Dental erosion is a form of tooth wear – where enamel and then dentin is worn down (the other forms, abrasion and attrition are discussed here). It is defined as irreversible damage to the teeth caused from chemicals (usually acids).
This acid can come from outside sources (e.g. food and drink) or from inside the body; these are explained below.
Common Causes of Erosive Damage
1. Outside Sources of Acids:
Acid is present in lots of foods and drinks, e.g.:
- Fruits and fruit juices, in particular citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons. Common cause in children
- Sodas/fizzy drinks, including ‘diet’ soft drinks. A major cause!
- ‘Sports drinks’.
- Alcohol consumption, including wine and ‘alcopops’.
- Medicines such as iron supplements and chewable vitamin C.
Rarer sources include factories with acids in the air and chlorine from swimming pools.
2. Inside Sources of Acid:
The acid that causes erosion may also come from stomach fluids inside the body. Acid reflux is where stomach fluids come up towards the throat and mouth. It is often felt as ‘heartburn’ after eating. There are several gastric disorders that can lead to reflux.
Vomiting will also expose the mouth to gastric acid. Frequent episodes of vomiting through illness, alcoholism or eating disorders such as bulimia can cause enamel erosion. Pregnancy may also increase the risk of damage through acid reflux and vomiting associated with morning sickness.
How To Prevent Damage
As with most types of dental diseases, tooth erosion can usually be prevented. The following tips contain general advice on how to prevent the problem. If you have damage already, you will need to pay particular attention to the causes of it, and avoid what is causing it!
- Reduce the overall amount of acidic food and drinks you consume. Also limit these to mealtimes only, if you do consume them. This is to reduce the amount of time that your mouth is under acid-attack each day.
- If taking acidic drinks, best to drink them quickly, again to limit the time your mouth is under attack. Don’t whirl the drink around your mouth or hold the drink in your mouth for long. The use of a straw can help keep the acid away from the teeth better (also good for reducing risk of decay). Chilling acidic drinks also reduces the harm they do.
- After taking an acidic food or drink; drinking milk, water or rinsing your mouth out with water (or a fluoride mouthwash) can help neutralize the acid quicker.
- Chewing sugar-free gum after eating can have a similar effect, by increasing saliva flow which helps neutralize acids.
- Do not brush your teeth immediately after taking acidic foods or drinks. Wait for at least 30 minutes, otherwise you will be increasing damage by brushing when tooth surfaces are ‘softer’ from the chemical attack.
- The same advice as above applies to what to do after any vomiting episodes. In particular, rinse your mouth out after vomiting but do not brush for at least 30 minutes.
- Brush your teeth gently twice a day using fluoride toothpaste. Some new formulations of toothpaste are available for enamel repair. Tooth mousse is similar to toothpaste, but is a little stronger. However these are not a ‘miracle’ cure for dental erosion; the key message is to eliminate whatever is causing the damage.
Dental Erosion Symptoms
The symptoms can vary depending on what type of tooth-wear you have, but common signs include:
- Appearance. The effect will depend on the type of tooth wear, but can include chipping away of the edges and increased transparency of the tips of front teeth. The surfaces may appear smooth, rounded and ‘polished’ (see image above).
- Sensitivity to hot and cold. This can occur when the outer protective enamel wears away exposing the more sensitive dentine. Sensitivity does not always occur, especially if the wear is progressing slowly.
- Changes to your bite.
- Fillings may stand out from the surrounding tooth surfaces- a classic diagnosis marker.
- Gum recession and wearing down of the teeth at the gum-margin (in abrasion and abfraction).
- Overall flattening of the teeth (with attrition).
Dental Erosion Treatment
If you think you have this, or some other form of tooth-wear, visit your dentist. Your dentist will help you to first identify the sources of any damage (via a risk assessment) and advise you on how to eliminate these causes.
Treatment is not always needed, particularly if any enamel wear is minor. In this case, preventive measures are all that is needed, but these are very important. Keep attending the dentist for check-ups and follow any advice given. Regular check-ups allow your dentist to monitor the progression of any damage and best diagnose if and when any therapy is needed.
Treatment will be needed if enamel wear has caused significant loss of the tooth structure and/or is causing problems such as sensitivity and cosmetic defects. Any treatment will depend on the extent and position of any damage.
Treatment aims are to:
- Repair cosmetic appearance if this has been affected.
- Reduce sensitivity by protecting and covering the dentine.
- Help reduce further damage from tooth-wear.
Treatment options may include:
- To help treat sensitivity the dentist may place fluoride gels or varnishes and advise fluoride toothpastes and mouthwashes.
- Repairing tooth enamel loss with white filling materials.
- In the case of extensive damage, fixing veneers or crowns may be necessary.
- Replace missing teeth.
- You may need a bite guard if bruxism is also a factor.
If in any doubt contact your dentist. If left untreated, tooth-wear can cause severe damage. Tooth surface loss from dental erosion and other tooth wear can be very difficult to treat.


- Atanu Biswas is Professor of Statistics, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata has analysis the whether data science is same as statistics in recent times.
- The growth of data has been promoted a new class of professionals called the data scientists.
3. According to an IBM report, 2.5 quintillion bytes of data are created per day.
- In the current scenario the question has arisen whether data science is another ‘hot’ job or a new form of science.
- For Example In the Hollywood movie 21, six students, brilliant with numbers, make money at the blackjack tables of Las Vegas casinos by using numbers, codes, and hand gestures. Can we call them data scientists?
- In 2009, pioneering computer scientist Jim Gray argued that data science is the “fourth paradigm” of science.
- Data have played a major role in scientific developments and the growth of knowledge for example:
- Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection was largely based on observational data that he collected during his voyages around the world.
- Gregor Mendel developed the laws of Mendelian inheritance from the the data he collected from his experiments on peas.
- According to the American Statistical Association, statistics is the “science of learning from data”. Still there is huge scope of confusing whether data science with statistics.
- Statistics is a data-driven science, but it focusses on developing theories based on data insights.
- There is no doubt that statistics was primarily data-driven.
10. Various experiment
- The ‘Lady Tasting Tea’ experiment would be treated as one of the two supporting pillars of the randomization analysis of experimental data.
- In 1997, C.F. Jeff Wu gave a famous lecture entitled “Statistics=Data Science” at the University of Michigan. The confusion over statistics and data still continues till date.
- The term data science was used initially as a substitute for computer science by Peter Naur in 1960.
- Presently, expect data scientist know mathematics and algorithms, experimental design, engineering chops, and communication and management skills.
- Presently, people struggle to decide whether data science is statistics on a high capacity computer or not.
- The author said according to him data science appears to be a technology rather than a science in its present form.
- A Harvard Business Review article of 2012 concludes that a hybrid of data hacker, analyst, communicator and trusted adviser makes a successful data scientist.
- Many types of small data are of great challenge, even in this era of big data.
- With the ocean of data at hand, the scope of data science might look limitless.
- statistics did not detract itself from the principle of theorizing from data, big or small.
17. The author indicated that we are possibly heading towards an era of software’s and algorithms. But a shade of uncertainty remains with the advent of data science.


• stylite •
Part of Speech: Noun
Meaning: No, not a stylish socialite, just the opposite: an ascetic monk who does penance by living atop a column. (Yes, I proof-read the sentence.)
Notes: Occasionally we run a totally useless word because it has a fascinating story. This is definitely such a word. It comes from the name of the first column-sitter, St. Simeon Stylites (pronounced [sti-lee-teez]) (390-459 AD), immortalized in a poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson named, appropriately enough, St. Simeon Stylites. He was first followed by two other, younger monks known in Church history as Simeon the Younger and Simeon III. Many others followed these.
In Play: The first three St. Simeons were followed by many other monks who wished to get above it all and live closer to God. Some built huts atop their columns to protect them from the sun and rain; some created hollow columns and lived inside them. Most, however, lived atop a column, perhaps forerunning the recurring fad of flagpole-sitting.
Word History: The use of this word in history is fascinating enough but the history of the word itself is just as riveting. The word comes from late Classical Greek stylites from stylos "pillar". The question, of course, is how did this word end up as English style? It did. Here's how: Latin had a word, stilus "spike", that referred to an instrument used in writing. The Greek word was so close in spelling and meaning that the Latin word soon became stylus, borrowed as is by English to refer to a primitive writing utensil. In Latin, however, it was used metaphorically to refer to a writer's style, just as an English-speaker's pen or hand may be his or her style of writing. This sense of the word dribbled down to French, whence English borrowed it. (We are happy that Monroe Thomas Clewis suggested this bizarre item for today's Good Word column.)
Come visit our website at <http://www.alphadictionary.com> for more Good Words and other language resources!


Chichicastenango, also known as Santo Tomás Chichicastenango, is a town in the El Quiché department of Guatemala, known for its traditional K’iche’ Maya culture. The Spanish conquistadors gave the town its name from the Nahuatl name used by their soldiers from Tlaxcala: Tzitzicaztenanco, or City of Nettles. Its original name was Chaviar.
Chichicastenango is a large indigenous town, lying on the crests of mountaintops at an altitude of 1,965 m (6,447 ft). It is located about 140 km (87 miles) northwest of Guatemala City.
Chichicastenango is well known for its famous market days on Thursdays and Sundays where vendors sell handicrafts, food, flowers, pottery, wooden boxes, condiments, medicinal plants, candles, pom and copal (traditional incense), cal (lime stones for preparing tortillas), grindstones, pigs and chickens, machetes, and other tools. In the central part of the market plaza are small eateries (comedores).
Among the items sold are textiles, particularly the women’s blouses. The manufacture of masks, used by dancers in traditional dances, such as the Dance of the Conquest, have also made this city well-known for woodcarving.
Church of Santo Tomás
Next to the market is the 400-year old church of Santo Tomás. It is built atop a Pre-Columbian temple platform, and the steps originally leading to a temple of the pre-Hispanic Maya civilization remain venerated. K’iche’ Maya priests still use the church for their rituals, burning incense and candles. In special cases, they burn a chicken for the gods. Each of the 18 stairs that lead up to the church stands for one month of the Maya calendar year. Another key element of Chichicastenango is the Cofradia of Pascual Abaj, which is an ancient carved stone venerated nearby and the Maya priests perform several rituals there. Writing on the stone records the doings of a king named Tohil (Fate).
The Chichicastenango Regional Museum lies in its grounds.


Last update: 21 September, 2019
Emotions exert a powerful influence on food choice and eating habits. For example, it was found that the link between emotions and food it is stronger in people who suffer from obesity than in those who do not suffer from it and in those who follow a diet (Sánchez and Pontes: 2012).
It has also been argued that emotions are not in themselves a cause of overweight, but rather the way they are handled and dealt with.
The relationship between emotions and food is a bilateral relationship: what we eat affects our mood and the emotions we feel affect our our way of eating. Cooper et al. (1998) tells us that failing to manage negative moods greatly affects the onset and persistence of eating disorders.
Emotional regulation is a concept that refers to the management of the emotions experienced by a person depending on the circumstances and the emotional state of others. Like this, It has been observed that shame and guilt are the emotions that can have a greater negative impact on the diet. As you can see, the link between emotions and food is much more important than we think.
"What we think generates emotions, but what we eat does too."
Emotions and food: a couple necessary for health
People develop different behaviors in response to their emotions depending on various factors, such as the context in which they find themselves, the level of education and the ability to identify and manage their feelings. All of this results in a better or worse ability to control one's weight.
For example, it has been observed that the greater emotionality in food intake corresponds to a greater lack of control over the number of meals, with the constant elimination of breakfast from one's eating routine. As you can see, the link between emotions and food is a real fact.
The most influential emotional factor for sedentary people is disinhibition during meals and small cheats that you indulge in with certain foods, such as chocolate and pastry products. For athletes, on the other hand, the emotions linked to guilt, such as the fear of scales and of eating sweets, are more influential than those linked to disinhibition towards meals.
The emotional factor in sedentary people is much less functional than in sportsmen. The excess of these mistakes and the lack of control in food intake are more frequently associated with overeating and eating disorders.
There is also a group of individuals who, due to their own eating habits, have been defined as repressed eaters or a chronic diet. These people experience a tremendous fear of gaining weight and this leads them to restrict their diet through strict diets. Paradoxically, due to these restrictive conditions, the individual increases his ingestion levels by overeating.
Experiencing the pleasant act of eating not only makes us feel more tired, thus causing us to constantly search for food, but can also cause serious health problems. The couple emotions and food must be based on ingesting the right and necessary amount of food. Our emotions must make us aware of the eating habits we need.
Depriving oneself from eating causes an obsession with food
The greater the deprivation, the greater the attraction. Normalizing the relationship with food must be an essential goal in the treatment of food control. The purgative conducts act as a reinforcement to ingestion, therefore favoring the lack of control of eating habits, as well as implying important health risks.
To demonstrate that depriving oneself of eating causes obsession with food, we will use the following technique: we tell you a sentence that you do not have to remember, for example “there is a yellow butterfly in the room”. The premise made has the opposite effect and when we are told not to remember what was communicated, our brain cannot help but process the information received.
The cause of this is to be found in the unconscious, the part that is in charge to a good extent to direct our body, interpreting and storing the information received from our senses.
An essential feature of the unconscious is that it functions through symbols and images, rather than through texts or letters. This means that does not process negative terms. If we say to ourselves "I must not eat french fries", the unconscious will only have the image of french fries and consequently we will have even more desire to eat them. This does not mean that it always happens, but it considerably increases the likelihood that it does.
When we use food to calm our mood, we feed ourselves emotionally. Likewise, worry about our weight and our body conceals deeper concerns. This triggers a vicious circle of unresolved worries that hinders our ability to grow and develop.
Each organ generates certain emotions. Based on the foods we consume, we will experience very different emotions. This happens because each food "affects" different organs. If we ingest foods that block the liver, such as alcohol, emotions such as anger, rage, aggression or impatience will emerge more easily.
People with emotional problems often resort to food to get better and this is due to the fact that many foods contain tryptophan, an amino acid that stimulates the secretion of serotonin. Low levels of this hormone are associated with depression and obsession.
The lack of serotonin therefore causes various negative effects on the body, such as distress, sadness, or short temper. When the body does not produce tryptophan, we get it from the diet. Foods rich in this amino acid therefore act as natural antidepressants.
According to experts, cereals are the group of foods that contribute most to regulating emotions, as they are rich in vitamin B, which directly affects the nervous system. It has been established that frequent consumption of grains reduces anxiety and affects the attitude we adopt in the presence of problems.
At times we believe that eating will save us from experiencing negative emotions. This thought reinforces the vicious circle between emotions and food.
Cooper, P. J., & Taylor, M. J. (1988). Body image disturbance in bulimia nervosa. The British Journal of Psychiatry.


Space is: “tingling with anthropomorphic life, dancing, ceremonial, a festival not a machine.” —C. S. Lewis1
“So remember to look up at the stars and not down at your feet. Try to make sense of what you see, and wonder about what makes a universe exist.” —Stephen Hawking2
Empty Space or Populated Heavens?
*This reading experience will be much better if you click this link which will play actual music of planets recorded by NASA.
Elon Musk is driven by the mission to bring human civilization to Mars during his lifetime. If he succeeds we may be living beyond our planet in the near future. Can you imagine flying on a privately made rocket through space? Many of us have picked up the idea that the journey would be a long traverse across a cold, vacuous void. This is reflected in the unimaginative term we have come to prefer for what is out there: space.
As we learn to think about the world the way our Father does, it is helpful to notice that the Bible doesn’t use the word ‘space,’ but rather ‘the heavens.’ This name casts our imagination in a different direction. The way we use the word ‘space’ in other contexts refers basically to emptiness. The idea of the heavens calls out something more “tingling with anthropomorphic life, dancing, ceremonial, a festival not a machine” (Ward).1 While I have called ‘space’ an unimaginative choice, Lewis puts a harsher criticism in the mouth of his hero Ransom in Out of the Silent Planet. While on his way to another planet, Ransom calls the term “a blasphemous libel for this empyrean ocean of radiance in which they swam” (22).3
In his trip through the heavens, Lewis’ fictional Ransom makes several interesting observations that help us re-enchant our imagination about the starry expanse above us. He observes that the light was golden with sharp shadows, and the heat “produced no tendency to drowsiness: rather, intense alacrity. His headache was gone: he felt vigilant, courageous and magnanimous as he had seldom felt on Earth” (19-20).
But he could not fear… The adventure was too high, its circumstance too ‘solemn’, for any emotion, save a severe delight. A nightmare, long engendered in the modern mind by the mythology that follows in the wake of science, was falling off him. He had read of ‘Space’: at the back of his thinking for years had lurked the dismal fancy of the black, cold vacuity, the utter deadness, which was supposed to separate the worlds. He had not known how much it affected him till now — now that the very name ‘Space’ seemed a blasphemous libel for this empyrean ocean of radiance in which they swam. He could not call it ‘dead;’ he felt life pouring into him from it every moment. How indeed should it be otherwise, since out of this ocean the worlds and all their life had come? He had thought it barren; he saw now that it was the womb of worlds, whose blazing and innumerable offspring looked down nightly even upon the Earth with so many eyes — and here, with how many more! No: Space was the wrong name. Older thinkers had been wiser when they named it simply the heavens — the heavens which declared the glory. (Lewis, 22-23)
What Populates the Heavens
The words of Lewis are powerful, but are they true? On what basis does he imagine the heavens to be brimming with light and life? Light is easy.
And God said, ‘Let there be lights in the expanse of the heavens to separate the day from the night. And let them be for signs and for seasons, and for days and years, and let them be lights in the expanse of the heavens to give light upon the earth.” And it was so. And God made the two great lights—the greater light to rule the day and the lesser light to rule the night—and the stars. And God set them in the expanse of the heavens to give light on the earth, to rule over the day and over the night, and to separate the light from the darkness. And God saw that it was good. (ESV, Gen 1.14-18)4
This really isn’t controversial. Everyone knows there are lights in the heavens. Perhaps it provides a helpful tweak to our imagination in seeing space as lit. But why does it say the lights rule; one over the day and the other over the night? This is where we press our imaginations a bit further. According to the Bible, the heavens are full of wonderful beings, and those beings are connected to the lights.
For who in the skies can be compared to the Lord?
Who among the heavenly beings is like the Lord,
a God greatly to be feared in the council of the holy ones,
and awesome above all who are around him? (Ps 89.6-7, bold mine)
If you follow the Hebrew parallelism you notice that there are heavenly beings in the skies. Or listen to Job.
On what were its (the earth) bases sunk,
or who laid its cornerstone,
when the morning stars sang together
and all the sons of God shouted for joy? (Job 38.6–7, bold mine)
Morning stars were singing and sons of God shouting at the creation of the earth. Who are they, and what did their shout sound like? What key was their song in?
The kings came, they fought;
then fought the kings of Canaan,
at Taanach, by the waters of Megiddo;
they got no spoils of silver.
From heaven the stars fought,
from their courses they fought against Sisera. (Jdg. 5.19–20, bold mine)
Stars fought against Sisera from heaven. They fought from their courses, or paths. That is, from their paths across the expanse of heaven. Are these merely poetic images? Poetic images of what? We know that angels do battle in the heavens, one tells Daniel about a battle he and Michael had with the prince of Persia. Is it a difficult stretch to imagine that an angel is made of fire? That is what Hebrews 1:7 seems to suggest, “Of the angels he says, ‘He makes his angels winds, and his ministers a flame of fire.” Because of our Enlightenment perspective, we think the wise men followed the star to Jesus by means of some weird mathematical triangulation. Can you imagine following a star to a specific house? It seems like it needed to come down to guide them.
This is how Lewis viewed the heavens, a perspective he had picked up in his studies of pre-modern, medieval literature, a time when everyone viewed the heavens through the lens of the Bible. In The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, he has the children talk to a star at rest named Ramandu who is growing young again to return to “tread the great dance…In our world, said Eustace, ‘a star is a huge ball of flaming gas.’ ‘Even in your world, my son, that is not what a star is but only what it is made of.’” (226)5
As Lewis helps illustrate, none of this is in opposition to modern science nor a denigration of the incredible advances it has brought us in our knowledge of the heavens. We can now look at pictures of nebulae while listening to the music of the planets. We may soon be able to board a rocket to Mars. What I am advocating is not the rejection of the scientific perspective on the heavens, but a recognition that the scientific perspective is not the only one, nor does it tell the whole story. We have greater need of integrating the truths we read in God’s Bible with the truths we discover in God’s world. Sadly, too often people trained at the feet of modernists have been made to feel they have to choose. The resulting vacuum of a solely modernist view of space is doing what vacuums always do, it is seeking fullness.
Twenty three years after Lewis published these ideas in Out of the Silent Planet, the first man went into space. What have we found up there? Was Lewis’ imagination, informed by the Bible and a Medieval cosmology, accurate?
There are two things that are particularly worth noting in this regard. First is what is called “The Overview Effect.” The short story about the Overview Effect is that going into space has this interesting tendency to turn astronauts into mystics. They have a profound experience up there that they cannot fully explain but which transforms them forever in a profoundly spiritual way. Listen to this description of Edgar Mitchell’s experience during his Apollo trip to the moon, “Suddenly, everything he thought he knew seemed grossly wrong. He had, many years earlier, set aside the religious views with which he had been raised, considering them the leftover attempts of prescientific people to understand their existence. But the vision of reality that had come to occupy his mind since then, a purely scientific view, was also now shattered by what he saw… looking out at the cosmos from space, he did not so much understand a new vision of reality as feel it” (Volk, 154). He describes what he experienced as “an ecstasy of unity,” saying that “Knowledge occurred to him in an instant, he felt, and since then he has endeavored to use the means of science and logic to verify what he learned” (155,156). The website he founded later in life to carry out this pursuit quotes him as saying, “The presence of divinity became almost palpable, and I knew that life in the universe was not just an accident based on random processes…The knowledge came to me directly” (IONS). And lest you are inclined to distrust Mitchell, a PHD from MIT, notice that many other astronauts have recounted similar experiences. “Author Frank White…interviewed thirty astronauts about the life-altering view from space… His book details several fundamental shifts in their thinking, all redolent of Mitchell’s ‘ecstasy of unity’ and the idea of intuitive knowing” (161).
In a different realm of science, Quantum physics has been finding that the apparently empty void of space is not empty at all. I won’t go too much into this because I am way over my head, but they are claiming that the latest science is demonstrating the empty space is filled with what they call dark energy and quantum particles that appear and disappear randomly. The dark energy supposedly contains more energy than is in all the known universe. I am far from an expert on quantum physics, and the more I read about it, the less I think I understand. I am not able to weigh the accuracy of these findings, and quantum physics is still filled with speculation, but it is interesting to note that there are strange energies in the heavens.
Engaging The Fullness
What is the significance of all this? What do we do with it? I think first, we stand in wonder. When you look up, don’t just see empty space, see lively heavens, and imagine the music of the spheres. Go outside more and look up at the stars in wonder. Embrace the glory of the Biblical view of the heavens with a renewed confidence and awe. And when you look up at the night sky, see the moon ruling over the night, see the stars in their courses as more than mere balls of flaming gas. And as you look in wonder, know that Jesus has ascended above them all and has thrown all the dark forces down from the heavens, so that all that is left up there are angels doing the work of Christ the King. Rest in the profound reality that Jesus Christ is seated on his throne up there, and in a very real and mystical sense, all those who are in him by faith sit there with him until all the nations bow before his kingdom of light. Then say a prayer that it may be on earth as it is in heaven.
- Considering the validity of Valiant Thor, a space alien from Venus who claims Christ, a Gnostic invention, or someone else? March 14, 2018 Frank Stranges tells us about the mysterious figure, Valiant Thor, his origins, his biology, and that he bears the name of Christ. Is there any weight to what…
- When the Devil Walks the Earth he Wears a Coat of Many Colors March 28, 2018 A Series Examining the Legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin, Part 1 Part I: Currently viewing Part II: When the Devil Walks the Earth he Wears a…
- Did Humans Multiply Before The Fall? October 9, 2019 A blog post I read yesterday made the case that Adam and Eve had children before the fall. The author's point was that because in Genesis 1:28 God…
- When the Devil Walks the Earth he Wears a Coat of Many Colors, part II May 30, 2018 A Series Examining the Legend of the Pied Piper Catch up and read the first article, here: Part I: When the Devil Walks the Earth he Wears a…
- Considering the Validity of Valiant Thor Part 2—an Alien Consultant for Government Black Ops? November 29, 2018 A former government engineer and geologist claims involvement in secret underground military bases, the alien agenda, and a meeting with the mysterious figure, Valiant Thor.


Magnesium is a mineral that is essential for many biochemical reactions in our body that keep us healthy. It is involved in nerve impulses in our muscles and in our brain. It is used as a cofactor in the chemicals reactions that allow us to produce energy to get us through our day. In addition, it is needed for the structural development of our genes and bones. Lastly, it is even pivotal in keeping your heart beating correctly and maintaining a healthy blood pressure! (1)
We can get Magnesium from the food that we eat. The highest sources are in leafy green vegetables such as kale and spinach. It is also in high concentrations in pumpkin seeds, tuna, lima beans or fruits like avocadoes and bananas. In addition, it is present in chocolate which is my personal favourite source of Magnesium. For the later source I always recommend to choose a low sugar or dark chocolate. The best approach is to eat a variety of the foods listed above to not only get a good amount of Magnesium, but also to have a diet rich in all the other minerals and vitamins your body needs. But even when we do this, we still do not always ingest the amount of Magnesium our body needs to properly carry out all the biochemical reactions mentioned above. (3-4)
In 2012, Health Canada reported that more then forty percent of adults have an inadequate amount of Magnesium intake. This deficiency can present as muscle cramps, brain fog, difficulty concentrating, low energy and difficulty sleeping. (7)
Magnesium must be combined with another substance to be delivered into our body. This other carrier substance determines how well our body absorbs Magnesium and how fast it gets into our blood stream. This carrier substance is what defines the different types of Magnesium: Magnesium Oxide, Magnesium Citrate, Magnesium Glycinate and Magnesium Malate.
Magnesium Oxide: This is the most common type of Magnesium found over the counter at most pharmacies and grocery stores. It pairs Magnesium with a chemical compound called oxide. Sadly, this type of magnesium has the lowest absorption of all the types of Magnesium. In addition, it has a strong laxative effect when taken in higher dosages. I don’t recommend this type of Magnesium to any of my patients. (6)
Magnesium Citrate: This form of Magnesium is much better absorbed into our body partly because it is paired with citrate which is an organic salt. In addition, it is available at most health food stores. It also has a laxative effect but it is much milder and more tolerable then Magnesium Oxide. This type of Magnesium works great for patients who want to safely increase their Magnesium intake who also have constipation or less regular bowel movements. But it should be avoided in patients that have loose bowel movements or gastrointestinal issues. (6)
Magnesium Glycinate: This type of Magnesium is also very well absorbed in our body and it has an affinity for our muscles and our nervous system. Glycinate comes from the amino acid glycine which is one of the calming neurotransmitters in our brain. Therefore, this type of Magnesium also promotes relaxation and helps with falling asleep. It is best to take this type of Magnesium at night. (2)
Magnesium Malate: In addition to also being a well absorbed this form of Magnesium also helps us with low energy levels. Malate is an intermediary in our cell’s energy production cycle called the Kreb cycle. Therefore, this type of Magnesium is best for patients with muscle cramps and low energy. It is an excellent choice for patients with the symptoms of chronic fatigue and Fibromyalgia. (5)
Given how difficult it is to get the level of Magnesium you need through a healthy diet I advocate for all my patients to be on a daily Magnesium supplement especially if they are experiencing muscle cramps.
Dr. Sandip Oppal MD(inactive), ND
- Institute of Medicine (IOM). Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997.
- Kawai, N. Neuropsychopharmacology. The sleep-promoting and hypothermic effects of glycine are mediated by NMDA receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, 2015; 40(6): 1405-16.
- Rude RK. Magnesium. In: Coates PM, Betz JM, Blackman MR, Cragg GM, Levine M, Moss J, White JD, eds. Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2010:527-37.
- Rude RK. Magnesium. In: Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, Tucker KL, Ziegler TR, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 11th ed. Baltimore, Mass: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012:159-75.
- Russell, IJ. J. Rheumatol. Treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome with Super Malic: a randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, crossover pilot study, 1995; 22(5): 953-8.
- Walker AF, Magnes Res. Mg citrate found more bioavailable than other Mg preparations in a randomised, double-blind study, 2003; 16(3): 183-91.
- Website: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-nutrition-surveillance/health-nutrition-surveys/canadian-community-health-survey-cchs/. Do Canadian Adults Meet Their Nutrient Requirements Through Diet Alone?, 2012.


This page uses content from Wikipedia and is licensed under CC BY-SA.
|Unit system||English unit|
|Symbol||mi or m|
|1 mi in ...||... is equal to ...|
|SI units||609.344 m1|
|nautical units||0.86898 nmi|
With qualifiers, "mile" is also used to describe or translate a wide range of units derived from or roughly equivalent to the Roman mile, such as the nautical mile (now 1.852 km exactly), the Italian mile (roughly 1.852 km), and the Chinese mile (now 500 m exactly). The Romans divided their mile into 5,000 roman feet but the greater importance of furlongs in pre-modern England meant that the statute mile was made equivalent to 8 furlongs or 5,280 feet in 1593. This form of the mile then spread to the British-colonized nations some of which continue to employ the mile. The US Geological Survey now employs the metre for official purposes but legacy data from its 1927 geodetic datum has meant that a separate US survey mile (6336/ km) continues to see some use. While most countries replaced the mile with the kilometre when switching to the International System of Units, the international mile continues to be used in some countries, such as Liberia, Myanmar, the United Kingdom, the United States, and a number of countries with fewer than one million inhabitants, most of which are UK or US territories, or have close historical ties with the UK or US.
The mile was usually abbreviated m. in the past but is now sometimes written as mi to avoid confusion with the SI metre. However, derived units, such as miles per hour or miles per gallon, continue to be universally abbreviated as mph and mpg, respectively.
The modern English word mile derives from Middle English myl and Old English mīl, which was cognate with all other Germanic terms for "miles". These derived from apocopated forms of the Latin mīlia or mīllia, the plural of mīle or mīlle,[n 1] literally "thousand" but used as a clipped form of mīlle passus or passuum, the Roman mile of one thousand paces.
The present international mile is usually what is understood by the unqualified term "mile". When this distance needs to be distinguished from the nautical mile, the international mile may also be described as a "land mile" or "statute mile". In British English, the "statute mile" may refer to the present international miles or to any other form of English mile since the 1593 Act of Parliament, which set it as a distance of 1,760 yards. Under American law, however, the "statute mile" refers to the US survey mile. Foreign and historical units translated into English as miles usually employ a qualifier to describe the kind of mile being used but this may be omitted if it is obvious from the context, such as a discussion of the 2nd-century Antonine Itinerary describing its distances in terms of "miles" rather than "Roman miles".
The mile has been variously abbreviated—with and without a trailing period—as m, M, ml, and mi. The American National Institute of Standards and Technology now uses and recommends mi in order to avoid confusion with the SI metre (m) and millilitre (ml). However, derived units such as miles per hour or miles per gallon continue to be abbreviated as mph and mpg rather than mi/h and mi/gal. In the United Kingdom road signs use m as the abbreviation for mile though height and width restrictions also use m as the abbreviation for the metre, which may be displayed alongside feet and inches. The BBC style holds that "There is no acceptable abbreviation for 'miles'" and so it should be spelt out when used in describing areas.
The Roman mile (mille passus, lit. "thousand paces"; abbr. m.p.; also milia passuum[n 2] and mille) consisted of a thousand paces as measured by every other step—as in the total distance of the left foot hitting the ground 1,000 times. The ancient Romans, marching their armies through uncharted territory, would often push a carved stick in the ground after each 1,000 paces. Well-fed and harshly driven Roman legionaries in good weather thus created longer miles. The distance was indirectly standardised by Agrippa's establishment of a standard Roman foot (Agrippa's own) in 29 BC, and the definition of a pace as 5 feet. An Imperial Roman mile thus denoted 5,000 Roman feet. Surveyors and specialized equipment such as the decempeda and dioptra then spread its use. In modern times, Agrippa's Imperial Roman mile was empirically estimated to have been about 1,617 yards (1,479 m) in length. In Hellenic areas of the Empire, the Roman mile (Greek: μίλιον, mílion) was used beside the native Greek units as equivalent to 8 stadia of 600 Greek feet. The mílion continued to be used as a Byzantine unit and was also used as the name of the zero mile marker for the Byzantine Empire, the Milion, located at the head of the Mese near Hagia Sophia.
The Roman mile also spread throughout Europe, with its local variations giving rise to the different units below.
Also arising from the Roman mile is the "milestone". All roads radiated out from the Roman Forum throughout the Empire – 50,000 miles of stone-paved roads. At every mile was placed a shaped stone, on which was carved a Roman numeral, indicating the number of miles from the center of Rome – the Forum. Hence, one always knew how far one was from Rome.
The Italian mile (miglio, pl. miglia) was traditionally considered a direct continuation of the Roman mile, equal to 1000 paces, although its actual value over time or between regions could vary greatly. It was often used in international contexts from the Middle Ages into the 17th century and is thus also known as the "geographical mile", although the geographical mile is now a separate standard unit.
The Arabic mile (الميل, al-mīl) was not the common Arabic unit of length; instead, Arabs and Persians traditionally used the longer parasang or "Arabic league". The Arabic mile was, however, used by medieval geographers and scientists and constituted a kind of precursor to the nautical or geographical mile. It extended the Roman mile to fit an astronomical approximation of 1 arcminute of latitude measured directly north-and-south along a meridian. Although the precise value of the approximation remains disputed, it was somewhere between 1.8 and 2.0 km.
The "old English mile" of the medieval and early modern periods varied but seems to have measured about 1.3 international miles (1.9 km). The English long continued the Roman computations of the mile as 5000 feet, 1000 paces, or 8 longer divisions, which they equated with their "furrow's length" or furlong.
The origins of English units are "extremely vague and uncertain", but seem to have been a combination of the Roman system with native British and Germanic systems both derived from multiples of the barleycorn.[n 3] Probably by the reign of Edgar in the 10th century, the nominal prototype physical standard of English length was an arm-length iron bar (a yardstick) held by the king at Winchester; the foot was then one-third of its length. Henry I was said to have made a new standard in 1101 based on his own arm. Following the issuance of Magna Carta, the barons of Parliament directed John and his son to keep the king's standard measure (Mensura Domini Regis) and weight at the Exchequer, which thereafter verified local standards until its abolition in the 19th century. New brass standards are known to have been constructed under Henry VII and Elizabeth I.
Arnold's c. 1500 Customs of London recorded a mile shorter than previous ones, coming to 0.947 international miles or 1.524 km.
The English statute mile was established by a Weights and Measures Act of Parliament in 1593 during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The act on the Composition of Yards and Perches had shortened the length of the foot and its associated measures, causing the two methods of determining the mile to diverge. Owing to the importance of the surveyor's rod in deeds and surveying undertaken under Henry VIII, decreasing the length of the rod by 1⁄11 would have amounted to a significant tax increase. Parliament instead opted to maintain the mile of 8 furlongs (which were derived from the rod) and to increase the number of feet per mile from the old Roman value. The applicable passage of the statute reads: "A Mile shall contain eight Furlongs, every Furlong forty Poles,[n 4] and every Pole shall contain sixteen Foot and an half." The statute mile therefore contained 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards. The distance was not uniformly adopted. Robert Morden had multiple scales on his 17th-century maps which included continuing local values: his map of Hampshire, for example, bore two different "miles" with a ratio of 1 : 1.23 and his map of Dorset had three scales with a ratio of 1 : 1.23 : 1.41. In both cases, the traditional local units remained longer than the statute mile.
The Welsh mile (milltir or milldir) was 3 miles and 1470 yards long (6.17 km). It comprised 9000 paces (cam), each of 3 Welsh feet (troedfedd) of 9 inches, usually reckoned as equivalent to the English inch. Along with other Welsh units, it was said to have been codified under Dyfnwal the Bald and Silent and retained unchanged by Hywel the Good. Along with other Welsh units, it was discontinued following the conquest of Wales by the English under Edward I in the 13th century.
The Scots mile was longer than the English mile, as mentioned by Robert Burns in the first verse of his poem "Tam o' Shanter". It comprised 8 (Scots) furlongs divided into 320 falls or faws (Scots rods). It varied from place to place but the most accepted equivalencies are 1,976 Imperial yards (1.123 statute miles or 1.81 km).
It was legally abolished three times: first by a 1685 act of the Scottish Parliament, again by the 1707 Treaty of Union with England, and finally by the Weights and Measures Act 1824. It had continued in use as a customary unit through the 18th century but had become obsolete by its final abolition.
The Irish mile (míle or míle Gaelach) measured 2240 yards: approximately 1.27 statute miles or 2.048 kilometres. It was used in Ireland from the 16th century plantations until the 19th century, with residual use into the 20th century. The units were based on "English measure" but used a linear perch measuring 7 yards (6.4 m) as opposed to the English rod of 5.5 yards (5.0 m).
The international mile is precisely equal to 344 km (or 1.60925146/ km as a fraction). It was established as part of the 1959 international yard and pound agreement reached by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, which resolved small but measurable differences that had arisen from separate physical standards each country had maintained for the yard. As with the earlier statute mile, it continues to comprise 1,760 yards or 5,280 feet.
The old Imperial value of the yard was used in converting measurements to metric values in India in a 1976 Act of the Indian Parliament. However, the current National Topographic Database of the Survey of India is based on the metric WGS-84 datum, which is also used by the Global Positioning System.
The difference from the previous standards was 2 ppm, or about 3.2 millimeters (1⁄8 inch) per mile. The U.S. standard was slightly longer and the old Imperial standards had been slightly shorter than the international mile. When the international mile was introduced in English-speaking countries, the basic geodetic datum in America was the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27). This had been constructed by triangulation based on the definition of the foot in the Mendenhall Order of 1893, with 1 foot = 1200/ metres and the definition was retained for data derived from NAD27, but renamed the U.S. survey foot to distinguish it from the international foot.[n 5]
The exact length of the land mile varied slightly among English-speaking countries until the international yard and pound agreement in 1959 established the yard as exactly 0.9144 metres, giving a mile exactly 1,609.344 metres. The U.S. adopted this international mile for most purposes, but retained the pre-1959 mile for some land-survey data, terming it the U. S. survey mile. In the United States, statute mile normally refers to the survey mile, about 3.219 mm (1⁄8 inch) longer than the international mile (the international mile is exactly 0.0002% less than the U.S. survey mile).
While most countries replaced the mile with the kilometre when switching to the International System of Units, the international mile continues to be used in some countries, such as Liberia, Myanmar, the United Kingdom and the United States. It is furthermore used in a number of countries with vastly less than a million inhabitants, most of which are UK or US territories, or have close historical ties with the UK or US: American Samoa, Bahamas, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Falkland Islands, Grenada, Guam, The N. Mariana Islands, Samoa, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & The Grenadines, St. Helena, St. Kitts & Nevis, the Turks & Caicos Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The mile is even encountered in Canada, though this is predominantly in rail transport and horse racing, as the roadways have been metricated since 1977.
The U.S. survey mile is 5,280 survey feet, or about 1,609.347 metres. In the United States, statute mile formally refers to the survey mile, but for most purposes, the difference between the survey mile and the international mile is insignificant—one international mile is 998 U.S. survey miles—so statute mile can be used for either. But in some cases, such as in the U.S. 0.999State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCSs), which can stretch over hundreds of miles, the accumulated difference can be significant, so it is important to note that the reference is to the U.S. survey mile.
The United States redefined its yard in 1893, but this resulted in U.S. and Imperial measures of distance having very slightly different lengths.
The North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83), which replaced the NAD27, is defined in meters. State Plane Coordinate Systems were then updated, but the National Geodetic Survey left individual states to decide which (if any) definition of the foot they would use. All State Plane Coordinate Systems are defined in meters, and 42 of the 50 states only use the metre-based State Plane Coordinate Systems. However, eight states also have State Plane Coordinate Systems defined in feet, seven of them in U.S. Survey feet and one in international feet.
State legislation in the U.S. is important for determining which conversion factor from the metric datum is to be used for land surveying and real estate transactions, even though the difference (2 ppm) is hardly significant, given the precision of normal surveying measurements over short distances (usually much less than a mile). Twenty-four states have legislated that surveying measures be based on the U.S. survey foot, eight have legislated that they be based on the international foot, and eighteen have not specified which conversion factor to use.
The nautical mile was originally defined as one minute of arc along a meridian of the Earth. Navigators use dividers to step off the distance between two points on the navigational chart, then place the open dividers against the minutes-of-latitude scale at the edge of the chart, and read off the distance in nautical miles. The Earth is not perfectly spherical but an oblate spheroid, so the length of a minute of latitude increases by 1% from the equator to the poles. Using the WGS84 ellipsoid, the commonly accepted Earth model for many purposes today, one minute of latitude at the WGS84 equator is 6,046 feet and at the poles is 6,107.5 feet. The average is about 6,076 feet (about 1,852 metres or 1.15 statute miles).
In the United States, the nautical mile was defined in the 19th century as 6,080.2 feet (1,853.249 m), whereas in the United Kingdom, the Admiralty nautical mile was defined as 6,080 feet (1,853.184 m) and was about one minute of latitude in the latitudes of the south of the UK. Other nations had different definitions of the nautical mile, but it is now internationally defined to be exactly 1,852 metres (6,076.11548556 feet).
The nautical mile per hour is known as the knot. Nautical miles and knots are almost universally used for aeronautical and maritime navigation, because of their relationship with degrees and minutes of latitude and the convenience of using the latitude scale on a map for distance measuring.
The data mile is used in radar-related subjects and is equal to 6,000 feet (1.8288 kilometres). The radar mile is a unit of time (in the same way that the light year is a unit of distance), equal to the time required for a radar pulse to travel a distance of two miles (one mile each way). Thus, the radar statute mile is 10.8 μs and the radar nautical mile is 12.4 μs.
Cities in the continental United States often have streets laid out by miles. Detroit, Indianapolis, Chicago, Phoenix, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, and Miami, are several examples. Typically the largest streets are about a mile apart, with others at smaller intervals. In the Manhattan borough of New York City "streets" are close to 20 per mile, while the major numbered "avenues" are about six per mile. (Centerline to centerline, 42nd Street to 22nd Street is supposed to be 5250 feet while 42nd Street to 62nd Street is supposed to be[clarification needed] 5276 ft 8 in.)
The informal term "metric mile" is used in sports such as track and field athletics and speed skating to denote a distance of 1,500 metres (4,921 ft). In United States high-school competition, the term is sometimes used for a race of 1,600 metres (5,249 ft).
The Scandinavian mile (mil) remains in common use in Norway and Sweden, where it has meant precisely 10 km since metrication occurred in 1889. It is used in informal situations and in measurements of fuel consumption, which are often given as litres per mil. In formal situations (such as official road signs) and where confusion may occur with international miles, it is avoided in favour of kilometres.
Before metrication, the Norwegian mile was 11.298 km.
The traditional Finnish peninkulma was translated as mil in Swedish and also set equal to 10 km during metrication in 1887, but is much less commonly used.
A comparison of the different lengths for a "mile", in different countries and at different times in history, is given in the table below. Leagues are also included in this list because, in terms of length, they fall in between the short West European miles and the long North, Central and Eastern European miles.
|Length (m)||Name||Country used||From||To||Definition||Remarks|
|960–1152||talmudic mil||Israel||Biblical and Talmudic units of measurement|
|1,480||mille passus, milliarium||Roman Empire||Ancient Roman units of measurement|
|1,609.3426||(statute) mile||Great Britain||1592||1959||1760 yards||Over the course of time, the length of a yard changed several times and consequently so did the English, and from 1824, the imperial mile. The statute mile was introduced in 1592 during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I|
|1,609.344||mile||international||1959||today||1760 yards||Until 1 July 1959 the imperial mile was a standard length worldwide. The length given in metres is exact.|
|1,609.3472||(statute) mile||United States||1893||today||1760 yards||From 1959 also called the U.S. Survey Mile. From then its only utility has been land survey, before it was the standard mile. From 1893 its exact length in meters was: 3600/ × 1760|
|1,852||nautical mile||international||today||approx. 1 minute of arc||Measured at a circumference of 40,000 km. Abbreviation: NM, nm|
|1,852.3||(for comparison)||1 meridian minute|
|1,855.4||(for comparison)||1 equatorial minute||Although the NM was defined on the basis of the minute, it varies from the equatorial minute, because at that time the circumferences of the equator was only able to be estimated at 40,000 km|
|2,220||Gallo-Roman league||Gallo-Roman culture||1.5 miles||Under the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, this replaced the Roman mile as the official unit of distance in the Gallic and Germanic provinces, although there were regional and temporal variations.|
|3,898||French lieue (post league)||France||2000 "body lengths"|
|4,000||general or metric league|
|4,190||legue||Mexico||= 2500 tresas = 5000 varas|
|4,444.8||landleuge||1⁄25° of a circle of longitude|
|4,452.2||lieue commune||France||Units of measurement in France before the French Revolution|
|4,513||legua||Chile, (Guatemala, Haiti)||= 36 cuadros = 5400 varas|
|4,828||English land league||England||3 miles|
|Germanic rasta, also doppelleuge
|5,196||legua||Bolivia||= 40 ladres|
|5,152||legua argentina||Argentina, Buenos Aires||= 6,000 varas|
|5,556||Seeleuge (nautical league)||1⁄20° of a circle of longitude
3 nautical miles
|5,570||legua||Spain and Chile||Spanish customary units|
|5,572||legua||Colombia||= 3 Millas|
|5,572.7||legue||Peru||= 20,000 feet|
|Spain||= 3 millas = 15,000 feet|
|5,590||légua||Brazil||= 5,000 varas = 2,500 bracas|
|5,685||Fersah (Turkish league)||Ottoman Empire||1933||4 Turkish miles||Derived from Persian Parasang.|
|6,170||milltir||Wales||13thC||9000 cam ( = 27 000 troedfedd = 243 000 inches)||eclipsed by the conquest of Wales by Edward I|
|6,197||légua antiga||Portugal||= 3 milhas = 24 estadios|
new league, since 1766
|Spain||= 8,000 varas|
(state survey mile)
|7,409||(for comparison)||4 meridian minutes|
|7,419.2||Kingdom of Hanover|
|7,419.4||Duchy of Brunswick|
|7,420.439||geographic mile||1⁄15 equatorial grads[dubious ]|
|7,421.6||(for comparison)||4 equatorial minutes|
|7,467.6||Russia||7 verst||Obsolete Russian units of measurement|
|7,500||kleine / neue Postmeile
(small/new postal mile)
|Saxony||1840||German Empire, North German Confederation, Grand Duchy of Hesse, Russia|
(German state mile)
|Denmark, Hamburg, Prussia||primarily for Denmark defined by Ole Rømer|
|Austro-Hungary||Austrian units of measurement|
|9,062||mittlere Post- / Polizeimeile
(middle post mile or police mile)
|9,206.3||Electorate of Hesse|
|9,261.4||(for comparison)||5 meridian minutes|
|9,277||(for comparison)||5 equatorial minutes|
(old state mile)
(old state mile)
|10,000||metric mile, Scandinavian mile||Norway, Sweden||still commonly used today, e. g. for road distances.; equates to the myriameter|
|10.688.54||mil||Sweden||1889||In normal speech, "mil" means a Scandinavian mile of 10 km.|
|11,113.7||(for comparison)||6 meridian minutes|
|11,132.4||(for comparison)||6 equatorial minutes|
|11,299||mil||Norway||was equivalent to 3000 Rhenish rods.|
Even in English-speaking countries that have moved from the Imperial to the metric system (for example, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand), the mile is still used in a variety of idioms. These include:


Comprehensive and Critical Period Monitoring Program to Evaluate the Effects of Variable Flow on Biological Resources in the Comal Springs/River Aquatic Ecosystem Final 2011 Annual Report
The purpose of this report is to document the results of all aquatic ecosystem monitoring conducted in 2011 at Comal Springs located in New Braunfels, Texas. The monitoring and report preparation was performed by BIO-WEST, Inc. Pflugerville, Texas.
[Excerpted from Executive Summary]
Less severe, but negative effects on aquatic vegetation and fountain darter populations were evident in Landa Lake during the majority of 2011. Aquatic vegetation and fountain darter conditions within the Old Channel remained consistent with post-culvert reconstruction conditions, while New Channel conditions improved during 2011.
Neither water quality parameters measured (including water temperature) throughout the Comal Springs/River ecosystem, nor endangered macroinvertebrate habitat or population data posed concern during the extended drought witnessed in 2011. As such, the juxtaposition of high and low-flow events in 2010 and 2011 caused impacts (some severe) in the certain reaches of the ecosystem, but overall the aquatic communities presently remain intact. As the drought continues, or is broken it will be invaluable to continue to monitor the response and/or recovery of the Comal Springs/River ecosystem.
Search for Documents
Explore EAA's Scientific Reports
- All Reports
- Weather Modification
- Water Use and Conservation
- Water Resources Planning and Management
- Water Quality
- Surface Water / Groundwater Relationship
- Springs, Groundwater Discharge
- RZ Protection
- Remote Sensing
- Overview Studies
- Hydrology and Hydrogeology
- Groundwater Recharge, Recharge Zone
- Groundwater Movement
- Geomorphology and Caves
- Floods and Drought
- Aquifer Levels


Oklahoma Land Rush
by John Riggio
Land! That was the promise of the Oklahoma Land Rush. On April 22nd, 1889, tens of thousands of settlers were lined up at the Oklahoma border, waiting for the signal to go. Thanks to the Homestead Act of 1862, the U.S. government was giving away free land, up to 160 acres per applicant. So when the cannon fired (some accounts say multiple cannons and rifles), you can imagine the multitude of people racing to stake their claim. History was being made.
With an Old West vibe, this song has everything you need: guitars, fiddles, banjo, washboard, a cow, horses, a really great horn rip - what more could you ask for? Seriously, though, we added lots of sound effects, including a barely discernible "buffalo sigh" at measure 12 the third time, so listen for it!
The vocals are simple and repetitive, though a tad wordy on the verses so we can tell the story. It should be sung with all the vigor of those settlers, and singers may want to dress the part when performing this piece.
Given the historic nature of the topic of the song, we absolutely recommend sharing it with the classroom teachers, whether you actually use it in a performance or not. After all, it's another prime example of bringing music across the curriculum, reinforcing the lessons of other subjects.
Factoid: There were some settlers that did not wait for the official opening of Oklahoma, who snuck across the border to stake their claims early. These people became known as "sooners," as they claimed the land too soon!
Text is taken from Music K-8 magazine.


TosaOld Norse Dictionary - tosa
Meaning of Old Norse word "tosa" in English.
As defined by the Cleasby & Vigfusson Old Norse to English dictionary:
- að, [A. S. tæsan; Engl. tease], to drag a dead weight; tosa við e-ð; perh. from the English.
Possible runic inscription in Younger Futhark:ᛏᚢᛋᛅ
Younger Futhark runes were used from 8th to 12th centuries in Scandinavia and their overseas settlements
- A. S.


Tonto National Monument
Tonto National Monument is a National Monument in the Superstition Mountains, in Gila County of central Arizona. The area lies on the northeastern edge of the Sonoran Desert ecoregion, an arid habitat with annual rainfall of about 16 inches (400 mm) here. The Salt River runs through this area, providing a rare, year-round source of water.
|Tonto National Monument|
Lower Cliff Dwelling
|Location||Gila County, Arizona, USA|
|Nearest city||Globe, Arizona|
|Area||1,120 acres (4.5 km2)|
|Created||October 21, 1907|
|Visitors||53,426 (in 2011)|
|Governing body||National Park Service|
|Website||Tonto National Monument|
Well-preserved cliff dwellings were occupied by the Salado culture during the 13th, 14th, and early 15th centuries. The people farmed in the Salt River Valley, and supplemented their diet by hunting and gathering native plants. The Salado were fine craftspeople, producing some of the most flamboyant polychrome pottery and intricately woven textiles to be found in the Southwest. Some of the artifacts excavated nearby are on display in the visitor center museum.
The Tonto National Monument Archeological District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Tonto National Monument, Lower Ruin and Tonto National Monument, Upper Ruin are archeological sites that were NRHP-listed in 1989.[a]
The Upper Sonoran ecosystem is known for its characteristic saguaro cacti. Other common plants include: cholla, prickly pear, hedgehog, and barrel cactus (flowering from April to June); yucca, sotol, and agave; creosote bush and ocotillo; palo verde and mesquite trees; an amazing variety of colorful wild flowers in good years (February to March); and a lush riparian area which supports large Arizona Walnut, Arizona Sycamore, and hackberry trees.
It also serves as a home for native animals such as whitetail and mule deer, mountain lion, bobcat, three rattlesnake species and many more.
- All three NRHP-listed areas are included within the National Monument, but the National Monument itself is not NRHP-listed
- "Listing of acreage as of December 31, 2011". Land Resource Division, National Park Service. Retrieved 2012-05-14.
- "NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report". National Park Service. Retrieved 2012-05-14.
- Roosevelt 1 WNW, Arizona - Climate Summary. Western Regional Climate Center.
- National Park Service (2009-03-13). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tonto National Monument.|


A general view of poverty in Turkey as an issue for social work in the light of behavioral finance and game theory
Üst veriTüm öğe kaydını göster
In this chapter, the authors define poverty in general terms before including statistics for a detailed, Turkey-Specific discussion. Once the authors elaborate on the causes of poverty, they introduce behavioural economics and game theory, the fundamental aim of the chapter being to examine how these two theories affect perceptions of poverty and the struggle against poverty. Another issue that enters into the scope of this chapter is to what extent the poor themselves are responsible for their own poverty. On this question, game theory and behavioural economics can potentially be marshalled against the poor. However, we also argue that, by using a different approach, both theories can be interpreted in the poor's favour. We examine the Double-Sided nature of these two theories in detail and stress how important it is in the study of poverty to consider the disadvantageous position in which the poor find themselves. © 2015, IGI Global. All rights reserved.
KaynakHandbook of Research on Behavioral Finance and Investment Strategies: Decision Making in the Financial Industry


Find / Fall: Find - 1911
Location: Western Australia, Australia
Classification: Iron, IAB-ung
Total Known Weight: 24 Metric Tons
The original Mundrabilla meteorite find in Western, Australia was in 1911 with subsequent finds of both large masses of many tons and thousands of small knuckle size pieces. The recoveries continue to the present. The total weight of this fall is over 17 tons. Mundrabilla has had several classification over the years since its first discovery. It was a medium octahedrite for most of that time. It is now a member of the IAB ungr complex. Several meteorite groups, grouplets and recently defined classes have been associated together. Among these was the former IIICD group of which Mundrabilla was a member. Mundrabilla individuals are often very interestingly shaped and sculptured.


Plate Tectonics, Continental Drift and Earth Sciences
These links have been carefully selected and were considered relevant and suitable for school use at the time of checking. Clicking on them will take you to other websites over which we have no control. If you have any doubts or concerns please check what is at the other end before using them in lessons. If you find any broken, re-directed or dead links please let us know.
ABAG Earthquake Maps
An interesting collection of resources with an emphasis on California. There is information on making your home as safe as possible during earthquakes, a quiz, puzzles, hazard maps and animations, the impact of quakes on transportation, ground liquefication and many other topics. The main page is well laid out and easy to navigate. A good resource for schools.
Wegener proposed the Continental Drift theory. This is a one paragraph biography of this famous geologist. No pictures, and no links.
California Has Its Faults...
An informative page about not just California's faults, but different types of geological fault as well. The information is well written, clearly presented and idea for school use with 'new' geologists.
Cascade Range Volcanoes
Select a volcano in the Cascade Mountain Range from either a map or a list of names. This site will tell you all about the volcano you select. A very interesting site well worth visiting.
Cascades Volcano Observatory
This site is full of fascinating information. There are special features, such as updates to news and current events, hazard assessment reports, educational talks and lectures, a selection of links to volcanoes, hazards and a wealth of other topics related to volcanism.
A short text providing an overview of Continental Drift and the evidence put forward to support the theory. The 'General Description Of Continental Drift' is a useful resource for all school students wanting to understand the basics of the subject without having to read pages and pages of text.
Earth's Active Volcanoes
A clearly presented list of links to the worlds active volcanoes. The volcanoes are broken up by region, making it easy to spot associations between volcanoes in the same general locations. This site is a good starting point for research if you know either the name of the volcano or the part of the Earth where it can be found. For general school project work it is also a good starting point, offering students a good range of volcanoes to research further.
Earth's Interior and Plate Tectonics
A very good article on the Earth's Interior looking at its composition and structure, including a brief explanation of seismic waves and how they are used to deduce the Earth's internal structure. Both the Ocean and Continental Lithospheres are discussed, as well as a short introduction to Plate tectonics. This is a very good site but not aimed at the younger student or people new to geology. As a rough guide, in the UK it would coincide with the work undertaken by students aged 15 and over.
Earthquake Facts and Follies
Twenty five questions and answers about Earthquakes, such as Can Earthquakes be prevented? , How are Earthquakes Measured? and What Was the Greatest Number of People Killed in One Earthquake?. This site is well suited to school use, being a collection of interesting facts that could form the basis of further investigation or be read for their own interest. Suited to most age groups.
Earthquake Information from the USGS
This site is run by the United States Geological Survey and contains six sections; Latest Quake Information, What's New or Interesting, Hazards and Preparedness, More about Earthquakes, Studying Earthquakes, and Resources. Each section links to another page or pages covering the topic in detail.
Earthquake Prone Areas
This is a very unusual but vivid map showing the danger areas in the USA. By using a combination of colouring and vertical relief the danger areas are highlighted in excellent clarity. There should be more maps like this one!
Earthquakes in British Columbia
British Columbia receives an Earthquake everyday. The site looks at the causes and effects of quakes: good photographs and diagrams are included.
Earthquakes in the UK
Data for the last month is presented as a gif type map. The map covers all of the UK, and the epicenters of quakes are shown by proportional circles. Contrary to many people's beliefs, the UK experiences numerous earthquakes every year, though most are too weak for us to notice them. This map is an excellent way of showing this activity. The maps are updated every month and show Uk Seismicity over the last 30 days.
This is like a diary of the geological events around the world on a day to day basis. As interesting geological events occur, they are added to the site with links to further information, maps, news stories etc. This is another valuable site for school use, allowing teachers to keep up to date with case studies and examples. Using this site you can teach with events that are in the news, rather than ones published in text books already 5 years out of date.
The Electronic Volcano is a window into the world of information on active volcanoes. From here you can find many types of materials on active volcanoes worldwide, such as maps, photographs and full texts of dissertations and a few elusive documents. The Electronic Volcano will guide you to resources in libraries or resources on other information servers.
Folding (Appalachian Ridge and Valley)
The geology of Pennsylvania,USA is shown in Landsat satellite images, together with a detailed text explaining the geology that has shaped the landscape. Some of the language is quite technical and suited only to those students with a good level of geographical and geological understanding, ie able to comprehend "homogeneous crystalline rocks".
Folding, Faulting and Mountains
This is an interesting lesson on Mountain formation due to plate movements. It concentrates on Folding, Faulting and Dome building, using text, diagrams and maps. An interesting online lesson, or download it and use it as the basis of your own lesson plan.
Global Earthquake Map
The map shows the recent earthquakes around the globe as red squares, the size of which are proportional to their intensity. By clicking on the squares you can zoom in closer.
Global Earthquake Report
A regularly updated list of the earthquakes recorded around the world over the last few days. Only the larger quakes are shown, giving their time, location, magnitude and depth below the surface. You may also choose to view the quakes superimposed on either a world or USA map.
Internet Natural Hazards Links
A set of links to pages dealing with a range of natural hazards including volcanoes, earthquakes, fires and windstorms.
IRIS Seismic Monitor
This is an interactive educational display of global seismicity that allows you to monitor earthquakes in near real-time, view records of ground motion, and visit seismic stations around the world. The display is updated every 30 minutes using data from the National Earthquake Information Center. Earthquakes that have occurred within the last 24 hours are shown with red circles. The circles fade through orange to yellow within 15 days. After 15 days, the circles are replaced by light purple dots that remain on the map for five years.
A QuickTime video clip of the earthquake that struck Kobe on January 17th 1995. The file is 5MB with a run time of 3 minutes 34 seconds.
Largest Earthquakes in the USA
Produced by the National Earthquake Information Center, this site lists the largest 15 earthquakes to have hit the USA, complete with online maps and text. A very useful site if you want to know about past quakes in the USA.
Latest Earthquake Information
This is a near real time earthquake bulletin provided by the NEIS, part of the US Geological Survey. The data provided is ; Date, Time, Lat/Long, Depth, Magnitude and Comments. You can also click on a link to see the earthquake located on a world map.
Latest New Zealand Earthquake Report
The Institute of Geophysics at Victoria University of Wellington provides a report on the very latest earthquakes in New Zealand. The page is brief, loads quickly ( it does from here anyway ) and gives the usual basic quake information.
Montserrat Volcano Observatory
Montserrat is an island with serious volcano problems! This page is the official report on the current situation at Soufriere Hills Volcano. There are archives of the weekly newsletter published by the Emergency Dept, information about the Volcano Observatory, pictures, daily scientific reports, maps and links to other related sites. The best Montserrat information site I have found, and a valuable educational resource.
Mt. St. Helen's
Some interesting photographs of this famous volcano before and after its recent eruption. The collection of slides makes a visit here well worthwhile , and as an added bonus there is even a live video camera image from the Johnston Ridge Observatory, updated every 10 minutes.
Museum of the City of San Francisco
This is the home page of the Museum. Among it's exhibits are the Great Earthquake of 1906, images of the earthquake, the 1989 San Francisco Earthquake and the Oakland Firestorm.
NASA Volcanology Pictures
Images of volcanoes in action, provided by NASA. There is information about the EOS IDS project and an 'Ask an Expert' facility too.
National Earthquake Information Center
Home of the National Earthquake Information Centre, with links to Current Earthquake Information, general Earthquake Information, an Earthquake Database, Seismograph Station Info and other earthquake information sources.
Pacific Ring of Fire
An excellent map showing active volcanoes, plate boundaries and names, trenches, ridges and the 'Ring of Fire'. It's in colour too.
Plate Motion Calculator
Discover how fast your plate is moving, right now by entering the name of your plate and a set of latitude / longitude co-ordinates. The form is very easy to complete, and the server returns the velocity and direction of your plate's movement is a few seconds. A wonderful use of internet technology and a place you have to visit at least once while studying plate tectonics.
An explanation of tectonics, volcanoes, earthquakes, continental drift and the Earth's interior. It is well written and most informative, though it has a bias towards the USA when giving case studies. A good educational site.
This site takes a different approach to tectonics. It explains the history of our understanding of the Earth and provides a brief overview of the theories behind our understanding. The special feature is the collection of animations showing plate movement over the last 750 million years - schools should visit this resource!
Plates of The World
Recent Natural Hazards News
A set of articles related to natural hazards, including some covering tectonics, earthquakes and volcanics. The content is aimed at more advanced students and is not suitable for younger students or those new to plate tectonics.
Mt Ruapehu is an active volcano in New Zealand. With the great catch phrase of "Forget java, we've got lava", this site provides the most recent information about the volcano and the latest video image from the volcano camera..
Ring of Fire
A map of the Ring Of Fire
San Andreas Fault Zone
A short but very informative introduction to the San Andreas Fault Zone. Some of the terminology is a bit technical but the general content can probably be understood by most students, perhaps with a dictionary to hand.
Surfing the Internet for Earthquake Data
A very useful list of links to internet sites related to seismic activity, including ways to get seismic data if you don't have access to a web browser. This is a very good site for finding other sites, and can save you hours of searching for data.
The Quake of '89
A short fact file about the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989, covering value of damage, number of injuries, deaths etc. Suitable for any age group of students who are seeking basic factual data about the quake.
This Dynamic Earth
This is a really good site. It explains the story of Plate tectonics in an interesting and absorbing style, with many illustrations and photographs. This is a 'must visit' site in my opinion, and an excellent place for students to browse.
Note:This site requires Java for some of it's animations, but also contains static images and text. There is an Earthquake quiz, but it consists of only four questions. Other features are Famous Earthquake accounts from the likes of Mark Twain and Charles Darwin, Rotating globes and a textual history of seismology to 1910.
U.S Geological Survey
The home page of the United States Geological Survey. From here you can link to their many resources covering all aspects of earthquakes, tectonics and volcanism.
U.S. Earthquake Epicenters
A map of the USA epicenters during the last 2 Weeks. The map is updated at regular intervals and shows epicenters as proportional dots, the size of dot being related to the magnitude of the quake.
U.S.A. Earthquake Map
U.S.A earthquakes are shown on this map, with the size of the symbols proportional to the magnitude of the earthquakes. In addition to the Continental U.S.A, Alaska and Hawaii are included. You may choose any location on this map to zoom in much closer. Once you zoom, you will see a lot more detail appearing on the map, such as roads, railways, rivers and national park boundaries.
Violent Planet Page
This is an extremely good site that covers all the forms of natural violent hazards created by nature. her you can find a vast range of information including quakes, volcanoes and related incidents. There are facts, reports, case studies and links to other specialist sites. This is really a very well designed and informative site.
This is another 'unusual' site, this time offering students the chance to trigger a virtual earthquake and generate seismograph charts of their own quake. There os also a good introduction to earthquakes, seismic waves, seismograms and epicentres. This is a fun place to visit as well as being a good educational resource.
The lighter side of working with volcanoes, containing some stories and cartoons.
This is an excellent idea; a sort of grown up version of a child's picture dictionary. For each of the words in a geological glossary there is a photograph. If you want to see an image of a cinder cone, aa, spatter or Pillow Lava this is the place to visit. I had a great time just browsing the pictures.
Volcano Watch is a weekly newsletter written by the scientists at the US Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. It is published in the Hawaii Tribune-Herald's Sunday newspaper and the West Hawai'i Today's Monday newspaper, and posted on their internet site the following Monday or Tuesday. While primarily addressed to the residents of the Big Island of Hawai`i, some articles may have a broader scope. Article topics may range from volcanic features on the Big Island, volcanic hazards, informational topics of Long Valley, Montserrat, or Alaska, to topics about the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory.
The U.S. Geological Survey maintains this registry of Earth and Environmental Science Internet resources as a service to the research community. It contains links to sites related to volcanology, such as the Alaska Volcano Observatory and the Montserrat Information Archives.
Volcanoes.Com is another site of links to other volcano sites. The links are arranged by geographical area and can all be accessed from the main page. There is a search engine allowing you to look for more volcano related information on the internet, or to search for volcano books! The site is intended for use by student and promised to be student friendly, with no adult links whatsoever.
A mixture of links and original information, and even a search engine. The main page is split into sections, each covering a different aspect of the site, such as "Research and Information", "Interact with US", and "Volcano Indices". This is a good resource and ideal for school use.
World's 10 Most Recent Large Earthquakes
A gif format map of the world with the 10 most recent large earthquakes plotted on it. The earthquakes are represented by proportional circles, the size of the circle reflecting the magnitude of the earthquake. The image seems to load quite quickly.
Can't find the link you need? Try searching through Google


Adapting the Past to Improve the Future
Though the trend of greenhouse gas emission is declining, the equivalent of 6,870 million metric tons of CO2 was emitted in the United States in 2014. About one quarter of this pollution is emitted by the transportation sector. Instead of waiting for the next technological development in transportation to provide us with clean vehicles, what if we could adopt past transportation systems to reduce our emissions and increase future sustainability? This study explores the idea of adopting intra- and inter-urban electric rail and a people’s car to reduce the annual U.S. transportation emissions using historical examples, the most recent studies published on emissions, and articles discussing the sociological impacts of transportation. Recently, the U.S. has seen the biggest railroad investments in the last 100 years, giving the country a huge opportunity to reintroduce electric rail. Since it is not feasible to reach everyone with public transit, private vehicles also need to shift towards sustainability as well by using low-emission technology currently available in a flexible manner so it is possible to upgrade the vehicle when newer technology is released. The major limitation of this study is the scope of this issue, and due to this the cultural feasibility of adopting these systems, the financial cost, detailed estimates on the actual amounts of emissions prevented, and alternative transportation systems were not heavily addressed.


Your vehicle’s transmission is like the delivery man of your car, transferring power from the engine to the wheel’s axles. That power then rotates the wheels, moving your car, to get you wherever you need to go. There are two basic types of transmissions: automatic transmission and manual transmission. Both types of transmissions accomplish this same task, but each have their own unique way of doing so.
There are two basic types of automatic transmissions: traditional and dual-clutch. The traditional automatic transmission connects to the engine with a hydraulic torque converter. As the name implies, the dual-clutch transmission connects to the engine with a pair of clutches.
Regardless of the type of automatic transmission you have, the process of changing gears is similar. Either hydraulically or electronically, factors like speed, rpm, the throttle pedal position, etc. are monitored to determine when gears change and how much power is transferred.
Once put into drive, automatic transmissions change gears without needing any help from the driver. Generally, it’s almost impossible to stall with an automatic, and the ride feels smoother- without the jerking of changing gears you might feel with manual transmissions.
Some people find automatic transmissions easier to use. You don’t have to worry about a clutch pedal (found with manual transmissions) or physically shifting gears. This also frees up a hand while driving.
With a manual transmission, the driver is in control of changing gears. Along with a shift lever connected to the transmission (found in the center console), vehicles with manual transmissions have clutch pedals (located near the brake pedal). The shift lever tells your car which gear the driver needs. The pedal releases a clutch disc between the engine and transmission, allowing your car to change gears.
For the complete process, you release the clutch pedal, select the gear on your stick-shift, then press the clutch pedal again. This process can be tricky at first. If you complete it too quickly, or incorrectly it can cause your engine to stall out.
When driving with a manual transmission, you need to be more conscious of your speed, driving conditions, and surrounding traffic- since you are in control how your car responds. Many drivers who choose manual transmission vehicles do so because they feel like they have more control over their vehicle.
So which type of transmission is best? Honestly, whichever works best for you. Each driver has their own preference and type of transmission they are most comfortable with.
No matter which type of transmission you have, Transmission Technicians are your experts for any maintenance or repairs you may need. Call us today, stop by the shop, or schedule your appointment online.