bronchial stump healing and prevent postoperative complications. However, the lack of effective chemotherapy for some strains of M. tuberculosis classified as extensively resistant tuberculosis (XDRTB) means that even “cured” patients remain at high risk for relapse, and may be considered candidates for resection regardless of sputum culture status. The prerequisite of the presence of sufficient susceptible drug activity to facilitate healing of the bronchial stump is also less relevant in the setting of XDRTB, where extended resistance patterns mean that surgery often remains the only option for cure (12).
Guidelines for the management of drug-resistant TB from WHO (13) and Partners in Health (14) use these same indications for surgery. The American Thoracic Society and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and Infectious Diseases Society of America treatment of TB publication (15) state only that surgical resection should be considered for patients with MDRTB. According to most reports, a specialised surgical team with experienced thoracic surgeons in a dedicated center is considered a prerequisite for offering surgical resection to these patients (13,15). Other than that patients have to have sufficient cardiopulmonary reserve to tolerate resection (16).
Timing of surgery and preop evaluation
Most authors advocate that surgery should be performed after culture-conversion has been achieved to minimize the risk of post-surgical complications. A minimum of three to six months of preoperative chemotherapy is usually given. Another advantage in performing surgery later in the course of treatment is to allow time for nutritional supplementation and control of coexisting medical conditions. However, particularly in the case of XDRTB, this is unlikely to ever be achieved. Delaying surgery and persisting with ineffective chemotherapy may only facilitate progression of disease, and further promote the development of drug resistance (17).
The preoperative workup is directed at estimating cardiopulmonary reserve. Due to the lack of a standardized method for preoperative evaluation in patients undergoing resection for infectious disease we extrapolate the data available for lung cancer surgery. We routinely perform a complete pulmonary function test to estimate pulmonary reserve. In borderline cases, a quantitative lung perfusion scintigraphy can help to define nonperfused areas of parenchyma and thus provide a more reliable evaluation. Another useful tool for borderline patients is the cardiopulmonary exercise test. A VO2max of 15 mL/kg/min has been used as the cutoff for operability (18). An ECG followed by an echocardiogram, where indicated, may be useful in excluding pulmonary hypertension.
The role of minimally invasive surgery
Since its first introduction in the 1980s video assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) has evolved to become the preferred method for the treatment of early stage lung cancer in many centers (19). Equivalent oncological outcomes have been extensively reported by large series when compared to open thoracotomy (20,21). Among the biggest advantages of VATS are less morbidity and postoperative pain (22-24), better functional status, and the improved ability to deliver adjuvant medical therapy (25). Other potential advantages include shorter length of hospital stay (26) and possible cost-minimization (27). Despite these advantages, much less is known about the use of these techniques in the setting of benign lung disease, and specifically infectious lung disease. In theory, patients with focal bronchiectasis or cavitary infectious lung disease that meet indications for surgical resection would be excellent candidates for a minimally invasive approach (28).
The main technical difficulties for VATS resections in infectious lung disease include the presence of firm pleural adhesions, hypertrophy of the bronchial circulation, hilar lymphadenopathy and presence of a thicker, difficult to compress lung parenchyma.
Careful preoperative evaluation can help to predict most of the intraoperative complications. A high-resolution computed tomography will usually show the presence of dense adhesions. Although the need of an extrapleural dissection is an indication for conversion, most of the adhesions can be divided by VATS. In fact the better visualisation provided by the scope can make this part of the procedure easier than in some open approaches.
Since hilar lymphadenopathy is a very common finding in these patients, additional care should be taken when dissecting the hilar vessels. Lymphadenectomy is not necessary but careful dissection of the hilar lymph nodes will increase exposure of the hilar vessels and make vascular control safer.
Although these characteristics make VATS resections for infectious lung disease somewhat more challenging and with higher conversion rates than resection for lung cancer, many authors have reported good results by a minimally invasive approach, therefore VATS resection has been deemed feasible and its use has increased substantially (28-31).
More recently, robotic pulmonary resection (RATS) has emerged as another form of minimally invasive approach in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. Initial reports assure the safety and oncological equivalency of this method (32-35). Despite the lack of published data on the use of RATS for infectious lung diseases, we believe that the robotic platform offers many advantages desirable in the treatment of these patients. Improved ergonomics, increased dexterity and precision, better visualisation with 3D high definition images and a higher magnification rate are the main advantages mentioned by robotic surgeons. Since nodal dissection seems to be more delicate the robotic system may help overcome the technical challenges of resection for infectious disease. The main disadvantages of this method are the lack of tactile feedback, increased operating room time for setup and increased costs.
Here we present a case of a left upper lobectomy for infectious/inflammatory lung disease operated in our institution by a robotic approach (Figure 1) .
MDRTB is a major global challenge in TB control with high rates of treatment failure and relapse. Surgical resection of grossly diseased areas of lung parenchyma seems to be an important adjuvant in the treatment of this condition. Most reports confirm this hypothesis, but further investigation is still necessary to define the best treatment strategy. From the evidence available today we suggest that a panel of specialists should be consulted when selecting patients for surgical treatment.
When surgery is indicated patients should undergo a thorough preoperative evaluation to assess cardiopulmonary risk. Furthermore, we believe patients should have at least 3 months of adequate chemotherapy before surgery with culture conversion being necessary but not mandatory. This extra time should allow for an improvement in nutritional status and control of comorbidities.
From a technical standpoint, lung resection for infectious/inflammatory disease post several challenges. Most difficulties are related to the presence of pleural adhesions and lymphadenopathy. Granting most authors have used an open approach to report their surgical results for MDRTB, we believe that minimally invasive surgery is feasible in this scenario and should be considered in selected cases.
The use of VATS has been increasing in the treatment of benign disease, with several authors publishing their experience with the method. Despite the lack of publications for this specific purpose, we consider that RATS has potential to develop as an excellent platform for delivering a minimally invasive technique in such difficult cases, mainly due to the improved ergonomics and dexterity provided by the robotic system.
Conflicts of Interest: RM Terra: educational grants from Johnson&Johnson, Medtronic and H.Strattner/Intuitive. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
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Cite this article as: Gouvêa FM, Terra RM, Lima CE, Haddad R. Multidrug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis. Video-assist Thorac Surg 2017;2:72.