1. The Science Behind Solar Energy
1.1 Photons and Solar Radiation
Sunlight is composed of tiny packets of energy called photons. These photons are produced through nuclear fusion reactions in the sun’s core. Every second, trillions of photons travel from the sun to the Earth, providing us with the energy necessary for life. Solar radiation is the primary source of energy for the planet, and it can be harnessed to generate electricity for our homes through a process called the photovoltaic effect.
1.2 The Photovoltaic Effect
The photovoltaic effect is the phenomenon by which light is converted into electrical energy. This process was first discovered by a French physicist, Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel, in 1839. In simple terms, the photovoltaic effect occurs when photons of sunlight strike a material, typically a semiconductor like silicon, and knock electrons loose from their atoms. This flow of electrons creates an electrical current, which can be captured and utilized to power our homes.
2. The Solar Panel
2.1 Anatomy of a Solar Panel
A solar panel is a collection of components designed to absorb sunlight and convert it into electricity. The main components of a solar panel include:
2.1.1 Solar Cells
The most crucial part of a solar panel is the solar cell, which is responsible for converting sunlight into electricity. Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials, usually silicon, and consist of two layers: the N-type (negative) layer and the P-type (positive) layer. When sunlight hits the solar cell, the photovoltaic effect causes electrons to flow between the layers, creating an electrical current.
2.1.2 Glass and Frame
Solar panels are also made up of glass, which protects the solar cells from the elements and allows sunlight to pass through to the cells. The frame, typically made of aluminum, provides structural support and facilitates mounting.
2.2 Types of Solar Panels
There are several types of solar panels available on the market, each with their own advantages and disadvantages:
2.2.1 Monocrystalline Panels
Monocrystalline panels are made from a single crystal of silicon, making them highly efficient in converting sunlight into electricity. They have a sleek black appearance and are more expensive than other types of panels.
2.2.2 Polycrystalline Panels
Polycrystalline panels are made from multiple silicon crystals, which results in a lower efficiency compared to monocrystalline panels. They have a blue appearance and are more affordable than their monocrystalline counterparts.
2.2.3 Thin-Film Panels
Thin-film panels are made by depositing a thin layer of semiconductor material onto a substrate, such as glass or metal. They are less efficient than crystalline panels but can be more flexible and lightweight. These panels are often used in applications where weight and flexibility are important factors, such as on curved surfaces or portable solar devices.
3. From Solar Panels to Home Electricity
3.1 The Solar Inverter
Once the solar panels have converted sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity, the solar inverter plays a crucial role in transforming that DC electricity into alternating current (AC) electricity, which is the standard form used by most household appliances. Solar inverters come in different types, such as string inverters, microinverters, and power optimizers, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
3.2 Electrical Panel and Meter
After the solar inverter has converted the electricity to AC, it is then sent to the electrical panel, sometimes referred to as the breaker box. The electrical panel distributes the electricity to different circuits in your home, powering your appliances and devices. When your solar energy system produces more electricity than your home needs, the excess power is sent back to the grid through your utility meter. Many utility companies offer net metering, a system that credits homeowners for the excess electricity they generate, which can offset electricity costs during times when the solar panels are not producing enough power.
4. The Impact of Solar Energy
4.1 Benefits for Homeowners
Solar energy provides numerous benefits for homeowners, including:
- Lower energy bills: By generating your own electricity, you can significantly reduce your reliance on the grid, leading to lower monthly utility bills.
- Energy independence: Solar power allows you to produce your own electricity, reducing your dependence on fossil fuels and contributing to a more sustainable energy future.
- Increased property value: Homes equipped with solar energy systems often have higher property values and are more attractive to potential buyers.
4.2 Environmental Benefits
In addition to the financial benefits, solar energy also offers several environmental advantages:
- Reduced greenhouse gas emissions: Solar power is a clean, renewable energy source that helps to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and combat climate change.
- Conserving natural resources: By utilizing sunlight as a source of energy, we can reduce our reliance on finite resources like coal, oil, and natural gas.
- Promoting sustainable development: Solar energy is an important component of a sustainable energy future, fostering innovation, job creation, and improved public health.
The process of converting sunlight into electricity is an incredible scientific feat that has become increasingly accessible to homeowners around the world. From the photovoltaic effect to the solar inverter and electrical panel, each step in this journey is essential for harnessing the power of the sun and providing clean, renewable energy for our homes. By investing in solar energy, homeowners can enjoy lower energy bills, increased property value, and a reduced environmental footprint, all while contributing to a more sustainable and greener future.
1.How efficient are solar panels at converting sunlight into electricity?
- Solar panel efficiency typically ranges from 15% to 22%, depending on the type and quality of the panel.
2. Do solar panels work on cloudy days or at night?
- Solar panels still produce electricity on cloudy days, but their output is reduced. They do not produce electricity at night since there is no sunlight to convert.
3. How long do solar panels last?
- Most solar panels have a lifespan of 25 to 30 years, but their efficiency may decrease over time.
4. How much does it cost to install solar panels on a home?
- The cost of solar panel installation varies depending on factors such as location, system size, and incentives available. On average, the cost can range from $15,000 to $25,000 before incentives and tax credits.
5. Are there any government incentives or tax credits for installing solar panels?
- Yes, many countries offer incentives and tax credits to encourage the adoption of solar energy. In the United States, for example, there is a federal tax credit called the Investment Tax Credit (ITC), which allows homeowners to claim a percentage of their solar installation costs as a credit on their federal income taxes. Additionally, many states and local governments have their own incentive programs to further support solar adoption.


Some babies are born with a lot of hair, and others come into the world with a completely smooth skull. This is a phenomenon that worries parents who are wondering when their baby's hair will finally appear. The color of the hair will also become a big debate in the family, since everyone will want to know what beautiful hair this baby has inherited.
Some babies are born with a lot of hair on the skull. However, that does not mean they will keep them for the next few months. With the effect of hormones, but also because of recurrent long recumbent positions in newborns, the hair falls during their first months of life. It is therefore important to know this so as not to have false hopes, but also to understand that nothing is definitive in babies.
The same goes for the color that can also change over the months. Your baby can come into the world with lots of black hair and finally become blond later.
Of course, and like all the physical characteristics of your child, genes play an important role. While it's hard to predict the future color of your baby's hair in advance, you can still get closer to the truth by watching yourself. If you both have the same hair color, then there is a good chance your baby will inherit it. If, on the contrary, your hair colors are very different, then it may have a hue between the two. Of course, these words are to be taken with much hindsight, because genetics is an extremely complex science, so it is difficult to predict exactly.
No need to rush on your child from birth to see the color of her hair, since it can still change at all. During the first six months of your child, he will still have on his skull his first hair that will eventually fall to make room for new hair, which will already give an impression of his future color. Anyway, no need to shout victory too quickly, since the final hair color is only visible from 18 years.
Even after this, it is not uncommon to see hair continue to darken, especially because the presence of eumelanin (type of melanin brown to black) continues to increase with age.
The color of a human hair is determined by the type and concentration of a pigment called melanin. There are several types of melanin in hair. The concentration of one of the types of melanin, called eumelanin, gives the hair a black or brown color, and if this concentration is very low, the blond color. The concentration of another pigment, called pheomelanin, gives the red color.
The type and amount of melanin in hair is determined by many genes. The most studied gene that determines hair color in humans is called "MC1R". This gene provides instructions for the manufacture of a protein called "melanocortin receptor type 1", which is involved in the creation of melanin. This receptor controls the type of melanin produced by the melanocytes. When this receptor is activated, it triggers a series of chemical reactions within the melanocytes that stimulate the production of eumelanin.
If this receptor is not functional, the melanocytes produce pheomelanin instead of eumelanin. Many other genes also help regulate this process.
Most humans have two functional copies of the MC1R gene, inherited from each of their parents. These people have black or brown hair, due to the large amount of eumelanin present in the hair. It is estimated that more than 90 percent of human have brown or black hair!
Some people have variations of a copy of the MC1R gene in each cell who deactivates the gene. For these people, the production of eumelanin is lower, while the production of pheomelanin is higher, which gives them a light brown, blond or red color.
The color of the hair can change over time. And especially for people from European origin. For example, children with blond hair often have darker hair when they become teenagers. The researchers speculate that some hair pigment proteins are activated as children grow older. With age, our hair turns gray when the hair follicle loses its ability to produce melanin.
Did you know that redheads represent only 1 to 2% of the world's population? So if this is your natural color, rejoice! Many blond, chestnut and brown women who want to go red through a permanent color. If this atypical color was subject to some mockery in the playground, it now takes a nice revenge, especially with celebrities.
In addition, the red keeps its pigments longer and delays the appearance of white hair.
Make no mistake, rare are naturally blonde women (1 in 20 women!). And for good reason, the blond is linked to recessive genes. That is to say, it takes two determining this character, one from the father, the other from the mother.
If this color fascinates so much, it is because it would be a sign of youth, sweetness, but also of seduction. Men do not they have a penchant for blondes?
Lighter than red, but brighter than blond, this original shade has been a great success for centuries. Already in the Renaissance, women thinned their hair with saffron and lemon to get that almost red color. Today, this color pleases women for its delicacy, warmth and good-looking effect!
The dominant hair color is black, sometimes tinged with a brown sheen. This color is mainly prevalent in Africa, West Asia and the mixed populations of South America. The black color is also found in Asia, China, India, and Japan and among the Amerindian populations.
The Mediterranean populations are more brown in color, and black is very present. As one goes back to Europe and Central Asia, the hair becomes lighter: chestnut, red and blond appear. The hues are becoming lighter going back to Russia, Scandinavia and the Baltic states, with blond being the dominant color among them.
This distribution does not take into account population movements and migration, which brought these different colors around the world.


An AlGaN/GaN Based UV Photodetector Simulation Using COMSOL® to Obtain the Fresnel Coefficients
Over the past two decades, extensive research has been conducted on ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors (PDs) because of their potential applications across various fields including military, medicine, environmental monitoring, and deep space explorations. To fabricate solar-blind UV PDs materials, wide band gap semiconductor materials such as gallium nitride (GaN) and aluminum gallium nitride (AlxGa(1-x)N) are typically used. To design a typical UV PD, so far there are four types of device structures that are widely investigated in the literature. They are Schottky type, metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) type, p-i-n type, and avalanche type. Each of these device types are realized by using either GaN or AlxGa(1-x)N. In this paper, a novel GaN-AlxGa(1-x)N-GaN vertically stacked cantilever has been proposed to function as a UV PD. The proposed cantilever has been modeled in COMSOL® to compute the Fresnel coefficients such as absorptance, reflectance, and transmittance in the wavelength range of 300 nm to 500 nm by utilizing the Wave Optics Module in COMSOL®.
The 3D geometry of the GaN-AlxGa(1-x)N-GaN cantilever is shown in Fig. 1. Instead of simulating the entire 3D geometry, to simplify the problem a 2D longitudinal cross-section at the tip region of the cantilever is used, as shown in Fig. 2. The thickness of the AlxGa(1-x)N and top and bottom GaN layers is 20 nm, 3 nm, and 1 µm, respectively. To simulate the Fresnel coefficients, the required input material property for both GaN and AlxGa(1-x)N is their refractive index. In this model, for the given 2D geometry a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave was launched in the -y axis. It was assumed that the electric (E) and magnetic (H) field components are along z and x axis respectively. As the H-field components are along the x axis, a perfect magnetic conductor (PMC) boundary condition was applied on both sides of the 2D geometry.
Using the wavelength domain study, Fresnel coefficients were computed in the given wavelength range. Simulations are also performed for two different cases. The results obtained from these studies are shown in Figs. 3&4 respectively. The first case is to study the effect of bottom GaN layer thickness variation on the absorption property of the cantilever. The thickness of the bottom GaN layer is varied from 0.1 to 2 µm with a step size of 0.1 µm. From the simulation results it has been observed that as the thickness of the bottom GaN layer increases from 0.1 µm to 0.8 µm, the cantilever absorptance increased monotonically from 74.77% to 86.52% with Al alloy composition remaining fixed at 19%. But for thicknesses > 0.8 μm the absorptance profile remains basically unchanged. We also studied the effect of Al alloy composition in AlxGa(1-x)N on the absorption properties. From the simulation results it has been observed that as the Al% in AlxGa(1-x)N increases from 19% to 78.5%, the cantilever absorptance also increased monotonically. Specifically, at 300 nm wavelength as the Al% is increased from 19% to 78.5%, the absorption percentage is increased from 86.5% to 91% for a GaN thickness of 1.3 µm.


The story of India’s military victory over Pakistan in Bangladesh is celebrated year after year as an example of India’s military power, the political decisiveness of the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, how the Nixon administration in the U.S. failed to “scare off the Indians”, and how the erstwhile Soviet Union stood by India through the entire crisis.
Then there are unfair criticisms and baseless myths: how the political class (led by Mrs. Gandhi) did not manage to convert the military victory into a political one in Simla on the Kashmir question, and that India had wanted to break up Pakistan as soon as the crisis in East Pakistan had started.
Former Indian diplomat Chandrashekhar Dasgupta’s brilliantly researched and equally well-written new book India and the Bangladesh Liberation War is a conclusive response to many of those lingering criticisms and myths. On whether India had pre-planned the break-up of Pakistan, Dasgupta argues, quite convincingly and with solid evidence, that “far from planning to break up Pakistan, Indian policymakers hoped, right up to 25 March 1971, for a peaceful transition to democracy in Pakistan and the installation of an Awami League-led government in Islamabad.”
The Kashmir issue
But the real contribution of the book, in my opinion, is how Dasgupta debunks the fallacious but popular argument in India that Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had sweet-talked Mrs. Gandhi into not pressing for a conversion of the Line of Control (then Ceasefire Line or CFL) into an international border in exchange for the 90,000-odd prisoners of war under India’s command at the time. Dasgupta argues that “at every stage in the Simla conference, India specifically reserved a final settlement of the Kashmir issue for future meetings. India did, indeed, push for an eventual settlement on the basis of the Line of Control, but Indira Gandhi feared that an immediate agreement on these lines would expose her to the charge that she had ‘surrendered’ Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.”
Let me explain this argument a little more. While India did not push for the conversion of the CFL (or ceasefire line) into an international border, it managed to gain several diplomatic victories at Simla. For one, the change of the nomenclature of the line from CFL to LoC meant that since December 1971 Jammu and Kashmir has a new dividing line. This, according to India, means that the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) which was monitoring the CFL since 1949 had no role to play in Kashmir after the Simla agreement was signed since the UNMOGIP was not party to the creation of the LoC, and the CFL which was monitored by the UN group didn’t exist anymore. Secondly, by agreeing to “to settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations or by any other peaceful means mutually agreed upon between them”, India also ensured that the Kashmir conflict ceased to be internationalised but became a bilateral one. Dasgupta not only sheds sufficient light on the rationale behind Mrs. Gandhi’s decision at Simla to not push for a conversion of the CFL into an international border but has effectively laid the controversy to rest.
One could, however, argue that the victorious Indian side could have pushed for the delineation of the Siachen Glacier area. Recall that the LoC has only been delineated to a point called NJ 9842 (by the 1949 Karachi agreement) which is the root cause of the current dispute over the glacier. Had India, in 1972, pushed for delineating the LoC beyond NJ 9842, the Siachen dispute would not have arisen in the first place. But then perhaps it was not possible to foresee the dispute in 1972.
Freedom for a country
Perhaps the most significant conceptual argument that Dasgupta makes, with solid evidence again, is how Indian policymakers stitched together a multidimensional grand strategy to achieve the liberation of Bangladesh. Dasgupta defines grand strategy as “a comprehensive and coordinated plan for employing all the resources available to a state — diplomatic, military and economic — to achieve a defined political objective”. The book also, somewhat indirectly, prompts one to raise several questions about India and its experiments with grand strategy.
There is little doubt that what we witnessed in 1971 was one of those rare moments when India articulated and implemented a grand strategy. The Kargil conflict was another example when India was able to press its military, political and diplomatic resources to successfully beat back Pakistani territorial aggression. These were of course crisis moments and India performed well. Yet what is it about us that we manage to get our act together only when there is a crisis? For sure, a crisis demands a grand strategic response, but the real test of a country’s ability to adopt grand strategic responses is whether it is able to do so consistently, thoughtfully, and in the long term, in less politically riveting situations.
At the end of the book, I was left wanting a little more on the decades that followed Bangladesh’s liberation, reasons behind India’s inability to cement its strong relationship with Dhaka, among other things. Nevertheless, Dasgupta’s book is a masterclass on India’s role in the Bangladesh liberation war and must be read by every observer of Indian diplomacy and foreign affairs. This book, along with his earlier tome, War and Diplomacy in Kashmir, 1947-48, makes him one of the best diplomat historians of our times.
India and the Bangladesh Liberation War; Chandrashekhar Dasgupta, Juggernaut, ₹625.
The reviewer teaches at Jawaharlal Nehru University.


How was the classical historian Sallust read in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and what does this reveal about medieval moral thought? These are the questions Philippa Byrne asks in her new article (now live on the Cerae website). Philippa introduces it for us here on the blog, taking a look at how the research developed and what new questions it raised…
L.D. Reynold’s Texts and Transmission, first published in 1983, is a book every medievalist should know. It is the starting point for working out which texts from the classical world survived into the middle ages and, roughly, in what quantities. That makes it a beacon for many newly-minted graduate students, especially those unfamiliar with medieval texts beyond the one they are working on and who are trying to determine whether an author’s use of Lucan, Seneca, Quintilian (etc) is unusual for their time and place, and thus worthy of further investigation and commentary. Opening Reynolds is the first step towards establishing which classical texts survived into the middle ages and where and when they were being read. It is the best kind of guide, providing the lay of the land before one moves onto more specialised texts like catalogues of monastic libraries.
Reynolds sets down one of the ‘big questions’ for medieval scholarship—a big question long before 1983, and which will remain so far into the future—what parts of the classical world survived into the middle ages, what was preserved and copied, and who had access to it? The question I try to address in my article is one which follows on from that. We have a fairly good understanding of how much of the Roman historian Sallust (d. 35BCE) survived into the middle ages: but how was he read, and which parts of him were read and redeployed? Sallust embodies the way in which that classical inheritance was most like a box of Lego bricks: the constitutive parts could be broken down and used as the building-blocks of a new set of structures.
My article began in the course of reading two twelfth-century chronicles: the History of the Czechs by Cosmas of Prague and a history of Sicily written by an author we know as Pseudo-Hugo Falcandus. These are works separated by some considerable geographical distance, yet both made similar use of similar parts of Sallust: how did they have access to it? That last, Sicilian text, was particularly interesting to me: we know very little about the author known as Pseudo-Hugo and so a consideration of its sources provides one way into an analysis of the work. The same set of Sallustian quotations and ideas key popping up in other authors, like Gerald of Wales.
Thus the genesis of this article was the question of what appeal that part of Sallust had to authors writing in strikingly different political contexts. The chronological spread was also interesting to me, as a researcher interested in the timing and structure of the phenomenon sometimes called the ‘Twelfth-Century Renaissance’: these Sallustian quotations are evident in the 1080s and continue to be used into the later thirteenth century. This spread is testament to the continuing importance and enduring appeal of classical texts even in the period after the reception of new Latin translations of Aristotle in the mid-thirteenth century. Even when one had Aristotle’s Politics, one could still reach for a text like Sallust to make a political point—he still retained his status as a political auctoritas; that was something which did not die off in the central middle ages only to be revived in the Renaissance proper. (There is nothing medievalists like more than undermining early modernists’ claims to newness: it is why we get up in the morning.)
My article has, admittedly, a narrow focus—it peers through a small window, trying to determine how a couple of paragraphs of Sallust were received, how they might have fitted into a broader intellectual and political culture. I have no doubt the same thing could be done with many other parts of many different classical texts. Examining their afterlife in greater detail will be surprising—undoubtedly many classical texts were not being used in the ways we assume. The significance of seemingly minor passages may balloon; new themes may come into view.
I had one final thought when editing this article. Modern everyday English conversation is littered with widely-known quotations: ‘show me the money’, ‘let there be light’, ‘to boldly go where no-man has gone before’, ‘once more into the breach’ (to pick a random sample). We insert them into our own conversation to entertain or to allude to a different set of ideas. Perhaps (and psychologists and anthropologists are better placed to argue this than I), this is a fundamental feature of human thought and speech. But we use them as medieval antecessors did: wrenched from context, deployed in a new and constructive way, appealing to a shared formation and common body of ideas that might rarely be explicitly recorded or expressed. Like these medieval authors, we are also making new things out of old.
University of Oxford
Feature Image: Luca Signorelli – Sallust – Fresco, 1499-1502, Chapel of San Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto


What do Pesticide Handlers, Sprayers, and Applicators, Vegetation do?
Mix or apply pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, or insecticides through sprays, dusts, vapors, soil incorporation, or chemical application on trees, shrubs, lawns, or botanical crops. Usually requires specific training and State or Federal certification.
- Fill sprayer tanks with water and chemicals, according to formulas.
- Mix pesticides, herbicides, or fungicides for application to trees, shrubs, lawns, or botanical crops.
- Cover areas to specified depths with pesticides, applying knowledge of weather conditions, droplet sizes, elevation-to-distance ratios, and obstructions.
- Lift, push, and swing nozzles, hoses, and tubes to direct spray over designated areas.
- Start motors and engage machinery, such as sprayer agitators or pumps or portable spray equipment.
- Connect hoses and nozzles selected according to terrain, distribution pattern requirements, types of infestations, and velocities.
- Clean or service machinery to ensure operating efficiency, using water, gasoline, lubricants, or hand tools.
- Provide driving instructions to truck drivers to ensure complete coverage of designated areas, using hand and horn signals.
- Plant grass with seed spreaders and operate straw blowers to cover seeded areas with mixtures of asphalt and straw.
Related Jobs (Pesticide Handlers, Sprayers, and Applicators, Vegetation)


University of Surrey International Study Centre
Law and criminology relates to the rules set by society and government, and the problems related to crime and social disorder. Although laws and what is defined as criminal behaviour can vary around the world, the principles you will study in Law and Criminology will provide you with the foundational knowledge needed to specialise in the area you are most interested in. Some of the specialist topics covered include crime theory, punishment in society and the criminal justice system.
Studying a Law and Criminology degree will do more than just prepare you for a legal career. It will teach you to think about ethics, the relationship between individuals and governments and examine current and historic legal systems.
Law has a number of fields that you can specialise in, including:
There are many reasons to study law and criminology:
Through your studies, you will gain a deeper understanding of the principles of law and criminology, looking at real-world examples of how to apply that knowledge in legal cases. You will learn how the law can be applied in a variety of industries and careers, as well as have the opportunity to specialise in your area of interest. You will also gain a unique understanding of the connection between law breaking and the construction of law.
An undergraduate or postgraduate degree in law and criminology will equip you with a variety of transferable skills. The skills you will learn and develop will make you desirable to employers, both in the legal industry and out of it. Some of the transferable skills you will gain are:
Law graduates have the opportunity to go on and change the world. You will be able to pursue a career as a barrister, family lawyer, human rights lawyer or as an environmental lawyer, where you can make meaningful and lasting impacts on individuals and on society. Enjoying a strong professional status, law graduates will typically also benefit from a high earning potential; from £25,000 for entry-level solicitor roles (National Careers Service).
Our Criminology degree is ranked first in the Guardian University Guide 2019, making Surrey one of the leading universities for Criminology. Studying Law and Criminology at the University of Surrey means you will be based in the School of Law. Our law school will help you gain the skills and knowledge required to pursue a legal career.
Through a student-focused approach, you will learn the fundamentals of Law and Criminology with the opportunity to study specific modules that interest you.
The School of Law at Surrey is renowned for giving students the opportunity to gain practical legal experience. Undergraduate students can take part in a Professional Training placement programme that offers students the chance to work in prestigious organisations which have included the European Parliment and the House of Commons in UK Parliament.
Surrey offers a programme of career sessions to help and support you in pursuing your dream job. Graduates of Law and Criminology at Surrey have secured roles in a variety of global companies, including:
The School of Law also boasts a number of research centres including:
There are a range of law and criminology degrees you could progress to after studying the relevant pathway at the University of Surrey International Study Centre:
1st in the UK for Criminology (The Guardian University Guide 2019)
Professional recognition: Law LLB (Hons) - Solicitors Regulation Authority (SRA)
Our Business, Economics, Law and Social Sciences International Foundation Year is a two-semester programme that will prepare you for a range of Law and Criminology undergraduate degrees at the University of Surrey. You will learn the core principles, rules and structure of English law and equip you with the language proficiency and study skills needed to succeed at university.
Discover more about the Business, Economics, Law and Social Sciences International Foundation Year and how it can help you start your legal career.
Learn about the entry requirements for the International Foundation Year, including the English language and academic requirements.
Graduates of Law and Criminology will benefit from a range of job opportunities, with students able to pursue legal and non-legal careers. Some of the jobs you could follow include:


Maybe you regard the whole idea of pooping as icky and weird and you’d rather not think about it. Or maybe the topic fascinates you.
The facts of the matter are: We all poop, our food is the fuel that keeps our bodies going and the composition of that fuel is very important to the state of our health, and checking out the characteristics of our poop provides valuable information about our health.
This post was spurred by some of the more unusual information about poop I’ve come across on the journey this website and blog about the gut microbiome has taken me on.
SOME INFORMATION ABOUT OUR POOP (EverydayHealth, 2014)
COMPOSITION OF OUR BMs:
About 75% water. A smelly combination of fiber, living and dead bacteria, other cells and mucus. Soluble fibers from foods like beans and nuts that have been broken down during digestion to form a gel-like substance. Foods packed with harder-to-digest insoluble fiber (such as carrots, corn and oat bran) may emerge looking pretty much unchanged.
This depends on what we’ve eaten. For instance, beets produce bright red stool, leafy veggies can cause green stool and some medications can turn out white or clay-colored stool. Jet-black poop could be from having taken iron supplements or having eaten black licorice – or it could be a sign of bleeding in the upper GI tract.
Perfect human poop is log- and slightly S-shaped, not broken up into pieces. These are the ones that easily slide out of the body when we go. That ideal shape is achieved by eating enough fiber to bulk up the stool and act as glue to keep it together on its way out of the body. Pencil-thin poops might be a sign of rectal cancer narrowing the opening the stool has to pass through.
Particularly pungent smelling BMs are often a sign of infection. For example, anyone who’s suffered through a Clostridium difficule infection can tell you if it has returned by the particular smell of their poop. Terrible-smelling poop likely indicates the presence of the parasite giardia in the stomach, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s or celiac disease.
Some doctors say we should have a good poop every day. Others say the important thing is that you poop at a rate that’s consistent for you. A significant decrease in output could be the result of eating less fiber or working out less often. A decrease or increase in output could come from a GI disorder, an overactive or underactive thyroid, or colon cancer. Culture can also play a role: Indians in South Asia produce three times as much poop as the British due to the higher fiber content in the typical Indian diet. The average American man produces about one-third of a pound of poop daily – the equivalent of 5 tons in a lifetime.
Food typically takes anywhere from 24-72 hours to make the trip from mouth to anus. Diarrhea is your stool on speed – the result of food passing much too quickly through the large intestine, where most of its water content gets absorbed. Loose stool can be the result of stomach viruses, food-borne illness, food allergies or intolerances, or other digestive problems.
Constipation occurs when the stool takes too long passing through so its water content becomes much reduced.
POOP SHOULD SINK
Floaters are often an indication of high fat content in the stool, possibly from malabsorption of the fat and nutrients from your food. They’re often associated with celiac disease or chronic pancreatitis. Vegetarians and vegans often have floaters too.
Having some gas is normal. It’s produced as bacteria in the colon break down the food passing through. The body absorbs some of this gas into the bloodstream. From there it gets breathed out through the lungs. The rest of it gets expelled from the other end. The American College of Gastroenterology says it’s normal to pass gas 10-18 tunes a day.
A fecal transplant involves placing stool from a person with a relatively healthy gut microbiota in the colon of a person infected with a Clostridium difficile infection or someone with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) to stop debilitating diarrhea. The trillions of good (probiotic) bacteria in the healthy person’s stool can help re-colonize the ailing digestive tract of the sick person.
READING ON THE TOILET
Studies indicate a positive correlation between time spent on the toilet and developing hemorrhoids (swollen blood vessels inside and around the anus). The longer you’re sitting there trying to poop out hard stool, the more pressure you’re exerting on those vessels. Hard stool is generally a result of a diet containing too little fiber. Americans consume an average of 10-15 grams of fiber a day. We should be consuming 30-35 grams to keep us regular, prevent constipation and hemorrhoids.
POOP ON CELL PHONES
Wash your hands well with soap and water after using the toilet or you may be spreading a bit of poop around via your phone. British researchers collected samples from 400 cell phones in 12 cities and found 1 in 6 of them were contaminated with fecal matter.
Still want to keep your cell phone next to your plate while you’re eating?
OTHER INTERESTING POOP INFORMATION
The Parrot Fish eats coral and poops out sand, helping create many of the small islands and beaches in and around the Caribbean.
Scientists were monitoring whale stress levels by analyzing their poop and found that their stress was greatly reduced immediately following the 9/11 attacks. It turns out this was due to all air traffic being halted, which calmed the oceans of external low frequency noise. Whales communicate with each other at these low frequencies.
3 billion people around the world still relay on charcoal and dung to cook their food.
In the early years of the 20th century, the voluminous shit produced by horses used for drawing carriages and delivery vans was causing so much pollution in city streets that automobiles were regarded as a healthier alternative.
Wombats, those adorable Australian marsupials, have cube-shaped poop which they use to remember where they live.
Japanese toilet manufacturer giant, Toto, has produced a motorbike that runs exclusively on human poop. The bike also writes messages in the air as it whizzes along – and the toilet storage tank can talk.
Toto hopes the bike will help raise awareness about human poop in the environment and lead to a 50% reduction of CO2 emissions in bathrooms by 2017.
The creative Japanese again – there’s an exhibit at the National Museum of Emerging Science and Innovation in Tokyo called TOILET!? HUMAN WASTE & THE EARTH’S FUTURE. It features a giant toilet bowl slide and provides children with poop-shaped hats. Aside from being fun, its goal is serious – to teach visitors about human waste and toilets and especially to draw attention to the 2.5 billion people worldwide who don’t have access to sanitation or toilets.
You can read about the museum here. The article also has some wonderful videos.
3-TOED SLOTHS AND THEIR ODD POOPING HABITS (Soniak, 2014) (Thompson, 2014)
3-toed sloths spend most of their time hanging around chilling out in trees amid the tropical rainforest canopy in Central and South America. They are very slow moving, live on the green leaves growing on their home tree, have very slow metabolisms … and poop only once a week. That’s unusual – and so is this: They slowly make their way down their tree to the rainforest floor to take that weekly dump.
Scientists have pondered why the animals would leave the safety of the treetops and risk getting eaten by predators just to take a shit.
A Mammalian Ecologist at the University of Wisconsin in Madison named Jonathan Pauli says, “It’s like if you had to go to the bathroom, and you were programmed to go run a 5K on an interstate before you could go to the bathroom. It’s really risky, and it’s really energetically costly.”
That weekly trek also uses up a hefty proportion of their daily energy production.
So why do they do it?
Scientists have several theories about this:
Pooping near a sloth’s home tree fertilizes the tree’s roots.
Its poop notifies other sloths of its location so they can mate.
The most complicated theory has to do with the variety of organisms that make their home in sloths’ thick fur: algae, fungi, arachnids and insects – including moths from the genus Cryptoses, AKA sloth moths. These moths depend on their host sloth’s weekly poop trek. Females lay their egg’s in the sloth’s dung. The emerging larva then feed on the dung until they become adults, when they fly up to move into the fur of their own sloth.
Researchers’ thinking is that the sloths are just as dependent on the moths. They found that sloths having more moths on them also had more nitrogen-rich hair and more algae growth. Analyzing the contents of the sloths’ stomachs, the researchers found the algae in there had been easily digestible and was rich in carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
So maybe the risky pooping process keeps the moths around and provides the sloths with a nutritious supplement to their nutrient-poor leaf diet .
And perhaps you thought your toilet habits might be a bit odd ….
Here’s a video about these sloths and why they do what they do: The Strange Pooping Habits of a 3-Toed Sloth
And another video offering some other possible explanations: Mystery of the Pooping Sloth – Science on the Web #55.
Thanks to Kelley O’Donnell for telling me about sloths and their mysterious poop habits.
This is my earlier post about poop: THE LOWDOWN ON POOP.
EBaumsWorld.com. (2014). 24 Poop-Related Facts. See: http://www.ebaumsworld.com/pictures/view/84306997/
EverydayHealth. (2014). 11 Icky But Interesting Facts About Poop. EverydayHealth.com. See: http://www.everydayhealth.com/digestive-health-pictures/icky-but-interesting-facts-about-poop.aspx#05
Hardin, J.R. (3/15/2014). The Lowdown on Poop. AllergiesAndYourGut.com. See: http://allergiesandyourgut.com/2014/03/15/lowdown-poop/
Huffington Post. (10/7/2011). Poop-Powered Bike: TOTO Releases Motorbike Toilet That Runs On Feces. See: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/07/poop-powered-bike-japanese-toto_n_1000111.html
Soniak, M. (2014). The Mystery of the Sloth Poop. Mental-Floss.com. See: http://mentalfloss.com/article/54839/mystery-sloth-poop
Thompson, H. (2014). What Drives a Sloth’s Ritualistic Trek to Poop? Scientists trace the odd bathroom behavior to relationships with bacteria and moths that inhabit their fur. Smithsonian.com. See: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/articles/what-drives-a-sloths-ritualistic-trek-to-poop-180949419/#lM94g3hzS1b8kiaU.99
ViralNova.com. (2014). This New Museum In Tokyo Looks Like A Sick Joke, But Kids LOVE It. You’re Not Gonna Believe It. See: http://www.viralnova.com/japanese-poop-museum/
© Copyright 2014 Joan Rothchild Hardin. All Rights Reserved.
DISCLAIMER: Nothing on this site or blog is intended to provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment.


Biomedical engineering sophomores Jessica Ashmead and Annicka Carter are getting a first-hand look at what it takes to invent and commercialize a medical device. They developed a surgical retractor with a battery-powered LED in a freshman bioengineering class at the University of Utah. They call it the OptiGuide. So far, they have received national recognition for their efforts and started the patent process with hopes of eventually selling their device to hospitals across the country.
The young women started the project in spring 2011 while in a class called “Invent.” Their assignment was to come up with a concept for a product, then spend the semester researching and developing their idea.
“After talking to local surgeons about the effectiveness of current lighting in an operating room, we discovered that there was room for improvement,” says 20-year-old Carter. “Although the light intensity in the operating room is great, shadows occupy the actual surgical cavity, making it more difficult than expected for surgeons to see what they are doing. We decided to design a tool that would get the light as close to the surgical cavity as possible.”
Their device only exists as a basic prototype today, but they have filed a provisional patent application with help from the U’s Technology Commercialization Office. A provisional patent application is a placeholder for a full patent application, which they know is much more difficult to put together. The students also received $5,000 and an honorable mention at the national Collegiate Inventors Competition on Nov. 15 in Washington, D.C.
“Next we are going to really research what the market wants and build an even better prototype so we can apply for a full patent next May,” 20-year-old Ashmead says. “This experience has motivated me to want to invent devices that really make a difference in the world. I want to do well in school, so I can get a job that allows me to do that all the time.”
Other similar medical retractors exist in the marketplace, so it is a big hurdle for OptiGuide to secure a full patent and market their device while proving how their retractor is unique. The team just started working with the Technology Commercialization Office to address this question, but they hope the OptiGuide’s battery power supply and the position of the lights is enough to make their device distinct.
Professor Holly Holman taught the class where Ashmead and Carter first came up with their idea. Holman mentored the young women and encouraged them to enter the Collegiate Inventors Competition after noticing their dedication and the potential for the OptiGuide.
“They really stood out because they had the most detailed notebooks, and they made a prototype on their own during the semester, which was not part of any assignment for the class,” says Holman, who accompanied the students at the award ceremony in Washington, D.C. and continues to mentor them. “It was always a treat when they came to ask me questions, because they were so enthusiastic about their idea.”
The Collegiate Inventors Competition is organized by Invent Now, a national nonprofit organization, and it is open to university students from across the country. Eighty graduate and undergraduate teams entered the competition this year — of those, 11 became finalists. The OptiGuide team was different for being one of the few finalists to be composed of freshmen or sophomores. During the final judging in Washington, D.C., the students presented their ideas before a prestigious panel of inventors, including National Hall of Fame inductees Marcian Hoff (microprocessor), Alois Langer (implantable defibrillator) and James West (electret microphone).
A team from Yale called 3derm won the competition and the $12,500 grand prize for a handheld device that takes 3-D images of skin lesions or other abnormalities. Other finalists were from schools including Johns Hopkins, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the University of Cincinnati, Boston University, Harvard, the University of California-Los Angeles and the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine.
OptiGuide was also a finalist in the annual techTITANS competition at the University of Utah. TechTITANS is one of several idea and business competitions offered through the Lassonde Entrepreneur Center and the David Eccles School of Business. Related competitions include Opportunity Quest (a business summary competition) and the Utah Entrepreneur Challenge (a full business plan competition). These programs and courses like Invent are designed to inspire students to become inventors and entrepreneurs.
“It’s amazing what these young women have been able to accomplish with the help of their faculty mentors and the innovative programs offered at the U,” says Troy D’Ambrosio, director of the U’s Lassonde Entrepreneur Center who works closely with student teams like Ashmead and Carter. “The University of Utah has been very successful at attracting exceptional students and cultivating a culture of innovation that helps inspire students and faculty to invent new products and start companies.”
The Lassonde Center works closely with the Invent class. Its involvement includes providing a prize for the winners of a competition at the end of the year.
The Technology Venture Development office also supports related programs and services at the U. It coordinates all commercialization activities across campus, from invention disclosures and patents to startup formation and licensing. It also sponsors many programs that help students learn about innovation and entrepreneurship.
Find more information about the Collegiate Inventors Competition at http://www.invent.org/collegiate/. Learn more about innovation and entrepreneurship at the University of Utah at www.lassonde.utah.edu and www.techventures.utah.edu.


For their [great flocks and herds and] possessions made it impossible for them to live together [in the same region]; the land in which they lived temporarily could not support them because of their livestock.
For their great flocks and herds and possessions [which they had collected] made it impossible for them to dwell together; the land in which they were strangers could not support them because of their livestock.
Jacob and Esau’s families became too big for the land in Canaan to support them all, so Esau moved away from his brother Jacob. He took his wives, sons, daughters, all his slaves, cattle and other animals, and everything else that he had gotten in Canaan and moved to the hill country of Seir. (Esau is also named Edom.)
·Esau and Jacob’s [L For their] ·belongings [property] were becoming too many for them to live ·in the same land [together]. The land where they had ·lived [sojourned; lived as aliens] could not support both of them, because they had too many herds.
Then Esau took his wives, children, household servants, cattle and flocks—all the wealth he had gained in the land of Canaan—and moved away from his brother Jacob to Mount Seir. (For there was not land enough to support them both because of all their cattle.)
Esau gathered up his wives, sons and daughters, and everybody in his household, along with all his livestock—all the animals and possessions he had gotten in Canaan—and moved a considerable distance away from his brother Jacob. The brothers had too many possessions to live together in the same place; the land couldn’t support their combined herds of livestock. So Esau ended up settling in the hill country of Seir (Esau and Edom are the same).
for they were full rich, and they might not dwell together, and the land of their pilgrimage sustained not them, for the multitude of flocks. (for they were both very rich, and they could not live together, for the land where they now were could not sustain them both, for the multitude of their flocks.)
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A firewall is a system security framework intended to avert unapproved access to or from a private system. Firewalls can be actualized as both equipment and programming, or a blend of both. System firewalls are much of the time used to keep unapproved Internet clients from getting to private systems associated with the Internet, particularly intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet go through the firewall, which inspects each message and obstructs those that don’t meet the predefined security criteria.
Firewalls can be either equipment or programming however the perfect design will comprise of both. Notwithstanding restricting access to your PC and system, a firewall is additionally valuable for enabling remote access to a private system through secure validation testaments and logins.
Equipment firewalls can be bought as an independent item however are normally found in broadband switches, and ought to be viewed as a significant piece of your framework security and system set-up. Most equipment firewalls will have at least four system ports to associate different PCs, however for bigger systems, a business organizing firewall arrangement is accessible.
Programming firewalls are introduced on your PC, similar to any product program, and you can modify it; permitting you some power over its capacity and assurance highlights. A product firewall will shield your PC from outside endeavors to control or obtain entrance your PC.
Firewalls may likewise be a segment of your PC’s working framework. For instance, Windows Firewall is a Microsoft Windows application that informs clients of any suspicious movement. The application can recognize and square infections, worms, and programmers from unsafe movement.
Firewalls are utilized to secure both home and corporate systems. A common firewall program or equipment gadget channels all data getting through the Internet to your system or PC framework.
By and by, numerous firewalls utilize at least two of these procedures in show. A firewall is viewed as a first line of resistance in securing private data. For more noteworthy security, information can be encoded.
As far back as Microsoft has discharged the most recent renditions of their Windows Firewall, there has been perplexity with respect to “which arrange” would it be advisable for me to design and when? To compound the situation, Microsoft changed the names of these arrangements, yet not the definitions. I felt it was important to explain when you would design each setting and what each setting really does. After this article, I trust that you will have the option to arrange Windows Firewall settings for your servers and work areas, realizing that they will all capacity appropriately regardless of what “organize” they are clearly associated with.
There are different areas where you can discover the “organize” settings related with Windows Firewall. From a similar area of Windows Firewall design, you can discover the “arrange” settings for which you have to design how the PC is interfacing with “a system”.
For the most part, you will discover these settings inside the Windows Firewall applet by means of the Control Panel. Obviously, with the adjustments in the names and in general GUI for Windows Firewall over the past working frameworks, each working framework will look somewhat changed. Since most associations are moving to Windows Server 2008 and Server 2008 R2, just as Windows 7 for the work area, we are going to concentrate on these three working frameworks.
Windows Server 2008 is moderately new, yet despite everything it has some more seasoned interfaces which are simply not completely created and this is particularly valid for the “arrange” setups. At the point when you open up the Windows Firewall applet on Windows Server 2008, you will see an interface like that in Figure 1.
Notice in Figure 1 that you can see the system area (it is expressed as “Space Network”), yet you don’t see the setups for the other system alternatives. You do have a connection marked “What are arrange areas?” which will take you to a page depicting each type. We will cover these choices in the following area.
Microsoft rolled out some sensational improvements to the Windows Firewall interface with Windows Server 2008 R2 and Windows 7. Presently, every one of the three of the system area settings are shown inside the Windows Firewall applet through the Control Panel, as appeared in Figure 2.
Another area you will discover the system area settings for your Windows Firewall is by means of an Administrative Tool named “Windows Firewall with Advanced Security”. This instrument is new, and is reliable from Windows Server 2008 up to the most up to date working frameworks. Thusly, this may be the best area to go to search for how the three settings are arranged. At the point when you dispatch the Windows Firewall with Advanced Security choice through the Administrative Tools menu choice, the subsequent Window will resemble the one appeared in Figure 3.
You can arrange the system area choices by tapping on the connection at the base of the Overview segment marked Windows Firewall Properties, which will open up the Window appeared in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Windows Firewall Properties page.
There are as of now three system area alternatives: Domain systems, Home or work (private) systems, and Public systems. These are moderately self-evident, however the disarray is still there, so how about we take a gander at every one of the definitions and subtleties around every alternative.
Space Networks – This setting is applied when the PC is associated with an area controller, which is controlling a Windows area.
Private Networks – This setting is applied when an association with a system for which the PC’s record isn’t related with. This can be an alternate space or home system. A PC must be joined to each area in turn, so if the PC isn’t joined to the Domain arrange, it must be joined to a Private or Public system. It is proposed that the Private system profile of settings be more prohibitive than the Domain arrange profile of settings.
Open Networks – This setting is applied when an association with an area is made through an open system, for example, at an air terminal, lodging, or coffeehouse. Since the security of these systems is obscure and not so much constrained by the client running the PC, it is proposed that the Public system profile of settings be more prohibitive than either the Domain system or Private system.
Advantages of various “Systems”
The purpose behind having these three system choices is the way that you can arrange system and firewall rules for each system exclusively. In this way, as a PC moves starting with one condition then onto the next, or an area is accessible or disengaged, the PC security and system conduct will change naturally.
The firewall settings for each “organize” type can be arranged either locally utilizing the Windows Firewall with Advanced Security interface or by utilizing Group Policy by means of Active Directory. Either strategy will bring about a PC expanding security when the “organize” they are associated with changes. You can see the Group Policy interface for arranging the three system settings in Figure 5.
Since there is the ability to control each profile, firewall rules, and connection security rules locally or via Group Policy, there are settings that give admins control when there might be a dispute between the two. Each profile has customization options which allow for merging of the firewall rules and connection security rules. You can find this by clicking on the Customize button under the Settings section of the interface shown on Figure 5. The resultant interface is shown in Figure 6.
Firewalls called cutting edge firewalls (NGFW), work by separating system and Internet traffic dependent on the applications or traffic types utilizing explicit ports. Cutting edge Firewalls (NGFWs) mix the highlights of a standard firewall with nature of administration (QoS) functionalities so as to give more astute and more profound assessment.


It is not easy to tell whether a cat is not drinking enough. There are, however, a few indicators that may help you: Basically, a cat's water requirements depend on its age, weight and size, its food, the room temperature, its level of physical exertion and any illnesses. Therefore, only an average value can be given, which is 55 millilitres per day and kilogramme (body weight). A cat weighing five kilogrammes therefore needs around 275 millilitres of water. If it eats around 250 grams of wet food a day, it will already consume 200 millilitres of water (assuming the food has an 80 percent moisture content). Therefore, the cat only needs to drink an additional 75 ml of water. If, on the other hand, it is only given dry food, the amount required is significantly higher.
If you are not sure whether your cat is drinking enough, you can measure the amount of water provided and check the remaining amount with a measuring cup 24 hours later.


Opened on October 11, 2013
Panel discussion on the exhibition Dec. 7th at 3PM
Raúl Ayala, La Buruquena, Miguel Caraballo, Danny Torres, Marina Gutiérrez, Maria Dominguez, Paola Nogueras, and Miguélàngel Ruíz
This survey exhibition brings together reinterpretations of a central figure in Puerto Rico’s culture – the Vejigante. Having evolved from a figure of mystery and mischief in carnivals and festivals in Puerto Rico, the Vejigante has developed into a symbol of cultural identity, resilience, and resistance. The artists in the exhibition range from the traditional to the contemporary, from the basic role of vejigantes as celebratory figures to iconic messengers of personal statements.
Puerto Rico’s vejigantes (bay-he-GAHN-tay) are known for their colorful costumes with bat-like wings, the inflated animal bladders they carry, and by their masks with three or more horns. There are two distinct vejigante styles coming from two regions and two differing celebrations. One is from the city of Ponce in the South of Puerto Rico with masks made of papier-mâché, associated with the celebrations of Carnival. The second style is from the town of Loíza, far to the North, with masks made from coconuts and identified with the Feast of Santiago in late July. Both though are mysterious, mischievous characters that have become symbols of cultural identity, resilience, and resistance.
Ponce’s vejigantes have a connection with Carnival, a festival that begins in early February, just before Lent. In Carnival, the vejigantes just like in Loíza, are reveling characters that interact with the crowds and cause mischief with the inflated bladders they carry. With their characteristic snouts, sharp teeth, and multitudes of horns, Ponce’s vejigantes cast a distinctive silhouette to this internationally-celebrated festival.
In Loíza, the vejigantes represent the Muslim Moors in the Catholic festival of the Feast of Santiago. This festival, also known as the Festival of Saint James, celebrates the ouster of the Moors from Spain. In Loíza, the festival lasts three days, and its roots can be traced back to a legend of the discovery of the statue of Saint James outside of the town. Some explain their inclusion in the religious festival as a symbol of the ongoing battle of good over evil. No matter the history, Loíza’s population (primarily of African descent) views the vejigante as a strong, and unapologetic character with a history of survival and a connection to Africa that they can relate to.
This exhibition of craftsmen and contemporary artists shows how this figure that is such an integral character in these festivals has become an iconic symbol that unifies and identifies the people of Puerto Rico. These artists perceive the vejigantes from many different perspectives: as a nationalist hero; a character that brings into focus issues of Latino identity; a creature that is used as a surragate to discuss the life and death struggle of living with AIDS; a symbol that brings a community together with its visage or captures the imagination with its mystery. For these artists, the vejigante has evolved into something much more than a playful festival figure – it has become the living incarnation of the Puerto Rican spirit with all its vigor, resilience and jubilant ferocity.
The artists and artisans:
Raúl Ayala, from the town of Loíza in Puerto Rico, is an authority on the traditional Loíza style vejigante mask, characterized by caretas made from coconut shells and commonly seen with buckteeth and three horns. Ayala comes from a multi-generational family committed to maintaining the dance and music festival traditions of this region as well as its mask making art form. In Loíza, the vejigante not only participates in carnivals but also in the Feast of St. James the Apostle (Fiestas de Santiago Apóstol) in the third week of July. In this festival, the vejigantes are accompanied by people dressed as caballeros (knights) in recognition to the Spanish origins of the festival where they celebrate the Christian Castilians’ ouster of the Muslim Moors from Spain. Some interpret the festival as a metaphor for the eternal battle between good and evil. The majority of Loíza’s population is of African descent and views the vejigantes not as evil, but as a link to their African heritage. Ayala’s masks are famed for their beauty, construction, design and the large number of horns.
La Buruquena, (which is the Taíno word for the sweet water crab that lives in Puerto Rico) was born in Abington, Pennsylvania and currently works out of New York City. He is a self-taught artist and uses the vejigante as a relatable cultural icon. Through its colors and sensibilities, the vejigante helps him connect to his Puerto Rican heritage- yet its distinctive appropriations of religious and foreign motifs also bring him into conversation with the world around him. He describes his art-making process as a search for understanding through the exploration of our differences and similarities in all senses: individually, communally, religiously, symbolically and otherwise. His papier-mâché masks are often painted in muddied colors and incorporate surprising materials such as feathers, barbed wire, and chains. In his manifesto, he describes his process as Surreformationism and aims to challenge perceptions and religious absolutism while confronting intolerance and ignorance. With his methodology, he hopes to create a platform that can be uplifting to a person’s sense of self worth. (laburuquena.com)
Miguel Caraballo, from Ponce, Puerto Rico, is considered a traditional master and teacher in this region’s mask making art form. He works in the traditional Ponce-style careta (mask) papier-mâché construction with long snouts and a multitude of horns. Caraballo played an important role in resuscitating the vejigante mask making tradition when the popularity of latex and plastic masks in the 1970’s & 80’s threatened to extinguish the craft and traditional inclusion in the island’s carnivals and festivals. His masks are admired for both their aesthetics and the high quality of their craftsmanship.
Maria Dominguez was born in Puerto Rico and moved to New York City when she was four years old. After graduating with a BFA from the School of the Visual Arts in 1985, she began working as a teacher, arts administrator, artist and muralist. In response to community changes and the increasing cost of living pushing out the Puerto Rican and Latino communities in Spanish Harlem and the Lower East Side of Manhattan, her murals with vejigante masks were placeholders and identifiers of the people living in the neighborhoods. (mariadominguez.com)
Marina Gutiérrez, born in and working out of New York City, creates art that blends studio, community and installation practices. In the use of cultural iconography from her father’s native Puerto Rico, she acknowledges syncretism and its effects of displacing, hiding, forgetting, and reinventing of identity. Her work is often comprised of commonly used materials, such as cans, textiles, and wire mesh. In this exhibition, Gutiérrez introduces La Vejigante, a work that is part of her “Body Mask” series, which investigates the dualities of concealment and display associated with historical narratives and constructions of identity. (marinagutierrez.com)
Paola Nogueras, born in Puerto Rico and living in Pennsylvania, is a photojournalist and author who has worked for the Philadelphia Inquirer. Nogueras is the photographer and publisher of Fiesta en Puerto Rico, ABC de Puerto Rico and Manos del Pueblo, Artesanos de Puerto Rico (Hands of the People, Artisans of Puerto Rico).
Miguélàngel Ruíz, born in Río Piedras, Puerto Rico and working out of New York City, is an artist who creates a contemporary mythology based around the vejigante character and his cultural heritage. Ruíz is currently working in video and performance. In his paintings and comic books, he portrays his protagonist “Awutok-Thon, El Vejigante – Luchador,” as a man transformed into a demon who uses his power to fight for justice, truth and freedom. Through fusing mythology and graphic novels, he has created a universe where he can comment on the power’s corruptive qualities and bring historical events to light in a way that is easily digested by popular culture. (miguelangelruiz.us)
Artist Danny Torres, who resides in North Philadelphia, was born in Adjuntas, Puerto Rico. He is an art teacher, political activist, and self-taught artist who is known for his paintings and murals. In his work, Torres’ vejigante assumes the role of a “freedom fighter” reflecting his political aspiration for an independent Puerto Rico. Torres’s vejigantes are strong, masculine creatures that embody his culture’s African and indigenous roots and will for survival.
Download a PDF of the exhibition handout here.
This exhibition is made possible through the generous support of:


Heterogenous Ice Nucleation
How aerosol particles act as nuclei for ice and other crystalline phases like hydrates, and how this can quantitatively be described in models, are among the major open questions in atmospheric cloud and climate research. From an ice-microphysical perspective, atmospheric clouds may be subdivided into the following classes, according to their cloud top temperature or region of occurence:
- warm clouds (above 0°C)
- mixed-phase clouds (0°C to -35°C)
- cirrus clouds (below -35°C)
- polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs)
- noctilucent clouds (NLCs).
Except the warm clouds which involve only the gaseous and liquid water phases, these clouds are influenced by a variety of ice nucleation modes induced by soluble and insoluble aerosol particles of different origin and nature.


Dr. Kathy Soder, USDA-ARS Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, University Park, PA 16802.
Forage Brassicas are annuals that can be utilized as pasture during the spring, summer, and fall grazing seasons. Forage brassicas include varieties of rapeseed (rape), radish, turnip, swede, kale, and hybrids. Brassicas are quick maturing and can be grazed 60 to 120 days after planting, depending on species. Brassicas are able to produce up to 4 tons of DM/acre, and varieties of turnip, radish, and swede produce a highly palatable and nutritious tap-root that can be grazed during the last rotation of the season.
Brassicas can be established into an existing pasture sod by overseeding using a no-till drill. Prior to drilling, any remaining forage should be grazed or clipped to a height of approximately 3 – 4 inches. Brassicas can also be established into a prepared seedbed as a monoculture or as an annual mixture. However, a cultipacker should be used prior to planting to ensure proper planting depth. Plots should be fertilized at time of planting.
Brassicas are high quality feedstuffs that contain a high crude protein concentration, but also high net energy of maintenance and total digestible nutrient concentration. In dairy cattle, a mixture of turnip and forage sorghum was shown to increase milk yield, milk solids, and milk protein in cattle during summer compared with sorghum alone; however, a reduction in milk fat was seen. Brassicas have also been reported to increase average daily gain of beef cattle and sheep compared with other cool-season forages.
Forage brassicas are most commonly grazed. They can also be stockpiled, ensiled, or fed as greenchop. Due to the low dry matter, haying is not an option. Successful grazing management can be accomplished through strip or rotational grazing. Once forage has reached ~14”, animals can begin to graze. This can vary depending on species and variety used. If multiple grazings are desired, forage should not be grazed below a height of 6 – 8 inches. The root-bulb of turnip, radish, and swede can be grazed during the last grazing rotation of the season. If ensiled, a higher-dry matter forage should be included to ensure proper fermentation and reduce nutrient losses.
The diets of livestock with high production/growth rates (e.g. lactating dairy cattle, stockers) brassicas can be used as a daily feed ingredient (not exceeding 50% of daily dry matter intake). In other classes of livestock (e.g. non-lactating dairy cattle, cow-calf pairs), brassicas should be treated as a supplemental feed due to the high energy content of the forage and grazing should be limited to only a few hours/week.
Brassicas are an acquired taste and naive animals should be allowed limited access to brassicas for the first week of grazing. Brassicas are a high-moisture, low-fiber feedstuff and should not be more than 50% of the daily diet of any livestock. A high-fiber feedstuff should be included with brassicas. This can be achieved by giving access to low-quality hay, allowing access to perennial pastures, or planting brassicas as a mixture with other forages.
Brassicas are an excellent forage for cattle, sheep, goats, swine, and poultry. Equine species should not be fed brassicas due to concerns with toxicity. A trace mineral that includes copper and iodine should be fed to livestock to prevent possible deficiencies and small ruminants tend to be more susceptible than cattle. Sheep copper requirements are lower than that of other ruminants, thus copper supplementation of sheep should be done with care, especially if co- grazing multiple species. Nitrate poisoning and bloat have been reported in ruminants consuming only brassicas. Due to off-flavor, a withdrawal period of 4 hrs prior to milking and 7 days prior to slaughter is suggested; the withdrawal time will decrease as brassicas decrease as a percent of the total animal diet.


Does your snowing keep your partner awake? Snoring could be considered a sleep disorder, although it’s not you (the snorer) that suffers from insomnia because of it but your partner.
Snores are breath sounds that most people produce during sleep. Acoustically, snoring is attributed to the vibration of the anatomical structures in the pharyngeal airway. It is characterized by loud breathing in the upper airways without the absence of breath.
Like insomnia, snoring can be classified into mild, moderate or severe. Such classification is based on frequency, body position and disturbance for other people (i.e., spouse, sleeping partner).
As the degree of severity increases, the snorer has a greater risk of having an upper airway dysfunction which may lead to sleep apnea (the cessation of airflow to the lungs during sleep). Because of this, people with a snoring condition should try to find ways to relieve it or prevent it from happening.
Tactics to stop snoring
One of the most effective anti-snoring techniques is losing excess weight. The pressure of extra flesh on the airway makes night-time breathing difficult. In fact, researchers suggest that snoring is positively related to one’s Body Mass Index (BMI); meaning, as one’s BMI increases, a person is more likely to snore.
Another effective technique against snoring is to sleep on your side. This will prevent your tongue from falling back into the throat and blocking the airway.
Finally, you could try avoiding alcohol and sedating medications (i.e., painkillers) because they can relax your throat muscles too much and increase the likelihood of snoring (and sleep apnea).
You could also try anti-snoring devices. For instance, a chin strap keeps your mouth shut and forces you to breathe through your nose. If devices like this do not work, various surgeries are also possible that can permanently widen the airway.
So if your snoring is keeping your partner or other people in your house awake, then there are steps you can take to stop yourself snoring. Research suggests that one’s snoring condition may become a nuisance to others (e.g., insomnia can be attributed to a sleeping partner who snores). To avoid this, you should try the tactics to stop snoring suggested above or even consider surgery. After all, you will not only be helping yourself to sleep better but other people too.


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For many, the arctic is a lifeless, sterile place, but Joseph Cook is investigating how a rich ecosystem of microbial life is thriving in one of Earth's harshest environments. Not only that, but these microbes could actually be accelerating the melting of our precious glaciers and ice sheets. Joe's pioneering work with remote sensing from drones (and one day satellites) could help us to understand the effects of climate change on our poles. His work may also help us to one day detect life forms on other planets and moons. This film features Chris Hadfield (former commander of the international space station) and is narrated by quantum physicist Jim Al-Khalili. Through spectacular landscapes in Greenland and Svalbard we see how all life on Earth is connected and our need for a greater understanding of our planet is vital.
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Recycling Word Problems
Children are asked to write equations based on recycling word problems. This is a fun printable activity to celebrate America Recycles Day (November 15) and Earth Day (April 22) with.
To view this printable you need Adobe Acrobat Reader. Click to download Acrobat Reader - it's free!


Bohr’s Atomic Model
Bohr’s Atomic Model-In 1913, Neils Bohr, Danish Physicist gave clear explanation of atomic structure.
According to Bohr:
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus around which
negatively charged electrons revolve in different circular orbits.
(ii) The electrons can revolve around the nucleus only in certain permitted
orbits i.e. orbits of certain radii are allow.
(iii) The electrons in each permitted orbit have a certain fixed amount of
energy. The larger the orbit (i.e. larger radius), the greater is the
energy of electrons.
(iv) If an electron is give additional energy (eg heat, light etc), it is lift to
the higher orbit. The atom is say to be in a state of excitation. This
state does not last long, because the electron soon falls back to the
original lower orbit. As it falls, it gives back the acquired energy in the form of heal light or other radiations.
Bohr’s Atomic Model-Fig. 4.1 shows the structure of silicon atom. It has 14 electrons. Two
electrons revolve in the first orbit, 8 in the second orbit and 4 in the
third orbit. The first second, third orbits etc are also know as K, L, M
These electrons can revolve only in permitted orbits
(i.e orbits of *radius
r 1 , r 2 and r 3 ) and not in any arbitrary orbit. Thus, all radii between r 1 and
r 2, or between r 2 and r 3 are forbidden. Each orbit has fixed amount of
energy associated with it. If an electron in the first orbit is to be lifted to
the second orbit, just the **right amount of energy should be supplied
to it. When this electron jumps from the second orbit to first, it will give
back the acquired energy in the form of electromagnetic radiations.


Environmental groups sue to protect ribbon seals
ANCHORAGE - Ribbon seals should be listed as threatened or endangered because global warming is quickly melting sea ice, which the seals depend on for several months each year, two environmental groups said in a lawsuit filed against the federal government in San Francisco on Thursday.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in December denied a listing under the Endangered Species Act for the seals found off the coasts of Alaska and Russia.
The Center for Biological Diversity and Greenpeace sued in U.S. District Court, claiming the agency ignored the best science available on global warming. Shaye Wolf, a Center for Biological Diversity biologist, said her group had hoped NOAA officials would change its conclusions with a change in presidents.
"We've seen no change here," she said. "The Obama administration is continuing the flawed and head-in-the-sand policies of the Bush years."
NOAA spokeswoman Connie Barclay in Washington, D.C., had no immediate comment on the lawsuit.
Ribbon seals are found in the Bering and Chukchi seas off Alaska and the Sea of Okhotsk off Russia. Ribbon seals are distinguished by the patterns of their fur that gives them the coloration of a panda bear: white bands or ribbons that encircle the head, base of the trunk and two front flippers over a dark coat.
Federal biologists estimate the population at about 200,000 globally with a Bering Sea population of 100,000 or more. During summer and fall, ribbon seals live entirely in the water, foraging on fish, squid and crustaceans.
From March through June, the seals rely on loose pack ice in the Bering and Okhotsk seas for reproduction and molting, and as a platform for foraging.
Ribbon seals give birth and nurse pups, which can't swim, exclusively on sea ice. Newborn ribbon seals have a coat of soft, white hair called lanugo that provides insulation until they grow a thick layer of blubber. Pups can survive submersion in icy water only after they've formed the blubber layer.
Diminished sea ice due to early melting also could affect molting adults, according to the groups. New hair can only grow when ribbon seals are out of the water where skin can reach higher temperatures.
NOAA officials in December said climate models project annual ice will continue to form for the seals each winter during the critical birthing and molting period.
The lawsuit claims the agency is taking too shortsighted of a look at the animals' plight, projecting ice loss only until mid-century.
Wolf said the agency's own data indicates sea ice extent by 2050 will decline by 40 percent in April and 55 percent in May. That by itself is a significant loss of key habitat, she said.
"Imagine if that downward projection were extended beyond 2050, how much more ice the ribbon seal would lose," she said.
It's irrational to look only 43 years ahead, she said, when reviews for polar bears and other species use climate projections out 100 years.
The agency also did not consider whether climate change and ice loss could affect a distinct population segment of ribbon seals.
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Description - Waterfront Workers by Calvin Winslow
Few work settings can compete with the waterfront for a long, rich history of multi-ethnic and multiracial interaction. There were Irish dockers from Chelsea to Ashtabula to Tacoma; African Americans, Poles, Germans, Scandinavians, and Italians joined the Irish on New York's docks; Eastern Europeans worked with the Irish and blacks in Philadelphia, and farther south, African Americans were the majority on the Baltimore waterfront in the 1930s. On the Pacific Coast, where the Chinese were excluded and African Americans were relatively scarce until World War II, waterfront workers were mostly white. In Waterfront Workers, five scholars explore the complex relationships involved in this intersection of race, class, and ethnicity.
Buy Waterfront Workers by Calvin Winslow from Australia's Online Independent Bookstore, Boomerang Books.
(229mm x 152mm x mm)
University of Illinois Press
Publisher: University of Illinois Press
Country of Publication:
Book Reviews - Waterfront Workers by Calvin Winslow


Learn how to make your science, math and computer science classrooms more effective for students with disabilities and ADHD. SciTrain online courses are free take them at your own pace and learn about classroom accommodations, adapted tests and laboratories, assistive technology, laws and policies and much, much more.
SciTrain is a research initiative to train high school math and science teachers to be more effective instructors for students with disabilities. Through surveys, focus groups, and teacher evaluations, SciTrain pursues the goal of understanding what accommodations are currently made in classrooms, and which ones are most needed. SciTrain is the home for online training modules that teachers can use to enhance the learning experience for students with disabilities and provide accommodations to improve the success of all of their students.
Funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation, SciTrain works to help high school science and mathematics teachers provide the highest quality education to students with disabilities. The project includes research, instruction for teachers on how to make their coursework, classrooms and labs more accessible, and information resources for teachers including assistive technology for their courses.
You have the option to view SciTrain content for free or to register and have your progress recorded. The content of the two versions is identical, except registered users are provided exams to assess their understanding. If you need a record of your progress, create an account and log in using the "For Credit" links above, otherwise jump right in using the "Free" links above.
Postsecondary educators should go to our companion site, Scitrain U.
If you have any questions, please email us at firstname.lastname@example.org.
Funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation.
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0622885.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.


If you have children yourself or if you are close with any children in your life, you may recognize this sitting position, where the legs appear to form a letter “W.”
W-sitting is not recommended for anyone. Many developing children tend to sit in this position during play, but all parents should be aware that the excessive use of this position during the growing years can lead to future orthopedic problems.
During W sitting the muscles that twist the hip outwards tend to be weak. The sitting position causes imbalanced muscle use resulting in improper gait.
Thus when the child lifts the foot forwards to take a step, the hip twists inwards so that the foot lands on the ground with the toes pointing inwards. This is referred to as an in-toeing gait, and also called walking pigeon-toed.
As a parent, it is important to recognize when your child is sitting in the W position and to correct it.
How should your child sit?


Pearl A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a clam, a pearl is composed of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes (baroque pearls) occur. The finest quality natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many centuries.
Glass Bead have been dated back to at least the Roman times. They are usually categorized by the method used to manipulate the glass - wound beads, drawn beads, and molded beads. There are composites, such as millefiori beads, where cross-sections of a drawn glass cane are applied to a wound glass core. A very minor industry in blown glass beads also existed in 19th-century Venice and France.