|墨翟 Mo Di|
A line drawing of Mozi
|Born||ca. 470 BC|
|Died||ca. 391 BC|
|School||Founder of Mohism|
|moral philosophy and ethics, social and political philosophy, logic, epistemology|
|Literal meaning||Master Mo|
|Literal meaning||(personal name)|
Mozi (Chinese: 墨子; pinyin: Mòzǐ; Wade–Giles: Mo Tzu, Lat. as Micius, ca. 470 BC – ca. 391 BC), original name Mo Di (墨翟), was a Chinese philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought period (early Warring States period).
Born in Tengzhou, Shandong Province, China, he founded the school of Mohism that argued strongly against Confucianism and Daoism. His philosophy emphasized self-restraint, self-reflection and authenticity rather than obedience to ritual. During the Warring States period, Mohism was actively developed and practiced in many states but fell out of favour when the legalist Qin Dynasty came to power. During that period, many Mohist classics were ruined when emperor Qin Shi Huang carried out the burning of books and burying of scholars. The importance of Mohism further declined when Confucianism became the dominant school of thought during the Han Dynasty, until mostly disappearing by the middle of the Western Han Dynasty.
Mozi is known by children throughout Chinese culture by way of the Thousand Character Classic, which records that he was saddened when he saw dyeing of pure white silk, which embodied his conception of austerity (simplicity, chastity). For the modern juvenile audience of Chinese speakers the image of his school and its founder was popularized by the animated TV series The Legend of Qin.
|This section does not cite any sources. (September 2014)|
There has been considerable debate about the actual name of Mozi, not less than three concepts of its origin exist as of the date.
1. Traditionally, Mozi was said to have inherited the surname "Mo" from his supposed ancestor, the Lord of Guzhu (Chinese: 孤竹君; pinyin: Gūzhú Jūn), himself descended from Shennong, the legendary emperor. The descendants of the Lord of Guzhu had the clan name "Motai" (Chinese: 墨胎; pinyin: Mòtāi), which later was shortened to "Mo". However, modern scholarship suggests that "Mo" was not, in fact, the clan name of Mozi, as this clan name/family name is not encountered during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.
2. As "Mo" came to be the name of the Mohist school itself, it might have derived from the name of a criminal punishment (tattooing of the forehead of criminals; "mo" literally means "ink"), usually inflicted on slaves. It signals the Mohists' identification with the lowest of common people. The actual ancestral name and clan name of Mozi is not known. It may be that, because he was likely born into the lower classes, he did not have an ancestral or clan name. During Chinese antiquity, the vast majority of the Chinese people who were not related to aristocratic families did not possess ancestral and clan names.
3. A plausible source of Mozi's name may have been the philosopher's skin complexion itself, which is referred to as "dark" (lit. "black") in the text. "Mozi was going north to Qi and met a fortune teller on the way. The fortune teller told him: "God kills the black dragon in the north today. Now, your complexion is dark. You must not go north."
Most historians believe that Mozi was a member of the lower artisan class who managed to climb his way to an official post. It is known, however, that his parents were not affectionate towards him and showed him very little love. Mozi was a native of the State of Lu (Today's Tengzhou, Shandong Province), although for a time, he served as a minister in the State of Song. Like Confucius, Mozi was known to have maintained a school for those who desired to become officials serving in the different ruling courts of the Warring States.
Mozi was a carpenter and was extremely skilled in creating devices, designing everything from mechanical birds to wheeled, mobile "cloud ladders" used to besiege city walls (see Lu Ban). Though he did not hold a high official position, Mozi was sought out by various rulers as an expert on fortification. He was schooled in Confucianism in his early years, but he viewed Confucianism as being too fatalistic and emphasizing too much on elaborate celebrations and funerals which he felt were detrimental to the livelihood and productivity of common people. He managed to attract a large following during his lifetime which rivaled that of Confucius. His followers—mostly technicians and craftspeople—were organized in a disciplined order that studied both Mozi's philosophical and technical writings.
According to some accounts of the popular understanding of Mozi at the time, he had been hailed by many as the greatest hero to come from Henan. His passion was said to be for the good of the people, without concern for personal gain or even his own life or death. His tireless contribution to society was praised by many, including Confucius' disciple Mencius. Mencius wrote in Jinxin (Chinese: 孟子盡心; pinyin: Mengzi Jinxin) that Mozi believed in love for all mankind. As long as something benefits mankind, Mozi will pursue it even if it means hurting his head or his feet. Zhang Tai Yan said that in terms of moral virtue, even Confucius and Laozi cannot compare to Mozi.
Mozi travelled from one crisis zone to another throughout the ravaged landscape of the Warring States, trying to dissuade rulers from their plans of conquest. According to the chapter "Gongshu" in Mozi, he once walked for ten days to the state of Chu in order to forestall an attack on the state of Song. At the Chu court, Mozi engaged in nine simulated war games with Gongshu Ban, the chief military strategist of Chu, and overturned each one of his stratagems. When Gongshu Ban threatened him with death, Mozi informed the king that his disciples had already trained the soldiers of Song in his fortification methods, so it would be useless to kill him. The Chu king was forced to call off the war. On the way back, however, the soldiers of Song, not recognizing him, would not allow Mozi to enter their city, and he had to spend a night freezing in the rain. After this episode, he also stopped the state of Qi from attacking the state of Lu. He taught that defense of a city does not depend only on fortification, weaponry and food supply; it is also important to keep talented people close by and to put trust in them.
Though Mozi's school of thought faded into obscurity after the Warring States period, he was studied again two millennia after his death. As almost nobody had copied the texts during the last two thousand years, there was much difficulty in deciphering them. As a result, Mohism became the most difficult philosophy within the Hundred Schools of Thoughts to study. Both the Republican revolutionaries of 1911 and the Communists saw in him a surprisingly modern thinker who was stifled early in Chinese history.
Mozi's moral teachings emphasized self-reflection and authenticity rather than obedience to ritual. He observed that we often learn about the world through adversity ("Embracing Scholars" in Mozi). By reflecting on one's own successes and failures, one attains true self-knowledge rather than mere conformity to ritual ("Refining Self" in Mozi). Mozi exhorted people to lead a life of asceticism and self-restraint, renouncing both material and spiritual extravagance.
Like Confucius, Mozi idealized the Xia Dynasty and the ancients of Chinese mythology, but he criticized the Confucian belief that modern life should be patterned on the ways of the ancients. After all, he pointed out, what we think of as "ancient" was actually innovative in its time, and thus should not be used to hinder present-day innovation ("Against Confucianism, Part 3" in the Mozi). Though Mozi did not believe that history necessarily progresses, as did Han Fei Zi, he shared the latter's critique of fate (命, mìng). Mozi believed that people were capable of changing their circumstances and directing their own lives. They could do this by applying their senses to observing the world, judging objects and events by their causes, their functions, and their historical bases. ("Against Fate, Part 3") This was the "three-prong method" Mozi recommended for testing the truth or falsehood of statements. His students later expanded on this to form the School of Names.
Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese over-attachment to family and clan structures with the concept of "impartial caring" or "universal love" (兼愛, jiān ài). In this, he argued directly against Confucians who had argued that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mozi, in contrast, argued that people in principle should care for all people equally, a notion that philosophers in other schools found absurd, as they interpreted this notion as implying no special amount of care or duty towards one's parents and family.
Overlooked by those critics, however, is a passage in the chapter on "Self-Cultivation" which states, "When people near-by are not befriended, there is no use endeavoring to attract those at a distance." This point is also precisely articulated by a Mohist in a debate with Mencius (in the Mencius), where the Mohist argues in relation to carrying out universal love, that "We begin with what is near." Also, in the first chapter of the writings of Mozi on universal love, Mozi argues that the best way of being filial to one’s parents is to be filial to the parents of others. The foundational principle is that benevolence, as well as malevolence, is requited, and that one will be treated by others as one treats others. Mozi quotes a popular passage from the Book of Odes to bring home this point: "When one throws to me a peach, I return to him a plum." One’s parents will be treated by others as one treats the parents of others. In pursuing this line of argument, Mozi was directly appealing to the idea of enlightened self-interest in social relations. Also of note is the fact that Mozi differentiated between "intention" and "actuality," thereby placing a central importance on the will to love, even though in practice it may very well be impossible to bring benefit to everyone.
In addition, Mozi argued that benevolence comes to human beings "as naturally as fire turns upward or water turns downward", provided that persons in positions of authority illustrate benevolence in their own lives. In differentiating between the ideas of "universal" (jian) and "differential" (bie), Mozi said that "universal" comes from righteousness while "differential" entails human effort. Furthermore, Mozi’s basic argument concerning universal love asserts that universal love is supremely practical, and this argument was directed against those who objected that such love could not be put into practice.
Mozi also held a belief in the power of ghosts and spirits, although he is often thought to have only worshipped them pragmatically. In fact, in his discussion on ghosts and spirits, he remarks that even if they did not exist, communal gatherings for the sake of making sacrificial offering would play a role in strengthening social bonds. Furthermore, for Mozi the will of Heaven (天, tiān) was that people should love one another, and that mutual love by all would bring benefit to all. Therefore, it was in everyone's interest that they love others "as they love themselves." Heaven should be respected because failing to do so would subject one to punishment. For Mozi, Heaven was not the "amoral", mystical nature of the Taoists. Rather, it was a benevolent, moral force that rewarded good and punished evil. Similar in some ways to the Abrahamic religions, Mozi believed that all living things live in a realm ruled by Heaven, and Heaven has a will which is independent from and higher than the will of man. Thus he writes that "Universal love is the Way of Heaven," since "Heaven nourishes and sustains all life without regard to status." ("Laws and Customs" in Mozi) Mozi's ideal of government, which advocated a meritocracy based on talent rather than background, also followed his idea of Heaven.
What is the purpose of houses? It is to protect us from the wind and cold of winter, the heat and rain of summer, and to keep out robbers and thieves. Once these ends have been secured, that is all. Whatever does not contribute to these ends should be eliminated.— Mozi, Mozi (5th century BC) Ch 20
Mohist ethics are considered a form of consequentialism, sometimes called state consequentialism. Mohist ethics evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how it contributes to the stability of a state, through social order, material wealth, and population growth. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BC, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare."
Unlike utilitarianism, which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are... order, material wealth, and increase in population". During Mozi's era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society. The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to basic needs like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability. Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison, in the The Cambridge History of Ancient China, writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically." In contrast to Jeremy Bentham, Mozi did not believe that individual happiness was important; the consequences of the state outweigh the consequences of individual actions.
Mozi tended to evaluate actions based on whether they provide benefit to the people, which he measured in terms of an enlarged population (states were sparsely populated in his day), a prosperous economy, and social order. Like other consequentialist theories, Mozi thought that actions should be measured by the way they contribute to the "greatest societal good for what we have agreed to in a social contract." With this criterion Mozi denounced things as diverse as offensive warfare, expensive funerals, and even music and dance, which he saw as serving no useful purpose. Mozi did not object to music in principle—"It's not that I don't like the sound of the drum" ("Against Music")—but only because of the heavy tax burden such activities placed on commoners and also due to the fact that officials tended to indulge in them at the expense of their duties.
Works and influence
|This section does not cite any sources. (September 2014)|
"Mozi" is also the name of the philosophical text compiled by Mohists from Mozi's thought. This text originally consisted of 71 chapters. During the Han dynasty Confucianism dominated China. As Mohism is against Confucianism, the text "Mozi" was neglected. During the Song dynasty, only 61 chapters were left. Today, we have only 53 chapters through which we attempt to understand this school of thought, as compiled by Sun Yirang. Because Mohism disappeared as a living tradition from China, its texts were not well maintained, and many chapters are missing or in a corrupted state. For example, of the three chapters "Against Confucianism", only one remains.
The collection of texts from "Mozi" is a rich source of insight into early Chinese dynastic history and culture. Much of Mozi's arguments are supported by the historical claims of even earlier records. His conversations with other renowned philosophers of that era are also recorded. From them, we can distinguish Mohism from other schools of thought more clearly.
Mohism was suppressed under the Qin and died out completely under the Han, which made Confucianism the official doctrine. However, many of its ideas were dissolved into the mainstream of Chinese thought, since both Confucians such as Xunzi and Taoists such as Zhuangzi expressed sympathy with Mozi's concerns. The influence of Mozi is still visible in many Han works written hundreds of years later. In modern times, Mohism was given a fresh analysis. Sun Yat-Sen used "universal love" as one of the foundations for his idea of Chinese democracy. More recently, Chinese scholars under Communism have tried to rehabilitate Mozi as a "philosopher of the people", highlighting his rational-empirical approach to the world as well as his "proletarian" background.
Some views claim that Mozi's philosophy was at once more advanced and less so than that of Confucius. His concept of "universal love" embraced a broader idea of human community than that of the Confucians, but he was less tolerant than Confucius in his condemnation of all that is not directly "useful," neglecting the humanizing functions of art and music. Zhuangzi, who criticized both the Confucians and the Mohists, had this in mind in his parables on the "usefulness of the useless". Of course, this insistence on usefulness comes from a time when war and famine were widespread and could well have made all the royal pageantry look frivolous.
However, others would say the above view is not entirely accurate, and that in fact "universal love" (博愛), as well as "the world as a commonwealth shared by all" (天下為公) advocated by Sun Yat-Sen are Confucian ideas. "Universal love" (博愛, Boai) in Confucianism is a little different from Mozi's "universal love" (兼愛, Jian'ai): in Confucianism it tends to emphasize it as naturally befitting human relations, while in Mozi's ideas it tends to be community oriented and non-differentiated according to individual. Some modern-day supporters for Mozi (as well as Communism) make the claim that Mohism and modern Communism share a lot in terms of ideals for community life. Others would claim that Mohism shares more with the central ideas of Christianity, especially in terms of the idea of "universal love" (in Greek, "agape"), the "Golden Rule", and the relation of humanity to the supernatural realm.
- (German) Forke, Alfred (1922). Me Ti: Des Sozialethikers und seiner Schüler philosphische Werke [Mo Di: The Social Ethicist and His School's Philosophical Works]. Berlin: Kommissionsverlag der Vereinigung wissenschafticher Verleger.
- Until Ian Johnston's 2010 translation, this was the only complete Mozi translation in a Western language. It contains numerous errors in the Dialectical and Military chapters.
- Mei, Y. P. (1929). The Ethical and Political Works of Motse. London: Arthur Probsthain.
- Translates chapters 1–39, 46–50.
- Watson, Burton (1963). Mo Tzu: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231086083
- Contains one or more chapters from each of the triads in chapters 8–37, plus chapter 39.
- (Mandarin) Li, Yü-shu 李漁叔 (1974). Mo-tzu chin-chu chin-yi 墨子今注今譯 [Mozi, with modern annotation and translation]. Taipei: Shang wu.
- Covers chapters 1–39, 44–50.
- Graham, A. C. (1978). Later Mohist Logic, Ethics, and Science. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press; 2nd edition (2004), ISBN 962201142X
- Re-edits and translates the Dialectical chapters (40–45) and includes a detailed analysis of their textual and grammatical problems.
- Sjöholm, Gunnar (1982). Readings in Mo Ti: Chapters XXVI–XXVIII on the Will of Heaven. Helsingborg: Plus ultra.
- Johnston, Ian (2010). The Mozi: A Complete Translation. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. ISBN 978-962-996-270-8
- A Battle of Wits – a historical film based around Mohism
- History of geometry
- List of people on stamps of the People's Republic of China
- Fa, an influential concept elaborated by Mozi
- Fraser, Chris (2002). "Mohism". "The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy".
- Mozi: Esteem for Righteousness
- Needham & Wang 1956 165.
- Needham & Wang 1956 165–184.
- Van Norden, Bryan W. (2011). Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy. Hackett Publishing. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-60384-468-0.
- Ivanhoe, P.J.; Van Norden, Bryan William (2005). Readings in classical Chinese philosophy. Hackett Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-87220-780-6.
"he advocated a form of state consequentialism, which sought to maximize three basic goods: the wealth, order, and population of the state
- Fraser, Chris, "Mohism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Edward N. Zalta.
- Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (2011). The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge University Press. p. 761. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
- Han Yu: "Universal love" (博愛, Boai) means Ren (Humanity) (韓愈: 博愛之謂仁).
- Graham (1993), p. 340.
- Graham (1993), p. 341.
- Needham, Joseph; Wang, Ling (1956), Science and Civilization in China, 2. History of Scientific Thought, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-05800-7. (Printings were 1956, 1962, 1969) See also the 1986 edition published in Taipei by Caves Books Ltd.
- Fraser, Chris. "Mohism," article in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Graham, A. C. (1993). "Mo tzu 墨子". In Loewe, Michael, ed. Early Chinese Texts – A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China & Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California Berkeley. pp. 336–41. ISBN 1-55729-043-1.
- Wing-tsit Chan, ed. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1969, ISBN 0-691-01964-9.
- Wejen Chang: Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence : Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge 1990.
- Geaney, Jane. “A Critique of A. C. Graham's Reconstruction of the ‘Neo-Mohist Canons,’” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 119, no. 1 (1999), pp. 1–11.
- Graham, Angus C., Disputers of the TAO: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China (Open Court 1993). ISBN 0-8126-9087-7
- —. Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science by A. C. Graham, (1978, reprinted 2004) The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong. 700 pages.
- Hansen, Chad. "Mozi: Language Utilitarianism: The Structure of Ethics in Classical China," The Journal of Chinese Philosophy 16 (1989) pp. 355–380.
- —. A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992)
- Hsiao, Kung-chuan Hsiao. A History of Chinese Political Thought. In: Volume One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A.D.. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1979 (übersetzt von F. W. Mote).
- Mei, Y. P. Mo-tse, the Neglected Rival of Confucius. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1934.
- Moritz, Ralf. Die Philosophie im alten China. Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-326-00466-4.
- Opitz, Peter J. Der Weg des Himmels: Zum Geist und zur Gestalt des politischen Denkens im klassischen China. Fink, München 1999, ISBN 3-7705-3380-1.
- Vitalii Aronovich Rubin: Individual and State in Ancient China: Essays on Four Chinese Philosophers. Columbia University Press, New York 1976, ISBN 0-231-04064-4.
- Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer, Helwig, ed.: Mo Ti: Von der Liebe des Himmels zu den Menschen. Diederichs, München 1992, ISBN 3-424-01029-4.
- —. Mo Ti: Solidarität und allgemeine Menschenliebe. Diederichs, Düsseldorf/Köln 1975, ISBN 3-424-00509-6.
- —. Mo Ti: Gegen den Krieg. Diederichs, Düsseldorf/Köln 1975, ISBN 3-424-00509-6.
- Bertolt Brecht. Me-ti. Buch der Wendungen. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt 1971.
- Sun Yirang (孙诒让), ed. Mozi xiangu 墨子闲诂 (Notes to Mozi). Zhonghua shuju, Beijing 2001.
- Yates, Robin D. S. “The Mohists on Warfare: Technology, Technique, and Justification,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 47, mo. 3 (1980, Thematic Issue S), pp. 549–603.
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- Mozi at DMOZ
- Full text of the Mozi (Chinese with English translation based on Mei's translation.)
- Mozi in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy


Hitchhiker's Guide to Rukl Chart 72
CCD image of Clavius and Maginus.
Robin Casady's labelled
image of Clavius for a chart of the smaller craters in and around
- Clavius (JRF <freeman _at_ netcom.com>)
- Clavius is a "landmark" feature, easily recognized and useful for
orientation. Overlapping craters Porter and Rutherford make it
particularly simple to identify. Clavius D, C, N, and J form a
prominent arc on its floor, and there are a wealth of smaller craterlets
- Clavius at sunrise (...Akkana)
Sunrise over Clavius is beautiful. I caught and sketched the sequence at right
at a public star party; the sketch at left, two months later from my driveway.
- Clavius at sunrise (Robin Casady)
This CCD image of the sunrise over Clavius was taken
the same night as the two sketches above right.
- Clavius (Philip Sacco <ppsacco _at_ mindspring.com>)
The crater Clavius was a wonder to view around, as the terminator was cutting
thru the middle of it by the time I got to it.....The Western rim of the crater
was in bright sunrise, while the crater floor east of the rim was stillin
shadow. Craters C and D were well illuminated as was the area in the immediate
vacinity, whil the areas to the West and East of clavius' floor were still in
shadow. This optically allowed one to see the amount of rise the middle area
of Clavius' floor displays unlike other times of illumination when the entire
floor apears evenly lit....
There was a very brightly lit extension running south of Porter pointing
towards crater C. The extension doesn't appear in the Rukl Atlas, however it
must be a slight rise on the southern rim of Porter jutting southward.
In measuring the diameter of Clavius I found the Eastern rim to entail some
36-42 km of inclined wall from the surrounding terrain to the inner edge of the
rim. The elevation of the Eastern rim cast a wide shadow across the floor of
Clavius towards C and D. This central area was fully illuminated as I noted
previously, and it gave a very interesting indication of the contours and
slight elevation of Clavius' central floor area around D/C complex.
Longomontanus Sunrise Ray
The crater ray that Donald [Donald Qualls, aka The Silent Observer]
[editor's note: in an April 27, 1999 posting on
the shallow-sky list, and followup discussion
pinned down what crater it was -- see the
archives for the
was very likely in the crater
Longomontanus. I was video imaging the moon Saturday night / Sunday
morning and captured an image
of Longomontanus showing a v-shape, ray-like
light crossing the smooth crater floor.
There is a small group of peaks
near the center of Longomontanus and they did indeed cast a shadow across
the floor almost to the western wall of the crater. I have never seen the
but I have little doubt that it would be similar in
appearance to the light on the floor of Longomontanus.
- Scheiner (David North <d _at_ timocharis.com>)
Scheiner has a series of craters in an "L" shape, similar in size and
apparent age to the more noted arc in Clavius. There are other craters
of this type all over the area; I don't know if this implies an "event"
or if they are just coincidental, but it's pointed to note such a
similar feature so nearby.
- South Pole region (Steve Coe <scoeandlross _at_ sprintmail.com>)
Blancanus--this crater has a smooth floor except on the
south side, where there are 12 little craterlets that mark
up the floor of this sizeable crater. There is a tiny
central peak and some terracing in the walls.
Scheiner--is a medium size crater with a central craterlet
rather than a peak. There are two other craters of equal
size on the north side of the crater floor. A rille cuts
this crater into 1/3 and 2/3 pieces in a E-W path. Several
small craters are on the walls, which are somewhat terraced.
Klaproth--has a very smooth floor within this large crater.
The south wall is overlapped by crater Casatus. There is
a small amount of terracing in the walls, but not much.
Originally I did not see any craterlets on the floor of
this crater, but in a moment of good seeing, two tiny
craterlets appeared for a moment on the north side of
Casatus--is about the same size as Klaproth, its north
wall is the south wall of Klaproth. The are two obvious
medium sized craters within this larger one, one of the
craters is on the south side of the floor and one is
in the center of Casatus.
This page last modified: Oct 03, 2011
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The Pegged Tankard
Originating in wooden tankards, the peg system was introduced by King Edgar I the Peaceful; he was the King of England 959 to 975AD. The interior of the tankards would be fitted with wooden pegs or nails to divide the volume equally into eighths.
This innovative system was used to bring awareness to the amount of liquor being digested. At this time, a tankard would be capable of holding approximately two quarts of ale (over two litres) -which would be consumed at a rapid rate.
The Saxon kings’ prior influence over alcohol in taverns caused this new King- in addition to the church- to step in and set the peg law. This law stated that when vessels incorporating the pegs were drank from, if a drinker had more than one peg’s worth of ale, they were fined a penny.
A Royal Reference
It is interesting to see early forms of alcohol awareness, particularly one in existence such a long time ago. At this time, laws and taxes were implemented to force consumers to fall in line. This is still the case today, however there is also the addition of displayed advertisements reminding people take responsibility of their own liquor intake.
Rachel O'Keefe-Coulson – Multimedia Executive
Rachel O'Keefe is our 'silver lady' spending her days handling silverware and processing these items for the AC Silver website. Amazingly, Rachel’s favourite items of silverware are spoons, for which she has developed a true affinity.


What is Partial Arthroscopic Meniscectomy?
Partial arthroscopic meniscectomy is a procedure to remove the damaged part of a meniscus in the knee joint with the help an arthroscope. The meniscus is a C-shaped disc of cartilage between your thighbone and shinbone. There are 2 menisci in each knee. They act as shock absorbers and provide stability to the joint.
When Do you Need Partial Arthroscopic Meniscectomy?
Meniscal injuries may be associated with trauma or age-related wearing. Minor injuries located in the peripheral region of the meniscus either heal on their own or may be repaired with sutures. Your doctor may recommend partial arthroscopic meniscectomy if you have a more centrally located irreparable meniscal tear or unstable meniscal fragment causing pain and interfering with the free movement of your knee joint.
Preparing for Partial Arthroscopic Meniscectomy
Before meniscus surgery, you will undergo a physical examination, certain tests, and imaging studies. You may be advised not to eat or drink anything after midnight the night before surgery.
Procedure for Partial Arthroscopic Meniscectomy
Partial arthroscopic meniscectomy is mostly performed on an outpatient basis and may last about an hour. It is usually performed under regional (spinal) anesthesia with sedation to keep you relaxed. For the procedure:
- You will lie in a supine position.
- The lower extremity is disinfected, and your knee is stabilized in a leg holder.
- Small skin incisions are made over the knee and portals created to access the damaged meniscus.
- An arthroscope (thin illuminated tube with a camera) and special instruments are inserted through the portals.
- The torn and/or damaged parts of the meniscus are carefully removed leaving smooth, stable and healthy meniscus intact.
- The instruments are removed, the incisions are closed, and a dressing is applied followed by a compressive bandage.
Post Operation Care and Rehabilitation
Following surgery, you may be asked to:
- Use crutches to reduce stress on the knee until enough healing has occurred.
- Apply ice to the knee.
- Elevate the knee while resting.
- Take pain medication.
As part of your recovery, your doctor may recommend physical therapy and other rehabilitation programs to ensure a quick return to normal activities. Rehabilitation usually takes about 4 weeks.
Benefits of Partial Arthroscopic Meniscectomy
Some of the benefits of the procedure include:
- Simple, safe and effective procedure.
- Low complication rate.
- Decreased pain and improved mobility.
- Allows return to activities.
- Minimal injury to the soft tissues.
- Avoids knee instability which can lead to arthritis.
Complications or Risks of the Surgery
Though partial arthroscopic meniscectomy has a very low complication rate (less than 1%), the procedure may rarely be associated with:
- Injury to nerves and blood vessels.
- Fracture or weakness or stiffness or instability of the joint.
- Repeated rupture of the meniscus and additional surgeries.
- A condition called ‘Deep Vein Thrombosis’ (blood clots in the leg).
- Anesthesia complications (respiratory or cardiac malfunction).
Younger individuals with healthy menisci have better results from surgery.
Partial arthroscopic meniscectomy has a high success rate. Though recovery is usually quick, everyone heals at a different pace.
Age plays an important role in the success of partial arthroscopic meniscectomy. The procedure is most effective if you are under 30 and have it performed within the first two months of injury. If you are over 30, the prospect of success diminishes as the meniscal tissue begins to deteriorate and weaken with age.
Those with larger meniscal injuries are more likely to develop arthritis.


A middle school math teacher works closely with adolescents on concepts related to algebra, geometry, graphing and measurement. In addition to using best practice teaching strategies, math teachers must also assess student understanding and use this data to plan for future instruction. Effective math teachers are able to use their skills and adapt their teaching methods for varying learning styles and student interests.
Classroom Management Skills
Even though high-quality instruction is at the heart of teaching mathematical concepts, there are many other factors that play a role in effective instruction. Before any teaching and learning takes place, middle school math teachers must have a strong management plan in place to enforce rules, consequences and rewards for behavior. It is also very important for math teachers to be clear with parents and students about academic progress because of the building block nature of math.
Before stepping in front of a class of students, a lot of preparation goes into teaching math lessons. Math teachers must be able to use formative assessments to plan engaging activities and projects. This teaching cycle includes pre-assessment, planning and teaching meaningful lessons, post assessment, line item analysis and re-teaching. As a part of this process, it also is necessary that math teachers have their hands-on materials ready for help with conceptual development prior to teaching mathematical procedures. In addition, it is imperative that teachers have clear, communicated objectives for each lesson that is taught.
Highly qualified teachers typically have a bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university. For middle school math teachers, this is often a degree in mathematics or an education degree with math concentration. In addition to a college degree, most educators have a considerable amount of work-related experience prior to becoming a certified teacher. These experiences include observations, working with small groups of students and clinical teaching with supervisors and mentors.
Teachers are models for students. Therefore, it is necessary that teachers be able to read, write and speak English properly. Because of the ever-changing nature of the profession, teachers must be open minded and willing to learn through on-the-job training related to curriculum and best practices. Due to the fact that education is about preparing students for the future, teachers also must keep up with changes in technology in the classroom by being able to adequately use equipment and programs. Being able to prioritize, organize, plan and work with others are all skills used on a daily basis by middle school math teachers.
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It's a great way to introduce the idea of "unknown" numbers to beginning algebra students.
Pick any two numbers. Add them (first number plus second number), and report the total. Then subtract them IN THE SAME ORDER (i.e. first number minus second number), and report the total.
You can determine the two numbers using simple algebra:
1st number = x (perhaps: 7).
2nd number = y (perhaps: 12).
Let: a = x + y, and let: b = x – y. The player will report to you the values of "a" and "b," the sum and difference of the two numbers (in our example, these numbers are 19 and -5). Add these results in your head (in this case, the sum is 14), and what you have will always be twice one of these numbers [since a + b = (x + y) + (x – y) = 2x.] Divide by two (14 ÷ 2 = 7), and you now have one of the numbers. Since you already know the sum of the two numbers, subtract to find the second one (19 – 7 = 12).
An entertaining variation is the "Birth Date Trick, below.”
Add your birth date plus birth month (example: for June 17, 1990, the birth date would be 17, the birth month would be 6, and the total would be 23), and report this number. Then, subtract these same two numbers IN THE SAME ORDER (i.e. birth date minus birth month). Again, be careful – this second result could be negative (in our example, the difference would be 6 – 17 = -11). Since this is really just another “sum and difference” exercise like the one above, all you have to do is add these two results and divide by two to get the birth month, then subtract the birth month from the total to get the birth date!
Copyright © 2006-present: Christopher R. Borland. All rights reserved.


HOME: The Story of Maine
"A Place Apart" - The Story Behind the Image of Maine
(For use with Module 2, Episode 1)
|ALIGNMENT WITH MAINE'S LEARNING RESULTS:
1. A Clear and Effective Communicator
2. An Integrative and Informed Thinker
Content Area: ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS: Literature and Culture
Content Standard: Students will use reading, listening, and viewing strategies to experience, understand, and appreciate literature and culture.
Performance Indicator: Middle Grades (5-8): Students will be able to read literature and view films which illustrate distinct cultures in various types of works and formulate and defend opinions gathered from the experience.
Content Area: SOCIAL STUDIES: Historical Inquiry, Analysis, and Interpretation
Content Standard: Students will learn to evaluate resource material such as documents, artifacts, maps, artworks, and literature, and to make judgments about the perspectives of the authors and their credibility when interpreting current historical events.
Performance Indicator: Middle Grades (5-8): Students will be able to identify ethnic and cultural perspectives missing from an historical account and describe these points of view.
2-3 class periods, with 1-2 weeks at home to complete assignmentProcedure:


by Berlino Schule*
German is not that easy as a language: you need a huge effort and many years to start speaking it fluently. One of the most difficult things is definitely its rich vocabulary. Nonetheless, there are so many little words – you should use in specific situations – that make you happy once you are finally able to use them.
Doch is a conjunction which has the same meaning as aber (that is but in English). As an emphatic article, doch often stresses a contrast or a certainty, as a single word it is the affirmative answer to a negative question (Didn’t you go to the cinema yesterday? … Doch!). But you should remind that even when you speak good German, you feel like answering ja instead of doch sometimes.
Genau is one of the first German words you learn at school, and it means exactly. German people always use it to show attention or to confirm what the interlocutor is saying.
Achso is used to show astonishment or surprise because something, you misunderstood before, is now clear to you. It is like ah, oh or I see. For exemple: Is it not Tim the colleague with whom you argued yesterday?! Achso!
Krass is an adjective used to take something to extremes in either a positive or a negative connotation. It is taking the place of cool and geil recently: a party at Berghain can be krass as well as a visit to a concentration camp! You won’t stop using it. Es war richtig krass!
Germans like planning: it is a matter-of-fact. However, they found a way to do things by chance (it is weird, I know!), and for this purpose they usually say spontan. So, it can happen that you will be invited for dinner by some German friends and they will tell you: We can decide “spontan” what to do after!
Life is too short to learn German, but it is not impossible. So why don’t you come over to our school, Berlino Schule, and take the first steps with us?
*Berlino Schule is a language school known for the quality his German language courses in Berlin. It provides intensive, evening and private courses as well as Skype classes! It is based in Gryphiusstrasse 23, Friedrichshain-Berlin. For more info send an email to: info@berlinoschule .
SEGUI TUTTE LE NEWS SU BERLINO, SEGUI BERLINO MAGAZINE SU FACEBOOK


Elizabeth Whitfield Croom Bellamy (1837-1900) was a critically acclaimed author of poems, short stories, and novels. Unlike many post-Civil War southern writers, who focused their works on romanticizing the Old South, Bellamy instead steeped her works in the everyday experiences of contemporary people, both white and black and men and women. Her fiction tackled subjects as diverse as the plight of newly freed African Americans, the South's reconciliation with the North, and the New South's movement toward diversification of agriculture and industrialization.
Elizabeth Croom was born on April 17, 1837, in Quincy, Florida. Her parents, William Whitfield Croom and Julia Stephens Croom, were descendants of prominent North Carolina families. Her father worked as a cotton commission merchant and broker. The Croom family moved from Florida to Columbus, Georgia, in 1850 so that Elizabeth and her brother, Cicero Stephens Croom, could attain a better education; Elizabeth attended the Reverend Thomas Bog Slade's school for girls.
In 1853, William Croom's fabric business interests led him to move his family to New York City, where Elizabeth studied at the Spingler Institute, graduating in 1856. The Croom family returned to the South in 1857 after William Croom's business failed. He bought 1,000 acres in Bolivar County, Mississippi, and established a plantation. Elizabeth lived with her parents until her marriage on May 12, 1858, to her first cousin, physician Charles Edward Bellamy. Within a year, William and Julia Croom had relocated to Eutaw, Greene County, Alabama and Elizabeth and her husband took over operation of the Croom plantation. In the spring of 1859, Bellamy gave birth to her first child, Bryan, and in 1861 to her second child, Elizabeth, who was called "Bessie."
On June 17, 1862, Bryan Bellamy died of unknown causes at the age of three. Although still grieving over the loss of their child, Edward Bellamy enlisted in the Confederate Army in July 1862, soon after the outbreak of the Civil War. In December of that year, the couple's daughter Bessie died. Edward Bellamy was promoted to surgeon in 1863, received the rank of major, and was ordered to report to Ringgold, Georgia, with the 38th Alabama Regiment. After falling ill with typhoid fever, he died on July 27, 1863.
Having lost both children and her husband in the course of a year, Elizabeth Bellamy moved to her parents' home in Eutaw in late October 1863. To defray her parents' financial burdens resulting from the war, she took a position teaching at the Mesopotamia Female Seminary in the town. At the end of the Civil War, the Croom family found itself in dire financial straits. Elizabeth continued to teach and, with the encouragement of her brother, Stephens, began submitting her writing for publication. Elizabeth began writing when she was a student at the Spingler Institute. Some of her school essays hinted at her future potential. "A Soiree Musicale," written between 1854 and 1855, described the trials and tribulations of students performing a school musical. Her first published work, the poem "Patria Dolorosa," appeared in the Mobile Sunday Times on August 26, 1866, under the byline E.W.B. The poem described the destruction of the post-Civil War South.
In 1867, Elizabeth achieved a nationwide audience when her first novel, Four Oaks, was published under the pseudonym, Kamba Thorpe. The novel examines the social life of a group of quirky characters and social climbers in the fictitious community of Netherford in 1854. Although Four Oaks received praise from national literary critics, it was not a financial success for Elizabeth. She continued to write romances for the next decade, however. After a hiatus of several years, in 1884, Croom shifted her subject matter to the lives of formerly enslaved African Americans and how they dealt with their new circumstances. She also began publishing her work under her own name, producing novels, short-story collections, and short stories in national journals, including The Atlantic Monthly, Lippincott's, and Ladies Home Journal. These literary works never provided her with financial security, however, most likely because they appeared in serial form before publication in novel form. Thus, Bellamy continued to teach to support herself. In 1868, she accepted a better teaching position in Gainesville, Sumter County, Alabama, where she lived until 1877, when her brother invited her to live with him in Mobile. Although she continued to teach part-time, she was able to devote most of her time to her writing in this new living situation and began experimenting with realism and science fiction.
In 1884, Stephens Croom died at age 45, leaving his young son and wife, Mary Marshall Croom, without any means of financial support. Elizabeth was forced to return to teaching full time, and soon she and her sister-in-law opened a school in their home. Elizabeth continued to publish and gave lectures on literary topics such as Shakespeare, bringing in some additional money.
Elizabeth developed Bright's Disease, a form of chronic kidney failure, in 1893. She continued to write, although her health
deteriorated over the next seven years. She died April 13, 1900, and was buried in Magnolia Cemetery in Mobile.
Selected Works by Elizabeth Croom Bellamy
Published under Kamba Thorpe
Four Oaks (1867)
Barbara's Folly (1873)
The Memorable Trip (1875)
A Woman's Work (1876)
The Little Joanna (1876)
The Master's Daughter (1878)
Published under Elizabeth W. Bellamy
At Bent's Hotel (1884)
Old Man Gilbert (1888)
Penny Lancaster, Farmer (1889)
Doctor Bob (1889)
Easter Sunshine (1892)
The Luck of the Pendennings (1895)
Ely's Automatic Housemaid (1899)
Donaldson, Anthony. "A Guide to the Velma and Stephens G. Croom Collection." Mobile: The Doy Leale McCall Rare Book and Manuscript Library, 1999.
MacInerney, Dorothy M. "Elizabeth Whitfield Croom Bellamy: The Life and Works of a Southern Belle." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1996.
Williams, Benjamin Buford. A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century. Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickenson University Press, 1979.
Published March 2, 2011
Last updated May 9, 2011


The algorithms would likely run better on chips with faster math operations, non-linear math ops min,max,saturate,etc. In 1964, professor Zadeh started wondering, if there wasn't a better logic to use in machinery. For example, one may declare that any instance of modus ponens is sound if the degree of truth of the conclusion is not lower than that of the strong conjunction of its premises. Fuzzy Logic control may not scale well to large or complex problems Fuzzy logic can be easily confused with probability theory, and the terms used interchangeably. However, the situation may be more complex in real world because the fuzzy characters of parameters. Instead, as the temperature changes, it loses value in one membership function while gaining value in the next. Completeness can be achieved either by including an infinitary inference rule Hay 1963 or by generalizing the set of truth-values see next section.
In case of colors, for example, between white and black there is a whole infinite scale: the shades of gray. Thanks for your invitation to share our colleagues in this interesting and beautiful branch of mathematics that extends our knowledge and take us away from the classical theories and branches of science that sometimes disable to interpret many scientific phenomena and sometimes lack to have applications to modern technology. Although comparatively brief, this section is not at all sketchy or too selective; rather, it can serve as a self-contained, necessarily selective introduction into the history of nonclassical logics. In first order fuzzy logic the semantics is defined as follows. It is a branch of many-valued logic based on the paradigm of inference under vagueness. Dauben, a distinguished expert on the history of mathematics and logic. We say that s is decidable if both s and its complement —s are recursively enumerable.
Since 2005 he is College Lecturer at the Faculty of History and Arts, at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich. An example of such kind of reasoning is If a tomato is red, then the tomato is ripe. However, the broad range of presented applications is certainly impressive. For example, in Varl ʘ there are structures with infinitesimal truth values. Hajek and followed by Di Nola, Esteva, Gottwald, Godo, Montagna, Mundici and by a large series of students, is very close to the tradition of multi-valued logic. Fuzzy Logic can be used to represent some kinds of human expertise. Fuzzy logic is the extension of classical logic that takes values from 0 to 1.
The primary constraints are possibilistic, veristic and probabilistic. It seems entirely reasonable to talk about some application domain in advertisements if your product has features that enhance its suitability for that domain. Moreover, I associates every n-ary predicate name r with an n-ary L-relation I r : D n L in D. Observe that in the case L is not complete it is possible that a quantified formula cannot be evaluated. In scientific theories, representation of constraints is generally oversimplified. As already mentioned, I expect that some philosophers, in particular those who think that an adequate theory of vagueness should either not sacrifice the principle of bivalence at all, or at most admit the possibility of gaps or gluts of truth, rather than degrees of truth, may find points of disagreement here. A generalized constraint may be generated by combining, projecting, qualifying, propagating and counterpropagating other generalized constraints.
In the first case the following negative result holds true. Furthermore, in fuzzy logic everything is or is allowed to be granulated, with a granule being a clump of attribute-values drawn together by indistinguishability, similarity, proximity or functionality. Mendel, Uncertain Rule-Based Fuzzy Logic Systems: Introduction and New Directions, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2000. They are the products of decades of development and theoretical analysis, and are highly effective. In other words, its ranking in the category of cold decreases as it becomes more highly ranked in the warmer category.
The input stage maps sensor or other inputs, such as switches, thumbwheels, and so on, to the appropriate membership functions and truth values. Yamakawa subsequently made the demonstration more sophisticated by mounting a wine glass containing water and even a live mouse to the top of the pendulum: the system maintained stability in both cases. Moreover, there is a unique logic of arbitrary continuous t-norms, nowadays called Hajek's Basic Logic. This means that, for every formula α i, we have to specify whether i α i is assumed as a logical axiom or; ii α i is assumed as an hypothesis or; iii α i is obtained by a rule in this case we have to indicate the rule and the formulas from α 1,. Prade, Possibility Theory, Plenum Press, New York, 1988.
A method is explained that proceeds by fixing a suitable fuzzy logic in the narrow sense and then translating the informal classical meta-language of the original definition into this logic. In any case, the authors clarify that there are various types and models of uncertainty and correspondingly numerous logics of belief. Instead, something much more valuable and interesting is offered here. A proof π of a formula α is a sequence α 1,. All this sounds rather exciting, but it has to be asked whether one can really develop substantial parts of mathematics in the indicated version of set theory, called Cantor-Lukasiewicz set theory by Hàjek 2005. The centroid method favors the rule with the output of greatest area, while the height method obviously favors the rule with the greatest output value. A classical set is defined by crisp boundaries, i.
Zadeh, Outline of a computational approach to meaning and knowledge representation based on the concept of a generalized assignment statement, Proceedings of the International Seminar on Artificial Intelligence and Man-Machine Systems, M. This is particularly important in view of the early criticism of fuzzy logic as lacking a solid mathematical foundation. While I recommend reading all of it in sequence, I think that it can also profitably be used as a kind of compendium, to be consulted whenever a general question about some aspect of fuzzy logic arises. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich. Let T be a theory, then D,I is a model of T if every formula in T is satisfied in D,I. Assume that either D,I or s is subject to a slightly variation as a consequence of a tuning process, an essential component in all the applications in fuzzy mathematics.
Extension principle has many versions. Voting semantics is based on the idea that different agents voters may coherently judge the same proposition differently. The way around this is to make the states fuzzy. In boolean logic there are two options for answer i. Although words are inherently less precise than numbers, their use is closer to human intuition. In bivalent logic, this simply is not allowed.
Furthermore, computing with words exploits the tolerance for imprecision and thereby lowers the cost of solution. That is, allow them to change gradually from one state to the next. Klir Fuzzy Logic and Mathematics: A Historical Perspective Published: June 13, 2018 Radim Bělohlávek, Joseph W. Inference Engine: It helps you to determines the degree of match between fuzzy input and the rules. Cruise control Nissan, Isuzu, Mitsubishi Use it to adjusts throttle setting to set car speed and acceleration Dishwasher Matsushita Use for adjusting the cleaning cycle, rinse and wash strategies based depend upon the number of dishes and the amount of food served on the dishes. Also in Gerla 2005 another logical approach to fuzzy control is proposed based on fuzzy logic programming.


Editor's note: My Lightroom Classic articles have moved to my new website Mastering Lightroom. Visit the store and get 20% off any ebook or ebook bundle with the code ml20 (valid until midnight October 21). Thanks for reading, Andrew.
Before we look at ISO in digital photography, a little history. Prior to the creation of the ISO standard (and digital cameras), there were two ways to measure film speed – ASA and DIN.
ASA was the most commonly used and easiest to understand. It worked on a linear scale, which means that a film that was twice as sensitive to light as another had double the ASA number. That way it’s easy to see that a 400 ASA rated film is twice as sensitive to light as a 200 ASA film.
DIN, on the other hand, used a logarithmic scale that wasn’t as intuitive. For example, a 100 ASA film had a DIN of 21, a 200 ASA film a DIN of 24, a 400 ASA film a DIN of 27 and so on. Each increment of three indicates a doubling of the speed of the film.
In the end, DIN was replaced by ASA, which in turned was renamed to ISO, the international standard that all camera and film manufacturers use today.
If you want to learn more about DIN and ASA this Wikipedia article has all the detail.
Why do we use ISO to measure light sensitivity?
The reason that ISO works so well as a measure of light sensitivity is that it makes it easy to think of film speed or the the ISO settings on a digital camera in stops.
For example, if you change the aperture setting of your lens from f8 to f11, you halve the amount of light entering the lens.
That means you need to double the ISO in a digital camera to keep the exposure the same (assuming that the light levels and shutter speed are unchanged).
This calculation is so easy to make once you understand the basics of exposure you don’t even have to think about it.
What is ISO?
In (really) simple terms, ISO tells you how sensitive the camera’s sensor is to light.
At ISO 50, 100 or 200 your camera’s sensor is least sensitive to light. More light needs to reach it to get a good exposure.
At higher settings, like 6400 or 12800, the sensor is much more sensitive to light. You can get a good exposure with much less light.
That’s all you need to know in order to use ISO properly on your digital camera. But it’s more interesting to dig a little deeper into how it works.
How ISO really works
Your camera’s sensor has a set sensitivity to light. This is known as the camera’s base ISO, usually 100 or 200.
When you take a photo the sensor’s pixels measure the quantity of light that hits them. Your camera reads these measurements and turns them into a digital file.
If you set a higher ISO and leave the aperture and shutter speed unchanged (and the ambient light level stays the same!) then the amount of light reaching the sensor is also unchanged.
The difference is that your camera amplifies the measurements made by the sensor to compensate for the lower light levels. In other words, the sensor’s sensitivity to light stays the same, but your camera amplifies the signal to simulate the effect of increasing ISO.
Why is an ISO standard important?
We use an ISO standard because it’s important that photos taken with different camera and lens combinations all produce the same results, when it comes to exposure, at the same aperture, shutter speed, and ISO settings.
The ISO standard is set by the International Organization for Standardization. All camera manufacturers use this standard to measure and rate the sensitivity to light of their camera sensors.
Because of this a photo taken at ISO 200, f7.1 and 1/200th of a second, such as the one below shot with my Fujifilm X-T1, should look the same as one taken at the same settings on your camera.
In another scenario, imagine a studio photographer sets up some lights and uses a flash meter to measure that the required exposure is, say, f8 at ISO 100. It’s important to know that this exposure setting works for any film or digital camera.
In practice, there may be variations in the accuracy of ISO settings between different camera models. But with digital cameras at least, these are minor and nothing to worry about.
Now it’s time to take a closer look at ISO and what the choice of ISO setting means for your photos.
How to use ISO
ISO is part of the exposure triangle. The aperture and shutter speed settings determine how much light enters your camera’s lens and reaches the camera’s sensor. The ISO, for all practical purposes, determines how sensitive your sensor is to light. Your selected combination of all three settings determines whether your photo is accurately exposed or not.
ISO, aperture and shutter speed all work together. You can’t leave one out of them of your exposure calculations.
How to choose the best ISO setting for your camera
Generally speaking the best ISO setting to use, in terms of image quality, is your camera’s base ISO setting.
For example, I used ISO 100 for this landscape photo.
The thing is, there are three sides to the exposure triangle. You may want to use a small aperture to get lots of depth of field. You may be shooting in low light for the mood. In the photo above I set the aperture to f8 and needed a shutter speed of 30 seconds to get a good exposure.
That’s fine for landscape photography, but what if you’re hand-holding the camera? Then you need to set a certain shutter speed to prevent camera shake. Or what if you want to set the aperture to f8, but the light levels mean you can only use f2.8 at your camera’s base ISO?
For instance, in this photo I decided to use a shutter speed of 1/180 second and an aperture of f3.2. The low light (it was taken indoors in a dark building) meant I needed to use ISO 3200 for accurate exposure.
All factors need to be taken into consideration. Creative decisions like depth of field are as important as image quality. There are times when you have to use a higher ISO setting to get a good exposure.
ISO and noise
But raising ISO has side effects. It decreases dynamic range and increases noise. It’s not the only factor that effects noise (underexposure is another) but it’s a major one.
Luckily, thanks to the high ISO performance of digital cameras this isn’t the problem it once was (although you still need to be aware of it).
I remember having to think hard about whether to use ISO 400 instead of ISO 100 on my first digital SLR. Now you are more likely to be worrying about whether you should be using ISO 3200, 6400 or 12800.
The best approach is this. When image quality is a priority use your camera’s base ISO (100 or 200). If it’s not practical to use that ISO setting then use a higher one. Aim to keep it as low as possible but don’t worry too much about it. And always remember that depth of field and shutter speed are just as important as ISO.
Avoiding Auto ISO
Another benefit of using digital cameras is that most models have an Auto ISO setting. That’s where you let the camera decide what ISO to use rather than make the decision yourself.
There are a few reasons why I don’t like using Auto ISO (and hence don’t recommend it to other people).
I learned photography on film cameras so I’ve been trained to think of ISO as a a fixed quantity, not a variable one. That’s a hard habit to break.
My camera tends to err on the side of setting a high ISO. Yes, you can usually control this to a degree by setting the highest ISO setting your camera can use. But as you might need to change this depending on the situation it makes the business of setting ISO more complex than it needs to be. It’s easier to set ISO yourself and change it if you need to.
Finally, setting the ISO yourself makes you think about the relationship between ISO and image quality.
For example, let’s say you’re in a situation where you are hand-holding the camera and can’t use a slower shutter speed because of camera shake. But light levels have dropped and you need to adjust the exposure.
If you open the aperture, you’ll have less depth of field. If you raise the ISO, you’ll get more noise.
You have to make a choice. What’s more important, depth of field or noise? You get to make the decision. You have creative control, your camera doesn’t.
Here’s an example. I made the photo below indoors with a hand-held camera. I set the shutter speed 10 1/125th of a second to avoid camera shake. Then I decided to shoot at ISO 6400 and f5.6 to give good depth of field. Alternatively, I could have used settings of ISO 800 and f2 to make a photo with much less depth of field. The choice is yours!
Having said that, I understand that some photographers like to use Auto ISO. They find it useful when taking photos in situations that don’t give you much time to think about camera settings, such as taking photos of active kids.
So, feel free to experiment with Auto ISO. Learn how it works on your camera and make up your own mind about whether it’s useful for you.
Full-frame versus crop sensor and medium format cameras
Generally speaking the larger your camera’s sensor the better the image quality, especially when it comes to noise.
That’s why some photographers prefer to buy full-frame or even medium format cameras rather than cameras with APS-C or Micro Four-thirds sensors.
But, if you’re thinking about buying a new camera, don’t feel you have to buy a full-frame model.
In practice the image quality (especially regarding high ISO performance and noise) on crop sensor cameras is more than good enough for most photographers.
There are plenty of pro photographers that use APS-C or even Micro Four-thirds cameras. If the image quality is good enough for a pro, then it’s good enough for a hobbyist.
For example, when I tested my Fujifilm X-T1 camera, which I bought when it was Fujifilm’s newest model, against my older Canon EOS 5D Mark II I found that the image quality from the newer camera (APS-C sensor) visibly beat that of the older full-frame camera.
I’m not knocking Canon. The difference is due to advances in sensor technology. You can expect this trend to continue in coming years.
APS-C and Micro Four-thirds cameras have advantages in terms of size, weight and price over full-frame cameras. Noise and image quality are important, but they’re not the only factors to consider.
This is part of a series of lessons about photographic exposure. You can read the other lessons using the links below.
- Exposure Lesson #1: How to Choose an Exposure Mode
- Exposure Lesson #2: Why Cameras Get Exposure Wrong
- Exposure Lesson #3: Does the Metering Mode Matter?
- Exposure Lesson #4: Manual Mode
- Exposure Lesson #5: How to Read a Camera Histogram
- Exposure Lesson #6: Exposing to the Right
- Exposure Lesson #7: Exposure Compensation Or Manual Mode?
- Exposure Lesson #8: How To Use Bulb Mode Successfully
Mastering Exposure ebook
Have you ever wondered why your digital camera has so many exposure modes, and what each one does? Or why it’s so easy to under- or overexpose your photos even with the latest cameras and most advanced evaluative or matrix metering modes?
Our best-selling ebook Mastering Exposure teaches you how to get the best exposure every time, no matter how tricky the light.


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This term we are introducing a new spelling and grammar homework book across KS2.This is an online homework help support in French K-12 created in conjunction with the Ministry of Education.Prologuised through-composed Academic papers letters necessarily.Homework Help Maths Ks2 Searchable site of thousands of quality teaching resources, interactive resources, homework, exam and revision help.Get personalized French tutoring today and get better grades and your homework done on time.
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Found in library: students using Wikipedia
Born in 2001, Wikipedia, a web-based encyclopedia, has grown to contain over 2million articles and attracts nearly 700 million visitors per year.
Despite its heavy use, this tool has not been without controversy. This is largely due to the fact that anyone can contribute to Wikipedia and no specialized qualifications are necessary. Users may edit the content of an existing story, or write an entirely new piece. Thus, the accuracy of the information is often questioned.
Nonetheless, the creators of Wikipedia have established editing policies and standards. Anyone can dispute the content of an article, and that disputed information is then subject to removal.
Although Wikipedia may be a great site to find background information or a summary on a specific topic, and its accessibility is appealing, we encourage you to use it carefully, always considering your source. As always, feel free to contact us with any of your information needs.
Also See “4 Ways to Use Wikipedia” from Gearfire, a student productivity and organization blog.


Engaging with other people and honing your social skills can be challenging for anyone, but these challenges are magnified for children and adults on the autism spectrum. People with autism usually have the desire to interact and engage with others, but are often overwhelmed by new social experiences and therefore have a hard time making friends.
Integrating social skills with practice enhances participation in the community and results in desirable outcomes, like building a social circle and having social fulfillment.
What are Social Skills?
In a nutshell, these are rules and customs that guide our daily interactions with one another. These skills are inherently learned growing up; and over time, learning these social norms enables us to map out how to act in different social situations. But for people with autism, learning and honing these skills can be difficult. This leads them to navigate social situations without the experience of their peers.
Where to Learn Social Skills?
Social skills can be learned from different settings and different people. From home and school. To just being a part of the general community, there’s someone who can impart appropriate social skills. But if you’d like to advance the development of these skills. There are professionals who can aid in the adoption of social skills and the perception of social cues. For children, you might want to consider an education setting designed especially for kids on the spectrum. Such as an autism school. Orange County and other areas of California are home to several autism schools that can help facilitate appropriate social interactions.
The professionals that will be helping in this journey. Must be able to coordinate with the student’s family, friends, and/or colleagues. To properly strategize a way to make learning easier for the child. Here are some professionals who can assist with navigating social environments and scenarios:
- Special Education Teachers
- Speech Pathologists
- Behavioral Therapists
- School Psychologists
- Occupational Therapists (for adults)
Social Skill Support Groups: Are They Effective?
Social skill support groups are a way to create a social setting for people. With autism to learn about and navigate social situations. This is an effective and methodological procedure in which the person. Autism is given small increments of change in regard to social interactions. This allows them to get comfortable with practicing different social skills in a facilitated and safe environment.
An effective social skills group would need to have the following:
- Simplifies language for children based on their cognitive level and language adaptivity
- Encourages working in groups or pairs
- Builds self-awareness and increases self-esteem
- Explains and shatters complex and abstract concepts into more understandable bits
- Provides multiple and diverse opportunities for learning
Professional Help in Orange County — Orange County Autism Services
If you’re living in Southern California. Orange County autism services are available to help you or your loved one learn essential social skills. Any established autism school in Orange County that offers programs. Counseling, behaviorally designed classrooms. Free resources and emotional support can also be beneficial to someone that may be struggling with social situations. The right autism health service provider along with a trusted autism school. Orange County residents rely on can provide the resources and proper guidance. So that one can better adapt to society despite the challenges of having autism.


Water Filtration Systems
In order for water to be used in most cases after pumping it will need to be filtered to some degree. The type of filtration required depends on the proposed use of the water. If the water is to be just for irrigation then often no filtration is necessary or a simple sediment filter to catch any sand particles.
If however you intend to drink the water then some or all of the items listed below may apply to you.
The type of filtration you may need will depend on the results of your water analysis.
If you are to drink or consume the water it MUST be filtered to keep in line with the drinking water standards regulations which states the minimum if the water is pure (proven by water test results) there must be an Ultra violet light and sediment filter fitted.
As a guide to filtration please read the following: (Click links for more information)
The process of pumping water through what are known as sediment filters. These types of filters remove solid particulate from the water. Solid contaminants such as grit, organic matter, sand etc will always be encountered and can be seen with the naked eye. Contaminants in dilution can also be removed with this method and usually cannot be seen with the naked eye.
The presence of high levels of metals in your water can cause numerous problems both in terms of health & equipment. Iron for example can in high quantities, give the water an unpleasant metal taste & colour it dark brown or orange. It will also stain anything it comes into contact with and is not good for humans.
If required, is to add a water softener. If the water is to be used in heating systems for example a water heater, tap or shower head, a water softener is advisable to prevent scale build up. This is particularly necessary in hard water areas.
In some cases the water can be lower then 7 which is acidic. A ph level of 6 is more acidic then a level of 7 by 10 times! We are able to install PH correction units to bring the PH level back to neutral to enable safe usage of the water.
Sometimes the water you draw may contain harmful chemicals which cannot be removed with standard filters. In such cases other specialist filters can be used which will remove or reduce the harmful effects of many specific chemicals for example: Chlorine, lead, benzene, arsenic, mercury, cadmium, nitrates & pesticides.
To destroy any pathogens that will be present through what are known as Ultra Violet filters. These filter types destroy all & any bacteria which may be present rendering your water clean & suitable for drinking. The wattage is specified based on your water test results.
It is far beyond the scope of this webpage to offer a definitive list of all known harmful or undesirable substances & the various means to remove them. Should your analysis show the presence of harmful substances we will advise you of your options & the filtration solutions available.
If you require a water test or would like advice please get in touch with us.
For filtration maintenance and servicing please get in touch with us for quotations, regular servicing or simple advice.


At the close of his presidency in 1999, Nelson Mandela praised Mohandas Gandhi for believing that the “destiny” of Indians in South Africa was “inseparable from that of the oppressed African majority.” In other words, Gandhi had fought for the freedom of Africans, setting the pattern for his later effort to liberate India from British rule.
Nothing could be more misleading. Gandhi’s concern for the African majority — “the Kaffirs,” in his phrase — was negligible. During his South African years (1893-1914), argue Ashwin Desai and Goolam Vahed in “The South African Gandhi,” he was far from an “anti-racist, anti-colonial fighter on African soil.” He had found his way to South Africa mainly by the accident of being offered a better job there than he could find in Bombay. He regarded himself as a British subject. He aimed at limited integration of Indians into white society. Their new status would secure Indian rights but would also acknowledge white supremacy. In essence, he wanted to stabilize the Indian community within the stratified system that later became known as apartheid.
Gandhi’s two decades in South Africa did enable him to perfect the methods and aims of nonviolent resistance, but he practiced them solely on behalf of Indians. Gandhi was especially concerned with the indentured laborers of the sugar plantations in Natal, where the Indian population since the mid-19th century had grown to some 150,000, outnumbering whites. From the time of his arrival, he suffered such indignities as being forced off a train even though he held a first-class ticket and being pushed from the sidewalk into the gutter. But he remained loyal to the ideals of the British Empire, to, in his words, its “spiritual foundations.”
Gandhi’s principal adversary was Jan Christian Smuts. They were born a year apart, Gandhi in 1869 and Smuts in 1870. Both studied law in England. Smuts received highest honors at Cambridge. Though leading a lonely existence, he established lifelong contact with some of Cambridge’s more prominent intellectuals. By contrast, Gandhi acquired legal credentials while becoming acquainted with Helena Blavasky, the occultist and founder of the Theosophical Society, and with Annie Besant, another theosophist, with whom Gandhi discussed “the universal brotherhood of humanity.” Both Gandhi and Smuts shared the assumption that black Africans were simply, in Smuts’s summation, “barbarians.”
They fought on the opposite sides of the Boer War (1899-1902). Smuts rose to the rank of general, and Gandhi waged one of his most conspicuous campaigns on behalf of the British. He organized an “ambulance corps” of no fewer than 11,000 Indians, who helped wounded soldiers find their way to field hospitals, often by bearing them on stretchers. In the fierce battle of Spion Kop in Natal, Gandhi, with the discipline of a sergeant major, led his volunteers through rough terrain in blistering heat and heavy fire to save British lives. The Indian volunteers found the terrain so rough that stretchers proved impossible to use, so injured soldiers had to be carried individually. Gandhi’s bravery proved that he was willing to sacrifice his own life to save the lives of others and, in this case, to further the purposes of the British Empire.
Gandhi was never naïve enough to think that the Indian communities in Durban and Johannesburg would achieve social equality with whites. But they were, he believed, entitled to legal protection. The viceroy in India agreed with Gandhi. The status of overseas Indians was a sensitive issue. The power and influence of the Raj lent force to the cause of upholding the rights of British subjects—Indians—in South Africa.
Gandhi’s legal credentials enabled him to practice law in South Africa. He challenged the government with petitions, thereby raising issues such as the right of Indians to own property. His success in organizing protest movements brought him to such prominence that he was able to meet with high-ranking officials, including Smuts, by then on his way to becoming prime minister.
Gandhi helped lead the two Indian rebellions of the era in South Africa, one in 1906 and the other in 1913. Both had origins in complaints about working conditions and the ambiguous status of Indian immigrants. In 1906, Indians protested against the Black Act, which required them to be fingerprinted—a practice reserved in India for common criminals. At one point Gandhi was briefly jailed, on Smuts’s own orders, as a result of his followers turning peaceful protests into riots.
When Gandhi eventually met with Smuts, they reached agreement, according to Gandhi, that the petty restrictions of the Black Act would be repealed. Smuts did not believe that he had made any fundamental concessions. In fact many of the restrictions were not repealed but recast sufficiently, so Smuts thought, to meet Gandhi’s satisfaction. He had not taken notes and failed to catch some of Gandhi’s exactitude. Gandhi later declared that he had been deceived. At their next and last meeting, some seven years later, Smuts took care precisely to transcribe all legal and other points.
The revolt of 1913 arose over the question of sending Indian dissidents back to India if they protested about wages or rights to property. In this action, the authors argue, Gandhi perfected the revolutionary technique of nonviolent resistance. At one point he led 13,000 Indians in protest. Gandhi proclaimed victory. Yet Smuts deftly secured important points regarding immigration and land ownership.
Gandhi was capable of spontaneous goodwill, as he demonstrated not only with Smuts but also later with Lord Irwin (Halifax) in India. In both cases, he characteristically laughed at his own inconsistencies and reaffirmed his faith in the ideals of the British Empire. He inspired intellectual and emotional bonds. Both sides could at least try to comprehend their differences and attempt to forge mutual respect. But it was an undertaking that had nothing to do with the African majority. Smuts believed that he could make minor concessions on such matters as passports and minimal labor laws, which persuaded Gandhi that Indians had secured legal protection.
When Gandhi left South Africa in 1914, he was hailed as the Mahatma (Great Soul). He thereafter wore a loincloth and shawl, looking not much different from the way Churchill famously described him later as a fakir striding “half-naked” up the steps of the viceroy’s palace.
“The South African Gandhi” deals comprehensively with Gandhi’s decisive two decades in South Africa. It complements Perry Anderson’s “The Indian Ideology” (2013), which explains how Gandhi later treated the Dalits, or Untouchables, much as he had dealt with black Africans.
For my taste, the book’s tone is too academic, but the authors use sound evidence and argue their case relentlessly—Gandhi’s vision did not include the majority of the people in South Africa, the Africans themselves. Gandhi was consistent, but in ways quite at variance with the general belief that he championed all parts of society, whether in South Africa or, in regard to caste, in India. “The South African Gandhi” helps explain the complexity and contradictions of Gandhi’s personality while emphasizing the way in which he became a symbol of peaceful means to resolve conflict.
You may also like:
And these book reviews on Not Even Past:
- Gail Minault on The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan by Yasmin Khan (2008).
- Dharitri Bhattacharjee on Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope by Judith M. Brown (1989).
- Sundar Vadlamudi on Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and his Struggle with India by Loseph Lelyveld (2010)


Join George Maestri for an in-depth discussion in this video Using the exercise files, part of Maya Essentials 2: Polygonal Modeling Techniques.
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If you're a lynda.com Premium Subscriber, or you got this course on DVD, you will get a copy of the exercise files that I use in this course. Now if you want to follow along with those files, go ahead and copy them to your Desktop like I have here. The exercise files folder has a number of subfolders here, and we have one for each chapter in the course. Now each one of these folder is a standard Maya project with a standard Maya directory structure.
So when you start a chapter, go into Maya and make sure you do File > Set Project and go to your Desktop and find the appropriate tools. So go ahead and select ModelingTools as your project and hit Set. Now when you do that, you will be able to find your assets very easily. All you have to do is to do an Open Scene, and it should show up as the first folder. So go ahead and get that set up, and we can get started with Maya Essentials 2: Polygonal modeling Techniques.
- Creating and modifying polygonal objects
- Editing with reflection
- Smoothing objects
- Keeping faces together
- Using the Polygon Bridge tool
- Selecting and editing edge loops
- Spinning edges
- Working with objects history
- Modeling symmetrically
- Merging vertices
- Combining objects
- Using the Crease tool


Technology Enhanced Language Learning Connecting Theory And Practice PdfBy Claudia C. In and pdf 24.03.2021 at 21:57 7 min read
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- Technology enhanced language learning: Connecting theory and practice
Technology enhanced language learning : connecting theory and practice
Technology is believed to have benefits for learning. Since , research has flourished in the use of technology in second and foreign-language FL learning Chapelle ; Lim and Shen Baek et al. Results suggest that, overall, teachers demonstrate positive attitudes towards using technology, and various factors were reported to influence this see Ertmer and Ottenbreit- Leftwich ; Li ; Tondeur et al. However, in terms of the actual use of technology in teaching, in a range of educational settings across different countries, studies indicate that teachers are reluctant technology users see, for example, Li and Walsh b; Yang and Huang , although various forms of technology have been reported in language classrooms, including both stand-alone computer tools and web 2. Unable to display preview.
What’s the Use of Technology? Insights from EFL Classrooms in Chinese Secondary Schools
You do not have to be a weather forecaster to know which way the wind is blowing. In our profession, the current wind of technology, the main topic of this book, seems to be blowing from all directions and in all directions at once. No one, from the youngest of young learners to the most senior executive in ELT publishing, can afford to be indifferent to the technological winds of change. The last, because I suspect that like many retired colleagues, I am happy that for most of my ELT career, Most users should sign in with their email address. If you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in.
Study-Unit Description. It is useful to have a set of guidelines to be able to critically evaluate resources, and to use when designing or adapting materials for diverse learners. Specific reference will be made to both technology-based and no-tech resources. By carrying out practical tasks and engaging in relevant readings, the study unit proposes to equip participants with a critical lens through which to evaluate no-tech, low-tech and technology-based resources so that the methodological and pedagogical underpinnings are brought to the surface and evaluated for their usefulness and soundness. Study-Unit Aims: This study-unit aims to prepare students to contend with the considerable range of resources for learning and discovery that are available for the teaching of English and to critically evaluate these for their usefulness and effectiveness in helping learners in the classroom and beyond. The study unit also aims to equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge to produce contextually relevant and pedagogically sound no-tech and low-tech materials to meet their learners' needs and learning outcomes.
Technology enhanced language learning: Connecting theory and practice
Skip to search form Skip to main content You are currently offline. Some features of the site may not work correctly. Walker and G. Walker , G. White Published Sociology, Computer Science.
The most contentious chapter is the final one in whichWilliams critiques commercial coursemanagement software, arguing that through their use of Blackboard or similar systems,academics are complicit in reproducing institutional and cultural ideologies that are as hierarchical, rigid and prescriptive asthe software p. The walled-in enclave p. While the software enables surveillance of students through unsophisticated learner analytics, the system canbe satisfied by such means as opening discussion forums so that the action is noted, but not actually reading the posts. Excepting the glimpses of a dystopian world in which academics are judged through their Klout scores and students areimprisoned within course management software, the book offers us an online world in which creativity and open access areencouraged.
Computer-based virtual learning environments CBVLEs are potentially useful teaching tools for training nursing students in professional duties such as the mathematical tasks associated with medication proces Authors: Diana P. Van Luit.
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tips for living green
What is Green Building?
Green building is an attitude. It's a lifestyle and our future. It's about making a difference—by protecting natural resources, conserving water and saving energy. Green building is a process, not a product. It's good design and good construction. It's being practical about the largest single investment for your future. It's getting the most out of every utility dollar. Green building is about comfort and healthy living. And feeling good. Whether you're taking advantage of what each lot has to offer, or simply using eco-friendly materials and appliances, green building is common sense. And Jim Rush is green building.


Psychotherapy is also referred to as talking treatment or the talking cure since this uses talking instead of medication. Some psychotherapy forms last for just several sessions and some are long term that can last for months or even years. Psychotherapy sessions often last for an hour once per week following carefully structured process.
These sessions are either one to one, in groups, or in pairs. Techniques can also include different forms of communication like music, narrative story, or drama.
He can also help as as a marriage and psychotherapist, a psychologist, a licensed mental health counselor or clinical social worker, a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, or a psychiatric nurse practitioner.
Who Can Take Advantage of Psychotherapy?
Psychotherapy proves to be very helpful for many people. Below are some of the feelings that signal that a person can benefit from this special form of therapy:
- Overwhelming feelings of helplessness or sadness
- Inability to handle or cope with day to day problems
- Taking drugs, drinking too much, or being too aggressive to the extent of harming one’s self or other people
- Difficulty to concentrate or focus on studies or work most of the time
- A sense that there are no improvements in problems in spite of receiving help from family and friends
- Worrying unnecessarily or always feeling on edge
Should You See a Psychotherapist Soon?
Stress and depression are the two primary psychological conditions that affect your mental and physical wellbeing. Hopelessness and despair can pose a dangerous effect not only on your psyche as it can also you devour you from the inside. You might start to lose hope, gain weight and depend on some medications. This is why it is a must for people going through psychological weakness to seek professional help as soon as possible.
Studies revealed that a lot of people in the world suffer from different mental ailments. But, only some of those who have moderate to severe causes undergo treatment. This kind of indifference to mental stability can have an adverse effect on different areas of your life, including workplace enthusiasm and family life.


Life is full of activity – and sometimes those activities include physical sports. Because accidents happen, having a tooth knocked out is more common than you might think. However, if this occurs, you may ask, “What happens if my tooth gets knocked out?” Keep reading! We’ll explore how to save a tooth – and what we can do if saving it isn’t possible.
What Happens if My Tooth Gets Knocked Out?
A tooth that is knocked out is called avulsed. When an accident occurs and a tooth is knocked out, it may be saved in some cases. But, it’s important to follow these procedures.
1. When a Tooth is Knocked Out
Locate the tooth right away and handle it carefully. For that reason, don’t touch the root as you could damage it. When you lose a tooth in an injury or accident, the blood vessels, nerves and tissues will also sustain damage. Unfortunately, the blood vessels and nerves can’t be repaired. Therefore, seeing your oral surgeon right away is very important.
2. How to Handle a Tooth
If the tooth is dirty, don’t use any type of soap to clean or dry off. You can gently rinse it with milk. Keep it moist by placing the tooth back in your mouth in the socket and hold pressure. You can also store it in milk. If this happens to a child, it’s best to store the tooth with the child’s saliva. Water isn’t recommended, but can be used if needed for short time storage. Keeping it moist is what’s most important.
3. Time is of the Essence
It’s recommended to have the tooth to the oral surgeon within 30 minutes. The tooth needs to be intact, but an oral surgeon can work with it if it’s been broken. Dental implants are good option if the tooth is lost or broken.
4. When a Child Loses a Tooth
If a child loses a tooth you should follow these guidelines as though it’s a permanent tooth. Even though children eventually lose their baby teeth, an accident can cause problems. Gum damage due to carelessness can damage the permanent teeth below. This may also cause crooked teeth and eating problems because the permanent tooth can’t emerge properly.
Treatment depends on the damage the tooth has sustained. A replantation may be successful if it’s done within 30 minutes and the supporting bone isn’t damaged. After that a root canal will follow. A bone graft may be needed if the bone was damaged. Bone grafting is a procedure during which bone grafting material is used to supplement the damaged bone. This can take several months to heal and be ready for dental implants. Sometimes when a serious injury has occurred neither implants nor bone grafts are an option. Therefore, the oral surgeon will clean, irrigate, and suture. In 2 or 3 months an implant may be an option. When it comes to using a temporary tooth, it can made within days for the patient.
An incident such as tooth loss is not something anyone wants to experience. However, if this should happen to you or a loved one, our skilled surgeons at East Brainerd Oral Surgery are here to help. Call us today at (423) 296-8210 for your appointment.