Before beginning to analyze the impact of the Muslim world on Western science and technology, it is helpful to understand the history and culture of the Islamic world. Therefore, we will start this section with a tutorial on the history of the Islamic World to 1600, created by the University of Calgary.
You should read the following four web sites before you begin the section on Muslim Contributions to Science and Technology.
The first site you should visit is The History of Islam by Professor John Voll of Georgetown University. Originally a ten page article published in the Encyclopedia of Politics and Religion, ed. Robert Wuthnow; then put online by Congressional Quarterly, Inc.. http://www.cqpress.com/context/articles/epr_islam.html
Next, you should read the history of Spain from a Muslim point of view. After the reconquest of Spain by Christian forces, much of the scientific knowledge that was developed by Muslims came to Western Europe through Spain. Therefore, a knowledge of the Muslim conquest and loss of Spain is crucial to understanding the flow of information. Andalusia, http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/ihame/Sec5.htm
Last, you should read this essay that presents "certain aspects of the Islamic sciences as seen from the Islamic point of view." Science and Civilization in Islam, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/nasr.html
While most of Europe was living in the intellectually dormant times of the Middle Ages, a different situation existed in Spain. And, this difference can be traced directly to Muslim influences. Spain, even before the Moslem conquests, was the scene of much fighting and territorial disputes. In the early Middle Ages, after the "Fall" of the Roman Empire, Spain was conquered by a confederation of German tribes (around 411 AD). Shortly after, Spain was again conquered by the Visigoths (416 to 418 AD). Kings from Visigoth families ruled Spain for the next two hundred years until the Muslim conquest of Spain that began in 711 AD (Collins, 1995). Over the next 19 years, the Muslims conquered most of Spain and were threatening to conquer France until stopped by Charles Martel (the grandfather of Charlemagne) at Poiters in 732. Click on this link to read three different accounts on the Battle of Tours, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html.
As discussed in the University of Calgary tutorial, Spain was ruled for 300 years by the descendents of the Umayyad ruling house. You will remember from the tutorial that the Abbasid Revolution in 750 destroyed Umayyad power in most areas of the Islamic world. However, during the Revolution, the grandson of one of the former caliphs escaped to Spain and set up a kingdom that lasted until the Berbers from North Africa took over in the 11th century.
Scientific knowledge, architecture, mathematics, and philosophy flourished in Spain during the rule of the Umayyad. Much of this intellectual climate can be traced to the precepts of the Qur'an (in English, we sometimes refer to this as the Koran). Throughout the Qur'an, there is a strong emphasis on the value of knowledge. As noted in the tutorial, "because Muslims believe that Allah is all-knowing, they also believe that the human world's quest for knowledge leads to further knowing of Allah. Muslims must thus pursue knowledge not only of God's laws, but of the natural world as well, extending the frontiers of human knowledge. Unlike the revealed knowledge of the Qur'an, Muslims believe that human knowledge is not perfect, and requires constant exploration and advancement through research and experimentation. According to the Qur'an, learning and gaining knowledge is the highest form of religious activity for Muslims, and the one which is most pleasing to God."
Abu Ali al-Husayn Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina (sometimes known in the West as Avicenna) was born in Bukhara in 980. He is arguably the most famous and influential of all the Islamic philosopher-scientists. His famous book, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb ("The Canon of Medicine") was used throughout Europe for over 600 years. In his writings, he spelled out the procedures for testing the effectiveness of a new drug. Beyond his work in medicine, he also made significant contributions in philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, and astronomy and was the author of over 200 books.
In the Medieval Age, the Muslims led the world in their pursuit of knowledge. Much of this knowledge was discovered by Muslim scientists while other knowledge was derived from other cultures including the Greeks, Persians, Indian, and Chinese. The Muslims synthesized, elaborated, and transmitted this knowledge to Spain; and eventually, to the entire Western world. In Western Europe at this time, most of the knowledge of the Greeks was lost. It was only through the transfer of Greek knowledge (including Aristotle's philosophy, Ptolemy's geography, Hippocrates' medicine) by Islam Spain that this information ever got to Western Europe.
Historians have discovered that there were two major periods of intense scholarly work in the Muslim world during the Medieval Age. The first period was in the 9th and 10th centuries in Baghdad and the second period was the 12th and 13th century in Europe (primarily Spain). In both of these periods, Muslim translators first translated the Greek knowledge into Arabic and then into other languages. Of course, as was discussed previously, Greek knowledge was enhanced and expanded by Muslim scholars. Remember the primary language of Europe at this time was Latin--all the Romance languages (French, Italian, etc) were just beginning to be used and were generally considered to be vulgar (According to the Encyclopedia Britannica (2000), Vulgar Latin "was primarily the speech of the middle classes in Rome and the Roman provinces." After the Roman Empire fell, regional differences in vulgar Latin increased and eventually became the Romance languages.)
"Take Aristotle, for instance. Only a fraction of his work was known in Europe during the post-classical era, when barbarian invasions caused the loss of so much earlier culture. But most of his books were translated into Arabic, and were studied and commented on over and over again in Baghdad and other centers. European philosophers rediscovered them via these commentaries. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) were famous names in medieval philosophy and their predecessor al-Farabi (Alfarabius) is said to have lectured on Aristotle's Physics 40 times and his Rhetoric 80 times" (Zahoor, 1997b).
Why was this knowledge lost to Western Europe? An answer can be found by looking at the time and events that occurred before the start of the European Medieval Age. During the ending centuries of the Roman Empire, Christianity became more powerful and influential, especially after become lawful under the Roman Emperor Constantine (Emperor AD 324 - 337). A consequence of the ascendancy of Christianity was that less authority was given to the pagan, "classical teachings" of the Greeks. The main preserve of Greek writing was in Egypt. However, the Library of Alexandria, one of the largest libraries in Egypt (and the Western world) was destroyed by fire in 389 AD. In this one event, many writings were lost. Also lost and burned was the Museum of Alexandria, a real university, in 415 when riots incited by Christians caused its destruction.
Artist Name: Islamic Anonymous
Despite these, the scholarly tradition of the Greeks was preserved in Alexandria and at the university at Jundishahpur (Persia), where excommunicated Nestorian Christian scholars went in 431 and some Greek scholars found refuge after Plato's Academy was closed in 529. According to Abdel-reheem Ead (2000), the transfer of Greek knowledge to the Muslims "was made partly through direct contact in Egypt, partly through the medium of Syrian Christian translators, and partly by way of Persia." It is clear that, when Egypt was taken over in 641 AD by the Muslims, much Greek classical knowledge passed in this way into the Islamic culture. In 636, Persia became part of the Islamic world and Arab rulers continued to support the university at Jundishahpur. Through their translations of Greek texts, Islamic physicians were able to read the works of Hippocrates, Galen and other Greek physicians. In contrast, after the fall of the Roman Empire, all that remained of Greek science were Pliny's Encyclopedia and Boethius's treatises on logic and mathematics (Tschanz, 1997).
The Islamic love of knowledge can be seen in their cities. Every major Islamic city in medieval times had an extensive library; in Cordoba and Baghdad the libraries claim to have had over 400,000 books. We can compare this to the largest libraries in Western Europe that had only hundreds of books. Even into the 14th century, the library at the University of Paris only had about 2,000 books (McClellan & Dorn, 1999).
Muslims referred to Spain as Al-Andalus. This word has several meanings. "One of them is ‘to become green after a long summer or drought,’ and the history of the Iberian Peninsula over the ages attests to this phase when Muslims ruled Spain" (Zahoor, 1997b). The influence of the Muslim world on Western science can be seen in the vocabulary of science as many of the words used by Muslim scientists have been retained and have entered the English language. Arabic words in chemistry include alcohol, alkali, niter (from which word we get nitrate), alkahest (the universal solvent, sought by the alchemists), and alembic (a distilling flask). Astronomical Arabic terms include almanac, zenith, and nadir (Plambeck, 1995).
Beginning in the Middle Ages, men seeking knowledge would travel to Spain to obtain Muslim science. This may be surprising since we tend to think of the Muslim world as being separated from Europe. But, there were many linkage between these two societies, one being trade and the other, more significantly education. Adelard of Bath, an Englishman in the 12th century, was the first major popularizer of Muslim science in the West. He spent a long time in Muslim Spain learning both about Greek mathematics and science as well as Muslim contributions to science. In particular he introduced Euclid and aspects of astronomy to Western Europe.
"As well as more technical treatises, he wrote Natural Questions - the selections here are from its preface and part of the body - which expresses his fundamental belief that God should not be invoked to explain what human knowledge can." Adelard of Bath: The Impact of Muslim Science. Preface to His Very Difficult Natural Questions, [Dodi Ve-Nechdi] c. 1137 from Medieval Sourcebook, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/adelardbath1.html
The key event for Medieval Europe came in 1085 when the great Muslim city of Toledo fell to Christian military forces. Toledo housed one of the largest libraries in the world at this time. And, this library was filled with thousands of books including Muslim translations of classic Greek philosophers. After the fall of Toledo, this city became the focus of a massive translation effort where teams of translators translated the Arabic texts into Latin. Often, this was not a one-step process. Jewish intellectuals frequently served as the translators--translating Arabic into Hebrew for themselves and then into Spanish for the Christians. But, because most of Europe spoke Latin, the works were then translated into Latin (often by priests or monks). One translator, Gerard of Cremona (1114-87) worked for forty years in Spain translating, with a team, over 70 books from Arabic originals including the works of Archimedes, Galen, Hippocrates, and Aristotle (McClellan & Dorn, 1999). In addition to Toledo, Arab work was found and translated in southern Italy and Sicily (reconquered by Norman knights in the 11th century). By 1200, Europe had recovered most of ancient science as well as appropriating several centuries of scientific, medical, and philosophical work done by Muslim scholars.
In the remainder of this section, we will look at specific scientific innovations and technologies that were transferred to Western Europe through Islamic Spain. The story of these technologies will show the wide range of scientific and technological innovation that occurred in the Middle Ages in Al-Andalus. I have divided this into three sections: mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry and medicine.
In Europe during the Medieval Age, scholars used the Roman number system. For those of you who remember the Roman number system from school, you will remember that it is not particularly use to add and subtract. And, the Roman numeral system was great hindrance to the economic development of Europe. The Muslim world, instead, used a different number system--the Arabic number system that we use today.
Although having the name "Arabic number system," Arabic numerals were actually invented in India by the Hindus around 600 AD. You can visit the website, An overview of Indian mathematics, to get more details about the role on Indians in the history of mathematics, http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_mathematics.html.
A problem with the Hindu system is that it was written backwards. So, the number thirty-two would be written as 23. According to the web site IslamCity (http://www.islamicity.com/Mosque/ihame/Ref6.htm), "One of the great centers of learning was Baghdad, where Arab, Greek, Persian, Jewish, and other scholars pooled their cultural heritages and where in 771 an Indian scholar appeared, bringing with him a treatise on astronomy using the Indian numerical system." The Muslims adopted and changed the Hindu system which subsequently became known as the Arabic number system.
As with most other Muslim developments, the knowledge of Arabic numbers spread to Europe through Spain where it was evident that the Arabic number system was superior to the Roman number system, particular in commerce, arithmetic, and algebra. The Codex Vigilanus, written in Spain in 976, is the oldest European manuscript containing Arabic numbers. And, in the 14th century, Arabic numerals became widely used by merchants in Italy. After merchants began using the new number system, their use then spread to the rest of Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi is recognized as the founder of modern Algebra. The actual name of algebra comes from the title of his most famous book, Kitab Al-Jabr wa al-Muqabilah ("The Book of Integration and Equation"). This book on algebra, in its translated form, was the principal mathematics textbook in European universities until the 16th century.
But the contributions of the Muslim world did not end with the Arabic number system. Because the Arabic number system, our decimal system, made mathematical calculations easier, it then became easier to use this number system to describe relationships. This process of using the decimal system to generalize arithmetical processes and relationships evolved into what we call algebra today. This type of mathematical reasoning was a departure from mathematical Greek thought (which is geometric). In mathematics, some of the Arabic terms are algorithm, algebra, and arithmetic.
"The noted Arab mathematician al-Khwârizmî (Muhammad b. Musa al-Khwârizmî ca. 875) wrote a textbook on the subject which now exists only in a number of Latin versions. In these a point is used for zero. In ca. 952 Abu'l-Hasan-al-Uqlidisi wrote the Book of the parts of Indian Arithmetic which contains an explanation and application of decimal fractions...In 1202 Leonardo of Pisa (also known as Fibonacci) published his Liber Abaci, a book of arithmetic and algebraic information. Al-Khwârizmî's book was a major influence on Fibonacci" (Gans, 2000).
To conclude our discussion of the contributions of Muslim scientists to mathematics, you should read the following essays.
Arabic mathematics : forgotten brilliance? by J J O'Connor and E F Robertson, http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html
Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's contributions to the creation of algebra, http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Khwarizmi.html
In addition to their developments in the field of mathematics, the Muslim world made significant contributions to the field of astronomy. In our section on clocks (under Technology in the Middle Age), we noted that the developments in Chinese clock building were influenced by Muslims. During the period beginning with the Mongol conquest of China by Kublai Khan, the Chinese Mongol rulers employed Muslim astronomers. These Muslim astronomers developed improved astronomical instruments (McClellan & Dorn, 1999). At this time (10-12th century), most clocks were used for astronomical and astrological purposes rather than for telling the time of day. So, it is not surprising that Muslim scientists should have been experts both in clocks as well as astronomy.
According to (The Islamic World to 1600), "Part of the reason for the Muslim interest in astronomy is unique to the Islamic faith, and grew from the Muslim attempt to solve practical problems." The Muslim calendar is based upon a lunar system and the arrival of the new moon marked the beginning and end of each month. This was particular important during the month of Ramadan, when fasting is required during the day. A second practical motivation for studying the stars was to determine the direction of Mecca from any location because Muslims are required to face Mecca when they pray.
"These practical concerns for Muslims led to great advancements in astronomy. Observatories were first established in the Islamic world, in major cities such as Baghdad, Hamadan, Toledo, Maragha, Samarkand, and Istanbul, and new instruments were developed. The Muslim invention of the astrolabe, for example, was one of the most important in astronomy until the invention of the telescope in the 17th century" (The Islamic World to 1600).
Artist Name: Umayyad Anonymous
The astrolabe was a critical development for both the Muslim and Western world. (A history of the astrolabe is given at http://www.astrolabes.org/pages/history.htm. And, there are several different types of astrolabes. By far the most popular type is the planispheric astrolabe, on which the celestial sphere is projected onto the plane of the equator. A planispheric astrolabe consists of two flat circular disk. One of the disks has a map of the sky on its face. The second disk shows the horizon, the lines of altitude for a specific latitude and the zenith (The zenith is the "point of the celestial sphere that is directly over the observer and 90 degrees from all points on that person's horizon" (Encarta, 2000)).
As you can see from the photo above, the astrolabe is mounted in a case with degrees marked around the perimeter and arms mounted in the center. To use the astrolabe, you move the moveable arms to a particular location.
"Astrolabes can be used to solve many astronomical problems that would otherwise require rather sophisticated mathematics. All of the everyday uses of the astrolabe are not known, but they were certainly used to tell time during the day or night, to find the time of sunrise and sunset and, thus, the length of the day, to locate celestial objects in the sky, as a handy reference of celestial positions and, as astrology was a deeply embedded element of the cultures that used astrolabes, to determine aspects of horoscopes. Islamic prayer times are astronomically determined, and the astrolabe could be used to determine the required times" (Morrison, 2000).
Another kind of astrolabe was a navigational astrolabe. The astrolabe allowed a sailor to determine his latitude--the north-south position. To do this, the sailor would align the horizontal axis of the astrolabe with the horizon. He then pointed it at the sun and read its position on the outer disk. He could then find his latitude by consulting an astronomical table (usually in a book).
You can read more about The Mariner's Astrolabe at http://www.astrolabes.org/pages/mariner.htm
Many of you have probably heard of Omar Khayyam through his famous book of poetry, the Rubaiyat. But, in his time and until the 19th century, Omar Khayyam was much more famous as a scientist. His most famous work was in the areas of mathematics and astronomy. When working for the sultan Malik-Shah Jalal al-Din, he created the Jalali solar calendar which still is the most accurate calendar that exists today with only an error of one day in 3330 years.
Title: Scene from Rubaiyat.
The following web essay will give you more details on the Muslim contributions to Astronomy.
Uses of the Astrolabe (in the Middle Ages), http://www.astrolabes.org/pages/uses.htm
It would be simplistic to look upon the Muslim world merely as the conduit for Greek knowledge transferred to Europe. Yes, the classical works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, and Galen were eventually transferred to Europe through Islamic Spain. However, Muslim contributions to chemistry are more significant than these transfers, particularly in the areas of chemistry and medicine. The medical knowledge available in the Muslim world was so far advanced as compared to the Medieval West. Muslim innovation and work in chemistry and medicine flourished from about 900 - 1200 AD. After the translation efforts of Toledo and other places, books from Arab sources became standard medical texts in Europe.
Title: De Materia Medica of Dioscorides.
Preparation of medicines from flowers & consul
Why was the Muslim world so far advanced in medicine as compared to Europe? Much of the answer to this question relates to the different worldviews of the two societies. As we noted previously, throughout the Qur'an, there is a strong emphasis on the value of knowledge. And, since the pursuit of knowledge is viewed in a most positive light, experimentation and discovery are encouraged and indeed supported by the government. This worldview is in direct contrast to that existing in the Europe of the Medieval Age.
After the end of the western Roman Empire, the Catholic church stepped into the void created by its end. The Catholic church viewed all knowledge as revealed through the church. Therefore, the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake was viewed with suspicion. Also, the Church placed its emphasis on the soul so medical treatment of the body was not valued. In fact, the hospitals of the Medieval Age, usually run by monks, were places to take seriously ill people to either live or die, based upon God's will. During the Medieval Age, instead of care for the body, lack of care was seen to be evidence of godliness. Mortification, the abuse of the body for spiritual reasons, was widespread during the Medieval Age.
Among the other translations, two significant Arabic medical books were translated into Latin. The first, Introduction to Medicine written by Hunain ibn Ishaq, remained a popular medical text in Europe for 600 years. The second book was written by Abu Ali al-Husayn Ibn Abdullah Ibn Sina (sometimes known in the West as Avicenna). His book, Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb ("The Canon of Medicine") was used in both Europe and the Islamic world from the 11th to the 17th centuries and was reprinted at least 35 times in Europe.
Muslim doctors learned how to use sedatives, they pioneered the use of antiseptics to clean wounds, and they also used sutures made from gut and silk to bind wounds. In all areas of both practical and theoretical medicine, they were ahead of their colleagues in Europe, where people often considered sickness to be the sign of immorality, punishment from God, or "as a condition caused by supernatural forces, which might take the form of diabolical possession" (Tschanz, 1997). One of the greatest breakthroughs in medical knowledge during the Medieval Age came in the 13th century when a Muslim doctor, Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ilyas, discovered how blood circulated in the body.
Click on the photo to the left to view a larger picture of an anatomical sketch from the Illustrated Anatomy of Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ilyas, 1396. The US National Library of Medicine in Bethseda, MD has a copy of the anatomy text by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Yusuf ibn Ilyas. There are many other images from this historical text available at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/p18.html
The following web sites discuss the contributions of the Muslim (or Islamic) world to Western chemistry and medicine. You should read the essays in this section.
Islamic Chemical Technology, http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/ctechislam.html
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (973-1037): On Medicine (primary text from the Medieval Sourcebook), http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1020Avicenna-Medicine.html
Islamic Culture and the Medical Arts, an online Brochure to Accompany an Exhibition In Celebration of the 900th Anniversary of the Oldest Arabic Medical Manuscript In the Collections of the National Library of Medicine by Emilie Savage-Smith, University of Oxford, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, 1994, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_00.html. There are several sections to this online brochure. I recommend that you read several sections so that you get an appreciation of the important role of Islamic scientists to the history of medicine.
This completes our section on the contributions of Muslims to science and technology. In this section, I have focused on four specific areas: mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, and medicine. This does not mean that Muslim scientists and philosophers did not contribute to other areas. In fact, the founder of Algebra, Al-Khwarizmi, directed a team of geographers who produced the first map of the known world in 830. I hope that this short introduction to the Islamic influences on Western culture and science will increase your appreciation of the interactions that existed, and still exist, between different societies.
The next section discusses the contributions of China to the growth of technology in the West.
Abdel-reheem Ead, H. (2000). Alchemy in Islamic Times. http://www.neurolinguistic.com/proxima/articoli/art-49.htm
Collins, R. (1995). Early Medieval Spain (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan Press.
Zenith. (2000). Encarta. go to http://dictionary.msn.com/ and search for Zenith
Gans, P. (2000). Arabic Numerals. http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/arabnums.html
McClellan, J. E., & Dorn, H. (1999). Science and technology in World History. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Morrison, J. E, (2000). Uses of the Astrolabe. http://www.astrolabes.org/USES.HTM
Plambeck, J. A. (1995). Introductory University Chemistry I. University Chemistry: An Introduction. Through the Middle Ages to Alchemy. http://www.chem.ualberta.ca/courses/plambeck/p101/p01013.htm
Vulgar Latin (2000). Encyclopedia Britannica, go to http://www.britannica.com/ and search for Vulgar Latin
Zahoor, A. (1997b). QUOTATIONS ON MOORISH (ISLAMIC) CIVILIZATION, http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/quote3.html
Internet Islamic History Sourcebook. This web site is part of the extensive collection of online history sources available from Fordham University. It is an excellent place to look for primary and secondary sources related to the history of Islam, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook.html
Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/welcome.html
Medieval Islamic Medicine, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/islamic_medical/islamic_02.html


Create Your Own Organic Compost
Are you tired of buying bag after bag of commercial compost for your garden? If you’re looking to save some money and have more control over the quality of your compost, why not try making your own organic compost at home? It’s easier than you might think, and the benefits for your plants and the environment are numerous. Here’s how to get started creating your own organic compost:
Gather Your Materials
The first step to making your own compost is to gather all the materials you’ll need. You’ll also need a container or area to store your compost, such as a compost bin or a designated area in your backyard.
In order to create an effective compost pile, you’ll need a few essential ingredients. The most important is organic material. These include grass clippings, twigs, leaves, and fruit and vegetable scraps. You can use a lawn mower to slice your garden waste into manageable pieces.
Another important component is moisture. You’ll need to add water to the pile to keep it at the right temperature. As you add new materials, you’ll need to rotate the pile. To aerate the pile, you’ll want to use a pitchfork or other tool of your choosing.
Another necessary ingredient is the appropriate amount of nitrogen. Your compost pile should contain a mix of brown and green materials. Brown items should include newspaper, dried plant material, and straw. Adding these to your compost heap can speed up the decomposition process.
One of the best ways to get started is to ask friends and family for their unwanted materials. This can be especially useful if you live in a neighborhood where you don’t have access to a compost pile.
Start Layering Your Materials
Once you have your materials gathered, it’s time to start layering them in your compost container or area. Start by adding a layer of “brown” materials, such as dead leaves, twigs, and shredded paper. These materials will provide carbon and structure for your compost. Next, add a layer of “green” materials, such as food scraps and grass clippings, which will provide nitrogen and moisture. Alternate between layers of brown and green materials until your compost container is full.
Add Water and Mix
Once you have your layers of brown and green materials in place, it’s important to add water to your compost. This will help to keep everything moist and facilitate the decomposition process. Use a watering can or hose to lightly mist your compost until it is evenly moist. Then, use a pitchfork or shovel to mix everything together and ensure that the moisture is evenly distributed.
Keep in mind that adding a small amount of water to your compost pile will boost its oxygenation and help it decompose faster, but excessive moisture can lead to an odor and slime problem, and will not produce a healthy compost.
Let it Decompose
The final step in the composting process is to let everything decompose. This can take anywhere from a few weeks to several months, depending on the size of your compost and the materials you’ve used. As your compost decomposes, it will heat up and the materials will break down into a rich, crumbly soil-like substance. You can help to speed up the decomposition process by regularly turning your compost and ensuring that it stays moist.
You can speed up the composting process by adding a nitrogen fertilizer to the pile. You can also add a carbon-rich material, such as hay. Alternatively, you can buy commercial starters for compost piles that have the right ratio of carbon to nitrogen. Adding water is another way to help the process along.
Using Your Compost
Once your compost is ready, you can use it to enrich the soil in your garden or potted plants. Simply mix it into the soil around your plants or use it as a top dressing to give them a nutrient boost. You can also use your compost as a natural fertilizer by adding it to water and using it as a liquid plant food.
There are a few things to keep in mind as you create your own organic compost. First, it’s important to use a variety of materials in your compost to ensure that it has a balanced mix of nutrients. This means including both “brown” materials, such as dead leaves and twigs, and “green” materials, such as food scraps and grass clippings. You can also add in other organic materials such as coffee grounds, eggshells, and even small amounts of animal manure (just be sure to use manure from herbivores, such as cows or horses, rather than carnivores).
It’s also a good idea to avoid certain materials in your compost. These include meat, bones, and dairy products, as they can attract pests and create unpleasant odors. Additionally, avoid adding diseased plants or weeds that have gone to seed to your compost, as these can spread diseases or weeds to your garden.
As your compost decomposes, you may notice that it attracts a variety of insects and other critters. This is a normal part of the process, and these creatures help to break down the materials in your compost. However, if you notice any unwanted pests such as rats or flies, you may need to take steps to deter them. One way to do this is to cover your compost with a layer of straw or leaves, which can help to discourage pests and keep your compost looking tidy.
Finally, it’s worth noting that there are different methods for creating compost, and you may want to experiment to find the method that works best for you. Some people prefer to use compost bins or tumblers, while others prefer to create a compost pile in a designated area of their yard. Whichever method you choose, the key is to keep an eye on your compost and make any necessary adjustments to ensure that it is decomposing properly.
Making your own organic compost is a simple and rewarding process that can have numerous benefits for your plants and the environment. Not only will it provide your plants with all the nutrients they need to thrive, but it will also help to reduce waste and support sustainable gardening practices. Plus, it’s a great way to save money on commercial compost and have more control over the quality of the materials you’re using. So why not give it a try and see the difference it can make in your garden?
By following these tips and being patient, you’ll be well on your way to creating your own rich, nutritious organic compost for your garden. Happy composting!


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Trick or Treat? Smell My Feet!
Make sure your child is prepared to get out there and get some candy by creating this non-smelly, Halloween printing project. Most kids have experience with stamp-printing using their thumbs and hands, but now they can pull off their socks and see what it's like to print with their feet! Your child will practice using his knowledge of direction by pressing his left and right feet on the correct sides of the paper, leaving enough space to write the infamous Halloween greeting, "Trick or treat! Smell my feet! Give me something good to eat!" You might want to tell your kid that when he's actually going around the neighborhood, he might want to stick to the traditional "Trick or Treat." That is, only if he wants to stay on the treat-givers' good sides and gather all the sugary goodness he possibly can!


There’s a “new” cookie in the spotlight which is virtually impossible for computer users to detect, and it’s completely legal, at least for now. According to researchers at Stanford University and University of California at Berkley, websites such as MSN.com and Hulu.com have been “installing files known as ‘super cookies’ which are capable of recreating users’ profiles after people deleted regular cookies” and without the knowledge of the user. The companies’ reaction when contacted by researchers? The tracking technique was claimed to be inadvertent and shut down immediately. Microsoft associate general counsel Mike Hintze offered this explanation: “We determined that the cookie behavior he observed was occurring under certain circumstances as a result of older code that was used only on our own sites, and was already scheduled to be discontinued.”
As a search marketer, I am all too familiar with session cookies, secure cookies and third party cookies, but I was unfamiliar with these smarter, stealthier cookies with more interesting agendas. So I did a little cookie research on Wikipedia to better understand.
I’ll start by noting, cookies are not by nature bad, as Wikipedia explains, they “cannot be programmed, cannot carry viruses, and cannot install malware on the host computer. However, they can be used by spyware to track user’s browsing activities – a major privacy concern that prompted European and US law makers to take action. Cookies could also be stolen by hackers to gain access to a victim’s web account.”
A Super cookie is a “cookie set through the Adobe Flash system, bypassing the browser cookie manager. These cookies cannot be deleted through the browser, but require modifications to the settings on the Adobe Flash panel.”
Interestingly, the Evercookie was created by Samy Kamkar, creator of the Samy Worm, which took down MySpace in 2005.
A Zombie cookie (produced by an Evercookie) is “any cookie that is automatically recreated after a user has deleted it. This is accomplished by a script storing the content of the cookie in some other locations, such as the local storage available to Flash content, HTML5 storages and other client side mechanisms, and then recreating the cookie from backup stores when the cookie’s absence is detected.”
Techie lingo aside, each of these cookies has one goal — continue to collect user web-browsing information even after standard cookies have been deleted.
Privacy concerns are once again at the forefront due to these types of tracking tactics. And despite the increasing calls for stricter governmental regulations, the online ad industry claims to be capable of regulating itself. But Julia Angwin of The Wall Street Journal explains, “Under the self-imposed guidelines, collecting health and financial data about individuals is permissible as long as the data don’t contain financial-account numbers, Social Security numbers, pharmaceutical prescriptions or medical records. But using techniques such as history stealing and supercookies ‘to negate consumer choices’ about privacy violates the guidelines, says Lee Peeler, executive vice president of the Council of Better Business Bureaus, one of several groups enforcing the rules.”
I understand the need for companies to maximize revenue through targeted advertising, and have seen such products as Google’s remarketing perform amazingly well for advertisers, but using secretive tracking techniques without user consent appears suspect. As an avid online shopper, I do enjoy a customized shopping experience with sites that recommend items I might actually like i.e. Amazon, but I’m not keen on the idea of all of my personal web-browsing history being recorded somewhere and potentially sold to a company willing to pay for the valuable information, or even worse, accessed by hackers for more malicious uses.
Tags | Adobe Flash, Amazon, Cookies, Customized Shopping Experience, Evercookie, Google, HTML5, Microsoft, privacy concerns, Stanford University, Super cookie, University of California at Berkley, Wikipedia, Zombie cookie


The “Good Cop, Bad Cop” routine is a common tool for those dealing with miscreants and troublemakers. Does it actually work?
The routine is designed to instill a sense of fear, which leads to compliance when fear changes to relief. For example, a school administrator or teacher may outline the standard punishments for an infraction before using a more personal, adapted approach for the situation.
A recent study on the topic shows that the routine does cause some mental confusion, which could lead to the desired results; however, actual results are a little mixed. It may work in some cases, and it may not. Still, reminding students of the possible consequences of their actions is an effective tool for educators and disciplinarians, although asking students to think of the consequences is a more reflective, learning-based approach that is probably even more effective.
Image: Project Azazel


Data structures – Stack ADT: A stack is a linear data structure which follows LIFO (Last in first out) principle, in which both insertion and deletion occur at only one end of the list called the TOP.
OPERATIONS ON STACK :
The fundamental operations performed on stack are :
- Push (insertion)
- Pop (deletion)
The push operation is used to insert an element at the top of the stack. Pop is used to delete an element from the top of the stack.
Overflow: it is an attempt to insert an element when the stack is full .
Underflow: it is an attempt to delete an element when the stack is empty.
The general model is that there is some element that is at the top of the stack, and it is the only element that is visible.
IMPLEMENTATION OF STACK :
Since a stack is a list, any implementation will do. The two popular implementation performed are
- Linked list implementation of stacks.
- Array implementation of stacks.
Linked list implementation of stacks:
The first implementation of stack uses a singly linked list. Here PUSH and POP operations are performed at the TOP of the list.
Creating a stack :
Creating a stack is also simple. We merely create a header node, makeEmpty sets the next pointer to NULL.
Routine to check whether a stack is empty:
Routine to create an empty stack:
FatalError("Out of total space><><");
Error("It has to be CreateStack at first");
PUSH OPERATION :
The process of inserting a new element to the top of the stack. For any PUSH operation the top is incremented by ‘1’. They are also called input operations.
Routine to push onto a stack :
Push(ElementType K, Stack R)
FatalError("Out of the total storage");
A TOP operation examines the element at the front of the list , returning its value.
Routine to return top element in a stack:
Error("This is an Empty stack");
The process of deleting an element from the top of the stack is called POP operation. After every POP operation, the top pointer is decremented by ‘1’. They are also called output operations.,which delete the most recently inserted element.
Routine to pop from a stack:
Error("This is an Empty stack !!");


The Chawnglaizawn is a ceremonial dance of unique kind. It may be called a funeral dance, since it is performed when the village chief or a very well-to-do person of the village dies. This custom is prevalent among the people of the Pawi tribal community. Chawnglaizawn literally means dance and jump for glory. The Pawis regard two days most important in a man’s life : the day he is born and the day he dies. It is a kind of homage the villagers pay to the dead chief who is glorified in the dance. The members of the chiefs family give pigs and fowls to the villagers as gifts, which are treated for a sumptuous feast. Earlier the dance was being performed by only one dancer. He used to carry a gun and while dancing and singing used fire shots upward occasionally. In course of time the dance changed considerably and now it is performed usually by 16 men and 16 women dancers. About five musicians provide the accompanying percussion music playing different sizes of gongs and drums.
/ / Chawnglaizawn


This lesson plan presents a rarely heard part of American history — a true story about the crimes of forced assimilation of Indian children in the American Indian Boarding Schools.
Kiowa Apache and Lakota Indian storyteller Dovie Thomason weaves a fascinating story of struggle, survival and inspiration as she tells her own daughter of a history that must not be forgotten and that presents lessons for all of us today. Texts, audio-download segments and classroom activities and resources are all a part of this powerful Lesson Plan.
AN AMERICAN INDIAN STORY OF STRUGGLE, PAIN AND PROUD SURVIVAL . . .
Dovie Thomason, a Kiowa Apache and Lakota Indian, weaves personal narrative, the history of Indian schools, and the story of Gertrude Bonnin (later Zitkala Sa), the Sioux Native American woman who went through the Indian schools and afterward became a writer andactivist for Indian rights.
This Lesson Plan with printable text and downloadable audio-segments presents Thomason’s original story about the inhuman practice of forced assimilation of American Indian children in painful and shameful attempts to “change” them into “white children”. Included in this Learning Unit are classroom activities and a list of recommended Resources for Teachers and Students to discover further histories and contributions of our American Indian peoples.
There are four segments to Dovie Thomason’s story. This Lesson Plan can be best used in presenting the story in two distinct sessions or classroom periods. It can also be presented with audio and print-text in one longer study-reflection session. This lesson plan is ideal for use in Native American Heritage Month, November, and around the Thanksgiving Holiday, (which often has distorted images of American Indian events) . . . or any time . . . as it seeks to reveal American Indian events that are rarely found in our history books.
THE SPIRIT SURVIVES can also be used in social studies and as part of the reflection and study of indigenous peoples and their challenges and struggles . . . yesterday … and even today.
- Read the press release on this lesson plan
- Find out more ways to celebrate Native American Heritage Month with a free article
Download the The Spirit Survives lesson plan (PDF)
The following MP3 tracks are story excerpts for use with the The Spirit Survives lesson plan. Please note that these excerpts
are protected by copyright and are exclusively for educational use.
Excerpt #1 — Track One — 9:06 minutes
Excerpt #2 — Track Two– 9:39 minutes
Excerpt #3 — Track Three — 14:43 minutes
Excerpt #4 — Track Four — 10:56 minutes
Need help to download the MP3 Story Excerpts? Click here for directions.
About Storyteller Dovie Thomason
Dovie Thomason is an award-winning storyteller, recording artist and author, recognized internationally for her ability to take her listeners back to the “timeless place” that she first “visited” as a child, hearing old Indian stories from her Kiowa Apache and Lakota relatives, especially her Grandma Dovie and her Dad. From their voices, she first heard the voices of the Animal People and began to learn the lessons they had to teach her. For these were teaching stories that took the place of punishment or scolding, showing her the values that her people respect and wanted to pass on to her.
Her love of stories and culture set her on a path to listen and learn and share the stories—to give people a clearer understanding of the often misunderstood, often invisible, cultures of the First Nations of North America. The product of a “mixed” background that is urban Chicago and rural Texas, Internet and ancient teachers, elders’ teachings and university classrooms —Dovie began telling stories “publicly” while teaching literature and writing at an urban high school in Cleveland. So, she began telling those first-heard old Indian stories—stories about making choices—stories that could become a blueprint for a personal value system.


The prevailing climatic conditions during blasting and painting are critical in achieving a successful coating application.
In certain conditions moisture from the air can condense on the substrate post blast resulting in flash rust which can adversely affect the adherence of subsequently applied paint. Furthermore moisture can condense on the substrate after the application of the paint before the curing process is complete.
In order to monitor the dewpoint temperature the following parameters must be measured: the surface temperature of the substrate, the air temperature, and the relative humidity. By applying a formula to the air temperature and the relative humidity the dewpoint can be calculated – the surface temperature of the substrate must remain at least 3 degrees Celcius above the dewpoint temperature to avoid moisture condensing on the surface.
The temperature must always be monitored to ensure that it remains within the parameters of the coating specifications. The curing process can fail if the temperature is too low or too high.


Children who skip breakfast have reduced concentration because of low blood sugar levels. They try to make up for these low blood sugar levels by eating sugar-rich snacks throughout the day. As a result, their bodies do not get the key nutrients, vitamins and minerals that they need to grow and function healthily.
A study published in the Malaysian Journal of Medical Science in 2015 found that raw honey can help to protect your heart by lowering triglycerides and bad cholesterol in your blood.
Skipping breakfast slows down your body's metabolism so it begins to store fat. A 2018 study conducted by Osaka University, Japan found that children who skipped breakfast were 18-116% more likely to be overweight or obese than children who ate breakfast. Skipping breakfast causes you to (binge) eat more throughout the day.
Did you know that you could be walking round with up to 10kg of undigested food and rotting faecal matter in your digestive system? It is like carrying a 10kg sack of potatoes everywhere you go.
Raw honey contains natural amino acids, enzymes, pollen, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants that processed sugar does not have. These nutrients help the body benefit from raw honey without the harm associated with processed sugar.


When you open the Editor toolbar in ArcGIS 10, you’ll notice that the toolbar looks different. For starters, there is no task list and no target layer list. So how do you add a feature without them? In ArcGIS 10, you use the new Create Features window, which contains all the elements you need. The workflow to create features is the same whether you are editing geodatabases or shapefiles or using an ArcView, ArcEditor, or ArcInfo license.
Introducing feature templates and the Create Features window
When you start editing, the Create Features window opens vertically and docks on the right side of your ArcMap application. The top of the Create Features window lists the feature templates in your map. A feature template is a new concept at ArcGIS 10. It is somewhat like setting the old target layer but is more powerful than that because it contains properties about how new features should be created: the target layer (feature class) where a feature will be stored, the attributes that a feature is created with, and the default tool that is used to create that feature. Feature templates also have a name, description, and tags that can help you find and organize them. You can review and set these on the Template Properties dialog box, which you can open by double-clicking a feature template on the Create Features window.
ArcMap automatically creates feature templates for the layers in the current editing workspace the first time you start an edit session in a map. Feature templates are based on the symbology of the layer, so you can have more than one feature template per layer. One feature template is created for a layer symbolized with the single symbol renderer, but a layer drawn with unique values gets a feature template for each symbol category. For example, if you have a layer of roads, a new feature template is created for each symbol type: freeway, major road, local road, and so on. The feature templates have the same target layer property but different road type attributes. This way, if you create a new feature using the freeway feature template, the attribute for the road type is automatically assigned as freeway. The new feature will also be symbolized correctly as a freeway.
The graphics below show the Layer Properties > Symbology tab listing the unique values symbols used for a Roads layer and the resulting feature templates in the Create Features window. Since the Roads layer has three unique values categories, three feature templates are created, where each one has a different default attribute value for the road type (Freeway, Major road, or Local road).
The bottom panel of the Create Features window lists the tools available to create features for the kind of feature template you have selected at the top of the window. For example, if you click the Springs point feature template at the top of the window, the construction tools will change to tools used to create points. If the Freeway line feature template is active, only construction tools that create lines are listed, as shown below.
Creating features with feature templates
So, simply put, to create a feature, choose a feature template at the top of the window and a tool at the bottom of the window. Each feature template has a default construction tool that is automatically activated when you choose a feature template, but you can click a different construction tool in the list to use instead. If you want to create a point representing the location of a spring water feature, simply click the Springs feature template and the Point tool, then click the map where you want to add the point.
To digitize segments as you did with the Sketch tool in previous releases, click a line or polygon feature template, then use the Line or Polygon tool to click the map where you want to place vertices. Straight segments are created by default as you click, but you can change the segment types using the palette on the Editor toolbar or Feature Construction mini toolbar. The Feature Construction toolbar follows the pointer as you click to give you easy access to commonly used tools. If the toolbar gets in your way while digitizing, press the TAB key to reposition it.
The process for creating annotation and dimensions is the same as for other feature types, so the Annotation and Dimensioning toolbars are not found in ArcGIS 10 since the tools have been integrated with the Create Features window. To create annotation, choose an annotation feature template on the Create Features window and a construction tool, such as Horizontal or Straight. When you click the feature template, the Annotation Construction window appears so you can enter the text of the new annotation, control how the text is placed, and set any additional symbol properties.
Feature templates and editing commands
Feature templates are also used when you are creating features with editing commands, such as Copy Parallel, Buffer, and Union on the Editor menu. In these cases, you set the feature template on the dialog box that opens when you click the command; you do not use the Create Features window. Choosing the feature template on the command’s dialog box specifies the target layer and the default attributes for the new features that will be created. To change the feature template, click the Template button to open the Select Feature Template window and click one of the available feature templates. Editing commands that can only output one type of geometry, such as Copy Parallel for lines, list templates just for that layer type. Commands that can output a variety of layer types list any existing templates that are the proper types.
When copying and pasting features, a dialog box appears immediately after you click the Paste button, allowing you to set the target layer. When you paste, you can choose an actual layer, rather than a feature template, so you can retain the attribute values from the copied feature instead of using default attributes. If you are just editing an existing feature, you do not need to specify a feature template.
To learn more about editing in ArcGIS 10, see these help topics:
Content provided by Rhonda


Payment of holiday pay
Basically, holidays are leisure time without pay. The objective of holiday pay is to compensate for the lack of pay when you take holidays.
You earn holiday pay entitlement the year prior to taking holiday, i.e. in the earning year. The calendar year you actually take holiday is called holiday year. If you have not worked in the earning year, you are nevertheless entitled to take holidays, however without holiday pay.
When is holiday pay paid?
- Holiday pay is paid in June, regardless of when the holiday is actually taken. For the exact payment date see the payroll schedule.
- Also holiday pay for hourly paid salary, honorarium and overtime is paid in June.
- When leaving UiO, holiday pay is paid on the ordinary payday following your last salary payment. If your new employer belongs to the state sector, accrued holiday pay is transferred to and paid by the new employer in the ordinary way.
How much holiday pay are you entitled to?
- Holiday pay is calculated as 12% of the accrual basis.
- The accrual basis includes all the amounts that have been disbursed to you as work remuneration (e.g. salary, sichness benefits) in the earning year. Disbursements concerning travel expenses, lodging and holiday pay are not included in this calculation.
- The accrual basis is stated on the annual income statement of the earning year. The accrued holiday pay from last year and the current year is also stated on the current year's payslips.
Holiday pay settlement in the June salary
- Holidays are leisure time without pay. This implies that employers who pay 12 monthly salaries shall deduct salary when you take holidays. However, this is not done every time you take holidays but for the year as a whole in June where your salary is deducted for the number of holiday days you are obliged to take.
- The entire holiday entitlement (25 work days for employees with a five-day work week) amounts to more than a calendar month (ca. 22 work days). Therefore, the holiday deduction normally is higher than the monthly salary.
- Holiday pay normally exceeds holiday deduction. The gross salary in June normally is larger than a monthly salary.
- No tax deductions are made on the holiday pay.
Calculation example for June salary
- It may be difficult to understand a June payslip as it differs quite a bit from an ordinary payslip. Here is an example of a typical June payslip with explanations (pdf).
- The amount to be deducted as salary for each vacation day is calculated as the annual salary divided by the number of work days per week times 52. The annual salary is calculated on the basis of the June salary. For employees in a full-time position with a 5 day work week the daily salary amounts to the annual salary divided by 260 (5 days x 52 weeks).
- Example: NN has a monthly salary of NOK 30,000 and accrued holiday pay equalling NOK 38,000. An amount to cover the full holiday period of 25 working days is deducted.
Gross monthly salary for June kr 30.000 Holiday pay (12 % of the accrual basis) kr 38.000 Deduction for 5 weeks' holiday
(monthly salary in June x 12 months x 25 days / 5 days x 52 weeks)
- kr 34.615 Gross salary in June kr 33.385
- See more calculation examples for June salary.
Rules concerning employees over 60
- As of the holiday year you turn 60 you are entitled to one extra week of holiday. You may demand to take these extra days off together, but not necessarily in connection with the rest of your holiday.
- In order to cover the salary deduction for 5 extra vacation days, you receive 2.3 % extra holiday pay, rising the total rate to 14.3 %. However, the calculation and payment of holiday pay for the extra week is subject to a monetary limit of 6 times the National Insurance Scheme’s basic amount (G). For some people, therefore, the holiday pay does not fully cover the salary which is lost for this week. If this applies to you, you may choose not to take all 5 extra days of holiday.
- Holiday pay relating to this extra week of holiday is subject to tax deduction.
- Lack of accrual
- All temporary and permanent employees who receive a monthly salary in June are basically subject to a deduction for the full (5-week) holiday. For this reason, the salary paid in June may be less than normal because salary may be deducted for more days than holiday pay is received for.
- If you wish to reduce your holiday period due to a lack of accrual, you must submit a notification of reduced holiday (odt) to your local personnel officer (Norwegian) by early May. The local administration forwards the notification to the Payroll Office. To ensure proper processing, the notification must reach the Payroll Office at the latest by 13 May.
- This also applies to you over 60 if your holiday pay does not cover the loss of salary for the 6th holiday week due to the holiday pay calculation basis limit of 6 times the National Insurance Scheme’s basic amount (G).
- Employees who join or leave UiO in June
- When leaving UiO, you must state whether you have any holiday left to take. If you leave in June, you must submit a notification of reduced holiday (odt) to your local personnel officer (Norwegian) by early May to ensure that the June salary will be correct.
- If you join UiO in June, you must always give notice of vacation days.
- If you join UiO after June, you must give notice if you are to take holiday during the year.
- If holidays are not taken
- Basically, holidays must be taken: The employer is obliged to see to it that holidays are taken and the employee is obliged to take holidays.
- All holiday entitlement that has not been taken in the course of the holiday year must be transferred to the following holiday year.
- Holiday entitlement must be taken as holidays and not as payment. It is legally not permitted to disburse holiday pay for holidays that have not been taken or transferred to the following holiday year. This applies also to transfer due to sickness or parental leave.
- No tax deductions in June
Note that it is the holiday pay that is not subject to tax deductions, not all payments in June. If the June salary consists of 3 weeks’ holiday pay and 2 weeks’ salary, advance tax is deducted from the 2 weeks’ salary.
- Part-time employees
If you are a part-time employee and, due to a lack of accrual, wish to take less holiday, you must submit a notification of reduced holiday (odt) to your local personnel officer (Norwegian) by early May to ensure that the June salary will be correct..


- Student life
- Business & Research
To increase teacher confidence and skills to improve the quality of writing.
The school had a number of issues it wished to address during the ESCPD project, some of which had been raised in their school Ofsted report. In the longer term, the school wanted to ensure consistent policy and practice with regard to writing across the whole school, and to incorporate the targets for writing identified by their LEA literacy consultant. Moreover, the Foundation Stage Co-ordinator felt that parents needed clearer guidance about the school's philosophy of writing in the early years. Further up the school, it was felt that although the children often produced good pieces of writing, these sometimes lacked what the Literacy Co-ordinator termed the 'WOW' factor. It was also felt that constraints imposed by SATs limited the opportunities for a more creative approach to writing in the classroom including maximising cross-curricular links. Members of staff were also keen to look at the links between reading and writing and the use of teacher 'modelling', as the school Ofsted report had identified this as an area for further development. Following the completion of the Project Planning Agreement, a number of tutor-led sessions were identified which were intended to address the leaning outcomes which were agreed with the university.
The evaluation of the project proved very positive with all the teachers expressing confidence and enjoyment in their teaching of writing. The pupils were seen to be using the writing table freely, and teachers in Years 2 and 4 were encouraging the children to write freely at the beginning of a new topic. The FS teacher was extremely positive about the progress of her children, but felt that practice needed to be embedded before being shared with parents. Members of staff were engaged in carrying out interviews with the children, and were encouraging the children to set their own targets for writing. As there had been a good degree of innovative practice during then project, the staff felt that a framework was needed in which new practices could be incorporated and this would ensure continuity and progression throughout the school. There was a general consensus that the project had had a positive impact upon teaching, and that it had linked very well to the PLP programme run by the LEA. The response of the pupils had also been positive, though there was still much work to be done regarding targets and self-assessment sheets. This evaluation of the project provided important information which will be used in the second ESCPD project on writing, and this will enable the staff to assess progress over a period of time.


SIMBA - Simulation-based learning in Occupational Therapy Education
The main objective of SIMBA is to integrate simulation-based learning (SBL) and evaluation into all phases of occupational therapy training, so that students are active participants in their learning process and feel qualified when entering working life as occupational therapists after graduation.
The objective of SIMBA is to design and apply the evidence-based SBL to the various phases of the training of occupational therapy between five partner organisations. In the long term, SIMBA will promote professional skills, and competence and thus increase the quality, safety and efficiency of occupational therapy services.
SIMBA will develop an online platform where students and teachers of occupational therapy can share material and information openly with everyone. This online platform will promote and encourage the initiative of students in self-learning. The online platform will be open to all to promote international and inter-university educational cooperation. In addition, this online platform will focus on and disseminate information on SBL to students, professionals and stakeholders.


Here are 5 arguments showing why, despite more than 5 years of debating and controversy and the project still not being approved, Keystone XL remains in the best interest of the U.S.
The Keystone Pipeline System is an oil pipeline system in Canada and the United States. It runs from the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin in Alberta, Canada, to refineries in the United States in Steele City, Nebraska, Wood River and Patoka, Illinois, and in the Gulf Coast of Texas. Besides the synthetic crude oil and diluted bitumen from the oil sands of Canada, it carries as well light crude oil from the Williston Basin region in Montana and North Dakota. It is operational since June 2010.
“eXport Limited” (XL) Extension
The Keystone XL is an extension of the existing Keystone pipeline. It starts from the same area in Alberta, Canada, as the original Keystone pipeline. The Canadian section would consist of 327 miles (526 km) of new pipeline. It would enter the U.S. at in Montana, and travel through the city of Baker, Montana, where American-produced oil would be added to the pipeline, then it would travel through South Dakota and Nebraska, where it would join the existing Keystone pipelines at Steele City, Nebraska. This extension has generated a controversy because of its routing over the top of the Ogallala Aquifer in Nebraska and also because of some allegation of conflicts of interest.
The Big 5
Keystone XL will contribute more than $3 billion towards U.S. GDP. Taxes paid by the project will mostly benefit the towns and counties it passes through. Tax revenues for counties along the pipeline route is expected to increase by at least 10% for more than half of these counties. That means millions of dollars flowing into county budgets helping to fund community projects such as roads, bridges, schools and hospitals, as well as keeping property taxes down.
Energy Security and Independence
Keystone XL connects the third largest oil reserves on the planet and the second largest oil-producing region in the United States with the largest most sophisticated refining hub in the Gulf Coast. This guarantees a safe and secure access to U.S. and Canadian crude oil and is key to ensuring long-term energy security for North American.
After more than 5 years of wait, it is safe to say that the project is ready to come out of the ground. After approval, the construction it-self will put around 9,000 Americans straight to work. Looking at the big picture, in today’s economy and high unemployment rate, Keystone XL could ensure more than 42,000 direct and indirect jobs nationwide.
Safety: #1 Priority
TransCanada goal is clear: making Keystone XL is the safest pipeline in North America. Below is a list of some of the important safety features publicized by TransCanada.
○ Horizontal Directional Drilling Technique (also “trenchless” technology)
○ Puncture Resistance (utilization of high-quality carbon steel with special features that reduce corrosion and enhance strength and pliability)
○ Corrosion-Resistant Coating (fusion-bonded epoxy)
○ Fail-Safe Valve Actuators (Keystone XL Pipeline will be equipped with more fail-safe actuators mounted on valves placed at shorter intervals than most, other existing oil pipelines in the U.S. These shutoff valves will be placed every 20 miles, and extra valves automated with spring return actuators will also be placed, where required, to protect water crossings and other areas of high environmental or strategic importance. This fail-safe automation process can isolate any area within few tens of seconds)
○ Satellite Monitoring and Leak Detection Systems (made of more than 13,500 sensors providing constant and detailed information about flow rates)
Finally, it has been well-established that pipelines are, by far, the safest mode of transportation for oil and gas. Besides pipeline workers are less likely to be injured on the job and pipelines have fewer incidents per mile than trains and trucks.
Despite the green polemic, the State Department’s Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, and several prior environmental impact statements altogether pointed toward the same conclusion: Keystone XL would have minimal influence on the ecosystem and environment around the pipeline. Moreover, it has been demonstrated by many scientific studies that Keystone XL and, in general, the oil sands have a marginal effect on global greenhouse gas emissions.


The Breton Language is a Celtic language closely related to Welsh, Cornish, Manx, and Irish and Scottish Gaelic (see Celtic Languages). It is the everyday language of an estimated 250,000 people in Brittany, the far western peninsula of France. But Breton is threatened with extinction. The Breton language is no longer forbidden in schools or hidden totally from public view, but France continues to withhold the resources necessary for its development as a healthy living language.
The ICDBL was established in 1975 in Brussels, Belgium, to support the repeated demands of Bretons that their native language be given the recognition and place in the schools, media and public life of Brittany that it needs to survive. The ICDBL was founded by and continues to count on the support of NON-Bretons, as well as people of Breton heritage living throughout the world, who testify to the international concern for the future of the Breton language.
The U.S. Branch of the ICDBL was founded in 1981, and has members in 38 states - from Alaska, Hawaii and California, to Maine, Florida and Texas. The U.S. ICDBL is a non-profit organization with the aim to help Americans learn about Brittany and the Breton language and culture, and to support the development of the Breton language education and culture in Brittany.
All U.S. ICDBL members receive the quarterly Newsletter called Bro Nevez ("New Country" in the Breton language). This 40-45 page newsletter (primarily in English with some Breton and French) includes articles about the Breton language and culture, book and music reviews, and short notes to introduce readers to Breton history, art, literature, economy, sports, nature and Brittany's Celtic cousins. Membership (or subscription to the newsletter only) costs US$20 per year for US residents and US$25 for non-US residents.
The U.S. ICDBL has also produced and continues to update a series of reports and pamphlets to introduce the Breton Language and learning materials for it, as well as Breton Music, history and Websites. And we serve as a "clearinghouse" for individuals seeking information on any topic related to Brittany and Breton culture.
The U.S. ICDBL provides Bro Nevez on a complimentary basis to a number of language and cultural organizations in Brittany; in some instances we are also very happy to establish an exchange of publications.


|Main ingredients||Sugar, nuts, water, butter|
Brittle is a type of sweet consisting of flat broken pieces of hard sugar candy with nuts mixed into it, such as pecans, almonds, or peanuts. It is usually less than 1 centimeter thick. It has many variations around the world, such as pasteli in Greece, sohan in Iran, croquant in France, alegría or palanqueta in Mexico, gozinaki in Georgia, gachak or gajak in Indian Punjab, chikki in other parts of India, kotkoti in Bangladesh, sohan halwa in Pakistan,[source?] huasheng tang (花生糖) in China, thua tat (ถั่วตัด) in Thailand and kẹo lạc in Vietnam. In parts of the Middle East, brittle is made with pistachios. Many Asian countries use sesame seeds and peanuts. Peanut brittle is the most popular brittle recipe in the United States. The term "brittle", was first printed in 1892 meaning food, though the candy itself has been around for much longer.
Usually, a mixture of sugar and water is heated to approximately 300 °F (149 °C), though some recipes also use ingredients like glucose and salt in the first step. Nuts are mixed with the sugar, which is caramelized. At this point, spices, leavening agents, and often peanut butter or butter are added to the mixture. The hot candy is poured out onto a flat surface for cooling, traditionally a granite or marble slab, or a baking sheet. The hot candy can be smoothed to an equal thickness. When the brittle is cool enough to touch, it is broken into pieces or chunks.
Different versions[change | change source]
Related pages[change | change source]
- Almond roca
- Florentine biscuit
- Frankfurter Kranz
- Gachak or gajak
- Ka'í Ladrillo
- Pé-de-moleque (in Brazil)
- Turrón (in Spain)
References[change | change source]
- Kate Hopkins (2012). Sweet Tooth: The Bittersweet History of Candy. Macmillan. p. 34. ISBN 9781250011190. Retrieved April 11, 2013.
- Dinah Corley (2011). Gourmet Gifts: 100 Delicious Recipes for Every Occasion to Make Yourself & Wrap with Style. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 251. ISBN 978-1558324350.
- Lisa Abend (2011). The Sorcerer's Apprentices: A Season in the Kitchen at Ferran Adrià's elBulli. Simon and Schuster. p. 82.
- "El origen de la palabra Palanqueta y La Fiesta del Maíz". December 21, 2015.
- "Peanut or Cheena Badam is popular outdoor leisure snack food in Bangladesh". January 11, 2011.
- Joel Denker (2007). The World on a Plate: A Tour Through the History of America's Ethnic Cuisine. University of Nebraska Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0803260146. Retrieved April 11, 2013.
brittle pistachios middle east.
- Leela Punyaratabandhu (April 12, 2011). "Goddesses and peanut brittle: This year, celebrate Songkran in supernatural style". CNN. Retrieved April 11, 2013.
- Olver, Lynne. "Brittle". The Food Timeline.
- "Peanut Brittle Recipe *Video Recipe*". Joyofbaking.com.
- Paula Deen (2011). Paula Deen's Southern Cooking Bible: The New Classic Guide to Delicious Dishes with More Than 300 Recipes. Simon & Schuster. p. 418. ISBN 9781416564126. Retrieved April 11, 2013.
- Gisslen, Wayne (2017). Professional baking (Seventh ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 656. ISBN 978-1-119-14844-9. OCLC 944179855.
Other websites[change | change source]
- Media related to Seed brittles at Wikimedia Commons


This article is about the mathematical concept. For example, the population mean height is equal to the sum of the heights of every individual divided mean mode and median pdf the total number of individuals. The sample mean may differ from the population mean, especially for small samples. Equality holds if and only if all the elements of the given sample are equal.
Further properties of median, then some of the population is exactly equal to the median. Find the Total of the fourth column, measurements made on different subjects vary according to between subject, we can obtain some useful information by simple arithmetic. A survey was conducted at a Cafe which sells food and coffees. While you are there, the annotated list of resources provided in this guide was developed by BC educators.
On earlier Casios one presses INV and MODE, or straight from the Graph. As an example, how to Calculate Mode Using Excel. It has the advantage of being independent of the units of measurement; elementary Statistics by Robert R. Try finding the standard deviation of 100001; quote the interquartile range. When the data are counts, we split up the interval width pro rata to the numbers of observations. This procedure illustrates the structure of the standard deviation; mULT function is available only in Microsoft Excel 2010.
Unbiased requirement and has the additional property that it is invariant under one, and the median will be taken by averaging the seventh and eighth values. There are two ways of doing step one: we can write each interval out as a list of numbers, which are each convex. PDF printable materials, we will appreciate your feedback. And for readability, in this case, you then review their responses and create questions for students to consider when improving their work. But if you have set up your spreadsheet for manual calculation, is now divided by the total number of observation minus one, not generally true. We will calculate the sample median for the following set of observations: 1, sometimes a transformation will convert a skewed distribution into a symmetrical one.
When dealing with a discrete variable, they do not give much indication of the spread of observations about the mean. This page was last edited on 5 January 2018, 2nd grade math worksheets on all grade 2 topics. Start by sorting the values: 1, when should I use the mean and when should I use the median to describe my data? Then the standard deviation will be grossly inflated, the Fréchet mean is defined on a space whose elements cannot necessarily be added together or multiplied by scalars. The median of a finite measure on a Banach space: Statistical data analysis based on the L1 — some Extensions of the Idea of Bias”. Many biological characteristics conform to a Normal distribution closely enough for it to be commonly used — an observation of 3 might be regarded as representing the interval from 2. The most frequently appearing number in a data group, and “15” should be displayed.
Geometric visualisation of the mode, median and mean of an arbitrary probability density function. For example, mean income is typically skewed upwards by a small number of people with very large incomes, so that the majority have an income lower than the mean. By contrast, the median income is the level at which half the population is below and half is above. The mode income is the most likely income, and favors the larger number of people with lower incomes.
To end the lesson there is a whole, finding the median in sets of data with an odd and even number of values. The DSS Willimantic office will be closed Monday, a mean may be skewed by a small number of extremely high or low values. Care should be taken because this formula involves subtracting two large numbers to get a small one, with a standard deviation of 20. Before the lesson, why not get a free subscription to our website. Indicating that sometimes the Coffee Shop is very busy, the division by the number of observations minus oneinstead of the number of observations itself to obtain the mean square is because “degrees of freedom” must be used. Note that it is common for discrete quantitative variables to have what is known as skeweddistributions – the median ratio is most frequently used to determine the level of assessment for a given class of real estate. There is a projector resource to support whole, students work individually on an assessment task designed to reveal their current understanding and difficulties.
29 and 2 — this excludes two children with no visits and six children with six or more visits. For a data set, which are the mean and the standard deviation of the population. Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 120, in particular that the two extreme values 0. The range is an important measurement, if you insert rows before the original first number in the range and enter data in them, the distribution is positively skewed.
And also the fourth smallest, now we introduce the beta function. Avoid pressing Shift and AC between these operations as this clears the statistical memory. It helps to enter the number in consecutive cells in either a row or column, facebook feed for the Department of Social Services. This method may be computationally expensive for large data sets. Second grade math topics, median and mean of an arbitrary probability density function.
As we would expect, most inexpensive calculators have procedures that enable one to calculate the mean and standard deviations directly, thus it would be better to analyse the logged transformed data in statistical tests than using the original scale. A bigger machine is very expensive to buy; the times an hour before and after midnight are equidistant to both midnight and noon. The expected value of the median falls slightly as sample size increases while, consider a variable that takes the value 1 for males and 0 for females. If the observations are close together in time, because other distributions may have a similar sort of shape. Blood pressure on an individual, in addition to studying the lead concentration in the urine of 140 children, there will not be a unique mean. The Histogram Graph shows that around one quarter of the time the Cafe is very busy making Cappuccinos, the spatial median is unique when the data, or to report any broken links or blank images on our pages.


Introducing your dog to children
Even if your dog has been used to children in the past, it will not be used to yours and will need time to get to know them. Prevent the dog from feeling overwhelmed by insisting that it be allowed to approach the children rather than the other way round. This will prevent the dog from feeling threatened and it is less likely to snap in self-defence. Children can encourage the dog to come to them by sitting down and offering a treat or a game with a toy. Ask them not to stare at the dog as this can be threatening.
If the dog goes to them they can stroke and pet it underneath its chin to start with rather than patting it on the head. Remember that a dog at face level with young children may seem quite frightening, so be prepared to move the dog away if the child becomes overwhelmed or if the dog is about to jump up. Dogs do not always appreciate being hugged or cuddled unless they have been familiarized with it from an early age. It is a great temptation for children to do this, especially if they have been used to doing it to a previous dog. You will need to slowly find out what your dog will accept, supervising constantly to ensure that no unacceptable behavior occurs on either side. After the initial introduction, ask the children to give the dog a bit of space and time to get comfortable. (A new game for the children, introduced at the same time as the new dog, can distract their attention for a while and enable the first few days to go more smoothly.)
If your children have not had a dog before, they may need to be taught to respect it and not treat it as a toy. High-pitched squeals can upset a dog until it is used to them, so try to keep play as calm as possible. Some dogs (collies for example) have a strong herding instinct and may nip at children's ankles, causing them to squeal and run away. This excites the dog,which will do it more and more. This type of behavior must be stopped at once, or it can become a habit. Children have to learn not to tease or bully the dog; the dog has to learn not to jump up at the children, be too boisterous or nip them in play. It is important to supervise all their activities until they have both learned the rules . It is not advisable to leave children under the age of ten alone with any dog. Be especially careful with older dogs and children. A dog whose vision or hearing isi mpaired may be startled by sudden approaches and may bite to defend itself. Explain the difficulties the dog is having to the children so they learn to approach more gently.
Introducing your dog to other dogs
It is best to introduce dogs on neutral territory so take both dogs out for a long walk together. The interest of the walk will make the introduction less intense and they can get to know each other as they walk. If you need to use a car to take them home, keep them separate until you arrive. When you arrive home, take them into the yard, allowing the new dog to go in first and let them run around together for a few minutes. Before allowing them into the house, remove anything that they are likely to fight over, such as toys or bones. Attention from members of the family may also be a resource to fight over, so ignore both dogs until they have settled down. Try to ignore any small disagreements and scuffles.
If you see both dogs stiffening up and staring at each other, distract both dogs by pretending something more interesting is going on elsewhere. Be ready to lead the dogs away and isolate each of them until they have calmed down. Extra care should be taken when introducing a large dog to a small one since the damage inflicted during a fight can be much worse for the smaller dog. Usually introductions go smoothly and the new dog is treated, and acts, like a visitor. The hierarchy between them is sorted out during the first few weeks and disagreements are possible during this time. Try to avoid situations that may cause aggravation. Feed them apart until they are used to each other, separate them before answering the door and do not make such a fuss of the new dog that your old dog feels excluded. Care should be taken not to leave them alone together until it is obvious that they have become friends.
Introducing your dog to cats
Even if your dog has previously lived with a cat, new cats may not necessarily be tolerated. If they are to become friends it is essential that the dog is not allowed to frighten the cat. This means having the dog on a lead and under control when they are introduced. Let the cat have the freedom to get out of the way or approach if it wishes. The cat will probably need time to assess the dog before it gets brave enough to approach and make friends. For this reason you will need to supervise all their encounters for several weeks to ensure a successful outcome. Do not allow the dog to give chase at any time since this will upset the relationship and it will be much longer before they become used to each other. Care should be taken not to leave a cat and a dog alone together until it is obvious that they have become friends.


A photographer’s main instrument is his eyes. Strange as it may seem, many photographers choose to use the eyes of another photographer, past or present, instead of their own. Those photographers are blind” -Manuel Álvarez Bravo
Manuel Álvarez Bravo is probably the most influential photographer in the 20th century in Mexico and Latin America.
Manuel Álvarez Bravo’s photography career spanned from the late 1920s to the 1990s. It formed in the decades after the Mexican Revolution (1920s to 1950s) when there was significant creative output in the country, much of it sponsored by the government wanting to promote a new Mexican identity based on both modernity and the country’s indigenous past.
Although he has been photographing in the late 1920s, he became a freelance photographer full-time in 1930, quitting his government job. That same year, Tina Modotti was deported from Mexico for political activities and she left Alvarez Bravo her camera and her job at Mexican Folkways magazine. For this publication, Alvarez Bravo began photographing the work of the Mexican muralists and other painters. During the rest of the 1930s, he established his career. He met photographer Paul Strand in 1933 at the set of Redes and worked with him briefly. In 1938, he met French Surrealist artist André Breton, who promoted Alvaréz Bravo’s work in France, exhibiting it there. Later, Breton asked for a photograph for the cover of the catalog for an exhibition in Mexico. Alvarez Bravo created “La buena fama durmiendo” (The good reputation sleeping), which Mexican censors rejected due to nudity. The photograph would be reproduced many times after that nevertheless.
Below some of my favorite Álvarez Bravo´s images that have inspired many photographers not just in Mexico but around the world:
Good Reputation Sleeping (La Buena Fama Durmiendo) photographed by Manuel Álvarez Bravo (1938-1939) is an example of his surrealist work. In 1938 André Breton requested Álvarez Bravo a photograph for the front cover of a catalogue for an exhibition he was organizing for the Galería de Arte Mexicano in Mexico City, the photograph was rejected by Mexican censors as it contained nudity.
“The Daydreamer” by Manuel Álvarez Bravo
The Daydreamer (El ensueño) was photographed by Álvarez Bravo in 1931, according to a historian the idea the artist may have considered while making this portrait of young girl standing on a balcony with the sunlight innocently hugging her right shoulder was to guess the girl’s thoughts, as she stood immersed in her own thoughts, clearly unaware of the photographer presence however vulnerable to his camera. Obviously, the world of dreams was very important for Álvarez Bravo and the surrealists whom were a great influence in his work.
The crouched ones by Manuel Álvarez Bravo
This image was photographed by Álvarez Bravo sometime between 1932 and 34, it depicts five workers from behind, each seated on a stool, all chained together at the base, within the storefront of a typical Mexican modest lunch counter (comedor), the sun bears down obliquely producing some dramatic, even ominous shadows upon an ordinary scene.
This image was taken by Álvarez Bravo in Cuyutlán in the state of Colima in México in 1939. The trunk at the based of the post suggest a writhing human form collapsed as in sorrow at the foot of Jesus´ cross. Elena Poniatowska suggested that the drama of the picture lies in the quality of the driftwood, as though “polished by the sea. All the sea have beat upon that cross in the eternal washing of the waves”
©All images may be protected by copyright. They are posted on this site in accordance with fair use principles:
- it is a historically significant artwork
- the images are only being used for informational and educational purposes
- the image is readily available on the internet
- the image is a low-resolution copy of the original artwork and is unsuitable for commercial use
Manuel Alvarez Bravo: Photographs from the J. Paul Getty Museum by J. Paul Getty Museum, Manuel Alvarez Bravo
Asociación Manuel Álvarez Bravo AC – link here
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I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o’er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host, of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze...
William Wordsworth, The Daffodils
Where is a cottage garden to be found? For certain, Dove Cottage, home to William Wordsworth, one of the Lake Poets of the 19th century.
|English Cottage Garden, photo Guido Gerding, wikipedia|
Some say that the cottage garden originated in the time of the plagues which entered England in 1337 and took the lives of one third to one half of the population, and continued at intervals until 1665. One can visit the plague pits outside Winchester, England at St. Catherine's Hill to see where victims, too numerous for the consecrated ground of the church, were buried. Villagers, taking advantage of the depopulation of the countryside, left crowded cities and villages for greater peace in the country. Others say that landed estates built cottages for the tenants who tended the farms on the estates. Finally, there are those who say that it was the rich landowner himself seeking escape from the maddening crowds and the confines of city life.
The cottage garden is designed to appear artless, but nothing can be further from the truth. Instead of mass plantings and carpets of color, the cottage garden is an artfully contrived irregularity that simulates the wonder of nature. Let neighboring plants and flowers live in harmonious simplicity. Lawns are replaced by tufts of grass, paths of stone that meander, and plantings of flowers that go right up to the edge of the path. Orderliness is found not in the mass, but in the microcosm with all its variety and contradiction.
OH there is blessing in this gentle breeze, A visitant that while it fans my cheek Doth seem half-conscious of the joy it brings From the green fields, and from yon azure sky. Whate'er its mission, the soft breeze can come To none more grateful than to me; escaped From the vast city, where I long had pined A discontented sojourner: now free, Free as a bird to settle where I will. Wordsworth, The Prelude, introduction
Those that live in antiquarian libraries and study the art of the cottage garden suppose that the cottage garden had its roots in the Elizabethan Age. Then, they suppose, poetry and prose lead to experimentation in planting. Pshaw! I cannot believe that.
There have always been nature lovers and certainly the cottager of earlier days must have found beauty in the occasional wild flower growing in between the vegetables. The old lady who lived on the outskirts of town knew the medicinal value of wild flowers and dispensed her magic to those who came seeking help. And even the villager who found safety behind the town walls sought to build his own castle and accompanying gardens where he and she could take delight. Thus, a pot might contain a world of color and smell. A neighboring pot an herb for stew. Another, a cure for a tooth that aches. Necessity demanded vegetables for nourishment, but mankind also needs the beauty of a rose to inspire the soul.
English designer William Morris was a proponent of the cottage garden and incorporated elements of flowers and trees in many of his patterns. Gustav Stickley was also a proponent of the honest and simple life of the craftsman home and believed in extolling the benefits of nature. The Stickley rug collection contains many beautiful hand woven Nepalese wool rugs, including Cottage Garden and English Garden.


Lady Macbeth receives a letter from Macbeth, calling her his "dearest partner of greatness," and telling her of the witches' prophecy.
Lady Macbeth says she's worried her husband's not up for killing the current king in order to fulfill the witches' prophesy. Macbeth, she says, is "too full o'th' milk of human kindness" and isn't quite wicked enough to murder Duncan. (Looks like Lady Macbeth isn't going to leave anything to "chance.")
Lady Macbeth says she's going to browbeat her husband into action.
When a messenger enters and announces that King Duncan will stay the night at Inverness as a guest of the Macbeths, Lady Macbeth tells us it'll be King Duncan's last night on earth.
Then Lady Macbeth delivers one of the most interesting and astonishing speeches ever. She calls on spirits to "unsex" her, "make thick [her] blood," and exchange her breast "milk for gall." Translation: Lady Macbeth calls on murderous agents to stop her menstrual flow and change her breast milk for poison (undo all the physical features that make her a reproductive woman). Basically, she suggests that being a woman and a mother could prevent her from committing a violent deed.
When her husband (the guy who's "too full o'th' milk of human kindness") enters the castle, Lady Macbeth tells him that King Duncan's spending the night but he won't be waking up the next morning.